a comprehensive

multimedia audio

recording text

by Bill Gibson

MixBOOKS
6400 Hollis Street. Suite 12 . Emeryville . CA 94608
 © 1996 MixBooks

All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, copied, transmitted or
stored in any mechanical or electronic form without the written permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-78454
Cover art direction and design: Tami Needham
Cover photograph: Michael Mendelson
Design consultant: Michael Zipkin
Book design and layout: Bill Gibson
Computer graphics: Bill Gibson
Production staff: Mike Lawson, publisher; Lisa Duran, editor; Sally Engelfried, editorial
assistance; Teresa Poss, administrative assistant; Georgia George, production director;
Tom Marzella, production assistant
Instrumental Performances: Bill Gibson, except "Acoustic Drums and Percussion" chapter
(Wade Reeves on drum set)
Vocal performances: Lynn Gibson
Recording engineer: Bill Gibson
Dedicated in loving memory to my mother, Vera Gibson, whose constant support, strength
and joy of life remain a source of inspiration and motivation to me.
Special thanks to my wife, Lynn, and daughter, Kristi. I can't imagine a better family. I love
you both.

MixBOOKS
6400 Hollis Street, Suite 12
Emeryville, CA 94608
(510) 653-3307

Also From MixBooks:

Keyfax Omnibus Edition Modular Digital Multitracks:
The Power User's Guide
Concert Sound
Sound for Picture
Music Producers
Live Sound Reinforcement
Also From EMBooks:
Making the Ultimate Demo
Tech Terms: A Practical Dictionary for Audio and Music Production
Making Music With Your Computer
Also From CBM Music and Entertainment Group:
Recording Industry Sourcebook
Mix Reference Disc
Mix Master Directory
Digital Piano Buyer's Guide
MixBooks is a division of Cardinal Business Media Inc.
Printed in Ann Arbor, Michigan
ISBN 0-918371-10-4
 Contents
List of Audio Examples vii Preface

Chapter One Managing the Signal Path 29

Input Faders ...................................................... .. . . .29
The Effects Bus.................................................. .. 31
The Mixer Pre and Post...... .................................................. .32
Using the Aux Bus ........ .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
The Headphone Bus…………………………………………. ..34
The Mixer Layout 2 Track Assignment........................................... . . .. .34
Three Practical Applications
Split vs. In-line 2 for the Combining Bus..............................................35
Three Practical Applications for Splitting a
Professional Amplifier 3 Signal Using a Y ......................................................36
Proper Wire ...............................................................7 Pan............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7
Gain Structure........................................................ .38
Studio Monitors 7 Ping-ponging .............. . . . . . . . . ............................. 39
Ne a r- Fi e ld Re f e re n ce M on it o r s . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . 7 Which Tracks Should I Bounce Together?.....................3 9
Far - Fi el d Monit or s ......................................................8 Solo ....................................................................41
Mutes..................................................................... 41
Connectors 8
RCA Connectors .........................................................9 The Equalizer 42
Quarter-Inch Phone Connectors ...................................9 Hertz.............................................................. .. . .4 3
XLR Connectors .......................................................10 Definition of Frequency Ranges ...................................47
Plu gging .. ... . ............................ 11 Bandwidth...............................................................48
Personal 4-track Multitrack ... ................................48
Electrical Power 11 Sweepable EQ ......................................................49
Powering Up............................................................13 Parametric EQ........................................................ .50
Powering Down........................................................13 Graphic EQ.............................................................. 51
Grounding............................................................... 13
Ground Hum .........................................................13 Other Types of EQ 51
Notch Filter...
Connecting to the Mixer 14 ....................................................................... .....5
Input Stage/Impedance .............................................17 1
Direct Box .. ____ 18 Highpass Filter ........................................................ 52
Passive vs. Active DIs.................................................18 Lowpass Filter..................................... ...... . . . . . . ..
Phantom Power .................................................... .19 .52
Line Level................................................................19
+4dBmvs.-10dBV ..................................................20 The Monitor Section 53
Control Room Monitor Selector................................. .54
Getting Sound Into the Board 20 Stereo to Mono........................................................ 55
The Preamp ............................................................20 Stereo Master .......................................................... 56
Attenuator ..............................................................22 Talkback/Communications .......................................... 56
Meters.................................................................. .23 Test Tones ............................................................. .56
Phase.....................................................................23 Reference Tones..................................................... .57
Input Level Comparison .............................................26
Patch Bays 58
More Signal Path 27
Channel Insert .........................................................27 Session Procedures 58
Basic Procedure ...................................................... 58

Conclusion 60
Chapter Two 62 Chapter Three
Signal Processing Microphones
Intro to Signal Processors 62 Microphones: Our Primary Tools 100

Slang/Terminology .................................................... 62 Condenser Microphones 101

Operating Principle of the Condenser Mic................... 101
Signal Processor Basics 62 Phantom Power ................................................... 102

Dynamic Processors 67 Moving-coil Mics 104

The VCA ................................................................. 69 Operating Principle of the Moving-coil Mic ................ 104
Compressor/Limiter................................................... 69
Threshold................................................................ 73 Ribbon Mics 106
Attack Time ........................................................... 74 Operating Principle of the Ribbon Mic........................ 108
Release Time ........................................................... 76
Ratio ..................................................................... 76 Pickup/Polar Patterns 109
Summary ............................................................... 76 Cardioid ............................................................... 109
Gain Reduction ........................................................ 76 Omnidirectional ....................................................110
Proper Use of the Compressor/Limiter.......................... 77 Bidirectional ...........................................................110
Gate/Expander ........................................................ 80
Gates vs. Expanders ............................................... 82 Frequency Response Curve 111

More About Equalizers 84 Conclusion 111

Effects Processors 85
Delay Effects ........................................................... 85
Slapback Delay ........................................................ 85
Doubling ............................................................... 89
Modulation ............................................................. 89
Phase Shifter ......................................................... 90
Chapter four 112
Flanger ................................................................ 90
Chorus................................................................... 90
Guitars and Guitar Sounds
Phase Reversal and Regeneration................................ 91
Stereo Effects.......................................................... 92 Recording Guitars 112

Reverberation Effects 92 Direct Electric 112

Hall Reverb............................................................. 93 Advantages of Running Direct ................................113
Chamber Reverb...................................................... 95 Levels ...................................................................116
Plate Reverb............................................................ 95 Transients..............................................................116
Room Reverb .......................................................... 95 Tuning/Instrument Selection......................................117
Reverse Reverb....................................................... Pickup Types...........................................................118
.95 Basic Types of Electric Guitars .................................118
Gated Reverb.......................................................... 98 Compressor/Limiter/Gate/Expander.............................120
Predelay................................................................. 98 Delay....................................................................121
Diffusion .............................................................. 98 Should I Print Reverb or Delay to Tape?.......................122
Decay Time ............................................................. 98 Electronic Doubling .................................................122
Density .................................................................. 99 Multi-effects...........................................................124
Chorus/Flanger/Phase Shifter ....................................124
Conclusion 99 Reverb..................................................................124
Panning ................................................................125
Equalizing the Guitar...............................................126
Amplified Electric 127 Kick Drum 166
Mic Techniques....................................................... 128 Equalizing the Kick Drum .........................................167
The Most Common Approach to Effects on the Kick ................................................ 169
Miking an Amp.......................................................128 Recording Levels for Kick Drum ...............................169
Combining the Miked and Direct Signals.....................134
Snare Drum 169
Acoustic Guitars 134 Mic Choice for Snare Drum .....................................172
Mic Techniques....................................................... 136 Reverberation on the Snare Drum .............................. 173
Tuning/Instrument Selection ...................................... 139 Equalizing the Snare Drum ....................................... 174
Picks ....................................................................139 Recording Levels for Snare Drum ...............................174
Dynamic Processing and the Acoustic Guitar ................139
Equalizing the Acoustic Guitar ..................................142 Toms 174
Reverb.................................................................. 143 Equalizing the Toms ..............................................174
Double Tracking the Acoustic Guitar ...........................143 Reverberation on the Toms....................................... 174
Distortion .............................................................. 144
Overhead Microphones 178
Synthesized and Sampled Guitar
Sounds 144 Isolating the Drum Tracks 181

Conclusion 145 Miscellaneous Percussion 182

Application of Techniques 184

Click Track 184

Chapter five 146 Conclusion 185

Acoustic Drums and Credits 185

Percussion
The Percussion Family 146

Theories of Drum Miking 147 Chapter Six

Recording a Drum Set With One 149
Microphone 152 Synchronization/Drum
Be Mobile! ................ ............ Machines
Recording a Kit With Two Mics 153
Introduction to Drum Machines 188
Recording a Kit With Three Mics 156 Patching in the Drum Machine 189
Recording a Kit With Four Mics 159 Sub-mixing 193
Close-mike Technique 159 Time Code and Sync Pulse 193
Drum Conditioning 161 Sync Pulse ........................................................... 193
SMPTE/Time Code .................................................. 194
Muffling the Drum 162 MIDI Time Code .................................................... 195
Using Time Code .................................................... 196
Drum Sticks 165
Drum Machine Recording Levels 197
Programming 199
Real-Time Programming 199

Separating and Organizing Tracks

200
24 Tracks ..............................................................201
16 Tracks ..............................................................202
8 Tracks.................................................................203
4 Tracks : ............................................................. 204

Kick Drum 205

Tuning the Kick...................................................... 206
Equalizing the Kick ................................................ 206
Recording Levels for the Kick Drum ......................... 207
Panning the Kick .................................................... 210

Snare Drum 211

Recording Levels for the Snare Drum ....................... 212
Tuning the Snare .................................................... 213
Gating the Snare .................................................... 213
Compressing the Snare Sound .................................. 213
Reverberation on the Snare ..................................... 216
Panning the Snare .................................................. 221

Toms 221
Recording Levels for Toms ....................................... 221
Tuning Drum Machine Toms ..................................... 222
Equalizing the Toms ............................................. 222
Reverberation on Toms .......................................... 223
Panning the Toms................................................... 223

Cymbals 224

Reverb on Cymbals................................................. 225

Percussion 226

More Stuff 229

Conclusion 230

Glossary 232

Index 239

Acknowledgments 24
 Preface • p a g e

Preface
T
he AudioPro Home Recording Course teaches If I use a term that is unfamiliar to you, please refer to
you specific concepts and techniques that will the Glossary for its definition. At first, we'll keep things
improve the overall quality of your audio record- as simple as possible to avoid brain burnout. As you
ings so that they approach the same audio quality progress through this course, you'll build your knowl-
that you hear on the radio and on CDs and cas- edge and technical abilities step by step.
settes. To do this, the first two chapters together
cover enough concepts and terms so that we're all This material will really help you get sounds that are
talking the same language. The remaining chapters competitive. Persevere! Keep fine-tuning your craft.
focus on specific recording techniques as they relate If you're serious about audio as a career or if you're
to different types of instruments, kinds of sounds doing music just for the fun of it, this course is for
and practical recording situations. you. The techniques described herein are going to
help you make better use of your recording time.
This is a complete course. The explanations are Your music will only benefit from your deeper
designed to progressively build your recording skills understanding of the studio as a musical tool.
throughout the course. I might introduce a topic with
a very minimum of information, then later in the The primary tools of the musical trade, for both the
course I'll expand the explanation and support the professional and the amateur, are available every-
concepts further with audio and text examples. Read where, right off the shelf. Technology is more afford-
all printed material and listen carefully to the audio able now than ever before. With a mixer, some key-
examples provided on the accompanying compact boards or guitars, a microphone and a sequencer,
discs. (You'll find the audio examples listed by CD almost anyone can create a solid musical work that
and track number as they appear in the chapter.) The can be complete on its own or polished off in a pro-
information in each complements the other, and fessional recording studio. With some motivation,
together they offer a complete course. Each part of imagination and education, you can (in your own
this course is important. hometown) make your music a financially, emotional-
ly and artistically profitable venture. *
I've designed The AudioPro Home Recording
Course for the person who is already doing some We're going to approach recording from a musical
recording or at least has a small setup on which to perspective. You'll study recording examples that fit
practice. To make this a hands-on experience, I'll real musical situations, and you'll learn solutions to
give you specific assignments to do in each chapter common problems that will help you enhance your
(with visual aids provided by the accompanying music. In doing so, you'll establish a base of com-
illustrations) with your own setup. mon knowledge.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 2

1The Mixer
pad); a phase switch; a preamp control; auxil-
The mixer Layout iary sends; equalization; a pan control; track as-
signments; solo, mute and PFL buttons and the

W
e begin with the mixing board. Our input fader. In understanding how one channel
approach throughout this course works, you can understand how they all work.
is that the mixing board is one of To the right of the channels, there is often a
the engineer's musical instruments. Always let monitor section. In the monitor section, there is
the music lead the way through technology. Let usually a master volume control for adjusting
your ears and your heart tell you what the mu- listening levels, a monitor selector (where we
sical sounds should be, then use the tools of choose what we listen to), master aux send lev-
the trade to get those artistically inspired sounds. els, a test tone oscillator, a stereo master fader,
In this first section, we'll cover the following a stereo/mono button, a headphone jack and
concepts: mixer configurations, amplifiers, on some mixers, we also see the output level
speaker connections and studio monitors. This controls for the track assignment bus.
information will help you identify your mixer con-
figuration and ensure that your speakers are con-
nected properly to your amplifier. Once this is Split vs. In-line
completed, you'll have a point of reference for
new knowledge, and you can be sure that what If your mixer has faders to the right of the chan-
you are hearing can be trusted. nel input faders and if these faders adjust the
First we'll look at how a typical mixer is level of the final output to the multitrack, then
laid out. Then we'll study the location of each your mixer is called a split mixer or console.
control. Later in this chapter, I'll explain each Some mixers have the level controls to the
control in detail so you'll know what each fea- multitrack (typically knobs instead of faders)
ture is and how it works. Please look at Illustra- near the top of each channel. These are called
tion 1-1 as we go through this. The terms mixer, in-line consoles. Look at Illustration 1-2 to help
console, board, mixing desk, desk and audio pro- visualize the difference between a split and an
duction console are used interchangeably. in-line console. Illustration 1-1 is a split console.
Mixers have a number of channels, each The module in Illustration 1-2 is an example of
typically having the same controls. These con- an in-line module.
trols can include an attenuator (also called a Split and in-line mixers each have their
 Chapter One • The mixer • page 3

Illustration 1-1
The Split Mixer

own set of advantages, but both can be very understand how each configuration operates. My
effective and flexible while sonically supporting goal is to explain the basics in simple enough
your musical ideas. I've worked a lot on both terms that you'll be able to integrate all con-
types and have adjusted quite easily because I cepts seamlessly into any recording situation.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 4

Take a look at your mixer to see which kind

Illustration 1-2 of controls you have. Identify whether you have
The In-line Module a split or in-line mixer.

Output takes the place of the

split console's Output Bus
Fader. Professional Amplifiers
An in-line console simply has
the channel output level Connecting the mixer to your power amp is an
controls in-line with the rest important step. Use quality line cables (like the
of the channel controls,
instead of grouped together
type you use for a guitar or keyboard) to con-
in a different location on the nect the output of the mixer to the input of the
mixer surface. power amp. Many wires are specially designed
for minimal signal loss. This means a better
signal-to-noise ratio. Quality wires and connec-
tors also last longer and create fewer problems.
When I use the term quality in referring to
equipment, I don't necessarily mean the most
expensive. For home use, it's rarely justifiable to
purchase the top of the line. By quality I do mean
a product that's produced by an established and
reliable manufacturer. If you buy from a trusted
name, you should at least be able to count on
product support and quality control.
Using a quality power amp is very impor-
tant. Distortion is a primary cause of ear fatigue,
and an amplifier that produces less distortion
over longer periods of time causes less fatigue
and damage to your ears.
If you have a professional power amp with
a rating of at least 100 watts RMS and if you
use a good quality reference monitor designed
for studio use, you'll be able to work on your
music longer with less ear fatigue. When I use
the term professional in regard to amplifiers, I
mean an industrial strength unit, designed for
constant use in a pro setting. Compared to a
consumer home amplifier, amps designed for pro
use generally have better specifications, there-
fore helping to reduce ear fatigue. They use high
 Chapter One • The mixer • page 5

Illustration 1-3
Mixer Configurations
Mixers are designed in various configurations. These configurations can be labeled 4X2,
8X4X2, 16X8X2, and so on. The X's between the numbers stand for the word "by," so
4X2 is "4 by 2". There are many different possibilities, but the system is easy to
understand.
The first number indicates the number of channel inputs that are available. If your mixer
has 8 inputs, then your first number would be 8.
The remaining numbers refer to the different subgroups that these inputs can be
combined to. For example, if your mixer has 8 inputs that can be mixed to a stereo
output, your configuration would be 8X2.
If your mixer has 20 inputs that can be assigned to 8 tape tracks that can be mixed
down to a stereo master output and can also be combined into a mono output that's
separate, then your configuration would be 20X8X2X1.
If you have a personal multitrack 4-track with 6 channel inputs that can be assigned to
any of the 4 tracks that can then be mixed down to stereo, your configuration would be
6X4X2.
Look at your mixer, determine your configuration and write it down. Start with the
number of mic inputs, subgroups, then main outs (like stereo and/or mono).
Assignment: RMS
Find out what the RMS power rating is on your amplifier. Even if you have a home
entertainment system, this rating will be in the owner's manual.
If you go shopping for a new amp, I suggest buying a professional quality amplifier
rated between 100 and 200 watts RMS from a well known manufacturer.
It isn't necessary to get the most expensive or the most powerful (although that is
pretty fun). More power is good if you can afford it, because it assures you of less
distortion from the amp itself, but be careful if your speakers aren't capable of handling
as much power as your amp can deliver. Speakers will often indicate, right on the back
by the terminals, the maximum amount of power they can handle safely.

quality components, therefore lasting longer and entertainment can get you by for a while, but as
working harder for longer periods of time. Repu- you become more serious and are spending more
table manufacturers offer the best service and and more time recording, investing in a good
support. Fast, quality service is invaluable when amp and speakers is necessary. See Illustration
you're making money with your equipment. 1-3 for the assignment on RMS.
Using a small system designed for home
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 6

Illustration 1-4
Speaker Wire Gauges

Always use heavy-duty wire designed specifically for use with speakers. The chart
above indicates suggested wire gauges for varying lengths.
The smaller the wire number, the thicker the wire. Thicker wire has less resistance to
signal. To have minimal degradation of signal in longer runs, we use thicker wire.
Wire can be very expensive, especially if you buy the top of the line. For home studio
use, it's rarely justifiable or necessary to buy "the best." Buying a good, heavy-duty
wire of the appropriate gauge in the middle price range is usually safe.
Be sure to use designated speaker wire for speakers—not a regular guitar cable (line
cable). Both wires in a speaker cable must be identical. A guitar cable has one single
center conductor with a braided shield acting as the other wire. Using a guitar cable
as a speaker cable is an inefficient way to carry the amplified audio signal to the
speakers and can be taxing on the power amplifier sending the signal.
Speaker wire often looks like the power cord on a standard lamp in your house. In
fact, a heavy-duty 18-gauge lamp wire can work well as speaker cable in a pinch.
Whenever you're monitoring in stereo, be absolutely certain that the red
post on the back of the power amp is connected to the red post on the back
of both speakers and that black goes to black! If these are connected backwards
on one of the two monitors, the speakers are said to be out-of-phase. When this
happens, a sound wave that is sent simultaneously to both speakers (panned center)
moves one speaker cone out while it moves the other speaker cone in. Speakers
connected out-of-phase work against each other instead of with each other. What
you hear from them is inaccurate and unpredictable, especially in the lower frequen-
cies.
 Chapter One • The mixer • page 7

Proper Wire changing and the market for near-field reference

Use the proper wire to connect your speakers to monitors has become very competitive. There are
your power amp. Speaker wire is not the great new products available from all major
same as a guitar cable. Use designated speaker manufacturers, and most are very rea-
speaker wire. Guitar cable is designed to carry sonably priced (typically between $300 and
signals like those from a keyboard to a mixer, $1000 per pair).
not power from an amplifier to speakers. Also, Several manufacturers are producing high
choosing wire that's too thick or too thin for priced near-field reference monitors—some with
your situation can cause a problem with the ef- built-in, factory-calibrated amplifiers. Often
ficiency of your amp and speakers. these speaker pairs cost several thousands of
Ask a salesperson which wire gauge and dollars and are very accurate and quite fun to
type is best for your situation. Let them know listen to, but they aren't necessary for most home
how long a run it is from your power amp to studio applications.
your speakers, what kind of connectors your amp
has, plus the brand of your amp and its power Near-Field Reference Monitors
rating. If the salesperson gives you a glazed look A near-field reference monitor is designed to be
when you recite all of these specifications, this listened to with your head at one point of an
indicates that they don't understand your situa- equilateral triangle (approximately three feet, or
tion. I suggest you get a second opinion. one meter, on each side) and the speakers at
As a rule of thumb, a good quality 18- the other two points. The speakers should be
gauge speaker wire works well in most cases. facing directly at your ears and are ideally about
Refer to Illustration 1-4 for suggested wire 10 degrees above the horizontal plane that's
gauge numbers for a specific wire length. even with your ears (Illustration 1-5). With this
kind of a system, the room that you're monitor-
ing in has a minimal effect on how you hear the
Studio monitors mix. These monitors should sound pretty much
the same in your studio at home as they do in
Selecting speakers is the key to producing good any studio in the world.
sounds that reliably transfer from your system If the room is minimally affecting what you
to a friend's system or your car stereo. One of hear, then the mix that you create will be more
the most annoying and frustrating audio record- accurate and will sound good on more systems.
ing problems is a mix that sounds great on your Changing to a near field reference monitor gives
system but sounds terrible everywhere else. you immediate gratification through more reli-
Part of the solution to this is experience able mixes, plus it lets you start gaining experi-
with analytical listening on your system to mu- ence based on a predictable and accurate lis-
sic that you know sounds good everywhere. Pos- tening environment.
sibly, an even bigger part of the solution to this Not just any small speaker works as a near-
problem lies in the use of near-field reference field reference monitor. In fact, speakers that
monitors. Industry standards are continually aren't designed specifically for this application
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 8

Illustration 1-5
Near-field Reference Monitors

produce poor results and unreliable mixes when Since this can involve actual construction and
positioned as near-field reference monitors. often plenty of expense and since near-field ref-
erence monitors can produce excellent results,
Far-field Monitors the obvious choice for most home setups is a
Far-field monitors are designed to be farther pair of near field reference monitors.
away from the mixing engineer, and their sound
is greatly affected by the acoustics of the room
they're in. Larger rooms have more air to move, Connectors
so they require larger monitors to move that air.
These monitors can be very expensive. We encounter several types of connectors when
In order to get great results from far-field hooking audio equipment together. In this sec-
monitors, they must be used in a studio that has tion, we cover RCA connectors, 1/4-inch con-
been acoustically designed for a smooth and nectors, XLR connectors, adapters, plugging in,
even balance of frequencies within the room. powering up/down, grounding and hums.
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 9

RCA Connectors
RCA phono connectors are the type found on Illustration 1-6
most home stereo equipment and are physically RCA Phono Plug and Jack
smaller in size than the plug that goes into a
guitar or keyboard (Illustration 1-6). RCA phono
connectors are very common in home-recording
equipment and are among the least expensive
connectors.
carries the actual musical signal. The wire carry-
Quarter-inch Phone Connectors ing the signal is called the hot wire or hot lead.
Quarter-inch phone connectors are the type The sleeve is connected to the braided shield
found on regular cables for guitars or keyboards. that's around the hot wire. The purpose of the
These connectors are commonly used on musi- shield is to diffuse outside interference, like elec-
cal instruments and in home and professional trostatic interference and extraneous radio sig-
recording studios. nals.
Notice that a guitar cable has one tip and The other type of 1/4-inch phone connec-
one sleeve on the connector (Illustration 1-7). tor is the type found on stereo headphones. This
In a guitar cable, the wire connected to the tip plug has one tip, one small ring (next to the tip)

Illustration 1-7
1/4" Phone Plug (Mono)
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 10

Illustration 1-8
1/4" Phone Plug (Stereo or Balanced)

and a sleeve (Illustration 1-8). In headphones, XLR Connectors

the tip and ring are for the left and right musi- XLR connectors are the type found on most mi-
cal signal, and the sleeve is connected to the crophones and the mic inputs of most mixers
braided shield that surrounds the two hot wires. (Illustration 1-9). Two of the three pins on this
This connector can be used for other devices that connector carry the signal, and the third is con-
require a three-point connection. nected to the shield. The reason for the two hot
leads has to do with reducing noise in a bal-

Illustration 1-9
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 11

Illustration 1-10
Adapters
The center post on the RCA phono plug corresponds to the tip on the RCA-to-1/4"
phone plug adapter.

The tip and the ring on the 1/4" tip-ring-sleeve phone plug correspond to pins 2 and 3
on the 1/4" phone plug-to-XLR adapter. The sleeve corresponds to pin 1. The pin
numbers of the XLR connector are imprinted on the connector end itself. They're located
next to the base of the pins on the male XLR connector and next to the holes on the
female XLR connector.

anced low-impedance mic cable. The details in- Plugging In

volved here are covered later in this course. The output of your mixer might have multiple
It's not uncommon to find cables with an outputs for connection to different amplifier in-
XLR on one end and a 1/4-inch phone plug on puts. The stereo line output is the correct out-
the other or cables that have been intentionally put from the mixer to be plugged into the power
wired in a nonstandard way. These are usually amplifier. This might also be labeled Main Out-
for specific applications and can be useful in put, Mains, Mix Out, Control Room Monitor
certain situations. Check wiring details in your Output, Out to Amp, or Stereo Out. If your
equipment manuals to see if these will work for mixer has XLR outputs available and if
you. your power amp has XLR inputs, patch
There are other types of connectors, but these points together as your first choice.
RCA phono, 1/4-inch phone and XLR are the This output typically provides the most clean and
most common. It's okay to use adapters to go noise-free signal.
from one type of connector to another, but al-
ways be sure to use connectors and adapters
with the same number of points. For example, if Electrical Power
a plug has a tip, ring and sleeve, it must be
plugged into a jack that accepts all three points When plugging into the power outlet, use power
(Illustration 1-10). strips that have protection against power surges
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 12

and spikes. These can be picked up for a reason- usually occur so quickly that you don't even
able price at most electrical supply stores. notice them. Since power surges and spikes can
Spikes and surges are fluctuations in your seriously damage delicate electronic circuits, pro-
electrical current that rise well above the 120- tection is necessary for any microprocessor-
volt current that runs most of your equipment. controlled equipment (computers, synthesizers,
Surges generally last longer than spikes, but both mixers, processors, sequencers, printers, etc.).

Illustration 1-11
AC Plug Into Ground Lifter

A problem can occur when d ifferent piec es of equ ip men t are connected to differen t
outlet s. A n incon sisten cy in ground and in -h ouse wiring c an produce a lo w hum in you r
aud io signal. W hen this h app ens, you can use a ground lif ter on the p iece of equ ipmen t
cau sing the hum. The ground lifter is the adap ter that accep ts all th ree prong s from a
stand ard AC cable but tu rn s th e ground pin into a tab. This tab can be sc rewed to the
wall p late mo unting sc rew if th e ground needs to be co mpleted a t th e out let , or if you
need th e ground disc onn ected at that point , simp ly b end th e ground tab back and
leave it disconnected .

Possible danger! Refer to Illustration 1-13 and consult a qualified electrician

about your unique setup.
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 13

Powering up
• Turn on the mixer and outboard gear (like de- could, at the very least, be painful or, at worst,
lays, reverbs and compressors) before the even fatal. Properly grounding a piece of equip-
power amps. ment gives potentially damaging electrical prob-
• Always turn power amps on last to protect lems a path, other than you, to ground.
speakers from pops and blasts as the rest of
the electronic gear comes on. Ground Hum
Aside from causing physical pain, grounding
Powering down problems can induce an irritating hum into your
• Turn power amps off first to protect speak- audio signal. If you have ever had this kind of

ers, then turn the mixer and outboard gear noise show up mysteriously and at the worst
off. times in your recordings, you know what true
frustration is.

Grounding
Grounding is a very important consideration in
Audio Example 1-160-Cycle Hum
any recording setup! The purpose of ground-
CD-1: Track 2
ing is safety. If there's an electrical short, or a
problem in a circuit, the electricity may search
out a path other than the one intended. Elec- Sixty-cycle hum is the result of a ground-
tricity is always attracted to something con- ing problem where the 60-cycle electrical cur-
nected to the ground we walk on (the earth). rent from the wall outlet is inducing a 60-cycle-
The reason for the third pin, called the ground per-second tone into your musical signal.
pin, on your AC power cable is to give an elec- To make matters worse, this 60-cycle tone
trical problem like this somewhere to go (Illus- isn't just a pure and simple 60 Hertz sine wave.
tration 1-11). A sine wave is the simplest wave form and, in
The ground pin in your electrical wiring is fact, is the only wave form that has a completely
ideally connected, through the third pin on your smooth crest and trough as it completes its cycle
power cord, to a grounding rod, which is a metal (Illustration 1-12). We could easily eliminate a
rod that's stuck at least six feet into the earth. 60-cycle sine wave with a filter. Sixty-cycle hum
Another possible source of ground is a metal has a distinct and distracting wave form, which
pipe like the water supply pipe to your hot- also includes various harmonics that extend into
water heater. This can be an excellent ground, the upper frequencies.
but be sure the metal pipe at the heater is not It's very important to have your setup prop-
connected to plastic pipe before it gets to erly grounded in order to eliminate 60-cycle hum
ground. and for your own physical safety while operat-
If you happen to touch equipment that ing your equipment. For some practical solutions
isn't properly grounded and if you are standing to some grounding problems, see Illustration
on the ground, you become just the path to the 1-13.
ground that the electricity is looking for. This
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 14

Illustration 1-12
The Sine Wave
There are 360° in the complete cycle of a sine wave. This is the simplest wave form,
having a smooth crest and trough plus comp lete symmetry between positive and
negative air pressure.

need to know what the controls on the mixer

Connecting to the Mixer do. No two mixers are set up in exactly the same
way, but the concepts involved with most mix-
Audio Examples 1-2, 1-3 and 1-4 are mixed in ers are essentially the same.
three different ways—same music and board but In this section, we'll cover those concepts
different mixes. Notice the dramatic differences and terms that relate to the signal going to and
in the effect and feeling of these mixes. Even coming out of the mixing board. These concepts
though they all contain the same instrumenta- include:
tion and orchestration, the mixer combined the • High and low impedance
available textures differently in each example. • Direct boxes and why they're needed
• Phantom power
• Line levels
Audio Examples 1-2, 1-3 and 14 A mixer is used to combine, or mix, differ-
Mixes 1, 2 and 3 ent sound sources. These sound sources might
CD-1:Track 3 be:
• On their way to the multitrack
The mixer is where your songs are molded • On their way to effects from instruments or
and shaped into commercially and artistically microphones
palatable commodities. If this is all news to you, • On their way from the multitrack to the moni
there's a long and winding road ahead. We'll tor speakers, effects or mixdown machine
We can control a number of variables at a
take things a step at a time, but for now you
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 15

Illustration 1-13
Grounding Buzzes and Hums
Let's look at some practical solutions to the persistent hums and buzzes that vex so
many recording setups. Once your studio is on the right path electrically, your frustra-
tion level should drop significantly.
Hire a Pro
The best approach to a persistent grounding problem is to hire a qualified electrician to
rewire your studio so that all available electrical outlets have the ground terminals
running to the exact same perfect ground. The ideal situation is to have a completely
separate electrical feed run into your studio by the power company. These circuits
should be filtered and relayed. When designed properly, if there is a loss of power,
circuits will come back on in an order determined by the relay network. It's also a
great idea to have any computer-based gear on a power backup system. These
backup systems have battery power that will continue the flow of current to your
equipment if there's a power loss or failure. You only need to be saved once by one
of these systems to be a firm believer in their use.
This solution is obviously impractical for most home users. You might spend as much
money to get a truly professional electrical system as many home recordists spend on
their recording equipment altogether. Please keep in mind, though, that you might
benefit greatly by a simple consultation with an experienced studio wiring technician.
Lifting the Ground
Lifting the ground is accomplished when the third prong on an AC power cable does
not plug into the power outlet.
The ground can be lifted on any piece of gear that has a three-prong wall plug by
plugging that wall plug into a small adapter that accepts all three prongs from the
power chord at the in end but only has two prongs coming out of the out end. See
Illustration 1-11. If the power cord has only two prongs, the ground has already been
lifted.
Lifting the ground doesn't necessarily mean nothing is grounded; it simply means that
a particular piece of equipment isn't grounded twice to conflicting grounds. Many
home studios have the ground lifted on all pieces of gear except one. In such a case,
all gear that's part of the network grounds to that one piece, even though their
individual power cord grounds aren't connected.
If all grounds are lifted, it's advisable to connect all of the individual chassis grounds
together with zip cord, lamp wire or #10 insulated wire. Most pieces of equipment
have ground terminals on their back panels. If there is no ground terminal, connect

continued...
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 16

Illustration 1-13
...continued

the ground wire to any screw that goes into the metal chassis. It's easiest if you
connect all of these wires to one terminal strip, mounted close to your gear, then
connect the terminal strip to a true ground. A true ground can be difficult to find, but
try the hot water supply pipe to your hot water tank, the center screw on one of your
wall AC outlet face plates or have an electrician install and verify a true ground source.
Disconnect Shields
Another way to eliminate hum is to disconnect the shield at one end of your line
cable (patch cable, instrument cable, guitar cord, etc.), usually at the end closest to
your mixer. This can break the ground loop and solve the problem. To disconnect the
shield on a cable, you must open the connector and either cut or unsolder the
braided shield from the lug it's connected to. It can be convenient to keep a couple of
cables like this around. Mark them clearly and indicate the end with the disconnected
shield.
Danger, Danger
Anyone who has ever played in a real live garage band knows that there's always
danger when electrical equipment, musicians and cement floors coexist in the same
room. The cement floor is connected directly to the ground, and you can become a
very attractive option for electricity in search of ground if you're standing on the
cement. Remember, the human body can conduct the flow of 20 to 30 amps of 110-
volt alternating current (AC). Since this can be, at the very least, very painful or, at
worst, even lethal, be cautious.
In Summary
Proper grounding can be the single most important factor in keeping your system
quiet and buzz free. A poorly designed system can have many hums and other
unwanted sounds and noises. Paying attention to detail here and hiring some profes-
sional help will make your home studio far more functional and tons more fun.
Keep in mind that you've just seen some practical solutions to common problems, but
real electrical wiring and system design should be handled by a professional
electrician. Studio grounding is a specialized application, so look for an electrician
with expertise in this field. Hiring the right electrician with the right bag of tricks for
the studio is a very worthwhile investment.
 Chapter One • The mixer • page 17

number of points in the pathway from the sound

source to the recorder and back. This pathway Illustration 1-14
is called the signal path. Each point holds its Hi Z vs. Lo Z
own possibility for degrading or enhancing the Balanced Low Impedance
audio integrity of your music.
Balanced low-impedance inputs,
abbreviated lo Z, use a three pin
Input Stage/Impedance connector—typically XLR (Illustration 1-
Let's begin at the input stage, where the mics 9). The advantage to balanced low-
and instruments plug into the mixer. Mic inputs impedance mics and mic inputs is that
come in two types: high-impedance and low- cables can be very long (up to about
impedance. There's no real difference in sound 1000 feet) with no signal loss and
quality between these two as long as each is minimal noise and interference. This
type of design uses a clever scheme that
used within its limitations (Illustration 1-14).
cancels any noise, radio signal or
The main concern when considering im-
electrostatic interference that joins the
pedance is that high-impedance outputs go into
signal between the mic and the mixer
high-impedance inputs and low-impedance out- input. This is the system of choice for a
puts go into low-impedance inputs. serious setup.
Impedance is, by definition, the resistance
Unbalanced High Impedance
to the flow of current measured in a unit called
High-impedance inputs, abbreviated hi
an ohm. Imagine two pipes: one large and one
Z, generally accept a regular guitar
small. More water can go through the large pipe
cable with 1/4" phone plugs (Illustration
with less resistance than the same amount of 1-7). High-impedance systems are
water through the small pipe. I think we would limited since cables can be no longer
all agree that a city water reservoir would be than 20-30 ft. without noticeable
easier to drain through a six-foot diameter pipe electrostatic noise, radio interference
than through a straw. The large pipe represents and other types of noises. Most guitars
low-impedance (low resistance). The small pipe and keyboards have high-impedance
represents high-impedance (high resistance). outputs. They must be plugged into
high-impedance inputs. The line input
Now, we can put a numerical tag on im-
on a mixer will usually work well with
pedance. High impedance has high resistance,
high-impedance instrument outputs.
in the range of 10,000 to 20,000 ohms (a small
pipe). Low impedance has low resistance, in
the range of 150-1000 ohms (a large pipe). A low-impedance mic plugged into a high-
A high-impedance instrument plugged into impedance input meets too much resistance to
a low-impedance input is expecting to see lots its signal flow. Therefore, no matter how high
of resistance to its signal flow. If the signal you turn the input level up, there's insufficient
doesn't meet that resistance, it'll overdrive and level to obtain a proper amount of VU reading.
distort the input almost immediately, no matter The water from the large pipe can't all squeeze
how low you keep the input level.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 18

into the small pipe fast enough. impedance instrument into the high-impedance
So, what is the solution if you have a high- input and then patch the low-impedance out-
impedance guitar that you want to plug into a put into a low-impedance input, or, if necessary,
low-impedance mixer or a low-impedance mic you can plug low-impedance in to the low-
that you want to plug into a high-impedance impedance end and come out of the transformer
guitar amp? high-impedance.

Direct Box Passive vs. Active DIs

It's possible, acceptable and standard procedure There are two main types of direct boxes: pas-
to use a direct box to match a high-impedance sive and active. Passive direct boxes are the least
output to a low-impedance input or vice versa. expensive and generally do a fine job of match-
A direct box is also called a line-matching trans- ing one impedance in to another impedance out.
former, impedance-matching transformer, imped- Active direct boxes are usually more expensive
ance transformer or Dl (direct injection). Its sole and contain amplifying circuitry that requires
purpose is to change the impedance of the in- power from a battery or other external power
strument or device plugged into its input. supply. These amplifying circuits are used to en-
Impedance transformers work equally well hance bass and treble. An active direct box typi-
in both directions—low to high or high to low. cally gives your signal more punch and clarity in
Using the same transformer, you can plug a high- the high frequencies and low frequencies.

Illustration 1-15
The Direct Box
The h i Z input is a Y. One sid e of the Y sends the signal to the transformer; the other side
o f the Y send s th e signal to the Out to A mp jack. Th is makes it possible for instruments
to p lug in to the d irec t bo x th en into th e amp lifier from th e Out to Am p jack.

If you hear a loud ground hum after plugg ing into the direct box, it w ill usually go away
if you f lip the Ground Lif t sw itch .

Most DIs have a Pad to help keep strong signals from overdriving the console inputs.
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 19

Audio Example 1 -5 is a bass through a pas- Phantom power requirements can vary
sive direct box. from mic to mic so check your mic specifications
Audio Example 1-6 is the same bass to insure that the mic is getting the power it
through an active direct box. needs. Voltage requirements are typically be-
tween 12 and 52 volts. Most mics that require
low voltages have a regulatory circuit to reduce
Audio Examples 1-5 and 1-6 Direct Boxes higher voltages so that normal 48-volt phan-
CD-1:Track 4 tom power can be used without damaging the
mic. Microphones that require higher voltages
The difference between these two ex- won't usually sound all that great until they get
amples can be subtle, but it's often the nuances the power they require. These mics often come
that make the difference between okay and bril- with their own power supply.
liant! A 10 percent improvement of each track Your mixer might not have phantom power
really impacts the final product, especially when built in. Most microphone manufacturers offer
recording 8,16, 24 or more tracks. Optimize ev- external phantom power supplies for one or
ery step of your recording process! It makes a more mics. Simply plug the phantom power sup-
noticeable difference. ply into an AC outlet, then plug the cable from
Direct boxes typically have a ground lift the mic or direct box into the phantom power
switch (Illustration 1-15). Try flipping this switch supply. Finally, patch from the XLR output of the
if you can hear a noticeable 60-cycle ground hum phantom power supply into the mixer mic in-

along with the instrument sound. There is usu- put.

ally one position that eliminates hum. Phantom power is preferred over battery
power because it is constant and reliable,
whereas batteries can wear down, lose power
Phantom Power
and cause the mic or direct box to operate be-
Condenser microphones and active direct boxes
low its optimum specification (even though it
need power to operate. If they don't receive it,
might still be working).
they won't work. This power can come from a
If the mic or direct box doesn't need phan-
battery in the unit or from the phantom power
tom power, it's good practice to turn the power
supply located within the mixer.
off on those channels, though it isn't absolutely
Phantom power (a very low amperage 48-
essential. Many consoles have phantom power
volt DC current) is available at any mic input
on/off switches. Some mixers have phantom
that has a phantom power switch. Since amper-
power that stays on all of the time. This is okay
age is the actual punch behind the voltage and
but if there's an on/off switch, turn it on when
since phantom power has a very low amperage,
you need it and off when you don't.
there's little danger that this power will cause
you any physical harm, even though the power
Line Level
travels to the mic or direct box through the same
Line in and line out are common terms typically
mic cable that the musical signal travels to the
associated with tape recorder inputs and out-
mixer.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 20

puts and mixer inputs and outputs. The signal When we use the term dB it's useful to
that comes from a microphone has a strength keep in mind that it is a term that expresses a
that's called mic level, and a mixer needs to have ratio between two powers and can be tagged
that signal amplified to what is called line level. to many different types of power that we en-
The amplifier that brings the mic level up to line counter in recording.
level is called the mic preamp. We'll study mic With our option of +4dBm, dB is being
preamps later in this chapter. tagged to milliwatts; and with -10dBV, dB is be-
Instrument inputs on mixers are line level. ing tagged to volts. Without going into the math
An input that is line level enters the board after of it all, let's simply remember that +4 equip-
the microphone preamp and is, therefore, not ment only works well with other +4 equipment,
affected by its adjustment. and -10 equipment only works well with other -
Some mixers have attenuators on the line 10 equipment.
inputs and the mic inputs to compensate for dif- Some units let you switch between +4 and
ferent instrument and tape recorder output lev- -10, so all you do is select the level that matches
els. As we optimize each instrument or voice your system. There are also boxes made that let
recording, we must optimize the gain structure you go in at one level and out at the other. Re-
at each point of the signal path. When all the fer to Illustration 1-16 for more details about
levels are correct for each mic preamp, line at- +4 and -10.

tenuator, fader, EQ, bus fader, etc., we can record

the cleanest, most accurate signal. When one
link of this chain is weak, the overall sonic in- Getting Sound Into the Board
tegrity crashes and burns.
Mixers that have only one 1/4-inch phone At first glance, mixers can be very intimidating
input on each channel typically have a Mic/Line to new users. Don't forget, for the most part each

switch. Select the appropriate position for your channel has exactly the same controls. So, if we
situation. In m/'c position the input goes through can use and understand one channel, we've al-
the preamp. In line position (possibly called in- ready won most of the battle. In this section,
strument position) the preamp is not included. we begin to see what each control can do. As
you grasp these concepts thoroughly, the mixer
+4dBmvs.-10dBV becomes a creative tool rather than a formidable
You might have heard the terms plus four or mi- adversary.

nus 10 (+4 or -10) used when referring to a

mixer, tape recorder or signal processor. The Preamp
This is another consideration for compat- One of the first things your signal from the mic
ibility between pieces of equipment, aside from sees as it enters the mixer is the mic preamp

the low impedance/high impedance dilemma. (sometimes called the input preamp or simply

Different equipment can have different relative the preamp). The preamp is actually a small am-
line level strength. This is tagged in dB and the plifier circuit, and its controls are generally at

two options are +4dBm or -10dBV. the top of each channel. The preamp level con-
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 21

Illustration 1-16
More Details About +4 vs. -10
Most +4 gear is balanced low-impedance. This is the type that's used in a true blue
professional recording studio and uses either an XLR connector or some other type of
three-pin connector, like a stereo headphone type of plug (tip-ring-sleeve). Gear can
also be of the unbalanced variety and still operate at +4. This equipment will use RCA or
1/4" phone connectors.
We most often think of -10 gear as being unbalanced. This type of gear is considered
semipro. Most home recording equipment operates at -10dBV. Gear that uses RCA
phono type plugs or regular mono guitar plugs is usually -10dBV.
Some pieces of equipment will have a switch somewhere that will let you select whether
they operate at +4 or -10. A +4 output is too strong for a -10 input, and a -10 output is
too weak for a +4 input.
When used properly and with shorter cable runs, there should not be a noticeable
difference in sound quality from a unit operating at -10 as opposed to +4, even though
+4 is the professional standard.
+4dBm balanced equipment works especially well when longer cable runs are necessary,
like in a large recording studio, or when radio interference and electrostatic noises are a
particular problem.

trols how much a source is amplified and is ers work at line level so a mic level signal needs
sometimes labeled as the Mic Gain Trim, Mic to be amplified by the preamp to line level be-
Preamp, Input Preamp, Trim, Preamp or Gain. fore it gets to the rest of the signal path.
A signal that's been patched into a micro- Best results are usually achieved when the
phone input has entered the mixer before the preamp doesn't need to be turned all the way
preamp. The preamp needs to receive a signal up. A preamp circuit usually recirculates the sig-
that is at mic level. Mic level (typically 30-60dB nal back through itself to amplify. This process
below line level) is what we call the strength of can add noise, then amplify that noise, then
the signal that comes out of the mic as it hears amplify that noise, etc. So, use as little pream-
your music. A mic level signal must be amplified plification as possible to achieve sufficient line
to a signal strength that the mixer wants. Mix- level.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 22

Many boards have an LED (light-emitting Most attenuators include 10,20 or 30dB pads,
diode, or red light) next to the preamp control. which are labeled -10dB, -20dB, or -30dB.
This is a peak level indicator and is used to indi- If there's noticeable distortion from a
cate peak signal strength that either is or is get- sound source, even if the preamp is turned down,
ting close to overdriving the input. The proper use the pad. Start with the least amount of pad
way to adjust the preamp control is to turn it up available first. If distortion disappears, all is well.
until the peak LED is blinking occasionally, then If there's still distortion, try more attenuation.
decrease the preamp level slightly. It's usually Once the d isto rtion is gone, use the
okay if the peak LED blinks a few times during a preamp level control to attain sufficient input
recording. level. Listen to Audio Example 1-8 to hear the
dramatic difference this adjustment can make
Attenuator in the clarity of an audio signal.
It's a fact that sometimes the signal that comes
from a microphone or instrument into the board
Audio Example 1-8 Attenuator Adjustment
is too strong for the preamp stage of your mixer.
This can happen when miking a very loud in-
CD-1: Track 5
strument, like a drum or electric guitar amp, or
when accepting the Dl of a guitar or bass with Again, if the input stage of your mixer has
particularly powerful pickups. Some microphones a red peak LED by the input level control, it's
can also produce a stronger signal than others. desirable to turn the input up until the peak LED
If the signal is too strong going into the preamp, blinks occasionally, then back the level off
then there will be unacceptable distortion. When slightly. This way we know we have the signal
this happens at the input, there's no fixing it coming into the mixer as hot as possible with-
later. out distortion. This is good.
This situation requires the use of an at- Ideally, we'll always record electronic in-
tenuator, also called a pad. This is almost al- struments with their output at maximum going
ways found at the top of each channel by the into the board. This procedure results in the best
preamp level control. An attenuator restricts the possible signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio and provides
flow of signal into the preamp by a measured a more surefire way to get the instrument back
amount or, in some cases, by a variable amount. to its original level for a punch-in or retake.
Listen to Audio Example 1-7 to hear the sound If you don't have an attenuator and if you
of an overdriven input. This example would are recording from an instrument like bass, key-
sound clean and clear if only the attenuator board or guitar through a direct box, you can
switch were set correctly! turn the output of the instrument down slightly
to keep from overdriving the input preamp. Be
sure to mark or notate the position of the in-
Audio Example 1-7 The Overdriven Input
strument's controls (especially volume) so you
CD-1:Track 5
can duplicate levels for a future punch-in or re-
take.
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 23

Meters with the same amount of energy. This results in

We must use meters to tell how much signal is either no movement of the eardrum (no per-
getting to the console, tape recorders, outboard ceived sound) or reduced movement of the ear-
gear, etc. There are a few different types of drum (altered, inaccurate sound).
meters, and they don't all work in the same way. If two waveforms are in phase, they crest
VU meters are the most common type of and trough together. This results in a doubling
meter. VU stands for volume unit. This meter of the amount of energy from that waveform, or
reads average signal levels, not peak levels or twice the amount of air being moved.
fast attacks. A VU meter has a needle that moves When multiple microphones are used in
across a scale from about -20VU up to about the same room, sounds can reach the different
+5VU. The act of moving the needle's physical mics at different times and probably at different
mass across the VU scale keeps this meter from points in the cycle of the wave. They combine at
being able to follow fast attacks. the mic out of phase. That's why it's always best
Peak meters or peak LEDs can accurately to use as few mics as possible on an instrument
meter fast attacks from percussive instruments. or group of instruments in the same. Fewer mics
Nearly instantaneous, sharp attacks, like those means fewer phase problems.
from any metal or hard wood instrument that is This theory also pertains to the way speak-
struck by a hard stick or mallet, are called tran- ers operate. If two speakers are in phase and
sients. Peak meters contain a series of small they both receive the identical waveform, both
lights that turn on immediately in response to a speaker cones move in and out at the same time.
predetermined voltage. Since there's no move- If two speakers are out of phase and if they both
ment of a physical mass (like the VU meter's receive the identical waveform, one speaker cone
needle), peak meters are ideal for accurately in- moves in while the other speaker cone moves
dicating transients. Refer to Illustration 1 -17 for out. They don't work together. They fight each
more detail about these types of meters. other, and the combined sound they produce is
not reliable.
Phase This problem doesn't show up as much in
Phase is a very important and often misunder- a stereo mix, but anytime your mix is played in
stood factor in recording. Imagine the complete mono or anytime you are combining multiple
cycle of a sound wave as being like a wave in microphones to a single tape track, this can be
water. This wave has a crest, which pushes on the worst problem of all. To hear the effect of
your eardrum, and a trough, which pulls on your combining a sound with itself in and out of
eardrum (Illustration 18). phase, listen to the guitar in Audio Examples
If two signals are electronically out of 1-9, 1-10 and 1-11. Audio Example 1-9 is the
phase their waveforms can be mirror images of original track playing into one channel of the
each other. When this happens, there can be mixer. In Audio Example 1-10, the signal is split
cancelation of all or part of your sound. As the and run into another channel of the mixer. No-
crest of waveform A pushes on your eardrum, tice the volume increase as the two channels
the trough of waveform B pulls on your eardrum are combined. Audio Example 1-11 shows the
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 24

Illustration 1-17
Transients
A transient attack is the percussive attack present in all percussion instruments when
one hard surface is struck with a hard stick, mallet or beater (cymbals, tambourine,
cowbell, claves, guiro, shakers, maracas, etc.). Transient attacks are also a consider-
ation when recording acoustic guitar (especially steel string played with a pick) or
acoustic piano.
VU Meters
A VU meter is the most common type of meter. VU stands for volume unit. This
meter is capable of reading average signal levels, not peak levels or fast attacks. A VU
meter has a needle that physically moves across a scale from about -20VU up to
about +5VU.
Instruments with a very fast, percussive attack have levels that can't be read accu-
rately by a standard VU meter, which responds too slowly to register the attack.
Peak Meters
A peak meter uses LEDs (or other types of lights) instead of the physically moving
needle of a standard VU meter.

Peak meters are capable of metering transients, but different types of peak meters
have different speeds and meter transients with varying degrees of accuracy.

Peak meters are necessary for recording digitally, since our primary goal, using a
digital recorder, is to not record above a certain level with any signal. When recording
digitally, always try to obtain the highest meter reading without going past 0. If
digital recordings are made with levels too low, the full resolution of the digital
recording process isn't realized. Low level digital recordings can sound grainy and
harsh.
Adjusting Record Levels for Transients
When recording instruments that contain transients and metering with a standard VU
meter, adjust levels so that the loudest part of the track registers between -9VU and -
7VU. This approach results in much more accurate and clean percussive type tracks.
The transient is usually at least 9VU hotter than the average level, so when the
standard VU Meter reads -9VU the tape is probably seeing OVU. If you meter OVU on
a transient, the tape might see +9VU!
Peak LEDs are fast enough in their response to accurately meter transients. A peak
LED is normally just one red light that comes on when the signal is about to oversatu-
rate the tape or overdrive a circuit.
continued...
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 25

Illustration 1-17
... continued

It's usually okay for the peak LED that lives in one corner of a VU meter to blink
occasionally, but if it's on continuously, find the instrument, instruments or frequen-
cies that are making it come on and back the levels off.
When a peak LED comes on, it means that, even though the VU is registering well
within acceptable limits, the actual level that's reaching tape is getting pretty hot.
In a mix, if the average or VU level is conservative but the peak LEDs are always on,
there's probably a percussion instrument in your mix that's too loud, and even if it
doesn't sound too loud on your system, it'll probably sound too loud on other sys-
tems.
Metering with peak meters, although potentially more accurate, can lead to record-
ing with very conservative levels which can result in recordings that contain more
noise in relation to the signal.
Standard VU meters, with a little education and experience, are still the preferred
method of metering for most analog recording situations.

sound difference as the phase is reversed on the channel, it's probably at the top of the channel
second track. The tracks combined are obviously by the preamp and attenuator controls. Its pur-
thin and reduced in level. Imagine if that hap- pose is to help compensate for phase interac-
pened to the guitar track in a mix as it was tion problems. For practical use, listen to your
played on mono AM radio. mixes in mono. If you notice that too many in-
struments get softer, disappear or just seem to
sound funny in mono, then there's probably a
Audio Examples 1-9,1-10 and 1-11 phase problem between some of the tracks.
Phase Reversal Change the phase of some of the tracks that
CD-1: Track 6 might be combining in a problematic way until
the mix sounds full and smooth in mono.
The nature of combining sounds dictates Short delay times, chorus and phasing ef-
that there is always phase interaction. We fects can also cause these kinds of problems in
wouldn't want to hinder that because good mono, so you might also need to change some
phase interaction gives our music depth and rich- delay times to help even things out. There will
ness. However, we do want to be particularly be more about this when we cover mixdown.
aware of phase interactions that can have an Once you've located and solved the phase prob-
adverse effect on the quality of our music. lems, your mix will sound just as good in stereo,
If your mixer has a phase switch on each and you'll be ready for television or AM radio.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 26

Illustration 1-18
Phase Relationship

Wave B is 180° out of phase with Wave A. The result of opposing crests and troughs is
no air movement. No air movement means no sound.
Conversely, two identical waveforms that start at exactly the same time (below) are in
phase. They combine, resulting in twice as much energy.
The height of the waveform (the distance above and below the center line) is referred to
as the amplitude. Amplitude corresponds to the amount of energy in the wave-form.

It's a good idea to be checking for phase Input Level Comparison

problems when recording tracks to the multi- These initial variables (preamp, attenuator,
track. Some mixers that have phase reversal meters and phase) are very important points for
switches have them operable only on the mic us to deal with. Any good engineer has a solid
inputs and not on the tape inputs. Therefore, grasp of these crucial parts of the signal path.
they're unavailable during mixdown. These are the basics; you'll continually return to
them for clean, quality, professional recordings.
As reinforcement of the importance of
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 27

proper adjustment of the input stage of your that the only surefire way to find a problem in a
mixer, listen to Audio Examples 1-12, 1-13 and system is to follow the signal path deliberately
1-14. If your signal isn't clean and accurate at from its point of origin (point A, for example,
the input stage, it won't be clean and accurate the microphone) to its destination (point B, the
anywhere. speakers).
There are several possible problem spots
between point A and point B. A thorough knowl-
Audio Example 1-12 Proper Input Levels
edge and understanding of your signal path lets
CD-1:Track 7
you deal with any of these problems as quickly
as possible. See Illustration 1-19 for an assign-
ment on signal path.
Audio Example 1-13
Low Input Levels Resulting in a Noisy Mix CD-
Channel Insert
1: Track 7 Most modern mixers have what is called a chan-
nel insert (Illustration 1-20). This is the point
where a piece of outboard signal processing can
Audio Example 1-14 be plugged into the signal path on each indi-
High Input Levels Causing Distortion vidual channel, if your mixer has inserts, they're
CD-1;Track 7 probably directly above or below the microphone
inputs.
We must have proper levels coming A channel insert lets you access only one
into the mixer before we can even begin channel at a time and is used to include a sig-
to set levels to tape. Any distortion here is nal processor in the signal path of that specific
magnified at each point. Any noise that exists channel. The processor you insert becomes a per-
here is magnified at each point. Listen to the manent part of the signal path from that point
effects of improper level adjustment at the in- on. An insert is especially useful when using a
put. Audio Examples 1-12, 1-13 and 1-14 use compressor, gate or other dynamic processor.
the same song, the same mixer and the same A channel insert utilizes' a send to send
tracks with different input levels. the signal (usually as it comes out of the preamp)
to the signal processor. The signal processor out-
put is then patched into the return of the chan-

More Signal Path nel insert. This completes the signal path, and
the signal typically continues on its way through

Remember, signal path is simply the route that the EQ circuit and on through the rest of its path.
To understand the different types of inserts, re-
a signal takes from point A to point B. For speed
fer to Illustrations 1-21A through 1 -21D.
and efficiency in any recording situation, it's es-
A channel insert and an effects bus are
sential that you're completely familiar with the
similar in that they deal with signal processing.
signal paths involved in your setup.
An insert affects one channel only. Inserts are
Any good maintenance engineer knows
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 28

Illustration 1-19
Assignment: Signal Path
Many owner's manuals give a schematic diagram of exactly what the signal path is in a
mixer. You may not be totally into reading diagrams, but there's a lot to be learned by
simply following the arrows and words. The basis of electronics is logic. Most complex
electronic tasks can be broken down into small and simple tasks. That's exactly how
the recording world is. What seems like an impossible task at first isn't so bad when
you realize it consists of several simple tasks performed in the right order.
An example of a typical signal path might be: The microphone goes into the micro-
phone input, which goes to the attenuator, which goes into the preamp, which goes
into the equalizer, which goes to the track assignment, which goes to the tape
recorder, which comes back to the mixer at the monitor section, which goes to the
master volume fader, which goes to the main stereo output of the mixer, which goes to
the power amp in, which goes to the speakers, which go to your ears, which go to
your brain, which makes you laugh or cry.
Try making a simple map of your signal path, using boxes with the appropriate words
and arrows pointing from box to box.

A thorough understanding of your signal path is the answer to most trying circum-
stances you'll come across. Build a diagram like this for the most common recording
situations you encounter, including:
• Recording tracks
• Mixing down
• Sending from aux buses to effects
• Setting up the headphone bus
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 29

ideal for patching dynamics processors into a Input faders

signal path. An effects bus (like aux 1 or aux 2) Once everything is set properly at the preamp,
lets you send a mix from the bus to an effect, use the input faders to set the recording level
leaving the master mix on the input faders with- to tape (Illustration 22). During recording, these
out effects. The output of the effect is then faders adjust the recording level to tape. On any
plugged into the effects returns or open chan- recording mixer, there's a different control that
nels on the mixer. This is good for reverbs and determines listening volume. During mixdown
multi-effects processors. these faders often control the volume of each
track in the mix, but in tracking, their sole pur-
pose is recording level adjustment to the multi-

Managing the Signal Path track.

When recording most instruments, adjust
This section covers input faders, gain structure, the recording level so thatVU meters read OVU
buses, track assignments, pan, solo and mute. to +2VU at the peaks (strongest parts of the
track). For percussive instruments that have tran-
sient attacks, also called transient peaks, the VU
meter should read around -9VU to -7VU at the

Illustration 1-20
Channel Insert

Many mixers have a channel insert. This is the point where an outboard signal processor
can be plugged into the signal path. If your mixer has inputs, they're probably directly
above or below the mic inputs.
A channel insert will have a send that sends the signal, usually as it comes out of the
preamp, to the processor. The output of the signal processor is then patched into the
return of the channel insert. This completes the signal path. The signal then contin-ues
on its way through the EQ circuit and on through the rest of its path.
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 30

Illustration 1-21
Three Common Types of Channel Inserts
1. A Simple Send and Return With Separate 1/4" jacks
Inside the mixer, the send is normally connected to the return when no plugs are in
the jacks. With this sort of setup, the send and return are said to be normalled,
because they are normally connected together. That connection can be interrupted by
inserting a plug into one or both of the jacks.
1-21A Normalled Jacks

continued...
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 31

Illustration 1-21
... continued
2. Jumpered Sends and Returns
This method also uses separate send and return jacks (usually RCA phono), but
instead of being normalled internally, the send is connected to the return using a
simple jumper plug. The send and return are only connected when the jumper is
plugged into both RCA jacks at once. If this jumper is removed, you won't hear the
signal. When outboard processing is needed, simply remove the jumper, patch the
send to the input of the processor and then patch the processor output to the return.

1-21C The Jumper

 The fludioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 32

peaks. We'll cover more about this later. Pre and Post
Aux buses often include a switch that chooses
The Effects Bus whether each individual point in the bus hears
When we discuss the input faders as a group, the signal before it gets to the EQ and fader
we're talking about a bus. The term bus is con- (indicated by the word pre) or after the EQ and
fusing to many, but the basic concept of a bus fader (indicated by the word post).
is simple—and very important to understand. A
bus usually refers to a row of faders or knobs.
If you think about a city bus, you know Illustration 1-22
that it has a point of origin (one bus depot) and Input Faders
a destination (another depot), and you know Monitor Level controls receive signals
that it picks up passengers and delivers them to from the multitrack output. When
their destination. That's exactly what a bus on a recording tracks to the multitrack,
mixer does. For example, in mixdown the faders adjust the record levels with the Main
bus has a point of origin (the tape tracks) and a Fader and adjust the listening volumes
destination (the mixdown recorder). Its passen- with the Monitor Level controls.
gers are the different tracks from the multitrack.
Most mixers also have auxiliary buses, or
effects buses (Illustration 1-23). Aux buses (also
called cue sends, effects sends or monitor sends)
operate in the same way as the faders bus. An
aux bus (another complete set of knobs or fad-
ers) might have its point of origin at the multi-
track or the mic/line inputs. It picks up its own
set of the available passengers (tracks) and takes
them to their own destination (usually an ef-
fects unit or the headphones).
When a bus is used with an effect, like a
reverb, delay or multi-effects processor, the in-
dividual controls on the bus are called effects
sends because they're sending different instru-
ments or tracks to the effects unit on this bus.
The entire bus is also called a send.
Return is a term that goes with send . The
send sends the instrument to the reverb or ef-
fect. The return accepts the output of the reverb
or effect as it returns to the mix.
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 33

Pre lets you set up a mix that's totally sepa-

rate from the input faders and EQ. This is good Illustration 1-23
for headphone sends. Once the headphone mix Aux Buses With Pre and Post
is good for the musicians, it's best to leave it
set. You don't want changes you make for your
listening purposes to change the musicians' mix
in the phones.
Post is good for effects sends. A bus used
for reverb sends works best when the send to
the reverb decreases as the instrument or voice
fader is turned down. Post sends are perfect for
this application since the send is after the fader.
As the fader is decreased, so is the send to the
reverb, maintaining a constant balance between
the dry and affected sounds. If a pre send is used
for reverb, the channel fader can be off, but the
send to the reverb is still on. When your chan-
nel fader is down, the reverb return can still be
heard, loud and clear.

Using the Aux Bus

Imagine there's guitar on track 4, and it's turned On Aux 1, the Pre-Post switch is set to
Pre. This lets the Aux 1 bus hear the
up in the mix. We hear the guitar clean and dry.
signal before it gets to the EQ and
Dry means the sound is heard without effect.
fader.
The guitar in Audio Example 1-15 is dry.
On Aux 2, the Pre-Post switch is set to
Post. This lets the Aux 2 bus hear the
Audio Example 1-15 Dry Guitar signal after it has gone through the EQ
____________CD-1:Track 8 ___________ and fader circuitry.

If the output of aux bus 1 is patched into effects return. If your mixer has specific effects
a reverb, and the aux 1 send is turned up at returns, it's often helpful to think of these re-
channel 4, we should see a reading at the input turns as simply one or more extra channels on
meter of the reverb when the tape is rolling and your mixer.
the track is playing. This indicates that we have Once the effects outputs are patched into
a successful send to the reverb. the returns, raise the return levels on the mixer
The reverb can't be heard until we patch to hear the reverb coming into the mix. Find the
the output of the reverb into either an available, adjustment on your reverb that says wet/dry. The
unused channel of the mixer or into a dedicated signal coming from the reverb should be 100
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 34

percent wet. That means it's putting out only unsatisfactory. If the headphone output is mini-
reverberated sound and none of the dry sound. mally powered, you might be able to patch it
Maintain separate control of the dry track. Get into a separate headphone amp, but you must
the reverberated sound only from the completely be careful to keep the headphone output level
wet returns. With separate wet and dry control, low.
you can blend the sounds during mixdown to The headphone output often listens to the
produce just the right sonic blend. Listen to Au- main faders. In some cases, there's a selector to
dio Examples 1-16, 1-17 and 1-18 to hear the let you listen to different buses.
dry and wet sounds being blended in the mix.
Track Assignment
The track assignment section, also called the bus
Audio Example 1-16 Dry Guitar
assign section, is used to send whatever is re-
CD-1:Track 8
ceived at the input of the mixer (mic, instrument
or tape) to any one or a combination of output
buses. These bus outputs are normally connected
Audio Example 1-17 Reverb Only
to the inputs of the multitrack.
CD-1:Track 8
A board designed to be used with a 4-track
recorder gives you the option of sending your
signal to any one or more of the four main out-
Audio Example 1-18 Blending Wet and Dry
puts of the mixer that are connected to the
CD-1:Track8
multitrack recorder inputs.
Track assignments can also combine two
or more outputs to one input. See Illustration
The Headphone Bus 1-24 for an example of how the track assign-
If your mixer has a headphone bus, or if you're ments help you route mic input 1 and instru-
using an auxiliary bus to send a signal to the ment input 2 to tape recorder track 3.
headphones, patch the output of that bus into a Avoid patching the outputs of two or more
headphone amplifier. You'll hear the mix you've instruments (or other devices) together through'
sent to the headphone amp (from the head- a Y cable into one input. This typically overdrives
phone bus) when you plug headphones into the and distorts the input (Illustration 1-25). Any-
outputs of the headphone amp. The individual time you sum (combine) multiple outputs to one
auxiliary buses on a mixer are hardly ever pow- input, use a circuit like the track assignment cir-
ered to run headphones or speakers. cuit on your mixer. This is designed specifically
If there's an output on your mixer or per- to maintain proper impedance and sig nal
sonal 4-track recorder labeled Headphones, it's strength for its destination input. This type of
probably powered, and you won't need a head- circuit is also called a combining bus, combin-
phone amp. If you're patching this output into ing matrix, summing bus, summing matrix,
an amp, the powered send will overdrive the switching matrix, track assignment bus or track
input. The resulting sound will be distorted and assignment matrix.
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 35

Three Practical Applications for the combined then recorded onto one track of the
Combining Bus multitrack, you must use a combining bus to
1. When miking a drum set with multiple mics achieve satisfactory results 3. When two or
(kick, snare, toms, overheads): If the mics are more tracks of the multitrack are being run
being combined and then recorded on one back through the mixer and bouncing, or ping-
track of the multitrack, you must use a com- ponging, to one of the other available tracks:
bining bus to achieve satisfactory results If the tracks are being combined and then
2. When direct ins from a bass and a keyboard recorded onto one track of the multitrack, you
are being printed to one track on the multi- must use a combining bus to achieve
track: If the instrument outputs are being satisfactory results

Illustration 1-24
Assign Mic 1 and Instrument 2 to Track 3

Press the 3 button on the track assigns to combine the mic and instrument for
recording onto track 3, Notice the position of each switch on this mixer.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 36

It is acceptable to split one output from tem: A Y cable is also called a splitter; a splitter
an instrument or other equipment with a simple box usually has a snake that plugs into the
Y cable (Illustration 1 -26). No electronic circuitry recording board and outputs (or another
is necessary. Most outputs can be split up to snake) that plug into the live mixing board 3.
about five times with no adverse effect on the When plugging the final output of a mixer
signal. into two or more mixdown recorders: If you're
using a patch bay, all connections can be
Three Practical Applications for made with short, high quality patch cords for
Splitting a Signal Using a Y optimum signal transfer
1. When sending a guitar to the direct input of Audio Examples 1-19,1-20 and 1-21 dem-
a mixer and simultaneously to an amplifier: onstrate the sound of splitting the guitar signal
You can use a Y cable out of the guitar or the with a Y cord straight out of the guitarist's ef-
guitar effects setup fects. One side of the Y goes directly to the mixer
2. When sending a microphone signal to a live through a direct box. The other side is sent to
system and simultaneously to a recording sys- an amplifier. The amp is miked and the micro-

Illustration 1-25
Don't Y Two Outputs Into One Input

It is not good to Y two or more instruments into one input, because they will overdrive the mixer
input. The resulting sound will probably be distorted. You might get by with this if you have two
weak sound sources and an input with plenty of headroom, but as a rule, this is unacceptable.
To successfully record two or more sources to one track or to one channel of a mixer, you must use
a combining bus, such as the track assign bus on your mixer. If you're out of channels on your
mixer, consider buying a small inexpensive mixer to augment your system. Plug multiple sound
sources (like your MIDI sound modules) into your small mixer, then patch the output of that mixer
into your main mixer.
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 37

phone is plugged into the mixer. This setup Listen to the miked amplifier in Audio Ex-
works well with a guitar, synth, drum machine ample 1-20.
or any other electronically generated sound
source (Illustration 1-27).
Audio Example 1-19 demonstrates the di- Audio Example 1-20 The Miked Amp CD-
rect guitar sound. 1:Track 9

We can combine the direct and miked gui-

Audio Example 1-19 Direct Guitar tar to one tape track with the track assignment
CD-1:Track 9 bus. Listen to Audio Example 1-21 as the guitar
sounds combine in different levels to create a
new and interesting texture.

Audio Example 1-21

Illustration 1-26 Combining Direct and Miked Signals
Splitting One Output to CD-1:Track 9
Multiple Inputs

Pan
The pan control, sometimes called the pan pot
(for panoramic potentiometer), is used to move
a track in the stereo panorama. Sounds are po-
sitioned at any point in the left to right spec-
trum (between the left and right speakers). Some
pan controls are either all the way left or all the
way right with no position in between, but pan-
ning is usually infinitely sweepable from full left
to full right or anywhere in between. Often the
pan control is used for selecting odd or even
track assignment on the multitrack bus assign-
ments. Odd is left and even is right.
You can use the pan control along with
Outputs can be split several times the track assignment bus to combine multiple
with little or no adverse effect on the instruments, like several keyboards, to a stereo
signal. In this case, the synth is split pair of tape tracks. This can give you a very big
with a Y cord and sent simulta- sound while letting you get the most out of your
neously to the mixer and amplifier. equipment pool by conserving tracks and free-
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 38

ing up sound modules. around to create a unique sound that can't be

Listen to Audio Examples 1-22, 1-23 and gotten out of any single synth. A mixer lets you
1-24. Three sounds are combined and panned create a sound that's different from any other.
Combining textures like this is called layering or
sometimes doubling.
Illustration 1-27 Audio Example 1-22 is synth sound A.

Audio Example 1-22 Synth Sound A

CD-1: Track 10

Listen to Audio Example 1-23 to hear synth

sounds B and C combine with synth sound A.

Audio Example 1-23 Synth Sounds B and C

CD-1: Track 10

In Audio Example 1 -24, synth sounds A, B,

and C combine at different levels to become one
unique and interesting sound.

Audio Example 1-24 Synth Combination CD-

1: Track 10

Gain Structure
It's necessary to consider gain structure as we
control different levels at different points in the
The Y Inside the Dl signal path. Gain structure refers to the relative
Mixer levels of the signal as it moves from the input
Most direct boxes have a Y built in. to the EQ and out the fader to the track assign-
Input and Out to Amp are connected ment bus and onto the multitrack.
together to form an internal Y. The We've a l re ad y discussed the proper
input also goes to the transformer on
method for adjusting the input preamp level, and
its way to the mixer. The Y lets you
we've heard some examples of music recorded
take the signal being fed into the Input
with the input stage too cold and too hot. These
of the Dl and patch it out of the Out to
Amp jack into any hi Z amplifier. examples give an obvious demonstration of the
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 39

importance of proper level adjustment at this 1,2 and 3, you can assign these channels to track
primary stage. Each stage with user-controlled 4 at the track assignment bus.
levels carries its own importance to the integ- Put track 4 into Record Ready and use the
rity of your signal. Ideally, you'll be able to ad- faders of 1,2 and 3 to set up the proper mix.
just each stage to be as hot as possible, with Next, bounce those three tracks onto one by sim-
minimal distortion. ply pressing play and record. Now start laying
Some mixers have a suggested setting for new parts down on 1, 2 and 3 as you listen to
input faders and track assignment bus faders. track 4 (Illustration 1-29).
These suggested settings (referred to as unity Beware of bouncing to adjacent tracks. You
points) are usually indicated by a grayed area run the risk of internal feedback of the tape ma-
near the top of the fader's throw or numerically chine anytime you bounce from a track to either
by a zero indication. Try placing the input and track directly next to it. A lot depends on the
track assignment bus faders to their ideal set- alignment of your tape machine heads and the
tings. Then adjust the input preamp for proper adjustment of your playback and record elec-
recording level. This is a safe approach and works tronics. Digital multitrack formats like the ADAT
well much of the time. and 8mm systems have no problem bouncing to
Experiment with different approaches to adjacent tracks.
find what works best with your setup. No ap-
proach works every time, so remember to trust Which Tracks Should I
your ears. If your sound is clean and punchy but Together?
the settings don't seem to be by the book, you're If you have the option of choosing which tracks
better off than if you have textbook settings on to bounce together, the best rule of thumb is to
your mixer with substandard sound.
bounce an instrument with primarily low fre-
Confidence in your control of the gain
quencies (like a bass) with an instrument that
structure can take time and experience, so start
has primarily high frequencies (such as a tam-
practicing. See what happens when you try a
bourine). This lets you adjust their relative lev-
new approach. See Illustration 1-28 for an as-
els by adjusting EQ. Turning down the highs turns
signment on gain structure.
down the tambourine; turning down the lows
turns down the bass. Listen to Audio Example
Ping-ponging
1-25 to hear a demonstration of this theory.
Let's take a closer look at track assignments as
they're used for bouncing tracks (or ping-
ponging). Bouncing tracks means one or more
tracks on the multitrack are being rerecorded Bouncing Multiple Instruments to One Tape Track
onto an open track of the same multitrack. CD-1: Track 11
Since the input of a mixer can be switched
to listen to mic, line or tape, you select the in-
put of two or three channels to listen to the tape.
Once you've done this, for example, on tracks
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 41

Illustration 1-28
...continued

Assignment: Gain Structure

Practice changing the gain structure with your equipment. Plug an instrument into your
mixer, assign it to a tape track, play a part and adjust the input fader to achieve a OVU
reading on your recorder.
Now, change the gain structure by raising or lowering the preamp level, the input
fader level and the track assignment bus fader level. When you make one change,
adjust the other controls up or down so that you maintain a reading of OVU.
Keep a list of the differences in sound quality and the types of settings that produced
these sounds, good or bad. This should help you in properly adjusting your own gain
structure.

Solo There are often several solo points along

A Solo button turns everything off except the the signal path. These different solo buttons are
soloed track. This lets you hear one track or in- very handy for isolating a problem. Sometimes
strument by itself, as if it were a solo. Listen as there's an input solo to let you verify the signal
I press the Solo button on different tracks in Au- integrity as it enters the mixer. If the sound isn't
dio Example 1-26. You can also combine solos accurate here, all hope is lost. There can be pre-
to hear a group of tracks together. EQ/insert and post-EQ/insert solo buttons. Check
these to verify the signal before and after it has
gone through the mixer EQ circuitry or an out-
Audio Example 1-26 Soloing CD-
board processor. The other common solo points
1: Track 12
are before and after the final channel fader.

This feature is very useful in evaluating a Mutes

track for cleanliness of signal and quality of A Mute button is an off button. A channel mute
sound. It's often impossible to tell what's really turns the channel off. Use the mutes instead of
going on with a track when listening to it in the the faders to turn a channel down, especially
context of the rest of the arrangement. when setting up a mix or setting levels for a
Another type of solo is the PFL which tracking session. Beginning recordists often pull
stands for Pre-Fader-Listen. The PFL button so- the faders down instead of using the mutes.
los a channel immediately before the fader. This Once you have a channel level set in relation to
can give an accurate picture of how a particular the other channels, you'll save time by simply
channel is sounding just as it's going into your muting and unmuting.The levels will remain the
mix or just before it gets to the multitrack. same and you'll avoid continual rebalancing.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 42

Illustration 1-29
Bouncing Tracks

Notice tracks 1, 2 and 3 are set to Tape on the Tape-Mic-lnst selector.

Notice channels 1, 2 and 3 are assigned to track 4, and a mix of the three
instruments is set up. This mix is what will be recorded onto track 4.
Notice track 4 is set to Record Ready on the Safe-Record Ready selector and that
Output Bus Fader #4 is up. This is the fader that sets the record level (to track 4)
of the mix sent by input faders 1, 2 and 3.

lows; or highs, mids and lows. Onboard EQ typi-

cally has an in/out or bypass button. With the
The Equalizer button set to in, your signal goes through the
EQ. With the button set to out or bypass, the EQ
The equalizer or EQ section is usually located at circuitry is not in the signal path. If you're not
about the center of each channel and is defi- using EQ, it is best to bypass the circuit rather
nitely one of the most important sections of the than just set all of the controls to flat (no boost
mixer. EQ is also called tone control; highs and and no cut). Anytime you bypass a circuit, you
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 43

eliminate one more possibility for coloration or The ability to hear the effect of isolating
distortion. these frequencies provides a point of reference
From a purist's standpoint, EQ is to be used from which to work. Try to learn the sound of
sparingly, if at all. Before you use EQ, use the each frequency and the number of Hertz that
best mic choice and technique. Be sure the in- goes with that sound.
strument you're miking sounds its best. Trying To understand boosting or cutting a fre-
to mike a poorly tuned drum can be a night- quency, picture a curve with its center point at
mare. It's a fact that you can get wonderful that frequency (Illustration 1-31).
sounds with just the right mic in just the right Listen to the effect that cutting and boost-
place on just the right instrument. That's the ing certain frequencies has on Audio Examples
ideal. 1-27 to 1-35.
From a practical standpoint, there are Audio Example 1-27 starts out flat (mean-
many situations where using EQ is the only way ing no frequencies are cut or boosted). Notice a
to a great sound on time and on budget. This is boost at 60Hz followed by a cut at 60Hz.
especially true if you don't own all of the right
choice mics. During mixdown, proper use of EQ
can be paramount to a really outstanding sound. Audio Example 1-27 60Hz CD-1:
Proper control of each instrument's unique Track 13
tone (also called its timbre) is one of the most
musical uses of the mixer, so let's look more Audio Example 1 -28 demonstrates a boost
closely at equalization. then a cut at 120Hz.
There are several different types of EQ on
the hundreds of different mixers available. What
we want to look at are some basic principles Audio Example 1-28 120Hz CD-
that are common to all kinds of boards. 1: Track 13
We use EQ for two different purposes: to
get rid of (cut) part of the tone that we don't
Audio Example 1 -29 demonstrates a boost
want and to enhance (boost) some part of the
then a cut at 240Hz.
tone that we do want.

Hertz Audio Example 1-29 240Hz CD-

When we use the term Hertz or frequency we're 1: Track 13
talking about a musical waveform and the num-
ber of times it completes its cycle, with a crest
Audio Example 1 -30 demonstrates a boost
and a trough, per second (Illustration 1-30).
then a cut at 500Hz.
As a reference, the human ear can hear a
range of frequencies from about 20Hz at the low
end to about 20,000Hz at the high end. Audio Example 1-30 500Hz CD-
20,000Hz is also called 20 kilohertz or 20kHz. 1: Track 13
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 44

Illustration 1-30
Amplitude, Frequency, Length and Speed
Four important characteristics of sound waves are: amplitude, frequency, length and
speed.

Amplitude expresses the amount of energy in a waveform (the amount of air being
moved). In our graphic representation of the sine wave, the amplitude is indicated by the
height of the crest and the depth of the trough. Wave B has twice the amplitude of
Wave A and, therefore, moves twice the amount of air.

Frequency is the number of times the wave completes its 360° cycle in one second. This
is expressed as hertz, abbreviated Hz. One thousand Hz is expressed in kilohertz and is
abbreviated kHz. A frequency like 12,000Hz is abbreviated 12kHz or is simply expressed
as 12k.
Each frequency has its own length (the number of feet sound travels while it completes
one 360° cycle). Wavelength can be mathematically calculated as the speed of sound
(approximately 1130 feet per second) divided by the frequency of the waveform in Hz
(i.e., wavelength = 1130 -5-Hz).
28Hz = 40.36 feet (lowest note on the piano)
100Hz= 11.3 feet
1 kHz = 1.13 feet
4186Hz = .27 feet or 3.24 inches (highest note on the piano)
10kHz = .113 feet or 1.36 inches
20kHz = .0565 feet or .678 inches

Audio Example -31 demonstrates a boost

then a cut at 1kHz. Audio Example 1-31 1kHz
CD-1: Track 13

Audio Example 1-32 demonstrates a boost

 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 45

then a cut at 2kHz.

Audio Example 1-34 8kHz CD-
1: Track 13
Audio Example 1-32 2kHz CD-
1: Track 13 Audio Example 1-35 demonstrates a boost
then a cut at 16kHz.
Audio Example 1 -3 3 demonstrates a
boost then a cut at 4kHz.
Audio Example 1-35 16kHz CD-
1: Track 13
Audio Example 1-33 4kHz CD-
1: Track 13
Our goal in understanding and recogniz-
ing these frequencies is to be able to create
Audio Example 1 -3 4 demonstrates a sound pieces that fit together. The frequencies
boost then a cut at 8kHz. in Audio Examples 1-27 to 1 -35 represent most
of the center points forthe sliders on a 10-band
graphic EQ.
If the guitar track has many different fre-

Illustration 1-31
Equalization Curve

Boosting or cutting a particular frequency also boosts or cuts the frequencies nearby. If
you boost 500Hz on an equalizer, 500Hz is the center point of a curve being boosted.
Keep in mind that a substantial range of frequencies might be boosted along with the
center point of the curve. The exact range of frequencies boosted is dependent upon
the shape of the curve.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 46

quencies, it might sound great all by itself. If

the bass track has many different frequencies,
Audio Example 1-37 Bass (Cut 250Hz) CD-1:
it might sound great all by itself. If the keyboard Track 14
track has many different frequencies, it might
sound great all by itself. However, when you Audio Example 1-38 demonstrates a gui-
put these instruments together in a song, they tar recorded flat.
can get in each other's way and cause prob-
lems for the overall mix.
Ideally, we'll find the frequencies that are Audio Example 1-38 Guitar (Flat)
unnecessary on each track and cut those and CD-1: Track 15
then locate frequencies that we like on each
track and enhance, or boost, those. If we keep Audio Example 1 -39 demonstrates the gui-
the big picture in mind while selecting frequen- tar with a boost at 250Hz. This frequency is typi-
cies to cut or boost, we can use different fre- cal for adding punch to the guitar sound.
quencies on the different instruments and fit
the pieces together.
For instance, if the bass sounds muddy Audio Example 1-39 Guitar (Boost 250Hz) CD-
and needs to be cleaned up by cutting at about 1: Track 15
250Hz and if the high end of the bass could
use a little attack at about 2500Hz, that's great. Audio Example 1 -40 demonstrates the gui-
When we EQ the electric guitar track, it's very tar and bass blending together. Notice how each
possible that we could end up boosting the part becomes more understandable as the EQ is
250Hz range to add punch. That works great
inserted.
because we've just filled the hole that we cre-
ated in the bass EQ. Audio Example 1-36 dem-
onstrates a bass recorded without EQ (flat). Audio Example 1-40 Guitar and Bass Together
CD-1: Track 16

Audio Example 1-36 Bass (Flat) In a mix, the lead or rhythm guitar doesn't
CD-1: Track 14 generally need the lower frequencies below
about 80Hz. You can cut those frequencies sub-
Listen to Audio Example 1-37 as I turn stantially (if not completely), minimizing inter-
down a frequency with its center point at ference of the guitar's low end with the bass
250Hz. It sounds much better because I've guitar.
turned down the frequency range that typically If the guitar needs a little grind (edge, pres-
clouds the sound. ence, etc.) in the high end, select from the 2 to
4kHz range. Since you have already boosted
2.5kHz on the bass guitar, the best choice is to
boost 3.5 to 4kHz on guitar. If these frequen-
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 47

cies don't work well on the guitar, try shifting visual reference of these ranges.
the bass high-end EQ slightly. Find different fre- Listen to each of these more specific
quencies to boost on each instrument—frequen- ranges.
cies that work well together and still sound good
on the individual tracks. If you avoid equalizing
each instrument at the same frequency, your Audio Example 1-45 Flat (Reference) CD-1:
song will sound smoother and it'll be easier to Track 18
listen to on more systems.

Definition of Frequency Ranges Audio Example 1-46 Brilliance

As I stated before, the range of frequencies that CD-1: Track 18
the human ear can hear is roughly from 20Hz to
20kHz. Individual response may vary, depend-
ing on age, climate and how many rock bands Audio Example 1-47 Presence
the ears' owner might have heard or played in. CD-1: Track 18
This broad frequency range is broken down into
specific groups. It's necessary for us to know and
recognize these ranges. Audio Example 1-48 Upper Midrange CD-1:
Listen to Audio Examples 1-41 to 1-51. I'll Track 18
isolate these specific ranges.

Audio Example 1-49 Lower Midrange

Audio Example 1-41 Flat CD-1: Track 18
CD-1: Track 17

Audio Example 1-50 Bass

Audio Example 1-42 Highs (Above 3.5kHz) CD-1: Track 18
CD-1: Track 17

Audio Example 1-51 Sub-bass

Audio Example 1-43 Mids (250Hz to 3.5kHz) CD-1: Track 18
CD-1: Track 17
Some of these ranges may be more or less
audible on your system, though they're recorded
Audio Example 1-44 Lows (Below 250Hz) CD-
at the same level. Even on the best system, these
1: Track 17 won't sound equally loud because of the un-
even frequency response of the human ear.
These are often broken down into more
specific categories. See Illustration 1-32 for a
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 48

Bandwidth is good for overall tone coloring. A narrow band-

Bandwidth has to do with pinpointing how much width (less than half an octave) is good for find-
of the frequency spectrum is being adjusted. A ing a problem frequency and cutting it.
parametric equalizer has a bandwidth control.
Most equalizers that don't have a bandwidth Personal 4-track Multitrack
control cut or boost a curve that's about one A simple, personal 4-track multitrack might only
octave wide. A one-octave bandwidth is specific have adjustment for highs and lows. These are
enough to enable us to get the job done but each centered on one frequency. Highs are usu-
not so specific that we might create more prob- ally between 8 and 10kHz, lows around 100Hz.
lems than we eliminate. Bandwidth is sometimes This type of EQ can be of some help. For
referred to as the Q (Illustration 1-33). instance, it can help on the guitar track to cut
A wide bandwidth (two or more octaves) the lows in order to stay out of the way of the

Illustration 1-32
Frequency Ranges
The range of frequencies that the human ear can hear is roughly from 20Hz to 20kHz.
This broad frequency range is broken down into specific groups. It's necessary to know
and recognize these ranges.
• highs - above 3.5kHz
• mids - between 250Hz and 3.5kHz
• lows - below 250Hz

These are often broken into more specific categories:

• brilliance - above 6kHz
• presence - 3.5-6kHz
• upper midrange - 1.5-3.5kHz
• lower midrange - 250Hz-1 5kHz
• bass - 60-250Hz
• sub-bass - below 60Hz
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 49

Illustration 1-33
Bandwidth (The Q)
-i- +8

Many equalizers let you control the width of the curve being manipulated. Notice the
differing bandwidths in this illustration. Refer to bandwidth in octaves or fractions of
:
an octave. .
• Band #1 is about one octave wide.
• Band #2 is about two octaves wide.
• Band #3 is about half an octave wide.

Sweepable EQ
bass guitar. Also, on the cymbals you can boost A lot of mixers have sweepable EQ (also called
the highs for added brilliance. semiparametric EQ). Sweepable EQ
If you only have two bands of EQ, con- dramatically increases the flexibility of soun'd
sider buying a decent outboard graphic or para- shaping. There are two controls per sweepable
metric EQ. This isn't as flexible as having great band:
EQ built in to your mixer, but with preplanning 1. A cut/boost control to turn the selected fre--
of your arrangement and instrumentation, it is quency up or down
possible to get lots of mileage out of one good 2. A frequency selector that lets you sweep a
EQ. In the 4-track world, preplanning is the an- certain range of frequencies
swer to nearly all problems. This is a very convenient and flexible EQ.
Some EQs cut or boost just one fixed fre- With the frequency selector, you can zero in on
quency. A button near the cut/boost knob can the exact frequency you need to cut or boost.
select between two predetermined frequencies Often, the kick drum has one sweet spot where
(Illustration 1-34). the lows are warm and rich or the attack on the
guitar is at a very specific frequency. With
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 50

Parametric EQ
Illustration 1-34 This is the most flexible type of EQ. It operates
Selectable Frequencies just like a sweepable EQ but gives you one other
Two bands of EQ are available on each control: the bandwidth, or Q (Illustration 1-36).
knob, enabling access to eight With the bandwidth control, you choose
frequency bands. Pressing the whether you're cutting or boosting a large range
Frequency Select button determines of frequencies or a very specific range of fre-
which frequency is boosted or cut. quencies. For example, you might boost a four-
Each knob adjusts one frequency or the
other, not both at the same time.

Illustration 1-35
Sweepable EQ
A sweepable equalizer has a cut/ boost
control to determine the severity of EQ.
The frequency selector lets you slide
the band throughout a specific range.

10kHz

sweepable EQ, you can set up a boost or cut,

then dial in the frequency that breathes life into
your music.
Mixers that have sweepable EQ almost al-
ways have three separate bands on each chan-
nel: one for highs, one for mids and one for lows.
Sometimes the h ig hs and lows are fixed-
frequency equalizers but the mids are sweepable
(See Illustration 1-35).
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 51

octave band centered at 1000Hz, or you might

cut a very narrow band of frequencies, a quar- Illustration 1-36
ter of an octave wide, centered at 1000Hz. Parametric EQ
With a tool like this, you can create sonic The width of the selected frequency
pieces that fit together like a glove (Illustration band is controlled by the Q adjust-
1-37). A parametric equalizer is a great addi- ment (also called bandwidth). Curve
tion to your home studio. They are readily avail- A (below) is a very broad tone
able in outboard configurations and some of the control. Curve B is a very specific
more expensive consoles even have built-in para- pinpoint boost. The Q can vary
metric equalization. infinitely from its widest bandwidth
to its narrowest. Frequency and
Boost/Cut operate like the
Graphic EQ
sweepable EQ in Illustration 1-35.
This is called a graphic equalizer because it's
10kHz
the most visually graphic of all EQs. It's obvious,
at a glance, which frequencies you've boosted
or cut.
A graphic equalizer isn't appropriate to in-
clude in the channels of a mixer, but it is a stan-
dard type of outboard EQ. The graphic EQs that
we use in recording have 10, 31 or sometimes
15 individual sliders that each cut or boost a
set frequency with a set bandwidth. The band-
width on a 10-band graphic is one octave. The
bandwidth on a 31-band graphic is one third of
an octave (Illustration 1-38).

Other Types of EQ
Notch Filter
A notch filter is used to seek and destroy prob-
lem frequencies, like a high-end squeal, ground
hum or possibly a noise from a heater, fan or
camera.
Notch filters have a very narrow bandwidth
and are often sweepable. These filters generally
cut only.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 52

Illustration 1-37
Fitting EQs Together

Highpass Filter Lowpass Filter

A highpass filter lets the high frequencies pass A lowpass filter lets the low frequencies pass
through unaffected but cuts the low frequen- through unaffected and cuts the highs, usually
cies, usually below about 80Hz. A highpass fil- above about 8 to 10kHz. These filters have many
ter can help minimize 60-cycle hum on a par- uses. For instance, a lowpass filter can help mini-
ticular track by filtering, or turning down, the mize cymbal leakage onto the torn tracks, filter
fundamental frequency of the hum. out a high buzz in a guitar amp or filter out string
Highpass filters function very well when noise on a bass guitar track.
you need to eliminate an ambient rumble, like a Highpass and lowpass filters are a specific
furnace in the background or street noise that type of equalizer called a shelving equalizer. A
leaks into a vocal mic. shelving EQ leaves all frequencies flat to a cer-
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 53

Illustration 1-38
Graphic Equalizers
The 10-band graphic EQ pro-
vides good general sonic shap-
ing. Each slider controls a one
octave bandwidth.
For more detailed and specific
control, try using a 31-band
graphic equalizer.

31-Band Graphic Equalizer

1/3 Octave Per Slider

tain point, then turns all frequencies above or sweepable shelving EQ, you can carve away at
below that point down or up at a rate specified the highs and lows of each track to totally elimi-
in dB per octave. Most high- and lowpass filters nate unnecessary frequency conflicts. Be sure,
roll off the highs or lows at a rate between 6 though, that you're not robbing your music of
and 12dB per octave. life-giving upper harmonics.
Shelving equalizers are useful when try- Remember, even with the multitude of
ing to get rid of unnecessary frequencies on the equalizers available, don't use EQ first to shape
individual tracks. For example, on a bass guitar your sounds. First, get as close to the sound you
or kick drum track, the frequencies above 8k or want using mic choice and mic technique, then
so are typically useless. Applying the lowpass use EQ if it's necessary.
filter here could help get rid of any tape noise
or leakage in the high frequencies on these
tracks. The Monitor Section
Use of these filters might be barely no-
ticeable. That's good because it indicates that Some mixers have what is called the monitor
we're keeping the part of the signal we want section, which lets you listen to either the main
and filtering out the frequencies that we don't outputs of the mixer or the tape tracks as they're
need. Some mixers include sweepable shelving coming back to the mixer from the multitrack.
EQ (adjustable high- and lowpass filters). W ith The switch that selects where each control hears
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 54

from usually has two positions, bus and tape, or appropriate button on the board. This feature is
sometimes, input and tape. usually located to the right of the channel fad-
This monitor section is used only for moni- ers.
toring volumes and is totally separate from the If your mixdown recorder is normally con-
recording level controls to the multitrack. There- nected to your mixer at a tape in point, if you
fore, you can set exact levels to tape with the have a CD player in your setup and if you have
input faders, then turn their listening volume up one or more aux buses available, the monitor
or down in the monitor section. selector is a particularly valuable tool.
The monitor selector on most mixers lets
Control Room Monitor Selector you listen to different buses without affecting
The monitor selector is a very useful control cen- what's going on in the other buses, including
ter. It lets you listen to different buses or tape the signal path to tape. While recording a band's
recorders in your setup simply by pressing the basic tracks, you can eavesdrop on the head-

Illustration 1-39
Monitor Selector
The monitor selector lets you listen to the different buses or tape recorders in your
setup simply by pressing the appropriate button on the board. This feature is usually
located to the right of the channel faders. Your mixer might have some or all of these
options available.
Mix will let you hear the main mix from the main faders. This can also be labeled MON,
Program, Stereo out, MAIN, or 2 Mix. Your mixer might even have a different variation
or abbreviation of these.
Tape 1 lets you hear whatever tape recorder has its outputs connected to the tape 1
input of the mixer.
Tape 2 lets you hear whatever tape recorder has its outputs connected to the tape 2
input of the mixer.
Aux 1 lets you hear whatever mix is going out of the Aux 1 output.
Aux 2 lets you hear whatever mix is going out of the Aux 2 output.
Spare lets you listen to another tape machine, CD or DAT that has its outputs patched
into your mixer's spare input. The spare option is not on all monitor selec-tors.
Phono In lets you listen to a record player that's patched into the Phono Input of the
mixer. Phono In has a separate and unique preamp and EQ curve developed for the
record player itself. It does not work well to patch another player, like a CD, DAT or
cassette into a Phono In.
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 55

phone bus, just to get an idea of what the mix into one mono mix (meaning that exactly the
sounds like, or you can listen to an effects bus same thing comes from both the left and right
to verify which instruments are being sent to a speakers).
reverb or delay. See Illustration 1-39 for more This is very useful, especially if you sus-
of the specific options you might encounter in pect that your song will be played on a mono
the monitor selector section. system at any time. Mono is standard for AM
radio, television and live sound reinforcement.
Stereo to Mono If you'll be playing your band's demo tape as
The Stereo/Mono switch does just what it says. break music at a performance, be absolutely sure
It lets you listen to your song in whatever ste- that the demo sounds great even in mono. Au-
reo image you've created with the pan controls, dio Example 1-52 demonstrates a simple stereo
or it can take your stereo mix and combine it all mix.

Illustration 1-40
Specific Considerations of Stereo to Mono
If your mix doesn't sound good in mono, it's often the result of a chorus, flanger or
delay that might be part of the mix. These are common effects on background
vocals, guitars and keyboards. Sound modules with stereo outputs frequently use
chorusing.
Adjust some of the delay length parameters of the effect until the track sounds good
in mono. This will solve the problem, and your track will still sound good in stereo.
Sometimes having instruments panned hard right and or hard left can sound wide
and impressive in stereo, but in mono these instruments become hidden or lost. Try
panning instruments a little closer to center to achieve better translation from stereo
to mono.
Also, phase problems can accentuate a difficulty in going from stereo to mono. Try
reversing the phase of suspicious tracks to help smooth things out in mono.
Suspicious tracks include:
• Any instrument that was miked with more than one microphone (like a drum
set)
• Any instrument with a chorus or phase shifter
• Any stereo output from a keyboard or sound module
• Any track that has been doubled live (such as background vocals)
• Any track that has been doubled electronically, especially with short delay times
• Any track recorded using microphones and cables that might have been wired
incorrectly
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 56

with musicians through the headphones is es-

Audio Example 1-52 Simple Stereo Mix CD-1:
sential to efficient recording. A small microphone
Track 19
is often mounted on the mixer for this purpose.
Some mixers have a separate mic input for a
Audio Example 1-53 uses the same mix, handheld or stand-mounted talkback mic.
this time in mono. Talkback can also be sent onto tape to add
a verbal reference, like the song title, date or
artist. This verbal reference is called a slate. If a
Audio Example 1-53 Stereo Mix in Mono CD- button has the word slate on it there's typically
1: Track 19 a low frequency (around 40Hz) that's sent to
tape with your voice. In fast rewind or fast for-
Notice the change in sound between Au- ward, this low frequency tone is heard as a beep,
dio Examples 1-52 and 1-53. With some changes because the playback head picks up the mag-
in panning and delay times, this mix can work netization as the tape speeds past the slate
well in stereo and mono. We'll cover this transi- points. The slate beep is used to locate different
tion from stereo to mono in detail later. See Il- songs on a reel.
lustration 1 -40 for some specific considerations
of stereo-to-mono comparisons. Test Tones
Your mixer might have a section marked tones,
Stereo Master test tones, osc or oscillator. This section contains
The stereo master control is the final level ad- a frequency generator that produces different
justment out of the mixer going to the mixdown specific frequencies in their purest form—a sine
recorder or power amp. The level adjustment to wave (Illustration 1-12). These frequencies are
the mixdown recorder is very important. A good used to adjust input and output levels of your
mix for a commercial-sounding song, in most mixer, recorders and outboard equipment.
styles, should be fairly constant in its level. The Consider the stereo master output from
ideal setting for the overall mix is at about OVU, your mixer to the mixdown recorder. Raise the
with an occasional +1 or +2 reading at the level of the reference tone (between 500 and
peaks. 1000Hz) until the VU meter reads OVU on the
Mixes work best if there aren't long sec- stereo output of the mixer. Do this with the ste-
tions with very low levels (around -7 to -10). reo master output faders set at the point where
These sections tend to get buried or covered up when your mix level is correct. Adjust the tones level
they're heard in a noisy environment, like a car. With to the meters with the tones output control.
levels that low, tape noise becomes more and more Fine-tune the left/right output balance. If
apparent. That's bad! one side reads slightly higher than the other,
from the same 1 kHz tone send, balance the two
Talkback/Communications sides. Most mixers have separate level controls
The talkback button lets you talk to someone for left and right stereo outs. Proper adjustment
listening to the headphone bus. Communication of the left/right balance ensures the best accu-
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 57

racy in panning and stereo imaging. We'll cover Reference Tones

this procedure in depth during our study of mix- One thousand Hz is the most common reference
down. tone. A reference tone is an accurate represen-
tation of the average recording level. Therefore,
if your mix level is correct and peaks at OVU or
+ 1 or so, then this 1k tone at OVU is an accu-

Illustration 1-41
Patch Bays

If all a va ilab le in s and outs of you r equipmen t are patched in to the b ack of a patch
bay, and if the correspond ing poin ts in the front o f the patch bay are clearly labeled,
your session s will be more efficient. You'll free yourself from searching behind equ ip -
ment in all sorts o f contorted po sition s, ju st to connect two p ieces of g ear together.
All p atching can b e don e with short, ea sy-to-patch cab les on the front o f the patch
bay. Patch bays are made using most standard types of jacks:

• RCA patch bays are the least expensive and work very well in a home record ing
situ atio n. However, these do not allow for balanced in s and outs.
• TT (tiny telephone) patch bays use a small tip -ring-sleeve connector. These take
the least amount of space and work very well in a profession al studio where ins
and outs must be b alanc ed and massive amoun ts o f patch po in ts d emand
effic ient use of space.
• 1/4" phone patch bays are very solid and are the
mo st dep end able for u lt imate plug -to-jack contac t.
Though they occup y a lo t of space, they offer all th e
advantages o f TT patch bays and provid e better
signal transfer.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 58

rate gauge for setting levels for duplication of outputs of your power amplifiers.
this particular song. The concept of easy and efficient patch-
Patch the output of the mixer to the mix- ing becomes obvious when it's explained, and
down recorder and adjust the input level of the once you've made the move to include a patch
mixdown recorder to read OVU while the mixer bay in your setup, you'll never go back, because
is showing OVU from the 1 kHz tone. We can now you'll be able to accomplish more, faster and
be sure that the level on the board matches the more efficiently.
level on the mixdown machine.
Once these levels match, go ahead and
record some of the OVU so that when you make Session Procedures
copies you can use this as a reference tone to
set the input levels of the duplicating machine. Use this procedure as a starting point for your
Tones are used for electronic calibration and sessions. Start each session with your studio
level setting, whereas pink and white noise are clean and all equipment adjusted to a predeter-
used for acoustical adjustments. mined typical level. Starting clean prevents prob-
lems resulting from unknown buttons being
pushed in unknown places on the mixer.
Patch Bays Basic Procedure
One tool that's essential to any setup is a patch • Move all channel faders to 0.
bay—nothing more than a panel with jacks in • Set input gain (preamp) and attenuator to
the front and jacks on the back (Illustration 1- lowest level.
41). Jack #1 on the front is connected to Jack #1 • If you have only a mic/line switch, set it to
on the back, #2 on the front to #2 on the back line.
and so on. • Pan all channels to center.
If all available ins and outs for all of your • Set all EQ to flat (no boost or cut). If there is
equipment are patched into the back of a patch an EQ in/out switch, set it to out.
bay and the corresponding points in the front • Turn any auxiliary sends, effects sends or re
of the patch bay are clearly labeled, you'll never verb sends all the way down or off.
need to search laboriously behind equipment • Set VU meters to allow monitoring of the fi
again just to connect two pieces of gear to- nal stereo output to the mixdown machine.
gether. All patching can be done with short, easy- If available, set other VU meters to monitor
to-patch cables on the front of the patch bay levels of aux buses to effects.
(Illustration 1-42). • Make sure there are no track assignments se
Patch bays are used for line level patches lected.
like channel ins and outs, tape recorder line ins • Be sure there are no solo buttons selected.
and outs, sound module outputs and any signal • Be sure there are no mutes selected.
processor ins and outs. Don't use the patch • If your mixer has a tone generator or fre
bay for powered outputs, like the speaker quency oscillator, turn it on, select a frequency
 Chapter One • The Mixer • page 59
Patch bays are used for line level patches like channel ins and outs, tape recorder line
ins and outs, sound module outputs and any signal processor ins and outs. Don't use
the patch bay for powered outputs, like the speaker outputs from your power
amplifiers. Patch bays are for line level signals. Only in very special cases will patch

Illustration 1-42
Patch Bay With Easy Patches

bays carry mic level signals, but they almost never contain powered signals.
If all the line ins to each channel on your mixer are connected to the back of a patch
bay and all the outputs of all of your synthesizers and sound modules are connected
to the back of the same patch bay, the task of patching any keyboard into any chan-
nel becomes very simple, fast and efficient.
If all channel inserts, sends and returns are patched to a patch bay, it becomes simple
and fast to patch an EQ, compressor, gate or any other piece of signal processing into
any channel.
When I mentioned channel inserts, I used the term normalled to indicate that the
insert jacks (send and return) were normally connected until you plugged into them.
Plugging in breaks the circuit, or the normal. In order to hear your signal, you must re-
complete the circuit by sending to and returning from a processor. In order, to use a
patch bay with your mixer's channel inserts, use a patch bay in which one row of jacks
is normalled to another row, so that the circuit is completed within the patch bay until
you patch in a signal processor (Illustration 1-21A and 1-21B).
Not all budgets can justify buying enough patch bays to get all equipment inputs and
outputs to the patch bay. Start small if you must and build from there. Patch bays are
commonly available in 32-point and 64-point configurations for home use. A 32-point
bay has 32 jacks in front and 32 corresponding jacks in back. Most are rack mount-
able, which makes for clean and simple installation in an effects rack.
Commercially made, high-quality patch cables are a bit expensive, but in the long run
they're well worth the cost. They're much more durable and dependable than inex-
pensive or homemade cables.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 60

between 500Hz and 1000Hz, and raise the shaping sounds with EQ, so that the different
level on the mixdown master VUs on the mixer parts work well together. You've probably
until they read OVU. learned some new terminology. Begin to use
• Patch the mixdown master output from your these words in your vocabulary.
mixer to the line inputs of your mixdown re Being well versed in the recording world
corder. is the only way you'll be able to communicate
• Set mixdown machine to record ready and, if with other enlightened musicians and engineers,
available, select monitoring of the input or and that constant communication can inspire
source. your individual growth and possibly open doors
• Now adjust record levels to read OVU from into the business world of music and recording.
the tone being generated at the mixer. This The mixer can be your most flexible means
should ensure that the levels on the mixer of achieving the musical sounds that you want.
will match the levels on your mixdown re Go to your own setup and find what kind of
corder. It's convenient and standard proce controls you have. Review this material thor-
dure in the recording industry to actually oughly and apply each point, deliberately, to your
record this tone onto your mixed master tape own setup.
at the beginning of the reel. This is called a A thorough understanding of the informa-
reference tone. tion in this chapter is necessary as a foundation
If your master will be duplicated by a pro- for upcoming chapters. We'll build on this foun-
fessional duplication facility, these tones let them dation in a methodical, easy-to-follow way. Each
adjust the level of their equipment to match chapter is structured, using combined media, to
yours. Following this procedure should result in closely resemble a private lesson.
a better, cleaner and more accurate copy. The If you do the assignments and study the
standard frequencies to record at the beginning CDs, text and illustrations, you'll see a marked
of a master tape are 100Hz, 1kHz and 10kHz. difference in your recording skills and end re-
These frequencies represent lows, mids and sults.
highs. Giving the duplicator these references The first two chapters of The AudioPro
helps them compensate for any inherent prob- Home Recording Course provide a very solid in-
lems in your system or mixing environment. formational base. Combine your musical skill
with these practical recording techniques to
open the door for many new areas of fun and
Conclusion profit in the music industry.

We've covered a lot of material in this chapter.

We have seen and heard how important it is for
you, the operator, to be aware of the proper tech-
niques for adjusting levels at the different stop-
off points along the signal path.
You should be starting to think in terms of
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 62

we can filter our music like we can filter light,

Intro to Signal Processors we can start with one color and end up with
another. In the music and recording industry, mu-

S
in ce there are so many types and sical textures are often referred to as colors.
manufacturers of sig n a l processing Describing music and sounds verbally is a
equipment, it would be overwhelming at necessary skill. In the middle of a session, you
this point to cover every piece of gear available. will come up with some great ideas, and the
Right now it's most important to know the ba- more experienced you become, the more easily
sics of signal processing. the ideas will flow. Your ideas are worthless if
You need to recognize the sounds of these you can't verbalize them to the other musicians
basic tools, and you need to know how to ad- you're with. See Illustration 2-1 for some termi-
just their settings to fit each unique musical situ- nology that is unique to describing musical
ation. It's surprisingly simple to learn the con- sounds, feelings and idiosyncrasies. You don't
trols on most processors. Once you know how need to use the most current jargon for a ses-
to use these controls, you possess knowledge sion to go well, but you must be sincere, profi-
that lets you operate similar units with minimal cient and easy to get along with. Music is fun-
stress and maximum efficiency. damentally a form of emotional expression and
communication. Be involved enough in your
Slang/Terminology pursuits to walk the walk and talk the talk in a
As we continue to build knowledge and skill, way that is sincere and easily understood. No-
tice that we consistently describe what we hear
we'll see that each processor has many differ-
with terms normally used for things that we see,
ent and creative uses. For now we'll cover the
feel or taste. Describing the emotional impact
basic units and their basic uses.
of music involves describing far more than just
According to my Funk & Wagnall's Stan-
what we hear. Good music communicates to all
dard Dictionary, process, when used as a verb,
feelings and senses.
means to treat or prepare by a special method.
A signal processor is doing just that to our mu-
sic: treating and preparing it in order to form an
appealing and intelligible blend of textures. Signal Processor Basics
My thesaurus shows that synonyms for
A signal processor changes your musical signal
process are filter and sift. These, too, give an
for two basic reasons: to enhance an existing
accurate image of what signal processors do. If
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 63

Illustration 2-1
Slang
There is some slang terminology that you should become familiar with when speaking
about some of the colors and textures. This is really the language of musicians and
producers. No matter how schooled you become and how familiar you are with the
specific settings on a compressor, for example, you must be able to verbally
communicate what you do.
As an example, you might recognize a signal that's been compressed with a 20:1
ratio, resulting in up to 20dB of gain reduction with an extremely fast attack time of
about 100 microseconds and a release time of 1.5 seconds or so, but until you can
translate that to the word squashed, you are out of the musical communication loop.
big - Containing a broad range of frequencies with ample clarity and sparkle in the
highs and plenty of punch and thump in the lows. Usually contains large-sounding
reverbs or large amounts of interesting reverb effects. Very impressive. Synonyms:
huge, gigantic, large, monstrous, very big.
cold - Cooler than cool. See cool.
cool - The definition of cool changes with musical style. Very impressive, in a stylisti-
cally sophisticated way.
dry - Without reverb or effect.
edge - Upper frequencies of a sound that have a penetrating and potentially abrasive
effect (typically 3-8kHz). Used in moderation, these are the frequencies that add
clarity and understandability.
honk - See squawk.
lush - Very smooth, pleasing texture. Often used in reference to strings that use wide
voicings and interesting (although not extremely dissonant) harmonies. Typically
includes a fair amount of reverb or concert hall.
moo - Smooth, rich and creamy lows.
open - Uncompressed, natural and clean with a wide dynamic range—a sound that
can be heard through, or seen through to use a visual analogy. In a musical arrange-
ment, a situation where there is a lot of space (places in the arrangement where
silence is a key factor). Each part is important and audible, and the acoustical sound
of the hall can be appreciated.

continued...
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 64

Illustration 2-1
...continued

raunchy - Often slightly distorted (especially in reference to a guitar). A sound that

doesn't include the very high frequencies or the very low frequencies. Earthy and
bluesy. When referring to musical style, indicates a loose and simple but soul wrench-
ing performance.
shimmer - Like sparkle in frequency content. Often includes a high frequency rever-
beration or some other type of lengthened decay.
sizzle - See sparkle. Can also include the airy-sounding highs.

sparkle - The upper frequencies of a sound. Includes the high bell-like sounds and
upper cymbal frequencies from approximately 8-20kHz. These are very high frequen-
cies that add clarity and excitement.
squawk - Midrange accentuation (approximately 1 kHz). Sounds a lot like a very
small, cheap transistor radio.

squashed - Heavily compressed. Put into a very narrow dynamic range.

sweet - Similar to lush in that it is smooth and pleasing and includes a fair amount of
reverb. Generally in a slightly higher register (above middle C). Pleasantly consonant.
syrupy - Sweet, consonant sounds with ample reverberation. Often very musically and
stylistically predictable.
thump - Low frequencies. Especially, the lows that can be felt as well as heard (about
80-150Hz).
transparent - Nonintrusive. A sound that has a broad range of frequencies but
doesn't cover all the other sound around it. A sound that silence can be heard
through.

verb - Reverberation.
wash - Lots of reverb that runs from one note to the next. This is common on string
pads, where the reverb becomes an interesting part of the pad texture. A producer
will often ask the engineer to bathe the strings in reverb, so the engineer gives the
producer a wash of reverb.
wet - Reverb. Doesn't include the direct, original sound. To say something is very wet
indicates that it's heard with a lot of reverb and not too much of the original,
nonreverberated sound. Sometimes used in reference to other effects as well.
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 65

sound and to compensate for an inherent prob-

Audio Example 2-5 Echo
lem with a sound.
CD-1 .Track 22
This section of The AudioPro Home Record-
ing Course covers the three main categories of
signal processors:
Audio Example 2-6 Doubling CD-
• Dynamic range processors
1: Track 23
• Equalizers
• Effects processors (which include delays, re
verberation and multi-effects processors)
Audio Example 2-7 Chorus CD-
Listen to Audio Examples 2-1 to 2-9. They
1: Track 24
are broken into four categories: reverberation
effects, delay effects, dynamic processing and
equalization. These examples demonstrate the
Audio Example 2-8 Flanging CD-
processors used most in professional studios. The
1: Track 25
same music is run through all of the processors
to help you evaluate the subtleties of each
sound.
Audio Example 2-9 Phase Shifting
Audio Examples 2-1 to 2-3 demonstrate
CD-1: Track 26
some reverberation effects.

The dynamic range processors are a little

Audio Example 2-1 Hall Reverb more subtle in the effect they have on a musical
CD-1: Track 20 sound, and in most situations, the listener
shouldn't be aware that anything out of the or-
dinary is going on.
Audio Example 2-2 Plate Reverb The vocal track on Audio Examples 2-10
CD-1: Track 20 and 2-11 was simultaneously recorded onto two
different tracks—one with a compressor and one
without. Notice the difference between the soft
Audio Example 2-3 Gated Reverb and the loud parts of each track.
CD-1: Track 20

Audio Example 2-10 Vocal Without Compression

Audio Examples 2-4 to 2-9 demonstrate
CD-1: Track 27
delay effects.

Audio Example 2-4 Slapback Audio Example 2-11 Vocal With Compression
CD-1: Track 21 CD-1: Track 27
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 66

We've covered several aspects of equal-

Illustration 2-2 ization. Be sure that you're familiar with the
Assignment: Perception Chart sound of the different frequency ranges (highs,
Review Audio Examples 2-1 to 2-12 mids, lows, brilliance, presence, upper mids,
(the dynamic range processors, lower mids, bass and sub-bass).
effects and EQ). Below, write down Remember that parametric equalizers have
your perception of their sounds. Use a bandwidth control and are able to sweep a
words like warm, airy, soft, harsh, range of frequencies. Audio Example 2-12 dem-
red, blue, full, rich or wild. onstrates the sound of sweeping frequencies us-
Really think about this, and use as ing a parametric equalizer.
many descriptive terms and phrases
as you can come up with.
Audio Example 2-12 Parametric EQ
The purpose of this assignment is to
CD-1: Track 28
increase your understanding of these
sounds while improving your ability
to verbally communicate about If you aren't already totally familiar with
them. what each of the effects sound like, review the
Audio Examples until you have each sound
hall reverb: memorized. As we move into using effects and
specific techniques, it becomes more and more
plate reverb:
important to train our ears and our minds to
gated reverb: recognize the sounds and the emotion surround-
ing each.
slapback: Complete the assignment in Illustration
2-2. Fill in the chart with your own description
echo (regenerated slapback):
of the characteristics for each of the types of
double: effects listed.
Recall (from Chapter 1) that processors are
chorus: typically connected to your system in one of only
a few ways:
flange: • Channel inserts
• Aux sends
phase shifter:
• Direct patch from instrument
lows: The channel insert on the mixer is an indi-
vidual patch point on a channel. A piece of gear
mids: connected here becomes part of the signal from
that point on. This patch point works very well
highs: for dynamic processors (Illustration 2-3).
Another common tool for sending to ef-
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 67

Illustration 2-3
Using the Insert
The compressed signal inserts back into the signal path. Past the insert we only have the
signal in its processed (compressed) form.
If your mixer provides optional insert points in the signal path (like preamp out, pre
fader, post fader, etc.), choose the insert point closest to the source. The best insert
point when compressing a miked signal is directly out of the preamp.

fects processors is the auxiliary bus. Plug the ment directly into the processor itself, then patch
output of the aux bus into the input of the ef- the complete sound into the mixer or tape re-
fects processor, then patch the output of the ef- corder.
fects processor into an available channel or ef- Once you can recognize these processors
fects return. Always try to keep the effects re- when you hear them, and you're feeling com-
turn separate from the original dry track so that fortable with the options for patching them in,
you can select the appropriate effect and bal- you can move on. Let's get into some of the nuts
ance for the final mix. and bolts of how they work.
Using an aux bus for an effects send and
returning the affected sound to a channel is the
most flexible system for reverb and delay effects. Dynamic Processors
In this way you can send multiple instruments,
in varying levels, to one effects processor (Illus- The dynamic processors (compressors, limiters,
tration 2-4). gates and expanders) all work in a very similar
It's also common to simply plug an instru- way and have very similar, if not identical, con-
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 68

Illustration 2-4
Patching the Aux Bus
There'll be many situations in recording where some unforeseen factor will dictate
the use of almost any equipment in a nonstandard or possibly even substandard way.
It is my goal to show you the proper ways to use these processors. Experiment with
each of these methods, and expand on each of them. When you set out to shape a
sound, envision it first in your mind, then try to achieve the sound. This is the best
approach. Sometimes, we all get stuck and uninspired, and a little knob twiddling
can trigger a stroke of genius, but this should become the exception instead of the
rule. Strive to hear the sound first and then produce it!

About the VCA

When the VCA is turned all the way up, your signal will be at whatever level it
would've been if the VCA were not in the circuit. When a circuit puts out exactly the
same level of signal that it receives at the input, it's called unity gain. Ideally, the VCA
will be at unity gain when it turns itself all the way up. A common phrase that refers
to unity gain is same in-same out. To understand the operation of compressors,
limiters, gates and expanders, you must realize that these units change the distance
in level between loud and soft by turning the loud down in relation to the soft or by
turning the soft down in relation to the loud.
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 69

trols from unit to unit. The task for any dynamic see just how the VCA is able to help.
processor is to change the distance, in volume, Dynamic range processors are typically
from the softest sound to the loudest sound or patched into the signal path of the microphone,
to alter the dynamic range. instrument or tape track. This is accomplished
at the channel insert (on the mixer or the patch
The VCA bay) or from the mic or instrument. See Illustra-
The central operator in each of the dynamic pro- tions 2-5A to 2 -5C for different patching
cessors is the VCA. VCA stands for voltage con- schemes.
trolled amplifier. Its name is almost its defini-
tion. Inside each processor is an amplifying cir- Compressor/Limiter
cuit that turns up and down as it senses more The compressor is an automatic volume control
or less voltage—it's a voltage controlled ampli- that turns loud parts of the musical signal down.
fier. The changing levels in your musical signal When the VCA senses the signal exceeding a
determine the amount of voltage. certain level, it acts on that signal and turns it
In the dynamic range processors I'll cover down.
in this chapter, the VCA only turns your signal Imagine yourself listening to the mix and
down and then back up to its original level. As every time the vocal track starts to get too loud
we go through each dynamic processor, you'll and read too hot on the meter, you turn the fader

Illustration 2-5A
Patching the Dynamic Processor
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 70

Illustration 2-5B
Patching the Dynamics Processor Through a Patch Bay

down and then back up again for the rest of the Again, the VCA in a compressor only turns
track. That is exactly what a compressor does. down in response to a signal and then turns back
This is an essential tool for recording in- up again; it doesn't turn up beyond the original
struments that have very loud louds and very level.
soft softs. A compressor is almost always used Why do we need a compressor? We need
on vocals and bass and is often used on instru- a compressor to protect against overly loud
ments with wide dynamic ranges. sounds that can overdrive electronic circuitry or
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 71

and very focused engineer might catch many of

Illustration 2-5C these variations in level, but a compressor is
Patching Directly Into the often more reliable and less intrusive. A com-
Compressor pressor can also even out volume differences
created by an artist changing their distance from
the mic.
Since we've put a lid on the loud passages
and can therefore print the entire track with a
stronger signal to tape, we are able to move the
overall signal away from the tape noise. This
gives us a better signal-to-noise ratio.
Does the compressor detract from
the life and depth of the original sound?
When used correctly, compression doesn't de-
tract from the life of the original sound. In fact,
it can be the one tool that helps that life and
Mixer depth to be heard and understood in a mix.
If the instrument level is adjustable, Think about a vocal track. Singers perform
plug the instrument (guitar, synth, bass, many nuances and licks that define their indi-
sound module, etc.) into the vidual style. Within the same second, they may
compressor at the line input. Experi- jump from a subtle, emotional phrase to a
mentation with the individual
screaming loud, needle-pegging, engineer-
parameters and matching levels and
torturing high note. Even the best of us aren't
impedances will usually produce
fast enough to catch all of these changes by sim-
satisfactory results.
ply riding the input fader. In this situation, a com-
pressor is needed to protect against levels that
will distort on tape.
oversaturate magnetic tape. In Chapter 1, we
This automatic level control gives us a very
heard the result of overdriving mixer circuitry
important by-product. As the loudest parts of
(distortion). When tape is oversaturated, it re-
the track are turned down, we are able to bring
ceives more signal than it can handle, and the
the overall level of the track up. In effect, this
magnetic particles aren't arranged in a way that
brings the softer sounds up in relation to the
can accurately reproduce the signal. This is also
louder sounds (Illustrations 2-6A to 2-6C). The
distortion.
subtle nuance becomes more noticeable in a mix,
A compressor can also help even out the
so the individuality and style of the artist is more
different ranges of an instrument. Instruments
easily recognized, plus the understandability and
like brass, strings, vocals and guitars can have
audibility of the lyrics is greatly increased.
substantially different volumes and impact in dif-
There are four controls common to all com-
ferent pitch ranges. These ranges can disappear,
pressors: threshold, attack time, release time
then suddenly jump out in a mix. A highly
skilled
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 72

Illustration 2-6A
A compressor can turn the loud parts down automatically as soon as it
The Uncompressed Signal
senses their levels. Once the signal passes the user-set threshold, the
VCA acts on the signal according to the ratio setting.

Time

Illustration 2-6B
The Compressed Signal
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 73

Illustration 2-6C
Readjusting the Compressed Signal to Read OVU

The gray line represents the level of the compressed signal from Illustration 2-6B. Once the
compressor has turned the loudest part of the track down, the entire track can be turned up so the
overall level still reaches OVU. The black line represents the new level. Notice that the softest parts of
the track are louder (consequently easier to hear in the mix) as the entire level increases.

and ratio. Two different ways that compressors deal

Once you see how these work, you can op- with the threshold control:
erate any compressor, anywhere, anytime. To 1. Picture yourself in a room with an opening in
make it even better, these controls are easy to the ceiling directly overhead. You represent
understand and they do just what they say they the signal, with your head being the loudest
do. sounds. The opening represents the thresh
old of the compressor. Imagine that the floor
Threshold moves up and you begin to go through the
The threshold is the point where the compres- opening. That's the way that some compres
sor begins to recognize the signal. Once the com- sors move the signal into the threshold: They
pressor recognizes the signal, it begins to act in turn it up until it goes through the threshold.
a way that is determined by adjustment of the 2. Picture yourself in the same room with an
attack time, release time and ratio controls. A opening directly overhead, but now the ceil
threshold is an entrance point where the signal ing moves down until you're through the
enters to be compressed. opening. This is the other way the threshold
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 74

control can work: The signal level stays the the signal down once it's passed the threshold.
same but the threshold moves down into the If the attack time is too fast, the compressor will
peaks. turn down the transients. This can cause an in-
Once the signal is through the threshold, strument to lose life and clarity (refer to Chap-
the compressor turns down just the part of the ter 1 for a description of transients). On a vocal,
signal that's gone through. It will leave the rest for instance, if the attack time is too fast, all of
of the signal unaffected (Illustration 2-7). The the "t" and "s" sounds will start to disappear.
portion that's above the threshold will be turned
down according to how you have set the remain-
ing controls (attack time, release time and ra- Audio Example 2-13 S's and T's
tio). CD-1: Track 29

Attack Time On the other hand, if the attack time is

The attack time is just that. It controls the too slow and the vocal is very compressed, the
amount of time it takes the compressor to turn t's and s's will fly through uncompressed and

Illustration 2-7
The Moving Threshold
The threshold control moves the threshold up or down in relation to
the energy of the signal. Anything above the threshold is acted on by
the VCA. Anything below the threshold is left unaffected.
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 75

Illustration 2-8

The threshold in the top graph is set so that the peak sound energy level exceeds the
threshold by 12dB. The VCA turns the signal (above the threshold) down according
to the ratio. With the ratio set at 3:1, the VCA only allows 1dB of increase for every
3dB that exceed the threshold. The original signal exceeded the threshold by 12dB
(with no compression), but the compressor only allows a 4dB peak when the ratio is
set at 3:1 (bottom graph).
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 76

sound exaggerated. Ratio

Once the compressor starts acting on the sig-
nal, there's one more control that determines
Audio Example 2-14 S's and T's
how extreme that action will be. This is called
CD-1: Track 29 the ratio.
The ratio is simply a comparison between
As we progress through this series, we'll what goes through the threshold and the out-
see several examples of how to specifically ad- put of the compressor. If you adjust the thresh-
just all of these controls for individual situations. old so that the loudest note of the song exceeds
The attack times on different compressors the threshold by 3dB (and the ratio is 3:1), the
will vary. One characteristic of the more expen- 3dB peak in will come out of the compressor as
sive compressors is that they have faster attack a 1 dB peak. Using that same 3:1 ratio, if you
times. The attack times on compressors range had a 12dB peak, the unit would put out a 4dB
from as fast as 100 microseconds down to about peak—still a ratio of 3:1 (Illustration 2-8).
20 milliseconds. A microsecond is a millionth of
a second, and a millisecond is a thousandth of Summary
a second. Also, some compressors have the at- The threshold is what we adjust to determine
tack time fixed for a specific purpose, like vo- how much of the signal the VCA acts on. It might
cals. only compress the very loudest parts of the sig-
nal, or it might be compressing almost all the
Release Time time.
Release time is the time that it takes for the Attack and release control the amount of
compressor to let go, or turn the signal back up, time it takes the unit to react to (or turn down)
once it is out of the threshold. The release time the signal once it senses it at the threshold, as
might be as fast as 5/100 of a second or as slow well as the amount of time it takes the unit to
as two or three seconds. Longer release times, release (or turn up) the signal once it stops see-
of a second or so, typically work the best and ing it at the threshold.
produce the most natural and smooth sound. Ratio controls the severity of gain reduc-
If the release time is too fast, the VCA turns tion once the signal is past the threshold.
down and up so fast that it actually follows the
crest and trough of each low frequency wave- Gain Reduction
form. This produces an undesirable type of dis- Compressors either have a series of LEDs or a
tortion. The VCA level changes might produce VU meter to indicate how much gain reduction
their own warble sound or even a pitch. is happening at any given time. Gain reduction
For vocals and bass, the release time will refers to the amount that the VCA has turned
typically be set between a half a second and 2 the signal down once it crosses the threshold.
seconds, depending on the tempo and style of Typically, the LEDs light up from right to left,
music. indicating how far the unit has turned your mu-
sical signal down. Each LED represents two or
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 77

Illustration 2-9
Reading the Amount of

Gain Reduction on LEDs

more dB of gain reduction (Illustration 2-9). example of where a limiter is needed. The dif-
If your compressor has a VU meter, a read- ference in level from the normal playing to the
ing of OVU indicates no gain reduction. In fact, snaps can be dramatic, but the level of the re-
OVU is the normal (rest) position on a meter used corded bass track should stay fairly constant to
to indicate no gain reduction. As the compres- provide a solid foundation for the rest of the
sor turns down, the needle moves backwards arrangement. If left unchecked, these louder
from 0 to indicate the amount of gain reduc- notes could cause oversaturation and distortion
tion. A -5 reading on the VU indicates 5dB of on tape.
gain reduction (Illustration 2-10). Limiters mean business. At 100:1, your
What's the difference between a compres- signal could exceed the threshold by 100dB, and
sor and a limiter? Most compressors are labeled the limiter would only let a 1 dB peak out of the
compressor/limiter. The only difference between output. That's extreme (Illustration 2-11)!
a compressor and a limiter is where you set the
ratio control. The range of adjustment on the Proper Use of the Compressor/
ratio control can go from 1:1 up to 60:1,100:1, Limiter
or, on some units, even °°:1. A compressor uses There should be several times during the track
any ratio between 1:1 and 10:1. A limiter uses where there is no gain reduction. If there is al-
any ratio from 10:1 to °°:1. It's that simple. A ways gain reduction, the VCA is always work-
limiter is a very extreme compressor. ing, and you begin to lose the clarity and integ-
Limiters are used to record a sound source rity of the original signal. An experienced engi-
that might suddenly blast out but is usually fairly neer tries to eliminate unnecessary amplifying
constant in level. A bass guitar that plays nor- circuits in the signal path. That's our approach
mally on the verse but plays an occasional here. You only want the VCA to act when it's
thump, slap or snap on the chorus is a good needed, not all of the time.
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 78

Illustration 2-10
Compressors With VU Meters
Some compressor/limiters use a VU meter instead of LEDs to indicate gain reduction.
Normal position for the needle is OVU. OVU indicates no gain reduction. As the VCA
turns the signal down, the VU meter reads negative numbers according to the
amount of gain reduction. The meter in this illustration indicates 7dB of gain reduc-
tion.
Remember, VU meters indicate average levels, whereas LEDs indicate peak levels. A
compressor with LEDs indicating gain reduction and a compressor with VU meters
indicating gain reduction might have the exact same attack time, but the LEDs will
give a quicker, more accurate picture of what is really happening. As an operator, you
can adjust quickly to either metering system, as long as you understand their differ-
ences.

Methodical Approach to Setting Up the Compressor/Limiter

• Determine the ratio. Most natural sounding compression typically has a ratio
setting of between 3:1 and 7:1. Limiting uses a ratio greater than 10:1.
• Adjust the attack and release times. A good general approach is to start
with the attack time around 1 ms and the release time of 1/2-1 second. We'll
talk about techniques for specific situations as we progress through this course.
• Adjust the threshold for the amount of gain reduction that you want.
You should typically have 3-6dB of reduction at the strongest part of the track,
and there should be times when there is no gain reduction. This is the text book
approach for the most natural and least audibly conspicuous compression.

If you've achieved 6dB of gain reduction you're able to boost your overall level to
tape by 6dB over what it would have been without the compressor. With the entire
track boosted we can hear the nuances and softer passages more clearly. As an
additional bonus, the complete track (including the soft passages) will be 6dB further
away from the tape noise floor than they were before compression.
Compressors are essential tools for making professional sounding audio recordings. If
you are involved in audio for video and television, compressors are essential because
of the limited dynamic range in these mediums.
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 79

Illustration 2-11
Limiting
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 80

Compressors and limiters are generally Audio Example 2-17 demonstrates com-
used while recording tracks as opposed to dur- pression with 6dB of gain reduction.
ing mixdown, since one of the main benefits in
compressing the signal is that you can get a
Audio Example 2-17 6dB Gain Reduction CD-
more consistently hot signal on tape.
Compressing on mixdown can result in 1: Track 30
more apparent noise on a track. The compres-
sor is putting a lid on the loud passages. That Audio Example 2-18 demonstrates com-
lets the soft passages come up in level relative pression with 9dB of gain reduction.
to the loud passages, so they're heard more
easily. When the VCA turns the tape track back
up during the soft passages, the tape noise is Audio Example 2-18 9dB Gain Reduction CD-
audibly increased, too. We hear this noise turn- 1: Track 30
ing up and down as the signal crosses the
threshold, and the VCA reacts by turning up and Audio Example 2-19 includes tape noise
down. This is one of the adverse effects of com- with the vocal. Listen to the compressor turning
pression. The sound of the noise turning up and up and down (pumping and breathing).
down is called pumping or breathing.
Listen to the different versions of the ex-
act same vocal performance in Audio Examples Audio Example 2-19 Pumping and Breathing
2-15 to 2-19. I've adjusted the level so that the CD-1: Track 30
peak of each version is at +1VU on the meter.
The only difference is the amount of compres-
sion. Pay special attention to the understand- Gate/Expander
ability of each word, the apparent tape noise The gate and expander are in the same family
and the overall feel of each track. as the compressor/limiter. They're also centered
Audio Example 2 -1 5 demonstrates no
around a VCA, and the VCA still turns the signal
compression.
down. When the VCA is all the way up, the sig-
nal is at the same level as if the VCA weren't in
Audio Example 2-15 No Compression the circuit.
__________ CD-1: Track 30 __________ When the compressor/limiter senses the
signal passing the threshold in an upward way,
it turns down the signal that's above the thresh-
Audio Example 2-16 demonstrates com-
old. The amount of gain reduction is determined
pression with 3dB of gain reduction.
by the ratio control. In contrast, when the gate/
expander senses the signal passing the thresh-
Audio Example 2-16 3dB Gain Reduction CD- old in a downward way, the VCA turns the sig-
1: Track 30 nal down even further. In other words, every-
thing that's below the threshold is turned down
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 81

Illustration 2-12
The Expander/Gate
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 82

(Illustration 2-12). it expands the dynamic range of the music. It

What are the controls on a gate/expander? creates a bigger difference between the softer
The controls on the gate/expander are essen- and the louder sound by turning the softer parts
tially the same as the controls on a compressor/ down.
limiter. The threshold is the control that deter- The most common type of expander
mines how much of the signal is acted on by doesn't turn the louder parts up; it just seems
the unit, as indicated in Illustration 2-12. The to in relation to the softer parts. Specifically, an
attack and release times do the same thing here expander that turns the softer sounds down is
that they did on the compressor: They control called a downward expander. There is also an
how quickly the unit acts once the signal has upward expander which turns the louder part
passed the threshold and how fast the unit turns up even louder. Upward expanders aren't very
the signal back up once the signal is no longer common and are somewhat noisy and difficult
below the threshold. to control in a medium such as magnetic tape.
The range control on the expander/gate Unless I specify otherwise, I'll refer to a down-
correlates to the ratio control on the compres- ward expander throughout this course simply as
sor/limiter. In fact, some multifunction dynamic an expander.
processors use the same knob to control both
ratio and range. The ratio on a compressor de- Gates vs. Expanders
termines how far the VCA turns the signal down Gates are especially useful in getting rid of noise,
once it passes the threshold in an upward di- either from an instrument like a noisy electric
rection. The range on a gate/expander deter- guitar or from tape. If the threshold is set just
mines how far down the VCA will turn the sig- above the noise floor, as the signal fades to the
nal once it passes the threshold in a downward noise, the gate will simply continue the fade to
direction. silence. An expander can do exactly the same
When the signal gets below the threshold thing, but it will turn the noise down rather than
and the range setting tells the VCA to turn all off. Gates and expanders can really clean up a
the way off, the unit is called a gate. When the recording by getting rid of noise between the
signal is below the threshold, the gate is closed. musical segments of each track.
The gate closes behind the sound and doesn't Some units have a separate button to se-
open again until the signal is above the thresh- lect the gate or the expander. Both the gate and
old. the expander have the same controls, including
The range can also be adjusted so that the full use of the range control. I've found that ex-
VCA only turns down the signal part of the way panders are usually smoother in their level
once it gets below the threshold. In this case, changes and are typically more musical and
the unit is called an expander. glitch free than gates.
A gate is called a gate because it opens Expanders are useful for restoring dynamic
and closes when it senses the signal come and range to a signal that has been severely com-
go across the threshold. pressed. If the compressor reduced the loud parts
An expander is called an expander because by 9dB, then, in theory, if the signal is expanded
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 83

and the range control is adjusted to turn the For instance, a noisy guitar track is often gated
soft parts down by 9dB, we should have a pretty during recording because the noise is consistent
reasonable facsimile of our original dynamic and it's easy to set the threshold so that the
range. guitar sound comes through fine and the noise
Gates and expanders are usually used on never touches tape.
mixdown, rather than when recording tracks. If So, a gate and an expander are really the
the gate or expander threshold were set incor- same tool. The gate is an extreme version of an
rectly, some softer notes might not get printed expander, with the gate turning the soft parts
to tape because they couldn't open the gate. If off where the expander just turns them down.
this happens, these softer notes are gone for-
ever. Thus, the safest approach is to use gates
and expanders on mixdown. During mixdown,
Audio Example 2-20 Guitar. No Gate
the threshold can be adjusted without destroy-
CD-1: Track 31
ing any of the notes.
In a small setup, we often need to gate as
we're recording (if we're going to gate at all) Audio Example 2-21 Guitar: Gated
because of a lack of tracks and gates. This can CD-1: Track 31
work just fine, but more care must be taken in
setting the processor, and the musical perfor-
mance must be more consistent and predictable.

Illustration 2-13A
Assignment: Dynamic Range Processors
• Practice shaping sounds with all of the dynamic range processors.
• Practice running several different types of sounds through the dynamic proces
sors. Try using vocal, instrumental or recorded sound sources. Also, practice on
complete songs from tapes or CDs.
• When adjusting each unit, go to extremes. Be sure you hear and see the proces
sor working. Change the sound as much as you can. Try all of the controls, then
make them sound as natural as possible.
You'll end up using these processors in a subtle way, more often than not. The goals
in controlling the dynamic range of your tracks are:
• Protect the tape from signals that are too hot. Strong signals can oversaturate
the tape with magnetism. Oversaturation usually results in distortion.
• Produce a track that is always understandable, even in the subtle nuance of
artistic expression.
• Increase (gate/expand) or decrease (compress/limit) the difference in level be
tween the loudest part of a track and the softest part of a track.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 34

Illustration 2-13B
Assignment: External Inputs and Keys
There is probably a switch on the processor to choose whether the VCA sensing circuit
hears from the regular input or from an external input. This switch might be labeled key,
trigger, external input, external, side chain or insert.
• Experiment with the external input. This input can receive any sound source, live
or recorded.
• Set up a pattern on a drum machine, and patch the snare into the external
input. Patch a record, tape or CD in and out of the normal jacks. Set the internal/
external (key) switch to external or key.
• See what kind of different effects you can create. The snare will trigger the VCA
to act. There are a lot of possibilities that can grow out of this e xperiment. Use
your imagination and see what kind of clever uses you can invent, or reinvent,
for this technique. As this course advances, we'll find some interesting applica
tions for this feature.

Many dynamic processors currently available contain all of the features we've just used.
If you're shopping, try to find a single processor that has many different features. This will
save money and space. You should be able to find a unit that has a compressor, limiter,
gate and expander all in one box.

Audio Example 2-22 Hi-hat No Expander CD-

1: Track 32
More About Equalizers
We covered a lot about equalization and its prin-
ciples in Chapter 1. We know that EQ is tone
Audio Example 2-23 Hi-hat: Expander CD-1: control, and when we boost or cut a frequency
Track 32
we're really boosting or cutting a curve that has
width around a center point.
These dynamic range processors are all Listen to Audio Example 2-24. The entire
very useful, and often essential, in creating pro- track is run through a semiparametric EQ. The
fessional sounds. Each unit offers many creative bandwidth is about one octave, and the fre-
and musical possibilities. As we study the indi- quency selector sweeps a boost from 50Hz to
vidual instruments and t h e i r unique sound 500Hz.
schemes, we'll use these processors, time and
again. See Illustration 2-13A for an assignment
on dynamic processors. See Illustration 2-13B
Audio Example 2-24 Sweeping 50 to 500Hz
for an assignment on keys and external triggers.
CD-1: Track 33
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 85

Audio Example 2-25 uses the same setup, extreme cut, and the problem is at least easier
sweeping the frequencies between 100Hz and to live with. Used like this, a parametric EQ is
5kHz. acting like a notch filter. A notch filter has a very
narrow bandwidth and is used to cut problem
frequencies.
Audio Example 2-25 Sweeping 100Hz to 5kHz
CD-1: Track 33

Effects Processors
Notice how different instruments stick out
in the mix as we sweep through the frequency Now we come to the effects processors. All of
spectrum. This shows th e usefulness of the effects (echoes, reverbs and chorus effects)
sweepable EQ for finding specific ranges to high- revolve around one thing: the delay.
light or hide.
Audio Example 2-26 sweeps from 2.5kHz Delay Effects
to 15kHz. Notice the edge, clarity and brilliance A delay does just what its name says: it hears a
of the different instruments. sound and then waits for a while before it re-
produces it. Current delays are simply digital
recorders that digitally record the incoming sig-
Audio Example 2-26 Sweeping 2.5 to 15kHz nal and then play it back with a time delay se-
CD-1: Track 33 lected by the user. This time delay can vary from
unit to unit, but most delays have a range of
In Audio Example 2-27, we switch to a fully delay length from a portion of a millisecond up
parametric EQ, narrow the bandwidth down to to one or more seconds. This is called the delay
about 1/5 of an octave, then sweep. Notice how time or delay length and is variable in millisec-
the sweeping curve takes on the pitch of the onds.
curve's center point. Almost all digital delays are much more
than simple echo units. Within the delay are all
of the controls you need to produce slapback,
Audio Example 2-27 repeating echo, doubling, chorusing, flanging,
Sweeping a Narrow Bandwidth phase shifting, some primitive reverb sounds and
CD-1: Track 33 any hybrid variation you can dream up. See Il-
lustration 2-14 for considerations about patch-
An EQ like this is best used for finding a ing effects processors into your system.
problem frequency, like high frequency squeal,
that you want to cut. One of the best ways to Slapback Delay
find the frequency of the problem area is to set The simplest form of delay is called a slapback.
up a boost and then sweep the spectrum until The slapback delay is a single repeat of the sig-
that problem sounds its loudest. Once you've nal. Its delay time is anything above about 35ms.
located the frequency, change the boost to an Any single repeat with a delay time of less than
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 86
Most effects processors have a meter
on the input for proper level
adjustment, and many effects
processors have a final output level

Illustration 2-14
Connecting Effects Processors

adjustment.
It's best to connect the output of
your mixer's aux bus or effects send
bus to the input of the effects unit.
Next, connect the output of the
effect to the mixer's effects return
or into an available mixer channel.
When using effects it's always
desirable to keep the original track dry and blend the 100% wet return with it for the
best musical impact. It's common in a small setup to run the effects in-line, doing
all of the blending from dry to wet within the effects unit. This can work well, but it's
best to keep the dry and wet controls separate.
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 87

35ms is called a double. musical harm than good.

To achieve a slapback from a delay, sim- The vocal track in Audio Example 2-30
ply adjust the delay time and turn the delayed starts with a simple single slapback, then the
signal up, either on the return channel or on the feedback raises until we hear three or four re-
mix control within the delay. peats.
For a single slapback delay, feedback and
modulation are set to their off positions. Slap-
Audio Example 2-30 Repeating Delays CD-1:
back delays of between 150ms and about 300ms
Track 35
are very effective and common for creating a
big vocal or guitar sound.
Audio Example 2-28 demonstrates a track Why does a simple delay make a track
with a 250ms slapback delay. sound so much bigger and better? Delay gives
the brain the perception of listening in a larger,
more interesting environment. As the delays
Audio Example 2-28 250ms Slapback combine with the original sound, the harmonics
___________CD-1: Track 34___________ of each part combine in interesting ways. Any
pitch discrepancies are averaged out as the de-
Slapback delays between 35 and 75ms are lay combines with the original signal. If a note
very effective for thickening a vocal or instru- was sharp or flat, it's hidden when heard along
mental sound. with the delay of a previous note that was in
Audio Example 2-29 demonstrates a track tune. This helps most vocal sounds tremendously
with a 50ms delay. and adds to the richness and fullness of the mix.
The human brain gets its cue for room size
from the initial reflections, or repeats, that it
Audio Example 2-29 50ms Slapback hears off surrounding surfaces. Longer delay
CD-1: Track 34 times indicate, to the brain, that the room is
larger. The slapback is really perceived as the
Slapback delay can be turned into a re- reflection off the back wall of the room or audi-
peating delay. This smooths out the sound of a torium as the sound bounces back (slaps back)
track even more and is accomplished through to the performer. Many great lead vocal tracks
the use of the regeneration control. This is also have used a simple slapback delay as the pri-
called feedback or repeat. mary or only effect. Frequently, this delay sounds
This control takes the delayed signal and cleaner than reverb and has less of a tendency
feeds it back into the input of the delay unit, so to intrusively accumulate.
we hear the original, the delay and then a delay Slapback delay is typically related in some
of the delayed signal. The higher you turn the way to the beat and tempo of the song. The delay
feedback up, the more times the delay is re- is often in time with the eighth note or sixteenth
peated. Practically speaking, anything past about note, but it's also common to hear a slapback in
three repeats gets too muddy and does more time with the quarter note or some triplet sub-
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 88

Illustration 2-15
Delay Calculations in Milliseconds

Tempo in Quarter N ot e E ig h t h N o t e S i xt e e n t h Q u ar t e r- N o t e E ig h t h - N o t e
Beats per Note Tr ip l et s T ri p le t s
Minute
20.00 3000.00 1500.00 750.00 2000.00 1000.00
25.00 2400.00 1200.00 600.00 1600.00 800.00
30.00 2000.00 1000.00 500.00 1333.33 666.67
35.00 1714.29 857.14 428.57 1142.86 571.43
40.00 1500.00 750.00 375.00 1000.00 500.00
45.00 1333.33 666.67 333.33 888.89 444.44
50.00 1200.00 600.00 300.00 800.00 400.00
55.00 1090.91 545.45 272.73 727.27 363.64
60.00 1000.00 500.00 250.00 666.67 333.33
65.00 923.08 461.54 230.77 615.38 307.69
70.00 857.14 428.57 214.29 571.43 285.71
75.00 800.00 400.00 200.00 533.33 266.67
80.00 750.00 375.00 187.50 500.00 250.00
85.00 705.88 352.94 176.47 470.59 235.29
90.00 666.67 333.33 166.67 444.44 222.22
95.00 631.58 315.79 157.89 421.05 210.53
100.00 600.00 300.00 150.00 400.00 200.00
105.00 571.43 285.71 142.86 380.95 190.48
110.00 545.45 272.73 136.36 363.64 181.82
115.00 521.74 260.87 130.43 347.83 173.91
120.00 500.00 250.00 125.00 333.33 166.67
125.00 480.00 240.00 120.00 320.00 160.00
130.00 461.54 230.77 115.38 307.69 153.85
135.00 444.44 222.22 111.11 296.30 148.15
140.00 428.57 214.29 107.14 285.71 142.86
145.00 413.79 206.90 103.45 275.86 137.93
150.00 400.00 200.00 100.00 266.67 133.33
155.00 387.10 193.55 96.77 258.06 129.03
160.00 375.00 187.50 93.75 250.00 125.00
165.00 363.64 181.82 90.91 242.42 121.21
170.00 352.94 176.47 88.24 235.29 117.65
175.00 342.86 171.43 85.71 228.57 114.29
180.00 333.33 166.67 83.33 222.22 111.11
185.00 324.32 162.16 81.08 216.22 108.11
190.00 315.79 157.89 78.95 210.53 105.26
195.00 307.69 153.85 76.92 205.13 102.56

division. The delay time can add to the rhythmic specific delay times, tempos and note values. It's
feel of the song. A delay that's in time with the easy to find the delay, in milliseconds, for the
eighth note can really smooth out the groove of quarter note in your song, especially when you're
the song, or if the delay time is shortened or working from a sequence and the tempo is al-
lengthened just slightly, the groove may feel ready available on screen. Simply divide 60,000
more aggressive or relaxed. Experiment with by the tempo of your song (in beats per minute).
slight changes in delay time.
Refer to the table in Illustration 2 -15 for
60,000 -:- bpm = delay time per beat in
milliseconds (typically the quarter note).
 Chapter Tmo • Signal Processing • page 89

Doubling words, modulation actually lowers and raises the

A single delay of less than 35ms is called a pitch in exactly the same way that a tape re-
double. This short delay can combine with the corder does if the speed is lowered and raised.
original track to sound like two people (or in- Audio Example 2-32 demonstrates the sound of
struments) on the same part. Often, performers the LFO varying the delay time. This example
will actually record the same part twice to starts subtly, with the variation from the origi-
achieve the doubled sound, but sometimes the nal going down slightly, then back up. Finally,
electronic double is quicker, easier and sounds the LFO varies dramatically downward, then back
more precise. Audio Example 2-31 demonstrates up again.
an 11 ms delay (with no feedback and no modu-
lation) combined with the original vocal. At the
end of the example, the original and the delayed
Audio Example 2-32 The LFO CD-
1: Track 36
double pan apart in the stereo spectrum. This
can be a great sound in stereo, but is a poten-
tial problem when summing to mono. On most usable effects, these changes in
pitch are slight and still within the boundaries
of acceptable intonation, so they aren't making
Audio Example 2-31 11ms Vocal Delay CD- the instrument sound out of tune. In fact, the
1: Track 35 slight pitch change can have the effect of
smoothing out any pitch problems on a track.
When doubling, use prime numbers for As the pitch is raised and lowered, the
delay times. You'll hear better results when your sound waves are shortened and lengthened.
song is played in mono. A prime number can When we talked about waveforms combining,
only be divided by one and itself (e.g., 1,3,5, 7, in Chapter 1, we noticed that when two wave-
11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29 and so on). forms follow the same path, they sum together.
The result is twice the amount of energy. We
Modulation also noticed that when two waveforms are out
The modulation control on a delay is for creat- of phase, they work against and cancel each
ing chorusing, flanging and phase shifting ef- other, either totally or partially.
fects. The key factor here is the LFO (low fre- When the modulation is lengthening and
quency oscillator); its function is to continually shortening the waveform and the resulting
vary the delay time. The LFO is usually capable sound is combined with the original signal, the
of varying the delay from the setting indicated two waveforms continually react together in a
by the delay time to half of that value and back. changing phase relationship. They sum and can-
Sometimes the LFO control is labeled modula- cel at varying frequencies. The interaction be-
tween the original sound and the modulated
tion.
delay can simulate the sound we hear when sev-
As the LFO is slowing down and speeding
eral different instrumentalists or vocalists per-
up the delay, it's speeding up and slowing down
form together. Even though each member of a
the playback of the delayed signal. In other
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 90

choir tries their hardest to stay in tune and to- forms, moving in and out of phase, unlike the
gether rhythmically, they're continually varying larger changes of singers varying in pitch and
pitch and timing. These variations are like the timing. The phase shifter is the most subtle,
interaction of the modulated delay with the origi- sweeping effect, and it often produces a
nal track. The chorus setting on an effects pro- swooshing sound.
cessor is simulating the sound of a real choir by Audio Example 2-34 demonstrates the
combining the original signal with the modu- sound of a phase shifter.
lated signal.
The speed control adjusts how fast the
pitch raises and lowers. These changes might Audio Example 2-34 Phase Shifter
happen very slowly, taking a few seconds to CD-1: Track 37
complete one cycle of raising and lower the
pitch, or they might happen quickly, raising and
lowering the pitch several times per second. Flanger
Audio Example 2-33 demonstrates the ex- A flanger has a sound similar to the phase shifter,
treme settings of speed and depth. It's obvious except it has more variation and color. The pri-
when the speed and depth controls are changed mary delay setting on a flanger is typically about
here. Sounds like these aren't normally used, but 20ms. The LFO varies the delay from near Oms
when we're using a chorus, flanger or phase to 20ms and back, continually. Adjust the speed
shifter, this is exactly what is happening, in mod- to your own taste.
eration. Flangers and phase shifters work very well
on guitars and Rhodes-type keyboard sounds.
See Illustration 2-16 for some musical consider-
Audio Example 2-33 Extreme Speed and Depth
ations when using a phase shifter or flanger.
CD-1: Track 36
Audio Example 2-35 demonstrates the
sound of a flanger.

Phase Shifter
Now that we're seeing what all these controls
Audio Example 2-35 Flanger CD-
do, it's time to use them all together. Obviously,
1: Track 37
the delay time is the key player in determining
the way that the depth and speed react. If the
delay time is very, very short, in the neighbor- Chorus
hood of 1ms or so, the depth control will pro- The factor that differentiates a chorus from the
duce no pitch change. When the original and other delay effects is, again, the delay time. The
affected sounds are combined, we hear a dis- typical delay time for a chorus is about 15 to
tinct sweep that sounds more like an EQ fre- 35ms, with the LFO and speed set for the rich-
quency sweeping the mids and highs. With these est effect for the particular instrument voice or
short delay times, we're really simulating wave- song. With these longer delay times, as the LFO
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 91

varies, we actually hear a slight pitch change.

Illustration 2-16 The longer delays also create more of a differ-
Flanger Speed ence in attack time. This also enhances the cho-
Since you hear a sweep of EQ with rus effect. Since the chorus gets its name from
phase shifters and flangers (as the fact that it's simulating the pitch and time
opposed to the chorus effect), you'll variation that exist within a choir, it might seem
get good results when the speed of obvious that a chorus works great on back-
the LFO matches the tempo of the ground vocals. It does. Chorus is also an exce -
song in some way. For example, a lent effect for guitar and keyboard sounds.
complete LFO cycle could take one
Audio Example 2-36 demonstrates the
complete measure, two beats, or
sound of a chorus.
even two complete measures. I've
also had great results when the LFO
speed didn't relate to the tempo.
Audio Example 2-36 Chorus CD-
Experiment. Let the music guide
1: Track 37
your final choice when you adjust
any sound altering parameter.
Why Is a Flanger Called a
Flanger? In the early recording days, Phase Reversal and Regeneration
an engineer was trying to get two The regeneration control can give us multiple
separate tape recorders to play the repeats by feeding the delay back into the input
same song in time with each other, so that it can be delayed again. This control can
in sync. To slow one machine down
also be used on the phase shifter, chorus and
as they got closer to being in sync,
flange. Regeneration, also called feedback, can
he actually had to press on one of
make the effect more extreme or give the music
the reels. When the machines were
nearly in sync and the engineer a sci-fi feel. As you practice creating these ef-
pressed on the reel he began to hear fects with your equipment, experiment with
the very interesting and rich sound feedback to find your own sounds.
that we call flanging. It was caused Most units have a phase' reversal switch
by the varying time delay between that inverts the phase of the affected signal. In-
the two machines.
verting the phase of the delay can cause very
A tape reel has different names for extreme effects when combined with the origi-
the different parts of the reel. The nal signal (especially on phase shifter and flanger
center part is the hub. The top and effects). This can make your music sound like
bottom are called the flanges. Since
it's turning inside out.
the engineer pressed on the flange
Audio Example 2-37 starts with the flanger
of one of the machines to get this
rich and interesting effect, this in phase. Notice what happens to the sound as

sound became known as flanging. the phase of the effect is inverted.

 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 92

For a stereo phase and flange, use the

Audio Example 2-37 Inverting Phase
same procedure. Simply select different delay
CD-1: Track 37 times for the left and right sides. See Illustra-
tion 2-17 for a chart of the suggested delay times
for the different effects.
Stereo Effects Understanding what is happening within
The majority of effects processors are stereo, and a delay is important when you're trying to shape
with a stereo unit, different delay times can be sounds for your music.
assigned to the left and the right sides. If you Sometimes it's easiest to bake a cake by
are creating a stereo chorus, simply set one side simply pressing the Bake Me a Cake button, but
to a delay time between 15 and 35ms, then set if you are really trying to create a meal that flows
the other side to a different delay time, between together perfectly, you might need to adjust the
15 and 35ms. All of the rest of the controls are recipe for the cake. That's what we need to do
adjusted in the same way as a mono chorus. The when building a song, mix or arrangement; we
returns from the processor can then be panned must be able to custom fit the pieces.
apart in the mix for a very wide and extreme
effect. Listen as the chorus in Audio Example
2-38 pans from mono to stereo. Reverberation Effects
As we move from the delay effects into the re-
Audio Example 2-38 Stereo Chorus verb effects, we must first realize that reverb is
CD-1: Track 37 just a series of delays. Reverberation is simula-
tion of sound in an acoustical environment, like

Illustration 2-17
Suggested Delay Times for Different Effects
Effect Delay A Delay B LFO Speed Regener- Phase
(Stereo) ation
Slapback 35-350ms No No No No
Echo (Repeats) 35-350ms No No 2-10 No
Simulated Reverb 15-35ms 15-35ms No No Several No
Doubling 1-35ms No No No No
Tripling 1-35ms 1-35 ms No No No No
Phase Shifter 0.5-2ms 0.5-2 ms Yes Low Medium Yes/No
Flanger 10-20ms 10-20ms Yes Low Medium Yes/No
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 93

a concert hall, gymnasium or bedroom. a visual reference of a simple slapback delay and
No two rooms sound exactly alike. Sound reverb in a room.
bounces back from all the surfaces in a room to Our digital simulation of this process is ac-
the listener or the microphone. These bounces complished by a digital reverb that produces
are called reflections. The combination of the enough delays and echoes to imitate the smooth
direct and reflected sound in a room creates a sound of natural reverb in a room. The reason
distinct tonal character for each acoustical en- different reverb settings sound unique is because
vironment. Each one of the reflections in a room of the different combinations of delays and re-
is like a single delay from a digital delay. When generations.
it bounces around the room, we get the effect A digital reverb is capable of imitating a
of regeneration. When we take a single short lot of different acoustical environments and can
delay and regenerate it many times, we're cre- do so with amazing clarity and accuracy. The
ating the basics of reverberation. Audio Example many different echoes and repeats produce a
2-39 demonstrates the unappealing sound of rich and full sound. Digital reverbs can also
simulated reverb, using a single delay. shape many special effects that would never oc-
cur acoustically. In fact, these sounds can be so
fun to listen to that it's hard not to overuse re-
Audio Example 2-39 Simulated Reverb verb.
___________CD-1: Track 38 __________ Keep in mind that sound perception is not
just two dimensional, left and right. Sound per-
Reverb must have many delays and regen- ception is at least three dimensional, with the
erations combining at once to create a smooth third dimension being depth (distance). Depth
and appealing room sound, as in Audio Example is created by the use of delays and reverb. If a
2-41. Audio Example 2-40 demonstrates the sound (or a mix) has too much reverb, it loses
smooth quality created by many delays working the feeling of closeness or intimacy and sounds
together in the proper balance. like it's at the far end of a gymnasium. Use
enough effect to achieve the desired results, but
don't overuse effects.
Audio Example 2-40 Reverberation Most digital reverbs have several different
CD-1: Track 38 reverb sounds available. These are usually la-
beled with descriptive names like halls, plates,
If you can envision thousands of delays chambers, rooms, etc.
bouncing (reflecting) off thousands of surfaces
in a room and then back to you, the listener, Hall Reverb
that's what's happening in the reverberation of Hall indicates a concert hall sound. These are
a concert hall or any acoustical environment. the smoothest and richest of the reverb settings.
There are so many reflections happening in such Audio Example 2-41 demonstrates a Hall Re-
a complex order that we can no longer distin- verb .
guish individual echoes. See Illustration 2-18 for
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 94

Illustration 2-18

Slapback Delay and Reflections

Sound travels at the rate of about 1130 ft./sec. To calculate the amount of time (in
seconds) it takes for sound to travel a specific distance, divide the distance (in feet) by
1130 (ft./sec): time = distance (ft.) : speed (1130 ft./sec).
In a 100' long room, sound takes about 88ms to get from one end to the other (100 :
1130). A microphone at one end of this room wouldn't pick up the slapback until it
completed a round trip (about 176ms after the original sound).
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 95

strates a plate reverb sound.

Audio Example 2-41 Hall Reverb
CD-1: Track 39
Audio Example 2-43 Plate Reverb
CD-1: Track 39
Chamber Reverb
Chambers imitate the sound of an acoustical
reverberation chamber, sometimes called an Room Reverb
echo chamber. Acoustical chambers are fairly A room setting can imitate many different types
large rooms with hard surfaces. Music is played of rooms that are typically smaller than the hall/
into the room through high-quality, large speak- chamber sounds. These can range from a bed-
ers, and then a microphone in the chamber is room to a large conference room or a small bath-
patched into a channel of the mixer as an ef- room with lots of towels to a large bathroom
fects return. Chambers aren't very common now with lots of tile.
that technology is giving us great sounds with- Rooms with lots of soft surfaces have little
out taking up so much real estate. The sound of high-frequency content in their reverberation.
a chamber is smooth, like the hall's, but has a Rooms with lots of hard surfaces have lots of
few more mids and highs. high-frequency in their reverberation.
Audio Example 2-42 demonstrates the Audio Example 2-44 demonstrates some
sound of a chamber reverb. different room sounds.

Audio Example 2-42 Chamber Reverb Audio Example 2-44 Room Reverb
CD-1: Track 39 CD-1: Track 39

Plate Reverb Reverse Reverb

Plates are the brightest sounding of the reverbs. Most modern reverbs include reverse or inverse
These sounds imitate a true plate reverb. A true reverb. These are simply backwards reverb. Af-
plate is a large sheet of metal (about 4' by 8') ter the original sound is heard, the reverb swells
suspended in a box and allowed to vibrate freely. and stops. It is turned around. These can actu-
Sound is induced onto the plate by a speaker ally be fairly effective and useful if used in the
attached to the plate itself. Two contact micro- appropriate context.
phones are typically mounted on the plate at Audio Example 2-45 demonstrates reverse
different locations to give a stereo return to the reverb.
mixer. The sound of a true plate reverb has lots
of highs and is very clean and nonintrusive.
Audio Example 2-45 Reverse Reverb
A digital simulation of the plate is also full
CD-1: Track 39
of clean highs. Audio Example 2-43 demon-
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 96

Illustration 2-19
Diffusion
 Chapter Two • Signal Processing • page 97

Illustration 2-20
Density of Reverb
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 98

Gated Reverb 2-47 as the predelay setting is changed.

Gated reverbs have a sound that is very intense
for a period of time, then closes off quickly. This
has become very popular because it can give an Audio Example 2-47 Predelay

instrument a very big sound without over- CD-1: Track 40

whelming the mix, because the gate keeps clos-
ing it off.
Though this is a trendy, popular sound, the Diffusion
technique has been around for a long time. The Diffusion controls the space between the reflec-
assignment on dynamic range processors (Illus- tions (Illustration 2-19).
tration 2-13) can shed some light on how this A low diffusion can be equated with a very
sound evolved technically. Audio Example 2-46 grainy photograph. We might even hear indi-
demonstrates a gated reverb sound. vidual repeats in the reverb.
A high diffusion can be equated with a very
fine grain photograph, and the sound is a very
Audio Example 2-46 Gated Reverb
smooth wash of reverb.
CD-1: Track 39
Listen to the reverberation in Audio Ex-
ample 2-48 as the change is made from low dif-
There are many variations of labels for re- fusion to high diffusion.
verb. YOU might see bright halls, rich plates, dark
plates, large rooms, small rooms, or bright phone
booth, but they can all be traced back to the Audio Example 2-48 Diffusion CD-

basic sounds of halls, chambers, plates and

1: Track 41
rooms.
These sounds often have adjustable pa-
rameters. They let us shape the sounds to our Decay Time
music so that we can use the technology as com- Reverberation time, reverb time and decay time
pletely as possible to enhance the artistic vision. all refer to the same thing. Traditionally, rever-
We need to consider these variables so that we beration time is defined as: The time it takes for
can customize and shape the effects. the sound to decrease to one-millionth of its
original sound pressure level. In other words, it's
Predelay the time it takes for the reverb to go away.
Predelay is a time delay that happens before the Decay time can typically be adjusted from
reverb is heard. This can be a substantial time about 1/10 of a second up to about 99 seconds.
delay (up to a second or two) or just a few mil- We have ample control over the reverberation
liseconds. The track is heard clean (dry) first, so time. Audio Example 2-49 demonstrates a con-
the listener can get a more upfront feel; the re- stant reverb sound with a changing decay time.
verb comes along shortly thereafter to fill in the
holes and add richness. Listen to Audio Example
 Chapter T WO • Signal Processing • page 99

Audio Example 2-49 Decay Time

CD-1: Track 42
Conclusion
We have just covered the basic signal proces-
sors. There are more options to deal with as we
Density expand our knowledge and skill base, but hav-
The density control adjusts the initial short de- ing a good working relationship of the dynamic
lay times. Low density is good for smooth sounds range processors, delay effects, EQ and reverbs
like strings or organ. High density works best is essential. If you can operate these fundamen-
on percussive sounds (Illustration 2-20). tal tools, you can shape and mold your own
In the recording world of yesteryear the unique sounds.
only way to adjust reverberation time was to If all this is new to you, then you have a
dampen or undampen the springs in the spring lot of work ahead of you. There's a lot to ab-
reverb tanks or physically move a bar that moved sorb, so please review these chapters as many
a felt pad onto, or off of, the plate reverb. Trying times as it takes to get a solid grasp of the in-
to control reverb time in a true reverberation formation. If you understand (and apply) these
chamber is even more difficult. Current technol- principles and techniques, you're building an
ogy provides a myriad of variables when shap- excellent foundation for recording your music.
ing reverb sounds. In fact, when you consider
the number of possible options, it can be mind
boggling. We can design unnatural hybrids like
a large room with a very short decay time and
plenty of high frequency, or any other natural or
unnatural effect.
Each parameter is important, and as we
deal with individual guitar, drum, keyboard and
vocal sounds, reverb is a primary consideration.
If you expect to have professional-sounding re-
cordings, you must use a digital reverb or, bet-
ter yet, a multi-effects processor. A multi-effects
processor contains many different reverb, delay
and chorus sounds. These can usually be used
separately or chained together to form thou-
sands of interesting effects.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 100

3 Microphones
is a kind of life to an acoustic recording that
Microphones: Our Primary Tools can only truly exist through recording real in-
struments played by real people in an acousti-

T
he study of microphones is a complete cal environment.
course of its own. For our purposes, We can increase the life in our MIDI sounds
we must understand some basic prin- by running them into an amplification system,
ciples and techniques in order to be functional then miking that sound. We might or might not
in the recording industry. This chapter will fa- need to include the direct sound of the MIDI
miliarize you with basic principles and terminol- sound module.
ogy. There are many other excellent sources Using a mic to capture sound is not as
available that cover the study of microphones simple as just selecting the best mic. There are
in depth, but this chapter of The AudioPro Home two critically important factors involved in cap-
Recording Course, along with the practical ap- turing sound using a microphone:
plications throughout, will provide a solid foun- • Where we place the mic in relation to the
dation for you. sound source
The microphone is your primary tool in the • The acoustical environment in which we
chain from sound source to audio storage me- choose to record the sound source
dium. There's much more to mic choice than find- As you'll see in the audio examples in this
ing a trusted manufacturer that you can stick course, the sound of the acoustical environment
with. There's much more to mic placement than plays a very important role in the overall sound
simply setting the mic close to the sound source. quality.
The difference between mediocre audio record- Although there are hundreds of different
ings and exemplary audio recordings is quite microphones available from a lot of manufac-
often defined by the choice and placement of turers, they essentially all fit into three basic cat-
microphones. egories: condenser, moving-coil and ribbon. Con-
As we cover techniques for recording dif- denser and moving-coil mics are the most com-
ferent instruments, we'll consistently need to mon of these three, although they may all be
consider microphone choice and technique. The used in recording, as well as live, situations.
MIDI era led us away from the art of acoustic There are other types of microphones with
recording but as time has proceeded, acoustic operating principles that differ from what we
recordings of drums, guitars, strings, brass, per- will cover in this course, and each type of mi-
cussion and sound effects have returned. There crophone has its own individual personality. Mic
 Chapter Three • Microphones • page 101

types other than condenser, moving-coil and rib- • real strings

bon are usually selected for a special effect in a • woodwinds
situation where the music needs a unique sound • percussion
that enhances the emotional impact of the song. • acoustic room ambience
Condenser microphones (especially in
omni configuration) typically capture a broader
Condenser Microphones range of frequencies from a greater distance
than the other mic types. In other words, you
Condenser microphones are the most accurate. don't need to be as close to the sound source
They respond to fast attacks and transients more to get a full sound. This trait of condenser mi-
precisely than other types, and they typically add crophones is a great advantage in the recording
the least amount of tonal coloration. The large studio because it enables us to record a full
vocal mics used in professional recording stu- sound while still including some of the natural
dios are usually examples of condenser mics. ambience in a room. The further the mic is from
Condenser mics also come in much smaller sizes the sound source, the more influential the am-
and interesting shapes. Some popular condenser bience is on the recorded sound.
mics are: Condenser microphones that work won-
• Neumann U87, U89, U47, U67, TLM170, derfully in the studio often provide poor results
KM83, KM84, KM184, TLM193 in a live sound reinforcement situation. Since
• AKG414, 451, 391, 535, C1000, 460, C3000, they have a flat frequency response, these con-
C-12, TheTube denser mics tend to feed back more quickly than
• Electro-Voice BK-1 microphones designed specifically for live sound
• Sennheiser MKH40, MKH 80 applications (especially in the low-frequency
• B&K 4011 range). There are many condenser mics designed
• Shure SM82, BG4.0 for sound reinforcement, and there are many
• Audio-Technica 4033, 4050, 4051, 853 condenser mics that work very well in either
• Milab DC96B setting. Condenser mics often have a low-
• Schoeps CMC 5U frequency roll-off switch that lets you decrease
• Groove Tube MD-2, MD-3 low-frequency sensitivity. In a live audio situa-
• Sanken CU-41 tion, the low-frequency roll-off is effective in re-
• Crown PZM-30D ducing low-frequency feedback.
Use a condenser microphone whenever
you want to accurately capture the true sound Operating Principle of the
of a voice or instrument. Condensers are almost Condenser Mic
always preferred when recording: If you possess the basic understanding of each
• acoustic guitar mic type and if you have a grasp on how each
• acoustic piano type works, you'll be able to make very good
• vocals microphone selections. The microphone you se-
• real brass lect for your specific recording situation makes
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 102

a big difference on the sound of the final re- charge of electrical current. This discharge ex-
cording. It's almost pathetic how easy it is to actly represents the changing energy in the
get great sounds when you've selected the right sound wave. In other words, you have an elec-
mic for the job and you've run the mic through trical version of the acoustic energy you started
a high quality preamp. with at the sound source (Illustration 3-1).
Condenser mics operate on a fairly simple Since there is very little mass in the con-
premise. A charged (positive or negative) elec- denser microphone's metal-coated membrane,
trical current is applied to a metal-coated piece it responds very quickly and accurately when in
of plastic. The plastic is a little like the plastic the presence of sound. Therefore, the condenser
wrap you keep on your leftover food. The metal- capsule is very good at capturing sounds with
lic coating is thin enough to vibrate in response high transient content as well as sounds with
to sound waves. Its function is to provide con- interesting complexities.
ductivity for the electrical charge while not in- The signal that comes from the capsule is
hibiting the flexibility of the plastic membrane. very weak and must be amplified to mic level.
The ingredients of the alloy vary from manufac- Then, once the signal from the mic reaches the
turer to manufacturer, but the key factor is con- mixer, it's boosted to line level at the input
ductivity—it must be able to carry an electrical preamp.
charge.
The metal-coated plastic will vibrate when Phantom Power
it's subjected to an audio wave because of sym- The capsule of a condenser microphone requires
pathetic vibration. The principle of sympathetic power to charge the metal-coated membrane.
vibration says, if it is possible for a surface to Power is also required to amplify the signal from
vibrate at a specific frequency, it will vibrate the capsule up to microphone level.
when it is in the presence of a sound wave con- It's a technical fact that each condenser
taining that frequency. The metal-coated plastic microphone needs power to operate. The source
membrane in a condenser microphone should of power for a condenser mic can come from a
be able to sympathetically vibrate when in the power supply in the mixer (called phantom
presence of any audio wave in our audible fre- power) that sends power up the mic cable, from
quency spectrum. an external phantom power supply or from a
This metal-coated piece of plastic is posi- battery within the mic. If you use batteries to
tioned close to a solid piece of metallic alloy. power a condenser mic, always be sure the bat-
The electrical charge starts to accumulate be- teries are fresh and that they're supplying suffi-
tween the two metallic surfaces. As the crest and cient voltage to optimally run the microphone's
trough of a sound wave meet the thinly coated circuitry. Phantom power is the best way to sup-
plastic, the plastic vibrates sympathetically with ply power to a condenser microphone because
the sound wave. As the plastic vibrates, the area it's constant and predictable.
between the solid metal surface and the move-
Phantom power is sent to the microphone
able metal surface changes. These changes in
from the mixer or external phantom power sup-
the space between the surfaces create a dis-
ply through the mic cable. There is little electri-
 Chapter Three • Microphones • page 103

Illustration 3-1
The Condenser Mic Capsule
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 104

ful in the studio. Here are some examples of

Illustration 3-1 popular and trustworthy moving-coil micro-
...continued phones:
• Shure SM57, SM58, SM7
• Electro-Voice RE2O
• Sennheiser 421, 441
• Audio-TechnicaATM25, Pro-25
• AKGD12, D112, D35OO, D1OOOE
• Beyer M88
Moving-coil mics are the most durable of
all the mic types. They also withstand the most
volume before they distort within their own cir-
cuitry.
A moving-coil mic typically colors a sound
more than a condenser mic. This coloration usu-
ally falls in the frequency range between about
5kHz and 10kHz. As long as we realize that this
coloration is present, we can use it to our ad-
The continually changing pressure on the vantage. In our studies on EQ, we've found that
moveable plate causes a continual variation in this frequency range can add clarity, presence
the discharge of the dielectric. This continually
and understandability to many vocal and instru-
varying discharge will (ideally) mirror the sound
wave's changes in air pressure. Condenser mics mental sounds.
excel at this process because of the low mass of Moving-coil mics have a thin sound when
the metal-coated membrane (the diaphragm)
they are more than about a foot from the sound
and the simplicity of displacing electrically
charged air. source. They're usually used in close-mic appli-
cations, with the mic placed anywhere from less
than an inch from the sound source up to about
12 inches from the sound source.
cal danger to the user since phantom power is Since moving-coil mics can withstand a lot
low voltage and very low amperage DC current. of volume, they sound the best in close-mic ap-
In addition, phantom power has no adverse ef- plications; and since they add high-frequency
fect on the audio signal being carried by the mic edge, they're good choices for miking electric
cable. guitar speaker cabinets, bass drum, snare drum,
toms or any loud instrument that benefits from
close-mic technique. Use them when you want
Moving-coil Mics to capture lots of sound with lots of edge from
a close distance and aren't as concerned about
Moving-coil mics are the standard choice for subtle nuance and literal accuracy of the origi-
most live situations, but they are also very use- nal waveform.
 Chapter Three • Microphones • page 105

Illustration 3-2
The Moving-coil Mic

Copper wire is w rapped in to a c ylinder. This c ylinder is th en suspended around a

magnet. The copper coil moves up and down in response to pressure changes caused by
sound waves.

The crest of th e aud io w ave m oves th e co il down, c ausing a ch ange in the coil
magnetism. Th e trough of the aud io w ave mo ves th e coil up, again c ausing a ch ange in
the coil magnetism .

As th e coil mo ves around th e magnet it receives a continually va rying magnetic image.

The continually varying magnetism will ideally mirro r the changing air p ressure from th e
sound wave. T his continually varyin g magnetism is th e orig in o f the signal th at arrives at
the mixer's mic input.

Moving-coils are also used in live perfor- around a magnet, there is a change in the en-
mances for vocals. They work well in close mik- ergy within the magnet. There is also a continual
ing situations, add high-frequency clarity and are variation in the magnetic status of the object
very durable. moving in relation to the magnet. The moving-
coil microphone uses this fact to transfer the
Operating Principle of the Moving- changing air pressure, produced by an audio
coil Mic waveform, into a continually varying flow of elec-
A moving-coil microphone operates on a com- trons that can be received by the mic preamp.
pletely magnetic principle in contrast to the elec- In a moving-coil mic, a coil of thin copper wire is
trical complexities of the condenser mic. When suspended over a magnet, enabling the coil to
an object that can be magnetized is moved move up and down around the magnet.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 106

A thin mylar plastic diaphragm closes the top of capturing transients and subtleties, you can still
the coil and serves to receive the audio waves. take advantage of their tendencies and charac-
As the crests and troughs of the continually vary- teristics. And, since moving-coil mics operate on
ing audio waveform reach the diaphragm, the a magnetic principle, they don't require power
coil is forced to move around the magnet. The to operate.
movement of the copper coil around the mag-
net is what causes the changing flow of elec-
trons that represent the sound wave (Illustra- Ribbon Mics
tion 3-2).
The moving-coil microphone uses a much Ribbon mics are the most fragile of all the mic
more mechanical process than the delicately types. This one factor makes them less useful in
sensitive condenser mic. Since there's a larger a live sound reinforcement application, even
mass to move than in the condenser operating though ribbon mics produced within the last 10
principle, it makes sense that the moving-coil or 15 years are much more durable than the
microphone doesn't respond as quickly to tran- older classic ribbon mics.
sients as the condenser m ic and that the These mics are like moving-coil mics in that
moving-coil microphone doesn't catch all of the they color the sound source by adding a high-
subtle nuances that the condenser microphone frequency edge, and they generally have a thin
excels in. sound when used in a distant miking setup.
Though moving-coil mics don't excel in When used as a close-mic, ribbon microphones

Illustration 3-3
The Ribbon Mic

A thin metal ribbon suspended between two poles of a magnet vibrates in response to
each crest and trough of a sound wave. As the ribbon moves in the magnetic field, it
continually varies in its magnetism. These changes of magnetism are the origin of the
signal that is sent to the mic input of your mixer.
The signal produced by the ribbon is typically weaker than the signal produced by the
moving-coil. In practical terms, that means you'll usually need more preamplification at
the mic input to achieve a satisfactory tine level signal.
 Chapter Three • Microphones • page 107

Illustration 3-4
Cardioid Pickup Pattern
A microphone with a cardioid pickup pattern hears sound best from the front and
actively rejects sounds from behind. With its heart-shaped pickup pattern, you can
point the mic toward the sound you
want to record and away from the
sound you don't want to record.
Rejection of sound behind the micro-
phone isn't complete or total, but the
rejection characteristic of a cardioid
pickup pattern can help minimize
leakage of unwanted sounds onto a
track.
Microphones with this pickup configu-
ration are typically most accurate when
used in close proximity to the sound
source. From a distance of more than a
foot or so, they usually sound thin,
lacking low-frequency content.

• RCA 77-DX, 44 BY, 10001

Ribbon mics are fragile and need to be
used in situations where they won't be
dropped or jostled. If you use a ribbon
can have a full sound that is often described as mic to record drums and the drummer hits the
being warmer and smoother than a moving-coil. mic too many times with his stick, the ribbon
There are some great sounding ribbon mi- will break. Repairs like
crophones available. Some of the commonly used
ribbon microphones are: • Beyer M160, M500
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 108

this can be costly. After breaking a couple of As the sound wave vibrates the thin ribbon, the
these mics, I decided it might be best if I stuck magnetic flow changes in response, causing a
to one of the tried and true, very durable choices. continually varying flow of electrons. As the rib-
I still tend to use the Beyer M160 ribbon a lot bon moves between the poles of the magnet, it
when I'm recording drum samples because I like is being magnetized in varying degrees of north
the sound, but sampling is a very controlled mic and south magnetism, in direct proportion to the
usage, and I'm usually the only one around with changes in amplitude produced by the sound
a drum stick. wave. This continually varying flow of electrons
is the origin of the signal that reaches the mi-
Operating Principle of the Ribbon crophone input of your mixer (Illustration 3-3).
Mic Since ribbon mics operate on a magnetic
A ribbon microphone operates on a magnetic principle, they don't require a power source to
principle like the moving-coil. A metallic ribbon operate.
is suspended between two poles of a magnet.

Illustration 3-5
Omnidirectional Pickup Pattern

Mics with an omnidirectional pickup pattern pick up

sound equally from all directions and don't reject sound
from any direction.

Omnidirectional microphones are usually condenser mics.

An omnidirectional mic is an excellent choice for

capturing room ambience.

Omnidirectional microphones are the best choice for

distant mic technique. They produce the fullest sound
with the best low-frequency content of all pickup
configurations from a distance greater than one foot.
 Chapter Three • Microphones • page 109

pickup pattern lies in the ability to isolate

Pickup/Polar Patterns sounds. You can point the mic at one instrument
while you're pointing it away from another in-
strument. The disadvantage to a cardioid pickup
Cardioid pattern is that it will typically only give you a
Most microphones have what is called a cardioid full sound from a close proximity to the sound
pickup pattern. This is also called a unidirectional source. Once you're a foot or two away from
or heart-shaped pickup pattern. The unidirec- the sound source a cardioid pickup pattern pro-
tional mic is most sensitive (hears the best) at duces a very thin-sounding rendition of the
the part of the mic that you sing into. It is least sound you're miking.
sensitive (hears the worst) at the side opposite In a live sound setting, cardioid mics are
the part you sing into (Illustration 3-4). The ad- almost always best because they produce far less
vantage to using a microphone with a cardioid feedback than any other pickup pattern.

Illustration 3-6
Bidirectional Pickup Pattern
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 110

We should be familiar with two other ba- the sound of the voice.
sic pickup patterns: omnidirectional and bi- Omnidirectional microphones are usually
directional. difficult in a live setting because they produce
feedback more quickly than any other pickup
Omnidirectional pattern.
An omnidirectional mic hears equally from all
directions. It doesn't reject sound from anywhere Bidirectional
(Illustration 3-5). An omnidirectional pickup pat- Bidirectional microphones hear equally from the
tern will give you the fullest sound from a dis- sides, but they don't hear from the edges (Illus-
tance. Omni microphones are very good at cap- tration 3-6). Bidirectional microphones are an
turing room ambience, recording groups of in- excellent choice for recording two sound sources
struments that you can gather around one mic to one track with the most intimacy and least
and capturing a vocal performance while still adverse phase interaction and room sound. Po-
letting the acoustics of the room interact with sition the mic between the sound sources for

Illustration 3-7
Frequency Response Curve

A microphone with this kind of frequency

response curve is nearly flat. A mic with a flat
frequency response adds very little coloration to
the sound it picks up. Many condenser
microphones have a flat, or nearly flat, frequency
response. This characteristic, combined with the
fact that they respond very well to transients,
makes condenser mics very good for recording
subtleties.

A mic with this kind of frequency response curve

isn't very good at recording low-frequencies
(below about 200Hz), and as you can see on its
curve, it produces an abundance of signal at
about 4kHz. Though this mic wouldn't be very
accurate, we could intelligently use a mic like this
if we wanted to record a sound with a brutal
presence. Many moving-coil microphones have
this kind of frequency response curve.

Flat Frequency Response

 Chapter Three • Microphones • page 111

the best blend. Once you've committed the most valuable tools to help us predict how a
sound to one tape track, there's not much you mic will sound. What the frequency response
can do to fix a bad balance or blend. curve doesn't tell us is how the mic responds to
transients. We can predict the transient response
of a mic based on what we already know about
Frequency Response Curve the basic operating principles of the different
mic types.
Almost any microphone responds to all frequen-
cies we can hear plus frequencies above and
below what we can hear. The human ear has a Conclusion
typical frequency response range of about 20Hz
to 20kHz. Some folks have high-frequency hear- You can cover most home recording situations
ing loss so they might not hear sound waves all if you have at least one good moving-coil mic
the way up to 20kHz, and some small children and one good condenser mic. With these two
might be able to hear sounds well above 20kHz. options available, you can fairly consistently
For a manufacturer to tell us that their achieve professional-sounding results.
microphone has a frequency range of 20Hz to This chapter was written with the intent
20kHz tells us absolutely nothing until they tell to provide fundamental information that will im-
us how the mic responds throughout that fre- mediately help you understand the practical
quency range. A mic might respond very well to applications of the three basic microphone types
500Hz, yet it might not respond very well at all you use in the studio. It was not written with
to frequencies above about 10kHz. If that were the intent to be the end-all authority on micro-
the case, the sound we captured to tape with phones. The upcoming chapters all present spe-
that mic would be severely colored. cific microphone applications and techniques as
We use a frequency response curve to in- they apply to practical recording situations. Once
dicate exactly how a specific microphone re- you've completed the entire course, you'll have
sponds to the frequencies across the audible a very good working knowledge of specific mi-
spectrum (Illustration 3-7). If a frequency re- crophone choice, technique, placement and re-
sponse curve shows a peak at 5kHz, we can ex- cording in general.
pect that the mic will color the sound in the
highs, likely producing a sound that has a little
more aggressive sound than if a mic with a flat
response was used. If the frequency response
curve shows the low-frequencies dropping off
sharply below 300Hz we can expect the mic to
sound thin in the low end unless we move it
close to the sound source to proportionally in-
crease the lows.
The frequency response curve is one of the
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 112

4 Guitars And Guitar

Sounds
guitars. We'll use everything we've studied so
Recording Guitars far. In addition, we'll add mic techniques and
acoustic considerations.

I
n this chapter, we cover recording tech- Let's get started on our study of recording
niques for five different types of guitar
sounds:
• Electric guitars plugged directly into the mixer
• Electric guitars miked at the amplifier
• Electric acoustic guitars, plugged directly into
the mixer
• Acoustic guitars recorded with a microphone
• Guitar samples from a keyboard
Recorded guitar sounds, whether electric
or acoustic, can be very dependent on:
• The instrument's condition and intonation
• The technical and artistic ability of the per
former
• The microphone used to record the instrument
• The acoustics of the room in which the gui
tar or amp is recorded
• Choice of dynamic range processing
• Choice of effects processing
• Volume
• EQ
• Panning placement in the mix
We'll evaluate how each of these impor-
tant factors influence the recorded sounds of the
guitar family. Listen to the Audio Examples sev-
eral times, thoroughly read all text and practice
these techniques in your own setup. It'll make a
difference in the sound of your recordings.
Direct Electric
When recording an electric guitar, we have the
option of using a microphone at the speaker,
running directly into the mixer or combining both
of these approaches. Each technique offers ad-
vantages and disadvantages. Running direct into
the mixer produces ultimate separation. If you
process the direct guitar sound, you don't risk
altering the sound of another instrument since
no other instrument has had the opportunity to
bleed into a microphone.
Miking the guitarist's speaker cabinet, al-
though allowing for leakage of another instru-
ment into the guitar mic, typically produces the
best sound. Using a microphone on the electric
guitarist's cabinet captures the essence of the
sound the guitarist designed for the part they're
playing. Since sound plays such an important
role in what and how a guitarist plays, miking
the cabinet is often the only way to capture the
guitar part in a musically authentic way.
For the sake of understanding some of the
more fundamental variables involved in record-
ing the electric guitar, we'll first plug directly
into the mixer. When running a guitar directly
into the mic input of a mixer, plug the guitar
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 113

Illustration 4-1

Plugging the Guitar Into a Direct Box

into a direct box first, then plug the direct box keeping the advantages of running direct into
into the mixer (Illustration 4-1). The signal go- the mixer.
ing into the direct box can come straight from
the guitar or from any effect or group of effects Advantages of Running Direct
that the guitar is plugged into (Illustration 4-2). When you plug directly into the mixer instead
As an alternative, simply plug the guitar of miking the speaker, the recorded track has
straight into the line input of the mixer (Illustra- no leakage from other acoustic instruments that
tion 4-3). When using this technique, the level may have been performing at the same time as
from the guitar might be a little low, especially the guitar. The tracks typically contain less noise
if you are using a mixer that operates at +4dBm. than if the amp were miked. Guitar amps have
Plugging a guitar into Line In works best when a bad habit of producing their own share of
using a mixer operating at -10dBV. (Refer to noise. This can be a problem in mixdown.
Chapter 1 for a description of +4 and -10 oper- Sometimes you must run directly into the
ating levels). mixer simply out of consideration for your neigh-
Some guitar amps have a line output. Line bors. How sensitive are your neighbors to loud
Out from a guitar amplifier can be plugged di- guitar amps screaming raucous licks into the wee
rectly into the line input of the mixer (Illustra- hours of the morning? Once you've gotten your
tion 4-4). This technique lets you capture some neighbors angry because of volume, it's all over.
of the amplifier's characteristic sound while still It's best to avoid that conflict altogether. If you
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 114

Illustration 4-2
Guitar Through Several Effects

1. Plug the guitar into a chain of effects.

The output of each effect goes into the
input of the next effect.

2. Plug the final effect into a direct box.

3. Connect Out to Amp from the direct

box to the input of the guitar amp.

4. Connect the XLR output of the direct

box to the XLR microphone input of
the mixer.

This setup can be very effective when you

need a clean and separate guitar track on
tape, but the guitarist prefers to hear from
the amp. We can also blend the direct
sound with the sound from the micro-
phone for a new and possibly appealing
sonic option.

Illustration 4-3
Guitar and Effects to Line Input
1. Plug the guitar directly into the line
input of the mixer or plug the
guitar into an effects unit.

2. Plug the output of the effects

into the line input of the mixer.

The success of this procedure

depends largely on the kind of sound
you're recording. Distorted, aggressive
sounds are best recorded with a mic on the
speaker cabinet. Clean guitar sounds with a little compression,
chorus and delay often sound very good when run directly into
the mixer.

The strength of the signal produced by the guitar is also a

factor. Depending on your guitar, mixer and effects, you might
experience difficulty getting enough level from the guitar setup
to record at OVU. If you can't get enough level from this
configuration, use the setup in Illustration 4-1.
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 115

Illustration 4-4
Amplifier Line Output to Mixer Line Input
Some amplifiers have a line output
that can be plugged into the line
input of your mixer.

This technique can add character to

the guitar sound without using a
microphone.

DANGER! DO NOT PLUG THE

GUITAR AMPLIFIER'S SPEAKER
OUTPUT DIRECTLY INTO LINE
INPUT OF THE MIXER!

Illustration 4-5
Speaker Output Into a Special Direct Box

BE CAREFUL! Never plug a

powered speaker output into any
input you aren't absolutely
certain is designed to accept it.

Some direct boxes have a

switched input, letting you select
Instrument or Amplifier as the
signal source.

This technique can work very

well. It adds the characteristic
sound of the guitar amp's EQ,
distortion and amplifying
circuitry without using a
microphone.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Coorse • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 116

are recording in an apartment or in a compact ond Dl to the amp or line in of the mixer.
residential area, you may have no choice but to This procedure lets you take advantage of
record all electronic gear direct and monitor at low impedance within a high-impedance system
low levels. (Illustration 4-6).
If you must run direct into the mixer and If you're connecting two direct boxes to-
you're experiencing difficulty getting a good gether, be sure to use high quality DIs. Each
sound, try using a direct box that will receive a transformer can rob the signal of life and add
powered signal straight out of the speaker out- noise. This technique requires informed judgment
put of the guitar amp. This will give you the most concerning the value of adding cable length ver-
guitar amp sound you can get without using a sus your need for sonic purity.
mic. Be careful!! Never plug a speaker out-
put into any input until you've been as- Levels
sured by someone whose opinion you trust When we record guitars, the VU meter should
implicitly that the input is designed to usually read OVU at the peaks. There can be a
accept a powered output (Illustration 4-5)! couple of exceptions to this rule.
Remember, guitars are high-impedance Distorted guitar sounds are often printed
instruments and the total length of cables be- very hot to tape (in the neighborhood of +3 to
tween the guitar and the amp or the guitar and +5 on the VU meter). Some engineers believe
the direct box should be less than 25 feet. If the that this adds a little more edge to the part and
guitarist plugs into several effects chained to- that the tape being oversaturated has the ef-
gether, then plugs the output of the last effect fect of compressing the sound. This compression
into the Dl, be sure the cables are all as short as helps keep the part in a tighter dynamic range
possible. If the cables are too long, you'll hear a so it can be heard more consistently.
lot of noise and radio interference along with Be careful when recording hot to tape. The
the guitar track. signal could become too distorted. You might
If you get into a situation where the gui- print so much signal on tape that it begins to
tarist needs to run a long cable length from the spill onto the adjacent tracks as well as onto
guitar to the amp, try this: the track you're trying to record on. The tape
1. Use two direct boxes. Plug the guitar into the recorder and size of tape determine whether or
high-impedance end of the first direct box. not you can successfully print stronger than nor-
2. Connect a mic cable to the low-impedance mal signals to tape. 8-track cassettes are usu-
output of that direct box. ally less forgiving than larger formats, like 16 or
3. Connect the other end of this mic cable to 24 tracks on 2-inch wide tape.
the low-impedance end of the second direct
box. This requires either a special cable with Transients
female XLR connectors on both ends or a fe If the strings of a guitar are plucked with a hard
male-to-female XLR adapter to plug into the pick, there are transients in their sound. The ex-
low-impedance end of the second Dl. tent of the transient depends on the specific in-
4. Connect the high-impedance end of the sec- strument, type of guitar pick and the strings.
 Chapter four* Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 117

Illustration 4-6
Hi Z to Lo Z to Hi Z

Some acoustic guitar parts contain an exagger- usually produce a good sounding track. If the
ated transient because of the way they've been sound doesn't contain much low-frequency en-
compressed. These parts need to be recorded ergy and has a lot of highs with exaggerated
with especially conservative levels, in order to transients, the record level should not read
compensate for the increased transient attack. higher than -7 to-5VU.
In Chapter 1 we discovered that transients have You must weigh your options. If you record
an actual level that is higher than the VU read- at low levels to capture the most accurate tran-
ing and that the actual level could be 9dB above sient, you might end up with a poor signal-to-
the average level. noise ratio. If you record with hotter levels, you
Even though guitar can have transient con- might lose some of the accuracy of the record-
tent, we don't usually need to be overly cau- ing, but we'll have a better signal-to-noise ra-
tious in adjusting the record level. Most acous- tio. It's up to you, the engineer, to decide which
tic parts can be recorded with the loudest part approach to take based on the music you're re-
of the track reading at OVU. An acoustic often cording.
has substantial low-frequency content. The lows
Tuning/Instrument Selection
can actually determine the recording level, so if
Whenever you record an instrument, your first
you record a full sounding guitar up to OVU you'll
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 118

consideration should be the status of the instru- ment operating properly?

ment. Guitar is definitely no exception to this A guitar with good electronics that's been
rule. Does it sound good by itself? Are the strings set up properly has a definite sound advantage
new or old? Is the instrument in tune? Has the over a guitar that has slid away from its peak
intonation of the neck been fine-tuned? Do the performance. Correct tuning and intonation give
notes stay in tune up and down the neck on all the instrument a wonderful ability to resonate.
strings? Are the electronics within the instru-
Pickup Types
There are two types of pickups that you'll en-
Illustration 4-7 counter: single coil and double coil. Single coil
Single Coil Pickup pickups have a thin, clean and transparent
sound, but they can be noisy, picking up occa-
This is the approximate size of most sional radio interference. These pickups are usu-
single coil pickups. Sometimes they're ally about 3/4-inch wide and 2-1/2 inches long
hidden by a plastic or metal cover. (Illustration 4-7).
These pickups are common on Fender Double coil pickups have a thick, meaty
guitars like the Stratocaster. sound and are the most noise-free of the pick-
Single coil pickups are the most up types. They get their name from the fact that
susceptible to noise. If you have a they have two single coils working together as
problem with noise when recording a one pickup. These are wired together in a way
guitar with single coil pickups, try that cancels any noise that is picked up. These
moving the guitarist to a different can also be called humbucking pickups. Double
location in the room. If the noise coil pickups are common on most Gibson gui-
persists, try having the tars like the Les Paul (Illustration 4-8).
guitarist face different
Many guitars have a combination of single
directions. There's
and double coil pickups. It's common for a
usually somewhere in a
360° radius where the double coil pickup to have a switch that will turn
noise and interference one of the coils off. This gives the player a choice
is minimal. Keep the between single and double coil.
guitar away from
computers, drum Basic Types of Electric Guitars
machines or other There are several different types of guitars avail-
microprocessor- able, and each has a characteristic sound. Of-
controlled equipment
ten, a guitarist will play one type of guitar but
for minimal noise.
ask you to make it sound like another type of
guitar. This can be very difficult but not always
impossible. It's crucial that you're familiar with
these basic guitar sounds.
Even within the basic electric guitar types,
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 119

able categories:
Illustration 4-8 • Stratocaster: single coil
Double Coil Pickup • Les Paul: double coil
• Hollow body electric jazz guitar: double coil
This pickup configuration uses two Audio Examples 4-1 to 4-3 demonstrate
single coil pickups working together as the sounds of the three fundamental types of
one. They're wired together in a way that electric guitar. These are all recorded direct into
minimizes noise and radio interference. the mixer so that you can hear the characteris-
Sometimes both pickups are visible, tic tone of each.
and sometimes they're hidden by a Audio Example 4-1 demonstrates the
gold, chrome or plastic cover. single coil pickups on a Stratocaster. This guitar

The double coil sound is fuller and less and its brother, the Telecaster, are very common
shrill than the single coil sound. in the rock, country and pop fields.

Audio Example 4-1 Single Coil CD-

1: Track 43

Audio Example 4-2 demonstrates the

double coil sound of the Les Paul. This warm,
smooth, punchy sound is a favorite for rock,
blues, pop and jazz.

Audio Example 4-2 Double Coil

CD-1: Track 44

Audio Example 4-3 demonstrates the

double coil sound of a large hollow-body jazz
guitar. This instrument has a pure, rich sound.
As a jazz instrument, it's traditionally treated
with little or no effect. In fusion and some other
there are many different combinations of pick- jazz or rock styles, we can use any or all effects
ups and design configurations. The type of wood, and techniques to shape the jazz guitar sound.
style of body and precision of assembly all play
an important part in the sound of the instru-
Audio Example 4-3
ment. All considerations aside, we can still break
Hollow-Body Electric Jazz Guitar
the electric guitar sounds into three recogniz-
CD-1: Track 45
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 120

These guitars have very different sounds guitarist will have a properly adjusted compres-
and are suited for different types of music. Re- sor in his kit.
view these examples, and on a separate sheet In a guitar setup that uses several effects,
of paper, write down as many descriptive adjec- the compressor should be the first effect in the
tives as you can for each instrument. Use words chain. This will give the best sounding results
like thin, hollow, round, fat, beefy or chunky. and will help guard the rest of the effects from
Have friends listen to these examples and list strong signals that might overdrive their inputs.
the terms they think describe each guitar sound. A compressor can efficiently even out the
Putting a verbal tag on each sound will help you volume of different notes. This usually makes the
solidify your impression of these instruments. guitarist's job easier. With a healthy amount of
Verbalization will also help you communicate compression, the guitar will sustain longer, plus
with other musicians about different guitar each note will be audible (even if the guitarist
sounds. has sloppy technique). Listen to the difference
the compressor makes on the simple guitar
Compressor/Limiter/Gate/Expander sounds in Audio Examples 4-4 and 4-5. Audio
It's very common to use a compressor on an elec- Example 4-4 was performed and recorded with
tric guitar. Most guitars have a very wide dy- no compression.
namic range, and many instruments have un-
even string volumes due to substandard adjust-
Audio Example 4-4 No compression
ment of the pickups and string height. A com-
CD-1: Track 46
pressor is what gives a guitar that smooth
always-in-your-face sound. It puts all the notes
and chords into a very narrow dynamic range so Audio Example 4-5 demonstrates the same
there might not be much (if any) volume differ- part with a healthy amount of compression. I've
ence between a single note and a full chord. used a ratio of 4:1 with about 10dB of gain re-
An outboard compressor designed for stu- duction (refer to Chapter 2 on signal processing
dio use can do a good job on guitar, but it's if this terminology isn't making sense).
normal for the boxes made especially for guitar
to work best in a player's setup. Most guitarists
Audio Example 4-5 With Compression CD-1:
use a compressor in their setup, so when record-
Track 46
ing their guitar sounds, you usually don't need
to compress much, if at all. When the guitarist
has their stuff together, your job as the record- Distortion is a prime ingredient in many
ist is pretty simple. Whether you're running di- guitar sounds. The type of distortion that's used
rect in or miking the speaker cabinet, your job defines the character of the part and often de-
is to capture the existing sound accurately rather termines whether the part will blend well in the
than creating and shaping a new sound. You can mix.
put a compressor on the signal that's coming There are many different foot pedal dis-
into the mixer if you need to, but ideally, the tortion boxes for guitar, and they all have differ-
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 121

ent sounds. Some are very buzzy and harsh. Combining these sounds with the sound
Some are very full and warm. Harsh and buzzy of a good amp can give them much more life
distortion sounds are usually best for special and punch.
effects, but they typically don't work very well
in a mix because their sound doesn't blend well Delay
in most mixes. The distortion sounds that do mix The use of delay on a guitar sound has the ef-
well in the final product are generally the sounds fect of placing the sound in a simple acoustical
that are smoother, warmer and less strident. space. In Chapter 2 we discovered that the func-
Audio Examples 4-6 to 4-8 demonstrate tion of a simple slapback delay was to give the
totally different distortion sounds. In each case, perception of room size. The longer the delay,
the guitar is plugged into the distortion unit, the larger the room size. Delays of between 250
then the distortion unit is plugged directly into and 350ms can give a full sound for vocal and
the mixer. instrumental solos (especially on ballads). This
The box in Audio Example 4-6 has a stri- is a very popular sound. It's usually most desir-
dent, buzzy distortion and isn't really usable. able if the delay is in time with the music in
some way. See the chart in Chapter 2 (Illustra-
tion 1-15) to calculate delay times in relation to
Audio Example 4-6 Buzzy Distortion the tempo of a song. Audio Example 4-9 was
CD-1: Track 47 recorded at a tempo of 120bpm. I've added a
250ms delay, which is in time with the eighth
The distortion box in Audio Example 4-7 note at this tempo.
is one manufacturer's attempt at simulating a
tube amplifier distorting. This can be a very us-
Audio Example 4-9 The 250ms Delay
able sound on a lot of commercial songs.
CD-1: Track 48

Audio Example 4-7 Simulated Tube Distortion A slapback delay of 62.5ms is in time with
CD-1: Track 47 the 32nd note, at 120bpm, and gives an entirely
different feel to Audio Example 4-10.

The distortion box in Audio Example 4-8

is another manufacturer's attempt at simulat-
Audio Example 4-10 The 62.5ms Delay CD-1:
ing the rock stack-type amp. This is a little more
Track 48
aggressive sound and can also work well in many
settings.
Regenerating a longer delay of about 200
to 400ms can really smooth out a part. All of
Audio Example 4-8 Simulated Rock Stack CD- these effects usually make the guitarist sound
1: Track 47 like a better player than they really are. Guitar-
ists love that! This enhancement can be advan-
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 122

tageous to all concerned, but don't overdo the text of the rest of the arrangement.
effects or the part will get lost in the mix. It might Be flexible. If a guitarist has come up with
lose definition and sound like it's far away. a great sound that might take you a while to
duplicate, and if they want to print the sound to
Should I Print Reverb or Delay to tape, give it a try. Be conservative in the amount
Tape? of reverb and delay that is included. Conscien-
There are many different effects that a guitarist tious guitarists can come up with great and in-
can show up with, and most of them sound teresting variations of a sound, and much of the
pretty good. It's tempting to go with whatever final musical impact depends on how the signal
sound the guitarist has up at the time and record is patched through the effects. They may run the
it to tape. This approach can work well and might chorus through the distortion or the distortion
be preferred if you don't have much processing through the chorus. Both sound different. These
gear. routing changes can really result in some unique
If you have a small 4-track or 8-track setup, sounds. Take advantage of the player's diligence.
most of the time you'll be forced to print what- You'll all share the benefit of a great sound. I'll
ever reverb, delay or chorus the guitar player is often go ahead and print the chorus, flanger or
using. Select the proportion that seems to sound phase shifter sound, saving the delay and re-
good at the time you record the part. If you have verb for mixdown, even in a full blown 48-track
a question about the amount of reverb or delay project.
to print to tape, use the least amount that you There are no hard and fast rules when it
think you need. If you print too much delay or comes to creating innovative and exciting new
reverb to tape, it's there forever. Too much de- sounds, so be open to trying new tricks.
lay and reverb can make a part sound like it was
recorded from the far end of a gymnasium, es- Electronic Doubling
pecially as the mix develops. The only real way Doubling a guitar part is a very common tech-

to fix this is to rerecord the part with less effect, nique. Doubling can smooth out some of the
glitches in the performance and can give the
which can be costly and is, at the very least, a
guitar a very wide, bigger-than-life sound. Pan
nuisance. If you record the part a little on the
the double apart from the original instrument,
dry side, you can always add whatever reverb is
and you'll usually get a multidimensional wall
readily available during mixdown to make it
of guitar that can sonically carry much of the
sound more distant.
arrangement. Doubling works well in rock tunes
Ideally, have the guitarist get a good sound
where the guitar must sound very huge and im-
using whatever compression and distortion is
pressive.
needed for the part, but save the addition of all
This doubling effect can be achieved in a
reverbs, delays and choruses for mixdown. Print
couple of ways. Electronic doubling involves
the raw sound to tape and finish shaping in the
patching the instrument through a short delay,
mix. This approach lets you get just the right
then combining that delay with the original in-
delay length, delay amount, reverb sound and
strument. A live double simply involves playing
chorus, after you can hear the part in the con-
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 123

the part twice onto different tracks or recording delay and no regeneration.
two players (playing the identical part) onto one
or two tracks. Both techniques sound great. Ex-
Audio Example 4-11 The 23ms Double CD-1:
periment! Let the music help you decide.
Track 49
To set up an electronic double, use a de-
lay time between Oms and about 35ms. Short
doubles, below about 7ms, don't give a very Audio Example 4-12 uses the same musi-
broad-sounding double, but they can produce cal part as Audio Example 4-11, this time with a
interesting and full sounds and are definitely live double.
worth trying. Pan the original guitar to one side
and the delay to the other (Illustration 4-9).
Audio Example 4-12 The Live Double CD-1:
Audio Example 4-11 demonstrates a gui-
Track 49
tar part doubled electronically using a 23ms

Illustration 4-9
The Panned Electronic Double
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 124

Always check a double in mono to make Notice the interest that's added to Audio Ex-
sure the part sounds good in both stereo and ample 4-14 by the phase shifter.
mono. Slight changes in delay time can make
the part disappear or cut through strong in
Audio Example 4-14 Phase Shifter
mono. Find the delay time that works well in
stereo and mono. If you've panned the original
CD-1: Track 51
full left and the delay full right, the sounds are
very impressive in a stereo mix, but these hard- The chorus effects are often part of a solo
panned tracks often disappear when the mix is guitar sound used together with distortion, com-
played in mono. Try repositioning the pan ad- pression and delay. The guitar in Audio Example
justments so they are only partially left and par- 4-15 is plugged into the compressor first, then
tially right. the distortion, next the delay and finally the cho-
rus.
Multi-effects
The current arsenal of guitar effects includes
Audio Example 4-15 Multiple Effects
several units that contain many different, high-
CD-1: Track 52
quality digital effects. These multi-effects units
are relatively inexpensive and can produce ex-
cellent premium quality sounds. Take advantage
of these effects and the guitarist's diligence in Reverb
finding great sounds, but be conservative in Reverb is a useful ingredient in the final mix and
printing reverb and delay to tape. is used primarily to smooth out the guitar sound
when it must blend into the mix. Too much re-
Chorus/Flanger/Phase Shifter verb can spell disaster for the clarity and defini-
Chorus, flanger and phase-shifting effects are tion of a good guitar part. On the other hand,
very common and important to most styles of reverb can hide many flaws in a marginal guitar
electric guitar. A smooth chorus or flange can part. Adapt to your situation.
give a clean guitar sound a ringing tone. It can Most electric parts sound good with a
add richness that's as inspiring to the rest of bright hall reverb sound, a decay time of about
the musicians as it is to the guitarist. Listen to 1.5 seconds, a predelay of about 80ms, high dif-
the chorus on the clean guitar part in Audio Ex- fusion and high density. This kind of setting of-
ample 4-13. fers a good place to start in shaping most gui-
tar reverbs. Audio Example 4-16 demonstrates
a guitar with this set of effects.
Audio Example 4-13 Chorus CD-
I: Track 50
Audio Example 4-16 Hall Reverb
A smooth phase shifter can add color to a CD-1: Track 53
ballad or interest to a funky rhythm guitar comp.
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 125

There are several other types of reverb that balance for the overall mix. It's common for the
can sound great on many different musical parts. guitar to be playing the primary harmonic rhythm
Experiment. Often, the sound of the guitar is so part. If that part is panned even slightly to one
interesting with the delay, distortion and cho- side the entire mix can sound one-sided.
rus that there's really no need for much (if any) Sometimes the main guitar part gets in the
reverb. Clean guitar sounds typically benefit the way of the lead vocal or some other instrument
most from interesting and more complex reverb; that's panned to center. Rather than panning the
For instance, slow, open ballads and arena rock two parts apart from each other, try leaving the
projects sound good with hall and chamber re- lead vocal in the center, then running the guitar
verb using decay times in the range of 1.5-3 through an electronic double. Pan the original
seconds. Faster, punchy productions usually work guitar and the double apart from each other. This
well with plate, inverse and gated reverbs that keeps the presence and aggressive sound of the
have a decay time between .5-1.5 seconds. guitar but lets the vocal be heard and under-
Try adjusting the predelay to add a differ- stood better with less interference from the gui-
ent feel to the reverb sound. Longer predelays tar.
that match the tempo of the eighth note or quar- Most modern guitar effects are stereo. They
ter note can give both the effect of making the accept the single input from the guitar and have
part sound closer to the listener and the effect stereo outputs. These stereo outputs usually
that it was played in a large room. Listen as I come from a stereo delay, chorus, flanger or
adjust the predelay during Audio Example 4-17. phase shifter that is built into the guitar effects
processor. If I have enough available tracks I'll
usually print both of those outputs to tape. When
Audio Example 4-17 Adjusting Predelay CD-
there aren't many tracks left you generally can't
1: Track 54 print both outputs from the effect to tape. This
is not really a problem. If we need to we can
run the guitar through a stereo chorus, flanger
Panning or phase shifter during mixdown.
There might be two or more separate guitar parts A major problem with multiple guitar parts
with totally different sounds in the same song. arises when the mix is played in mono. All those
Though this is common, it can cause a bit of a tricky panning positions are laid on top of each
problem during mixdown where each part should other as everything goes to the center. It's cru-
be audible and understandable. Panning can play cial that each instrument have unique and dif-
a key role in helping you separate these differ- ferent EQ characteristics to maintain some iden-
ent sounding parts for the listener's sake. When tity in a mono mix. The song in Audio Example
used along with different EQ settings for each 4-18 has three guitar parts. Listen to each part
guitar part, panning the instruments to very spe- separately and notice that the sound on each is
cific locations can produce excellent results. similar. Equalizing like this might sound okay in
When positioning guitars in the left to right stereo, but when switched to mono, these parts
spectrum, be sure that you maintain an even don't retain much of their identity.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 126

entire sound has more clarity and low end punch.

Audio Example 4-18 Conflicting Guitars CD-
Cutting this frequency can help a double coil
1: Track 55
pickup sound like a single coil pickup. Audio
Example 4-21 shows the effect of cutting and
In Audio Example 4-19, first you hear each boosting 200Hz.
guitar part separately. Notice that they each have
very different sounding EQ. I'll pan them to ac-
ceptable positions in the mix. Finally, see if you
Audio Example 4-21 Boost and Cut 200Hz CD-
can still hear all the parts when I switch to mono
1: Track 56
at the end of the example.
The frequency range from 250Hz to 350Hz
can add punch and help the blend of a distorted
Audio Example 4-19 Equalized for Mono CD-
rock sound. Notice the change in texture of Au-
1: Track 55
dio Example 4-22 as I boost and cut 300Hz.

Audio Example 4-22 Boost and Cut 300Hz CD-

Equalizing the Guitar
1: Track 56
There are certain EQ ranges that add specific
qualities to guitar sounds. Depending on the type
of guitar and style of music, EQ changes can The frequency range from 500 to 600Hz
have varying results. Here are some good start- often contains most of the body and punchy
ing points for equalizing a guitar. character. Try to hear the body of the sound
100Hz can add a good solid low end to change as I cut and boost 550Hz on the guitar
most guitar sounds. Boost this frequency spar- in Audio Example 4-23.
ingly. It can be appropriate to turn this frequency
up, but most of the time a boost here will con-
Audio Example 4-23 Boost and Cut 550Hz
flict with the bass guitar. I end up cutting this
CD-1: Track 56
frequency quite often on guitar. Listen as I turn
100Hz up and down on the guitar sound in Au-
dio Example 4-20. The frequency range from 2.5kHz to about
5kHz adds edge and definition to most guitar
sounds. I'll boost and cut 4kHz on the guitar
Audio Example 4-20 Boost and Cut 100Hz sound in Audio Example 4-24.
CD-1: Track 56

Audio Example 4-24 Boost and Cut 4kHz

200Hz tends to be the muddy zone on
CD-1: Track 56
many guitar sounds. A boost here can make the
overall sound of the guitar dull. A cut at 200Hz
can expose the lows and the highs so that the
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 127

Boosting 8kHz to around 12kHz makes

many guitar sounds shimmer or sparkle. These Amplified Electric
frequencies can also contain much of the noise
from the signal processors so cutting these fre- Now let's focus on the miked amplifier/speaker
quencies slightly can minimize many noise prob- cabinet sound. This is the most popular sound
lems from the guitarist's equipment. Listen as I for recorded electric guitar. Guitarists typically
boost and cut 10kHz on the guitar sound in think of their guitar amp as a unit that includes
Audio Example 4-25. the speaker or speaker cabinet. Sometimes
people try to literalize the concept of miking the
amp to insinuate that you would actually place
Audio Example 4-25 Boost and Cut 10kHz a mic in front of the power amplifier instead of
CD-1: Track 56 the speaker. This is obviously not what is im-
plied when someone asks you to mike the gui-
The recording purist's approach to equal- tar amp. It's common to refer to miking the gui-
ization has always been to print the signal to tar amp, but it actually means to place a mic in
tape without EQ. It's true that recording with a front of the guitarist's speaker cabinet.
very extreme EQ can cause problems, but with A gu ita r going through a direct box
many guitar sounds, you're endeavoring to cre- straight into the mixer usually sounds too harsh
ate different and unique sounds. The tone is al- and sterile for most tastes. The guitar amp tends
most always a key ingredient in these sounds so to smooth out the guitar sound so when we
it's usually best to go ahead and print the equal- record the speaker of the amp, we usually get a

ized guitar signal. sound that blends into the mix better than a
direct sound.
A word of caution: If the sound is heavy in
When a guitarist chooses equipment, the
bass frequency content, it's generally better to
selections are based almost totally on sound.
print with less lows than you think you'll need
The other factors to equipment selection are
in mixdown. These frequencies are easy to turn
price and features, but I think we can agree that
up in the mix, and you won't lose anything by
serious guitar players develop the ir distinct
saving the addition of lows for mixdown. Low
sounds largely through the equipment they
frequencies contain the most energy of all the
choose. The guitar amplifier is one of the key
frequencies and virtually control the VU read-
factors in this sound scheme. We usually get the
ings. A sound with too many lows will read un-
best and most usable sounds when we mic the
naturally hot on your meters. If you end up need-
amp. Different amplifiers have different sounds,
ing more high-frequencies in the mix, they can
especially when they distort.
be buried in the mass of lows. When this hap-
The effects and sounds we've covered in
pens, your tracks become very noisy. As you try
the previous chapters are still very important to
to recover the clarity by boosting the highs, you
the guitarist's sound. Now we'll be able to add
end up boosting processor noise and tape noise.
the characteristic sound of the amplifier and
speaker cabinet to the picture, plus we can add
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 128

the acoustic sound of the room that the amp is Mic Techniques
in. Using a mic to capture the sound of the guitarist
Listen to the difference in sound between is not as simple as just selecting the best mic.
the guitar amplifiers in Audio Examples 4-26 to Where we place the mic and where we place
4-29. the amp can be equally influential on the final
Audio Example 4-26 demonstrates a small sound of the instrument. Although there are
solid-state amp with a clean sound. hundreds of different microphone available from
many manufacturers, they essentially all fit into
three basic categories: condenser, moving-coil
Audio Example 4-26 Clean Small Solid-state Amp and ribbon. Condenser and moving-coil mikes
CD-1: Track 57 are the most common of these three, although
they may all be used in recording as well as live
Audio Example 4-27 demonstrates the situations.
sound of a large tube amp with a clean sound. It's ideal if you have at least one good
moving-coil mic and one good condenser mic
for your recordings. With these two options avail-
Audio Example 4-27 Clean Large Tube Amp able you can cover most recording situations and
CD-1: Track 57 achieve professional sounding results. Please
refer to Chapter 3 for specifics about micro-
Audio Example 4-28 uses the small solid- phones and their characteristics.
state amp with the amp distorting.
The Most Common Approach to
Miking an Amp
Audio Example 4-28 Turn the amp up to a fairly strong level. This
Distorted Small Solid-state Amp doesn't have to be screaming loud, but most
CD-1: Track 58 amps sound fuller if they're turned up a bit.
Next, place a moving-coil mic about one
Audio Example 4-29 demonstrates the foot away from the speaker. Most guitar amps
large tube amp distorting. will have one or two full range speakers. These
speakers are typically 8 to 12 inches in diam-
eter. Moving-coil mics are the preferred choice
Audio Example 4-29 Distorted Large Tube Amp for close-miking amplifiers because they can
CD-1: Track 58 handle plenty of volume before they distort the
sound. Also, the tone coloration of a moving-
For Audio Examples 4-26 to 4-29 I used coil mic in the higher frequencies can add bite
the same mic and the same EQ through the same and clarity to the guitar sound.
board from the same distance. You can tell that If the amp you are miking has more than
the amp is critical to the character of the guitar one identical speaker, point the mic at one of
sound. the speakers. Point the mic at the center of the
 Chapter four* Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 129

speaker to get a sound with more bite and edge. from the speaker and pointed directly at the
Point the mic more toward the outer rim of the center of the speaker.
speaker to capture a warmer, smoother sound
(Illustration 4-10).
Audio Example 4-30
If you're miking a speaker enclosure with
Mic at the Center of the Speaker
separate tweeter, midrange and bass speakers,
CD-1: Track 59
you'll need to move the mic back two or three
feet just to get the overall sound of the cabinet.
This gets us into a situation where the room Audio Example 4-31 demonstrates the
sound becomes an important part of the sound sound of the same amp, same guitar and same
that goes onto the tape. musical part as Audio Example 4-30. Now the
Audio Example 4-30 demonstrates the mic is aimed about one inch in from the outside
sound of an amp with the mic placed six inches rim of the speaker while maintaining the dis-

Illustration 4-10
Aiming the Mic at the Speaker

Pointing the mic at the center of the

speaker produces a sound with more
high-frequency edge.

Pointing the mic away from the

center of the speaker and toward the
outer edge of the cone produces a
warmer, smoother sound with less
treble.
 The AudioPro Home Aecording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 130

tance of six inches from the speaker. Use a condenser mic to record the most
accurate sound of the room. Condensers have a
fuller sound from a distance than moving-coil
Audio Example 4-31
or ribbon mics and they capture the subtleties
Mic at the Outer Edge of the Speaker
of the room sound in more detail. In Audio Ex-
___________ CD-I: Track 59 __________
ample 4-32, I've placed a condenser mic about
seven feet away from the amp.
When the mic is within a foot of the
speaker, the room sound has minimal effect on
the sound that goes to tape, especially if the Audio Example 4-32
amp volume is fairly strong. If the guitarist hasn't Condenser Mic Seven Feet From the Amp CD-
already included reverb and delay in their selec- 1: Track 60
tion of effects, this approach will give you con-
sistently close-sounding tracks that you can add Audio Example 4-33 demonstrates the
distance (ambience) to by adding reverb or de- amp in Audio Example 4-32 through a close mic.
lay in the mix.
Powerful guitar sounds often include the
sound of the immediate space (the room) that Audio Example 4-33 Close-miking the Amp
the amp is in. This can be accomplished with CD-1: Track 61
reverb, but natural ambience can add an unusual
and distinct quality to a recording. Try including In Audio Example 4-34,1 blend the sound
the sound of the room with the sound of the of the close mic with the sound of the distant
guitar. This technique often breathes life into an mic and then pan the two apart.
otherwise dull sound.
As we move the mic back more than a
couple of feet from any amp, we're using dis- Audio Example 4-34
tant miking. The room sound becomes part of Combining the Close and Distant Mics
the overall sound. We can get great guitar CD-1: Track 62
sounds if we put one mic within a foot of the
amp and one mic back in the room several feet Adding the sound of the room to the close-
away from the amp. With this technique, we can miked sound usually helps the sound of a dis-
blend the sound of the mic closest to the amp torted guitar blend into the mix better. The gui-
with ambient sound captured by the mic farther tar part will sound bigger, and the tonal charac-
away. We can combine these two sounds to one ter will be more interesting and unique.
track as we record, or if tracks permit, we can Most people don't have access to a multi-
print each mic to a separate track and save the million dollar studio with large rooms that sound
blending or panning for mixdown. The effective- great. But even within your own abode lay many
ness of this approach is dependent on whether interesting acoustical possibilities. Try moving the
the sound of the room is musically appropriate. guitar amp and the mic into the bathroom.
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 131

Sometimes it's almost as much fun to play gui- to Illustration 4-11 for a diagram of this setup.
tar in the shower as it is to sing in the shower.
All those hard surfaces and natural reverb can
Audio Example 4-35
do wonders for a dull sound. Move the mic back
Miking the Amp in the Shower
a few feet from the speaker and crank it up! In
CD-1: Track 63
Audio Example 4-35, I have the guitar amp in
the bathroom with the mic pointing into the
shower. The shower door is partially closed to If you want to increase the size of your
shield the mic from the direct amp sound. Refer room sound, place the amp toward one end of

Illustration 4-11
Shower-verb
The sound of the guitar reverberating around in the shower can be very interesting
and is often quite usable.

i—
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 132

Illustration 4-12
Accentuating the Sound of the Room

1. The cardioid mic is pointing away from the speaker

and toward the same wall the speaker points to.

2. The mic hears the reflection of sound off the wall,

producing the apparent sound that the mic is further
from the speaker. This technique simulates the sound

of recording in a larger room.

the room and place the mic a few feet from the to the same track be conservative with the
amp. Now instead of pointing the mic at the amount of room you include. Too much room
amp, point it away from the amp. If the micro- sound might cause the track to sound distant in
phone has a selectable pickup pattern, select the mix. You can always add a little reverb in
cardioid. Otherwise, select a mic that has a car- the mix if the guitar sound needs more depth,
dioid pickup pattern. Since the mic is pointed but it's very difficult to take away the sound of
away from the amp, it doesn't hear the direct the room if your guitar sounds too distant.
sound from the amp as well. What it does hear If your home has a hallway with bedrooms
is the reflection of the sound off the wall that and/or bathrooms off of it, position the guitar
the speaker and the mic are pointing at. This amp at the open end of the hallway. Point the
essentially increases the delay of the initial re- speakers toward the hallway. Now put mics in
flection and makes the room sound larger (Il- two of the rooms off the hallway, and open the
lustration 4-12). doors into those rooms. Also, put a mic directly
If possible, print the room mic(s) to sepa- in front of the speaker cabinet. Run all three of
rate tracks of the multitrack. If you keep them the mics into your mixer. If you only have two
separate, you can choose the proper blend of mics, this technique can still work well—just use
the direct and reflected sound during the mix. If one of the rooms off the hallway. Now pan the
you must print the close mic and the room mic(s) direct mic center and the room mics hard left
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 133

and hard right. Turn the amp up to a substan- tion can produce brilliant sounds that can spark
tially potent level, have the guitarist play and your recording process on to new levels of in-
check out the interesting stereo sound. Blend novation and excellence.
the center mic and the room mics until you have In Audio Example 4-36, the amp is at the
just enough room and just enough direct sound. end of a hallway, one mic is eight inches from
Techniques like this can quickly use up several the speaker, a second mic is in the bathroom off
mics and tracks, but this kind of experimenta- the hallway and a third mic is in a bedroom off

Illustration 4-13
Three Mics and a Hall
1. Turn the amplifier up. With
this technique you need
enough volume to fill
rooms A and B.
2. Run all three mics to
different mixer channels.
3. Mic 1 picks up the close
sound. It should be panned
to the center position.
4. Pan mic 2 left and mic 3
right. This results in a very
big acoustic sound. The
farther the amp is from
rooms A and B, the bigger

the sound.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 134

the hallway. I'll turn each mic up separately, sounds and pan them apart.
starting with the close mic, then I'll blend them
all together and pan the room mics hard left
and hard right for a true stereo sound. See Illus- Audio Example 4-37
tration 4-13 for a map of this setup. Combining Miked and Direct Signals
CD-1: Track 65

Audio Example 4-36 Multiple-Room Miking

CD-1: Track 64

Acoustic Guitars
It's often difficult to get that perfectly
blended electric guitar sound. Experimentation If I have an electric acoustic guitar should I mike
with microphone techniques can really help solve it or run it through a direct box? Acoustic gui-
some problems. The key factors involved in shap- tars with pickups can work well in a live perfor-
ing guitar sounds are the raw sound from the mance situation. Simply plug into the board, an
instrument, choice of effects and acoustical in- amp or through a direct box. You can get a pass-
teraction of the sound in the room. There's much able sound and eliminate one microphone in the
room for creativity here. Start practicing and setup. However, though the sound can be okay
building your own arsenal of techniques that you for live performances it's hardly ever a great
like. With the rapid development of affordable sound for recording. The sound from an electric
technology right now, you'll need to use all avail- acoustic pickup typically sounds sterile and small
able resources to create a new and unique sound and it doesn't have the broad, full, interesting
that can rise above the masses. sound of the acoustic instrument. To run an elec-
tric acoustic guitar direct into a mixer, follow
Combining the Miked and Direct the same procedure as with any electric guitar.
Signals Audio Examples 4-38 and 4-39 use the same
It's possible and common to blend the miked acoustic steel string guitar. Audio Example 4-38
amplifier signal with the direct signal. Plug the demonstrates the acoustic guitar run direct
guitar into the direct box, then plug into an into the board from the instrument pickup.
amplifier from the Dls's out to amp jack. Once
this is completed, proceed with miking the amp.
Audio Example 4-38 Acoustic Guitar Direct In
From the direct box you can also patch the low-
impedance XLR output into the mic input of your
CD-1: Track 66
mixer. With this setup the direct signal is com-
ing in one channel, and the microphone signal Audio Example 4-39 is the same guitar as
is coming in another channel (Illustration 4-14). Audio Example 4-38 using a microphone to cap-
Listen to Audio Example 4-37. I'll turn up the ture its sound to tape.
direct signal alone, then I'll turn the miked
signal up alone and finally I'll blend the two
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 135

Illustration 4-14
Combining the Direct and Miked Sounds

duce some unique and usable sounds. There are

Audio Example 4-39 Miking the Acoustic Guitar
all sorts of variables that can cause us to record
CD-1: Track 66 in atypical ways. We need to be open to almost
any approach in the interest of finding a new
The miked guitar has more tone and char- and exciting sound.
acter; it sounds better. If you don't want the true
sound of the instrument, running direct can pro-

L
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 136

Mic Techniques inches from the guitar, we can potentially get a

Typically, the best kind of mic to use on any sound that has too much bass, especially as we
acoustic guitar is a condenser mic. Condensers move over the sound hole. We can control the
capture more of the subtlety of the attack, the frequency content of the acoustic guitar sound
sound of the pick on the strings and the nuance dramatically by changing mic placement. If there
of artistic expression. Also, condenser micro- are too many lows in your acoustic guitar sound,
phones produce a full sound when miking from try moving the mic up the neck and away from
a distance. Moving-coil mics and ribbon mics can the sound hole, moving the mic back away from
produce passable acoustic guitar sounds, espe- the guitar to the distance of one or two feet or
cially if that's all you have, but the accepted mic turning the low frequencies down.
of choice for acoustic guitars is a condenser. One way to turn the low frequencies down
The steel string acoustic is the most com- is by using the bass roll-off switch. Most con-
mon acoustic guitar. These guitars come in many denser microphones have a switch to turn the
different shapes, sizes and brands. Each varia- bass frequencies down. These switches may have
tion has a characteristic sound, but the primary a number by them to indicate the frequency
trait of the acoustic guitar is a very clear and where the roll-off starts. The number is typically
full sound. The second most common type of between 60 and 150. If there's no number, there
acoustic guitar is the nylon string classical gui- might be a single line that slopes down to the
tar. Classical guitars have a warm, full and mel- left. When you use a condenser mic for close-
low sound.
miking, you'll usually need to use the bass roll-
Audio Example 4-40 demonstrates the off switch to keep a good balance between lows
sound of a steel string acoustic guitar.
and highs.
If we point a mic at different parts of the
Audio Example 4-40 acoustic guitar while it's being played, we find

The Steel String Acoustic Guitar that each zone has a different sound. There are

CD-1: Track 67 all sorts of tricky ways to combine these differ-

ent sounds from different places on the guitar,
but it's usually best to keep it simple. More mics
Audio Example 4-41 demonstrates the mean more chances of problematic phase inter-
sound of a nylon string classical guitar. action and more chance that your great stereo
sound will turn to mush when your mix is heard

Audio Example 4-41 in mono.

The Nylon String Classical Guitar I've tried many techniques for miking
acoustic guitars, using up to four or five mics.
CD-1: Track 68
The method that consistently works the best for
me uses one good condenser mic placed in the
In Audio Examples 4-40 and 4-41, I used position that gets the sound I need for the track.
a condenser mic about eight inches away from There are three common positions to mike
the guitar. With a condenser mic six to eight the guitar: in front of the sound hole, behind
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 137

Illustration 4-15
Acoustic Guitar Mic Positions

the bridge and over the neck. Though each in-

strument has its own characteristic sound, each
Audio Example 4-42 The Sound Hole
of these possible mic positions holds a consis-
CD-I: Track 69
tent type of sound from one guitar to the next:
Over the neck contains the highs, over the sound If you position the mic over the top and
hole contains the lows and over the body be- behind the bridge, the sound will be strongest
hind the bridge contains the mids. in mids like the sound in Audio Example 4-43.
We'll use a steel string acoustic for the
next set of Audio Examples, but all the tech-
Audio Example 4-43 Behind the Bridge CD-
niques are worth trying on any acoustic steel
string, nylon string or 12-string guitar (Illustra-
1: Track 69
tion 4-15).
If you position the mic directly over the Point the mic at the front of the neck to
sound hole, the sound you'll capture will be bass- hear more highs from the guitar, like the sound
heavy and boomy like the sound in Audio Ex- in Audio Example 4-44. This mic position can
ample 4-42. produce a good usable sound, but you might
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 138

have a problem with string and finger noise.

Audio Example 4-46 Three Feet Away CD-1:
Track 70
Audio Example 4-44 Over the Neck
CD-I: Track 69
Audio Example 4-47 uses the same acous-
tic guitar as the previous two examples. The mic
The sound I get from one condenser mic is still three feet from the guitar, but the guitar
pointed at the front of the neck, between the is in a smaller room than Audio Example 4-46.
sound hole and where the neck joins the body
of the guitar is very often the most usable. That
Audio Example 4-47 Smaller Room
doesn't mean that I don't use other techniques.
CD-1: Track 70
Neither does it mean I'm not always trying new
approaches on these instruments. In reality, we
can do almost anything in almost any way and Audio Example 4-48 keeps the same gui-
still get away with it if the sound supports the tar and player as Audio Examples 4-44 to 4-47.
musical impact. Take these standard techniques This time the guitar is recorded in a bathroom.
and build on them. Push the limits.
When we miked the electric guitar amp,
Audio Example 4-48 The Bathroom
the room began to play an important part in the
CD-1: Track 70
sound of the instrument. The same is true for
miking the acoustic. As we move the mic away
from the instrument, the character of the sound The acoustic guitar sounds in Audio Ex-
changes dramatically. The music you're record- amples 4-44 to 4-48 are all different though
ing determines the usefulness of room sound. theoretically usable in a musical context. Some-
The acoustic guitar in Audio Example times we get so caught up in wanting more and
4-45 was recorded with the mic six inches in more reverbs and effects units that we forget
front of the instrument, pointed between the what great sounds are right in front of us, in
sound hole and where the neck joins the body. our own living or working space. They're always
at hand and at no additional cost. What a deal!
In addition, if you add effects to some of these
Audio Example 4-45 interesting acoustic sounds, you might end up
Over the Neck, Near the Sound Hole
with some unique textures that add individual-
CD-1: Track 69
ity to your sound.
Individual acoustic guitars often produce
Audio Example 4-46 demonstrates the different tonal balance when miked at different
guitar from Audio Example 4-45 with the mic spots. In other words, there isn't one microphone
three feet away from the instrument and pointed placement that works best for every guitar. Ex-
at the sound hole. periment with each instrument to fin d the
sounds you like.
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 139

Tuning/Instrument Selection Medium- and heavy-gauge strings produce

How old are the guitar strings? The age of the more volume and bass frequencies than light-
strings plays a very important role in the sound gauge strings; they give the guitar a full sound.
of any guitar. It's especially important on acous- The sound of heavier strings is typically even in
tic guitars. New strings add clarity and high fre- level, from lows to highs. This kind of sound
quency. Old strings produce a sound that's dull works very well for rhythm strumming parts.
and muffled.
There's one problem with new strings. They Picks
squeak more when the guitarist moves around Another very important factor in the sound of
on the neck. This can be a problem when re- an acoustic guitar is the pick. Playing with a thin
cording. The best players usually have enough pick gives a sound that has more clear high fre-
technique and finesse to play on brand new quencies. The thin pick slapping as it plucks the
strings without much of a problem. For the rest strings becomes part of the sound. Playing with
of us, there can be other solutions. The quickest a thick pick produces a full sound with more
way to get the strings to squeak less is to put bass and fewer highs, plus we don't get as much
something on them that is slippery. Unfortu- of the pick sound.
nately, slippery products usually contain some Audio Examples 4-49 and 4-50 use the
sort of oil. Your local music store has access to same guitar and mic setup. The only change is
commercially manufactured products designed the guitar pick. Audio Example 4-49 was per-
to make guitar strings more slippery. These prod- formed with a very thin pick.
ucts can work very well. I even know people who
put the thinnest possible coat of vegetable oil
Audio Example 4-49 Thin Pick
on their strings. Use any of these products spar-
CD-1: Track 71
ingly. Oil on strings causes them to lose bril-
liance and clarity. You might end up with no
squeaks at the expense of all that great acous- Audio Example 4-50 was performed with
tic guitar sound. a very thick pick.
Guitar strings come in different gauges, or
sizes. Light-gauge strings are thinner than heavy-
Audio Example 4-50 Thick Pick
gauge strings. Light-gauge strings produce a
CD-1: Track 71
sound that has less bass and more highs. The
sound is thinner. Lighter strings also give less
volume than heavy strings and don't project as
well in a group. These strings might not work Dynamic Processing and the
well in a live acoustic performance situation, but Acoustic Guitar
in the studio, they can give you a very clean, Acoustic guitars have a wide dynamic range. A
transparent and usable sound. This kind of sound compressor can help even out the volume level
works very well for single-note picking parts and of the different pitch ranges and strings. Some
arpeggiated chords. instruments even have individual notes that are
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 140

Illustration 4-16A
One Uncompressed Note on Acoustic Guitar

much louder than others. Low notes (on the acoustic guitar without compression.
larger strings) will usually produce a lot more
energy and volume than higher notes on the
smaller strings. Review Chapter 2 if you aren't
Audio Example 4-51 No Compression CD-1:
familiar with the controls on a compressor.
Track 72
Try th is approach to compressing the
acoustic guitar: Audio Example 4-52 uses the same acous-
• Set the ratio control between 3:1 and 5:1. tic guitar as Audio Example 4-51. This time the
• Adjust the attack time. Slower attack times signal is compressed with a gain reduction of
accentuate the sound of the pick. The fastest up to 7dB.
attack times will de-emphasize the sound of
the pick (Illustrations 4-16A to 4-16C).
Audio Example 4-52 Compressed
• Adjust the release time. Setting this control
CD-1: Track 72
between one and two seconds usually sounds
the smoothest.
• Adjust the threshold for a gain reduction of
3 to 7dB on the loudest part of the track.
Audio Example 4-51 demonstrates the
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 141

Illustration 4-16B
Compressed Guitar Note With a Fast Attack

On this note, the compressor's attack time was

fast enough to compress the peak, along with
the rest of the note. Notice the peak is now
only 1 dB above the threshold.

This is the result of a 5:1 ratio with fast attack

time and a threshold 10dB below the original
peak.

The attack of this note is now only 2dB above

the threshold.

This compression technique typically produces a

dull acoustic guitar sound.

Illustration 4-16C
Compressed Guitar Note With a Slow Attack
The attack time is longer here than in Illustration
4-16B. Now the attack is not compressed but
the rest of the note is. Notice that now the peak
is 9dB above the rest of the note.

All of the note except the attack has been

compressed at a ratio of 5:1, so it's only 1 dB over
the threshold.

Depending on the musical setting, this

technique might result in too much attack. But
when used properly, the exaggerated attack
results in a guitar sound that is clear, with lots of
definition.

Fine-tune the adjustment of the attack,

threshold and ratio to get the sound you want.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 142

Equalizing the Acoustic Guitar

Audio Example 4-54 Boost 12kHz
We use equalization on acoustic guitar to shape
CD-1: Track 73
the sound for the space in the mix that we want
the guitar to fill. From our audio examples, you
can tell that much of the sound can be shaped If the guitar is sounding muddy, we can
through mic placement, string selection and pick usually clean the sound up by turning the lower
selection. If we have a well-maintained guitar mids down (between 200 and 500Hz). Listen to
with the correct mic placed precisely where it the change in the guitar sound in Audio Example
should be and a great player playing the appro- 4-55 as I turn down the curve centered on
priate strings with the perfect pick, using im- 300Hz.
peccable technique to play wonderful parts that
have phenomenal artistic expression, we might
Audio Example 4-55 Cut 300Hz
not need to use much EQ, if any.
CD-1: Track 73
Let's look at some common solutions to
equalization problems you might encounter
when recording acoustic guitars. When you need more edge or definition
The most common equalization of the from the sound, boost a frequency between 3
acoustic guitar involves cutting the low frequen- and 5kHz. Audio Example 4-56 demonstrates the
cies, below 150Hz, down. Lows can be very pre- sound of boosting the acoustic guitar at 4kHz.
dominate and boomy on an acoustic guitar.
These low frequencies can clash with the bass
Audio Example 4-56 Boost 4kHz
guitar, bass drum, piano or any full-range in-
CD-1: Track 73
strument. In Audio Example 4-53, I'll turn the
frequencies below 150Hz down. This can make
the guitar sound a little thin when the guitar is Adjust a frequency between 1.5 and
by itself, but this sound generally works best in 2.5kHz to emphasize or de-emphasize the sound
the mix. of the pick hitting the strings. The actual fre-
quency you select depends on the type of strings,
gauge of strings, the physical makeup of the gui-
Audio Example 4-53 Cut 150Hz tar and the pick. In Audio Example 4-57, I boost
CD-1: Track 73 then cut 2kHz.

Another common EQ for acoustic guitar

Audio Example 4-57 Boost and Cut 2kHz
involves adding a high-frequency shimmer at
CD-1: Track 73
about 10 to 12kHz. On the guitar in Audio Ex-
ample 4-54, I'll boost 12kHz.
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 143

Reverb on acoustic guitar. The guitar in Audio Example

The choice of reverberation when record- 4-59 has a stereo flanger and slapback delay
ing acoustic guitar is dependent on the musical set to the same speed as the eighth note. This is
style and arrangement of the song. In folk, coun- a very usable sound, although it doesn't reflect
try or blues, the acoustic guitar might use little the purist's approach to the acoustic guitar.
or no reverb. Any reverberation used in these
styles is typically very natural sounding. Hall and
Audio Example 4-59 Flange With Delay CD-
chamber settings on digital reverbs can smooth
1: Track 75
out the sound without being intrusive or obvi-
ous. Decay times of one to two seconds work
very well. These reverberation settings can help
the part blend into the mix without dominating Double Tracking the Acoustic
the sound of a song. Guitar
On the folk style part in Audio Example One way to get a really full sound from the
4-58,1 start with no reverberation, then I add a acoustic is to do a live double track. If the player
small amount of chamber reverb with a 1.5 sec- can duplicate the part, record the duplicate gui-
ond decay time. tar part onto another track. If you play the origi-
nal track in the headphones, a good guitarist
should be able to duplicate the part with a fair
Audio Example 4-58 Chamber Reverb CD-I: degree of accuracy. Pan these two tracks apart
Track 74 during playback. This creates a chorus-delay-
flange-phase shifting effect that happens natu-
Pop and commercial rock musical styles are rally as the two parts work together.
more likely to use chorus type effects and un- Audio Examples 4-60 and 4-61 demon-
natural sounding reverb. Even in these styles, the strate this double tracking technique. Listen to
acoustic guitar is often treated as a natural in- Audio Example 4-60 for the original track.
strument. If chorus effects or delays are used,
they're typically intended to simulate the effect
Audio Example 4-60 Acoustic Guitar CD-1:
of double tracking.
Track 76
Ballads are more likely to use more effect
on the acoustic guitar. The rich texture of the
reverberated guitar can be heard and appreci- Audio Example 4-61 shows how adding

ated in the open texture of a pop ballad. the double tracked acoustic adds fullness and

If a delay is used, adjust the delay time in depth, especially when the two parts are panned
relation to the tempo of the song. See Illustra- away from each other in the stereo spectrum.

tion 2-15 in Chapter 2 for a chart of delay times

relative to tempo.
Audio Example 4-61 Adding the Double Track
In the proper context, any of the chorus,
CD-1: Track 76
flanger or phase shifter effects can sound great
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 144

D is to r t io n plifier. If we mike the speaker cabinet, we can

Distortion is the backbone of the rock guitar take advantage of the acoustical interaction of
sound but is rarely used on acoustic guitar even room ambience.
in the rock style. That's not to say that you This chapter gives all you keyboard sound
shouldn't experiment with distortion on acous- designers an edge when it comes to building a
tic. You might be the pioneer of some new com- great guitar sound. Being familiar with the finer
mercial sound phenomenon. details of the different types of guitar sounds
will add to the authenticity of your keyboard
work.

Synthesized and Sampled Guitar Keyboardists can get frustrated because

their latest set of great new guitar sounds

Sounds doesn't really sound like guitar when they're in

the context of a song. Much of the problem lies
These sounds are typically digital recordings of in the musical interpretation rather than in the
real guitars. After hearing the Audio Examples sound. A guitar is limited in the way that it's
in this course, you should be familiar with the laid out physically and harmonically. There are
primary guitar sounds. You've learned some usually only a few ways to play most chords. The
good, reliable techniques for recording them. The order and range of the notes in the chords are
same techniques apply to recording synth and dictated by the layout of the guitar neck. If you
sampled guitar sounds. From my experience, all really want to play guitar parts on the keyboard

the techniques we've covered in this lesson can that sound like guitar, learn the limitations of

apply to recording synth or sampled guitar the instrument and build your simulated guitar
parts within those limitations. Besides the physi-
sounds. If I'm recording a sample of a simple
cal and harmonic idiosyncrasies of the guitar,
guitar, I approach it as if it's coming from a gui-
you should familiarize yourself with the stylistic
tar. If I'm recording a sample of a stereo cho-
nuances that are characteristic of the style for
rused, echoed, reverberated guitar, then obvi-
which you're preparing the guitar part. I've found
ously much of the work is already done. I still
that any instrument has its own set of identify-
might try a few different delays or reverb sounds
ing licks. If you're not playing your synth like a
along with what's already incorporated in the
screaming rock guitar, it'll never sound like a
sample. Avoid combining effects if the combi-
screaming rock guitar, no matter how good the
nations cause the clarity of the sound to disap-
sample is.
pear, but don't be afraid to use your tools. If
Keyboard workstations have reverb, cho-
you've found a really great sound that enhances
rus and distortion effect built in. These can all
the music, use it.
work well on guitar type sounds, and they're
Even the mic techniques we've seen work
usually very easy to get to. Try different combi-
well on real guitars can be applied to the key-
nations within the workstation, then go out of
board guitar sounds. Although we usually run
the workstation and try the techniques covered
keyboards direct into the mixer, that doesn't
in this lesson.
mean we can't plug the keyboard into an am-
 Chapter four • Guitars and Guitar Sounds • page 145

Conclusion
We've gone through some of the basic concepts
of recording guitars, and we're starting to put
the information in Chapters 1, 2 and 3 to use in
ways that apply specifically to guitar. Listen to
the Audio Examples enough times to become
familiar with the sounds of each type of guitar.
Try each of the techniques and concepts out-
lined in this chapter using your setup. Think of
different ways to combine direct sounds with
miked sounds. Practice!
Recording is always subject to listener
appeal. If people like the sounds you've created,
then you've done something right. If they con-
sistently don't like the sounds you've created, it
could be time to reevaluate your approach. The
techniques I offer in this course are field tested
and reliable. They offer solutions to recording
situations that you might encounter. The results
have been proven to be effective. Work from
these ideas and build on them.
In Chapter 5 we'll study different concepts
of miking the drum set and common percussion
instruments. The percussion family has some of
the most unique and interesting sounding in-
struments, and there are very special consider-
ations to keep in mind when recording them.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 146

5 Acoustic Drums and Percussion

drum sound must also be appropriate for the
The Percussion family musical style of the song that it's in. Good drum
sounds will almost always have:

T
he percussion family contains some of • Clean highs that blend with the mix
the most interesting sounding instru- • Solid lows that blend with the mix
ments. Many of these instruments re- • Enough mids to feel punch
quire special consideration and care when • Not so many mids that the sound is muddy
they're being recorded. In this chapter, we'll • Natural sound that possesses a warm tone
cover these special considerations, plus we'll • Dimension, often sounding larger than life
look at some common ways to process the dif- • Believably appropriate reverberation
ferent sounds. Typically when I refer to drums, • Balance and blend in the mix
I'm talking about a drum set which is also called With all of these qualifications in mind,
the kit, or the set. The drum set usually includes this list of characteristics is worth considering
a bass drum (also called the kick), a snare drum, when evaluating and shaping your drum and
torn toms and cymbals. percussion sounds. Start building your own list
Percussion usually indicates the instru- of what you think is consistent about good drum
ments like tambourine, triangle, cowbell, con- sounds.
gas, bongos or shakers. In reality, the percus- The most important thing you can do at
sion family definitely includes the drum set, and this point is listen to a lot of different styles of
the drum set can contain any member of the music that have been recorded in a lot of differ-
percussion family. The terms are used loosely, ent studios by a lot of different top-notch pro-

but in a session, the drum track includes the kit, fessionals. Subject yourself to a large quantity
and the percussion tracks contain any percus- of music. Try to be very analytical about the
sounds that you're hearing. It's one thing to let
sion instruments other than the kit.
the music passively cross your ears, it's another
Most people haven't listened enough with
to actually hear what's going on texturally, mu-
analytical ears to decide what they like and dis-
sically and sonically. Refer to Illustration 5-1 for
like about certain drum sounds. They have noth-
some guided listening assignments.
ing on which to base their opinions. When con-
sidering drum sounds, there are some common
characteristics that exist in drum sounds that
most of us would call good. The term good is
obviously subject to individual opinion. A good
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 147

Illustration 5-1
Assignment: Listening Exercise
Listen to at least 10 different songs and specifically focus in on the drums. Make a list of
all the drums you can hear on each tune. These might include bass drum (also called
the kick drum), snare drum, toms, cymbals, shaker, tambourine, triangle or any of a
seemingly never-ending list of percussion instruments. Once you've made a list of what
you're hearing in the recording, focus on each instrument and write down things that
you like or don't like about the different sounds. If you're hearing a kick drum, you might
like the way it seems to hit you in the chest every time it's played, or you might like the
way the attack of the kick seems to go right through you. These kind of observations
can be very valuable as you practice recording the different instruments. One of the
consistent problems people have when they're new to recording is that they haven't
developed an opinion of what they think a good sound is. When you listen to music in
this way, you'll often hear traits of the sounds that you hadn't noticed before. This
exercise is well worth going through with each instrument. It will help you increase your
understanding of how each instrument functions musically.
Find and study examples of rock, country, R&B, jazz, pop, blues and heavy metal songs.
Each of these styles has a little different approach to drums. We can learn quite a bit
about our options for shaping drum sounds by recognizing these differences.
For each style, make a list of descriptive adjectives for the drum and percussion sounds.
Use words like thin, punchy, tinny, beefy and so on. Also, make a list of how the drum
sounds are treated in the mix. Use phrases like close-sounding, very heavy reverb, long
thin reverb or dry.
continued...

comparative advantages and disadvantages.

Theories of Drum Miking Anytime you're recording drums, it's best

to keep the drums and the drummer in a sepa-
We're going to focus on the drum set first. There rate room from the recording equipment, so the
are a lot of different ways to mike a drum set. engineer can hear what the drums sound like as
I'll outline some of the miking techniques that they're going to tape without acoustic interfer-
are commonly used throughout the recording ence from the live drums. This scenario is ideal
industry. If you listen to the audio examples and for most recording situations, but in a home stu-
practice these techniques yourself, you'll learn dio it's not always possible or practical simply

what to expect from these different methods, because of the lack of square footage.

and you'll develop your own opinions about their If your recording equipment is in the same
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 148

Illustration 5-1
...continued

One common arranging trick used to keep a listener's interest in a song involves varying
the percussion instruments on each musical section. Often, producers will record all of
the percussion instruments throughout a song, waiting until mixdown to decide which
percussion part belongs in each musical section. As an exercise in your understanding of
the impact of variation in percussion parts, select your ten favorite recordings then, for
each recording, chart the order of the verses, choruses, bridge, solos and any other
musical sections (like the diagram below). Under each section, list the percussion
instruments you can hear along with their panning position. Depending on the specific
music you're analyzing, you'll probably notice that one or two percussion instruments
are added on the chorus, and possibly the bridge.

room with the drums when you're recording , it ing a workable sound, start laying down the real
takes a little more time and much more trial and thing.
error, but you can still get good sounds. You'll Most of the drum sounds you hear on al-
need to record 20 to 30 seconds of the track, bums are achieved through the use of several
then rewind and evaluate the sounds you're microphones recorded separately to several
getting. Make any adjustments you need to, then tracks that are blended and balanced during the
repeat this process until you're satisfied with the mixdown. This is ideal. Practically speaking, most
sound. Once you're satisfied that you're record- people don't have a pile of microphones to use
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 149

at home, let alone 8 to 12 available tracks on moving-coil microphones can give you good re-
the multitrack for drums. Most people have one sults. I don't recommend buying the least ex-
or two microphones, and these microphones pensive mic, but you don't have to use a $3000
weren't purchased with drums or percussion in mic to achieve acceptable results either. Believe
mind, but as your setup and skills build you'll me, as you record more you'll start to have fa-
want to build your arsenal of task-specific mi- vorite microphones for each task. With all things
crophones. in perspective, there are plenty of microphones
You should have a good condenser mic for available that can act as excellent tools for your
over the drum set and for cymbals. Condensers recordings.
are the mic of choice for percussion, and they
do the best job of capturing the true sound of
each instrument. The fact that condenser micro- Recording a Drum Set With One
phones respond to transients more accurately
than the other types of microphones makes them Microphone
an obvious choice for percussion instruments,
like tambourine, shaker, cymbals, triangle, claves As we build from the one mic approach to the
or guiro. multiple mic approach, we'll consider techniques
The mic of choice for close-miking toms, that can help optimize each approach. There is
snare and kick is a moving-coil mic, like a Shure definitely something to be learned from each
SM57, Sennheiser 421 or Electro-Voice RE20. approach and each of these audio examples, so
Though they don't have the transient response please be diligent in your pursuit of excellent
of condenser microphones, moving-coil micro- drum sounds.
phones work great for close-miking drums be- Mic placement is the main concern when
cause they can withstand intense amounts of using one mic to record the drums. Where you
volume before distorting. Also, most moving-coil place the mic in relation to the drums is the pri-
microphones have a built-in sensitivity in the mary determining factor of balance between the
upper frequency range, which provides an EQ drums and intimacy of the drum sounds. In Chap-
that accentuates the attack of the drum. ter 4, we found that including the acoustic sound
If you have access to ribbon microphones, of the room that the guitars were in made a big
try them on the drums or overheads. They can difference in the sound of the guitar track. The
sound great. They don't have the same excel-
same is true of the drum set and individual per-
lent transient response as a condenser micro-
cussion instruments. The amount of room sound
phone and they typically don't produce the ag-
that you include in the drum track can totally
gressive EQ edge of the moving-coil, but they
change the effect of the drum part. The sound
can provide some excellent sounds. Be careful!
of the room that the drum set is in plays a very
Ribbons are fragile, and if used in a close mic
important role in the sound of the drum track,
configuration, they'll usually break when hit by
especially if you use a distant miking technique.
a misdirected drum stick.
The advantage of a small recording setup
Most reasonably priced condenser and
is portability. If you're using a few microphones
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 150

Illustration 5-2

Illustration 5-3
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 151

and have a small 4- or 8-track, try moving the

Audio Example 5-1 Mic in Front
recorder and the drums into a warehouse, con-
CD-2: Track 1
cert hall or gymnasium. Recording in these larger
spaces can give your drum sounds punch, life
and character that simply can't be electronically In Audio Example 5-2 the mic is behind
duplicated. the kit, just above the drummer's head and
Listen to these examples of a complete pointed at the kit (Illustration 5-3).
drum set recorded with one microphone. Audio
Examples 5-1 to 5-5 all use the same drum set
Audio Example 5-2 Mic Over Drummer's Head
in the same studio.
___________CD-2: Track 2 __________
In Audio Example 5-1, the drum set was
recorded with one mic directly in front of the
kit, pointed at the set and about six feet from In Audio Example 5-3, the mic is about four
the floor (Illustration 5-2). feet above the set and is pointed down at the
drums. When a mic is placed over the drums and
points down at the set, it's called an overhead
(Illustration 5-4).

Illustration 5-4
One Mic Overhead
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 152

Illustration 5-5
One Mic Eight Feet Away

at once. In commercial popular music, we al-

Audio Example 5-3 Overhead
most always want separate control over the level,
CD-2:Track 3
EQ and effects on the different drums.
Adding reverb to one mic that's picked up
Finally, in Audio Example 5-4, we hear the the entire kit will tend to produce a distant
drum set from one mic, positioned about eight sound. The drum set can lose punch and defini-
feet away and pointed toward the kit (Illustra- tion. Audio Example 5-5 demonstrates the sound
tion 5-5). of one mic on the drum set with the addition of
plate reverb with a two-second decay time.

Audio Example 5-4 Eight Feet Away

CD-2:Track 4 Audio Example 5-5 Plate on the Set
CD-2:Track 5
Each one of these mic positions has a dif-
ferent sound. The difference lies in the amount
of acoustic room sound we include as we move Be Mobile!
the mic closer to and farther from the set. If you have a drum set or a drummer friend who's
The disadvantage to using only one mic is willing to be a gracious participant, set the
lack of control over the individual drum sounds. drums up and start recording. Record several
If we want to EQ the kick separately or put re- passes of the same groove. On each new pass,
verb just on the snare drum, we're really out of move the mic. Try any placement you can dream
luck. If we've used just one or two microphones up: put the mic under the snare, put the mic in a
to pick up the entire kit, any effects that are different room, place the mic very close to the
added to the drums are added to all the drums kit or hang the mic around the drummer's neck.
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 153

For real fun, move the drums and the mic sound far better than the others. That's the na-
to a different space, like a garage, a warehouse, ture of acoustics. World class recording studios
a concert hall, the local high school gymnasium, all have great equipment, but one of the big-
outside or virtually any space that's available and gest considerations involved in choosing a fa-
legal. cility for a major project is the acoustic sound of
In each acoustical environment, move the its recording rooms.
mic to several different spots to record. Keep a
written log of which spaces you recorded in,
where the mics were placed and how you liked Recording a Kit With Two Mics
the sound of each environment. Record a verbal
reference on your tapes to help document and Let's expand on our single microphone approach
duplicate your results. Both the written log and to recording drums. You need to build on the
the verbal reference and the written log should knowledge you've gained while using just one
contain the tape number, take number, location mic on the kit. As you add more microphones,
of the recording, mic placement, type of mics, your goal is to gain more control over the sounds
type of drums and the date. and have flexibility when equalizing and put-
Study your recordings and rate the sound ting effects on the individual drums.
of each. There will probably be a few spaces that With two microphones on the set there are

Illustration 5-6

One Mic Overhead, OnejjiJ

 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 154

two primary options: you can use both mics to- definition in the mix. Choosing to close-mike the
gether in a stereo configuration or you can use kick or the snare is purely a musical decision
one mic for overall pickup while using the other that's dependent on the drum part and the de-
fo r a specific instrument. sired effect in the arrangement. This mic setup
In Audio Example 5-6, I've set one mic di- is more flexible than the single mic technique,
rectly over the kit with the second mic in the but we're still limited to a monaural sound since
kick drum. When you use one of the micro- the kick or snare would almost always be posi-
phones for the overall kit sound you can place tioned in the center of the mix with the rest of
the second mic on the kick drum (or possibly the set (Illustration 5-6).
the snare) to get individual control, punch and

Illustration 5-7 Two condenser microphones are 3' above the cymbals. The mikes are
at a 90° angle to each other, pointing down at the drums. With this X-
Stereo X-Y Y configuration, the mic capsules should be positioned on the same
horizontal and vertical plane. They should be close enough to each
other so that they're nearly touching.
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 155

Illustration 5-8 Audio Example 5-6

One Mic Over Kit, One in the Kick
X-Y Mic Technique
CD-2: Track 6
The traditional X-Y technique uses
two cardioid condenser microphones
positioned together to form a 90° Audio Example 5-7 uses the two condenser
angle. The mics should be overlap- microphones with cardioid polar patterns as a
ping and nearly touching. stereo pair. The two mics are placed in a tradi-
This is called a coincident mic tech- tional X-Y configuration, directly above the drum
nique because the capsules are very set, at a distance of approximately three feet
close to each other and they share above the cymbals, pointing down at the drums.
the same horizontal and vertical With this configuration, we can get a sound that
plane. has a stereo spread. The drums on the left side
Coincident stereo mic techniques like of the kit will be on the left side of the mix. The
the X-Y configuration exhibit the drums on the right side of the kit will be on the
least amount of adverse phase right side of the mix. If all drums aren't panned
interaction when combined in a center, the mix can be opened up for position-
mono mix. Since the mic capsules ing of the lead vocal and other key solo instru-
are as close together as they can
ments. As we get into the mixing process, we'll
possibly be without touching, they
see that positioning supportive instruments
hear the sound source nearly simul-
taneously; they receive the sound away from the center of the mix helps us hear
waves in the same phase. the solo parts that are typically positioned in
the center of the mix (Illustration 5-7).

Audio Example 5-7 Stereo X-Y

CD-2: Track 7

Try the X-Y configuration from different

distances and in different rooms (Illustration 5-
8). Stereo mic technique is often the best
choice for a very natural drum sound, but for
contemporary commercial drum sounds, it lacks
flexibility. Stereo mic technique doesn't give you
separate level, EQ and effects control on indi-
vidual instruments. Like the single mic approach,
if you put reverb on one mic, you've put reverb
on the entire kit. Most commercial music is re-
corded with close microphones on the individual
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 156

Illustration 5-9
Head Baffle

drums combined with a stereo pair of mics used

in an X-Y or some other stereo configuration. Recording a Kit With Three Mics
Another good two-mic technique involves
placing one mic on each side of the drummer's If you add one more mic to your setup, you'll
head, level with their ears pointing forward to- usually use one mic on the kick drum, one mic
ward the drums. Position the microphones with on the snare drum and one mic over the drums.
their capsules three to six inches from the Optionally, you might use one kick mic along
drummer's ears to achieve a good stereo image. with a stereo pair that's positioned over, behind
The drummer's skull will act as a baffle between or in front of the kit. Both these approaches have
the two microphones. Audio Example 5-8 dem- advantages and disadvantages.
onstrates this technique (Illustration 5-10). If you use one mic on the kick, one mic on
the snare and one overhead mic, separate con-
trol of the kick and snare is possible. With three
Audio Example 5-8 Head Baffle
microphones, this technique will yield the most
CD-2: Track 8
commercial and punchy sound. The kick and
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 157

snare are the two main contributors to the defi- cially viable results so far, but it doesn't provide
nition of style. Being able to fine tune their level, a stereo image of the set. The kick, snare and
EQ and effects is an advantage. The drum set in overhead are almost always positioned together
Audio Example 5-9 was miked with one mic in- in the center. (Illustration 5-10).
side the kick, one mic two inches above the snare
and one mic about two feet above the cymbals.
This configuration produces the most commer-

Illustration 5-10
Three Microphones
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 158

microphones overhead, in an X-Y configuration,

Audio Example 5-9 Three Microphones
combined with one mic inside the kick.
CD-2:Track 9

Audio Example 5-10

If we use a kick and two overheads, we
X-Y Overhead, One in the Kick
can get a stereo image of the kit, but we lose
individual control of the snare. Another option
CD-2: Track 10
is to put the single mic on the snare instead of
the kick, combining that mic with the two over-
heads. This can be a usable option, but we sac-
rifice control of the kick. Audio Example 5-10
demonstrates the sound of a drum set with two

Illustration 5-11
Snare, Kick and X-Y

1. Two cardioid condenser micro

phones in a traditional X-Y
 configuration above the kit.
Experiment with placement and
distance above the kit to find the
appropriate musical sound.

2. One cardioid moving-coil mic

inside the kick.

3. One cardioid moving-coil mic

pointed at the top of the snare
drum, from a distance of about 2"
above the top head.
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 159

can make musically and technically.

Recording a Kit With four Mics
With four microphones on the set, you begin to Close-mike Technique
have good control over the kick and snare
sounds, plus you can get a stereo image. Some The most common approach to getting good,
very acceptable drum sounds can be achieved punchy, drum sounds that have unique charac-
using a setup with one kick mic, one snare mic, ter is to use the close-mic technique. Each drum
and two overheads. You'll need to experiment will typically have its own mic. Each of these
with placement of the microphones (especially microphones plus two overheads will be printed
the overheads), but solid and unique kick and to separate tracks of the multitrack. These tracks
snare drum sounds are possible with this mic will either stay separate until the mixdown, or
technique. The individual microphones plus the they might be combined with the assignment
overheads used in a stereo configuration can buses and bounced to stereo tracks, making
provide an excellent stereo image. The set in room for more instruments or voices.
Audio Example 5-11 was miked with one kick If tracks are limited, the microphones can
mic, one snare mic and two overheads in an X- be combined through the mixer to one or two
Y configuration (Illustration 5-11). tracks of the multitrack on the initial recording.
Simply separately record the kick drum, snare
drum, two separate torn microphones and two
Audio Example 5-11 Snare, Kick and X-Y
separate overheads to tracks one through six of
CD-2: Track 11 the 8-track multitrack. Next, assign playback of
those tracks to tracks seven and eight of the
As we add microphones to our setup, we multitrack with the channel assign bus. With this
can either print each mic to a separate track on setup you can re-equalize each track to obtain
the multitrack, or we can do a sub-mix on the the optimum sound quality, add effects to indi-
mixer, printing the entire kit to one or two tracks. vidual drums and blend the drum mix for each
It's ideal to keep as much flexibility as possible musical section. If we want to put a lot of gated
for the mixdown, but, if you're using a 4- or 8- reverb on the toms but not on the kick or snare,
track multitrack you'll probably only be able to we can do it using the close mic approach. We
justify allocating one or two tracks for the drums. have flexibility that isn't possible using one or
Try recording the individual drum microphones two microphones. If you're bouncing multiple
on four to six tracks of an 8-track. Then bounce tracks down to a stereo pair, use the pan con-
those tracks down to either a mono track or, in trols to set up a stereo mix of the entire kit.
stereo, bounce them to two tracks. It's possible to use up a lot of tracks once
As you consider different approaches to you begin close-miking drums. Most projects
drum miking, it's important to note that no one using 24 tracks or more can justify allotting 8
method is always the perfect choice. Part of the to 16 tracks just for the drum set. This isn't an
fun of recording is in the creative choices we option for most people in their home studios,
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 160

Illustration 5-12

Snare, Kick, Toms and X-Y

but be aware that the more isolation you can pattern and one hi-hat mic (Illustration 5-12).
get, the more precisely you'll be able to shape
each sound. There are even plenty of ways to
Audio Example 5-12 Snare, Kick, Toms and X-Y
expand on this approach. Try including room
CD-2: Track 12
ambience microphones, a mic under the snare,
individual cymbal microphones or any creative
new approach you can dream up.
The drum set in Audio Example 5-12 is set
up with one kick mic, one snare mic, one mic on
each torn, two microphones overhead in an X-Y
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 161

simply in tuning. The standard approach to tun-

Drum Conditioning ing involves:
• Tuning the top head to the tone you want
Now that we've heard the results of some dif- • Making sure the pitch is the same all the way
ferent miking configurations, let's focus on drum around the head by tapping at each lug and
preparation and tuning (for recording) and tech- adjusting the lugs until they all match
niques for close-miking the drums. To get good • Duplicating the sound of the top head with
drums sounds, it's necessary to be familiar with the bottom head
drum tuning and dampening techniques. A bad If the head isn't tuned evenly all the way
sounding drum is nearly impossible to get a good around, the head won't resonate well. You'll
recorded sound from. A good sounding drum can probably hear more extraneous overtones than
make your recording experience much more en- smooth tone. Audio Example 5-13 provides an
joyable. example of a poorly tuned torn.
If the drum heads are dented and stretched
out, cancel the rest of your appointments for the
Audio Example 5-13 A Tom Out of Tune CD-
day. You'll be spending a substantial amount of
time getting an acceptable drum sound.
2: Track 13
If the drums aren't high quality instru-
ments, there's a good chance that the shells The drum in Audio Example 5-14 is the
aren't smooth and level, and there's a possibil- same drum you heard in Audio Example 5-13
ity that the drum aren't even perfectly round. If with even tension all the way around the head
this is the case, the heads won't seat evenly on and with the bottom head tuned to match the
the drum shell and there'll be a loss of tone, top.
detracting from the drum sound.
Most major manufacturers offer a decent
Audio Example 5-14 A Tom in Tune
quality instrument that can sound great on tape
if tuned properly. Some drums are of very high
CD-2: Track 13
quality and consistently sound great on a re-
cording, and most of the higher priced sets from YOU don't need to be a drummer to get
the major drum manufacturers can sound incred- the drums sounding good. You do need to be
ible. The extra cost for the more expensive kits patient and knowledgeable about drum tuning.
typically assures you of good solid shells con- It's really not that difficult, but it can take some
structed from excellent materials that are per- time to get drums tuned well. If you're a drum-
fectly round and have truly flat edges. Those fea- mer, the single most cost-effective routine you
tures combined with strong, attractive hardware can get into before each session is to have new
usually make the extra cost a worthwhile invest- (or fairly new) heads on your drums that are
ment. tuned evenly.
Often, the difference between a good Some drummers are very meticulous about
sounding drum and a bad sounding drum lies tuning, placement and the status of their heads
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 162

and cymbals. That's great. Some drummers decay. Some drums played by some drummers
aren't so meticulous. As the engineer, you need might sound great with no dampening. Decisions
to be able to get the drums to sound good on the direction for the drum sound are purely
anyway. based on the needs of the music.
If you own drums or know a drummer To dampen the drum, we need to put
who's willing to practice creating drum sounds something on the head that'll decrease the vi-
with you, approach each drum separately and bration. There are several materials that are regu-
start practicing. Start from scratch. Loosen the larly used to muffle the drum sound.
heads, then build the sounds you want. Try tun- It's common to use duct tape, applied in
ing high, medium and low. There are different three- to six-inch lengths to the outer edge of
theories on tuning. Some say that the top and the top and or bottom head (Illustration 5-13).
bottom heads should match in pitch. Some say Another technique involves taping bath-
the top head should be higher. Some say the room tissue, cotton or gauze to the head (Illus-
bottom head should be higher. All methods can tration 5-14).
produce good sounds so try different methods. On a snare drum, it's common to tape a
You'll have the best luck if you adjust the drum wallet to the head at the point farthest from the
for even tension all the way around the head. drummer (Illustration 5-15).
Beyond that, some drummers suggest loosen- Sometimes a one- to three-inch wide strip
ing one lug after you've achieved even tension of cotton or felt material, stretched under the
to decrease ringing. I prefer not to use that tech- head, will dampen the head just the right

nique, but some drummers use it successfully. amount, but this doesn't leave room for much
speedy flexibility if you want less dampening (Il-
Be adaptable and practice! Nothing will give you
lustration 5-16).
a feel for drum sounds like tuning and retuning
Some drummers like to cut an old head so
a real drum.
that only the outer one or two inches is left and
As you work with each drum, you'll hear
the hoop is cut off. This circle can be laid on the
the results of the dampening and tuning tech-
top of the drum, dampening evenly around the
niques. On each drum, check the heads for wear.
head (Illustration 5-17).
Too many extreme dents can stretch a drum
Most drums have a muffler built in. This is
head, limiting even vibration and decreasing
usually a small circular felt pad that can be
your chances of successful drum recording.
moved up against the head from the inside by
turning a knob on the outside. These hardly ever

Muffling the Drum give a good sound and they'll often rattle. Con-
sider removing them (Illustration 5-18).
The one method of dampening that I've
When a drum is tuned well and has a smooth
found works consistently and sounds great in-
tone, the decay of the drum can last longer than
volves using three- to six-inch lengths of self-
we really want in the mix. If all the toms are
sticking weather stripping. Stick the weather
ringing all the time, the drum track can become
stripping directly to the head. The sound is
a wall of rumbling heads. To compensate for this,
we'll often dampen the heads to decrease the
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 163

Illustration 5-13 Illustration 5-15

Dampening With Duct Tape Dampening With a Wallet
Stick a piece of duct tape to the top 1. Lay a billfold on top of the snare
and/or bottom head to control drum near the rim. Bring duct
ringing. Add as much as needed to tape up over the rim and onto the
get the desired sound. Placing tape wallet.
near the rim usually works best.
2. It's not necessary for the tape to
This technique works equally well on touch the head. The wallet can
the kick, snare or toms. move freely for a natural sound
and feel.

Illustration 5-14 Illustration 5-16

Dampening With Facial Tissue A Cloth Strip Under the Head
Use duct tape or masking tape to 1. A 1-3" wide strip of cloth (like a
hold facial tissue, cotton or gauze on piece of an old sheet) can be
the head. Add as much as needed to sandwiched between the head
get the desired sound. Placing tape and the shell about 2-6" from the
near the rim usually works best. side of the drum.
This technique works equally well on 2. As you tighten the head, pull the
the kick, snare or toms. cloth taut with the excess still
hanging out from under the head.
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 164

Illustration 5-17 Illustration 5-19

Dampening With a Head Ring Weather Stripping
1. Cut a 1-2" wide ring from the outer 1. Use 3-6" pieces of self-adhering
part of an old drum head. weather stripping to dampen
2. Lay the ring on top of your drum the head. Use multiple strips to fine-
head to evenly dampen the tone. tune the sound of the drum if
The closer the ring is to the rim, the necessary.
smaller the amount of dampening. 2. Placing the weather stripping near
Keep in place with small pieces of the rim usually produces the warm
duct tape if necessary. est and purest tone.

Summary
Illustration 5-18 I've outlined several methods for
The Internal Muffler muffling drums. Each one of these
1. A felt pad is moved up against the approaches can be successful, but I
head from inside the drum. definitely have my personal favorites.
2. A knob on the outside of the drum I'm sure you'll develop yours, too.
controls the positioning of the pad
I've had the best results with the
inside. Turn clockwise to move the
method outlined in Illustration 5-19.
pad against the head and counter
The weather stripping provides the
clockwise to move it away.
fullest tone and offers the greatest
flexibility. I've also seen several very
fine drummers use the method
described in Illustration 5-17. This
approach produces an even, warm,
smooth sound.
My least favorite drum sound uses
the internal muffler shown in Illus-
tration 5-18. I usually remove them
from the drum.
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 165

warmer and smoother than using duct tape, and

just the right amount of dampening can be Drum Sticks
achieved by moving the weather stripping to
different positions on the head and varying the The drummer's choice of sticks and their condi-
length (Illustration 5-19). tion can make a big difference in the sound of
Position the dampening material for the the drums. Nylon-tipped sticks have a brighter
balance between tone and attack that's musi- sounding attack than wood-tipped sticks, espe-
cally and stylistically appropriate. The drum will cially on cymbals. Hickory sticks have a differ-
retain more tone with a longer resonance when ent sound than oak sticks, and they both sound
you place dampeners near the rim. Place damp- different than graphite or metal sticks. Heavy
ening material toward the center of the drum to sticks have a completely different sound than
decrease the tone most dramatically and to ac- light sticks.
centuate the attack. Remember, as with every- Most experienced studio drummers carry
thing we do technically, always avoid doing any- several different types of drum sticks with them,
thing or positioning anything in a manner that even though they probably have their own over-
inhibits musical flow and creativity. all favorite.
If you want to be prepared when record-
ing drums, it's worth the investment to have
some extra sticks available that vary in size and
physical composition.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 166

amount of dampening—the more contact with

Kick Drum the head, the more muffling. The weight of the
pillow or blanket affects the sound. I've found
The kick drum (bass drum) is very important to that a down pillow works great; I'll usually
the impact of the drum sound. Different styles place a brick or a mic stand base on the pillow
demand different kick sounds. Some sounds, like to hold it in place (Illustration 5-20).
jazz and heavy rock kicks, have less dampening A moving-coil mic, positioned inside the
and ring longer. kick about six inches from the drummer's head
Often in the jazz idiom and some hard and about halfway between the center of the
rock settings, the kick is left undampened, but head and the shell, will usually produce a good
the most common kick sound is substantially sound.
muffled, with good low-end thump and a clean Experiment with mic placement to get the
attack. To achieve this sound, remove the front best sound you can before you equalize the
head and place a blanket or a pillow in the sound. On any drum, the attack is strongest at
bottom of the drum. The blanket or pillow the center of the drum, and the tone is stron-
should be positioned for the desired gest toward the shell. Move the mic to the cen-

Illustration 5-21
Finding the Tone
1. To hear the tone of the drum (the head
ringing), place the mic near the rim.

2. To hear the attack of the drum place the mic

near the center of the head.

3. Move the mic from the rim to the center of the

drum until you hear the sound you like, but be
sure to keep it out of the drummer's way.

4. When you're sampling a single hit, find the

perfect spot for the mic, then be careful not to
hit the mic.

5. Be aware that the point of contact where the

stick hits the head also affects the sound of the
drum. When the stick hits near the center, the
sound has more attack. When the stick hits
near the rim, the sound has more tone.
 Chapter five •Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 167

ter of the head if you want more attack. If you

Audio Example 5-18 Kick 12 Inches Outside
need more tone, move the mic toward the shell
CD-2: Track 17
(Illustration 5-21).
Audio Example 5-15 demonstrates the
sound of a kick drum with the mic inside the As you can tell by these different examples,
drum pointing directly at the center of the head positioning is critical to the sound of the drum.
where the beater hits, from a distance of six Not only is the placement of the mic critical, but
inches. Notice the attack. the tuning of the drum can make all the differ-
ence. The tension should be even around the
head and there should be appropriate dampen-
Audio Example 5-15 Kick Attack
ing for the sound you need. It's common to hear
__________ CD-2: Track 14 __________
a very deep sounding kick that has a solid thump
in the low end and a good attack. In search of
Audio Example 5-16 demonstrates the this kind of sound, most drummers tend to
same kick as Audio Example 5-15 with the same loosen the head to get a low sound. This can be
mic aimed at the head about two inches in from a mistake. If the head is tuned too low, the pitch
the shell and about six inches from the head. of the drum can be unusable and might not even
Notice the tone. be audible. To get a warm, punchy thump out of
a kick, try tightening the head.
Another very important consideration in
Audio Example 5-16 Kick Tone
the kick sound is the drummer's technique.
CD-2: Track 15
Drummers that stab at the kick with the beater
can choke an otherwise great sound into an un-
Another factor in the sound of the kick is appealing stutter-slap.
the distance of the mic from the drum head.
Audio Example 5-17 demonstrates the kick with Equalizing the Kick Drum
the mic three inches from the head and about Always find the microphone, mic placement and
halfway between the center of the head and the tuning that sound the best on any drum before
drum shell. beginning the equalization process.
The nature of close-miking a kick drum
typically produces a raw sound that's overly
Audio Example 5-17 Kick Three Inches Away
abundant in lower midrange frequencies be-
CD-2: Track 16
tween 200 and 600Hz, and the sound usually
needs EQ to be usable.
The mic in Audio Example 5-18 is about When I listen to a raw kick sound before
one foot outside of the drum, still pointed about it's been equalized, I first listen for the frequen-
half way between the center and the shell. cies that are clouding the sound of the kick. That
frequency range is almost always somewhere
between 200 and 600Hz. Listen to the kick in
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 168

Illustration 5-22
Typical Kick Drum EQ
The actual amount of cut o r boost you u se is so le ly d ep end ent on wh at it tak es to get
th e sound you wan t out o f th e instrumen t yo u're mik ing. F irst use mic cho ic e and
placemen t to get the best an d most music al sound, th en use th e amount of EQ
necessary to create the appropriate sound.

Audio Example 5 -1 9 as I turn down a one- quency to boost that'll emphasize the attack of
octave wide bandwidth centered at 300Hz. the beater hitting the head. Boosting a frequency
between 3 and 5kHz will usually emphasize this
attack. Listen to the k ic k in Audio Example 5-
Audio Example 5-19 Cut 300Hz
20. A moving-coil mic is pointed halfway be-
CD-2: Track 18
tween the center of the drum and the shell, from
a distance of six inches. At first, this drum has
Once the lower mids are turned down, no EQ. First I'll cut at 300Hz, next I'll boost the
usually locate a low frequency between 75 and low end at about 80Hz, then I'll boost the at-
150Hz to boost. Be conservative in the amount tack at about 4kHz (Illustration 5-22).
of these bass frequencies you print to tape, es-
pecially to the multitrack. If you question how
strong the bass frequencies should be, print a
Audio Example 5-20
Cut 300Hz, Boost 80Hz and 4kHz
little less than you expect to use. You can al-
ways boost the lows on mixdown.
CD-2: Track 18

Next, I'll typically locate an upper fre-

 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 169

Effects on the Kick sound is heavy in bass frequencies, I've found

For a clean and natural recording, the kick hardly no problem printing hot to tape. It's usually safe
ever has any reverb or delay. There are creative to record in the range of +1 to +4VU on the
uses for almost any technique, but adding re- loudest parts of the track. If the sound is thin in
verb to a kick drum tends to make the mix sound the low end and has a lot of attack, it's usually
muddy. In some styles, though, it's appropriate necessary to print colder to tape, in the range of
to add a substantial amount of gated reverb, or -5 to -1VU, to more accurately capture the tran-
reverb that has a very short decay time, to the sient attack.
kick. The purpose of adding reverb in some R&B At first, most students of recording can't
and dance styles is to blend the kick with the figure out just what they like and dislike about
snare and the toms, which are also heavily ef- the different sounds they're recording. In Audio
fected. Since the decay times are short (below a Example 5-21, I'll play several different kick
half second) and the reverb sound is gated, the drums. Each sound is very usable within a par-
reverb doesn't get in the way of the rest of the ticular style. Write down what you notice about
mix. Reverb on the kick in this setting is musi- each kick. Do you like the sound? How are the
cally and stylistically correct and can make an lows? Do you like the attack sound? Is it muddy?
arrangement sound very big. Is it punchy? Listen very carefully.
Wait until mixdown to add reverb if you
have enough tracks to print the kick to its own
Audio Example 5-21 Lots of Kicks
track. If you're combining the drums to one or
two tracks at the time of the initial recording
CD-2: Track 19
but have a separate mic for the kick, you might
need to print the reverb to the multitrack. This
will be the only time in the recording process
where you'll have access to the kick separately Snare Drum
for send to the reverb. This process can work
well, but it takes practice and experience to sec- Snare drums usually fall into one of two cat-
ond-guess what the track will really sound like egories: very easy to get a good sound out of or
in the final mix. almost impossible to get a good sound out of.
As a guideline, the styles that usually use Fortunately there are some tricks we can pull
a dry kick sound are country, jazz, blues, vin- out of the hat to help the more difficult drums
tage rock, some harder rock and metal and most sound good. It's important for you to know some
ethnic and international styles. Styles that tend quick and easy techniques for getting the snare
to use more effect on the kick are R&B, funk to work. It's amazing how many decent drum-
and some commercial rock. mers are lost when it comes to drum sounds.
First, make sure the heads are in good
Recording Levels for Kick Drum shape. A lot of times the top snare head has
The suggested recording level for a bass drum been stretched and dented so much that the
is OVU at the loudest part of the track. If the center of the head is actually loose and sagging,
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 170

even though the rest of the head is tight. This drums. Tune the top and bottom heads to the
isn't good. Replacing the head will make a huge same tone, then evaluate the sound of the drum.
difference in the sound. Tune the bottom head higher than the top head
The bottom head is also critical to the and evaluate the sound of the drum. Finally, tune
snare sound. The most common problem I've the top head higher than the bottom head and
seen is a hole in the bottom head. These bottom evaluate the sound of the drum. See what the
heads are much thinner than the top heads. sound difference is. There has to be enough ten-
Since the drum is continually being put on and sion on the head to give the drummer good re-
taken off the snare stand (which can puncture bound, and the tension must be even around
the head) and usually carried in a case with sticks the head.
and drum keys (which can puncture the head) With the top head tuned fairly low, the
and since drummers tend to set the snare on drum sound has a thick texture. This sound can
the floor with the bottom head down (you never be very usable in some settings. Audio Example
know what's on the floor that can puncture the 5-22 demonstrates a snare drum tuned low. First
head), sometimes there's a hole in the bottom you'll hear the drum with the snares off, then
head. Drummers seem to work on the out of with the snares on.
sight, out of mind principle when it comes to
the bottom head. When you're trying to get a
Audio Example 5-22 Snare Tuned Low CD-2:
great sound from a snare, though, it's impor-
Track 20
tant that the bottom head is in good shape. If
it's not, the head won't resonate evenly, and
you'll have problems with annoying overtones. Tuning the snare very high gives a sharp
The heads need to be in good shape. If attack and good definition, but the sound can
you're doing much drum recording, it's best to be thin. Audio Example 5-23 demonstrates a
snare tuned high. First you'll hear the drum with
have some extra heads on hand. If you have the
the snares off, then with the snares on.
appropriate replacement head, you'll save your-
self a lot of anguish, plus your sounds will be
better and you'll get them faster. This will help Audio Example 5-23 Snare Tuned High CD-
your reputation in the community. The next time 2: Track 20
your local music store has a great deal on heads,
pick up a 14-inch top and bottom snare head.
A medium tuning that's not real high or
Most snare drums are 14-inch drums. The most
real low is the most common snare sound. The
versatile of the top heads are Remo Ambassa-
drum in Audio Example 5-24 is tuned with the
dor coated, and Ambassador Black Dot. After the
top and bottom heads tight but not too tight.
session, don't forget to get your heads back from
First you'll hear the drum with the snares off,
the drummer. Experienced studio drummers carry
then with the snares on.
their own extra heads in case one breaks or if a
unique musical sound demands a head change.
Practice tuning your own or a friend's
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 171

uneven tension. Take the drum off the stand and

Illustration 5-23 look at the snares. If one or two strands are
The Snares loose, I'll usually cut them off. Some drums will
1. Be sure the snare strands are even have individual adjustments for the snares. If this
in tension. is the case, adjust the strands for even tension.
2. If the snares are loose or broken, Sometimes it might help to put a piece of tape
cut them off. on the snares at one end or the other, but I've
3. If the snares can't be adjusted for achieved the best success by adjusting the snares
constant tension or if there are too or cutting the strays off.
many strands missing, replace the
The snare mechanism also has an adjust-
entire set of snares.
ment to tighten or loosen all the snares at once.
4. Applying tape to loose snares can
Try tightening the snares if there are too many
minimize extraneous buzzes, but
the tape chokes the sound of the buzzes, but be careful. If the snares are too tight,
drum. the sound of the drum will be choked and un-
desirable.
A good snare sound is dependent on a lot
of factors working perfectly together. If you can
handle drum tuning basics, it'll make a big dif-
ference in the sound of your live drum record-
ings, plus you'll have an insight and perspective
on drums that'll prove to be a valuable asset.
Once the heads are in shape, tuned and
the snares are even in tension, you'll usually
need to dampen the head to minimize ring.
Dampen the snare in one of the ways described
in Illustrations 5-17A to 5-17G. Try each tech-
nique for dampening to hear the difference in
the sound of each approach. I get the best
Audio Example 5-24 Tight Top and Bottom sounds by using self-adhering weather stripping,
CD-2: Track 20 applying the amount of weather stripping in the
positions that are appropriate for the sound I
On each example, you can hear the drum want. The stripping works very well when placed

with the snares off, then on. The snares are the an inch or two in from the rim. This is a very
flexible approach, and the foam weather strip-
wires that touch the bottom head (Illustration
ping dampens in a way that sounds natural.
5-23). If these wires are stretched, broken or
Audio Example 5-25 demonstrates a snare with
uneven in tension, the drum will buzz and rattle
no dampening.
when the snare drum is hit and probably when
any of the rest of the drums are hit. This isn't
good. Check the snares for loose strands and
 The AudioPro Home Aecording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 172

Mic Choice for Snare Drum

Audio Example 5-25 Snare Without Dampening
Mic choice and placement can vary greatly de-
CD-2: Track 20
pending on the purpose of the recording and
the desired musical impact. If you're close-
Audio Example 5-26 demonstrates the miking a set, the snare mic usually points down
sound of the snare with weather stripping at the drum and is about two inches from the
added to get the sound I wanted. top head, aimed one or two inches in from the
rim. Use a moving-coil mic like a Shure SM57,
Sennheiser 421 or an Electro-Voice RE2O. Keep
Audio Example 5-26
the mic out of the drummer's way because a stick
Snare With Weather Stripping
hitting the mic can ruin a take or even a micro-
CD-2: Track 20
phone. Most mic manufacturers make micro-

illustration 5-24
Swivel-Mount Microphones
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 173

phones that are designed for getting into tight

spots like drum sets. Shure makes the SM56,
Audio Example 5-28 Snare From Two Inches
which is the same mic as the SM57 with swivel
CD-2: Track 21
mount for the upper part of the mic (Illustration
5-24). These adjustable microphones are very Reverb is a very important part of most
handy and can help you get a better drum sound. snare drum sounds. If you have a separate track
The ideal is to point the mic at about a 60 de- for the snare, save the addition of reverb until
gree angle to the drum. If the mic has to be mixdown so you can find just the right sound to
pointing straight across the drum due to space blend with the mix in a musical way. If you're
restriction, there will be more leakage of other combining the drums to a stereo or mono sub-
drums into the snare mic than you really want mix as you record, you might want to print the
to deal with. It's best to point the snare drum snare reverb with the track or tracks. Experience
mic at the snare drum. using this procedure will enable you to second-
If you're sampling and want to capture the guess how much reverb you'll eventually need
full transient and natural sound of the snare, in the mix. If you're unsure about how to use
record though a condenser mic from a distance effects sends, returns and how to print reverb
of one or two feet. Condenser microphones can't to a track, refer to Chapters 1 and 2.
usually handle the extreme volume of a snare
at close range without overdriving their own Reverberation on the Snare Drum
internal circuitry. Condenser microphones are the Longer reverberation times, in the neighborhood
mic of choice when recording the snare drum of 1.5 to 3 seconds, are common in ballads of
from a distance greater than approximately one nearly every style and sometimes in commercial
foot. They'll give the snare full response and tran-
pop tunes. A predelay in time with the eighth
sient clarity. Moving-coil microphones are the
note or sixteenth note can add an interesting
mic of choice for close-miking drums. They can
dimension to the sound.
typically handle high sound pressure levels and
The snare in Audio Example 5-29 has a
produce a full and aggressive sound in close
hall reverb with a reverberation time of about
proximity to the sound source.
2.5 seconds.
The snare in Audio Example 5-27 was
miked with a condenser mic pointed at the drum,
from a distance of about one foot. Audio Example 5-29
Snare Reverb With 2.5 Second Decay Time
CD-2: Track 22
Audio Example 5-27 Snare From One Foot CD-
2: Track 21
Many R&B, commercial rock songs,
uptempo country songs and jazz songs utilize
This snare in Audio Example 5-28 was
decay times below one second. Gated reverb
miked with a moving-coil mic pointing at the
sounds are very common in R&B, funk and dance
drum, from a distance of about two inches.
grooves.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 174

Audio Example 5-30 demonstrates the little up or down depending on the actual snare
snare drum with a gated reverb sound. drum you're recording, the characteristic fre-
quency ranges are fairly consistent. We'll build
many more snare sounds throughout this course.
Audio Example 5-30 Snare With Gated Reverb
CD-2: Track 23 Recording Levels for Snare Drum
Suggested recording levels for snare drums vary
As we progress through this course, we'll depending on the sound of the drum. OVU is
build more options for snare drum effects. The normal on the loudest part of the track when
snare drum sound is very definitive of musical recording a full sounding drum. A strong single
style. Modern snare sounds are often quite com- hit on the snare should typically register about
plex and involved. The snare sound might actu- -5 to -3VU.This level leaves little head room for
ally consist of three or four reverberation sounds the inevitable fact that drummers play louder
along with compression and expansion. We don't as they settle into a song. If a drummer plays an
ever want to overuse signal processing, but we eighth or sixteenth note fill on the snare, the
must do what we need to while in search of a apparent level will increase substantially.
sound that supports the musical emotion and If the sound of the snare is thin in the low
feeling dictated by the song. end and if there's a lot of transient attack to the
sound, the maximum record level should typi-
Equalizing the Snare Drum cally be in the range of -7 to -3VU in order to
Most snare sounds don't need to contain an accurately record the transient.
overabundance of the frequencies below 100Hz. Listen to the examples of different snare
I'll often roll those lows off. The body of the snare sounds in Audio Example 5-32. Take note of what
is often in the 200 to 300Hz range. To enhance you like and dislike about each. Do you like the
the attack, boost a frequency between 3 and attack? Is there much low frequency content?
5kHz. Listen to the snare drum in Audio Example Are there many highs? Is the sound thin? Does
5-31. The snare sound starts out flat, then I roll the drum sound fat? Is there solid punch to the
off the lows below 100Hz. Next, I boost 250Hz sound?
slightly and finally I boost 5kHz.

Audio Example 5-32 Lots of Snares

Audio Example 5-31 CD-2: Track 25
Roll Off WOHz, Boost 250Hz and 5kHz
CD-2: Track 24

As you experiment with your own snare Tons

sounds you'll be successful if you keep in mind
the three basic frequency ranges outlined in Recording toms is similar in many ways to re-
Audio Example 5-31. Though they might shift a cording the kick drum and snare drum. It's im-
 Chapter five • flcoustic Drums and Percussion • page 175

Illustration 5-25
Tom Miking

with
the

portant that the heads are in good shape, that bottom head removed. Some drummers always
they're tuned properly and that the dampening leave the bottom heads on their toms. The
gets the appropriate sound for the track. Tune trends seem to shift. These are two different
the top and bottom heads to the same tone and sounds. A properly tuned drum with both the
be sure the tension is even around each head. top and bottom head in place has a smooth
For dampening toms, I recommend natural tone that is appealing in most musical
weather stripping instead of duct tape or bath- textures. With the bottom head off, a tom sounds
room tissue. Weather stripping stuck on the drum hollow with less pure tone and has slightly more
head provides a warm sound with good tone. attack. It's hard to beat the sound of a well tuned
The best feature weather stripping offers, aside tom with both heads on, but be flexible and use
from the fact that it usually helps you get the the sound that fits the musical context.
best tom sound, is its flexibility. It's easy to re- For close-miking, use a moving-coil mic like
move, reposition and rearrange. You can pull it a Shure SM57 or a Sennheiser 421. Point the
off easily to shorten a piece, or you can reposi- mic at the drum about two inches in from the
tion it with exacting precision to tweak the rim, at a distance of about two inches above
sound and it's as easy to place on the bottom the top head (Illustration 5-25).
head as it is on the top head. If you want more attack in the sound, move
Some drummers prefer the sound of toms the mic toward the center of the drum, but keep
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 176

it out of the drummer's way. A miked drum sound to exceed maximum digital recording levels.
has more attack when the microphone is posi- Audio Example 5-33 demonstrates a torn,
tioned near the center of the drum and more recorded at OVU using a moving-coil mic from
tone when the microphone is positioned near about two inches.
the rim.
Sometimes it's very desirable to record
drums (except the overhead and hi-hat micro- Audio Example 5-33 Tom at OVU
phones) at levels exceeding OVU. A drum that's CD-2: Track 26
been recorded hot (in the range of +2 to +5VU)
won't usually give a buzzing kind of distortion The torn in Audio Example 5-34 was re-
because, as the analog tape reaches the point corded at +5VU using a moving-coil mic from
where it can't handle more magnetism, it will about two inches
usually give the drum a compressed rather than
distorted sound. This point is called the point of
oversaturation. The sound of analog tape ap- Audio Example 5-34 Tom at +5VU
proaching the point of oversaturation has be- ___________CD-2: Track 26___________
come a sound in its own right for recording
drums. It's common for kick and toms to be re- If you're sampling, try a condenser mic
corded very hot to analog tape specifically for from a distance of one or two feet. This will usu-
the sound this technique produces. It's also com- ally give the purest, natural sound. The torn in
mon for kick, snare and toms to be recorded at Audio Example 5-35 was recorded with a con-
OVU (or colder) to ensure that the transient will denser mic at OVU from a distance of about one
be accurately recorded. These are musically foot.
based decisions that you can make if you're sty-
listically aware or creatively attuned.
If you're using a digital recorder, don't Audio Example 5-35 Tom at OVU
push the drum levels above the meter's peak. ___________CD-2: Track 27 ___________
The digital recording process has a pretty hard
ceiling. There is no benefit to exceeding the pre- Practice recording each drum at different
set maximum recording level for home digital levels to find the sound you like. Keep a log of
recording. A couple of the mastering engineers what you've recorded and what the recording
I work with push digital levels beyond their in- levels were along with the microphones used
tended maximum in an effort to create compact for each recording.
discs that are the loudest on the block. Their
equipment is meticulously maintained and they Equalizing the Toms
have plenty of headroom in their systems, which Follow a similar approach to the drums we've
are designed to push the limits. They win most covered so far when we EQ the toms. Analyze
of the awards for doing it the best, but when the lows, highs and mids. There is often a cloudy
engineering a digital recording, we don't need sound to the lower mids in a close-miked torn,
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 177

between 250 and 500Hz. I'll often cut a fre- about 5kHz.
quency in this range. The bass frequencies be-
low about 100Hz can usually be rolled off, and
Audio Example 5-36
the attack of a torn can be enhanced by boost-
Roll Off 100Hz, Cut 300Hz, Boost 5kHz
ing a frequency range between 3 and 5kHz. Lis-
CD-2: Track 28
ten to the torn in Audio Example 5-36. I start
flat, then cut at about 300Hz. Next, I roll off the
lows below 100Hz, then boost the attack at

Illustration 5-26
Wide Stereo Overheads
For a wide stereo image, use two cardioid condenser microphones over the drum set
spaced 1-3' apart. The mics should be at 90° angles to each other and pointing away
from each other. If you point the mics toward each other, you'll encounter problems,
especially when summing the stereo mix to mono.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Coorse • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 178

Reverberation on the Toms Try spreading the X-Y out if the drummer's
Choose reverb for the toms that blends with the kit is very large and covers a wide area. Move
snare sound. It's normal to use the same reverb the microphones away from each other, but be
on the toms that you use on the snare. If you sure they're still pointing away from each other.
use another reverb sound, be sure it comple- Also, keep the microphones on the same hori-
ments the overall sound of the snare drum. zontal plane to minimize adverse phase inter-
Avoid selecting sounds that indicate completely actions when listening to the mix in mono (Il-
different acoustical environments unless you're lustration 5-26).
intentionally conforming to a musical judgment. Overheads on a close-miked kit give defi-
Listen to the different torn sounds in Audio nition and position to the cymbals and fill in the
Example 5-37. Note what you like and dislike overall sound. There isn't much need for the low
about each sound. Is the sound boomy? How do frequencies since the close microphones give
the lows sound? Can you hear the attack? each drum a full, punchy sound. I'll usually roll
Does the drum sound full? Is the drum thin the lows off below about 150Hz, and I'll often
sounding? Do you hear much tone? boost a high frequency between 10 and 15kHz,
to give extra shimmer to the cymbals.
We want the overheads to accurately cap-
Audio Example 5-37 Lots of Toms ture the transient information. Since the tran-
CD-2: Track 29 sient level exceeds the average level by as much
as 9dB, recording levels on the overheads should
read between -7 and -9VU at the peaks to en-
sure accurately recorded transients.

Overhead microphones Pan the overheads hard right and hard left
for the most natural sound. The X-Y technique
Once you've positioned the close microphones will provide a sound that is evenly spread across
for the snare, kick and toms, use mics over the the stereo spectrum. The overheads in Audio
drums to capture the cymbals and fill in the over- Example 5-38 are about three feet above the
all sound of the drums. It's amazing how much cymbals in an X-Y configuration and are panned
separation we can achieve close-miking the kit. hard right and hard left. The lows below 150Hz
One or two mics over the drums are essential to are rolled off, and the highs are boosted at
a blended, natural sound. 12kHz.
Position condenser microphones in a ste-
reo pattern (like the examples of a two-mic
Audio Example 5-38 X-Y Panned Hard CD-2:
setup). A good pattern to use is the standard X-
Track 30
Y configuration, with the microphones pointing
down at the set at a 90 degree angle to each
other. This will provide the excellent stereo im- We can add different character to the
age necessary for a big drum sound and will sound of the drums by moving the overheads
work well in mono. closer to or farther from the kit. Positioning the
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 179

Illustration 5-27

Hi-hats Miked at the Edge

mic farther away from the set includes more kick, snare, toms and overheads pick up plenty
room sound on the track. This can be good or of hi-hat, but a separate track for the hat adds
bad depending on the acoustics of the record- definition to the hi-hat attack and provides pan
ing environment. control in the mix. Listen to the kit in Audio Ex-
It isn't typically necessary to add reverb to ample 5-39. After the first few seconds, I'll turn
the overheads in a close-miked configuration. the hi-hat mic on and pan it in the stereo spec-
The reverb on the snare and toms is usually suf- trum. Notice that even though the hi-hat track
ficient to get a smooth, blended sound. isn't loud in the mix, you can still perceive the
Sometimes it's desirable to put a separate position change as I pan the hat between left
mic on the hi-hat. The choice for or against a hi- and right.
hat mic should be based on the style of music
and the importance of the hi-hat in the drum
part. Most of the time the microphones on the
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 180

Illustration 5-28
Miking the Bell of the Hi-hat

bal has a gong-like sound at the outer edge and

Audio Example 5-39 Panning the Hi-hat CD- clear highs at the bell. Audio Example 5-40 dem-
2: Track 31 onstrates the sound of a hi-hat miked at the
outer edge (Illustration 5-27).
To get the best transient attack, record the
hat track at -7 to -9VU with a cardioid condenser
Audio Example 5-40
mic. Roll the lows off below about 250Hz. Boost
Hi-hat Miked at the Outer Edge
between 300 and 600Hz if you'd like a thick
CD-2: Track 32
sounding hi-hat. If you'd like a very clean and
penetrating hi-hat sound, boost between 6 and
10kHz. Audio Example 5-41 demonstrates the
Positioning of the mic is critical. Any cym- sound of the hi-hat with the mic pointing down
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 181

at the bell of the top cymbal (Illustration 5-28). just the attack time to its fastest setting and
the release time to about half a second. Adjust
the range control so that everything below the
Audio Example 5-41 threshold will be turned off. Finally, adjust the
Hi-hat Miked at the Bell
threshold so that the gate only opens when the
CD-2: Track 32 snare hits. This will isolate the snare. Once the
snare drum is isolated, you can process the snare
If a mic is aimed at a snare drum, it will drum sound alone with minimal effect on the
still hear the rest of the kit as it's played. Every- rest of the kit. For example, you can add as much
thing except the snare drum is leakage into the reverberation as you want to the snare without
snare mic. Any sound other than the one you're leakage adding reverb to the rest of the drums.
trying to capture with a microphone is called Listen to the kit in Audio Example 5-42. I'll solo
leakage. Leakage is a factor we don't deal with the snare track, then adjust the gate to get rid
on a drum machine because all instruments are of the leakage between the snare hits.
electronically separate and can typically be com-
bined in whatever mix the engineer requires.
Audio Example 5-42 Adjusting The Gate CD-
When recording a live kit, leakage is an impor-
2: Track 33
tant consideration.
Leakage isn't always a bad thing. Often,
leakage can help blend and smooth out the Once the gate is adjusted properly, you can
sound of the kit. The interaction between mi- put drastic amounts of reverb on the snare by
crophones and the leakage of acoustic room itself. Listen to Audio Example 5-43 as I put a
sound into the drum mics can be good. In fact, lot of reverb on this gated snare track.
given the right acoustical environment, you
might want a fair amount of leakage between
the mics just to add character and personality Audio Example 5-43 Reverb on the Gated Snare
to the overall drum sound. CD-2: Track 34

In Audio Example 5-44, listen to the com-

Isolating the Drum Tracks plete kit with a lot of reverb on the gated snare
track. After a few seconds, I'll bypass the gate
Sometimes we need to isolate the drum tracks, on the snare. Notice the change in the reverb.
either to equalize them separately, to pan them
or to add effects to an individual instrument or
group of instruments. To isolate an instrument Audio Example 5-44 Bypassing the Gate CD-
on a track, use a gate or an expander. Refer to 2: Track 35
Chapter 2 if you aren't familiar with the use of
an expander/gate. Try gating any of the individual drum mi-
Patch the snare track through a gate. Ad- crophones (kick, toms, snare). Since the over-
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 182

heads are for fill, they don't need to be gated that fits your needs and budget from an estab-
except for special effects. Gating every track can lished and respected manufacturer. As your ex-
be tricky to set up. You can make the drum set perience and budget increase, you'll find you
sound unnaturally clean by overusing gates. On develop certain favorite microphones for very
the other hand, gates can help make drums specific tasks. Different mics do sound amazingly
sound very punchy and powerful. Experiment different when you listen to them side by side
and practice! on the same instrument, but that doesn't mean
We've covered the basics of close-miking you can't get a very usable sound from a rea-
the drum set. There are many other creative ap- sonably priced condenser mic.
proaches to recording the kit, including differ- When recording miscellaneous percussion
ent mic selection and placement, uses of acous- instruments, the transient is the primary consid-
tics and many processing possibilities. Try dif- eration. Almost all these instruments need to be
ferent techniques on the drums you record. As recorded with the loudest part of the track read-
this course continues, we'll cover more and more ing about -9 to -7 on the VU meter. Transients
techniques that can be used on drums. We'll do continue to arise as an important consideration
more with signal processing of the drum sounds in many situations, but these percussion instru-
in the next chapter. ments have some of the most extreme transient
peaks. Any hard wood or metal instrument that's
struck with hard wood or metal will have an
Miscellaneous Percussion extreme transient.
Remember, when the VU meter reads -9
The instruments that fall into our miscellaneous while recording these instruments, the tape is
percussion category are all the rest of the per- really receiving a signal that's at (or above) the
cussion instruments other than the drum set, suggested recording level for optimum use. In
including but not limited to: cowbell, tambou- other words, we're not sending a low level to
rine, claves, cymbals, marimba, xylophone, glock- tape when we see -9VU, we're sending the
enspiel, shaker, maracas, cabasa, triangle, guiro, proper level to tape.
wind chimes, congas, bongos and timbales. If you place a condenser mic too close fo
The mic of choice for recording percussion a percussion instrument, there's a good chance
instruments is a condenser because of its excel- the transient will overdrive the internal circuitry
lent transient response. You don't need to have in the mic. Miking from a distance of one to two
the most expensive condenser mic to get great feet generally produces the most desirable
results. There are many microphones available sound. You'll typically get a natural sound that
in the low to medium price range that are very requires little or no equalization when you mic
good. My strongest recommendation if you're percussion instruments from distances greater
buying a mic is to select a mic made by a major than a foot. You'll know when you're too far from
manufacturer. All the major microphone manu- the instrument because the sound will lack inti-
facturers make good microphones that are very macy and might get lost in the mix.
usable. You can't go wrong if you select a mic It's a good idea to roll off the lows below
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 183

Illustration 5-29

Minimizing Leakage

about 150Hz. Usually the rest of the instruments ing at once and you need to boost highs, try to
in the orchestration are covering the low fre- select a different frequency for each instrument.
quencies. Sometimes I'll boost highs between 7 Listen to the drum and percussion vamp in
and 15kHz, depending on the instrument and Audio Example 5-45. I'll solo the different in-
its roll in the mix, but most miscellaneous per- struments. Notice their tone and placement in
cussion sounds good when recorded flat through the mix.
a condenser mic at a distance of one to two feet.
If you have several percussion instruments play-
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 184

rather than a detriment is time well spent.

Audio Example 545 Soloing Percussion CD-
Ideally, the drums will be the only sound
2: Track 36 in the room at the time they're being recorded.
This provides ultimate flexibility during mixdown.
However, there are times when guitar, bass and
drums must be recorded in the same room, usu-

Application of Techniques ally due to a lack of space or time. When this

happens, isolate the instruments as much as you
It's important to get into the habit of aiming can. Use baffles around the drums to shield the
microphones away from sounds you want to drum microphones from other sounds. Baffles
exclude from a track. Use the cardioid pickup are small, freestanding partitions with either two
patterns to your advantage. For example, if soft, absorptive sides or one soft side and one
you're miking a hi-hat and the mic is pointed at hard reflective side.They typically measure about
the bell of the top cymbal, that's good. Not only four feet square and are four to eight inches
should you point the mic at the bell of the hi- thick. They're also called gobos or screens.
hat, but you should point the back of the mic at Baffles can also be placed around the gui-
a cymbal that's close by. Pointing the back of tar amp, or blankets can be placed over the amp
the hi-hat mic at the crash cymbal helps mini- and the mic. The blanket will shield the guitar
mize the amount of crash that is recorded by mic from unwanted sounds, plus it'll muffle the
the hi-hat mic. Use the cardioid pickup pattern guitar to help keep it from the drum mics or other

to reject the unwanted sound while it captures microphones in the room.

the intended sound (Illustration 5-29). Though we strive for ultimate separation
It's necessary for the drummer to have a between tracks and complete control over the
sound of each instrument, some great record-
good, well balanced headphone mix. Head-
ings have been achieved with the entire band in
phones are the best way for the drummer to
one room playing the tracks live. Blues, jazz,
monitor the rest of the musicians or tracks. A
some country and some rock styles can benefit
good drummer is always trying to lock in to a
from the natural, open sound that a live, one*-
strong rhythmic feel with the rest of the group.
room recording offers.
The drummer and bass player, especially, need
to hear each other well. Be sure both the bass
player and the drummer can hear the attack of
the kick, snare and hi-hat. Don't make them Click Track
guess where the beat is. Adjusting the head-
One feature of a professional sounding record-
phone mix can be your most important contri-
ing is a solid rhythmic feel that maintains an
bution to the feel of a song. Listen to the head-
even and constant tempo. A sure sign of an
phone mix yourself through headphones, so that
amateur band and an amateur recording is a
you can tell exactly what the players are hear-
loose rhythmic feel that radically speeds up and
ing. Respond to their requests for level changes.
slows down.
Spending the time to make the phones an asset
 Chapter five • Acoustic Drums and Percussion • page 185

Most drummers need some assistance to loud and is audible on the drum microphones,
maintain a constant tempo. We call this assis- the drum track might not be usable. The solu-
tance the click track. A click track can simply be tion lies in finding headphones that enclose the
a steady metronome pulse, like that from a drum drummers ears well enough to conceal click from
machine or an electronic metronome. It gives the microphones. There are many phones avail-
the drummer a rhythmic reference to keep the able that will perform well. They usually have
tempo steady. solid housings and fluid or air-filled soft plastic
If a drummer has never played with a click pads that completely surround the ears.
track or a metronome, you might be in trouble if
you force him or her to record the track while
hearing the click in the phones. Having to actu- Conclusion
ally follow a steady beat can totally ruin the
natural rhythmic feel. The drummer will wrestle Recording drums can be fun, rewarding, frus-
with the groove, speeding up to catch the click, trating, confusing, exciting, encouraging and
then slowing down to wait for the click. This is discouraging. And all of these feelings can hap-
not good. Sometimes you'll need to simply de- pen within a very short period of time, especially
cide on the lesser of the two evils in the interest when you're learning. Practice the techniques
of getting the song recorded. If you're consis- and principles in this chapter. I've used them all
tently working with the same drummer, and they many times and they work. When you're com-
have trouble with a click, suggest practicing with fortable with this information, try other ap-
a metronome. Drummers can get very good at proaches. Personally, I have the most fun when
locking in to a click track while maintaining a I'm in search of that great new sound recorded
natural rhythmic flow, but it takes practice. And in an unconventional way for a creative piece of
wouldn't you know it, about the time they can music. I also know that there's security and con-
play solidly with a click, the drummer's time feel fidence in knowing the basics. Learn the basics!
is usually solid enough to get by without a click!
A drum machine is a good source for the
click because it offers the ability to change the
sound. Click sounds with good transients work
Credits
the best because the transient attack unques- The live drum examples on this tape were played
tionably defines the placement of the beat. by Wade Reeves. Wade is an excellent drummer
It's very important that the drummer hear involved heavily in the Seattle concert rock
the click well, but the biggest problem with a scene.
click track is leakage of the sound of the click The individual examples of different kick
from the headphones into the drum micro- drum, snare drum and torn sounds contain some
phones. It's difficult to deal with a click leaking live recordings, and some samples of the actual
into the overheads on a quiet or texturally open drum sets of: Dave Weckl (Chick Corea, Diana
part of a song. The click has to be at a certain Ross, George Benson, etc.); Matt Sorum (Greg
level for the drummer to hear it, but if it's too Wright, The Cult, Guns N' Roses, etc.); Peter
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 186

Erskine (Weather Report, Jaco Pastorius, etc.);

Tommy Aldridge (Ozzy Osbourne).
All samples were provided by the Yamaha
RY30 Drum Machine using the Artist Series
Rhythm Sound Cards.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 188

6 Synchronization/Drum Machines
• Is there already lots of processing and effect
Introduction to Drum machines in the sound?
• Is it okay to add reverb to a sampled sound

I
n this chapter, we'll cover drum machines, that already includes reverb?
electronic drums, sampled percussion and • Are the drum and percussion sounds blend
synchronization. In Chapter 5, we focused ing in a natural way?
primarily on techniques for recording good clean • Are all of the drum sounds coming from one
acoustic drum sounds. Those techniques are very output of the sound module, or are the parts
valuable for many recording situations and can split up to come out of multiple outputs?
be particularly useful in the area of sampling. • Should I record the drum parts to the multi-
It's important to note that each technique in this track, or should I use time code to drive the
course can be applied to the situation that it's drum machine clock?
presented in, but they should also be consid- Basically, once you have the raw sounds
ered for other recording situations. As you learn from a drum machine, sampler or acoustic drum,
more and more techniques, apply them to dif- there can be a lot more work to do before the
ferent situations. Practice, experiment and learn. overall drum sound is complete and usable. In
When we're working with drum machines and this chapter we'll look at some techniques that
presampled sounds, the basic recording of each will help your drum machine parts sound more
instrument sound has already been completed real, plus we'll study some different ways to get
for us. Often, all we need to do is get the sounds the drum parts to the final mixed master.
efficiently to tape, which means that a lot of When I refer to drum machines, I'm also
times we have to shape the sounds in a way implying sound modules that contain drum
that blends with the musical arrangement and sounds. A drum machine is really just a drum
fits the musical style. Even though some of the sound module with a built-in sequencer that's
work is already completed in the initial drum designed to sequence the drum parts using the
samples, we still need to consider several op- sounds within the drum machine. The sequencer
tions to get a good musical track from a drum in a drum machine isn't usually designed to hold

machine: other sequencing information for other parts of

• Does the drum sound need processing? the song.

• Is there much transient information to con

tend with?
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 189

Patching in the Drum Machine Audio Example 6-1 Mono Drums

CD-2: Track 37
Most outputs from most drum machines or
sound modules can plug straight into line in of Some drum machines and sound modules
the mixer. With some mixers, especially profes- have multiple outputs and any instrument can
sional mixers operating at +4, more gain might be assigned to play out of any output. Most ma-
be needed to get a strong enough signal to tape. chines with multiple outputs have four to eight
In this case, plugging into a direct box first, then outputs. With this many outputs, we can assign
from the direct box into the mic input of the individual instruments as well as groups of in-
board will give you ample gain. Once you've struments to different outputs.These outputs can
plugged into the direct box, you have all of the be printed to different tracks on the multitrack
advantages of the balanced low impedance run or they can be played from MIDI in sync with
from the direct box to the mixer (less noise and the taped tracks. Multiple outputs are ideal but
virtually unlimited cable length). can quickly use up a lot of tape tracks and mixer
Within a drum machine there can be many channels.
different sounds playing at once. Some drum ma- Most home setups can't afford the num-
chines have simple mono or stereo outputs of ber of tracks it takes to print all of the percus-
the overall mix with individual volume and/or sion sounds to individual tracks. One solution
pan settings performed within the drum ma- to this problem is to run the individual outputs
chine. This type of operation can be very conve- of the drum machine into the mixer, using the
nient for a small live performance situation or bus assignments to send all of the instruments
for recording with limited tracks and channels, to one or two tracks on the multitrack.
but it's our goal to gain as much control over So what's the advantage to combining
the individual sounds as we can. with the bus assignments instead of within the
If the sounds are all coming from one or drum machine? Once the instruments are spread
two outputs, even if the drum machine allows out on the mixer, the effects sends and EQ can
for instrument level and pan control, we can't be used on the separate channels. If we need to
control effects or EQ on each individual instru- put lots of reverb on the snare, put some low
ment. If we add reverb at all, we add it to the end in the kick and add highs to the crash cym-
entire drum pattern. Adding reverberation to all bal, we can. Each change will only affect the
the drums at once can create a distant or muddy instruments coming from one output. Typically,
sound. Audio Example 6 -1 demonstrates in a small setup, the equalization changes and

the sound of the mono output of a drum the reverb will be printed to the multitrack. If
the reverb is to go to the multitrack, bring the
machine with the additio n of plate reverb
returns from the reverb into one or two avail-
(Illustration 6-1).
able channels on the mixer. Once the reverbera-
tion returns are plugged into channels, they can
be assigned to the same bus outputs as the rest
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia au di o recording text • page 190

Illustration 6-1
The Mono Drum Machine Send

of the drums (Illustration 6-2). Audio Example

Audio Example 6-2 Outputs Separated
6-2 demonstrates the same drum pattern as the
previous example, with the individual outs
CD-2: Track 38
plugged into the mixer and each sound adjusted
for the mix. First you'll hear the mono pattern
with reverb on the entire pattern, then you'll
hear the pattern with this new setup.
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 191

Illustration 6-2
Sub-mixing Multiple Outputs

1. Plug all outputs of the drum machine into the inputs of the mixer.
2. Assign the drum machine channels to bus outputs 1 and 2. Pan for a good stereo balance.
3. EQ channels to taste, and send the desired amount of each channel to the effects unit.
4. Plug the output of the effects unit into two available mixer channels, and assign the effects channels to bus
outputs 1 and 2.
5. To record to tape, plug bus outputs 1 and 2 into recorder channels, start the drum machine and record.
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 192

Illustration 6-3
Sub-mixing Main Mixer
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 193

pulses that are produced by a sequencer, drum

Sub-mixing machine or time code generator. These pulses
are typically recorded onto one track of an au-
If your mixer doesn't have enough inputs to ac- dio or video tape recorder. Later, the signal from
cept all your drum machine outputs, try using a the tape track is plugged into the sync in jack of
sub-mixer or printing some of the key drum parts the sequencer or machine synchronizer to serve
to tape while running the remaining drum tracks as a tempo guide for future tracks. Sync pulse is
from your sequencer synchronized to time code. the simplest and least flexible of these systems
A sub-mixer is a very handy tool for many but is still common in lower priced drum ma-
recording situations; it's simply a small mixer. chines and sequencers. We'll start with the
You might plug the individual outputs of your simple approach and build from there. For now,
drum machine into the channels of the sub- we'll take a look at synchronizing drum machines
mixer, create a mix, then plug the mono or ste- or sequencers to an audio tape recorder. How-
reo outputs of the sub-mix into your board. This ever, keep in mind that these principles also
would use only one or two of your recording pertain to synchronization of audio machines,
mixer's channels, instead of up to 8 or 12 (Illus- video machines, film machines and computers.
tration 6-3). Synchronizing two sequencers means to
I've had good results printing some of the make their tempos match perfectly. Sync pulse
tracks to the multitrack, then playing the remain- can accomplish this. Time code can accomplish
ing tracks from the sequencer referenced to time this with more control and flexibility.
code. This is a very common technique for re- Synchronizing two tape recorders means
cordings that use sequencers and drum ma- to make their motors run at the same speed. A
chines. The actual sequenced parts never need relative of sync pulse, called pilot tone, can ac-
complish this. Time code can accomplish this with
to go onto tape, they just run in sync with the
more control and flexibility.
tape tracks, over and over. Each time the tape
Synchronizing a sequencer to a tape re-
starts, the sequencer refers to the time code to
corder means to enable a sequencer to imitate
find the correct measure and beat.
and duplicate a tempo map in relation to parts
recorded on tape. Sync pulse can accomplish this.

Time Code and Sync Pulse Time code can accomplish this with more con-
trol and flexibility.

What is time code? What is sync pulse? What

Sync Pulse
does time code do and how does it work? First
Sync pulse is the simplest synchronizing system.
off, let's understand that sync pulse and time
This system uses a specified number of electronic
code are used to synchronize multiple machine-
pulses per quarter note to drive the tempo of a
driven mechanisms, or timing clocks, so that all
sequencer. Most sync pulse is generated at 24
synchronized systems run at the same speed and
pulses per quarter note, and each pulse is iden-
in a constant relation to one another. Both sync
tical. The only factor that establishes synchroni-
pulse and time code are a series of electronic
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 194

zation is how fast the pulses are being sent or in sync with a previously recorded track.
received. Almost all sequencers that accept exter-
It's very simple. When a drum machine or nal clock information respond to sync pulse.
sequencer is set to an external clock and a sync Most newer equipment will also accept time
pulse is sent into the sync in jack, the tempo of code.
the sequencer follows according to the rate of
the sync pulse. Every time 24 pulses go by, the SMPTE/Time Code
sequencer plays another quarter note's worth Time Code gives much more control and flex-
of your sequence. The faster the sync pulses, ibility than sync pulse. The most common form
the faster the tempo. When you listen to the of time code is SMPTE, pronounced (simp' -tee).
sound of sync pulse, you'll notice that the pitch The initials S-M-P-T-E stand for the Society of
of the sync tone raises and lowers as the tempo Motion Picture and Television Engineers. This
speeds up and slows down. society of professionals developed SMPTE time
Sync pulse has one major disadvantage: code as a means of interlocking (synchronizing)
Each pulse is identical. There is no way for this audio, video and film transports.
system to indicate to the sequencer which mea- A piece of equipment that produces SMPTE
sure of the sequence should be playing. The se- time code is said to generate time code. A piece
quencer always needs to hear the sync pulse of equipment that accepts and operates from
from the beginning of the song to be precisely time code is said to read time code. The time

Illustration 6-4

A particular point in the f low of SMPTE time cod e might be indic ated by a n umber lik e
01 :32:51:12 . Th is numb er ind ic ates the spec if ic po in t in th e flow of time c ode at 1 hour,
32 minutes, 51 seconds and 12 frames.

If a sequencer is set to start a song at SMPTE reference 01:32:51:12, then as the

sequencer receives th e continuou s flow of time code, it waits until that exact set of code
numbers c omes up to play beat o ne of measure on e of the song .

Time code is a 24 -hour clock. It run s from 00:00:00:00 to 23 :59:59:29 before it start s
over again at 00:00:00:00 .
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum machines • page 195

code reader and generator are almost always in can be started at any point of the song, and as
the same piece of equipment, often with other soon as it receives time code, the sequencer will
MIDI functions and features. find its place and join in, perfectly in sync. This
Now that we have the formal introduction is a great advantage over sync pulse (where the
out of the way, this is how SMPTE works: This song must start at the beginning each time to
code is a continuous flow of binary informa- be in sync with previously recorded tracks.)
tion—a stream of constantly changing zeros and Most SMPTE time code is generated at the
ones that lasts for 24 hours before starting over. rate of 30 frames per second. This is the stan-
Each single point in time has its own unique bi- dard time code rate for audio machine synchro-
nary number. These unique binary numbers are nizing and for syncing to black and white video.
referenced to a 24-hour clock. This gives us a Sync to color video uses a different type
way of pinpointing a particular position in the of frame rate called drop frame. Drop frame time
flow of the code. Each point in the code has a code is generated at 30 frames per second, but
unique address that's described in hours, min- one frame is omitted every two minutes, except
utes, seconds, frames and sometimes sub-frames. for minutes 00,10, 20, 30,40 and 50. Try not to
The term frame comes from the film world, which think too hard about this concept—it will only
calls each picture in the film a frame (Illustra- confuse you! The reason for leaving these frames
tion 6-4). out is to make SMPTE time match the real time
SMPTE time code is generated at a con- of color video. Color video operates at the speed
stant speed. Tempo isn't changed by the time of 29.97 frames per second, slightly slower than
code speeding up and slowing down; tempo is the 30 frames per second of SMPTE. Leaving
changed by the sequencer calculating where the these selected frames out lets the SMPTE rate
song should be in relation to the time code's stay at 30 frames per second while maintaining
24-hour clock. The 24-hour SMPTE clock runs real time integrity.
from 00:00:00:00 to 23:59:59:29 before it starts The European standard time code rate,
over again at 00:00:00:00. established by the European Broadcast Union
If a sequence is set to external sync and is (EBU), is 25 frames per second for color and
set to start at 1 hour, 20 minutes and 10 sec- black and white video. Film synchronization uti-
onds (01:20:10:00), beat one of measure one lizes 24 frames per second (Illustration 6-5).
of the sequence will play at 01:20:10:00. All
tempo settings and changes are controlled MIDI Time Code
within the sequencer, but all changes will be in MIDI Time Code (MTC) is simply the MIDI equiva-
mathematical relation to time code. lent of SMPTE time code. MTC uses real time
When a sequence is referencing to time reference, like SMPTE, of hours, minutes, sec-
code, it's not necessary to start at the begin- onds and frames per second. SMPTE time code,
ning of the song to be in sync with previously printed to tape, is read by a SMPTE reader and
recorded tracks of the sequence. The sequencer converted to MTC for time code communication
calculates the measure and beat of the sequence within the MIDI domain.
in relation to the start time of the song. The tape
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 196

Illustration 6-5
SMPTE Time Code Frame Rates

30 Frames per Second

This is the rate for American black and white video
and most audio-to-audio synchronization.

30 Frames per Second - Drop Frame

This is the rate for American color video to audio
synchronizing. 108 frames per hour are omitted to
compensate for the National Television Standards
Committee (NTSC) frame rate of 29.97 frames per
second.
25 Frames per Second
This is the rate for European black and white and
color video synchronizing, established by the Euro-
pean Broadcasting Union (EBU).

24 Frames per Second

This is the standard synchronization rate for film.

Using Time Code have a very appealing sound, and the hotter the
This is how the procedure for using time code code signal is on tape the higher the chance of
works on most systems: There will be a Sync Out it bleeding into the rest of the mix.
jack from your sequencer or drum machine. Sync pulse come out of the sync jacks while
Sometimes Sync Out is labeled SMPTE Out, Time the sequence or drum pattern is playing, so
Code Out, or on some units, the sync pulse comes record a reference track of your drums while you
out of the Tape Out jack. Plug this jack into the record the sync pulse to an edge track. Later
line input of your tape recorder or the line input you can refine the drum parts as much as you
of the mixer, and assign the code to one of the want.
tape tracks. SMPTE time code, unlike sync pulse, can
It's most common to record time code onto be laid down independently from the sequence.
an outer track, also called an edge track. Usu- Usually, it's best to record continuous time code
ally the track with the highest number is desig- on the edge track of the entire reel of tape for
nated as the time code track. On an 8-track, time the sake of convenience as you record more
code is typically recorded on track eight. songs on the reel. Recording time code on tape
Suggested recording level for recording is called striping.
time code is usually -3VU. Time code doesn't Once the code is recorded on the tape, plug
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 197

the output of the code track into the sequencer's to tape. We need to verify that the level coming
Sync In jack. Sync In can also be labeled SMPTE from the drum machine outputs is as strong as
In, Time Code In or on some units, the Tape In possible. The mixer inputs and channels will need
jack is used to accept time code. to be boosted if the drum machine levels are
When time code is successfully plugged set low. When we boost the mixer channel, the
into the sequencer, set the sequencer to Exter- noise level raises in relation to the signal, pro-
nal Clock. This may also be labeled External Sync, ducing an undesirable signal-to-noise ratio.
Slave to External Sync, Slave or just External. Most of the time in a small setup with lim-
If you're using sync pulse, simply play the ited channels, it's necessary to use only the mono
tape. As soon as the sync pulses begin, the se- or stereo outs from the drum machine. The drum
quencer will start. mix is set internally on the drum machine. Be
If you're using SMPTE, before you play the sure the master volume is at maximum and the
tape you must set the start point for the se- mix levels in the drum machine are high. It's ideal
quence in hours, minutes, seconds and frames if the loudest instrument in the drum mix is set
(02:05:37:02). Once the start point is defined at maximum and the remaining instruments are
within the sequencer, play the tape. The first beat adjusted to blend.
of the first measure will begin at the start point Audio Example 6-3 is an example of a
you selected. From this point on, the sequence drum machine recorded with the machine out-
should follow along. Again, the advantage to puts low. Notice the amount of noise.
SMPTE is that wherever you begin during the
song, the sequencer will calculate the measure
Audio Example 6-3 Outputs Low
and beat, then lock into sync. The disadvantage
CD-2: Track 39
to sync pulse is that you need to start at the
beginning of the sequence every time to stay in
sync with parts that are already on tape (Illus- Audio Example 6-4 demonstrates the drum

tration 6-6). machine from Audio Example 6-3 playing the

Being literate with time code is very im- same pattern with the master output at maxi-
portant when it comes to optimizing the record- mum. Notice how different the noise level is
ing process. Everything we've seen so far about between these two examples.
time code is used very extensively on many re-
cording projects. You're capable of getting much
Audio Example 6-4 Outputs Maximum CD-2:
more from your equipment if you're comfortable
Track 39
with synchronizing techniques.

If you're going to be printing individual

Drum Machine Recording Levels parts to the multitrack, be sure to adjust the in-
ternal levels to maximum before recording. Usu-
We must consider the output levels within the ally the individual instruments have been ad-
drum machine before adjusting recording levels justed for a mix within a pattern. They might
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 198

Illustration 6-6
Synchronizing to SMPTE
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 199

have been panned and their output level might machines rather than how to program drum
be very low. If this is the case, it'll be nearly im- parts, but there are a couple of concepts we can
possible to get a strong and noise-free signal use to help our drum machine recordings sound
on tape until you increase the drum machine or more realistic. If you're trying to get the drum
sound module levels. machine to sound like a real drummer playing a
Adjust the internal output level to maxi- real drum set, try to imagine a real drummer
mum for every instrument that you'll be record- playing the part. First of all, a drummer only has
ing to the multitrack, then adjust the master two hands and two feet. An authentic drum set
volume for the unit to maximum. Be sure to ad- part can only have so many parts happening at
just the input preamp on your mixer so that the once and still be believable. The part should con-
overdrive LED doesn't flash when the drums are tain one activity for each hand and foot at any
sounding. If you have no input LED, listen closely one time.
for distortion and adjust accordingly. If you hear The main beat typically contains bass
distortion, turn the input preamp down until you drum, snare drum and hi-hat. Hi-hat is typically
don't hear distortion. If the input preamp is low played with the right hand while sometimes
and you hear no distortion, turn the preamp up being opened and closed with the left foot. If
until you hear distortion, then back the preamp the right hand plays the ride cymbal, the left
off. Our goal is to adjust the signal to be as hot foot can be closing the hi-hat, usually on beats
as possible at each point, from the beginning of two and four. Drum fills usually occupy both
the signal path to the end, with minimal distor- hands, so whatever parts were theoretically be-
tion. ing played by the hands should stop while the
Some sequencers allow for easy MIDI con- fill is happening. There can be exceptions to
trol over volume and panning. This equates to these guidelines, depending on the song and the
automatic level controls throughout the mix. style, but it's helpful to keep these considerations
Being able to adjust levels during a song and in mind.
having those adjustments remembered and du- Auxiliary percussion parts in live instru-
plicated by the sequencer is useful, to say the ment recordings would be played by other mu-
least. Explaining how to accomplish MIDI auto- sicians, so they can be layered over the drum
mated moves isn't practical right now, but if set part. In Chapter 5 we noticed that as musi-
you're using this feature, it's still important that cal sections change, the percussion sounds and
your levels within the drum machine are as hot parts usually change. Following this guideline
as possible . will help you produce a percussion track that
moves the arrangement from section to section
and creates a momentum from the beginning to
Programming the end.

Programming drum parts can be difficult and Real-time Programming

confusing for musicians who aren't drummers. Drum machines have a feature called quantize
In this chapter, we focus on how to record drum or auto correct that takes an inaccurate rhyth-
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 200

mic performance and makes it rhythmically per- easier to tell where each beat should go. When
fect on playback. This can be the one feature you speed the tempo back up, the parts will
that makes the drum parts work if the performer probably sound very good and they'll have a
isn't an accurate rhythmic player. This can also more believable human feel.
be the one feature that makes the drum ma- Listen to Audio Examples 6-5 and 6-6—
chine parts feel stiff and computerized. two versions of the same drum pattern. In Au-
The thing that makes one drummer's parts dio Example 6-5, the pattern is quantized to be
different from another is the interpretation of computer perfect.
beat placement. Human beings (drummers or
not) don't play music in perfect rhythm. If one
Audio Example 6-5 Quantized Pattern CD-2:
drummer tends to play the snare drum a little
Track 40
ahead of the beat and another drummer tends
to play both the kick and the snare behind the
beat, their drum parts will have a different mu- Audio Example 6-6 demonstrates the pat-
sical effect. Neither is wrong, but one might fit tern again, this time with more of a human feel.
a particular song better than the other. The hu- This pattern has not been quantized to be com-
man feel of a drummer can't be duplicated by puter perfect. Notice the difference in the rhyth-
perfectly quantized drum parts. mic feel.
Some sequencers let the user partially
quantize the parts. This is called quantize
Audio Example 6-6 Human Feel
strength and can be very useful. Essentially, this
CD-2: Track 40
feature lets you quantize but only to a certain
degree. You can make the parts closer to perfect
but still maintain some of the original rhythmic
tendencies of the musician. Look for a feature
like this on your computer sequencer or drum Separating and Organizing Tracks
machine. It'll help your parts sound more realis-
tic. It's time to consider some of the options and
Another way to put life into your parts is variables when recording specific drum sounds.
to play them into the drum machine or sequencer If your drum machine or sound module has mul-
without quantizing at all. This can sound great tiple outputs to which you can assign individual
if you have the technical ability to play the parts instruments or groups of instruments, you'll find
with proper feel and accuracy. Playing into a much greater freedom in fine-tuning each sound.
sequencer or drum machine, without quantiz- Earlier in this chapter, we heard the difference
ing, is called real-time recording. in impact of a drum machine that had effects
In reality, most musicians have a problem on the overall stereo outputs and one that had
playing drum and percussion parts that have been fine-tuned on each of the multiple outputs.
enough accuracy to work in real time. Try slow- There is a difference. As we look at these indi-
ing the tempo down substantially to make it vidual sounds and some of our options for ef-
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 201

fects and dynamic processing, we'll assume that mics into your mixer. That way you won't always
our drum machine has multiple outputs and that have to wonder which mic was plugged into
we're able to access each instrument separately. which input. Once you use this order of assign-
Once you've made the decision to split the ment a few times, you'll move through the drum
drum parts up and record them on separate set up quickly.
tracks of the multitrack, organizing a system of When I do deviate from this procedure, I
track arrangement is essential. Sometimes you'll print the hi-hat on track one and bump every-
need to deviate from your system, but most of thing else up one track. I only do this if I'm us-
the time you'll be able to stick to a format. Fol- ing analog tape, and I don't think the hi-hat track
lowing a standard track assignment procedure will be a major part of the overall drum sound.
results in faster and more confident setups. Track one is on the top edge of an analog tape,
When laying drum tracks, I always try to and I know from experience that the outer tracks
follow the same track assignment procedures. are the first to degrade, because the oxide some-
This order of track assignment is common times wears more on this track than the rest.
throughout the recording industry. Of course, However, I never worry about this when I'm
everything is dependent on the total number of recording digitally or using new tape on a ma-
tracks and which specific tracks are available chine that is well maintained.
when you record the drums. The track assign- This kind of track arrangement can expand
ments we'll cover in this chapter also apply to or compress quickly depending on the drummer's
acoustic drums. We equate the overhead tracks set. There might be more or less toms, cymbals,
on the acoustic drum set with the cymbal tracks kicks, etc. Track assignments can always come
of the drum machine. from a basic starting point. If you learn this or-
der, you can adapt to any drum miking situation
24 Tracks without having to think so hard about it. Ap-
If you have 24 or more tracks available, try this proach drum track assignments using this or-
common tack assignment procedure: der, starting from track one and moving up in
• Track 1: Kick drum track number:
• Track 2: Snare drum • Kick drum
• Track 3: High torn • Snare drum
• Track 4: Mid torn • Toms (high to low)
• Track 5: Low torn • Overheads (drummer's left to drummer's
• Track 6: Cymbals/left overhead right)
• Track 7: Cymbals/right overhead Use a track sheet to organize and docu-
• Track 8: Hi-hat ment the instruments you're recording (Illustra-
Even if you need to combine all the drum tion 6-7). It's best to keep track of as many de-
microphones to one track, this is a good order tails as you can on the track sheet. Ideally, you'll
to memorize. Ideally, you'll be able to use mul- be able to note:
tiple microphones on the kit even if you must • The instrument that's on each track
combine them. Use this order for plugging the • The date of each performance (this is very im-
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 202

Illustration 6-7
Track Sheet: 24-Track Studio

portant when trying to figure out which take 16 Tracks

was the most recent) Microphone choice In the 16-track world, if we don't need a lot of
and placement Type of sound module and other tracks for the rest of the musicians, we
the patch name Time code reference for can use the same track assignment procedure
verses, choruses, bridge, solos, etc. (this is we used for the 24-track setup. In a straight
very useful if you have backing vocals that ahead rock band, where the instrumentation
only happen a few times in the entire song) might consist of drums, a couple of guitars and
The performer's name a lead vocalist, we can usually afford to spread
the drums out to about eight tracks. In fact, 16-
track recording using two-inch analog tape is
an accepted standard for a very punchy rock
sound.
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 203

Most of the time we need to condense the 8 Tracks

number of drum tracks to make room for the In the 8-track world, we obviously need to sac-
rest of the musical parts (Illustration 6-8). This rifice the number of tracks we allot for drums.
is a very common track order for drums in the When recording acoustic drums, try to keep at
16-track domain: least the kick and snare on separate tracks, com-
• Track 1: Kick drum bining the rest of the drums to one or two tracks
• Track 2: Snare drum in a sub-mix. The exact number of tracks you
• Track 3: Left drums sub-mix (high toms and can allot depends entirely on the musical re-
left overheads [cymbals]) quirements (Illustration 6-9).
• Track 4: Right drums sub-mix (low toms and Sometimes, if you're using an 8-track mul-
right overheads [cymbals]) titrack, you'll need to print all the drums to one
• Track 5: Hi-hat (optional) track to make room for background vocals or
other key orchestration considerations. It's best

Illustration 6-8
Track Sheet: 16-Track Studio
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 204

Illustration 6-9
Tack Sheet: 8-Track Studio

for the drum sound to spread the sounds out • Track 3: Mono sub-mix of the remaining
over as many tracks as you can spare. If you're drums or sub-mix left
using a drum machine or sequencer, use one • Track 4: Optional sub-mix right
track of the multitrack for time code, so you If tracks are running low, try the following
might never need to print the drums to tape. approach. At least it gives you control over pres-
The drum part can run in sync to the multitrack ence, effects and EQ for one of the key drums:
as your sequencer follows time code. • Track 1: Kick or snare
For a simple arrangement when you're re- • Track 2: Sub-mix of everything except the in
cording acoustic drums or printing drum machine strument assigned to track one
tracks to tape, use this track arrangement if you
have the tracks available: 4 Tracks
• Track 1: Kick drum The 4-track domain is limited. If you're record-
• Track 2: Snare drum ing acoustic drums, your best bet is to use mul-
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 205

tiple microphones assigned to one track. If you're

recording drum machine or sequenced drum Kick Drum
parts, use time code and set up so the sequence
plays in reference to SMPTE. This way none of Sounds that come from a drum machine are of-
the MIDI instruments ever need to touch the ten digital recordings of acoustic drums, just as
multitrack tape. Even though that only leaves they would be heard from a microphone pointed
three remaining tracks for vocals, solos, guitar at the drum. Sometimes the sounds have been
and the rest, you've still dramatically improved compressed, effected and combined with natu-
your 4-track potential (Illustration 6-10). ral ambience. In either case, there can be excel-
lent uses for these sounds, and there are plenty
of adjustments we can make to fine-tune the
sound for the song.
Listen to Audio Example 6-7. In this ex-

Illustration 6-10
Track Sheet: 4-Track Studio
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 206

ample, you hear sampled kick drums from a few produces the sound your music needs with no
popular drum machines, samplers and sound effort. I like the sound of the kick in Audio Ex-
modules. Notice how natural and unaffected ample 6-9 when it's tuned lower. (I'm assuming
some of them are and how processed and ef- that you're familiar enough with your drum
fected others are. machine or sound module controls to change
the basic parameters, like level, tuning and pan-
ning.)
Audio Example 6-1 Kick Drums
CD-2: Track 41
Audio Example 6-9 Tuning the Kick
CD-2: Track 42
All of these sounds are very good and very
usable in many musical settings. Let's start with
a very simple kick sound and build to a very com-
plex sound. For instructional purposes, we'll keep Equalizing the Kick
building on the sound as we go. For your own The same equalization considerations need to
music, the most appropriate sound might be the be evaluated on drum machine sounds as on live
most simple and pure sound or the most com- drums—lows, mids and highs. On kick drum, I
plex and involved sound. Let the music guide usually like a good solid low end and a well-
you to the sounds you need. defined attack. Remember, in order to hear the
Most of the very complicated and inter- lows and highs better, firs t find the mid-
esting kick drum sounds that come from a drum frequencies that are clouding the sound and cut
machine start as a simple kick like the one in them. These mids are typically between about
Audio Example 6-8. This is the sound of one 250 and 500Hz. A sweepable or parametric EQ
moving-coil mic inside a kick drum with the front is ideal for shaping drum sounds. Being able to
head off and a pillow in the bottom of the drum sweep the cut or boost can enable you to find
touching the head. It's like the sound of the live just the right EQ curve. I'll cut the mids on the
kick drum in Chapter 5. kick in Audio Example 6-10.

Audio Example 6-8 Simple Kick Audio Example 6-10 Cut Mids
CD-2: Track 42 CD-2: Track 43

Any processing we perform on the drum The sampled kick can be reinforced in the
machine kick can almost always be done to the low frequencies at about 80 to 150Hz, and the
live kick. attack can be accentuated between 3 and 5kHz.
The exact frequencies you select are usually de-
Tuning the Kick termined by other instruments in the mix. If the
Test the tuning of the drum first. Often, lower- bass is boosted at 150Hz, then you'd be better
ing or raising the pitch of the drum instantly off boosting the kick at a low frequency other
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 207

than 150Hz. Listen to Audio Example 6-11 as I low-frequency energy controls the level. Sounds
enhance the lows and highs on the kick. This is with very little or no low-frequency content that
the same drum we just cut the mids on in Audio have a definite percussive transient should typi-
Example 6-10. cally be recorded at lower levels in the range of
-5 to -3VU.The ideal level depends on the indi-
vidual sound, its transient and the amount of
Audio Example 6-11 Enhance Lows low frequency. If you're not familiar with the
CD-2: Track 44 concept of transients, refer to Chapters 1 and 2.
Once the kick is recorded on its own track,
To keep track of the progress we're mak- there are still a few details to look after. On the
ing with this basic kick drum, Audio Example acoustic drums in Chapter 5, we dealt with leak-
6-12 demonstrates the kick drum before EQ and age between the drum mics when the kick drum
after EQ. First you hear the kick we started with, mic also picked up the rest of the kit. To com-
then the kick as we've shaped the sound to this pensate for leakage, we used a gate. We don't
point. really have leakage using a drum machine, but
drum machines have a tendency to crosstalk
between output channels, so it's a good idea to
Audio Example 6-12 Before and After CD-2: use gates on tracks playing back from tape. In
Track 45 other words, even though you've sent the kick
alone out an individual output, the rest of the
Most of the time, this clean, punchy kick drum sounds might be heard faintly in the back-
sound will work best in the mix. It's ideal to print ground.
a good raw sound like this to the multitrack and The other (and more important) reason for
add reverb or effects later in the mix. If you save using gates on recorded drum machine tracks is
the rest of the processing for mixdown, you can noise. You've boosted tape noise if you've added
fine-tune the sound specifically for the music as any high end to the track after it's been recorded.
it stands in the particular mix you've created. The drum tracks are often very dominant in the
mix, making any noise from them constant and

Recording Levels for the Kick Drum consistently noticeable. Audio Example 6-13

Recording the kick drum at OVU (on the loudest demonstrates a noisy kick track playing back
from the multitrack.
part of the track) works best most of the time.
Low-frequency energy dominates recording lev-
els, so if you increase the lows, the overall level Audio Example 6-13 Noisy Kick
increases dramatically. When you're dealing with CD-2: Track 46
transients on drum sounds, you need to identify
whether the sound has a lot of low-frequency
See Illustration 6-11 for a diagram of the
content and/or lots of attack. Sounds predomi-
patching process for a gate in this context. To
nant in low frequencies can typically be recorded
adjust a gate on drums, set the attack
hotter, in the range of 0 to +2VU, because the
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 208

time to its fastest setting. Start with the release

Audio Example 6-14 Gate the Kick
time at about half a second. Set the range con-
CD-2: Track 46
trol so that all sound below the threshold is
turned completely down. Finally, adjust the
threshold so the gate turns on any time the kick In the majority of styles, reverb is inappro-
hits and turns completely off between hits (Il- priate for the kick drum—especially reverb with
lustrations 6-12 and 6-13). decay times over about a half second long. Since
Listen to the kick in Audio Example 6-14. the kick typically has ample low end and is usu-
I start without the gate, then I include the gate ally playing throughout a song, adding a lot of
in the signal path. Notice the difference in the reverb to the kick produces a constant wash of
amount of noise between the kicks. reverberation that can reduce clarity and make
the mix sound muddy and distant. In the drum
pattern in Audio Example 6-15, I start with no

Illustration 6-11
Patching in the Gate
1. Patch the tape track into the input of the gate. It's almost always preferable to get
the signal for the gate directly from the source. In this case, the source is the
multitrack. Avoid using sends for the gate that are post fader or post EQ.
2. Plug the output of the gate into the line input of an available mixer channel.
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 209

Illustration 6-12
Gating Drum Machine Parts on Playback From the Multitrack
1. Set the attack to its fastest setting.
2. Set the release time between .25 and 1 second (depending on the sound source
and musical requirements).
3. Set the range control for maximum reduction of signal below the threshold.
4. Adjust the threshold so the instrument sounds normal and the gate turns the track
off whenever there's no sound.
5. If your processor has a Gate/Expander button, select the smoothest sounding
position. The Expander setting usually works best on long, smooth sounds like
crash cymbals or drums with lots of ring.

reverb on the kick, then I add it. Notice the machine or sound module. The sampled kick
change in the clarity and the distinguishability drum sounds in Audio Example 6-16 include
of the drum sound. short or gated reverb.

Audio Example 6-15 Kick Reverb Audio Example 6-16 Short Reverb
CD-2: Track 47 CD-2: Track 48

In some styles, reverb is common on the On the kick in Audio Example 6-17, the
kick. Short decay times and gated reverb sounds drum starts out dry, then I add gated reverb.
are most common. These reverb sounds often
become very important to the musical impact of
Audio Example 6-17 Gated Reverb
the kick. Print the reverb to the multitrack with
CD-2: Track 49
the kick if tracks and effects are limited. Reverb
is often part of the sampled sounds in a drum
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 210

Illustration 6-13
Gating
Set the gate threshold just above the noise to keep the drum sound but to eliminate the
unwanted noise.
Everything below the threshold will be turned down or off.

The kick in Audio Example 6-18 starts dry, a little hall reverb on the kick can help blend it
then I add plate reverb with a decay time of .5 with the mix. In each case, use reverberation
seconds. sparingly on the kick drum or you'll lose edge,
clarity and intensity.

Audio Example 6-18 Plate Reverb

Panning the Kick
____________CD-2: Track 49 __________
The kick track is almost always panned to the
center position. Since it has lots of low end, the
As you can tell from the previous three kick can be a dominant force in the level of a
Audio Examples, the addition of these reverb mix. If the kick is panned to one side, the mix
sounds can increase the interest of the kick. It's level will be very heavy on the kick side and weak
most common to hear reverb on the kick in R&B, on the other side. This isn't good since we want
rap and sometimes pop songs. Country, jazz, to create a mix that's even in level from left to
fusion and vintage rock songs almost always use right.
dry kick drum sounds. Sometimes on heavier rock Low frequencies are omnidirectional,
recordings that simulate an arena concert sound, which means it's difficult to tell where they're
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 211

coming from. Therefore, panning instruments fits with the sound of the other drums.
with primarily low frequencies gives little if any Listen to the sampled snare drum sounds
benefit to the sound of the mix. Sometimes, de- in Audio Example 6-19 to hear some of the op-
pending on the sounds of the instruments, a mix tions available.
will work well if the bass guitar and kick drum
are panned slightly apart, but there's usually not
much benefit to that, especially in the context Audio Example 6-19 Snare Drums
of a full range mix. __________ CD-2: Track 50 __________
Decisions about shaping the kick sound,
or any sound for that matter, always involve Some of the sampled sounds from drum
musical considerations. If the kick is appropri- machines sound as natural as they would from
ate for the song, then you've done your job. On one mic close-miking the drum. Some of the
the other hand, the most interesting sounding sounds have a complex blend of dry, processed
kick in the wrong musical surroundings isn't and acoustic sound. Let's start with the simple
doing anybody any good. Let's strive to search snare and build our own sound that's more com-
for sounds based on musical considerations plex. Audio Example 6-20 demonstrates our ref-
rather than simply sticking a neat sound in an erence snare for the next six audio examples.
inappropriate musical setting.

Audio Example 6-20 Simple Snare

Snare Drum __________ CD-2: Track 51 __________

The range of different snare drum sounds that Any processing we do to a drum machine
are available in drum machines and sound mod- snare can be applied to a live acoustic snare
ules is vast. The snare drum is an instrument that drum.
comes in several sizes, from a small piccolo snare Since there are so many different types of
to a very large marching snare drum. Each size snare drum sounds, there's no single equaliza-
can be tuned in a wide range from very high to tion technique that works ail the time. Often,
very low. Snares are the wires that touch the the sound of the drum machine output works
bottom head of the drum. The snares can be tight great with no EQ. Frequently, changes arc made
or loose, made from different materials with in the EQ to make the track fit with other instru-
greater or fewer numbers of them. Also, differ- ments in the mix. Sometimes you'll need to cut
ent heads can have different sounds, and differ- the lows and boost the highs. Other times you'll
ent types of wood and hardware designs can need to boost the mids and cut the highs. It's
change the sound. In other words, there's no not even uncommon to boost the lows and cut
one definitive snare drum sound, and there are the highs. Listen to your music to decide what's
plenty of options to chose from. Spend time re- necessary for the song. The more mixes you've
searching the sounds available to you. Find a completed using these mixing techniques, the
snare sound that fits the musical context and better your judgment will become.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Coorse • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 212

When recording to the multitrack, the pri- 200-500Hz is often the body of the snare
mary objective is to get a sound to tape that's sound. Boosting here can thicken the sound of
clean and gives you the option of final sound the snare drum. Cutting here can clean up the
shaping in the mix. When you're shaping a sound sound. This range is boosted or cut depending
in the final mix, your main consideration is the totally on the other instruments in the song and
blend, balance and musical impact to the lis- the desired effect. In Audio Example 6-24, I boost
tener. Use all these concepts and theories to- then cut 250Hz.
gether in your specific situation to help enhance
the emotion and feeling of your song.
The next five Audio Examples demonstrate Audio Example 6-24 250Hz CD-
some specific frequencies that adjust different 2: Track 51
aspects of most snare drum sounds.
8—10kHz is the very high buzz of the Below 100HZ is generally a range of fre-
snares plus the sound of the stick hitting the quencies that isn't useful on most snare drums
drum. In Audio Example 6-21, I boost then cut in most mixes. Boosting these frequencies can
8kHz. cause a conflict with the bass guitar, kick drum
or other low-frequency instruments. In Audio
Example 6-25, I roll the lows off below 100Hz.
Audio Example 6-218kHz
CD-2: Track 51
Audio Example 6-25 100Hz CD-
3—5kHz is the aggressive and penetrating 2: Track 51
edge sound. This frequency range includes the
sound of the snares rattling in response to the
snare drum being hit. In Audio Example 6-22,1 Recording Levels for the Snare
boost then cut 4kHz. Drum
These are guidelines for setting levels, but the
further you get into recording, the more you'll
Audio Example 6-22 4kHz
see that the engineer needs to hear the sound
CD-2: Track 51
and then make informed choices for adjustments.
Normal recording levels for snare drum can
1.5-2.5kHz is a papery sound. This isn't vary depending on the sound. If the sound has
usually a good range to boost on the snare. In plenty of low end and is very natural sounding,
Audio Example 6-23,1 boost then cut 2kHz. adjust the level for OVU at the loudest part of
the track. This usually means about -3 to -5VU
on a single hit to allow for level accumulating
Audio Example 6-23 2kHz CD- on an eighth- or sixteenth-note snare fill.
2: Track 51 Different snare sounds provide different
reading on a VU meter. We come back to the
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 213

fact that if the sound is thin with lots of tran- ate the snare sound but turning the highs up
sient attack, you need to record at lower levels also turns the tape noise up. Listen as the snare
to accurately record the transient and avoid over- plays. After a few seconds, I insert the gate.
saturating the tape. Depending on the sound, Notice the change in noise level between hits.
the levels might need to be as cold as -9VU.
Adjusting the levels between -7 and -3VU at the
Audio Example 6-26 Gate the Snare
loudest part of the track usually works well on
CD-2: Track 52
thin snare drum sounds.

Tuning the Snare

Tuning the drum lower or higher (within the Compressing the Snare Sound
drum machine) can make the difference between A common technique on snare drum that's also
a drum that works great in a song and one that very popular on toms and kick is compression.
doesn't. In Chapter 5, when we tuned the acous- Compression has two primary effects on drum
tic drum higher and lower, the sound obviously tracks. First, since the compressor is an auto-
changed. In that case, we had the same drum matic level control, it evens out the volume of
being tuned higher and lower. When we tune each hit. This can be a very good thing on a com-
the sample higher and lower, we're really hear- mercial rock tune, where the snare part is a
ing a sound change that is closer to changing simple backbeat on two and four. The compres-
the pitch and the size of the drum. As the sample sor keeps the level even so that a weak hit
is tuned higher, the drum sounds smaller and doesn't detract from the groove.
higher. As we tune the sample lower, the drum The second benefit of compression is its
sounds larger and lower. If you want a huge, ability, with proper use, to accentuate the at-
low, beefy snare drum sound, start with a drum tack of the snare drum. If the compressor con-
sound that's naturally low and full. If you tune trols are adjusted correctly, we can exaggerate
that sound down, it will sound much more real- the attack of the snare, giving the snare a very
istic than if you tune a high thin sound way aggressive and penetrating edge. This technique
down. involves setting the attack time of the compres-
sor slow enough so that the attack isn't com-
Gating the Snare pressed but the remaining portion of the sound
As we discovered with the kick drum track, it is (Illustrations 6-14 and 6-15).
can be helpful to gate the snare track on play- This is how to set the compressor to exag-
back from the multitrack. The gate will elimi- gerate the attack of any drum:
nate any channel crosstalk from the drum ma- 1. Set the ratio between 3:1 and 10:1.
chine or multitrack and, more importantly, it'll 2. Set the release time at about .5 seconds. This
eliminate tape noise between the snare hits (Il- will need to be adjusted according to the
lustration 6-11). length of the snare sound. Just be sure the
On the snare track in Audio Example LEDs showing gain reduction have all gone
6-26, I boost the high frequencies to accentu- off before the next major hit of the drum. This
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 214

Illustration 6-14
Exaggerating the Snare Transient
This graph shows the sound energy of a snare drum without compression. (Threshold
and attack time are only indicated as references.)

Illustration 6-15
The Result of Compression
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 215

doesn't apply to fills, but if the snare is hit- the attack time of the compressor, it doesn't
ting on 2 and 4, the LEDs should be out be- react in time to compress the transient, but it
fore each hit. can react in time to compress the rest of the
3. At this point, set the attack time to its fastest drum sound.
setting. Compression isn't musically effective on
4. Adjust the threshold for 3 to 9dB of gain re some jazz styles where the snare may be doing
duction. little jabs and fills within the beat that are mostly
5. Finally, readjust the attack time. As you slow for the feel. These jabs and f i l ls aren't rea ll y

Illustration 6-16
Gating and Compressing the Snare
1. Patch the output of the snare track into the gate.
2. Adjust the gate to get rid of the noise between the snare hits.
3. Adjust the compressor to compress the body of the snare but not the attack.
4. Patch the output of the compressor into a line input of the recording mixer.
Note: From the purist's standpoint, inserting a gate and a compressor in the signal
path is degrading to the signal because each unit introduces another VCA to the
path. Though that is true, we must weigh the options to achieve the sound and
musical effect that's appropriate for the song.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 216

meant to be heard predominantly in the mix, so

the compressor might ruin the feel of a jazz drum
Audio Example 6-29 Normal Snare
track rather than solidifying or enhancing the
CD-2: Track 54
feel.
Listen to the snare drum in Audio Example In Audio Example 6-30, I insert the com-
6-27. It has no compression. pressor. Listen for the change in the sound and
the change in the amount of audible noise be-
tween the snare hits.
Audio Example 6-27 No Compression CD-2:
Track 53
Audio Example 6-30 Compressed Snare CD-
Audio Example 6-28 is the same snare
2: Track 54
drum from Audio Example 6-27 with a compres-
sor in the signal path adjusted to emphasize the Finally, I insert the gate in Audio Example
attack. 6-31. Notice the attack stays and the noise is
gone.

Audio Example 6-28 Compressed Snare

CD-2: Track 53 Audio Example 6-31 Gate the Compressed Snare
CD-2: Track 54
Compressing drum sounds has a practical
disadvantage. Since the compressor is turning
down the loudest hits, the entire track can be Reverberation on the Snare
turned up, which also turns up the noise (and The reverb on the snare track often sets the
leakage from the other drums if you're record- sound for the entire arrangement. The fact that
ing acoustic drums) in relation to the snare hits. the snare is nearly always playing, combined
This gives us another reason to gate the track with the fact that the snare is usually a predomi-
on playback. nant instrument in the mix, makes the selection
If you gate the tape track before you com- of its reverb and effects particularly important.
press the tape track, the gate turns down the We'll build from the simple dry snare drum
tape noise, so as the compressor turns back up, sound. Keep in mind that drum machines include
there's no more tape noise to turn up. Always sounds that might already include many of the
place the gate before the compressor in the sig- techniques we're covering. Evaluate the sound
nal path when gating and compressing a tape from the unit, then apply these techniques as
track (Illustration 6-16). they seem appropriate.
Listen to the snare in Audio Example 6- It's common to use more than one reverb
29. The gate and compressor have been by- on a snare drum. Many interesting commercial
passed. drum sounds are accomplished using two or
three or even more reverb sounds simulta-
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 217

Illustration 6-17
Aux Buses for Reverb
It's ideal to use multiple aux buses for multiple reverb sends. This lets you send any
amount of each channel to the reverb.
1. Turn the snare track up in Aux 1, 2 and 3.
2. Patch the outputs of Aux 1, 2 and 3 into reverberation devices 1, 2 and 3.
3. Patch the outputs of reverberation devices 1, 2 and 3 into line inputs or
dedicated effects returns.
4. Blend the reverb sounds by adjusting the aux sends.

neously. The use of multiple reverb sounds can of enhancing it, but with a little practice and
help you create a very interesting and multifac- moderation, this approach can facilitate some
eted snare sound. Sometimes these techniques great sounds.
can get out of hand and blur the image instead If we use three reverberation devices on
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 218

the snare, we're usually just trying to empha- tion devices.)

size what would happen in many acoustical en- First, I'll usually add a tight ambience re-
vironments. We're exaggerating the interesting verb sound. This sound can be a plate or bright
sounds. (See Illustrations 6-17, 6-18 and 6-19 hall type sound with a short decay time, below
for suggestions on patching multiple reverbera- about a half second. Some reverberation units

Illustration 6-18
Splitting the Aux Out
If your mixer doesn't have three aux sends, try splitting the output of one aux send
three ways.
1. Turn up the snare in the aux bus.
2. Use a 2- or 3-way Y-connection from aux out.
3. Plug into each reverberation device from the aux out split.
4. Plug the output of the effects into the line input or dedicated effects returns.
5. Blend the reverb sounds with the return level adjustments.
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 219

Illustration 6-19
Avoid Daisy Chaining!
Daisy chaining means patching from the output of one effect into the input of
another effect, then from the output of that effect into the input of yet another
effect and so on. Avoid daisy chaining reverberation devices! The sound achieved by
these devices lacks intelligibility and focus. It's only useful as a special effect.

even have programs specifically for early reflec- overall snare drum sound. That's what we're try-
tions or small-room ambience. This type of sound ing to simulate with this reverb sound. Listen as
helps define the ambience of the immediate re- I add the tight ambience to this snare in Audio
cording space. Even in a large recording room Example 6-32.
or concert hall, an element of the immediate
space that the drum is in can be heard in the
 The AudioPro Home According Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 220

Audio Example 6-32 Ambience Audio Example 6-34 Two Reverbs

CD-2: Track 55 CD-2: Track 57

If we were just combining two reverbera- In Audio Example 6-35, you first hear the
tion devices, the next sound would be a larger dry snare, then the addition of a tight ambience
hall or chamber sound with a decay time be- sound, followed by a chamber reverberation
tween 2 and 3.5 seconds. This is the reverb that sound with a one second decay time. To com-
adds the real size and depth to the sound. In a plete the snare sound, I add hall reverb with a
real acoustic setting, the other reverberation decay time of 2.5 seconds.
devices are important but act as support to the
larger ambience. When we're shaping the sound
Audio Example 6-35 Three Reverbs
and have separate control of these different
CD-2: Track 58
ambient simulations, we can shape the sound
to emphasize the ambience that blends with the
rest of the mix. This is often the same sound There's a lot of room for experimentation
used for the main reverb on the vocals and in- when you start adding these reverb sounds. Set-
struments. I add a larger reverb to the tight ting the predelays to increasingly longer settings
ambience on the snare sound in Audio Example on the second and third reverberation devices
6-33. can produce an overall reverb sound that
seamlessly blends from the tight ambience to
the large hall sound. These sounds are difficult
Audio Example 6-33 Add Large Reverb CD- or impossible to create with one simple reverb
2: Track 56 sound.
I realize that not everybody has three re-
If I'm using three reverb sounds, I'll usu- verberation devices available for the snare drum,
ally add the tight ambience first, then I'll add a but you could print one or two reverberation
medium length reverb with a decay time of about devices to the multitrack, then add another on
one second. Plates and chambers usually work the mixdown. Or you could start with a sampled
well for this application. Think of this reverb as sound that already includes one or two reverb
sounds and work from there. If you're thoroughly
simulating the sound of the instrument within
aware of your options and implement them when
an immediate larger space, like the stage area
tasteful and appropriate, you'll create some in-
of a large concert hall. In Audio Example 6-34,
teresting and creatively stimulating sounds
you'll hear the dry sound first, then 1 add a cham-
that'll make a big difference in the impact of
ber sound with a one second decay time. Finally,
your music.
I add the tight ambience. Notice how each re-
Delay effects are not common on snare
verb adds its own depth to the snare sound.
drum. A repeating echo is sometimes an inter-
esting special effect. A chorus on the reverb or
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 221

flange on the snare sound is sometimes fun, but blend well. Drum machines typically contain sev-
these are exceptions and only work well in cer- eral different torn sounds that are very usable
tain instances. but the trick is to find sounds that blend with
the rest of the drum sounds. If the snare and
Panning the Snare kick sounds are very aggressive with lots of at-
The snare drum is almost always panned to the tack and solid punch, the toms should be like-
center position. Since the snare usually plays wise. If the snare and kick are very natural and
constantly throughout a song, it needs to be warm, the toms should match that feeling. Us-
placed in the center of the stereo spectrum to ing the same reverb sound on the toms as the
hold the focal point. If the snare is panned to snare or kick will help.
one side, the mix will feel lopsided, and the snare Some drum machine toms are clean and
will probably distract the listener rather than pure just like the sound from one mic placed
drawing them in. If you pan the snare and the correctly and recorded at proper levels. Some
kick apart in the mix, with one left and the other drum machine toms include room ambience and
right, your mix will ping-pong back and forth multiple effects. Listen to the wide variety of
throughout the song (this is not usually a good sampled torn sounds in Audio Example 6-36.
thing).
The kick drum and snare drum are two of
the most crucial style-defining instruments, so Audio Example 6-36 Toms CD-2:
it's important that these tracks are interesting Track 59
and appropriate. Spending the time to get these
sounds together is a worthwhile investment in
the development of your song. Try any or all of Recording Levels for Toms
these techniques on the kick or the snare, but The normal recording level for sampled toms is
always try to maintain the punch and presence OVU. These levels can be pushed a bit higher
of the dry sound while enhancing the ambience, when recording to the analog multitrack. In
quieting the noise or emphasizing the attack. Chapter 5, we saw that it was sometimes alright
to record toms as hot as +3 or +4VU to take
advantage of the natural tape compression that
Toms occurs when analog tape approaches the point
of oversaturation. This technique can work well
The sound-shaping techniques that we've used on sampled toms, too.
on kick drum and snare drum are also appropri- When we talk about recording hot levels
ate for use when recording toms. Always select above OVU, we're talking about recording to
sounds for toms that blend with and complement analog tape. Whenever recording to any digital
the sounds you've created for the kick and snare. format, whether a sampler, DAT, reel-to-reel digi-
In addition to finding the appropriate effects tal or hard disk-based digital recorder, the pri-
for the toms that blend with the kick and mary concern is to avoid recording at levels
snare, it's important to use basic sounds that above 0 on the meter. For our purposes, there is
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 222

no benefit to recording abnormally hot on a digi- range that's hiding the part of the sound you'd
tal recorder. like to hear and cut it. Next, listen for frequencies
to enhance and boost them.
Tuning Drum Machine Toms Consider the following frequency ranges
Many tom fills require drums that blend well and when evaluating a tom sound. Learning the
make a smooth transition from high to low. It sound of boosting and cutting these frequen-
can be difficult to find several different tom cies will speed up your EQ process in both acous-
samples that blend together. Since most drum tic and drum machine sounds. Fullness is be-
machines let you assign the individual drums to tween 100 and 500Hz. Boost or cut between
whichever pad you choose and tune whichever 250 and 500Hz to increase or decrease the full
instrument is assigned to any one pad, try as- sound of a higher pitched tom. Boost or cut be-
signing the same tom sound to four or five dif- tween 100 and 250Hz to increase or decrease
ferent pads. Then tune the different tom pads the fullness of a low pitched tom sound.
from high to low. This procedure usually pro- Notice the sound of the tom in Audio Ex-
duces a sound that's smooth and even around ample 6-38 as I change the EQ. First you hear
the toms. The tom fill in Audio Example 6-37 the drum with no EQ. Next, I boost a curve cen-
uses the same sample tuned differently from tered on 250Hz, sweep down to 100Hz and up
high to low. to 500Hz. Finally, I cut at 250Hz, then sweep
the cut from 100 to 500Hz.

Audio Example 6-37 Tuned Tom

CD-2: Track 60 Audio Example 6-38 100 to 500Hz
CD-2: Track 61

Equalizing the Toms The sound of the stick hitting the tom is
Most sampled toms sound pretty good straight usually between 7 and 9kHz. Listen to Audio
out of the drum machine. This only makes sense Example 6-39 as I boost and cut between 7 and
when you consider that most of the samples in 9kHz.
a good drum machine use very good drums that
have been recorded in a very good studio. Even
though the raw sound is usually great, we still
Audio Example 6-39 7 to 9kHz
might need to fine-tune the EQ to match the
CD-2: Track 62
rest of the set.
Since there are so many types of tom The more aggressive attack is usually be-
sounds, there are no definite rules for equaliz- tween 3 and 5kHz. Audio Example 6-40 dem-
ing drum machine toms. You need to evaluate onstrates a boost and cut between 3 and 5kHz.
the sound from the unit in the three main fre-
quency ranges that we considered in Chapter 5:
lows, mids and highs. Listen for the frequency
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 223

hall. That's a theory we can build from. The drum

Audio Example 6-40 3 to 5kHz
set should really sound like it's all coming from
CD-2: Track 62 the same space for a natural sounding mix.
Choosing the same main reverb for the main
Again, different torn samples might require drums can accomplish this.
boosting or cutting any of these frequencies or Current audio trends dictate that it's ap-
none of these frequencies. Some toms might propriate to use more than one reverb on a mix.
work well with no changes at all. Some toms The approach you take in designing the sound
might need radical changes to blend with the of the mix can be based on decisions to enhance
other drums. Your job is to listen, evaluate and the musical impact of the song. In other words,
make logical and informed choices. the sky's the limit. Some songs sound wonder-
The compression and gating techniques ful with a very natural approach using hardly
that we heard on the snare drum can be very any EQ or effects. Some songs are incredible with
effective on toms, too. Gates and expanders of- the creative use of many of the tools at hand,
ten come configured with four gates in one including multiple reverberation devices, dy-
single unit. One or two of these multiple gates namic processors and special unconventional
can be very useful. Even more useful are units techniques. Always be sure you use musical con-
that have multiple gates and compressors in one siderations when making technical decisions.
rack-mountable frame.
I've found gates to be very effective noise Panning the Toms
reducing tools. Our goal when gating tracks is Panning the toms requires a decision about the
to eliminate all unwanted noise from each track concept of the final mix. If you're trying to cre-
in order to attain a close and punchy sound, like ate a final product that sounds like a live band
the drum sound in Audio Example 6-41. with a live drummer, you'll need to pan accord-
ingly. Imagine the drummer's position on stage,
and place all of the drums within that space.
Audio Example 6-41 Clean Drums Since the drums are usually center stage, the
CD-2: Track 63 toms are usually panned very close around the
center when using this approach.
The reverb you select for the toms needs Panning from high to low between about
to blend with the other drum sounds. Usually, 10 and 2 o'clock can still give the impression of
using the same reverb on the toms that you've the drums being center stage while clearing out
used on the snare works best. the middle of the stereo image for lead instru-
ments.
Reverberation on Toms Since it's usually so easy to pan the toms
The old rule of thumb was that there should be in a drum machine, it can be tempting to pan
only one kind of reverb on any one mix. Any- the toms hard left and right, but that tends to
thing else wouldn't be natural and pure; it be distracting if overdone. Be sure that any pan-
wouldn't be like a live recording in a concert ning is supporting the musical power and im-
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 224

pact of the song. If you're in the process of buying a drum

Listen to the drum balance through a good machine, look for a unit that uses full range 16-
set of headphones. Some pan settings sound or 20-bit samples. High quality, full range drum
good on monitor speakers but are very distract- machines or sound modules will provide very
ing in headphones. clean and powerful sounds that give good clar-
ity and transparency. The drums will also sound
better throughout a wider tuning range when
Cymbals using 16- or 20-bit samples.
The penetrating edge in a cymbal comes
Cymbals from a drum machine often have the from around 4kHz. I boost and sweep between
same transient as live cymbals. Record these 3 and 5kHz in Audio Example 6-43.
cymbals between -7 and -9VU to accurately
record the transient attack.
There are many different crash cymbals,
Audio Example 6-43 3 to 5kHz
__________ CD-2: Track 65 __________
ride cymbals and hi-hats in different drum ma-
chines, and they can usually all be tuned to dif-
ferent pitches for different sounds. Select the The frequencies between 1.5 and 2.5kHz
cymbal sound that is closest to the desired pitch aren't usually very pleasant on most cymbals. I
and tonal character. Use minimal pitch change boost and cut the frequencies between 1.5 and
and equalization whenever possible. 2.5kHz in Audio Example 6-44.
Evaluate the three main frequency ranges
(lows, mids and highs), and adjust for the sound
Audio Example 6-44 1.5 to 2.5kHz
you want. Try to imagine the sound you want,
CD-2: Track 66
then achieve that sound.
The clear highs that sizzle over a mix are
between 7 and 12kHz. Listen to the cymbal in The full gong-like sound comes from be-
Audio Example 6-42 as I boost and sweep be- tween 200 and 600Hz. Audio Example 6-45
tween 7 and 12kHz. demonstrates a boost and cut between 200 an'd
600Hz.

Audio Example 6-42 7 to 12kHz

CD-2: Track 64 Audio Example 6-45 200 to 600Hz
CD-2: Track 67
The drum machine/sound module you're
using might or might not contain very high fre- The cymbal frequencies below about 80Hz
quencies. Check your owner's manual to find the aren't very useful within a mix. Cutting below
frequency range of your unit. It'll only add noise 80Hz typically has little or no effect on the sound
if you boost frequencies above the highest fre- of the cymbal in the song, and cutting this fre-
quency produced by your drum machine. quency range can help clear out the low end for
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 225

other instruments that are musically covering the often unnaturally abrupt. These short crashes can
low end. On the cymbal in Audio Example 6-46, be made to ring as long as you want with the
l cut below 80Hz. addition of plate reverb. The highs in the plate
reverb sound can sound just like the natural
decay of a crash cymbal. I'll often print the plate
Audio Example 6-46 Cut Below 80Hz
to the multitrack with the crash. Listen to the
CD-2: Track 68
crash in Audio Example 6-48. You hear the crash
first without the plate. When I add plate reverb,
Gating the drum machine's crash cymbal the decay sounds more natural.
track after it's printed to tape is usually a good
choice. Since the crash only happens occasion-
ally, eliminating the tape noise between hits can
Audio Example 6-48 Crash With Plate CD-2:
help clean up the mix. Gating is only necessary
Track 70
if you're printing the crash to tape. If the sounds
are coming from the sequenced drum machine One technique that works very well, al-
part, noise is a minimal consideration. though it requires a combination of acoustic
drums and drum machine, is to record acoustic
Reverb on Cymbals cymbals along with the drum machine kick, snare
Reverb isn't usually necessary on cymbals and, and torn. You can get the solid, punchy feel of
in fact, can be distracting on the hi-hat. The hi- the sampled drums along with the natural sound
hat is usually constant and contains high fre- and feel of real cymbals. Miking the cymbals with
quency transients. If the hi-hat is reverberated, two condenser mikes overhead in an X-Y con-
you can end up with a constant reverb sizzle figuration will provide a good stereo image to
that fills all the holes in the musical texture, combine with the drum machine.
eliminating audio transparency. In Audio Example 6-49, I programmed the
Listen to the pattern with reverb on the hi-hat and crash parts in the drum machine and
hi-hat in Audio Example 6-47. I turn the reverb recorded real cymbals on the multitrack. I start
on and off as the pattern plays. Notice the with the programmed cymbals, then switch to
change in clarity and transparency as the reverb the acoustic cymbals. Notice the change in the
comes and goes. rhythmic feel.

Audio Example 6-47 Reverb on Hi-hat Audio Example 6-49

CD-2: Track 69 Real Cymbals With Sequence
CD-2: Track 71
Reverb can be very advantageous on crash
cymbals. One of the worst sounds in most drum
machines is the crash cymbal sound. The samples
are usually short, and the end of the sound is
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 226

the tambourine recorded directly to DAT as a

Percussion reference.

Whenever recording miscellaneous percussion

Audio Example 6-50 Tambourine
instruments, like triangle, tambourine, claves,
CD-2: Track 72
shakers and bells, keep one consideration in
mind: the transient. This is true whether the in-
strument is being recorded acoustically or from Audio Example 6-51 demonstrates the ref-
a digital sample. erence tambourine, this time recorded from the
The sounds with the least amount of low drum machine to the multitrack at OVU. Notice
end and sharp attacks should be recorded with the loss of clarity and attack.
the most conservative levels. For example, a tri-
angle should be recorded at about -9VU since
Audio Example 6-51 Oversaturated Tambourine
its sound has predominantly high frequencies
CD-2: Track 72
and the metal triangle beater against the metal
triangle produces an extreme transient. On the
other hand, congas can usually be recorded at Audio Example 6-52 reveals the sound
OVU since the conga sound contains low fre- from the adjacent tracks. Notice that, even
quencies and hands against the conga heads though I've turned the tambourine track off, you
don't usually produce extremely sharp transients. can still hearthe tambourine.What you're hear-
Bongos have fewer low frequencies and, if ing is the excess magnetism that has actually
played by an animal player with heavily callused been recorded on the tracks next to the tam-
hands, can produce a stronger transient. Levels bourine track. However, this is only a problem
around -3VU usually work well for bongos. when recording to analog tape.
Tambourine is another instrument that pro-
duces an extreme transient. Let's listen to what
Audio Example 6-52 Result of Oversaturation
happens when these instruments are recorded
CD-2: Track 72
too hot to analog tape. We expect that the tran-
sient will oversaturate the tape. This typically
sounds a little like the instrument is combined if you've recorded the tambourine next to
with a splat sound. Besides oversaturating the the lead vocal track or another important track
tape, we expect that the strong level will cause and the tambourine has oversaturated the tape,
the sound to bleed onto the adjacent tracks. In it becomes a permanent part of the lead vocal
other words, it's possible that we'll be able to track. If you decide to axe the tambourine part,
hear the tambourine on the tracks adjacent to the only way you'll get rid of the tambourine
the tambourine track, even when the tambou- sound on the lead vocal track is to rerecord the
rine track is off. lead vocal. For this reason, always be careful
Listen to the tambourine track in Audio when recording instruments with extreme tran-
Example 6-50. This demonstrates the sound of sients next to important parts.
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 227

The tambourine in Audio Example 6-53 In Chapter 5, we noticed that it's common
was recorded at -9VU to the analog multitrack. for different percussion instruments to enter a
Notice how much more clarity this tambourine song on a musical section change. Often, two
recording has than when the same tambourine auxiliary percussion instruments will play at
was recorded at OVU. once. It's common to pan two percussion instru-
ments apart so that if both instruments are play-
ing consistent parts, they'll balance against each
Audio Example 6-53 other in the mix.
Properly Recorded Tambourine If there's only one auxiliary percussion part
CD-2: Track 72 and it's panned to one side without another in-

Illustration 6-20
Reverb Panned Away From the Instrument
1. Pan the clave track left and the cowbell track right. Aux 1 is the send to the left
channel of the reverb. Aux 2 is the send to the right channel of the reverb.
2. Patch the stereo outputs of the reverberation device into the line inputs of two
mixer channels. Pan the channels hard left and hard right corresponding to the left
and right sends.
3. The clave is panned left, so send it from Aux 2 to the right channel of the reverb.
4. The cowbell is panned right, so send from Aux 1 to the left channel of the reverb.
5. Enjoy cool stereo sounds!
The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 228

Illustration 6-21
Room Sound
1. Set up a mix of the drums in an aux bus.
2. Patch the output of the aux bus into a power amplifier that's connected to
speakers. This technique is easiest if the amp and speakers are in a room other than
the one with your recording gear. Large rooms usually work best.
3. Set up one or two mics in the room with the speakers. Plug the mics into your mixer.
If you use two microphones, try an X-Y configuration or experiment with different
mic placement to fine-tune the sound.
4. Blend the sound of the direct electronic drums (or previously recorded acoustic
drums) with the sound of the drums in a room.
 Chapter Six • Synchronization/Drum Machines • page 229

strument to balance against, the mix will sound of having the dry instrument on one side of the
lopsided. On the drum pattern in Audio Example mix. Listen to the clave track in Audio Example
6-54, I have the claves panned to one side and 6-56, panned right with the reverb left.
the triangle to the other. This sounds even and
balanced.
Audio Example 6-56 Reverb Panned Away
CD-2: Track 75
Audio Example 6-54 Balanced Percussion CD-
2: Track 73 Audio Example 6-57 demonstrates the
cowbell panned left with its reverb panned right
Audio Example 6-55 demonstrates the (Illustration 6-20).
same drum pattern as Audio Example 6-54, but
I've taken the clave part out, leaving the triangle
Audio Example 6-57 Reverb Panned Away
panned to one side. This sounds unbalanced. In
CD-2: Track 75
a mix this would be distracting.

Using small ambience reverberation often

Audio Example 6-55 Distracting Triangle CD-
adds an interesting edge to a percussion track.
2: Track 74
Listen to the conga track in Audio Example 6-
58. After a few seconds, I add a tight room
Your choice regarding whether or not to sound with a short decay time.
include reverb in the percussion sounds depends
on the activity of the parts. A simple part that
plays occasionally can benefit from a nice, warm,
Audio Example 6-58 Small-Room Reverb CD-
smooth reverb sound or an interesting tight
2: Track 76
ambience. A part that plays constantly is usu-
ally best if not reverberated. As with the hi-hat
track, the constant activity always keeps the re-
verb sizzling in the background. This is distract- More Stuff
ing and can produce a mix that sounds muddy
and hazy. One of the disadvantages to drum machine re-
Try this technique if you have separate cording is the lack of acoustic interaction. Ac-
sends to your reverb for the left and right chan- tive sounds combining in an acoustical environ-
nel: Pan a percussion part to one side and send ment produces a blend that can't be duplicated
the reverb on the other side. For example, pan electronically.
the claves right, but select the reverb send for In Chapter 4 we heard the difference be-
the left side. This produces a very spacious ef- tween a guitar sound running direct into the
fect as the reverb opens up on the opposite side mixer and a miked guitar amp combined with
from the instrument, plus you get the close feel
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 230

the room sound. The differences in sound and ing drum machine tracks to tape, and I've re-
emotional impact were dramatic. The same ferred to simply running the drum track on the
theory pertains to the drum machine, but you mix with your sequencer chasing SMPTE from
can include the room sound on your drum ma- the multitrack. The number of available tracks
chine parts! Plug the output of an aux bus into and the feel of the music are the indicators that
a power amplifier that's connected to speakers you should use to determine the best approach
in a room. A guitar amp will work for this tech- for your music using your recording tools. Some-
nique, but high quality reference monitors work times I prefer the sound of just printing synth
best. It's ideal if the speakers are in a room other and drum machine parts to tape. Other times I
than the room with your mixer. If you have mul- want to wait for mixdown to really fine-tune
tiple drum tracks, using an aux bus as the send some of the sounds, so I'd rather run them from
to the speakers lets you send a separate mix of the sequencer.
the drums and percussion to the speakers. This Don't be afraid to try these procedures,
is convenient and flexible since sometimes it even when under fire in the middle of a session
sounds the best if the room sound is only ap- with other musicians around. Mistakes made in
plied to certain instruments. pressure situations make a deep impression and
Now place a mic or two in the room away are rarely repeated. Casual mistakes made on
from the speakers. Connect the mics to the mixer your own time don't usually sink in quite as
inputs. You can either print the room sound to deeply.
the multitrack, or you can use the room as a If a procedure is new, think it through sys-
natural ambience chamber during mixdown. In tematically. Take each small step, one at a time,
Audio Example 6-59, you hear the dry drum pat- in order. You'll be amazed at what you can pull
tern first, then you hear just the room sound, off if you give it your best shot and are patiently
and finally I blend the room sound with the dry diligent.
sound (Illustration 6-21).

Audio Example 6-59 Add Acoustic Ambience

CD-2: Track 77

Conclusion
We've covered a lot of material about recording
drums and drum machines. All the processing
and effects that I've suggested in this lesson can
work great on drum machines or acoustic
drums. Practice these techniques. I've referred
to print-
 The AudioPro Home R e c o r d i n g Course • a comprehensive multimedia a u d io recording text • page 232

Glossary
+4dBm: A line level signal strength that's typically associated with bal- reducing the signal strength to an acceptable level for a specific point
anced, professional tape recorders, mixers and outboard equipment. +4 in the signal path. Also called a pad.
equipment works well only with other +4 equipment. A level matching
interface is required to facilitate the use of +4dBm equipment with - auto correct: This process, used by a drum machine or sequencer, com-
10dBV equipment. pensates for a rhythmically imperfect performance by moving each note
to the closest user-defined note value (quarter note, eighth note, sixteenth
-10dBV: A line level signal strength that's typically associated with note, etc.). Certain sequencers have varying degrees of auto correct, giv-
semipro and home tape recorders, mixers and outboard equipment.-10 ing the user the option of making the performance closer to perfect with-
equipment works well only with other-10 equipment. A level matching out being mathematically computer perfect. Also called quantize.
interface is required to facilitate the use of -10dBV equipment with
+4dBm equipment. auxiliary input: A line level input on a mixer or amplifier. Auxiliary
inputs are typically used for cassette inputs, CD inputs, reverb inputs or
1/4" phone connector: The type of connector found on a regular guitar other miscellaneous audio equipment.
cable.
auxiliary output: A mixer output that's used to send signals to a piece
60-cycle hum: An actual waveform that's induced into recording of outboard gear or headphones.
equipment from the 60-cycle AC current that runs the equipment.
Inducement of 60-cycle hum is usually the result of improper grounding balanced: An equipment scheme that uses three wires to make a con-
or shielding. nection. Two of these are hot leads (they both carry the signal), and one
is connected to the shield, or housing, of the connector. Balanced lines
active direct box: A transformer designed to match high impedance can be very long (up to about 1000 feet), and because of a clever phase
to low impedance. This type of direct box contains amplifying circuitry arrangement, they induce the least noise into the system by canceling
to restore clarity in the high end and punch in the low end that's been noise that is picked up along the signal path.
lost in the impedance transformation process.
bandwidth: The width, in octaves or fractions of an octave, of the
adjacent track: A track that is directly next to a specified track on a affected range of frequencies altered with an equalizer. If we say a spe-
multitrack tape recorder. The track numbered one higher or one less cific frequency is boosted or cut, we are actually referring to a range of
than a specified track. For example, tracks four and six are adjacent to consecutive frequencies with the center point at the specified frequen-
track five. cy. From a flat EQ (no cut or boost), the affect of the EQ change on the
frequency spectrum is a continually increasing boost or cut to the cen-
afuche: An African percussion instrument that has as its body a cylin- ter point of a bell curve then back to flat. That curve can be a very wide
der or large hollow gourd. The surface of this cylinder usually has a bell shape or a very narrow peak. The size of the curve is the bandwidth.
rough texture. A handle protrudes from one end of the cylinder or
gourd. Several strings of metal, plastic or organic beads are strung bass drum: Typically the largest drum in the drum set. It sits on the
around the cylinder or gourd. The instrument can be played by either floor on its side and is played with a foot pedal. The bass drum provides
shaking or rotating. Often, the right hand holds the handle and twists the foundation for most drum set grooves or beats. Also called the kick
to the beat of the song while the left hand holds the beads against the or kick drum.
surface of the cylinder. The Americanized version of this instrument has
a highly textured metal surface with 20 to 40 strands of chrome-plated board: A complex series of combining circuits that let you send multi-
metal beads. The African version is made from natural, organic materi- ple signals to multiple destinations or combine multiple signals to indi-
als. Also called a cabasa. vidual destinations. It can also be connected to several tape recorders
and can accept and distribute signals from mics, instruments, signal
amplitude: The amount of energy in a sound wave. processors and tape recorders. Also called a mixer, console and desk.

amps: In relation to volts, amps are the actual strength behind the volt- boomy: An abundance of low frequencies. A boomy sound is resonant
age. Amp stands for amperes or amperage. A voltage with very low and often out of control at a particular low frequency, usually below
amperage can't harm the user. Voltage with very high amperage can kill about 200Hz.
the user.
boost: To increase the level.
arpeggiated chord: A chord whose individual notes are played sep-
arately. The individual notes are often played in time with the rhythmic bouncing tracks: Bouncing or rerecording two or more tracks of the
structure of the song and are commonly played in order from the low- multitrack to a single available track of the multitrack. This is accom-
est to the highest then back to the lowest. plished through the track assignment bus. A separate mono or stereo
mix of a group of recorded tracks is typically set up, then that mix is
assign switches: Controls that route signals to different locations. routed to one or two additional tracks on the multitrack and recorded.
This operation is typically performed to open up tracks for more musi-
attack time: The amount of time it takes for sound to reach its peak cal parts but is also commonly performed to aid in the mixing process.
amount of energy or volume. Regarding dynamic processors, this refers For example, a compilation track of background vocals might be
to the amount of time it takes the VCA to begin turning the signal down bounced to one track or a stereo pair of tracks to allow attention to
then back up. vocal blend that might not be possible without computer-assisted mix-
ing. Also called ping-ponging and combining tracks.
attenuator: Used at the mic input to reduce the amount of signal from
the mic or direct box as it enters the mixer circuitry. Attenuators are bus: Any place where signals are combined. A bus is normally used to
carefully designed to cause minimal change in sound quality while get signals to the multitrack, headphones, effects or mixdown recorder.
 Glossary • page 233

bus assign switches: Controls that let you send signals to the buses. recorder. This offers full bandwidth with great specifications and typi-
cally three different digital sample rates: 32kHz, 44.1kHz and 48kHz.
cabasa: See afuche.
dB: Pronounced (dee • bee). dB expresses a ratio between two powers
channel insert: A patch point on each individual channel that lets you and can be tagged to many different types of power that we encounter
patch in any outboard signal processor. A channel insert lets the user in recording. Most often we think of dB in reference to volume, which
access only one channel at a time. is vaguely accurate when we consider dB SPL (sound pressure
level/energy at our ears) at a specified frequency range and volume
claves: Two rosewood sticks (about 7-inches long and about 1.5 inch- range (perceived loudness).
es in diameter) that are struck together to produce a high and pene-
trating sound. Claves are typically used in Latin rhythms, though they definition: The clarity of the attack or the understandability of the
are also common in commercial pop music. sound.

click track: The tempo reference for a song. The sound that comes delay: An outboard unit used to create time-dependent effects. These
from the audio output of an electronic metronome or the dick output can include slapback, multiple hits, chorusing, flanging, etc.
of a drum machine. It can be recorded onto tape while the band is play-
ing the initial parts. The drummer follows the tempo of the click. When desk: See board
a drum machine is used as a source for the click, any instrument can be
used as a click sound by simply programming it to play all quarter notes, Dl: Direct injection. A unit that matches impedance levels, enabling a
then adjusting the tempo to the song. Instruments with good transients high-impedance instrument, or mic, to be successfully plugged into a
work best for this purpose. Some drummers prefer using a complete low-impedance input and vice versa. Also called a direct box.
drum pattern, programmed into the drum machine, as a click.
diffusion: Controls the space between the reflections of reverb. Low
cold: Recorded with insufficient level to tape. Any weak signal. diffusion can be equated with a grainy picture. On a low diffusion set-
ting, individual repeats can be heard within the reverb. High diffusion
combining tracks: See bouncing tracks. can be equated with a fine-grain photograph. High diffusion reverbera-
tion produces a smooth wash of reverb where none of the individual
compressor: This is an automatic level control that uses a VCA (volt- delays can be heard.
age controlled amplifier) to turn a signal down. This VCA only turns the
signal down when it exceeds a user-selected threshold. It then turns the direct box: See Dl.
signal back up again when the signal is no longer above the threshold.
Compressors use a ratio setting between 1:1 and 10:1. See ratio. direct sound: A sound recorded without a microphone. On an electric
guitar, the direct sound is the sound that comes from the pickups. On a
console: See board. synthesizer, the direct sound is the sound that comes from the instru-
ment output. Acoustically, the direct sound is the nonreflected sound—
control room: The separate room where the engineer and recording the sound that travels straight from the instrument to the listener or
equipment are, as opposed to the studio where the band plays. microphone without first bouncing off surrounding surfaces.

control room monitors: The speakers in the control room. distortion: The usually unwanted sound that occurs when a piece of
equipment is driven with a level that's too strong. Any alteration of the
crash cymbal: One of the cymbals in the kit used for accents. The source waveform is considered to be a distortion. Some forms of dis-
crash cymbal is often hit at the beginning of a new musical section to tortion are desirable, like distortion effects on a guitar.
indicate a musical change. The crash is also used to accent rhythmic
punches with the rest of the rhythm section. A drum set can contain as doubled electronically: A slightly delayed (less than 50ms) signal
few as one crash or as many as the drummer wants or can afford. It's combined with the original signal to achieve the effect of double track-
not uncommon to see a set with three or four crash cymbals. Most crash ing (duplicating a performance live). Also called electronic double.
cymbals are between 14 and 18 inches in diameter.
dry: With no effect.
cue mix: Headphone mix.
dynamic range: The distance, in dB, from the softest sound to the
cue send: Usually an auxiliary bus that's connected to headphones. It can loudest sound. An orchestra that played its loudest note at 115dB and
also be used for any other aux bus functions. Also called headphone bus. its softest note at 20dB would have a dynamic range of 95dB (115dB -
20dB = a dynamic range of 95dB). Dynamic range also refers to the
cut: To decrease the level. operating parameters for a piece of audio equipment while maintaining
a specified degree of signal integrity.
daisy chain: Patching from the output of one piece of equipment to
the input of another piece of equipment, often through two or more dynamic range processors: Equipment that changes the dynamic
units. This can be common with individual effects (especially guitar range of a signal. In other words, equipment that can change the dis-
effects) patching from the output of the compressor to the input of tance from the loudest sound to the softest sound in a particular audio
the distortion, then from the output of the distortion to the input of signal.
the chorus, then from the output of the chorus to the input of the
delay, etc. Daisy chaining is also common when using MIDI keyboards edge: A musical term used to define the biting quality of a sound.
and sound modules, patching from MIDI Thru of keyboard 1 to MIDI
In of keyboard 2, then from MIDI Thru of keyboard 2 to MIDI In of key- edge track: The tracks on a multitrack tape recorder that are on the
board 3, then from MIDI Thru of keyboard 3 to MIDI In of keyboard 4, top and bottom of the record and playback heads. These tracks are
etc. printed on the outer edges of the oxide-coated surface of the tape. The
edge tracks are the tracks with the highest and lowest numerical refer-
DAT: Digital audio tape recorder. A fully digital recorder that uses a ence (i.e., on an 8-track recorder, tracks 1 and 8 are considered the
rotating head and transport very similar to a VHS video cassette edge tracks).
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 234

effects bus: An auxiliary bus that's normally used as a send bus to an sound character. Plastic heads don't respond to changes in humidity
effect. This bus can also perform any other normal bus functions. and are therefore easier to keep in tune.

effects send: The output of an effects bus. headphone bus: See cue send.

electronic double: See doubled electronically. hertz: Refers to the frequency of a sound wave. Abbreviated Hz.

EQ: Equalization; tone control; adjusting the balance of high frequen- hi-hat: Two cymbals mounted on a stand with the top cymbal upside-
cies, mid frequencies and low frequencies. down (bell down) and the bottom cymbal right-side-up (bell up). The
bottom cymbal rests on a pad, and the top cymbal is mounted on a
fader: A level control that slides smoothly from the bottom of its throw clamp attached to a rod that moves up and down when the hi-hat
(full off) to the top of its throw (full on). pedal is depressed and released.

fader throw: The distance from the full off position of a fader to the high end: High frequencies, usually above 3kHz.
full on position.
high impedance: A wiring system with greater resistance to the flow of
far-field reference monitor: A speaker designed to work with the current in the range of 10 to 20k ohms. Most guitars and synthesizers use
acoustics of a room to produce an accurate representation of the sound a high-impedance wiring scheme. A line matching transformer (imped-
of a mix. ance transformer) is required to enable the use of high-impedance instru-
ments with a low-impedance recording console. Abbreviated hi Z.
feedback: This control feeds the delayed signal from a digital delay
back into the input, therefore delaying the delay, the delay of the delay, highpass filter: A filter that lets the high frequencies pass through
etc. This creates regenerating echoes. Feedback is also called regenera- uneffected but cuts the low frequencies, typically below about 80Hz.
tion or repeat.
hot: Recorded with ample level to tape. Any strong signal.
feel: The rhythmic emotion in a song. Certain rhythmic interpretations
give certain emotional tendencies. An aggressive feel typically contains hot wire/hot lead: The wire that carries the signal.
several parts that are slightly ahead of the beat. A laid-back feel con-
tains many parts that are slightly behind the beat. impedance: Resistance to the flow of current, measured in ohms.
Often indicated simply by the letter Z. Hi Z or lo Z indicates high imped-
final mix: The end product from a recording session or group of ses- ance or low impedance.
sions. The final mix contains the desired balance in level and panning of
all instruments along with precise amounts of processing and effects. kick: See bass drum, kick drum:
This mix is stored on a reel-to-reel tape, DAT, DCC, hard disk, stereo Hi-
fi VHS or possibly on cassette. See bass drum.

flat: Using no equalization. kilohertz: One thousand hertz. 32 kilohertz = 32,000Hz. Abbreviated
kHz.
frequency: The number of times a sound wave completes its cycle in
one second. The higher the frequency of a sound, the higher its pitch. kit: Another term for the drum set. The kit usually contains a bass drum,
snare drum, toms and cymbals. The kit can also contain any other per-
full range instrument: An instrument that contains almost all audi- cussion instruments that the drummer wants to include, depending on
ble frequencies in a fairly even balance from lows to highs. player preference and stylistic demands.

full range mix: A mix that contains a fairly even balance of all audi- leakage: Sound that's picked up by a microphone other than the
ble frequencies. sound it's meant to pick up. A mic on the snare is meant to pick up the
sound of the snare being hit, but it also picks up the sound of the rest
gain: The total level coming into a unit. of the kit being played. Any sound other than the snare drum is leak-
age into the snare mic.
ground lifted: To isolate the third pin of the AC power cord from its
intended grounding point in the wall receptacle. LED: Light-emitting diode. A small red light generally used as a peak
level indicator, on/off indicator or solo indicator. Some multipurpose
guiro: This percussion instrument is usually one to two feet in length LEDs change in color from green to yellow to red in response to varia-
and three to four inches in diameter. It's cylindrical and hollow, and the tions in signal strength.
front end comes to a blunt point while the back end gently tapers. There
are fairly deep grooves around the cylinder, and the instrument is played limiter: This is an automatic level control that uses a voltage controlled
by scraping a small wooden stick back and forth, lengthwise, across the amplifier (VCA) to turn a signal down. This VCA only turns the signal
grooves. A guiro can be made of wood or metal down when it exceeds a user-selected threshold. It then turns the sig-
nal back up again once the signal is no longer above the threshold.
hard pan: Stereo positioning in a mix that is either all the way left or Limiters use a ratio setting between 10:1 and oo :1. See ratio.
all the way right.
line level: The operating level of the mixer's signal path after the mic
head: This is the part of the snare drum, torn torn or bass drum that's preamp has boosted the mic level signal. Tape recorder ins and outs,
hit. On modern drums, the head is made of durable plastic and is outboard equipment and instrument outputs are all examples of line
mounted on a hoop that fits over the end of the drum shell. Originally, level signals.
drums used animal skin (typically calf skin) stretched over the drum
shell. Many drummers, especially orchestral purists, prefer animal skin live double: Simultaneous performance of the same musical part,
heads for drums. Skin heads respond to changes in humidity by loos- either by two performers as a duet or by one musician, to separate
ening or tightening and are hard to keep in tune but have a unique tracks on a multitrack recorder. A live double is different from an elec-
 Glossary • page 235

tronic double in that, with a live double, the musical part is actually per- near-field reference monitor: A speaker designed to be listened to
formed two separate times rather than duplicated electronically. with the listener's head at one point of a three-foot equilateral triangle
and the speakers at the other two points.
low end: Low frequencies, usually below about 250Hz.
normal: In a patch bay, this term refers to wiring schemes in which,
low impedance: A wiring system with less resistance to the flow of without external patching, the signal normally goes to a specific loca-
current, in the range of 150 to 1000 ohms. Recording mixers are almost tion. Two points on the patch bay are normally connected together
always low impedance. Low-impedance equipment is not compatible inside the patch bay. For example, an aux send can be normally wired
with high-impedance equipment without the use of a line matching to the input of a reverb inside the patch bay. This normal can be broken
transformer (impedance transformer). Abbreviated lo Z. if a connector is plugged into this point of the patch bay, but in the
meantime, the aux send is connected to the reverb without the addition
lowpass filter: A filter that lets the low frequencies pass through of an external patch cable.
uneffected while cutting the highs typically above about 8kHz.
notch filter: A filter tuned to remove or reduce in level a very narrow
lug: The long screw that goes through the holes of the rim on a drum. frequency band.
The lugs screw into hardware that's mounted on the shell of the drum.
Lugs are used to increase or decrease the tension on the drum head. oscillator: Unit that produces specific sine waves at various frequen-
Drum tuning is accomplished by tightening or loosening the lugs. cies used for setting levels and calibrating electronic equipment. The
most common frequencies (also called tones) produced are 100Hz,
mic level: The signal strength that comes from a microphone. This 1000Hz and 10kHz.
must be amplified to line level for mixing board circuitry.
outboard: A piece of equipment that isn't within the mixer, such as
microphone: A device that changes variations in air pressure (sound delays, compressors, reverbs, etc.
waves) into variations in voltage.
output: Where the signal comes out of a piece of equipment.
microphone preamp: An amplifying circuit that boosts mic level to
line level. overdrive: To produce a signal that has too much signal strength for
the receiving input. This causes a buzzing distortion that's unacceptable
microsecond: A millionth of a second. in a vast majority of recording scenarios. Guitarists often overdrive their
amplification circuitry to increase sustain and to enhance the aggressive
miking the amp: Pointing a microphone at the speaker in the cabinet edge of commercial pop and rock music.
that contains the amplifier and speaker. The amplifier makes no sound;
it only boosts the signal to a level that can drive the speaker. The speaker overheads: Mies placed over the drum set and aimed down at the set.
moves air. That movement of air is what we perceive as sound. Condenser mics typically work best for this application.

millisecond: A thousandth of a second. Abbreviated ms. overtones: On drums, overtones are any tones or pitches heard other
than the primary tone or pitch. Overtones are always part of the sound
mixer: See board of any instrument, but often the tuning of a drum can be so far off that
the overtones are more audible than the fundamental pitch and tone.
modulation: A variation in pitch caused by constantly changing the Problems with unwanted overtones can be reduced by proper tuning
delay time. The low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is the circuit that contin- and dampening. In general, overtones are a fact of physics. Along with
ually slows down and speeds up the delay. As the delay speeds up and the fundamental frequency (the frequency that determines the note
slows down, the pitch of the signal rises and lowers, either very slightly name), each instrument's individual sound contains a unique blend of
or drastically, depending on the depth of the modulation. simultaneously occurring overtones. Overtones are mathematically cal-
culated as whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency. If the
mono: The one speaker/one channel listening system. With two speak- fundamental frequency is 200Hz, the overtone series is 1x200, 2x200,
ers, the identical signal is fed to both speakers. 3x200, 4x200, 5x200, etc. (200Hz, 400Hz, 600Hz, 800Hz, 1000Hz,
etc.). The balance and blend of the overtones in relation to the funda-
MTC: MIDI Time Code. This is the MIDI equivalent to SMPTE time code, mental frequency determines the sonic character-and unique personal-
where all tempos are referenced to a continuous binary code. This code ity of each instrument, voice or noise maker.
is generated at a constant rate, and each unique point in the flow of
MIDI Time Code indicates a point in time referenced in hours, minutes, pad: See attenuator.
seconds and frames per second (00:00:00:00). See time code.
pan: To move a signal left or right in the stereo panorama.
muddy: Usually a musical sound that's overabundant in lower mid fre-
quencies between about 200Hz and 1kHz. These frequencies, when parametric EQ: An equalizer (tone control) that can sweep a range of
boosted, can detract from high-frequency clarity and low-frequency frequencies to boost or cut and also vary the bandwidth of the select-
punch. ed frequency range.

multi-effects processor: An effects processor containing several pass: One attempt to record a track. Each time the tape is rolling in an
effects that can be combined, stacked and used independently. These effort to record or monitor is called a pass.
units often contain reverbs, delays, dynamic range processors, equaliza-
tion, chorus effects and sometimes sampling. passive: Components that do not amplify a signal. Passive devices typ-
ically cause a decrease in total signal level output due to their non-
multitrack: A tape recorder with more than two tracks. Different amplifying nature. A passive direct box simply matches impedances
material can be stored on each track, and one or more tracks can be lis- without the use of active amplification circuitry to compensate for a loss
tened to on playback while one or more tracks are being simultaneously of signal. A passive filter offers a cut at a specific range of frequencies
recorded on. but has no amplification circuitry to enable a boost of frequencies.
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia a u d i o recording text • page 236

patch cord: A cable used to connect pieces of equipment together, ratio: On a compressor/limiter, this is the control that determines how
usually at the patch bay. far the VCA will turn the signal down once it exceeds the threshold. This
is expressed in the form of a ratio. This ratio is a comparison between
patch bay: A junction panel with jacks on the front and correspond- how far the signal exceeds the threshold at the input and how far the
ing jacks on the back. All available equipment outputs and inputs are signal exceeds the threshold at the output. With a ratio of 2:1, if the sig-
plugged into the back of the panel, and the corresponding points in nal exceeds the threshold at the input by 10dB, the signal would only
front are labeled. This lets us patch any output to any input on the front exceed the threshold by 5dB at the output.
of the patch bay using short patch cords.
recording purist: Typically, one who shuns signal processing and
peak LED: Light-emitting diode that responds quickly and accurately effects as being unnatural and degrading. One who prefers very natur-
meters fast attacks of percussive instruments (transients) and other al and pure sounds recorded using the most fundamentally solid tech-
momentary overloads of electronic circuits. niques and principles.

peak meter: A series of lights or LEDs that accurately reads peak sig- release time: Acoustically, the amount of time it takes for a sound and
nal strength (transients). its reflections to become completely inaudible once production of the
sound has ceased. In regard to dynamic processors, release time refers
PFL: Pre fader listen.This soloing feature lets us hear individual signals to the amount of time it takes for the voltage controlled amplifier to
or groups of signals immediately before they get to the channel fader. return the signal to its unity state (back to where it would have been if
the VCA weren't in the signal path) once the audio input has ceased or
phantom power: DC voltage that's supplied to the mic, active direct dropped below the user-set threshold.
box or other device requiring power to operate from the console
through the mic cable. This eliminates the need for battery power in return: The point of the mixer where the output of an effect is patched
these units. Phantom power can also be provided by an external phan- into the mix bus.
tom power supply if the mixer isn't equipped internally to provide this
power source. Phantom power is preferred over battery power because reverberation time: Reverberation time, decay time, reverb time and
it provides a constant voltage at a constant amperage over long peri- decay time all refer to the same thing. The traditional definition of rever-
ods of time. Batteries are in a constant state of drainage so they only beration time is the time it takes for the sound to decrease to one-mil-
support optimum performance for a brief time period before they begin lionth of its original sound pressure level.
to lose power.
ride cymbal: Usually the largest cymbal in the drum set, used for
phase: The relation between two sources in time. Two identical elec- keeping time rather than accenting punches or indicating section
tronic signals are in phase if the corresponding crest of each waveform changes. Most ride cymbals are between 18 and 22 inches in diameter.
reaches the same physical position at the same point in time. When two
identical waveforms are in phase, the result is a doubling of amplitude rim: The part of the drum that fits over the hoop of the head. This ring
(energy). If two identical waveforms are completely out of phase, the has holes around it that lugs go through. Lugs attach to hardware on
result is complete cancellation. Phase is indicated in degrees. One com- the shell, and tightening the lugs pulls the rim down against the hoop
plete cycle is indicated by 360 degrees and includes the crest and on the head.
trough of the waveform.
RMS: An abbreviation for root-mean-square. A power measurement
phasing: This term is commonly associated with the overheads on a that provides an indication of an amplifier's continuous power output
drum set. If the overheads are too close to the crash cymbals when the capabilities at a specified distortion level, bandwidth and impedance
cymbals are struck, the movement of the cymbals changes the phase load. RMS is a key specification when comparing power amplifiers
interaction between the mic and the surface of the cymbal. As the dis- because it indicates usable power at specific parameters. Always com-
tance changes from the mic to the cymbal, different frequencies sum pare RMS to RMS when reviewing power amplifiers for an accurate
and cancel between the mic and the cymbal. This is often referred to as comparison. Peak power (usually a very impressive number) is often
phasing. The term phasing is also applied to any audio situation where touted by manufacturers but is of little value as a comparison since dis-
there is a continually varying phase relationship, whether the cause tortion and bandwidth at peak power ratings are typically far out of the
originates electronically or acoustically. acceptable and usable range.

ping-ponging: See bouncing tracks. roll off: To roll off a frequency means to turn the frequency down. A
bass roll-off switch on a microphone turns the low frequencies down
power surges: Fast increases in the 120V current from the electrical before the signal leaves the microphone. Most bass roll-offs affect fre-
outlets that your equipment is plugged into. These can be very damag- quencies below 150Hz. While normal EQ change will boost or cut a
ing, especially to computer- and microprocessor-controlled gear. curve that has a center point at the EQ frequency, the term roll-off indi-
cates that all frequencies above or below a specified frequency are
predelay: A time delay that happens after the original sound source turned down at a rate specified in dB per octave.
and before the reverberation is heard.
schematic diagram: A block diagram of all of the electronic circuits
preamp: An amplifying circuit that either boosts mic level to line level in a particular piece of gear.
or maintains line level strength at various points in the signal path.
semiparametric EQ: An equalizer (tone control) that can sweep a
prime number: Any number that can only be divided evenly by one range of frequencies to boost or cut but has no control over the band-
and itself. 1, 3, 5, 7,11,13,17,19 and 23 are examples of prime num- width.
bers.
send: The output of a bus that's typically used to send a separate mix
print: To record something to tape. of instruments and tracks to an effects input or other audio device.

quantize: See auto correct. sequence: A piece of music stored in a microprocessor-based MIDI
recorder. The binary representation of notes and the interpretation of notes
 Glossary • page 237

as they're performed on a MIDI keyboard or any other MIDI controller. To organization is responsible for many advancements in the film, audio
sequence is to input MIDI data into a MIDI recorder. MIDI data is not the and video industry, including the development of SMPTE time code. See
actual musical waveform. It is binary numerical data that is emitted from time code.
the MIDI Out jack of a MIDI keyboard or other controller in response to
notes played, key velocity, aftertouch, duration and controller use. snare drum: A drum with 20 to 30 wires across the bottom head that
produce a buzz when the drum is struck. The snare drum is usually 5 to
sequencer: A MIDI recorder. A sequencer accepts MIDI data from any 8 inches deep and 13 to 15 inches in diameter. The snares are usually
MIDI controller and stores that data for future playback. A sequencer twisted metal strands. Some snares are made from organic material and
doesn't record the actual musical waveform but records binary numer- are referred to as gut snares, which is short for cat gut. The snare drum's
ical data that corresponds to each note or other transmittable action on rhythmic function is typically constant and always very important to the
a MIDI keyboard or controller. If middle C is pressed on a MIDI key- rhythmic and emotional feel of the music. Most commercial musical
board, a binary number is transmitted from the MIDI Output jack. This styles contain a repetition of the snare drum hitting on beats two and
binary number is recorded by a sequencer, then later the same number four. Jazz uses the snare in the most random manner stylistically,
is transmitted by the sequencer back into the MIDI keyboard through although even in jazz, the snare adds dramatically to the rhythmic
the MIDI Input jack. When the MIDI keyboard sees the number for mid- punch and dynamic excitement of the music.
dle C, it produces whatever sound is selected to play middle C.
solid-state amp: Uses transistors to boost a signal. Most studio
set: The assortment of drums used by the drummer in a rock, pop, power amplifiers used to power studio monitors are solid-state. When
country or jazz band. Usually contains a bass drum, snare drum, toms used within their normal operating range, solid-state amplifiers are typ-
and cymbals. The set can also contain other percussion instruments, ically more accurate, quieter and less distorted than an equivalent tube
depending on player preference and stylistic demands. amplifier. When pushed past their normal operating range, solid-state
amps become harsh and edgy. Solid-state amplification can be used to
shell: The cylindrical structure of a drum. Usually constructed from lam- amplify a signal at any stage in the signal path, from the mic to the pre-
inated wood but also occasionally constructed from metal and plastic. amps to the final outputs of the console to the control room power
The precision of construction and quality of material are critical to the amp. Some of the most highly regarded mics, preamplifiers and power
sound of a drum. amps use solid-state technology.

shelving EQ: The type of equalization that cuts or boosts all frequen- solo button: Lets you hear a track or instrument by itself. While a mix
cies above or below a specific frequency at a rate referenced in dB per is up on the mixer, pushing the solo button on a channel eliminates all
octave. channels except the one soloed.

shield: The braided wire around the hot lead or leads of a cable. Its speaker wire: Wire designed for use between the power amp and the
purpose is to diffuse extraneous radio interference and electrostatic speakers. This has two identical wires. One goes to the red terminal, and
noise. the other goes to the black terminal. Always be sure the wire that's
attached to the red terminal on the power amplifier is the same wire
signal path: The distinct route that a signal follows from its point of that's attached to the red terminal on the speaker and the wire that's
origin to its destination. attached to the black terminal on the power amplifier is attached to the
black terminal on the speaker.
signal-to-noise ratio: Technically, this is calculated by using a VTVM
(vacuum tube volt meter) and a specific routine for comparison splash cymbal: A small cymbal used to accent punches and for spe-
between signal and noise. For the sake of simplicity, think of the signal- cial effects. Similar to a crash but smaller. Most splash cymbals are
to-noise ratio as being the distance, in dB, from a specific signal to the between 8 and 12 inches in diameter.
constant level of noise, like that created by tape hiss, amplifier noise,
noise from outboard gear or inherent noise in the mixer. This constant stereo: The two-speaker playback system in which tracks and/or chan-
noise is called the noise floor. If tape noise on a specific recorder regis- nels can be positioned anywhere in the stereo panorama, from full left
ters a constant 35dB and the peak of our signal registers at 100dB, to full right.
then we can consider the signal-to-noise ratio to be the difference
between these two numbers. 100:35 = a signal-to-noise ratio of 65dB. sterile sound: A sound that's almost too clean, lacking warmth and
smoothness. A very dry and close sound without the blending benefit of
sine wave: The simplest waveform. The sine wave has the same shape reverberation or natural ambience, often edgy in the upper midrange
as the mathematical sine function curve with a smooth and symmetri- (between 1.5 and 3kHz).
cal crest and trough. The sound of a sine wave is most similar to the
sound produced by a flute. Sine waves are used to calibrate electronic striping: Recording time code on one audio track of a multitrack
equipment, whereas white and pink noise are used to gather acousti- recorder, video recorder or stereo recorder with a center track designed
cal measurements. to record time code. Time code is usually recorded throughout the entire
length of a tape before a time code related session begins. On a multi-
skins: Slang term used to indicate the drum set and derived from the track recorder, time code is almost always recorded (striped) on the
fact that early drums used animal skin (usually calf skin) for drum track with the highest number (track 8 on an 8-track, track 24 on a 24-
heads. track, etc.).

slapback: A single repeat of a signal with a delay time above 35ms. studio: The separate room used for recording the vocalists or instru-
mentalists. The band plays in the studio, while the engineer and his or
slate: A verbal reference recorded (usually by the engineer) onto the her equipment are in the control room.
master tape. This typically indicates song title, date, artist, etc. Often this
verbal reference is mixed with a low-frequency sine wave (around studio monitors: Manufacturers refer to their speakers designed for
40Hz), which in fast forward and rewind, produces a higher tone used studio use as studio monitors. In a large recording facility with a sepa-
to locate the particular song or take. rate control room, isolation rooms and a large sound stage or studio,
the speakers in the primary recording room (usually separate from the
SMPTE: The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. This control room) are called the studio monitors.
 The Au dioPro Hom e Re co rding Coo rse • a comp re he nsive m u l t i m e d i a a u d i o r e c o r d i n g text • page 238

sync pulse: This tempo-controlling system uses a specified number of transient: A fast attack, like that from a percussion instrument struck
electronic pulses per quarter note to drive the tempo of a sequencer. with a hard stick or mallet (cymbals, claves, tambourine, xylophone,
Most sync pulse is generated at 24 pulses per quarter note. Each pulse etc.). Transients are an important concern in audio recording.
is identical. The only factor that establishes synchronization is how fast
the pulses are being sent or received. This sync pulse can be recorded trim: Typically controls the amount of preamplification applied to the
onto one audio track from the sync out jack of a sequencer. Later the microphone signal at the input stage of the mixer. Trim is commonly
output of the tape track can be plugged into the sync in jack of the used when referring to gain reduction.
sequencer. If the sequencer is set to listen to an external clock, every
time 24 pulses go by, the sequencer begins the next quarter note. The tube amplifier: Uses a vacuum tube-based amplification process to
faster the pulse the faster the tempo, or the slower the pulse the slow- boost a signal. Tube amplification is older technology than solid-state
er the tempo. Since each pulse is identical, there is no way for the amplification and is typically noisier and less accurate. The advantage of
sequencer to determine where it should be during a song in relation to a tube amplifier is apparent as the amp begins to distort. While solid-
the sync pulse. To be in sync with a previously recorded track, the tape state distortion is harsh and objectionable, tube amp distortion is
must be rewound to the beginning of the song every time. smooth and easy to listen to. Tube amplification can be used to ampli-
fy a signal at any stage in the signal path from the mic to the control
talkback: A one-way communications system that lets the engineer room power amp. Some of the most highly regarded mics, preamplifiers
communicate with musicians or technical staff through the headphones and power amps use tube technology.
or studio monitors.
tubs: Slang for a drum set.
tape hiss: Noise heard on playback of analog tape, especially when
the musical signal isn't recorded hot enough on the tape. unbalanced line: A wiring scheme with one hot lead carrying the sig-
nal and a braided shield around the hot lead to diffuse extraneous sig-
test tones: Specific sine waves at various frequencies used for setting nals. Unbalanced lines are subject to electrostatic noise and interfer-
levels and calibrating electronic equipment. The most common tones ence; therefore, cable length is practically restricted. Unbalanced lines
produced are 100Hz, 1000Hz and 10kHz. are normally less than 25 feet in length.

threshold: The control on a dynamic range processor (compressor, lim- unity gain: A status where a piece of equipment outputs the same sig-
iter, gate or expander) that determines when the voltage controlled nal strength that it receives at its input.
amplifier starts to turn down or back up.
VCA: A voltage controlled amplifier. This amplifier turns a signal up or
timbre: The tonal characteristic and textural color of a sound. down depending on how much voltage it receives. Changing energy in
a sound wave is what varies the voltage to these circuits.
time code: The most common form of time code is SMPTE time code,
which is used to synchronize audio, video and film. MTC is MIDI Time volt: A unit used to describe the amount of electrical current pressure
Code, which is the MIDI data equivalent to SMPTE time code. Time code in a circuit.
is a binary, numerical code that is generated at a constant rate and can
be recorded to tape. This code represents a continuously active 24-hour VU meter: A signal source meter designed to read the average signal
clock. Every point in time code is numerically unique and refers to its strength. A VU meter has a physical needle that moves across an arc to
own specific time. Time code is indicated in hours, minutes, seconds, the right in response to signal increases and to the left in response to
frames per second and sometimes sub-frames or time code bits. If a signal decreases. Because of the mass of the needle, VU meters are
sequencer is set to begin playback at 1 hour, 20 minutes, 30 seconds among the slowest types of commonly used metering systems.
and 15 frames (indicated by 01:20:30:15), the sequence will start as
soon as the time code reader sees that time reference from the tape. wet: Totally effected. In the case of reverb, 100 percent wet is all rever-
Also, the sequencer can mathematically calculate the time reference of berated sound with no dry sound.
each beat of the song. No matter where you start the tape during a
song, the sequencer will see the time code reference, calculate the mea- XLR: A three-point connector like those used on most microphones.
sure and beat number of that time reference and begin playback in Balanced connections are typically made with XLR connectors or some
sync. other three-point connector.

tip-ring-sleeve: The type of plug on stereo headphones. The tip is left, Y cord: An adapting cable with three connectors joined in parallel. Can
the ring is right and the sleeve is connected to the shield. This type of be used for splitting one output for send to two different inputs.
connector can be used for any application that requires three points. Doesn't work optimally when attempting to send two different outputs
Balanced connections can be made with a tip-ring-sleeve connector. to one input.

torn: A drum that has no snares and is played with sticks. Toms usually
have top and bottom heads, although the bottom heads can be
removed for a certain type of sound. Most toms are between 10 and 18
inches in diameter and from 10 to 18 inches deep. Toms are usually
mounted on stands or on a rack attached to the bass drum.

tracks: Horizontally distinguished zones on tape where audio signals

are recorded. An 8-track multitrack has 8 divisions of the tape that run
the length of the tape. Each of these divisions is called a track. Track
also refers to a part of a MIDI sequence. Since MIDI recorders are mod-
eled after the operational controls of analog tape recorders, MIDI
sequencing terminology is identical in many ways to historic analog
recording terminology. For the same reason, hard disk recorders also
call the individual parts of a multitrack recording tracks.
 Index • p age 239

INDEX
Symbols bass drum, 104, 146,166 condenser mic(s), 101,136, 138,155, 173,
1/4" phone connectors, 9 bass drum, recording levels for the, 169 176
+4dBm, 20 -10dBV, 20 4- bass guitar, 46 congas, 146, 182 connecting to
track, 48,122 4-track bass roll-off switch, 136 the mixer, 14 connectors, 8
domain, 204 8-track, 122 bidirectional, 110 1/4" phone, 9
10-band graphic, 51 10- bleed onto the adjacent tracks, 226 phone, 9
band graphic EQ, 45 12- blend the room sound with the dry sound, RCA phono, 9
string, 137 16-track 230 XLR, 10
recording, 202 31-band bongos, 146,182 bottom head, 175 control room monitor selector, 54
graphic, 51 60-cyclehum, bounce, 159 bouncing, 139 bouncing cowbell, 146,182 crash cymbals, 225
13, 52 multiple instruments to one tape crosstalk, 207 cue sends, 32 cymbal
track, 39 braided microphones, 160 cymbals, 146, 149,
shield, 9 brass, real, 178, 182
101 breathing, 80 from a drum machine, 224
ac power cable, 13 bridge, 137 live, 224
acoustic guitar(s), 101,134, 139,142, 143 brilliance, 47, 49 real, 225
dynamic processing and the, 139 bus(es), 29
equalizing the, 142 aux(iliary), 32
sounds, 138 acoustic piano, 101 combining, 34
acoustic room ambience, 101 acoustic room effects, 29, 32 dampening material, 165
sound, 152 acoustical adjustments, 58 fader, 20 dB, 20
acoustical chambers, 95 acoustical headphone, 34 decay time(s), 98, 125
environment, 93,100, 153,178 acoustical summing, 34 delay, 32, 93,121
interaction of room ambience, 144 active track assignment, 34, 39 amount, 122
direct boxes, 18 adjacent tracks, 39 adverse buzzy distortion, 121 effects, 85
phase interactions, 178 AM radio, 25, 55 length, 122
ambience, 130, 218 amplified electric, 127 modulated, 90
amplifier repeating, 87
characteristic sound of, 113 cabasa, 182 slapback, 85
headphone, 34 cancel, 89 times, 25, 92, 99
miked, 37,127 cardioid pickup pattern(s), 109, 132, 184 vocal, 89
solid-state, 128 chamber reverb, 95,125, 143 density, 99
voltage controlled, 69 chambers, 93, 95 high, 99
amps, guitar, 113 analog tape, channel(s), 29, 58 low, 99
176 analytical listening, 7 attack ins and outs, 58 depth and speed, 90 Dl,
time, 71,74, 140,215 attenuator, insert, 27, 66 chorus, 25, 65, 18 diffusion, 98
2, 20, 22, 26, 58 90, 91, 124, 144 high, 98
adjustment, 22 effects, 85 low, 98
line, 20 mono, 92 claves, 149, 182 click direct, advantages of running, 113 direct
audible spectrum, 111 audio machine sounds, 185 click track, 184 close box(es), 18, 19,22,36,116, 189 direct
synchronizing, 195 auto correct, 199 proximity, 109 close-miking, 128, 136,149, injection, 18
automatic level control, 71, 213 167,172, 175 distortion, 4, 22, 39, 120, 122, 144, 199
aux(iliary) buses, 32, 33, 34, 67 technique, 104,159 double, 87
auxiliary percussion, 199, 227 the amp, 130 close- double coil pickups, 118
aux(iliary) sends, 58, 66 average level, sounding tracks, 130 combining double, live, 122 double
117,178 bus, 34 tracking, 143 doubling, 38, 65,
combining dose and distant mics, 130 89 downward expander, 82
combining direct and miked signals, 37 drop frame time code, 195
B combining matrix, 34 commercial sound, drum
baffle(s), 156, 184 balance, 144 communications, 56 compact discs, 176 conditioning, 161
left/right, 57 balanced compressing on mixdown, 80 compressing fills, 199
percussion, 229 bandwidth, the snare sound, 213 compression, 120, heads, 161
48 bass, 39, 46 122,140 compressor, 65, 71,76, microphones, 201
139,213,216 compressor/limiter, 69 mono, 189
condenser, 100, 128, 149, 182, muffling the, 162
preparation and tuning, 161
setup, 201
sound(s), 148, 161,215
 The AudioPro Home Recording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 240

sticks, 165 headphone(s), 10, 34, 56, 143, 185, 224

tuning of the, 167 drum faders, 32 amplifier, 34
machine, 37, 185, 224 far-field monitors, 8 bus, 34
mix levels in the, 197 feedback, 87, 91 mix, 184
recording levels, 197 filters, 53 output level, 34
toms, 221 fixed-frequency equalizers, 50 heart-shaped pickup pattern, 109 hertz,
toms, tuning, 222 flange with delay, 143 43 hi-hat, 179
dry, 33 flanger, 90, 124 mic, 160
duct tape, 162 duplication, 60 dynamic flanging, 65 panning the, 180 high density, 99
processing and the acoustic guitar, flat, 43, 47 high diffusion, 98 high input levels, 27
139 frames, 195 high-frequency clarity, 105 high
dynamic processors, 67, 82, 223 frequency, 43 impedance, 17 high-impedance
dynamic range, 69, 83, 139 dynamic oscillator, 60 instruments, 116 highpass filter, 52
range processors, 65, 69, 84 ranges, definition of, 47 highs, 42, 47
response curve, 111 hollow-body electric jazz guitar, 119 hot
response of the human ear, • lead, 9 hot levels, 221 hotwire, 9 human
feel, 200 humbucking pickups, 118
EBU, 195 echo(s),
65, 85 edge, 212
effects gain, 21 I
bus, 29, 32 reduction, 76, 140 impedance, 17
on the individual drums, 153 structure, 29, 38 gate, 82, proper, 34
on the kick, 169 120, 181 gate the kick, 208 gated transformer, 18
processors, 65, 85 reverb, 65, 98,159, 209 gated in phase, 23
return(s), 29, 67 reverb sound, 174 gate/expander, initial reflection(s), 87, 132
reverberation, 92 80 gating the snare, 213 generate in-line consoles, 2 in-line
sends, 32, 58,173 time code, 194 glockenspiel, 182 module, 2 input(s)
stereo, 92 gobos, 184 grind, 46 faders, 29, 39
electric acoustic guitar, 134 electric ground hum, 13, 51 ground gain, 58
acoustic guitar direct into a mixer, lift switch, 19 ground pin, 13 instrument, 20
134 electric guitar, 46, grounding, 13 grounding level comparison, 26
134 problems, 13 guiro, 149, 182 meter, 33
amp, 138 guitar(s), 37, 87 preamp, 21, 102
recording an, 112 acoustic, 101, 134, 139, 142, 143 stage, 17
sounds, 119 equalizing the, 142 miking instrument selection, 117, 139 interaction
speaker cabinets, 104 the, 135 purist's approach to between microphones, 181 interference,
electrical power, 11 electronic the, 143 steel string, 136 9 inverse reverb, 95 inverting phase, 92
calibration, 58 electronic amplified electric, 127 isolating the drum tracks, 181
doubling, 122 electronic amps, 113
metronome, 185 electronically and bass blending together, 46
out of phase, 23 electrostatic basic types of electric, 118 J
interference, 9 engineer, cable, 7 jazz guitar, 119
maintenance, 27 EQ, classical, 136
20,41,58, 149 clean, 127
circuit, 27 distorted, 116 K
fully parametric, 85 electric, 46, 134 keyboards, 144
graphic, 51 electric acoustic, 134 kick (drums), 146,159, 166, 205, 206
parametric, 70, 88 electric acoustic direct into a mixer, equalizing the, 167
section, 42 134 panning the, 210
semiparametric, 49, 84 equalizing the, 126 recording levels for the, 169
egualization, 43 hollow-body electric jazz, 119 with the front head off, 206
equalization, purist's approach to, 127 nylon string classical, 136
equalized for mono, 126 equalizer(s), 42, rhythm, 46
65, 84 equalizers, fixed-frequency, 50 sound, direct, 37
equalizing strings, 139 large recording room, 219
the acoustic guitar, 142 guitarist, 112 layering, 38 lead vocal track,
the guitar, 126 226 leakage, 173, 181
the kick, 206 LED(s), 22, 76
the kick drum, 167
the toms, 176, 222 European H
standard time code, 195 exaggerate hall(s), 93, 143
the attack, 213 exaggerated hall reverb, 65, 95, 124, 173
transients, 117 expander, 82,120
 I n d e x • page 241

left/right balance, 78 the speaker cabinet, 147 overheads on a close-miked kit, 178
level(s), theories of drum, 169 oversaturating, 213 oversaturation,
proper input, 27 milliwatts, 20 minus, 10, 20 mix, 176, 226 overtones, 170
proper adjustment, 39 46, 142, 179,216
LFO, 89, 90 final, 169
light-emitting diode, 22 headphone, 184
light-gauge strings, 139 level, 56 pad, 22
limiter, 77, 120 line, 39 levels in the drum machine, 197 pan, 29, 37, 58, 122, 124, 134, 159, 179
attenuator, 20 mono, 55 mixdown, 29, 43, 80, control, 37, 179
in, 19 83, 122, 169 pot, 37
level, 20,102 master output, 60 panning, 57, 125
level strength, 20 recorder, 32, 54, 56 mixer(s), 20, 25, the hi-hat, 180
out, 19 29, 32, 34, 39, 54, 69, 112, the kick, 210
line-matching transformer, 18 120,189 the snare, 221
live cymbals, 224 live double, mixer, EQ circuitry, 41 the toms, 223
122 live double track, 143 low mixing board, 2 modulated panoramic potentiometer, 37
density, 99 low diffusion, 98 delay, 90 modulation, 87, parametric EQ, 50, 66 passive
low impedance, 17, 116, 189 89 monaural sound, 154 direct boxes, 18 patch bay, 58, 69
low input levels, 27 lower monitor(s) patching in the drum machine, 189
midrange, 47 low-frequency section, 53 peak LEDs, 23 peak meters, 23
roll-off, 101 lowpass filter, 52 sends, 32 perception of room size, 121
lows, 42, 47, 207 far-field, 8 percussion, 101
near-field reference, 7 family, 146
monitoring, 7 mono, 25, 124, 125, miscellaneous, 182, 226
M 136, 178, 189 recording, 182 percussive
maintenance engineer, 27 chorus, 92 sounds, 99 percussive transient,
managing the signal path, 29 drums, 189 207 personal 4-track multitrack,
maracas, 182 moving-coil, 100, 107,128 48 personal 4-track recorder, 34
marimba, 182 muffling the drum, 162 multi- PFL, 41
medium- and heavy-gauge strings, 139 effects, 29, 124 multi-effects phantom power, 19, 102
meters, 23, 26 process, 29 multi-effects phantom power switch, 19
meters, VU, 23, 29, 58, 76, 182,212 processor, 32, 99 multiple phase, 23, 26, 90
mic(rophone)(s), 39 effects, 124 multiple guitar inverting, 92
at the center of the speaker, 129 parts, 125 multiple reverb, 217 problems, 26
at the outer edge of the speaker, 130 multitrack, 29, 34, 132, 159 relationship, 89
choice for snare drum, 172 multitrack, digital, 39 mute(s), reversal, 25, 91
combining close and distant, 130 29, 41,58 shifter, 90
condenser, 101,136, 138,155,173, shifting, 65, 124
176 stereo, 92
cymbal, 160 N phasing, 25 phone
drum, 201 narrow band, 51 connectors, 9 pick(s),
gain trim, 21 narrow bandwidth, 85 139, 142
hi-hat, 160 near-field reference monitor, 7 de-emphasize the sound of the, 140
interaction between, 181 new strings, 139 sound, 139
level, 20, 102 noise, getting rid of, 82 thick, 139
manufacturers, 182 notch filter, 51,85 pickup(s)
moving-coil, 104, 128, 136, 149, 166 nylon string classical guitar, 136 double coil, 118
overhead, 178 heart-shaped, 109
placement, 138,142, 166 humbucking, 118
preamp, 20, 21 pattern, 109
recording a drum set with one, 149 old strings, 139 single coil, 118
ribbon, 106,136 omni configuration, 101 types, 118 ping-ponging, 39 plate
room, 132, 134 omnidirectional, 110, 210 reverb, 65, 95, 210 plates, 93, 95 plus four,
talkback, 56 operating principle of the condenser mic, 20 polar patterns, 109 post-EQ, 49 post-
techniques, 128, 134, 136, 144 101 operating principle of the moving-coil EQ/insert, 41 power amp, 4, 7 power surges,
types, 101 mic/line mic, 12 powered outputs, 58 powering down, 13
inputs, 32 mic/line switch, 105 powering up, 13 practical application for the
58 MIDI, 100, 189, 199 operating principle of the ribbon mic, 108 combining bus, 35
sound module, 100 optimum signal transfer, 36 oscillator, 56 out
Time Code, 195 of phase, 23 outboard processor, 41 output
mids, 47, 206 miked buses, 34 overdrive, 120, 182 overdriven
amplifier, 37, 127 miking input, 22 overhead microphone(s), 178
the acoustic guitar, 135
 The AudioPro Home Aecording Course • a comprehensive multimedia audio recording text • page 242

practical applications for splitting a signal, repeating delay, 87 panning the, 221
36 retake, 22 return, 32 recording levels for the, 174, 212
pre and post, 32 preamp, return channel, 87 reverberation on the, 173, 216
2, 20, 26, 29, 58 reverb(s), 32, 33,85, 124, 143, 144, 169, sound(s), 170, 174
level controls, 20 173 tuning of the, 213
stage, 22 digital, 93 solid-state amp, 128 solo,
predelay, 98, 125 gated, 65, 98, 159,209 29
pre-EQ, 41 pre- hall, 65, 95, 124, 173 solo button(s), 41, 58 solutions to
EQ/insert, 41 pre- inverse, 95 equalization problems, 142 sonic
fader-listen, 41 multiple, 217 blend, 34 sound(s)
presence, 47 print on cymbals, 225 acoustic guitar, 138
reverb, 173 on the gated snare, 181 commercial, 144
processor(s) plate, 65, 95, 210 direct guitar, 37
dynamic, 67, 82, 223 reverse, 95 electric guitar, 119
dynamic range, 65, 69, 83, 139 room, 95 gated reverb, 174
effects, 65, 85 sends, 58 hole, 137
multi-effects, 29, 32, 99 reverberation, 98 module(s), 58, 189,224
outboard, 41 devices, 223 module levels, 199
signal, 20, 58, 62 effects, 92 monaural, 154
professional recordings, 26 on the snare drum, 173, 216 of the pick, 136
programming drum parts, 199 onthetoms, 178, 223 perception, 93
programming, real-time, 199 settings, 143 pick, 139
protect speakers, 13 pumping, Rhodes-type keyboard, 90 reflected, 93
80 punch-in, 22 purist, 43 rhythm guitar, 46 snare, 170, 174
purist's approach to equalization, 148 rhythmic feel, 184 ribbon, source, 37
purist's approach to the acoustic guitar, 164 128 ribbon mics, 106, stereo, 136 speaker cabinet, 127
136 RMS, 4 room(s), 93 speaker cabinet sound, 127 speaker
ambience, 144 wire, 297 spikes, 12 split mixer, 2 split
mic, 132, 134 one output, 36 split vs. in-line, 2
Q, 48 size, 87 standard track assignment, 201 steel
quantize, 199 quantize string acoustic guitar, 136, 137 stereo,
strength, 200 25, 124, 125, 144, 159, 189
chorus, 92
safety, 13 effects, 92
sampled guitar sounds, 144 image, 159,223
range control, 82 ratio, 73, 76, sampling, 173, 176 imaging, 57
140,213 ratio control, 82 raw screens, 184 line output, 11
kick sound, 167 RCA phono semiparametric EQ, 49, 84 master control, 56
connectors, 9 read time code, send, 32 mic technique, 155
194 real brass, 101 real cymbals, separating and organizing tracks, 200 pair, 159
225 real strings, 101 real-time separation, 184 pattern, 178
programming, 199 real-time session procedures, 58 phase, 92
recording, 200 record levels, 60 shaker(s), 146, 149, 182 sound, 136
recorder, digital, 176, 222 shelving EQ, 53 spectrum, 89
recorder line ins and outs, 58 signal path, 27, 41,54, 216 to mono, 55
recording signal path, managing the, 29 X-Y, 155
a drum set with one microphone, 149 signal processor, 20 string noise, 52
an electric guitar, 112 basics, 62 strings
hot to tape, 116 ins and outs, 58 light-gauge, 139
level, 29 signal strength, 34 medium- and heavy-gauge, 139
level(s) signals, combining direct and miked, 37 new, 139
fora bass drum, 169 for signal-to-noise, 22 signal-to-noise ratio, 4, old, 139
kick drum, 169, 207 for 197 simulated guitar parts, 144 simulated real, 101
snare drum, 174, 212 tube distortion, 121 single coil pickups, 118 striping, 196 studio
fortoms, 221 single-note picking parts, 139 sizzle, 224 monitors, 297 sub-
percussion, 182 slapback, 65, 87 slapback delay, 85 slate, bass, 47 sub-mix,
real-time, 220 reference 56 159 sub-mixing, 193
tone, 57, 60 reflected sound, 93 slave to external sync, 197 SMPTE, 194, sum, 34, 89 summing
reflections, 93 regenerating, 121 205 snare (drum), 104, 146, 156, 159, bus, 34
regeneration(s), 91,93 release 169,211 matrix, 34
time, 71,76, 140,213 mechanism, 171 to mono, 89
mic, 173 surges, 12
 Index • page 243

switching matrix, 34 upward expander, 82

sync out, 196
sync pulse, 193, 196
synchronized to time code, 193
synchronizing, 193 VCA, 69, 70, 76
synth, 37, 38 verbalization, 120
synthesized and sampled guitar sounds, 144 vocal, 87
delay, 89
mics, 101
track, 71,87
talkback, 56 vocals, 76, 101
talkback mic, 56 voltage controlled amplifier, 69 volts,
tambourine, 146, 149, 182,226 20 VU meter(s), 23, 29, 58, 76,
tape, 39 182,212
tape noise, 127
tape recorder, 20
task-specific microphones, 149 w
television, 25, 55 weather stripping, 171,175 wet,
tension, 175 34 wet/dry, 33 wire, proper, 7
test tones, 56 wood-tipped sticks, 165
thick pick, 139 woodwinds, 101
threshold, 71,76, 83, 140,215
timbales, 182
timbre, 43
time code, 193, 204 XLR, 116
drop frame, 195 XLR connectors, 10
European standard, 195 X-Y configuration, 155, 158, 178,225
generate, 194 xylophone, 182
synchronized to, 193 Time
Code, 193, 194 toms, 104, 146,
159, 174,221
drum machine, 221 Y cable, 34, 36
equalizing the, 176, 222
panning the, 223
recording levels for, 221
reverberation on the, 178
tone generator, 58 tones, 56
top head, 172, 175
track(s)
assignment(s), 29, 34
assignment bus, 34, 39
assignment matrix, 34
edge, 196
evaluating for cleanliness, 41
isolating the drum, 181
lead vocal, 226
live double, 143
separating and organizing, 200
vocal, 71,87
tracking session, 41
transient(s), 23,106, 111, 116, 173, 176,
178, 182,224
exaggerated, 117
peaks, 29
triangle, 146, 149, 182
trim, 21
true stereo sound, 134
tube amp, 128 tuning,
117,139
drum machine toms, 222
the drum, 167
the snare, 213

u
unidirectional mic, 109 unity
points, 39 upper midrange,
47
 Acknowledgments • page 245

Acknowledgments
Front Cover Photo
The Sy Klopps Studio
San Francisco, California
Photographer: Michael Mendelson

Back Cover Photos

Left:
Coast Recorders A full-
service, 48-track music studio
665 Harrison Street San
Francisco, CA 94107
(415)546-0200
Fax:(415)546-9411
Photographer: John Cuniberti
Right: Harvey
Mandel's home studio
Pacifica, California
Harvey Mandel is powered by Parker Guitars, Crate Amps, Dean Markley
Strings, DiMarzio Pickups and Electric Snake Productions Inc.
Web Site: www.punmaster.com/mandel
E-mail: snake@punmast
Management: David Gross Entertainment; Fax: (415) 380-8198
Photographer: Michael Mendelson

Compact Disc Manufacturer

CRT Custom Products Inc.
7532 Hickory Hills Court
Whites Creek, TN 37189
(800) 453-2533
In Tennessee: (615) 876-5490
Fax:(615)876-4260