j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 309–317

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On the influence of tool path in friction stir

spot welding of aluminum alloys

G. Buffa, L. Fratini ∗ , M. Piacentini

Dipartimento di Tecnologia Meccanica, Produzione e Ingegneria Gestionale, Università di Palermo,
Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Friction stir spot welding (FSSW) has been proposed as an effective technology to spot weld
Received 3 September 2007 the so-called “difficult to be welded” metal alloys. In the paper, a variation of the FSSW
Received in revised form process has been considered. A tool path is given after the sinking phase nearby the ini-
2 January 2008 tial penetration site; in this way a larger welding spot is obtained and more material is
Accepted 4 January 2008 involved in the bonding process. The process mechanics of such modified FSSW process
is highlighted and the joint strength undergoing tensile tests is considered at the varying
both of the assigned tool path and of a few process parameters. Macro- and micro-analyses
Keywords: are made in order to analyze the local material microstructure evolution. It is found that
Welding improved performances, with respect to the “traditional” FSSW process, are obtained for all
Spot the considered case studies.
Microstructure © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction applications such as automotive assemblies and construc-

tions.
Spot welding can be considered a very common joining Friction stir welding (FSW) has been presented and pro-
technique in automotive and generally in transportation posed at the beginning of the nineties as an innovative
industries. Apart from the utilized joining technology and technique able to join also the so-called un-weldable or dif-
in particular from the heat source (Joule effect, electric ficult to be welded light weight alloys which are very common
arc and so on) it permits to obtain effective lap joints materials in automotive or aerospace industries. Actually clas-
with short process times. What is more it is easily car- sic welding processes, i.e. TIG or laser, determine quite weak
ried out through robots and automated systems as shown joints due to a strong increase of the average grain size
in Chae et al. (2002), Hemmingson (1996) and Darwish and observed in the melted zone and to quite large thermally
Al-Dekhial (1999). It should be observed that in the past affected zones. Furthermore strong precautions have to be
decades mechanical fastening techniques, such as clinch- taken during classic welding processes in order to avoid inclu-
ing and riveting, also have been widely utilized, since sions and other typical defects in the joint core. In turn, FSW
they permit to obtain the same advantages of the for- is a solid state welding process in which a specially designed
mer welding processes and they do not suffer from the rotating pin is first inserted into the adjoining edges of the
insurgence of typical welding defects due to the fusion sheets to be welded with a proper tilt angle and then moved
of the base material. For instance Larsson (1994), Lennon all along the joint. Such tool produces frictional and plastic
et al. (1999) and Riches et al. (1995) highlighted the ben- deformation heating in the welding zone; actually no melting
efits given by mechanical fastening techniques in several of material is observed during FSW. Then, as the tool moves,

∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 091 6657051; fax: +39 091 6657039.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (G. Buffa), [email protected] (L. Fratini), [email protected] (M. Piacentini).
0924-0136/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2008.01.001
310 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 309–317

material is forced to flow around the tool in a quite com- enhances the joint resistance. The differences, in terms of
plex flow pattern determining a very particular microstructure process mechanics and local material microstructure evolu-
characterized by continuous dynamic recrystallization phe- tion between such process and the “traditional” FSSW are
nomena. Several authors have been investigating FSW in the highlighted in the next sections through macro- and micro-
past years; for the purposes of the present research interesting analyses. The maximum load in tensile tests was considered
information related to the occurring metallurgy, to the mate- as performance index of the joints. The influence of the most
rial flow and to the mechanical performances of the joints can relevant process parameters on the mechanical performances
be found out in Liu et al. (2003), Rhodes et al. (1997) and in of the joints is considered.
Shigematsu et al. (2003).
As a natural evolution of the FSW process, friction stir spot
welding (FSSW) has been recently proposed for the develop- 2. “Traditional” and modified FSSW
ment of lap joints also by Pan et al. (2004) and by Addison and processes
Robelou (2004). In such a process, directly based on the FSW
process mechanics, a rotating tool with a probe pin is intro- As briefly described before, FSSW is aimed to obtain lap joints
duced in the two overlapped blanks to be jointed supported utilizing a cylindrical tool with a pin tip centered on the bot-
by a proper back-plate. The rotating tool generates friction tom circular face; in the “traditional” process, the tool rotates
heat in the specimens and at the same time a material flow on its axis and it is inserted into the specimens to be jointed
is determined. The heated and softened material close to the with a normal force. In other words the tool is pushed down
tool plastically deforms and a bond is made between the bot- into the two overlapped blanks until a fixed level of reaction
tom surface of the upper sheet and the top surface of the force is reached. A back-plate is utilized on the bottom side of
lower sheet. No linear movement is given to the tool which the specimens to support the applied load and no linear trans-
is retracted from the workpiece when the stirring process is lation is given to the tool, which is retracted after an assigned
completed. time length.
As far as the process parameters are regarded, both geo- As the rotating tool is inserted into the sheets (Fig. 1A) a
metrical and technological aspects have to be considered: local backward extrusion mechanics is observed and a full
both the former and the latter affect the material flow dur- contact between the upper sheet and the tool shoulder is
ing the process and the generated heat flux. In this way reached. Then, keeping the tool into the sheets, a heat flux is
the tool shoulder and the pin shapes and geometries are generated by the friction forces work and plastic deformation
very important since they influence the circumferential mate- work decaying into heat (Fig. 1B).
rial flow. What is more, the tool sinking into the blanks, Finally, after a proper time length, the tool is moved up and
i.e. the applied normal load, determines, together with the the joint is released (Fig. 1C).
chosen tool rotating speed, the friction forces work and, con- The observation of the material flow and of its locally
sequently, the generated heat flux. As far as technological reached microstructure leads to the full understanding of the
parameters are considered, also the process times, namely process mechanics. Considering a section of the joint (Fig. 2),
the tool descending time, the process time length and finally the backward extrusion mechanics is highlighted for the two
the tool ascending time, play an important role in the FSSW overlapped sheets. Due to the absence of tool feed rate no
process. asymmetry in the metal flow, typical of the FSW processes,
In the paper, a variation of the FSSW process has been is observed. In particular, the interface surface of the lower
considered: after the sinking phase, the tool is fed along a specimen is deformed upwards and such material acts as a
prescribed path close to its initial print. In this way a wider mechanical anchor between the two jointed sheets, as shown
spot weld is obtained and a larger material stirred zone is in the 60× magnification of Fig. 2.
obtained; at the end of the process, as the tool is released As in FSW processes, a detailed observation of the material
from the welded joint, a hole reproducing the tool pin is left microstructure in the joint section allows finding out a few
in the welded sheets right at the center of the path, just like different areas, as shown in the next Fig. 3, where a 250× image
the one observed in “traditional” FSSW processes. An improve- of the material zone on the lateral surface of the pin imprint
ment in the material flow during the process is reached, which is reported (zone 2 in Fig. 2).

Fig. 1 – The FSSW process.

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Fig. 2 – The FSSW joint transverse section highlighting the anchoring effect.

In particular, as in FSW, moving from the periphery of the jectory, the tool leaves the sheets to be welded. In particular
joint towards the welding line, i.e. towards the tool pin surface, four different spiral movements have been chosen with the
first of all the parent material, in which no metallurgical mod- aim to enlarge both the thermo-mechanically affected area
ification is observed after the welding process, is found. Then and the nugget (Fig. 4), and a few combinations of advancing
a simple heat affected zone (HAZ, C) is reached, in which the speed and rotating speed have been investigated. It should be
material has undergone a thermal cycle which has modified observed that all the considered tool trajectories are character-
the microstructure and the mechanical properties. Continu- ized by the same overall dimension as it will be clarified in the
ing towards the welding spot, a zone in which the material next section. What is more, macro- and micro-observations
has been plastically deformed by the stirring action of the on the welded joints permitted to highlight the metallurgical
tool is encountered. It should be observed that in such zone effect of the used tool paths on the material, justifying the
the effects of the induced heat flux are also observed with an mechanical performances of the joints.
enlargement of the material average grain size. In this way, this
zone is a thermo-mechanically affected one (TMAZ, B). Finally
3. The developed experiments
the so-called nugget is found (A). The latter is a recrystal-
lized area in which the original grain and subgrain boundaries
appear to be replaced with fine, equiaxed recrystallized grains In order to carry out the FSSW tests a properly designed clamp-
characterized by a nominal dimension of few ␮m as described ing fixture was utilized to fix the specimens to be welded on a
by Jata and Semiatin (2000), Su et al. (2003) and Fratini and CNC milling machine. The steel plates composing the fixture
Buffa (2005). It should be observed that the peculiarities of the were finished at the grinding machine to assure a uniform
obtained microstructures strongly determine the joint effec- pressure distribution on the fixed specimens. What is more
tiveness and its mechanical behavior. proper sheet supports were utilized in order to obtain the lap
In the considered modified FSSW process, a tool path is joints.
given after the completion of the sinking phase (Fig. 1A); in As far as the utilized tool is regarded, it was made in H13
other words, the tool is not left in its position but it is moved steel quenched at 1020 ◦ C, characterized by a 52 HRc hardness.
along a peculiar trajectory determining a definitively larger The shoulder was 15 mm in diameter and a 40◦ conical pin was
stirred zone in the material. Once completed the assigned tra- adopted, with a major diameter of 7 mm and a minor diameter
of 2.2 mm; the pin height was 2.6 mm. The above geometri-
cal characteristics were chosen on the basis of the knowledge
acquired on FSW and FSSW and on preliminary tests devel-
oped by the authors and presented in Buffa et al. (2007): such
tests have been performed utilizing a circular tool path, and no
quantitative evaluation of the stirred volume, the TMAZ area
and the process time was performed; no further investigation
was made at the varying geometry of the tool.
The utilized base material was AA6082-T6 aluminum alloy,
1.5 mm in thickness. The material was characterized by an
average yield stress of 280 MPa and an ultimate tensile stress
(UTSb) of 319 MPa. The material showed a microhardness
equal to 120Hv and an average grain size of about 80 ␮m.
The influence of a few process variables on the mechanical
performance of the welded lap joints was investigated in this
paper; in particular the tool rotation speed (R) and the advanc-
ing speed for the prescribed tool path (Vf ) were taken into
Fig. 3 – The FSSW joint microstructure. account. Each of the above indicated variables was varied in a
312 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 309–317

Fig. 4 – Sketch of the assigned tool axis paths with respect to the tensile tests applied force direction.

proper range assuming different levels and the effects on the thus carried out both for the “traditional” FSSW process and
joining process in terms of joint resistance and of local mate- the modified one, and each test was repeated three times. The
rial microstructure were observed. The tool sinking into the investigated levels and ranges of each parameter were cho-
specimens during the process (h = 2.85 mm) and the sinking sen on the basis of preliminary tests (Buffa et al., 2007) and
speed (equal to 0.003 mm/rev) were kept constant for all the literature data (Pan et al., 2004; Addison and Robelou, 2004).
tests. What is more, as briefly described before, four different From each joint specimen for either tensile tests macro-
spiral movements were given to the tool utilizing a CAD-CAM and micro-observations were made. Macro-observations were
software. In particular a circle path (C), a square path (Sq), an aimed to analyze the material area involved in the pro-
ellipse-x (Ex) and an ellipse-y (Ey) path, i.e. with the major cess mechanics and the possible presence of macrodefects;
axis respectively orthogonal and parallel to the applied load through the micro-observations the different material zones,
(F) direction in the tensile tests, were considered (see again i.e. the thermally affected zone, the thermo-mechanically
Fig. 4). affected ones, and the so-called nugget zone, were observed
The circle diameter, the square edge and the ellipses major and the differences between the “traditional” and modi-
axis were chosen equal to 10 mm; in this way the same over- fied FSSW techniques were highlighted. In order to obtain
all dimension was obtained for the final tool print left on the such results the specimens were properly treated with Keller
welded specimen at the end of the process. A constant pitch reagent and observed by a light microscope. As far as the
of the tool path equal to 1.8 mm was assumed for all the inves- tensile tests are regarded, they have been developed on spec-
tigated case studies. imens presenting an average width of 30 mm.
Starting from the periphery of the given path, the rotating
tool enters the sheets and, after the completion of the sink-
ing phase, the tool axis starts moving along the prescribed 4. Results and discussion
path with different values of advancing velocity. In the follow-
ing Table 1 the investigated values of the considered process 4.1. Comparison between the tested tool paths
variables are reported. In particular three different values of
rotational speed (R), namely 300, 500 and 700 rpm, and three First of all a comparison between the chosen tool paths in
different values of advancing speed (Vf ), namely 0.2, 0.4 and terms of maximum load transferred by the welded joints was
0.6 mm/rev were chosen: a total of nine different tests were performed: Fig. 5 shows the average tensile tests results for an
advancing velocity of 0.6 mm/rev. It should be observed that no
comparison in terms of stress can be made for spot welding or
spot mechanical fastening, namely clinching or riveting, since
the joints are not characterized by a uniform transferring load
Table 1 – The utilized process plan
section, as for instance in the welding processes of butt joints.
R (rpm) Advancing velocity (mm/rev) For each configuration the best performance is obtained at
Vf = 0.2 Vf = 0.4 Vf = 0.6 the lowest considered value of the rotational speed R, and a
(mm/min) (mm/min) (mm/min) decrease in the maximum load is observed at the increase of
R, but a few differences should be highlighted on the basis of
300 60 120 180
the obtained results: both the square and the two ellipse paths
500 100 200 300
700 140 280 420 show a lower sensitivity to R with respect to the circle path,
resulting in larger maximum load values obtained at higher
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 309–317 313

Fig. 7 – Influence of the tool path on the measured TMAZ

Fig. 5 – Comparison of the maximum loads for the area in the considered transverse section.
investigated tool paths at the varying of R (Vf = 0.6 mm/rev).

due to the spiral movement and thus represents an important

indicator of the quality of the bond.
As far as the TMAZ area is regarded, the highest value is
obtained for the Sq case study, while lower values are found
for the C, Ex and Ey case studies, respectively. A first consid-
eration can be made on the Ey case study: in such a section
the smallest area is measured, with a sensible drop off with
respect to the others; that was easily predictable remember-
ing that the measured section (TMAZ) is orthogonal to the
applied load direction (see again Fig. 4). On the other hand,
the difference found out between the other case studies can
be explained looking at Fig. 7.
Fig. 6 – TMAZ area, tool path area and joint failure load at In the AA section, the width of the C, Sq and Ex profiles
the varying of the tool path. is the same, but the way the tool reaches such section is dif-
ferent for the three case studies (see black arrows in Fig. 7);
in particular, for the Sq case study, the maximum width of
10 mm is reached from the beginning of the “vertical” edge,
rotational speeds. In particular, with R = 300 rpm, the square thus enhancing the material flow and resulting in a wider area
path case study presents about the same maximum load value involved in the material stirring, while for the C and Ex case
found for the circle path case study, i.e. the best overall perfor- studies such maximum value is reached only in the AA sec-
mance between all the considered case studies. At the increase tion. The area of the geometrical profile of each tool path, i.e.
of R, the best joints are the ones welded utilizing the square the area carrying the applied load in a horizontal section, is
path, while the circle path case study eventually becomes the also reported and compared to the joint resistance. As already
less effective (R = 700 rpm). As far as the two elliptical paths are noticed, the Sq and C case studies show about the same fail-
regarded, they show about the same behavior, with the max- ure load, but the larger stirred area found for the Sq case study
imum load for the ellipse-x case study slightly higher, due to results in the higher reliability showed at varying rotational
the larger section in the direction orthogonal to the applied speed R (see again Fig. 5). The good correlation found between
load, as better explained in the following. the stirred areas, the “path area” and the joint resistance sup-
Fig. 6 shows a quantitative analysis of the stirred zone ports the assumption that enlarging the stirred zone directly
(namely the TMAZ and the HAZ areas) for all the investigated improves the joint performances.
case studies. In particular the aforementioned stirred areas,
measured in a transverse section orthogonal to the applied
load direction, are reported at varying tool path for the opera-
tive parameters set that gave the best results, i.e. R = 300 rpm
and Vf = 0.6 mm/rev (as highlighted in Fig. 5). Such areas have
been correlated to the results of the tensile tests and to the
areas of the external geometrical figure described by the tool
axis in a top view of the joint. In other words the areas of the
geometrical figures described by the tool during its path have
been considered (for example, the square path, 10 mm in edge,
has an area of 100 mm2 , see again Fig. 4). It has to be noticed
that such an area is strictly correlated to the stirred volume
because the area – and consequently the volume – inside such Fig. 8 – Modified process results at the varying of R and Vf
paths is also involved in the stirring of material by the tool pin, (circle path case study).
314 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 309–317

Fig. 9 – Filling defects for the circle path case study (R = 700 rpm, Vf = 0.4 mm/rev).

4.2. Effect of the process parameters

The effect of the operative parameters on the joint per-

formances is highlighted in the next Fig. 8 for the circle
path case study: the average values of the maximum load
transmitted by the joints are shown at varying tool feed
rate (Vf ) and for different values of the tool rotating speed
(R).
It can be argued from the figure that the rotational speed
(R) plays a significant role in the maximum load transmitted
by the joints: the overall performances of the joints obtained
with a smaller R value are in fact better than those obtained
with larger R values. What is more, for each of the consid-
Fig. 10 – “Traditional” vs. modified-circle path-FSSW
ered R values, the joint resistance decreases at the increase
process for R = 300 rpm.
of the advancing velocity (Vf ), becoming the slope of such
curves larger as R increases. As a consequence, the best perfor-
mance, in the investigated ranges of the considered variables,
is obtained with R = 300 rpm and Vf = 60 mm/min, and, utiliz- ilar to the so-called “tunnel defects”, well known in FSW of
ing such R value, the joint failure load is almost constant at butt joints, are found out (Fig. 9). Looking at a few reference
the varying Vf . Similar trends were obtained for the other tool results obtained for FSW (Barcellona et al., 2004), it arises that
paths investigated. the proper range of rotational velocities for the modified FSSW
It can be thus stated that large rotational speed values process is lower than the optimal one for FSW of butt joints:
result in poorer performances for all the four considered case this is due to the absence of the tilt angle in the FSSW pro-
studies, for which an unsatisfactory material flow is obtained: cess that limits the possibility of the material to “follow” the
from the performed macro-observations, filling defects, sim- tool movement, especially when the rotational speed – and

Fig. 11 – Top view (a) and etched AA section (b) of the modified process joint; etched section (c) of the “traditional” process
joint (R = 300 rpm, Vf = 60 mm/min, a and b: circle path).
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Fig. 12 – 60× rebuilt image of the cross-section of the modified process joint (R = 300 rpm, Vf = 60 mm/min, circle path), (a)
middle of the joint and (b) bottom of the joint.

consequently the advancing speed, with the latter defined in formance has not been taken into account in this study, but it
mm/rev in this study – is high. can be considered for further developments.
In Fig. 13 the observed stirred zones – see dotted lines
in Fig. 11b and c – and the corresponding joint failure loads
4.3. Comparison with the “traditional” FSSW process are reported for all the investigated case studies and com-
pared to the ones obtained by “traditional” FSSW (R = 300 rpm,
Fig. 10 presents a comparison between the modified (“tool Vf = 0.6 mm/rev).
path”—circle path case study) and the “traditional” (“no tool The significant increase in the stirred zones extension is
path”) process in terms of joints failure load. mirrored by the joint resistance, though the failure load does
In particular, an R value of 300 rpm, which gave the best not increase proportionally to the measured area; for instance,
results for both the configurations, has been selected, and the the increases in stirred area and joint failure load between the
results in terms of maximum load transmitted by the joints are “traditional” FSSW and the Ey case study are 262% and 93%,
plotted. A significant difference in the maximum load values is respectively, while the same increases are 601% and 112% for
immediately observed, with the modified process being more the Sq case study.
effective for all the considered Vf values. What is more, the Finally, it should be observed that maintaining good
curve referred to the modified process, as highlighted before, mechanical properties with high processing speed is always a
is less sensitive to the Vf variation, and the maximum delta desirable effect for a process that is likely to be used for indus-
between the two curves is thus observed for the highest Vf trial applications, for which production time is a key factor; in
value considered (Vf = 0.6 mm/rev). fact, the additional time required for the tool path completion
Such differences can be explained looking at the next is small if compared to the total processing time (basically
Fig. 11. Both the top view (Fig. 11a) and the transverse section due to clamping and sinking), and it is partially counterbal-
observation (Fig. 11b), obtained from a joint welded utiliz- anced both by the elimination of the dwelling time, during
ing the most effective set of operative parameters previously which the tool stays in the sheets before being retracted,
found, reveal that the material flow occurring during the mod- and by the relatively high advancing velocity reachable main-
ified process generates a stirred zone dramatically larger than taining acceptable performances. Fig. 14 shows a quantitative
the one obtained with “traditional” FSSW processes (Fig. 11c). correlation between the process times and the joint failure
Consequently, the bonding between the two sheets involves loads, together with a comparison between a “traditional” FSS
larger areas and in this way more effective mechanical perfor- welded joint and the Sq case study.
mances are reached.
A deeper observation of the transverse section of the
welded joint is shown in the next Fig. 12a and b. The 60× rebuilt
image 12a, centered at 1.5 mm from the bottom of the weld,
i.e. at the interface between the two sheets, clearly shows that
a perfect bonding is obtained even far from the center of the
weld, i.e. from the hole left by the tool pin, with the sepa-
ration line between the welded sheets being visible just at
the right end of the picture. Besides, a mostly homogeneous
microstructure is observed from the tool pin hole to the above
mentioned separation line, indicating that a large nugget area
is obtained, resulting in dramatically enhanced joint perfor-
mances. From Fig. 11b the “wavy” profile of the stirred zone at
the bottom of the joint, due to the spiral movement of the tool, Fig. 13 – TMAZ area and joint failure load at the varying of
can be seen. The effect of the tool path pitch (kept constant the tool path – circle path – and comparison with the
and equal to 1.8 mm, as already mentioned) on the joint per- “traditional” FSSW results.
316 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 309–317

velocity reachable maintaining acceptable performances. A

good compromise between process time and joint resis-
tance is found.

On the basis of the above observations, the investigated

technology appears a promising joining technique in order
to obtain effective lap joints. Future work will be focused
on the development of a specific FEM model aimed to high-
light and further clarify the complex material flow occurring
during the process and its effect on the microstructural
properties. Further developments include the definitive opti-
mization of the operative and geometrical parameters of the
process.

Fig. 14 – Process time and joint resistance, Sq case study,

Vf = 0.6 mm/rev. Acknowledgement

This work was made using MIUR (Italian Ministry for Univer-
Although the best joint performance is reached for an R sity and Scientific Research) funds.
value equal to 300 rpm and a Vf value equal to 180 mm/min, an
acceptable compromise between process time and joint effec- references
tiveness is obtained for R = 500 rpm and Vf = 300 mm/min; for
such a test, a dramatic drop off of the process time is observed
and, at the same time, only a slight reduction of the failure load Addison, A.C., Robelou, A.J., 2004. Friction stir spot welding:
is measured with respect to the best performance. principal parameters and their effects. In: Proceedings of Fifth
International Symposium on Friction Stir Welding, Metz,
France, ISBN 1-903761-04-2.
5. Conclusions Barcellona, A., Buffa, G., Fratini, L., 2004. Process parameters
analysis in friction stir welding of AA6082-T6 sheets. In:
In the paper, a variation of the FSSW process was considered. Keynote paper of the VII ESAFORM Conference, Trondheim,
Norway, pp. 371–374.
In particular, four different spiral tool paths were assigned to
Buffa, G., Fratini, L., Piacentini, M., 2007. Tool path design in
the welding tool, after the sinking phase, in order to improve
friction stir spot welding of AA6082-T6 aluminum alloys. Key
the material flow and consequently the joint resistance. The Eng. Mater. 344, 767–774.
following considerations can be drawn: Chae, S.W., Kwon, K.Y., Lee, T.S., 2002. An optimal design system
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277–294.
• For each tested configuration the best performance is
Darwish, S.M., Al-Dekhial, S.D., 1999. Statistical models for spot
obtained at the smallest considered value of the rotational
welding of commercial aluminum sheets. Int. J. Mach. Tools
speed R, but the sensitivity to R and Vf changes depend- Manuf. 39 (10), 1589–1610.
ing on the chosen tool path. In particular, the Sq and C Fratini, L., Buffa, G., 2005. CDRX modelling in friction stir welding
case studies show about the same maximum failure load, of aluminium alloys. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 45/10,
but the larger stirred area found for the Sq case study 1188–1194.
results in the higher reliability showed at varying operative Hemmingson, E., 1996. New robot improves cost-efficiency of
spot welding. Fuel Energy Abstr. 37 (4), 273.
parameters.
Jata, K.V., Semiatin, S.L., 2000. Continuous dynamic
• The proper range of rotational velocities for the modified recrystallization during friction stir welding of high strength
FSSW process is lower than the optimal one for FSW of butt aluminum alloys. Scripta Mater. 43, 743–749.
joints: in fact, the absence of the tilt angle in the FSSW pro- Larsson, J.K., 1994. Clinch-joining—a cost effective joining
cess limits the possibility of the material to flow around the technique for BIW assembly. In: Proceedings of the
rotating tool, especially with high velocities. International Conference on Body Engineering Clinch-joining,
• The good correlation found between the stirred areas, the vol. 10. Advanced Technologies and Processes,
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Lennon, R., Pedreschi, R., Sinh, B.P., 1999. Comparative study of
tion that the enlargement of the stirred zone directly affects some mechanical connections in cold formed steel. Constr.
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