TAWARIKH:

International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(1) October 2013

MOH ISA PRAMANA KOESOEMADINATA,

SETIAWAN SABANA & NUNING DAMAYANTI ADISASMITO

Socio-Historical and Cultural Influences

on Visual Differentiation of Wayang Kulit
of Cirebon, West Java, Indonesia: A Case Study
of the Attributes Differentiation
of Priest Drona Puppets

ABSTRACT: The “wayang kulit” (shadow play) is a traditional art of theatre that popular in Java and Bali,
and considered as a multidimensional state of art which consists dimension of theatrical, literature,
philosophy, moral education, and not to mention visual arts and crafts dimension as well, in which is the
main discussion of this paper. There are several styles of Javanese “wayang kulit” based on their
geographical area. Among those, Cirebon style possesses unique visualization which has resemblance to
early phase of Islamic era “wayang” puppet. One of the character transformations done which includes
personality and visual descriptions happened to the Priest Drona, the vital character of Mahabharata that
role as “guru” (teacher) to both Pandawas and Kurawas, who was trapped inside dilemma between his
warring disciples. In the adaptation version of Javanese shadow play, for some various and speculative
reasons, Drona has been altered into an antagonistic character, and reached its extreme point of alteration
as an absolute evil character in Cirebon version. Cirebon’s history, culture, and plural society gave significant
influence on this. Drona puppets themselves have unique and specific visual attributes in comparison to
other main characters puppets, and possess highly symbolic meaning beneath them. These facts told us that
the character has a great significance. Later, these negative connotations of Drona was being sharpened
and escalated in accordance of socio-historical events and local phenomenon, thus producing visual
differentiation within the Drona puppets.
KEY WORDS: “Wayang kulit”, Drona character, Cirebon area, visual, differentiations, attributes, socio-
historical events, and symbolic meaning.

INTRODUCTION monarchial state system, hierarchal society

In the early centuries of Christian calendar, system, arts, architecture, and others as well
Indian cultural-complex from Indian sub- as the famous literature of Mahabharata and
continent spread to the Indonesian Ramayana epics. These epics are the
archipelago, making end of pre-historical teleological media of Hinduism philosophy,
period and later began the “historical period” morality, and ethics teachings.
or the Hindu era of Indonesian history, which For the latter aspects, the epics took the
is marked by the establishment of Hindu local cultural approach like wayang (shadow
kingdoms. As a cultural-complex, Indian play) theater form in order to be conveyed to
influence in Indonesia includes various the natives, since writing is still limited only to
cultural aspects such as Sanskrit language, the noble families and elite society. The
Pallava writing system, Hinduism and localization process includes the musical
Buddhism teachings and philosophy, arrangements, symbolical philosophy, and the

Moh Isa Pramana Koesoemadinata, M.Sn. is a Student of Doctoral Program at the Faculty of Visual Arts and Design ITB (Bandung
Institute of Technology), Jalan Ganesha No.10, Tamansari, Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. Prof. Dr. Setiawan Sabana and Dr. Nuning
Damayanti Adisasmito are Lecturers at the Faculty of Visual Arts and Design ITB. Corresponding author is: [email protected]

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M.I. PRAMANA KOESOEMADINATA, S. SABANA & N. DAMAYANTI ADISASMITO,
Socio-Historical and Cultural Influences on Visual Differentiation of Wayang Kulit

depicting illustration of the characters. uniqueness in interpreting certain character.

Wayang theater itself was Indonesian origin, Until now, the process still takes place and
predates the Hindu period much longer, well never ceased in order to serve certain
flourished in Java and Bali. purposes.
Wayang kulit puppets are two dimensional Wayang kulit was patronized by the old
figures carved out from buffalo’s hide Javanese kings and nobility, and the art
(wayang refers to shadow, and kulit means developed within the wall of courthouses.
leather, skin, or hide); and hold by gripping These courthouses then become the cultural
rods made form buffalo’s horn. Wayang kulit centers of the Javanese traditional arts,
is displayed as shadows on a screen by a including wayang kulit. However, wayang
puppeteer (dalang), who narrates the stories kulit has also developed outside the
accompanied by singing and by the Javanese courthouses, as folk’s art. The centers of
percussion music gamelan during the show. wayang kulit art are the courthouses in
Although originally the puppets are to be Surakarta and Yogyakarta in Central Java,
viewed as shadows at the shows, they are and the courthouses in Cirebon in West Java.
also painted in full colors. It is from these centers that the wayang kulit
The localization as part of acculturation art has diversified into distinctive styles.
process of the epics never stops then. History That’s why in 2003, wayang was been
writes that kingdoms rose and fell, Hinduism recognized by the UNESCO (United Nations
declined and Islam emerged as new for Education, Scientific, and Cultural
dominant power in the region. Wayang Organization) as “Masterpiece of Oral and
theater was still being nurtured, developed, Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity”.
and patronized by the ruling power. And the example we took in this paper
Adaptation and actualization still take place, here is the visualization of Priest Drona
in order to be used to spread Islamic puppet of Cirebon in West Java. The Cirebon
preaching then. style of wayang kulit puppet is being chosen
What we know about the wayang kulit as the discussion matter because of several
puppet’s look now was begun from Islamic considerations. Judging by its visual
period in Java. The visual form of wayang appearance, Cirebon style belong to the early
kulit puppet experienced shifting, alterations, phase of Islamic period, the visual transition
and transformations in accordance with the between pre-Islamic wayang puppet (in
successions of the ruling power in Java, since assumption mimic to Balinese puppet) and
the fall of Majapahit empire, the foundation the latest and most refined Surakarta style in
of early Islamic states in Java such as Demak Central Java. With this archaic looks, Cirebon
and Cirebon sultanates in the last quarter of puppet tends to inspire other style of puppet,
15�� century, then Pajang, the arrival of even Surakarta style nowadays (Angst,
European traders and conquests, the rise of 2007:224; and Pramana Koesoemadinata,
Mataram Islamic sultanates, the Dutch 2007a and 2007b:187). Ironically, the reality
colonialism, and the divide of Yogyakarta and is the Cirebon style of wayang kulit puppet
Surakarta in Central Java in mid 18�� century, hasn’t been researched that much, and still
which was Dutch colonial intervention. considered as “terra incognita” along other
As the result, the Javanese wayang kulit Cirebon traditional arts in academic map
puppet style has proliferated into several (Cohen, 1997:35).
visual local styles such as Eastern Java style;
Surakarta, Yogyakarta, Banyumas, and Kedu THE CHARACTER OF PRIEST DRONA
in Cental Java; and Cirebon and Betawi style IN JAVANESE SHADOW PUPPET
in Western area of Java. Although in basic Drona is a controversial and complex
level they all share and retain the same visual character in the Mahabharata epic. He has a
system, but each local style has its own significant role as guru (teacher) to both

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International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(1) October 2013

warring Pandawas and Kurawas

warriors (Pendit, 1970:63-68 and
344-347; and Subramaniam,
2006:41-65). But in Javanese wayang
versions, he was depicted as an
ambiguous and mischievous yet
humorous, with crippled physics
(Anderson, 2000:34).
In Javanese shadow puppetry,
there are controversies regarding
Drona’s role in the epic. Some people
considered that Drona was actually a
wise and virtuous sage that trapped
into dilemma of choosing sides
between his righteous disciples, the
Pandawas, and other disciples, the
Kurawas, who’s fighting each other
to win the throne of Hastinapura
kingdom. Others considered that
Drona is just a provocative culprit, a
devious advisor, creating problems
to gain his personal interests only.
The latter is generally well accepted
in the Cirebon puppetry (Rosidi,
1991:xxvii).
Drona was displayed with unique
visual attributes such as
distinguished “biological” anatomy,
clothing, and accessories that made
him instantly recognizable in
Figure 1:
comparisons to other puppets, even
The Cirebon style of Priest Drona wayang puppet. In most
other wayang styles. The visual Javanese puppetry, Drona was depicted as an ambiguous and
attributes strongly tied to how mischievous yet humorous sage with crippled physics.
Drona’s imagery and being described
in Cirebon puppetry: devious,
mischievous, cynical, and arrogant. The
description is also has everything to do with various foreign and other domestic cultures
socio-historical factors in Cirebon cultural are inevitable. Since its foundation in the last
area, in which this paper shall discuss quarter of 15�� century, Cirebon had been an
furthermore. international trading center and also
Because of those considerations mentioned considered as a kind of melting pot of various
above, the characters of Drona from Cirebon kind of artistic, cultural, and religious activity.
wayang kulit puppet become the main studied Intensive and continuous contacts have taken
object and thoroughly discussed here. place with the Indians, Chinese, Arabs,
On the Cirebon: Socio-Historical, Cultural Persians, Malays, and Europeans along with
Aspects, and Wayang Kulit Theatre. Cirebon their cultures and their religions such as
is part of the Java island and also part of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and also Western
Javanese culture. But the coastal geographic ideas. These have resulted into a certain kind
location enabled easy access to the outside of overlapping cultural blend, which is in
world, so such intensive contacts with both accordance with the original name of Cirebon:

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M.I. PRAMANA KOESOEMADINATA, S. SABANA & N. DAMAYANTI ADISASMITO,
Socio-Historical and Cultural Influences on Visual Differentiation of Wayang Kulit

Caruban (Sunardjo, 1983). Accordingly, the people, instead by the nobility, and become
resulting culture development is quite the primary representation of the whole
different in comparison to the inland parts of Cirebon puppet style. But, society is vulnerable
Java such as Yogyakarta and Surakarta. to changes. History recorded countless
Basically, Cirebon culture is also Javanese changes occurred within the same society
culture, which consist traditional arts like inside same geographical area. Rural folks
wayang play, mask dance, and many others. tend to more adaptive to changes, especially
But those are not identical to the Mataram when it relates to pragmatism, due to survival
sultanate cultural base that is now inherited need on daily basis. These changes have
by Central Java, which has been claimed as the certain effects on their art’s manifestations,
“true” Javanese. Cirebon has its own identity, shadow puppet for instance.
its own kingdom, its own courthouses, and its The influence of socio-historical change
own culture which is being constructed by its phenomenon gave effect on the visual aspect of
plurality through their own history (Budiono, the wayang puppet, whether it’s chiseled-based
1986; and Kusnandar, 2012). or painted-based features and attributes.
Once in Cirebon, wayang kulit arts were Especially in the modern era, subsequent to the
patronized by the feudal society. The Dutch’s East Indies colonial era, empowered
developments take place within the walls of Western culture hegemony, as a result of the
the courthouses. Under the leadership of colonial ordinance to the social life of Cirebon
Sunan Gunung Jati (1482-1528), Cirebon locals. The influence enhanced to the next
reached its zenith, brought the golden age of puppet visualization, at the era of independence
Cirebon (Hardjasaputra, 2011:55-85). Sunan (1940s), or the Republic of Indonesia (1950s),
Gunung Jati was also known as an Islamic under New Order regime (1966-1998) to be
preacher, one of the Wali Sanga (Nine precise. The people’s atmosphere tends to be
Apostles) in Java island. So, there are Islamic denser in the next development of the
values embedded on the products of Cirebon visualization of wayang kulit.
arts, as part of Islamic preaching, due to the However, this also supported by the
cooperation with other awliyas (saints), character of coastal society, which tends to be
especially Sunan Kalijaga of Central Java who expressive, dynamic, egalitarian in nature,
was excel in traditional arts. enhanced by proletarian issues later, and
After that, Cirebon fall into decadence, relatively open minded to external influence.
being a vassal of Mataram sultanate of Central Relations between Wayang Kulit Theatre,
Java (1625), influenced heavily by Mataram’s Islam, and Javanese Society. Cirebon society
cultural values, until the Dutch colonial took consists of local ethnics (Javanese and
away their sovereignty, made them as sub- Sundanese) who are dominant, and foreign
ordinate in 1703 (Lim & Gocher, 1990:20-23; ethnics (Chinese and Arabs), but the culture
and Hardjasaputra, 2011:87-129). As the itself is Javanese. As a coastal area and harbor
result being Dutch colonial sub-ordinate, the city, Cirebon is exposed to foreign influences
feudal lost their power, autonomy, and intensively. Since its foundation in 15��
authority left to control or influence the century, Cirebon has been visited by
society, and the culture of the entire region, merchants from the region and beyond. Many
including the artistic activity of the people, visitors like Arabs and Chinese travelers stay
leaving the people freely expressing within and settle down. Around the mid 19�� century,
the parameter of tradition, which also tends to the Far Easterners citizens gain its peak in
change. population in Cirebon, so the Dutch colonial
Therefore, the folk’s puppetry has put them to their own settlements (Van den
developed outside, beyond the courthouses Berg, 2010:95-110).
patronage and guidance. The puppet’s The Arab travelers mostly Muslims,
visualization guides or rules become much originated from Hadramaut of Arabian
loosened. They are developed by the common peninsula, are considered by most of the local

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International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(1) October 2013

inhabitants as descendants of Prophet The “original” purpose of the present

Muhammad SAW (Salallahu ‘Alaihi Wassalam Cirebon wayang shadow puppet play is still
or peace be upon him). Many of them are intact: an Islamic preaching media, the
Islamic scholars, entitled habib or sharif with entrustment legacy from the Wali Sanga (Nine
puritan tendencies. But some of the Arabs just Islamic Saints in Java), by looking most of the
pretend to be one in order to cheat the locals, play’s themes. These Islamic elements are
which inspired the creation of Fez of Drona sometimes also shown within the visual aspect
puppet type. of the puppets, such as ornamental details and
Many of Arabic ulemas, puritans, showed others. This tendency of practicing Islam
their disagreement on local arts and traditions mentioned above then shaped the socio-
that considered as shirk (belief in more than cultural aspect of Javanese society
one God or polytheism), because of the “pre- (Djajasoebrata, 1999).
Islamic” continuity by appearance. These According to Clifford Geertz (1989), the
perceptions of those puritans often offend the Javanese society can be classified into three-
local art practitioners. They believed that chotomies of Santri (strict adhrehent of Islam),
every local and traditional form of arts in Priyayi (one belonging to upper classes in
Cirebon is inheritance from the semi- Javanese society), and Abangan (one who does
legendary of Wali Sanga or Nine Apostles not adhere strictly to the precepts of one’s
(Awliyas or Islamic saints), as the part of nominal religion) categories. There’s a
Islamic preaching media. potential friction between Santri and Abangan
It is not a strange fact that the Cirebonese in Javanese society. Santri whose represent
shadow puppet play has been claimed by the devout Muslims and puritan, small, and middle
local art performers has Islamic in nature. class; Abangan whose represent majority,
Historically, Cirebon was the second Islamic peasants, rural, and low class. Santris tend to
kingdom in Java Island, which also served as be “Arabish” and tend to disagree upon the
the primary base of the Islamic mission in the local traditions; and on the contrast, the
west part of Java. All native arts and cultural Abangans keep distance to whole Islamic
products – which contained certain teachings rituals (even they were Muslims too) and still
of the previous religions and beliefs – were practice their animistic rituals (Ricklefs,
being adopted and used as Islamic preaching 2006:35-55).
media, including the shadow puppet play. The most interesting is the scene when
The kind of Islamic teachings that have Drona was confronted by Panakawan (clown-
been foretold through the shadow puppet play servant) characters, and suffers defeat and
is Islamic mysticism or sufism – which is humiliation. Neither kings nor nobility these
embraced by Sunan Kalijaga of Central Java, Panakawan were, just some lowly and humble
who is considered as a semi-legendary comical servants of the nobility characters
“patron saint” of Javanese traditional arts, who dwells in poverty. They represent
including wayang. Along with the three other peasants, villagers, low-class subjects, and
traditional performing arts, the wayang rural folks. But the Panakawan dared to be so
shadow puppet play has a symbolic part disrespectful to most honored guru of the
which represents certain level of mystical heroes and kings of wayang world.
hierarchy of Islam. Syncretism between The Panakawan clown-servants are not
Islamic teaching and the previous religions originated in India like Drona or the
such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and also local protagonists Pandawa, the antagonists
animistic beliefs occurred here in Cirebon. Kurawa, and most characters in the wayang
Syncretism was possible because of the nature kulit which are based on Mahabharata epic,
of the Islamic kind of teaching, sufism, which but they were created in Java, by Javanese
holds the harmony among plural society ancestors. Many believed that the existence of
dearly and perceive the equal essence within Panakawan even predates the arrival of
all religions. Hinduism in Indonesia archipelago.

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M.I. PRAMANA KOESOEMADINATA, S. SABANA & N. DAMAYANTI ADISASMITO,
Socio-Historical and Cultural Influences on Visual Differentiation of Wayang Kulit

Although having funny and ugly artifacts. It is a qualitative research, using the
appearances and described humorous, using socio-historical and cultural perspectives as
daily and commoners words for dialogues approaches and settings. This kind of research
instead court-style, the Panakawans always is considered suitable for researches related
depicted stood in righteousness, even in to art and cultural texts. It also has to do with
comparisons with the protagonist heroes or the interpretations of collected data.
gods themselves. They constantly remind the The paper shall analyze the visual aspects
protagonist heroes when they were misguided of several elected Drona puppet artifacts as
or being cheated by Drona. Because of their samples, which belong to courthouses,
humorous and cheerful nature, the puppeteers, craftsmen, and collectors. Those
Panakawans are often being the main reason artifact samples are being compared to each
why the audiences watch the play. They are others, in order to study the visual
lovable by the people and the performers too. differentiations among them. Only two
It seems that not by coincidence if Drona samples will be presented here, due the
can be assumed as the symbol of Santri; and limitation of space availability, and by
on the other hand, the Panakawan as the considerations that these two represent the
symbol of Abangan in Javanese society context. latest differentiation of Drona puppets,
Also, the puppeteers tend to affiliate possess highly symbolic meanings and has
themselves with the Abangans. interesting matter to be discussed.
Those Drona puppet’s artifacts are: (1) Fez
SIGNIFICANCE AND METHOD Drona type, painted in KORPRI, Korps Pegawai
OF THE RESEARCH Republik Indonesia or Civil Servant Corps of
The significance of this research is to reveal the Republic of Indonesia’s uniform, collection
that the massive variety of Drona puppets of of the female puppeteer Mimi Tarul of
Cirebon wayang kulit, which are the result of Pagempuan, Cirebon; and (2) Naked Drona
visual differentiation, showing us there are type, collection of puppeteer Mansyur of
also multi-interpretation upon the character. Gegesik, Cirebon.
Particular visualization of attributes which The visual aspect of wayang kulit puppets
include anatomy, clothing, and accessories of a consists of several elements, features, or
wayang puppet has also particular meaning attributes such as “biological” anatomy,
conveyed there. Different variations tend to clothing, and accessories. Neither clothing nor
mean differently. accessories “worn” by Drona puppet here are
The other is to enrich and to complete the real. They are just imagery, built on particular
knowledge and our understanding about and specific combination of chisel and paint
Javanese wayang kulit arts. Most of known elements that built a wayang puppet in total.
literatures are still focusing on Central Java But the anatomy, clothing, and accessories of a
style as the primary representative of wayang puppet are vital attributes, as the
Javanese wayang kulit. In the contemporary signs of characterization, its role, and status.
discourse of arts and culture, minor details or By looking the anatomy, we can classify
“small matters” are too fascinating to be what kind of character is the wayang puppet, is
avoided. And it’s also significant to confirm it gentle or subtle character, strong, or harsh
that most of art works and crafts made, kind. Then it influences the movement and the
including wayang kulit arts, contain vocal pitch which the puppeteer will use in
reflections of some thought and socio-cultural show. By looking the clothing and accessories,
understanding which are influenced by the we can recognize whether the character is a
changes of time or the course of history. god, priest, king, warrior, or a servant. The
This paper is based on a dissertation visual aspects or the attributes being analyzed
research, and only a few parts of it will be here are including clothing or costume, and
presented here. The object studied here is the accessories of the puppet, which are
visual aspect or attributes of wayang kulit considered, possess certain significant meaning.

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International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(1) October 2013

The anatomical parts will not

be discussed here.
Several Drona puppets
possess different type of
clothes and accessories, in
which we classify into
several types. However,
these features were not
influencing his movement
and voice in show or for
theatrical purposes, but
rather symbolize some
thought that possibly a
reflections of how the society,
the wayang spectators see
and perceive the character
nowadays. One puppet type
which shares the same
attributes like same type of
anatomy, clothing, and
accessories also can be
differentiated more by
differentiating the paint
elements. At this point, the Figure 2:
A Diagram Shows the Stages of Research Methods
variation of every puppet of
Drona can be made
unlimited.
The methods here consist of several steps: identification, verification, classification, and
data collecting, data processing, data categorization. Each step narrows and reduces
presenting, and data analyzing. The data all of the available data into sorted, selected,
collecting methods produce two kinds of data: and focused artifact data. The data presenting
the primary data and the secondary data. The methods are conducted in order to simplify
primary data is obtained by three kinds of the information gathered, by presenting them
methods: first, data documentation by taking in various ways and forms, depend to what
pictures of the related artifacts, recording and purpose they will serve: tabulation, drawings,
taking notes; second, interviews with related graphics, schemes, etc.
sources such as the craftsmen, the puppeteers, There are some analyzing methods
and other informants with Cirebon related; and performed in this research, but due to the
third, direct observations of the puppet limitation of the discussion matter, only one
productions by craftsmen, and the method will be mentioned here. The “Art Critic”
performances of the puppets during the shows. methods, which have been modified to serve
The secondary data is obtained by some the main purpose of the analysis, due the
literary studies, and reproductions of related appropriation for Javanese puppetry
pictures and photographs (see figure 2). convention and Cirebon culture context. The
The data processing methods are methods begin with descriptions, formal
conducted on the collected data from the analysis, interpretation, and judgments
previous stage. The goal is to select artifacts (Feldman, 1967:468-480).
which are considered representative samples. By using and modifying Art Critic methods,
The steps begin with the inventory, this paper will describe which ones are the

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M.I. PRAMANA KOESOEMADINATA, S. SABANA & N. DAMAYANTI ADISASMITO,
Socio-Historical and Cultural Influences on Visual Differentiation of Wayang Kulit

differentiated visual attributes, and explain judging by the accessories worn – is the
how the leather puppet’s visualization can “Ancient Drona” type that much resembles its
signifies or addresses certain meanings that counterpart in Central and Eastern Java. This
have correlation with the socio-historical and type does still exist in limited numbers of
socio-cultural factors surrounding the artists, hands in Cirebon. The courthouses of
performers, craftsmen, and spectators of the Kasepuhan (oldest) and Kanoman (newest) of
Cirebon wayang kulit theatre. The result will Cirebon still have them in their sacred
be emerged as the outcome of the data collections. The emergence of this puppet type
analyzing step, discussed in the conclusions. depends on the foundation of each courthouse,
Arnold Hauser’s Sociology of Art theory because usually sacred collection of a
being used here as reference, because the courthouse was believed predates the
nature of wayang kulit as a form of Javanese courthouse itself, made directly since the Wali
traditional art or ethnic arts. Art reflects Sanga or Nine Apostles era (Guritno &
society, more or less, so said Arnold Hauser in Pandam, 1989; and KPSB, 2003).
his theory, the Sociology of Arts (Hauser, The royal courthouse of Kasepuhan was the
1982:90). This is definitely true concerning oldest, built on 1678, so the assumption is
traditional arts and folk-arts, unlike Modern “Ancient Drona” puppet type appeared then, or
Arts, which are truly direct reflection of their perhaps older. A very few puppeteers and
surrounding society. But it’s also related to collectors also have it too. But in majority, this
certain generations in particular time. type is considered rare in Cirebon, even
The tendencies of traditional arts are nowadays, this puppet type never being used
collective, almost without individual again in the play.
expressions, following rigidly to certain As a priest in the wayang world, Drona is
pattern or guidance that being inherited by one of very few that doesn’t wear turban.
the predecessors, as well as sacred in nature. Turban is a common accessory worn by priests
The traditional art, or ethnic arts, is the in wayang kulit, besides praying beads and
reflection of the society’s ideology. In reality, shawl. There were no specific meanings, but as
there’s no clarification about who is precisely status identification only. Drona also
responsible for creating, no records only described having crippled left arm, so this is
gossips and rumors, yet had to be considered. being manifested by creating only one arm
So, art as the product of the society will be (rear arm) that has articulation. The front arm
acceptable here. are made one with the body, without any
Originally, some folk-art imitated feudal art, articulation at all, displays holding prayers
wayang kulit for example, but due to their beads, the usual accessory and sign of
effort to do so, aesthetic values tend to shifted. priesthood. This attributes made Drona as the
This was because of the lack of aesthetical unique puppet in wayang world (Purjadi,
understanding, lack of education, misguiding, 2007).
and so on. The differentiation of aesthetic But due to the repertoires in the shadow
values took place here. “Folk-art takes great play theater which told the public about the
examples of high arts, sings them to pieces, mischievousness of Drona, all of those features
breaks them up, or simplifies them” (Hauser, or attributes bring negative connotations of
1982:563). Arts became more “graphic” and this character. “Strange” or “alien”,
explicit, loose their subtleness yet easily “disfigured”, “cunning”, “mischievous” are the
understood by majority. Feudal arts became connotative words fit enough to describe
“democratized”. impressions of wayang spectators when they
see Drona.
DISCUSSIONS Later, the next visual differentiation as the
Artifacts Analyze and Interpretations. development of wayang puppet took place
The earliest type of Drona puppet known – within the people’s hand, since the

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International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(1) October 2013

Figure 3:
The original Drona puppet or “Ancient Drona” type (left), which is considered rare now in Cirebon. The “Fez Drona”
puppet type (middle) which now replacing “Ancient Drona” as the main representative of Drona puppet in Cirebon
style of wayang kulit. Notice: the fez being added on the head, compared with the real fez (right).

courthouses act as museums, only to retain puppeteers, believed that every local and
arts, traditions, and culture as the way they traditional form of arts in Cirebon is
are. And then, in the following events, those inheritance from the semi-legendary Wali
bad connotations of Drona being enhanced Sanga (Nine Apostles) and Awliyas (Islamic
and sharpened further more. saints), as the part of Islamic preaching media,
Around first quarter of 20�� century, the especially Wayang Kulit theatre (Simuh, 1995).
new type of Drona puppet was being created. At that time, most of male Middle Easterners
There is a new attribute being added, a head worn red fez as hat, and this accessory being a
accessory, a red fez-like one. This type what representative, applied into the newly created
we called “Fez Drona”, that actually inspired Drona puppet as a head accessory. Some
by a local “historical” event took place in practitioners give this “red fez” a symbolical
northern area of Cirebon. Either puppeteer meaning as the courage to seek troubles to
Maruna or puppeteer Arma (interview with others (Damayanti Adisasmito et al.,
them, 2/10/2012 and 9/10/2012), both were 2007:109-110 and 135-136).
famous wayang performers of Northern Not only to immortalize the hatred of the
Cirebon, one of them responsible for Fez local puppeteer against the Arabian loan shark,
Drona type creation and supposedly inspired but furthermore, the Fez Drona puppet type
by that event (see figure 3). was created as a tribute and constant
There was an Arab reside in Northern area reminder of the danger of foreign “priests”
of Cirebon, his profession was a loan shark. He who uses his “religious authority” to suppress
lent money with high interest to the locals to the low-class society, the rural people, and the
gain profit. Sometimes, he acted as an Ulama local inhabitants for their personal gain. Since
(Muslim cleric) and showed his disagreement then, this Fez type was commonly used in
on local arts and traditions that considered as performance until now, replacing the “Ancient
shirk (belief in more than one God or Drona” puppet type as the main or standard
polytheism). Drona puppet. In fact, the Fez type became the
Of course, this ill-behaved Arab spread main representative of Cirebon style of Drona.
hatred among the local art practitioners The Fez type differentiated again. This time,
(Cohen, 1997:107-110 and 224-252). This is during the regime of New Order (1966-1998)
because the local art practitioners, including under the second President of Indonesia,

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M.I. PRAMANA KOESOEMADINATA, S. SABANA & N. DAMAYANTI ADISASMITO,
Socio-Historical and Cultural Influences on Visual Differentiation of Wayang Kulit

Figure 4:
The “Fez-Gembolan Drona” type belonged to female puppeteer Mimi Tarul of Pagempuan (middle). Notice: the
additional Batik pattern painted on cloth which imitate KORPRI uniform (left), and the “Kain Gembolan” cloth worn
that also worn by Ponggawa (bold warrior) puppet type (right).

Soeharto, the visual differentiation took place. Drona’s trousers. Clothes embedded with
This is the birth of Fez-Gembolan Drona Parang batik type usually worn by Javanese
puppet type. The visual elements being added nobles. The connotation of nobilities is
now is “kain gembolan” (piece of cloth for feudalism and arrogance. This collection
carrying something) and Keris accessory. belongs to the late female puppeteer Mimi
Usually “kain gembolan” cloth used by Tarul of Pagempuan, Cirebon.
Ponggawa (court official)-type of wayang Drona’s visual attributes were made being
puppet, which represents bold warrior over complete and so luxurious, yet symbolical
character, a fighter type, or military like. This actually by combining all elements that signify
does make sense, referring to the story that power, wealth, over religious order (prayers
told us that Drona was the teacher specialized beads), foreign attributes (fez), civil servant
in the arts of war (see figure 4). In Javanese (KORPRI batik pattern), feudalistic ornament
tradition, Keris is brought by Javanese officials (Keris and Parang batik pattern), military
as accessory to attend ceremonies or other control (gembolan cloth), and so on. This
formal occasions in courthouse, along with refers to satirical intention, criticizing the
fez-like “kuluk” as head accessory. domination of military party in Indonesian
Within this Fez-Gembolan type, there is an government, corrupt, nepotism and such
individual puppet which add paint element, a feudalistic tendencies, in accordance with the
particular batik pattern on the clothing which reality in the time of New Order regime (1966-
in reality belong to civil servant or KORPRI 1998). Drona now portrayed as a symbol of
(Korps Pegawai Negeri Republik Indonesia or corrupt political power, military, feudalism,
Civil Servant Corps of the Republic of foreign, and religion as well, all of them fused
Indonesia). As a sign, this KORPRI batik together.
pattern, which reminds Indonesians of civil The last sample is Naked Drona puppet
servants, gives connotation of corruption, type. The name does speak for itself.
collution, and nepotism tendencies. Another Puppeteer Basari of Northern Cirebon was the
addition is the Parang batik pattern on the first one known to display this type of puppet

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International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(1) October 2013

on performance around 1970’s. The

puppet was used in certain scenes,
like when Drona’s plot failed and he
was going to flee, suddenly the
Panakawans (servants of royalty in
wayang world) caught him, and
deliberately stripped his entire
clothes. All of the attributes that
signify his highly status are being
stripped off leaving him in loincloth
only and Drona was just being
helpless crying for mercy. Of course,
this scene only exists in play made
by the puppeteer himself, not
referring to the original canon of
Mahabharata (see figure 5).
The purpose of the scene is to
ensure the satisfaction of the
spectators, that the culprit of the
story – Drona – has been punished
for his mischievous deeds. The
Drona role which is sinister and
despicable has been successfully
played by the puppeteer to provoke
anger of the spectators. And the
specific puppet, the Naked Drona Figure 5:
The “Naked Drona” puppet type, belongs to Puppeteer Mansyur
was created to serve that purpose. of Gegesik, Northern Cirebon.
This puppet type embodies the
further hatred towards the
character, the compensation
through humiliation upon Drona. The hatred as well as fortune. They will be needed and
exploded, from a mere satire drastically hired again to perform the play as long as the
shifted becomes a humiliating expression, a spectators feel entertained and satisfied.
vulgar one, as were there no more manners The contemporary social and political
left dealing with this kind of despicable issues – local or national – give much
character. inspiration to the world of puppetry, the play
Technology and Media Influences on and including puppet visualizations as well.
Wayang Kulit Arts. Pragmatism plays Satirical tendencies manifested within the
significant role here, due to the modern puppet visualizations, responding political
lifestyle that prioritize money before else, issues that has been broadcasted by modern
even sacred traditions, and traditional arts media such as television or radio. These “hot”
performers and craftsmen cannot deny or social and political issues are preferred
avoid it. Economy becomes crucial matter now, themes by the public, so the puppeteers create
more than spiritual aspects. Despite its origin a play using the existed wayang character that
which was sacred, traditional performance art satirically symbolized those. And in addition,
nowadays is about entertaining society, during they also told craftsmen to create special
social events. They perform within the puppets to accommodate the play (Holt, 2000).
expectation of the spectators, so they feel The development of information media and
pleased, and the performers earn reputation technology, and their massive distribution

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M.I. PRAMANA KOESOEMADINATA, S. SABANA & N. DAMAYANTI ADISASMITO,
Socio-Historical and Cultural Influences on Visual Differentiation of Wayang Kulit

through sub-urban and rural areas, make specific scene; (2) Symbolism or implicit
information easily accessible by Cirebon messages, that some visual attributes of the
wayang kulit performers that mostly reside in puppet are signs which readily convey certain
rural areas. However, this was different back meanings beneath them to the spectators, or
then, when the wayang performers knew certain messages were waited to be conveyed
nothing about national issues, and their to the spectators through the mediation of
knowledge limited by their local resident only, certain visual attributes as signs; and (3)
due to the lack of education also. Aesthetical expressions as well as creative
Democracy atmosphere in Indonesia explorations within the perimeters of tradition,
nowadays, successfully creating which are possibly based on the performers
egalitarianism in social attitude, freedom of needs to demonstrate their craftsmen’s skill
expressions, including “individualism”, being capabilities.
free to express any thoughts, feelings, These purposes also heavily influenced by
including hatred towards anyone. All people extra-aesthetical aspects, which surrounds the
now feels being equal to their predecessors wayang kulit performers and craftsmen, like
and to upper class elites. social and cultural aspects that are definitely
The other things that escalate the visual vulnerable to the changes of time, history
differentiation of wayang kulit puppets are the aspect as it. Especially the symbolism or
availability of new tools and media which implicit messages purposes in which this
bring more alternatives. The accessibility of paper discusses more,¹ that were some kind of
modern paint, such as acrylic paint, drawing- responses due the social issues happening at
pen, become primary option for wayang kulit that time. Based on these premises, we would
craftsmen to choose tools and media. The say that wayang kulit’s theater is far more
craftsmen back then used traditional tools than just traditional art and entertainment,
such as brush made from cat hair or goat hair, but rather as symbolism, metaphors of
with natural dye made from bone powder, Javanese socio-historical reality, which has
certain herbs, and finished it with fish oil took place in Cirebon in this case.
coating (interview with wayang kulit he visual differentiation as the
craftsmen, 17/10/2012). development of wayang kulit of Cirebon
Due the difficulty of the process, and the appears more developed in the hand of folk
lost of the knowledge, now they (craftsmen) people, and progressively by Northern
just finish it with varnish, which easily Cirebon puppeteers and craftsmen. The
obtained in hardware and paint store, and majority of society tends to more innovative
other from stationary stores (Hasyim, and adaptable due to the socio-cultural
2011:91-120). Also the rareness of buffalo’s changes. Each puppeteers and craftsmen
horn made for gripping rods, become the issue nowadays can express their individuality
here. There’s almost no craftsmen left in without any restriction besides the traditional
Cirebon area is able to make the proper conventions as perimeter, which has already
gripping rods from horn; therefore, the horn relatively shifted.
being replaced by other material like rattan or
¹Acknowledgement: The first author (Moh Isa Pramana
fiberglass. Koesoemadinata) would like to thanks so much to Dr. Pribadi
Widodo, as a Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Visual Arts &
Design ITB (Bandung Institute of Technology) and as Co-
CONCLUSION Promotor II in the Doctoral Dissertation, for his guidance and
The visual differentiation occurred as the supervision. And then, we gratefully also acknowledge to
result of new type of wayang puppet creation, Haryadi Suadi, Rafan S. Hasyim, and Endo Suwanda for
providing the data and information. We gratefully also
Drona puppets for instance. The specific types acknowledge to Ki Purjadi, Ki Abihudaya, Eman Suherman,
of puppets are made in order to serve several Emong Sukirman, Ki Eman Rukman, Ato Suhatno, Ki Nurrahsa,
purposes, such as: (1) Practical purposes, to Ki Mulki, Mimi Ami Banowati, Elang Panji, Rastika, Sawiyah, Ki
Mansyur, Ki Wigani, Ki Kurnadi, Ki Arja, Ki Kardama, Rama
serve theatrical needs like specific puppet for Sultan IX of Keraton Kacirebonan, and Sultan Sepuh XIV of
Keraton Kasepuhan for their assistances and cooperations.

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 TAWARIKH:
International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(1) October 2013

Interview with puppeteer Arma, famous wayang

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M.I. PRAMANA KOESOEMADINATA, S. SABANA & N. DAMAYANTI ADISASMITO,
Socio-Historical and Cultural Influences on Visual Differentiation of Wayang Kulit

The Wayang Kulit of Cirebon

(Source: www.google.com, 17/9/2012)

The visual differentiation as the development of wayang kulit of Cirebon appears more developed in the hand of folk
people, and progressively by Northern Cirebon puppeteers and craftsmen. The majority of society tends to more
innovative and adaptable due to the socio-cultural changes. Each puppeteers and craftsmen nowadays can express their
individuality without any restriction besides the traditional conventions as perimeter, which has already relatively
shifted.

56