e-book

An Engineer’s Guide to
Industrial Robot Designs
A compendium of technical documentation on robotic system designs

ti.com/robotics Q2 | 2020
Table of Contents/Overview

1. Introduction 3. Robot arm and driving system (manipulator)

1.1 An introduction to an industrial robot system. . . . . . . 3 3.1.1 How to protect battery power management
systems from thermal damage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2. Robot system controller 3.1.2 Protecting your battery isn’t as hard as
2.1 Control panel you think. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.1.1 Using Sitara™ processors for Industry 3.1.3 Position feedback-related reference designs
4.0 servo drives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 for robotic systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2 Servo drives for robotic systems 4. Sensing and vision technologies
2.2.1 The impact of an isolated gate driver. . . . . . . 13 4.1 TI mmWave radar sensors in robotics
2.2.2 Understanding peak source and applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
sink current parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4.2 Intelligence at the edge powers autonomous
2.2.3 Low-side gate drivers with UVLO versus factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
BJT totem poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 4.3 Use ultrasonic sensing for graceful robots. . . . . . . . 55
2.2.4 An external gate-resistor design guide for 4.4 How sensor data is powering AI in robotics. . . . . . . 57
gate drivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.5 Bringing machine learning to embedded
2.2.5 High-side motor current monitoring for systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
overcurrent protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.6 Robots get wheels to address new
2.2.6 Five benefits of enhanced PWM rejection for challenges and functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
in-line motor control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 4.7 Vision and sensing-technology reference
2.2.7 How to protect control systems from thermal designs for robotic systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
damage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.8 How high precision in motor-drive control
5. Technologies for robotic tools (end effector)
enables industrial advances. . . . . . . . . . . . 29 5.1 Achieving accuracy in bin picking with
TI DLP® technology-powered structured
2.2.9 Getting the most out of your power stage
light systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
at the full temperature range. . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.10 Anything but discrete: how to simplify a 48-V 6. Industrial communications for robotics
to 60-VDC-fed three-phase inverter design. . . 35 6.1 Selecting the right industrial communications
2.2.11 Selecting amplifiers for shunt-based current standard for sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
sensing in three-phase motor drives. . . . . . . 38 6.2 Enabling robots to achieve new levels of factory
2.3.1 Servo drive-related reference designs for automation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
robotic systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 6.3 Is your factory smarter than a fifth grader?. . . . . . . . 76
6.4 Industrial communications-related reference
designs for robotic systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

An Engineer’s Guide to Industrial Robot Designs 2 2Q 2020 I Texas Instruments

Chapter 1: Introduction

Analog and embedded technologies and reference designs 1.1 An introduction to an industrial robot system
from Texas Instruments (TI) enable engineers to develop
Before describing the different technologies that go into a
intelligent, autonomous and collaborative robots. This
typical robotic system, let’s discuss the different parts of a
e-book is intended to be a one-stop shop for robotics-
robot system, as shown in Figure 1. As you can see, the
related content.
system is split into the different building blocks: the controller
Our technologies let you build numerous types of industrial system, manipulator, teaching pendant, vision and sensors,
robots with precise motor control, differentiated sensing and end effector (robot tools).
technologies and processing at the edge, all with robust
real-time communication. The primary types of robots
discussed in this e-book are collaborative robots (cobots)
and factory robots:
• Cobots work side by side with humans to improve work
quality. A cobot can sense and stop movement, helping
create a safer working environment.
• Factory robots perform automated programmable
movements in manufacturing. In order to create a safer
working environment, mechanical or sensor technologies
can help keep robots from interfering with human activity.
There are six types of industrial robots:
• Vertically articulated.
• Cartesian.
• Cylindrical.
• Polar.
• Selective compliance assembly robot arm (SCARA).
Figure 1. A robotic system featuring a cobot.
• Delta.
All of these robot types offer a different axis configuration of The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
the manipulator and include electronic content that enables 8373:2012 standard describes each of the building blocks
the robot to manage its tasks. Task management is driven shown in Figure 1 and defines terms used in relation to
by advances in software, sensors and electronics, and has robots and robotic devices operating in both industrial and
enabled the market for industrial robots to evolve over the nonindustrial environments as:
last 50 years. • The controller system. The ISO 8373 standard states,
This e-book is a compilation of technical articles, white “A set of logic control and power functions which allows
papers and application notes featuring TI’s technologies monitoring and control of the mechanical structure of
suited for these industrial robot system building blocks: the robot and communication with the environment
[equipment and users].” This is the robot’s brain, and can
• The robot controller system. include a motion controller, both internal and external
• The manipulator (robotic arm)/driving system. communication systems, and any potential power stages.
• Sensing and vision technologies.
• The end effector (robot tools).

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Chapter 1: Introduction

• The manipulator. The ISO 8373 standard also states • Cartesian. These are also called rectilinear or gantry
“A machine in which the mechanism usually consists of robots. Cartesian robots have three linear axes that use the
a series of segments, jointed or sliding relative to one Cartesian coordinate system (x, y and z). They may have
another, for the purpose of grasping and/or moving objects an attached axis that enables rotational movement. Three
(pieces or tools) usually in several degrees of freedom or prismatic joints facilitate linear motion along the axis.
axes. A manipulator does not include an end effector.” • Cylindrical. This robot has at least one rotary axis at
The manipulator is commonly known as the robotic arm. the base and at least one prismatic axis to connect the
It’s the part of the robot that defines how many axes the links. The rotary axis uses a rotational motion along
robot is implementing to achieve the movement required the axis, while the prismatic axis uses linear motion.
to perform a task. Cylindrical robots operate within a cylindrical-shaped work
• The teaching pendant. Multifunctional portable environment.
equipment used to program and teach an industrial robot. • Polar. Polar robots are also called spherical robots. For
The pendant typically consists of an LCD touch panel, an these types of robots, the manipulator connects to the
enable button and an e-stop button. The teaching pendant base with a twisting axis and a combination of two rotary
connects to the robot controller system. axes and one linear axis. The axes form a polar coordinate
• The robotic end effector. A device connected on the system and create a spherical-shaped work environment.
robot “wrist” or end-of-arm tooling (EOAT). The system • Selective compliance assembly robot arm (SCARA).
controller controls the robotic end effector by using either Commonly used in assembly applications, this selectively
discrete input/output (I/O) for simple tools or industrial compliant manipulator for robotic assembly is primarily
communication protocols for more advanced tools. cylindrical in design. It features two parallel axes that
• Vision and sensors. These parts of the robot have the provide compliance in one selected plane.
ability to scan the surrounding environment and stop (in • Delta. These spider-like robots are built from jointed
the case of an industrial robot) or reduce (in the case of a parallelograms connected to a common base. A delta
cobot) a robot’s speed when humans approach. Vision/ robot has three axes for the parallelograms; for the end
sensing is implemented with light detection and ranging effector, it can have one to three axes. The parallelograms
(LIDAR), a radar-based safety area scanner or 3D cameras. move a single EOAT in a dome-shaped work area. Heavily
In addition to the safety area scanner, cobots sometimes used in the food, pharmaceutical and electronic industries,
wear a sensor-based “safety skin” that stops the robot arm this robot configuration is capable of delicate, precise
when a human touches it or is in proximity. movements.
When designing the building blocks of a robotic system,
there are mechatronics, robot functions and electrical What amount of payload (weight) and reach will
considerations that you need to understand and obtain the robot have?
specifications for before beginning the actual design. If the robot has to move heavy objects, it needs to have
Let’s discuss some typical considerations when defining the enough force on the motors to enable that capability. This
system architecture of a robot. force is generated with electric energy and is provided to the
motor from the power stage. This power requirement is part
What type of task is the robot supposed to do? of deciding whether the robot will be a high- or low-voltage
Different robot types have different advantages depending on system. A high-voltage robot system will require defined
the application. The typical types of industrial robots are: isolation architecture for safe operation.

• Articulated. This robot design features a rotary axis and

can range from simple three-axis structures to 10 or more
joints. The manipulator connects to the base with a twisting
joint. A rotary axis connects the links in the manipulator.
Each axis provides an additional degree of freedom, or
range of motion.

An Engineer’s Guide to Industrial Robot Designs 4 2Q 2020 I Texas Instruments

Chapter 1: Introduction

Will the electronics be centralized into the system

controller?
In a centralized system, the robot controller cabinet includes
most of the electronic modules that control the robot
manipulator. Figure 2 is an example of a centralized robot.

Idustrial robot
AC mains
Robot controller system cabinet sensing module

Servo drive
Circuit braker power supply module Manipulator
FAN Optional axis controller
depending on gear

Holding brake
Robot controller Servo drive

position sensor
Servo drive
Gear
Industrial robot Servo drive
power stage module
PMSM Axis 1
CPU board
Servo drive
Servo drive position sensor
Industrial robot control module Brake resistor
teach pendant (HMI)
Industrial robot
communication module
Industrial robot Servo drive Holding brake

position sensor
IO module

Servo drive
Gear
Servo drive
power stage module
PMSM Axis 2

Servo drive
position sensor
Brake resistor

E-stop

Servo drive
control panel Holding brake
Servo drive

position sensor
Servo drive
Gear
Servo drive Axis N
power stage module
PMSM

Point-to-point or Servo drive

position sensor
daisy-chain Brake resistor
N is typically
between 3 to 7
Position feedback
aggregator

Servo drive
position feedback
Point-to-point or
daisy-chain

End effector (tool)

Figure 2. Example of a centralized robotic system.

An Engineer’s Guide to Industrial Robot Designs 5 2Q 2020 I Texas Instruments

Chapter 1: Introduction

Robot controller Manipulator

system cabinet Holding brake
Servo drive

position sensor
Servo drive
Gear
Servo drive
AC mains power stage module PMSM Axis 1

Servo drive Servo drive

position sensor
control module
Circuit braker
Optional axis controller
depending on gear

Servo drive
Resistor
Brake

power supply module Holding brake

Servo drive

position sensor
Servo drive
Gear
Servo drive
power stage module PMSM Axis 2
FAN
Servo drive Servo drive
position sensor
Robot controller control module
Industrial robot
CPU board
Industrial robot
Industrial robot communication module Holding brake
teach pendant (HMI) Servo drive

position sensor
Servo drive
Gear
Industrial robot Servo drive
power stage module PMSM Axis N
IO module
sensing module
Industrial robot

Servo drive Servo drive

position sensor
control module
N is typically
E-stop between 3 to 7

Servo drive End effector (tool)

control panel
Point-to-point or
daisy-chain

Figure 3. Example of a decentralized robotic system.

In a decentralized system, some of these modules move How will the different subsystems of the robot
to the robot manipulator to support a variety of factors, communicate with each other? What are the
including the form factor of the cabinet, cabling and more. interface requirements?
Figure 3 is an example of a decentralized robot.
To ensure real-time functionality, you will need to define which
When decentralizing electronic content, it is important to control parameters pass between the subsystems, and the
remember that the environments where the electronics repetition rate and latency of the parameters for both the end
are now used are not the same as the environments of a effector and manipulator communication.
centralized system. This environment change necessitates
Figure 4 includes some typical real-time timing values for a
a re-specification of the electronics and typically requires
robot.
redevelopment of part of the system.
Now that the robot can move, it needs to know how to
move, which leads to the next series of questions.

An Engineer’s Guide to Industrial Robot Designs 6 2Q 2020 I Texas Instruments

Chapter 1: Introduction

Industrial ethernet fieldbus

Industrial robot CPU board Servo drive control module
• Robot/motion control • Position and speed control
• Position and speed control • Current control Potential
isolation barrier
Digital Analog
• Typical high-speed or parallel I/F
• Less signals to potentially isolate
PWM: VDC
Position and speed control: Current control: 8 kHz to 32 kHz 48 V to 1200 V
1 kHz to 32 kHz 1 kHz to 16 kHz 8 kHz to 64 kHz (if double update)

IQREF VA, VB, VC

position sensor
Position and Current Axis 1

Servo drive
Motion Gear
speed control PWM
control control PMSM
FOC unit
FOC
Servo drive
position sensor

DC voltage Absolute
IA, IB, IC, VDC encoder
A/D incremental
encoder
resolver
Phase current (3x or 2x)

Rotor angle/speed Rotor angle Encoder

interface
Motor angle feedback
optional axis angle feedback
Axis angle/speed Encoder
interface

Figure 4. Real-time communication timing needs for robot control.

How does the programming interface work? Is the robot a nonadaptive robot or an adaptive
Will the robot operate from the user interface robot?
or through task programming? Will you need an A nonadaptive robot does not receive feedback from the
extra interface to connect the teaching pendant or environment and will execute its task as programmed.
joystick in order to enable operator functionality? Adaptive robots use input and output data to generate
It’s important to answer these questions early in the environment data. With this data, the robot can react to
design process. Figure 4 also includes some of the design environmental changes and stop its task if necessary.
considerations of motion-control timing. And now, for the For adaptive robots, it is important to define the environment
final question. data to which the robot is reacting. The data might be pre-
defined parameters, like material amounts or sizes or shapes
for quality definitions. Or it might be uncontrolled parameters,
like having people move around the robot or malfunctions
that when detected put the robot in a safe state.

An Engineer’s Guide to Industrial Robot Designs 7 2Q 2020 I Texas Instruments

Chapter 1: Introduction

An adaptive robot requires a sensing module. An area Conclusion

safety scanner or safety skin is placed either at the base
A robot is a very complex system with many design
of the robot or attached somewhere on top of the robot.
challenges within mechatronics and functionality, as well
It supervises the surrounding area of the manipulator and
as electrical considerations. You’ll need to solve these
prevents humans or other machines from getting too close
challenges or make some decisions before a working
to the robot; if they do, the robot stops or slows down.
system is possible.
You should follow both worldwide and local safety
With all of the different technical aspects of a robotic
standards when designing robotic systems. Starting the
system, analog and embedded technologies from Texas
design efforts before looking into relevant standards can
Instruments offer many different products and designs
considerably delay time to market. Several organizations
that can help solve robot-related issues and enable the
offer consulting services to help you understand the
development of intelligent, autonomous and collaborative
hardware implications of designing a safe system
robots.
according to safety standards, including Technischer
Überwachungsverein (TÜV) – Rheinland, TÜV – Süd and This e-book is a compilation of technical articles, white
TÜV – Nord. papers and application notes featuring technologies to help
you design your next robotic system.

Authored by: Kristen Mogensen

An Engineer’s Guide to Industrial Robot Designs 8 2Q 2020 I Texas Instruments

Chapter 2: Robot system controller

2.1 Control panel Performance

In servo motor-drive applications, motor control is typically
2.1.1 Using Sitara™ processors for Industry 4.0 separated into several control-loop layers: the current/
servo drives torque loop, speed loop, position loop and a higher-level
The manufacturing and automation industries have used motion-control loop. These loops are typically arranged
servo motor control for many years, but the rise of Industry in a cascade, each with their own real-time processing
4.0 and smart factories has accelerated the adoption of requirements. The current or torque loop is the tightest
automated systems, which in turn has led to increased control loop. Each upstream loop runs at a multiple of
demand for smarter servo drives with more functionality and the loop before it and provides input references to the
the ability to control more axes. downstream loops. Figure 1 shows a typical cascaded
Historically, high-end microcontrollers and large field- control topology.
programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) performed the low-level The blocks in Figure 1 lend themselves well to logical
control algorithms and provided peripherals to connect to partitioning across cores within a heterogeneous processor,
the drive output and motor feedback. The requirements or between a processor and a microcontroller. Spreading
for what a servo drive must support are rapidly changing, the various loops among the different cores in a multicore
however, as equipment gets smarter and higher in processor maximizes the processing bandwidth dedicated
performance. Features like network communications, to each loop. When a processor core receives its control-
functional safety, predictive maintenance and programmable loop input data, it can run the algorithm to completion as
logic controllers (PLCs) are being brought into the servo quickly as possible, provide the reference value for the
control board to optimize cost and space by removing downstream loop and then continue providing other services
external boards. This increased level of integration and need until the next set of input data is ready.
for higher performance are leading designers to look to Processors with higher raw performance can finish the
heterogeneous processors, such as Sitara™ processors control processing faster and have more bandwidth available
from TI, to handle the majority – or all – of the processing to provide additional services and features. Fast processing
needs for Industry 4.0 applications. is especially crucial when cycle times approach 31.25 µs in a

Position (1 kHz to 4 kHz → 1 ms to 250 µs)

Speed/velocity (2 kHz to 8 kHz → 500 µs to 125 µs)

Torque/current (8 kHz to 32 kHz → 125 µs to 31.25 µs)

VDC

x3
Industrial
comms VA,VB,VC PWM (x3)
(position/ Position Speed PWM PMSM
loop loop Torque/ unit
speed/ current
torque loop /PWM (x3)
reference) [FOC]
Current
feedback
(x2-3)
Angle
Σ∆ Σ∆ Voltage sensor
interface ADC feedback
IA,IB,IC,VDC

Position
Angle Speed Angle Angle feedback
feedback
interface

Figure 1. Typical servo-motor control-loop technology.

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Chapter 2: Robot system controller

32-kHz control loop or when inputs from multiple axes must performs the media access control layer. Manufacturers
be processed nearly simultaneously. who only plan to support a single protocol prefer this
There are a few options for the strict real-time processing distributed architecture, since ASICs are typically optimized
for that specific communication standard. Once the need to
requirements of servo control, including digital signal
support multiple protocols arises, a multichip solution loses
processors (DSPs), FPGAs and standard Arm® processing
its attractiveness for multiple reasons. Each new protocol
cores. Choosing the right processing core can be difficult
requires that you familiarize yourself with a new device (which
because there’s a balance between flexibility and optimizing
adds development effort and cost). Manufacturers must
control algorithms. In the past, optimizing control algorithms
maintain several versions of their boards for each of the
was the number one priority, so DSPs, application-specific
different protocols.
integrated circuits (ASICs) and FPGAs were the clear choice.
Solutions such as Sitara processors have integrated
Now, the need to add Industry 4.0 services to servo drives
multiprotocol support onto the host processor, helping
has resulted in the adoption of standard Arm Cortex®-A
save costs, board space and development effort, while
and Cortex-R cores. Cortex-A cores can achieve very high
also minimizing the latency associated with communication
bandwidths, which is good for rapid processing, but they
between external components and the host. A single
lack the real-time component of the Cortex-R, which is why
platform supporting multiple standards enables you to
Cortex-R is a better fit than the Cortex-A for servo control.
maintain a single board for the different versions of your end
On the other hand, the Cortex-A is much better suited than
product.
the Cortex-R for many other services, such as networking or
predictive maintenance. Fortunately, multicore devices like If you need to future-proof your products, you must also take
Sitara AM6x processors can contain all of the processing into account the need to support time-sensitive networking
elements mentioned here, enabling all necessary elements in (TSN). The platform you choose for industrial communication
a single chip. must be flexible enough to adapt to evolving TSN standards,
or you risk it being outdated once the standards are finally
Industrial communication set. The Sitara AM6x processor family provides a solution
through its flexible programmable real-time unit-industrial
Industry 4.0 brings many new and exciting things to the
communications subsystem (PRU-ICSS), which enables
factory, but the rapid adoption of multiprotocol industrial
gigabit TSN as well as traditional 100-Mbps protocols like
Ethernet is among the most noticeable in the industrial
EtherCAT.
servo drives sector. There are over a dozen different
communication protocols on the market for industrial
Functional safety
Ethernet, field bus and position encoders, each with its own
pros and cons. EtherCAT, PROFINET and EtherNet/Industrial The trend toward autonomous machine decision-making and
Protocol (IP) are the most popular Ethernet-based protocols operation, as well as increased human-machine interaction
in the servo drives market, while Hiperface Digital Servo Link, in potentially dangerous factory environments, means that
EnDat 2.2 and Bidirectional Interface for Serial/Synchronous functional safety is becoming more important for many
C are among the more popular position-encoder protocols. applications in a smart factory, including servo drives. For a
detailed description of functional safety standards and how
Many of these protocols have ASICs that you can attach
Sitara processors play in the industrial environment, read the
to host processors to support that specific communication
white paper, “The state of functional safety in Industry 4.0.”
protocol. In some cases, with a multichip solution, the
protocol’s stack runs on the host processor and the ASIC

An Engineer’s Guide to Industrial Robot Designs 10 2Q 2020 I Texas Instruments

Chapter 2: Robot system controller

System partitions of this architecture is that the total time for the field-oriented
control loop to get inputs from the motor and return a current
The cascaded control loops in a servo drive typically span at
is short, because the entire loop runs on the power-stage
least two circuit boards, separated by a reinforced isolation
board.
boundary. This isolation boundary creates what’s referred to
as a “hot side” and a “cold side.” The hot side is closest to Figure 3 also shows a two-chip solution, but this time both
the motor and includes the high-voltage components that SoCs on the control board are on the cold side. The control
supply power to the motor. The cold side is on the other side loop is split between two SoCs: one handles the algorithm
of the isolation and typically holds the control units. processing and the other acts as an aggregator and
provides pulse-width modulators (PWMs) across the isolation
The modular nature of the various control loops in a motor
boundary. The benefit of this architecture is that it enables
drive give you many possibilities when partitioning your
the use of lower-cost power-stage boards but maintains the
system across the isolation boundary. Figures 2, 3 and 4
same performance levels, whereas the partition shown in
show a few possible partitions of a servo drive.
Figure 2 requires a high-speed interface between the two
Figure 2 shows a two-chip solution, with the two system on SoCs.
chips (SoCs) separated by the isolation boundary. The benefit
Reinforced
isolation
boundary
Sitara™ Analog front end

Drive control board Power stage board(s)

(low voltage/low noise) (high voltage/high noise)

VDC

x3
Industrial
comms VA,VB,VC
PWM (x3)
(position/ Position Speed PWM PMSM
speed/ loop loop Torque/ unit
torque current
reference) loop /PWM (x3)
[FOC]
Current
feedback
(x2-3)
Angle
Σ∆ Σ∆ Voltage sensor
interface ADC feedback
IA,IB,IC,VDC

Position
Angle Speed Angle Angle feedback
feedback
interface

Figure 2. A Sitara processor communicating across the isolation boundary to a separate control unit on the hot side of the system.

Reinforced
isolation
boundary
Sitara™ Aggregator (C2000™/FPGA) Analog front end

Drive control board Power stage board(s)

(low voltage/low noise) (high voltage/high noise)

VDC

x3
Industrial
comms Position Torque/ VA,VB,VC
and PWM (x3)
(position/ current PWM PMSM
speed/ speed loop Data unit
torque loop [FOC] aggregator
reference) /PWM (x3)

Current
feedback
(x2-3)
Angle
Σ∆ Σ∆ Voltage sensor
interface ADC feedback
IA,IB,IC,VDC

Position
Angle Speed Angle Angle feedback
feedback
interface

Figure 3. A Sitara processor acting as a servo processor, with different control functions offloaded to a C2000 microcontroller or
FPGA on the cold side of the system.

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Chapter 2: Robot system controller

Reinforced
isolation
boundary
Sitara™ C2000™/FPGA Analog front end

Drive control board Power stage board(s)

(low voltage/low noise) (high voltage/high noise)

VDC

x3
Industrial
comms VA,VB,VC
PWM (x3)
(position/ Position Speed PWM PMSM
speed/ loop loop Torque/ unit
torque current
reference) loop /PWM (x3)
[FOC]
Current
feedback
(x2-3)
Angle
Σ∆ Σ∆ Voltage sensor
interface ADC feedback
IA,IB,IC,VDC

Angle Position
Angle Speed Angle feedback
feedback
interface

Figure 4. Using a Sitara™ processor to implement full servo control on the cold side.

In Figure 4, the entire control loop including the PWM and motion The rest of the Sitara family integrates the PRU-ICSS subsystem,
profile generation (typically handled by a PLC) is integrated into along with other cores and peripherals, to enable control and
a single SoC on the cold side. This architecture enables even communications. The AM6x processor family takes integration
more cost savings through integration and eliminates the latency one step further by offering integrated safety features based on
associated with the interface between SoCs. Hercules microcontrollers to enable a single-chip solution for
communications, servo control and some levels of functional safety.
Solutions from TI
The Sitara processor family has SoCs to handle everything from Conclusion
stand-alone industrial communication modules to fully featured Industry 4.0 is introducing new guidelines and system requirements
multiaxis servo drives for the system partitions discussed in for servo drives, making it important for designers to select a
this chapter. Figure 5 shows what is possible with the different solution that fits the needs of current and future servo drives.
processors within the Sitara, Hercules™ and C2000TM real-time Devices like Sitara AM65 processors, which include both Cortex-A
microcontroller families. Sitara AMIC processors contain the and Cortex-R cores and support 100-Mbps and 1-Gbps industrial
PRU-ICSS subsystem and have been optimized for stand-alone networking, are capable of supporting existing and future servo
multi-protocol industrial communications modules. drives. TI also offers a variety of products, including other Sitara
processors and C2000 microcontrollers, to serve the changing
needs of the industrial market.
Sitara™ Sitara™ Sitara™ Sitara™ Sitara™ Hercules™ C2000™ C2000™
AMIC110 Processor AM335x Processors AM437x Processors AM57x Processors AM6x Arm® Processors MCU Real-time Real-time

Servo drive products from TI Microcontrollers Microcontrollers

AMC110
Product No.
AM335x
Product No. AM437x
Product No.
AM57x
Product No.
AM6x
Product No.
Arm Hercules
Product No.
C2000
Product No.
C2000
Product No.
Product Group Name Group Name Group Name Group Name Group Name Group Name Group Name Group Name
processors
Pruct processors
Pruct processors
Pruct processors
Pruct processors
Pruct MCU
Pruct F2838x
Pruct MCU F28004x
Pruct MCU

Safety Integrated functional safety features P P P P

Time-sensitive networking (TSN) P
Industry 4.0 services Integrated security features P P P P P P
Predictive maintenance P P P P P P
High-speed serial interface P P P P
Control
Integrated servo motor control P P P P
Communications Industrial Ethernet Multi-protocol Multi-protocol Multi-protocol Multi-protocol Multi-protocol EtherCAT®

Figure 5. TI processing products available for servo drives.

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Chapter 2: Robot system controller

2.2 Servo drives for robotic systems Why use an isolated gate driver?
Data center application
2.2.1 Impact of an isolated gate driver
The demand and availability of information transaction and
With information exchange and urbanization rising at a global retrieval is ubiquitous. Time is seldom wasted in using a
level, the need for power management is becoming more smart device, for example. Check out what is in our social
critical than ever. media, our messages or email. All this is happening in the
This affects high-efficiency and robust systems that require cloud. This cloud is the workhorse of real-time connectivity
power electronics with sophisticated intelligence in order to across the globe. The cloud is physically located in a data
meet the demands of power consumption. Several day-to- center.
day applications that necessitate these requirements are Information to and from the data center is transmitted
data centers, telecommunications base stations, industrial through a line such as fiber or coax cable, or wireless through
automation, motor drives and grid infrastructure. Each telecommunications base stations. Inside the data center is
has their own power-level requirements, topologies and the power delivery unit, commonly referred to as the power
appropriate choice of power switches. supply. Information is stored in servers, known as cloud
For example, data centers and telecommunications servers. These servers need power to store and retrieve
applications use power metal oxide semiconductors information back and forth to the users. These power supply
(MOSFET) simply because these applications need to switch units are in the range of a few hundred to thousands of
faster while increasing the system power density. On the watts. They operate off the grid, which is the AC line voltage
other hand, industrial automation and motor drives typically in the range of hundreds of volts. Hence, they are referred to
deploy insulated bipolar gate transistors (IGBT) due to their as the high-voltage unit.
high voltage requirement and higher power levels. Grid There are several low-voltage components such as
infrastructure equipment such as solar inverters have the controllers and communication components required to
flexibility to choose any of the power switches, depending on improve server efficiency. Moreover, these servers are sold
the inverter type and power level. based on their efficiency ratings and therefore are becoming
Human machine interface (HMI) is involved in these mandatory to maintain those ratings. In addition, there are
applications. Additionally, intelligent systems such as humans involved in the cloud operation interacting with the
controllers and communication peripherals need protection servers through HMIs. It is important to avoid any breakdown
from the high-power and high-voltage circuitry. This is and leakage of current from the high-voltage unit into the HMI
achieved through isolation. Also, integrating the isolation as it could damage all the low-voltage components, such as
circuitry with the power transfer components helps to reduce controllers and communications.
system size cost. One key trend is to integrate the gate
Isolation is the answer
driver with an isolator (the device that performs the isolation
function) known as the isolated gate driver. This is becoming An isolation device, which is a semiconductor integrated
a key trend that makes these system-level features attractive. circuit (IC), allows data and power to transfer between the
high-voltage and low-voltage units, while preventing any
This section of the e-book is twofold. The first is to
hazardous DC or uncontrolled transient current flowing
understand why an isolated gate driver has become
from the grid. One well-known example is a lightning strike.
so attractive, which is illustrated by walking through an
Isolation is a means to break the ground loops created
application. The second is to identify the requirements of an
in circuits that have high-energy flow. There are several
isolated driver as a function of the power switch.
methods of isolation. Of all, galvanic isolation is the one that
provides protection for very large potential differences.

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Chapter 2: Robot system controller

Day by day this demand for power continues to increase. First off, the GATE terminal controls a MOSFET’s ON/OFF
Not only that, people expect to receive this information state. VGS is the voltage between gate and source.
instantaneously. This means that data center capacity is • To turn ON, apply a positive voltage, VGS > threshold level.
growing by the day with increasing data demand, which
means that power delivery systems need to supply more • To turn OFF, reduce VGS < threshold level.
and more power. However, the data center has limited • GATE is a capacitive input with a high impedance.
real estate constraints. Scaling them to a larger size is • It has CGS, CGD as two parasitic capacitances residing
expensive and highly uneconomical. in the MOSFET’s internal structure.
One way to address this demand is to increase power This is where the gate driver comes into play. It acts as a
density and provide isolation robustness. This can be done power amplifier that accepts a low-power input from the
by significantly improving power supply efficiency and controller IC and produces the appropriate high-current
increasing the power transfer rate, also known as switching gate drive for a power MOSFET to turn ON or OFF.
frequency measured in kHz. This improvement helps to
make the power supply units smaller. Isolation robustness Isolated gate driver versus traditional
is realized by integrating the isolator with a key power transformer isolation
component: the high-speed gate driver. This integrated
Depending on where the controller is positioned or placed,
device is known as the isolated gate driver.
isolation is required between the controller and the driver
for high-voltage applications such as data center power
Gate driver functionality
supplies. A traditional method for isolation is using a gate
To further understand the value of such an integrated driver transformer.
solution, first you need to understand how a gate driver
Figure 2a shows where the transformer is pulsed by a
is used. Gate drivers are implemented in a system
simple low-side, non-isolated gate driver to phase leg of a
that operates under switched-mode power where the
bridge topology (Figure 2b). This is referred to as Type A.
power switch operates in an ON and OFF mode, thereby
HV
consuming zero power, ideally under high-switching VCC VCC CIO
Q1
frequencies. Two common power switches used are
PWM1
the power MOSFET and IGBT. Switched-mode power
CByp
Controller

Low
operates in a controller-based, closed-loop power topology. side
Controlling the ON/OFF status happens at the gate of these PWM2
driver

switches in order to regulate voltage and the flow of current Q2

through the switches. Take a power MOSFET, for example. VSS
SGND PGND
Figure 1 illustrates how the gate terminal works. CIO

CGD
D Figure 2a. Transformer isolation drives both high-side, low-side
G switches in a phase leg.
(Gate-to-source voltage) VGS
VDC-Link 400 V
ON ON
Threshold CGS
OFF OFF S
+
-

Figure 1. Control of a gate terminal in a power switch.

Figure 2b. One phase leg of a full-bridge topology.

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Chapter 2: Robot system controller

VBIAS DBOOT
VCC HV

HB Q1
VCC
PWM1 HO
HI
Controller LI HS CByp

PWM2 VSS
LO
EN/NC Q2
VSS COM
SGND Isolator PGND

Figure 3. An isolator and a gate driver configuration highlighting a phase leg controller.

Now consider using an isolator IC instead of a transformer Now consider the isolator and the driver integrated into one
located between the controller and a high-side, low-side IC or a multi-chip module as shown in Figure 4. This is
driver (Figure 3). This is referred to as Type B. referred to as Type C. This solution is the isolated gate driver.
Table 1 shows a typical comparison between Type A and Type C gives a propagation delay similar to or better than a
Type B. discrete transformer solution while it also gives a significant
area reduction greater than 50%. Furthermore, Type C can
Specifications Type A Type B
be tailored to deliver common mode transient immunity
TProp =20 ns =100 ns
(CMTI) greater than 100 V/ns, a number significantly higher
Bias power No Yes
than that achievable by the Type A solution. CMTI is a key
CIO ≥10 pF ≤1 pF
parameter that determines the robustness of a gate driver.
Parasitics Large (LLK) Very small
Overshoot Large Small As explained in the data center application, system solutions
Size Bulky Small are becoming smaller in size. This translates into a power
supply with higher power levels and smaller board space.
Table 1. Type A versus type B comparison.
Integrating as many components as possible is vital, which
Note that the size of the isolator and gate driver combination is why this is the trend in power solutions. An isolated gate
is small compared to the transformer isolation. However, driver (Type C) is the answer to this trend. Galvanic isolation
the propagation delay, a key metric for high-power density technology is typically capacitive, optical and inductive.
applications, is significantly higher for Type B. Additionally, the isolation level (such as reinforced, basic and
functional) depends on the application.

VBIAS DBOOT
VCC HV
LDO HB Q1
VCC
PWM1 HO
HI
Controller

LI HS CByp

PWM2 VSS
LO
EN/NC Q2
VSS COM
SGND Isolator PGND

Figure 4. An integrated solution where an isolated gate driver drives a phase leg.

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Chapter 2: Robot system controller

Isolated driver as a function of power switch at higher switching frequencies. CMTI is the ability of an
isolator in the gate driver IC to tolerate high-slew-rate voltage
Isolated driver functionalities are very similar to a non-isolated
transients between its two grounds without corrupting signals
gate driver such as:
passing through it. The higher the CMTI is implies that the
• Propagation delay. isolated gate driver can be used in high-switching frequency
• Common-mode transient immunity (CMTI). applications. Also, with the advent of wide bandgap switches
• Rise time/fall time. such as gallium nitride (GaN) and silicon carbide (SiC), CMTI
is becoming perhaps the most important parameter for
• Maximum driver-side supply voltage. isolated gate drivers.
• UVLO. In particular, SiC MOSFET, due to its superior material
• Channel-to-channel delay. properties, has emerged as the disruptive solution in power
• Protection schemes. electronics—resulting in energy efficient, robust and compact
systems in high-voltage, high-power applications. These
• Dead time control and overlap. applications are increasingly becoming of interest with the
• Enable/disable features. advent of electric vehicles and renewable energy power
The importance of a specification parameter is dictated by systems—making the gate driver requirements for SiC very
the application. For example, power supplies used in data critical. TI has a family of isolated gate drivers, UCC217x,
center servers and telecommunications infrastructure operate with fast, integrated sensing for SiC MOSFETs. Utilizing
at high-switching frequencies above 20 kHz. TI’s capacitive isolation technology, the UCC217x family
maximizes insulation barrier lifetimes while providing high
For such applications where a power MOSFET is used, reinforced isolation ratings, fast data speeds and high density
minimizing switching loss is key. This makes parameters such packaging.
as rise time/fall times and propagation delay very important.
Alternatively, applications like motor drives and high-power (> This stems from TI’s capacitive barrier and industry’s highest
5 kW) solar inverters operate at switching frequencies in the dielectric strength insulator, SiO2. Each capacitive barrier is
range of 5 kHz to 20 kHz. For such high-power applications built using TI proprietary technology with strength exceeding
where IGBT is used, you need to have good protection 12.8 kV of isolation surge-voltage protection and a specified
schemes and high driver-side supply voltages to ensure that isolation voltage of 5.7 kV to ensure strengthened system-
your design can tolerate the harsh environments in these level reliability. In addition, fast short-circuit protection and
applications. quick response time enhanced system protection.

One unique parameter of the isolated gate driver is CMTI, Table 2 compares MOSFET and IGBT isolated gate drivers
which is important to consider when operating the system and summarizes the differences explained earlier.

Power Switch MOSFET IGBT

Switching frequencies High (>20 kHz) Low-to-mediaum (5 kHz to 20 kHz)
Number of channels Single-and dual-channels Single-channel
Protection No Yes–Desaturation, Miller clamping
Max VDD (power supply) 20 V 30 V
VDD range 0 V to 20 V -10 V to 20 V
Operating VDD 10 V to 12 V 12 V to 15 V
UVLO 8V 12 V
CMTI 50 to 100 V/ns <50 V/nx
Propagation delay Smaller the better (<50ns) High (not critical)
Rail voltage Up to 650 V >650 V
Typical applications Power supplies: server, data communications, telecommunications, Motor drives (AC machines), UPS, solar
factory automation, onboard and offboard chargers, solar µ-inverters central and string power inverters (>3 kW),
and string inverters (<3 kW), 400-V to 12-V DC/DC, automotive automotive traction inverters

Table 2. Comparison between MOSFET and IGBT isolated gate drivers.

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Chapter 2: Robot system controller

Summary Gate drivers do not need to provide constant current

because they only have to source or sink current when
High-power density and robustness are becoming increasingly
switching the gate of power MOSFET or IGBTs.
important in power management applications such as power
Figure 1 shows the turn-on waveforms.
supplies, solar inverters and HEV/EV DC/DC converters.
With increasing power levels, it is important to protect HMI Understanding the IOH and IOL specifications requires looking
and intelligent systems. Therefore, isolated gate drivers are at the pull-up and pull-down structures inside the device.
becoming the preferred solutions for these applications. The output stage of a gate driver typically comes in some
This section compared the value of the isolated gate driver variation of Figure 2. The UCC5320SC is offered in a split-
to the traditional transformer method. Key requirements for output pinout that gives you more control of the rise and fall
this driver are highlighted and explained as a function of the times without adding extra components like Schottky diodes.
power switch and application. TI offers several isolated gate
drivers for these power switches. These include isolated
UVLO2 VCC2
gate drivers such as the UCC21710-Q1, UCC21732-Q1,
UCC21750, UCC21520, ISO5451/5452, UCC5350 and
Level ROH
UCC21220 family for several applications such as power shifting RNMOS
supplies, motor drivers, solar inverters and automotive and OUTH
control
electrification systems to name a few.  logic OUTL
ROL
2.2.2 Understanding peak source and sink
current parameters
VEE2
Gate drivers are often confused as continuous current
sources because of the high-level output current (IOH) and
low-level output current (IOL) specifications in the data Figure 2. Gate driver output stage.
sheet. For example, designers looking at TI’s UCC5320SC
Under a no-load condition, IOH is determined by VCC2 and the
might read the parameters “4.3-A source” and “4.4-A sink”
parallel combination of RNMOS and ROH, while IOL is set by VCC2
and mistakenly believe that these devices are capable of
and ROL. RNMOS helps the pullup structure deliver the peak
providing these currents continuously.
current, with a brief boost in peak-sourcing current during
the Miller plateau region, shown as interval 3 in Figure 1.
VGS This is done by turning on the N-channel MOSFET during
a narrow instant when the output is changing states from
VTH low to high. When driving MOSFETs and IGBTs high, the
external gate resistor RON and the transistor’s internal gate
IG resistance RGFET_Int reduce the peak output current, as shown
in Equation 1:
⎛ VCC2 ⎞
IOH =min ⎜⎜4.3A, ⎟
⎟
VDS ⎝ RNMOS ||ROH +R ON +RGFET _Int ⎠ (1)
Likewise, the peak sink current is limited by the external gate
resistor ROFF in series with ROL and RGFET_Int and is determined
ID by Equation 2
⎛ VCC 2 ⎞
IOL = min ⎜⎜4.4A, ⎟
⎝ ROL + ROFF + RGFET _ Int ⎟⎠ (2)
1 2 3 4

Figure 1. MOSFET turn-on time intervals.

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Chapter 2: Robot system controller

It is possible to demonstrate different techniques to

determine the peak drive current using the UCC5320SC
isolated single-channel gate driver and a 100-nF capacitive
load. The first method calculates the expected peak currents
based on Equations 1 and 2. Use these equations to
estimate the peak drive current when selecting a gate driver
for your system.
In order to simulate driving a MOSFET or IGBT before
installing one onto a printed circuit board, select a load
capacitor equivalent to the switch’s input capacitance, CISS.
Determine the input capacitance by looking up the required
gate charge from the MOSFET or IGBT’s data sheet at the
Figure 4. Voltage across the series sense resistor.
drive voltage condition.
Table 1 presents the results of the three techniques. Even
A second technique uses CISS and the transient voltages (dv/
with a 0.1-Ω sense resistor in series with the capacitor,
dt) of the switching waveform to determine the source or sink
Equation 1 predicts a 4.30-A sourcing current. Equation 3
current. Figure 3 measures the dv/dt using cursors set to a
uses the largest measured dv/dt value in the linear region of
fixed 35-ns interval and swept across the rising edge in order
the gate drive waveform, which gives an estimated 4.53 A. In
to find the peak dv/dt. As a guideline, set the oscilloscope’s
this same linear region, the voltage across the sense resistor
cursors to a time interval, Δt, that is approximately 10%
is measured in Figure 4, with Ohm’s law determining peak IOH
of the rise time to determine the current through the load
at 4.29 A.
capacitor.
Theoretical vs.
measured Method Result
Theoretical Equation 1:
4.30 A
IOH = min (4.30 A, 4.44 A)
Calculated from Equation 3:
4.53 A
measurement IC = 102 nF (4.44 = MV/s)
Calculated from Ohm’s Law:
4.29 A
measurement IOH = 438 mV/102 mΩ

Table 1. Measurement comparison.

The first method is a good starting point when selecting
a gate driver, but what you will obtain is not an actual
measured value. The second method relies on an accurate
measurement of the highest dv/dt by using a fixed Δt
and sweeping it across the waveform. Finally, the voltage
Figure 3. Measuring peak dv/dt across the load capacitor.
measured across the 0.1-Ω sense resistor will give you a
Use the measured peak dv/dt and load capacitor value to value calculated from the measurement of the peak drive
calculate the peak current, along with Equation 3: current using Figure 4 and Ohm’s law. The key to the third
measurement technique is to select a small-valued sense
dv
IC = C resistor to prevent any limitations in the peak output current.
dt (3)
All presented methods are acceptable approximations of a
A third method inserts a 0.1-Ω sense resistor between the gate driver’s peak output current.
capacitor and ground to calculate IOH or IOL. Figure 4 shows
To reiterate, IOH and IOL are not continuous DC values. The
the voltage waveform across the sense resistor, VSENSE, and
peak current charges or discharges CISS in an instant and
its measurement coincides with the highest dv/dt value of the
then reduces in value as the switch begins to turn on.
Vcap waveform.

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Chapter 2: Robot system controller

2.2.3 Low-side gate drivers with UVLO versus Why a BJT totem pole offers no protection
BJT totem poles Figure 2 shows a BJT totem-pole configuration to drive the
Gate drivers have increasingly replaced the use of bipolar MOSFET. Figure 2 shows a typical gate-drive circuit achieved
junction transistor (BJT) totem poles to drive power switches using a bypass capacitor and an additional base resistance
in low-side applications. Gate drivers come with many built-in to limit the input current. At power on and power off, before
safety features, eliminating risks associated with the lack of the BJT drive supply settles, the MOSFET can be subject to
protection in a discrete solution. When driving MOSFETs and a combination of high voltage and high current. You could
IGBTs, safety features are important in ensuring a predictable add external UVLO circuitry to this circuit, but this addition
switching, robust gate drive. Let’s compare the UCC27517 results in an increase in component count, board footprint
gate driver and a discrete totem pole, looking at their and bill-of-materials (BOM) cost.
respective performances during undervoltage lockout (UVLO)
conditions. 3.3 V 1 nF 15 V

100 Ω
The importance of UVLO
The UCC27517 gate driver has an important built-in
protection feature that grounds the output of the driver when 50 Ω 50 Ω

the power supply has not reached the UVLO threshold.

Figure 1 shows how different values of VGS affect the Function
generator
MOSFET for a given drain-to-source voltage. The right side of
the red curve is the saturation region, defined by a constant
drain-to-source current, dependent on the gate-to-source
voltage and independent of the drain-to-source voltage. Figure 2. BJT totem-pole schematic.
This saturation region is where power losses can be high, Figure 3 shows the UCC27517 device driving the power
due to a simultaneous presence of high drain current and switch in the same conditions but with a built-in UVLO, which
high drain-to-source voltage. The left side of the red curve is typically 4.2 V with 300-mV typical hysteresis. When the
is the linear region, where the drain current is proportional to supply voltage reaches UVLO, the output of the driver rises
the low RDS(on) of the MOSFET. For applications with a high with VDD until it reaches steady state. This solution also uses
drain current, a drop in the gate-to-source voltage can be fewer components, has a lower footprint and saves BOM cost.
dangerous for the MOSFET. The UCC27517, as well as other
low-side drivers in the UCC family, prevent that drop with 15 V
their built-in UVLO, enabling safe power up.

100 Ω
Drain current vs drain source voltage for several values of VGS
40 VGS = 10 V

35 50 Ω
3.3 V VDD OUT
30 VGS = 9 V
Linear region GND UCC27517
Drain current / A

25
VGS = 8 V IN+ IN-
20 Function
Saturation region generator
15 VGS = 7 V

10
VGS = 6 V
Figure 3. UCC27517 schematic.
5
VGS = 5 V
VGS = 4 V
0
2 4 6 8 10
Drain to source voltage / V 2V / DV

Figure 1. MOSFET 1 to 5 characteristics.

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Chapter 2: Robot system controller

Protecting the MOSFET and IBGT using the

UCC27517 with UVLO
At a 3.3-V startup, there is a significant difference in the
thermal behavior of both gate drives. The UCC27517 gate
driver clamps its output, preventing switching as well as the
drain-to-source voltage drop across the field-effect transistor
(FET) at its output. The waveforms in Figure 4 illustrate this
event. Channel 2, VDS_517, captures no voltage drop across
the MOSFET, while channel 4, IDS_517, shows the drain
current grounded during power up. This process occurs
until the supply voltage reaches the UVLO rising threshold.
However, the BJT allows a voltage drop across the MOSFET
captured by channel 1, VDS_BJT, while the drain current Figure 5. Thermal image of the UCC27517-driven MOSFET (left) and BJT-
rises significantly, as shown by channel 3, IDS_BJT. This driven MOSFET (right) at a 3.3-V power up.
rise in current leads to excessive power dissipation and can
Internal UVLO protection is not limited to the UCC27517 gate
potentially damage the MOSFET.
driver; it also extends to other devices in the UCC family of
low-side gate drivers.

2.2.4 An external gate-resistor design guide for

gate drivers
External gate-drive resistors play a crucial part in limiting
noise and ringing in the gate-drive path. Parasitic
inductances and capacitances, high transient voltages
(dv/dt) and transient currents (di/dt), and body-diode
reverse recovery can cause unwanted behavior without an
appropriately sized gate resistor.
Figure 1 depicts common elements in the gate-drive path:
Figure 4. Waveforms of the UCC27517 and BJT totem-pole gate drives at
the internal resistance of the gate driver, external gate
a 3.3-V power up.
resistance and internal gate resistance of the MOSFET or
Figure 5 shows a thermal image of this event. On the left, IGBT. RGATE is the only component that tunes the gate-drive
the UCC27517 driving the MOSFET (with its built-in UVLO) waveform.
prevents overheating at the FET junctions by grounding its
output. The driver’s output stays grounded regardless of its VDRV VDS, off

input during UVLO conditions. On the right, however, the FET ID

D
at the BJT totem-pole output, with no protection, is exposed CGD
to overheating due to increased power dissipation. RHI
RGATE RG,I
G
UVLO is an important feature, allowing smooth power up and CDS
RLO
power down of the MOSFET by ensuring that switching only
CGS
occurs when enough voltage is supplied. The UCC27517
S
takes care of this issue with its internal UVLO by grounding
its output and thereby preventing overheating of the
MOSFET. This feature is essential, because this excessive
power dissipation at the MOSFET junctions can occur during Figure 1. Gate-drive elements.
power up and power off and potentially damage the FET.

An Engineer’s Guide to Industrial Robot Designs 20 2Q 2020 I Texas Instruments