Introduction

Python is an example of a high-level language; other high-level languages you

might have heard of are C++, PHP, and Java.
There are also low-level languages, sometimes referred to as machine languages
or assembly languages. Machine language is the encoding of instructions in
binary so that they can be directly executed by the computer. Computers can only
execute programs written in machine language. Thus, programs written in a high-
level language have to be processed before they can run. This extra processing
takes some time, which is a small disadvantage of high-level languages.
However, the advantages to high-level languages are enormous.

A language is high-level if the program must be processed before it can run, and
low-level if the computer can execute it without additional processing. Python is
a high-level language that must be interpreted into machine code (binary) before
it can be executed.

Two kinds of programs process high-level languages into low-level languages:

interpreters and compilers.
An interpreter reads a high-level program and executes it, meaning that it does
what the program says. It processes the program a little at a time, alternately
reading lines and performing computations.

A compiler reads the program and translates it completely before the program
starts running. In this case, the high-level program is called the source code, and
the translated program is called the object code or the executable. Once a
program is compiled, you can execute it repeatedly without further translation.
Compilers take the entire source code and produce object code or the executable
and interpreters execute the code line by line.
Many modern languages use both processes. They are first compiled into a lower
level language, called byte code, and then interpreted by a program called a
virtual machine.

There are two ways to use the Python interpreter: shell mode and program mode.
In shell mode, you type Python expressions into the Python shell, and the
interpreter immediately shows the result. Alternatively, you can write an entire
program by placing lines of Python instructions in a file and then use the
interpreter to execute the contents of the file as a whole. Such a file is often
referred to as source code.

Runtime errors = error that does not appear until you run the program. E.g.,
attempting to divide by 0. Python cannot reliably tell if you are trying to divide
by 0 until it is executing your program.

Semantic errors = if there is a semantic error in your program, it will run

successfully in the sense that the computer will not generate any error messages.
However, the meaning of the program (its semantics) is wrong.

Variables
String = a sequence of characters. Triple quoted strings can even span multiple
lines
Type conversion functions = the functions int, float and str will (attempt to)
convert their arguments into types int, float and str respectively.
Int function will ALWAYS round down. E.g., int(3.9999) = 3.
Assignment token = create variables. E.g., n = 17 means that n is a reference to
the object 17.
division / = always evaluates to a floating point
division // = integer division. It always truncates its result down to the next
smallest integer.
Exponentiation = 2 ** 3 ** 2 = 2 ** 9 = 512. The right-most ** operator gets
done first.
Exponentiation has the next highest precedence. Operators with the same
precedence (except for **) are evaluated from left-to-right.

Random module = random number generators are based on a deterministic

algorithm — repeatable and predictable. So they’re called pseudo-random
generators — they are not genuinely random. They start with a seed value. Each
time you ask for another random number, you’ll get one based on the current seed
attribute, and the state of the seed (which is one of the attributes of the generator)
will be updated. Each time you run your program, the seed value is likely to be
different meaning that even though the random numbers are being created
algorithmically, you will likely get random behavior each time you execute.

If a function has no return statement, then by default it returns None. E.g., this
function

def addEm(x, y, z):

print(x + y + z)

will return None.

Function flow of execution = execution always begins at the first statement of

the program. Statements are executed one at a time, in order, from top to bottom.
Function definitions do not alter the flow of execution of the program, but
remember that statements inside the function are not executed until the function
is called. Function calls are like a detour in the flow of execution. Instead of going
to the next statement, the flow jumps to the first line of the called function,
executes all the statements there, and then comes back to pick up where it left off.

A boolean expression is an expression that evaluates to a boolean value. Some

boolean operators are:
== Equal to
!= Not equal to
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or equal to
>= Greater than or equal to
And
Or
Not
In
Not in
Is = the is operator will return true if the two references are to the same object.
E.g. :
a = "banana"
b = "banana"
print(a is b)
>>> True
Since strings are immutable, Python can optimize resources by making two
names that refer to the same string literal value refer to the same object.
This is not the case with lists. E.g. :
a = [81, 82, 83]
b = [81, 82, 83]
print(a is b)
>>>False

If structure:

if BOOLEAN EXPRESSION:
STATEMENTS_1 # executed if condition evaluates to True
else:
 STATEMENTS_2 # executed if condition evaluates to False

Strings
Strings are also objects. Each string instance has its own attributes
and methods which can be accessed by the dot notation.
Method Parameters Description

upper none Returns a string in all uppercase

lower none Returns a string in all lowercase

capitalize none Returns a string with first character capitalized, the rest lower

strip none Returns a string with the leading and trailing whitespace removed

lstrip none Returns a string with the leading whitespace removed

rstrip none Returns a string with the trailing whitespace removed

count item Returns the number of occurrences of item

replace old, new Replaces all occurrences of old substring with new

center width Returns a string centered in a field of width spaces

ljust width Returns a string left justified in a field of width spaces

rjust width Returns a string right justified in a field of width spaces

find item Returns the leftmost index where the substring item is found, or -1 if not found

rfind item Returns the rightmost index where the substring item is found, or -1 if not
found

index item Like find except causes a runtime error if item is not found

rindex item Like rfind except causes a runtime error if item is not found

format substitutions Involved! See String Format Method, below

string.split(separator)
glue.join(list)
Other methods from import string:
string.ascii_lowercase
string.ascii_uppercase
string.digits
string.punctuation

String.format() = the arguments of format are inserted in order. If you don’t want
to display all decimal, use {:.1f}, {:.2f}, and so on. This rounds the number to a
certain number of digits.

Strings are IMMUTABLE.

Lists
A list is a sequential collection of data values, where each value is identified by
an index. The values that make up a list are called its elements. Lists are similar
to strings, which are ordered collections of characters, except that the elements
of a list can have any type and for any one list, the items can be of different
types.
id function = every object has a unique identification tag. The function returns
an object’s id. An id is usually a very large integer value (corresponding to an
address in memory).
Unlike strings, lists are MUTABLE.
You can remove elements from a list by assigning the empty list to them.
alist = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f']
alist[1:3] = []
print(alist)
>>> ['a', 'd', 'e', 'f']
You can also use del to remove items.
Slice is used to clone a list. A slice of a list creates a new list.
List[:] creates a copy of a list. The copy will be pointing at something different,
so changes on one do not affect changes on the other and the is operator will
return False.

List methods
 Method Parameters Result Description

append item mutator Adds a new item to the end of a list

insert position, item mutator Inserts a new item at the position given

pop none hybrid Removes and returns the last item

pop position hybrid Removes and returns the item at position

sort none mutator Modifies a list to be sorted

reverse none mutator Modifies a list to be in reverse order

index item return idx Returns the position of first occurrence of item

count item return ct Returns the number of occurrences of item

remove item mutator Removes the first occurrence of item

List comprehension
General syntax:

[<expression> for <item> in <sequence> if <condition>]

list() function = Python has a built-in type conversion function called list that
tries to turn whatever you give it into a list.

Tuples
Tuples are IMMUTABLE.
Syntactically, a tuple is a comma-separated sequence of values.

Files
Open file and then close it.
Method
Name Use Explanation

open open(filename,'r') Open a file called filename and use it for reading. This will return
a reference to a file object.

open open(filename,'w') Open a file called filename and use it for writing. This will also
return a reference to a file object.
 Method
Name Use Explanation

close filevariable.close() File use is complete.

If your file and your Python program are in the same directory you can simply
use the filename like this: open('myfile.txt', 'r'). If your file and your Python
program are in different directories then you must refer to one or more directories,
either in a relative file path to the file like this: open('../myData/data3.txt', 'r'), or
in an absolute file path like
open('/users/bmiller/myFiles/allProjects/myData/data3.txt', 'r').

Because text files are sequences of lines of text, we can use the for loop to
iterate through each line of the file.
Methods to read files:

Method
Name Use Explanation

write filevar.write(astring) Add astring to the end of the file. filevar must refer to a file
that has been opened for writing.

read(n) filevar.read() Reads and returns a string of n characters, or the entire file
as a single string if n is not provided.

readline(n) filevar.readline() Returns the next line of the file with all text up to and
including the newline character. If n is provided as a
parameter than only n characters will be returned if the line is
longer than n.

readlines(n) filevar.readlines() Returns a list of strings, each representing a single line of the
file. If n is not provided then all lines of the file are returned. If
n is provided then n characters are read but n is rounded up
so that an entire line is returned.

Dictionaries
Strings, lists, and tuples — are sequential collections. Dictionaries are an
unordered, associative collection.
The del statement removes a key-value pair from a dictionary.
Dictionaries are MUTABLE.
The len function also works on dictionaries. It returns the number of key-value
pairs.

Dictionary methods:
Method Parameters Description

keys none Returns a view of the keys in the dictionary

values none Returns a view of the values in the dictionary

items none Returns a view of the key-value pairs in the dictionary

get key Returns the value associated with key; None otherwise

get key,alt Returns the value associated with key; alt otherwise

Sorted(dictionary) = sorts the keys

Numpy
%timeit = applies to one statement. It runs the statement multiple
times and gets average times of 3 best.
%%timeit = applies to entire cell.

Basic functions:
a = np.array([]) = create array
a.ndim
a.shape
len(a)
np.arange()
np.linspace(start, end, number of points)
np.ones(tuple), np.zeros(tuple)
np.eye() = ones on diagonal
np.diag
np.random.rand(shape) = Create an array of the given shape and
populate it with random samples from a uniform distribution
over [0, 1)
np.random.randint()
np.tile
np.triu
array.sum = sum all elements in array. Axis = 0, columns, axis = 1,
rows.

slice operator creates VIEWS, not copy.