26

Cable-Supported
Bridges

26.1 Introduction .................................................. 26-1

Features of Cable-Supported Bridges
Historical Sketch of
Modern Cable-Supported Bridges
26.2 Structural Cables............................................. 26-4
Steel Wires
Basic Feature of Wire Cable
Types of Bridge
Cables
End Fittings of Cable
Corrosion Protection

Vibration Control
Use of Composite Materials
26.3 Suspension Bridges.......................................... 26-14
Structural System
Analysis of Suspension Bridges
Design
Procedure
Stress Ribbon Bridge
Erection
26.4 Cable-Stayed Bridges ....................................... 26-22
Manabu Ito Layout of Structural System
Configuration and Design of
University of Tokyo, Structural Components
Erection of Cable-Stayed Bridges
Tokyo, Japan References ............................................................. 26-31

26.1 Introduction
26.1.1 Features of Cable-Supported Bridges
Cable-supported bridges or cable-suspended bridges are defined as bridges whose decks are supported
by flexible cables. They are, in principle, classified into a suspension type where the bridge deck is
continuously supported by stretched catenary cable(s), a cable-stayed type where the deck is discretely
and directly suspended by straight stay cables, and their combined type. Suspension and stayed
structures are applied to roof and buildings too.
Although the load bearing mechanisms are different, suspension and cable-stayed bridges have in
common the following features:
1. They generally consist of cables, bridge deck incorporated with solid-web girder or truss, and
towers.
2. They are advantageous for spanning long distances as seen in Figure 26.1 because cables are
subject to only tension and steel wires consisting of a cable have very high tensile strength,
although they may also be used economically on short- and medium-span pedestrian bridges.
3. The entire structure is much more flexible than other types of structures having equivalent span
length.
4. The complete structure can be mostly erected without intermediate staging from the ground.
5. The main structure is elegant and neatly expresses its function owing to its transparent
appearance.

0-8493-1569-7/05/$0.00+$1.50
# 2005 by CRC Press 26-1

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 26-2 Handbook of Structural Engineering

2000

1500
Suspension

Span length, m

1000

Steel stayed
Cantilever truss

500
Steel arch
Simple truss Concrete arch

PC stayed PC girder
0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Year

FIGURE 26.1 Transition of maximum span length of bridges in the 20th century.

Since the cable-supported bridges are mostly used outside the span range of the standard bridge
specifications and are quite flexible compared with other structural types, their design specifications are
often provided peculiarly.

26.1.2 Historical Sketch of Modern Cable-Supported Bridges

The history of cable-supported bridges is very long because the concept of suspending a bridge deck
by cables might be easily thought of. However, construction of reliable structures of these sorts had to
wait until the age of the industrial revolution when strong and homogeneous wrought iron, and later
steels, were manufactured. Since then, techniques of suspension bridge construction have made steady
progress despite frequent accidents, whereas early attempts to construct bridges as cable-stayed systems
were not successful probably due to lack of technical and analytical understanding.
Roeblings’ Brooklyn Bridge (486 m span) built in 1883 marked the beginning of the golden age
of modern suspension bridges in the United States spanning the next half a century. With the successive
construction of the Williamsburg (1903; 488 m), Benjamin Franklin (1926; 533 m), Ambassador
(1929; 564 m), George Washington (1931; 1067 m), Golden Gate (1937; 1280 m), and Verrazano
Narrows (1965; 1298 m) bridges, the United States stood at the vanguard of long-span suspension bridge
technology. In the mid-1950s, 15 of the longest span suspension bridges in the world were in the United
States. Among them, the Manhattan Bridge built in 1909 is featured as the first suspension bridge designed
on the basis of the deflection theory. It provides a contrast to the neighboring Williamsburg Bridge, built
only 6 years earlier by using the elastic theory, when slenderness of stiffening truss is compared. The
George Washington Bridge was epoch-making because its main span length exceeded 1 km for the first
time, almost doubling the previous record. Not to speak of the technological excellence, the Golden Gate
Bridge is featured by its Art Deco style towers and iron oxide red color that harmonize so well with the
magnificent site. In 1940, the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, then the world’s third-longest suspension bridge,
collapsed due to dramatic flutter oscillation caused by a gale. The lesson from this tragedy was reflected in
the design of the Mackinac Strait and the Verrazano Narrows bridges afterwards in different styles.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-3

From around 1960, a wave of long-span suspension bridges moved to western Europe. In particular,
the unprecedented ideas of streamlined box girder and inclined hangers adopted first for the design of
the Severn Bridge in the United Kingdom, completed in 1966, were further applied to the Humber
Bridge, the world’s longest span bridge at the time of completion in 1981, and the first Bosporus bridge
(Kemal Ataturk Bridge), designed by the same group. Later, in the last quarter of the 20th century, the
construction of long-span suspension bridges boomed in Japan and the Scandinavian countries, and
then in China. Such chronological trends as mentioned above may be recognized from Table 26.1a.
Among the recent suspension bridges in the Far East, the Seto Bridges in Japan (1988) and the Tsin Ma
Bridge in Hong Kong (1997) are featured as long-span suspension bridges carrying both road and sub-
stantial rail traffics. Particularly in the former, new techniques such as innovative track structures and new
design and fabrication provisions against fatigue were first developed. The longest span of a suspension bridge

TABLE 26.1 Span Length Ranking of (a) Suspension Bridges (Span >1000 m) and (b) Cable-Stayed Bridges
(Span > 500 m)
Name Span (m) Country Year Girder
(a) Suspension bridges
Akashi 1991 Japan 1998 Truss
Great Belt 1624 Denmark 1998 Box
Humber 1410 U.K. 1981 Box
Jiangyin 1385 China 1999 Box
Tsin Ma 1377 Hong Kong, China 1997 Road/rail
Verrazano 1298 U.S.A. 1964 Double deck
Golden Gate 1280 U.S.A. 1937 Truss
Hoga Kusten 1210 Sweden 1998 Box
Mackinac 1158 U.S.A. 1957 Truss
South Bisan 1100 Japan 1988 Road/rail
F.S. Mehmet 1090 Turkey 1988 Box
Kemal Ataturk 1074 Turkey 1973 Box
G.Washington 1067 U.S.A. 1931 Double deck
Kurushima III 1030 Japan 1999 Box
Kurushima II 1020 Japan 1999 Box
April 25th 1013 Portugal 1966 Road/rail
Forth Road 1006 U.K. 1964 Truss
Runyang Yangtze 1490 China (2005) Box
Tsing Lung 1418 Hong Kong, China u.d. Twin box

(b) Cable-Stayed Bridges

Tatara 0890 Japan 1999 Steel þ PCa
Normandy 0856 France 1995 Steel þ PC
Nanjing Yangtze II 0628 China 2001 Steel
Baishazhou Yangtze 0618 China 2000 Steel þ PC
Qingzou 0605 China 2001 Steel
Yanpu 0602 China 1995 Composite
Xupu 0590 China 1997 Composite þ PC
Meiko Central 0590 Japan 1998 Steel
Skarnsundet 0530 Norway 1991 PC
Jueshi 0518 China 1998 Steel þ PC
Tsurumi 0510 Japan 1995 Steel
Jingzhou Yangutze 0500 China 2002 PC
Nanjing Yangtze III 0648 China (2006) Steel
Stonecutters 1017 Hong Kong, China (2008) Steel
Sutong Yangtze 1088 China (2008) Steel
a
PC: prestressed concrete.

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 26-4 Handbook of Structural Engineering

has reached nearly 2 km in the 20th century, while the Messina Strait Bridge in Italy, which will also carry both
road and rail and is awaiting construction, is expected to have the formidable span length of 3300 m.
Although the concept of cable-stayed bridge was known since ancient times, the first outstanding
application of stay cables was realized by Roebling in his Niagara suspension bridge in the mid-1850s,
carrying rail and road. The same system was used for the Brooklyn Bridge also though these stays were
not effective structural components. More than a half century later, F. Dischinger proposed the com-
bined system of suspension and stay cables in 1938 but did not use it for actual construction.
The construction of modern cable-stayed bridges was led by German engineers after the Second World
War. In particular, three large bridges, Nord, Knie, and Oberkassel, built from 1956 to 1972 for the city
of Duesseldorf crossing the River Rhine, were a dramatic display of the new form. Following these early
German designs, cable-stayed bridges spread rapidly throughout the world, marked especially by a
variety of forms chosen for esthetic and technical reasons. As seen in Figure 26.1, the development of
record span length of this type has been very rapid. The longest span exceeds 800 m in the late 1990s, and
now is expected to exceed 1000 m by 2010 (see Table 26.1b). As far as the number of long-span cable-
stayed bridges is concerned, Japan and China have taken lead; in 2010, China will have eight among the
top ten longest bridges.
Since the tower and girder of a cable-stayed bridge are mostly subject to bending and compression,
concrete structures have been widely used from the early stage, even for spans as long as 500 m or more.
On the other hand, its application to short-span pedestrian bridges has been also very widespread, being
appreciated for its esthetic value and economical advantage.

26.2 Structural Cables

26.2.1 Steel Wires
Cables are naturally the most important element of a cable-supported bridge. Although eye-bar chain
was used in the early days and now the use of new composite materials is going to increase for small-span
bridges, the material most frequently employed in modern bridge cables is cold-drawn high-strength
steel wires, which have a diameter of 3 to 7 mm and ultimate tensile strength of 1.5 to 1.9 GPa.
As shown in Figure 26.2, the tensile strength of the steel wires used in suspension bridge cables
increased up to 1.8 GPa in constructing the world’s longest bridge, Akashi Kaikyo, which was completed
in 1998 by adding an appropriate amount of silicon. On the other hand, the wire element of the seven-
wire strand as used extensively for prestressed concrete, consisting of a straight core wire surrounded by
a single layer of long-pitch six wires, has already had a higher tensile strength between 1.8 and 1.9 GPa.

2.0

Akashi
1.8

Kanmon
G.Washington
Strength, GPa

1.6
Seto
Manhattan New Port

1.4
Williamsburg

1.2
Brooklyn

1800 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Year

FIGURE 26.2 Tensile strength of galvanized steel wires.

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 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-5

26.2.2 Basic Feature of Wire Cable

A wire cable has to be composed of a large number of single wires to meet the strength requirement.
A certain number of wires is often shop-assembled to form a prefabricated strand, subsequently at the
site as basic elements for the final cable by being bundled into generally a circular cross-section.
Cable strands are classified into the wire rope formed by helically twisted wires and the parallel-wire
strand (PWS), as shown in Table 26.2. A strand rope is manufactured by further twisting spiral rope
strands around a single straight core strand. Mechanical properties of a cable go down in order of the
PWS, the spiral rope, and the strand rope (see Table 26.3), while order of ease of handling is the reverse.
Due to the inferiority of mechanical properties, the strand rope is rarely used in bridge cables. Stay cables
used in cable-stayed bridges have more diversity as will be mentioned in the next section.
The cables in a cable-stayed bridge are all inclined. The actual stiffness of such an inclined cable is
lower than that of the cable material itself because of sag due to its own weight. The equivalent Young’s
modulus of an inclined cable is expressed by
E0
Eeff ¼ ð26:1Þ
1þ g l E0 =ð12s3 Þ
2 2

where E0 is Young’s modulus of the straight cable, g is the weight of the unit length cable, l is the
horizontally projected length of the cable, and s is the tensile stress in the cable [1]. Although this

TABLE 26.2 Types of Suspension Bridge Cables

Name Shape of section Structure

Parallel wire strand Wires are hexagonally

bundled in parallel

Strand rope Six strands made of several wires

are closed around a core strand

Spiral rope Wires are stranded in several

layers mainly in opposite lay directions

Deformed wires are used for the

Locked coil rope
outside layers of spiral rope

Source: Okukawa, A., Suzuki, S., and Harazaki, I., in Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000,
with permission.

TABLE 26.3 Mechanical Properties of Steel Wire Cable

Type Void ratio (%) P/NS a Elastic modulus (MPa)
Strand rope 35–42b 0.80–0.85 1.35  105
Spiral rope 23–25b 0.9 1.55  105
Locked-coil rope 10–14b 0.9 1.55  105
Parallel wire strand 11–14b 0.95–0.98 1.95  105
a
P: rupture load of strand, S: tensile strength of a wire, N: number of wire.
b
Value for a circumscribed hexagon.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 26-6 Handbook of Structural Engineering

reduction of the stiffness is practically negligible in most cases, it must be properly considered for a very
long cable or during some construction stage.
The sectional area of cables is determined on the basis of the maximum cable tension. The safety factor
of structural cables has been normally 2.0 to 2.5 for the guaranteed tensile strength, while that of main
cables of long-span suspension bridges may be a little lower. This depends on the ratio of the dead load
stress to the total stress, the nature of secondary stress, and the existence of fatigue stress.

26.2.3 Types of Bridge Cables

26.2.3.1 Spiral Rope
Spiral ropes have been used for main cables of many short- and medium-span suspension bridges,
hanger ropes of almost all suspension bridges, and stay cables of some cable-stayed bridges mainly in the
United Kingdom. When a large sectional area is required as in the case of main cables for a medium-span
suspension bridge, a certain number of spiral rope strands are arranged in parallel and usually com-
pacted in one cable. In order to remove nonelastic elongation of the spiral rope strand caused by
the compaction of the strand, prestressing is performed before erection. Because spiral ropes are
self-compacting, it is not required to wrap or provide with bands around the cable if a strand is
separately arranged.

26.2.3.2 Locked-Coil Rope

Locked-coil ropes (LCRs) are a family of spiral ropes, but noncircular or deformed wires are arranged in the
outside layers of the strand as seen in Table 26.2. The strength of the wires in an LCR is lower (1370 to
1570 MPa), while a nominal modulus of elasticity of an LCR strand is slightly higher than that of a normal
spiral rope. The Z-shaped wires of the outer layers make the LCR strand more compact owing to a very small
void ratio inside the strand, more water-tight, and less sensitive to side pressures at saddles and anchorages,
whereas an LCR is not easy to handle when compared to normal spiral ropes due to its bending stiffness.
The LCR has been widely used in steel cable-supported bridges in Europe, and even in the main cables
of suspension bridges with a main span of up to 850 m. Its maximum size so far is approximately 1250 m
in length and 180 mm in diameter.

26.2.3.3 Parallel-Wire Cable

A parallel-wire main cable of a large suspension bridge is made either by the air-spinning method
where the total cable section is assembled on site from individual wires or by the prefabricated parallel-
wire strand (PPWS) method where the PPWS fabricated at the shop is coiled around the reel and
transported to the site. The diameter of the individual wire used in suspension bridge main cables is
about 5 mm.
A PPWS with covering sheath is widely used in cable-stayed bridges. A parallel-wire bundle of
prestressing wires with a diameter of about 5 or 7 mm is incorporated as a stay cable with a
polyethylene pipe filled by cement grout as corrosion protection and with HiAm anchor sockets as the
end fittings. These parallel-wire cables have been widely used in both concrete and steel cable-stayed
bridges.

26.2.3.4 Ultra-Long Lay Cable

The idea of an ultra-long lay cable strand was initiated in the 1980s as the improved variant of
PWS parallel-wire cables. Twisting the wires up to 3 to 4 enables the wire bundle to ease reeling and
make the strand self-compacting under axial tension without spoiling the mechanical properties. These
cable strands were designated as ‘‘New PWS’’ in Japan and as ‘‘HiAm-SPWC’’ in Europe. The New PWS
is also featured by extruding high-density polyethylene (HDFE) cover directly onto the wire bundle so
that no void will exist between the outer wires and the surrounding cover. The strand is assembled by

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-7

7 mm wires and the thickest one comprises 421 wires. The longest stay cable of this type is 460 m long
with an outer diameter of 165 mm, as used in the Tatara Bridge.

26.2.3.5 Parallel-Strand Cable

The seven-wire strand that has been extensively used as tendon for a prestressed concrete structure is
the simplest and most prevalent stay cable of prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridges. As the pitch
of twisted wires is relatively long, the stiffness of the strand is close to that of a straight wire strand
and its breaking strength is even higher. For cables, the strand is normally made from 5 mm wires
and its nominal diameter is 12.7 or 15.2 mm and these strands are arranged in parallel to form a
stay cable. The number of the seven-wire strands varies from 7 to 127 depending on the required
design force.
There are a number of strand or cable systems using the seven-wire strands according to corrosion
protection, assembling method, and end-fitting techniques, for example, Freyssinet, Dywidag, VSL,
Stronghold, SEEE, ASP (at-site prefabricated cable system), and so on. The parallel-strand cables are
either shop-fabricated or site-fabricated, and sometimes their combination like SEEE. Cost saving is
attained by the site-fabrication of stay cables with individual strands pushed through a preinstalled
sheath. The corrosion protection will be illustrated later in Section 26.2.5. These types of cables have also
been applied recently to steel or steel/concrete hybrid cable-stayed bridges.

26.2.3.6 Bar Stay Cable

A bar stay cable consists of round steel bars with a diameter of 26 to 36 mm, being covered by a steel
pipe, the inside of which is filled with cement grout. The external steel tube is considered in the cable
cross-section when live load is applied. Since the length of a bar cannot be long, coupling is normally
needed. This type of stay member is scarcely used, particularly for large cable-stayed bridges.

26.2.4 End Fittings of Cable

Bridge cables are connected and anchored to the anchoring substructures or other structural members
such as the girder and towers through the end fittings.

26.2.4.1 Strand Shoes

For parallel-wire cables erected by the air-spinning method, the anchoring is generally made by looping
the wires around a strand shoe disc that is semicircular or circular and is fixed to the anchor frame
through anchoring rods.

26.2.4.2 Metallic Alloy Sockets

For prefabricated strands, either parallel-wire cables or wire ropes, both ends of the strands are fitted by
metallic alloy sockets. The socket consists of a thick-walled steel cylinder with a conical cavity, in which
the disentangled end of the strand is inserted and the molten metallic alloy is filled. The wedge action of
the hardened alloy serves the force transmission. The sockets are supported by the anchor fittings or
other anchoring members. The metallic alloy should be provided with large bonding force for wires, low
melting temperature, superplasticity, and favorable creep properties. Zn–Cu alloy with 2% Cu is usually
used for suspension bridge main cables.

26.2.4.3 Sockets for Stay Cables

The Zn–Cu alloy used in suspension bridges is also popular in the socket of the stay cables, although
Zn–Al alloy has been employed in Germany. In the case of cables of the cable-stayed bridges, the fatigue
under repeated stress due to vehicle loading and the fretting corrosion due to the abrasion of metals,
which occur at the entrance of the socket, are the problems to be considered. As exemplified in

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 26-8 Handbook of Structural Engineering

the following, a variety of high-fatigue-resistant sockets have been developed for the stay cables
(Figure 26.3):
1. HiAm anchor socket. The anchoring mechanism is mainly arch action of wires and steel balls in
the conical hole of the steel socket.

(a) Spacer plate Steel

Shim
Stop sleeve
Gasket pin Filler material

Cover plate PE pipe

Fixed
socket

Movable
socket Inner
plate

Transition
material
Tensioning thread Wire/7-Wire strand

(b) Shim
Cover
plate Button
head Steel sleeve PE jacket

Fixed
socket

Movable
socket

Gasket Transition material

Tensioning
thread
Wire DINA compound

(c) Zinc–copper alloy

Caulking material

Heat-shrinked polyethylene Epoxy resin Zinc-coated steel wire

FIGURE 26.3 Examples of high-fatigue-resistant socket: (a) HiAm anchor socket; (b) DINA anchor head; and
(c) NS anchor socket. (Adapted from M. Ohashi, Cables for Cable-Stayed Bridges, in Cable-Stayed Bridges — Recent
Developments and their Futures, M. Ito et al., Eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 125, 1991, with permission.)

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-9

2. NS socket. This consists of a hot poured Zn–Cu alloy cone and epoxy resin at the mouth of the
socket. The epoxy resin prevents fretting corrosion, buffers stress concentration, and reduce
unfavorable thermal effect of the molten alloy.
3. DINA anchor head. It consists of button heads of wires, a steel anchor head, and epoxy resin. One
of its advantages is the short length that can be accommodated into a small space.
Furthermore, various stay-cable anchorages such as Freyssinet, Dywidag, VSL, Stronghold, and SEEE,
evolved from the post-tension systems, have been applied to the cable-stayed bridges.

26.2.5 Corrosion Protection

Cable corrosion is caused by water and ion invasion from outside and by dew resulting from the
alternating dry and humid conditions inside the cable void. The corrosion protection system usually
consists of at least two barriers: the internal barrier immediately adjacent to the main tension element
and the external barrier or covering that is exposed to the outside environment and often the blocking
compound that is the corrosion inhibiting or water repelling material used to fill the voids inside the
covering [2,3]. The internal barrier for steel wires is usually a zinc galvanized barrier, but mainly in
North America, epoxy coating of individual wires or seven-wire strands has been widely used on stay
cables.
26.2.5.1 Parallel-Wire Main Cables of Suspension Bridges
The conventional method of corrosion protection for the main cables of most long-span suspension
bridges has been a covering over the zinc-galvanized parallel wires by layers of paste, wrapping with
galvanized soft wires, and painting, all of which aim at preventing water from permeating into the cable,
as seen in Figure 26.4a. The paste materials have usually been red lead, polymer organic lead, zinc dust,
or the recent lead-acid calcium, while the paint has been futal acid, rubber chloride, or polyurethane.

(a) Wrapping wire (galvanization)

Paste
Paint Cable wire (galvanization)

(b) Paint
Rubber sheet

Wrapping wire (galvanization)

Cable wire (galvanization)

FIGURE 26.4 Corrosion protection of suspension-bridge cable: (a) conventional system and (b) new system for
the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge.

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 26-10 Handbook of Structural Engineering

However, the above-mentioned system was found unsatisfactory under highly humid environments
because the conventional types of paste are not effective in protecting against water and corrosion inside
the cable occurs irrespective of the effectiveness of the paste if moisture exists in the cable. Accordingly,
new corrosion protection technologies have been introduced in the recent Japanese suspension bridges.
One is the use of a combination of aluminum triphosphate and organic lead paste and wrapping with
S-shaped deformed steel wires adopted in the Hakucho Bridge (1998), and the other is the system
consisting of, in addition to the conventional wire wrapping, the wrapping with neoprene rubber sheet
instead of paste, as shown in Figure 26.4b; the adoption of a dehumidified air-injection device has also
been used, which was used in the Akashi Kaikyo (1998) and Kurushima (1999) bridges. The rubber sheet
may be replaced by fiberglass acrylic sheet. In the latter, double layers of butane-contained rubber and
denatured silicone were used at the cable band portion.
26.2.5.2 Wire Ropes
The wires for spiral ropes are zinc galvanized and the voids are filled with a sealing compound such as
metalcoat, which is a suspension of aluminum flakes incorporated into a hydrocarbon resin carrier
suitably diluted with a solvent for ease of application.
LCRs used in Japanese cable-stayed bridges are manufactured from galvanized wires, applying a
minimum amount of lubricating oil during rope closing to avoid any concern about future stains of the
surface. The outer surfaces are usually painted after the dead load has been fully applied. In European
practice, the inner voids of the zinc-galvanized wires are filled by polyurethane with zinc dust or linseed
oil with red lead, and outer surface of the rope is coated with polyurethane. Metalcoat is also sometimes
applied as the second barrier during its fabrication.

26.2.5.3 Covering of Stay Cables

Covering the strand or cable as the external barrier has been common to other stay cables than helical
wire ropes. One of the methods was to wrap a foamed polyethylene tape with glass fiber reinforced
plastic covering over the PWS. In the early 1970s this was executed by hand-lay-up method on site, but
later prefabricated-segment method was developed to improve the workability of the hand-lay-up
method. This is to fabricate fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) segments in the shop and just to connect them
on site to form the complete covering. In this method, however, an installation of catwalk was indis-
pensable for the erection, some expansion joints had to be placed on the covering at certain intervals, and
repairing works were needed in some cable-stayed bridges after the age of 20 years or so.
The covering by a metal tube made of steel, stainless steel, or aluminum alloy has been often applied to
stay cables of concrete cable-stayed bridges although steel pipes have to be further coated. Installation of
metal pipes should be done at the erection site and their stiffness may cause some difficulty in handling
during erection when a cable is long.
Use of a FRP or polyethylene (PE) tube was initiated in 1960s. HDPE, which is a widely used material,
is selected to resist weathering, high pressure, high temperature, and external injury. At the same time,
2 to 3% carbon is mixed to protect the sheath from ultraviolet rays. Now, HDPE tubes are most popular
for both parallel-wire cables and parallel-strand cables, and either shop- or site-fabricated. When heavier
corrosion protection is needed, a double-layer PE tube is used to prevent the cracks on the outer surface
from reaching the main tension elements.
In the cases of ‘‘New PWS’’ and seven-wire strands, the covering is completely shop-fabricated by a
directly extruded HDPE sheath after coating wires with corrosion protection compound. In the former,
any further work for corrosion protection is not required at the site. Even if the PE covering is injured,
the durability of the cable can be retained for some duration because the wires are galvanized. The
repairing of the injured PE envelope can be easily done. The inspection of the cable will also be possible
by tearing off a part of the PE covering and by watching the cable from the torn PE window. Although
the original color of the PE covering is black due to the mixed carbon, cable coloring techniques have
been developed. One is to extrude a colored thin fluoro-polymer on the black PE layer; another method
is a paint coating system that consists of an application of primer made from adhesive components for

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-11

PE envelope and for the finish coat, and a baking of the primer with a far-infrared ray. The finish coat is
usually done by fluoro-olefin paint. The light color is preferred not only for good looks but also for
reducing the temperature effect. Supplementary wrapping with colored Tedler tapes is an alternative.

26.2.5.4 Blocking Compound

Cement grout has been the most popular blocking compound for its alkaline properties providing an
active corrosion protection to the steel wires. Cement mortar is injected after the stay cables are erected
on the bridge when the cable is under full dead load stress to suppress the formation of cracks in the
grout, because the presence of cracks may be associated with the potential for fretting corrosion of steel
wires. However, cracks may still occur due to shrinkage of cement mortar and stress repetition under
cyclic live loading.
Another problem of cement grout combined with galvanized steel wires is a fear of hydrogen brit-
tlement caused by reaction of zinc and cement milk. In order to avoid it, the nongalvanized wires or the
galvanized wires coated with polyester to isolate zinc from cement milk have been used in this case.
Another measure is to substitute normal Portland cement by polymer cement, the advantages of which
are that it is far more ductile, does not shrink after grouting nor bleed during placing, does not require
special technique and equipment, and that it can be used in combination with galvanized wire without
a fear of chemical reaction between the zinc layer and the cement. On the other hand, its disadvantages
are relatively high materials cost and temperature-dependent viscosity and hardening. Cement grout
plasticized with polyurethane was used in some bridges.
An example of alternatives to cementitious grout once used by the Honshu Shikoku Bridge Authority
in Japan was synthetic resin material based on polybutadiene. This two-component material has very low
viscosity during pouring, is very flexible after hardening, and has such low density as about a half of that
of cement grout. But the material and execution costs were high and it is highly temperature dependent
and flammable. Epoxy resin is specified in the American Society for Testing and Materials provisions
as a filling material into the interstices of epoxy-coated seven-wire prestressing strands.
Other blocking compounds are grease used on PWS or prestressing strands and wax for parallel-strand
cables. The petroleum is injected in a liquid state at temperatures of 85 to 105 C, which solidifies upon
cooling. However, it shrinks during the cooling process and cracks may develop. A soft petroleum base
wax that can be applied at ambient temperature on the monostrand system seems promising [4]. It has a
melting point over 260 C and displaces any moisture on the surface of steel. In any case, grease and wax
are to be used in combination with other corrosion protection measures. It is noted that the nongrout
type PWS, which is completely fabricated in the shop, is now available.

26.2.6 Vibration Control

Wind-induced vibrations of stay cables have revealed themselves after the introduction of multistay
systems with thin and long cables covered by PE sheath having a smooth surface. The long hangers of a
suspension bridge using similar cables are also vulnerable to vibrations under wind. Among several kinds
of wind-induced vibrations considered on cables, those where special care should be taken are vortex
excitation, wake galloping, and rain/wind-induced vibration. Although tentative or approximate stability
criteria for typical vibratory phenomena have been proposed [5], these wind-induced vibrations are
dependent on the local terrain features and the peculiar conditions of the respective structural elements.
The following measures are generally considered to suppress the wind-induced vibrations of cables
when the responses are not acceptable:
1. Increase of structural stiffness and natural frequency.
2. Increase of structural damping.
3. Modification of the cable surface.
Points (1) and (2) are categorized as mechanical or structural means, while point (3) is the aero-
dynamic means to weaken the exciting mechanisms by disturbing or reducing wind-induced dynamic

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 26-12 Handbook of Structural Engineering

forces acting on the cable. However, because the exciting mechanisms of different vibratory phenomena
differ, the countermeasures shall fit for the phenomenon concerned.
Occurrence of wake galloping depends on the spacing of neighboring parallel cables. Very small
spacing or quite wide spacing, more than six times the cable diameter, can remarkably moderate the
response. If these conditions cannot be satisfied for other design reasons or when undesirable wake
galloping is observed after erection, the cable vibration can be suppressed by connecting both cables
by a few spacers or small mechanical dampers.
One of the common countermeasures that has been often adopted is to connect the cables with
secondary thin cables which may terminate at a cable or at the deck (tie-down cable). Even with a few and
small stabilizing ropes, cable movement can be restrained. The natural frequencies of each cable and thus
the resistance to dynamic excitation can be raised by shortening the effective free length of the primary
cables. Such elements may be also sources of additional damping. But even if the size of stabilizing ropes is
significantly smaller than that of the primary cables, they may affect the appearance of the structure to
some extent. Furthermore, the rupture of these interconnecting ropes or the fatigue failure of the con-
nection fittings have been reported in several bridges. Viscoelastic bushings or special clamps with
damping devices in the joint of the both cables can reduce fatigue and provide additional damping.
Increase of structural damping is effective in suppressing the amplitude of buffeting, vortex excitation,
and rain/wind-induced vibration and in raising the critical wind speed for the onset of galloping. It is
first recommended to place such damping material as neoprene ring or high-damping rubber between
the cable and the steel exit pipe at the pylon and deck anchorage. Use of damping material results in the
additional benefit of reduced local bending moment in the cable. Further additional damping, if
necessary, can be provided by mechanical damping devices. Very simple and small tuned mass dampers
represented by the classical Stockbridge damper that has been prevailing on transmission power lines
were applied to stay cables or diagonal hangers of some European cable-supported bridges, but is not
very popular now for esthetic reasons.
When rather high additional damping is required, the most prevalent method in cable-stayed bridges
is to install a dash-pot type viscous damper between the stay cable and the bridge deck. Shock absorbers
similar to those used in automobiles or hydraulic oil dampers are the examples. These dampers shall not
spoil the appearance of the bridge. The mechanical dampers utilizing shear-viscous material can be more
compact. The attached position of these dampers influences the mode shape and the dampening effect of
the cables. It is not easy to make a compromise between the requirement to lower the damper position
and the efficacy of the damper when the cable is long.
The aerodynamic countermeasures for the round cables are to modify the sheath surface. The idea of
helical fins often used on circular stacks to prevent vortex excitation will be also effective against rain
vibration, but care shall be taken on the appearance. The idea of axial protuberances in the form of
longitudinal ribs on the HDPE tube surface was developed in the Higashi Kobe Bridge in Japan
(Figure 26.5a), aiming at preventing the rain vibration. A similar idea was later seen in the more simpler
HDPE sheaths with fine grooves. Further on the Tatara Bridge, HDPE sheaths are provided a pattern-
indented surface with roughness of 1% applied disorderly in a convex or a concave pattern
(Figure 26.5b). The effect of these surface modifications is linked to influence the water rivulets.
However, it should be noted that these means are not necessarily effective in suppressing vortex exci-
tation and that the drag coefficient may be increased. In case of the Tatara Bridge, however, the drag
coefficient in the supercritical Reynolds number range could be reduced to 0.6.

26.2.7 Use of Composite Materials

A fiber-reinforced polymer composite or a FRP is a matrix of polymeric material reinforced by fibers or
other reinforcement that has a discernible aspect ratio of length to thickness. Reinforcements are fibers
made from glass, carbon, or aramid, and the polymer resin can be either thermoset or thermoplastic.
Thermosets are typically used for construction applications and can be polyester, vinyl ester, phenolic, or
epoxy. FRP composites have been used in a variety of engineering products.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-13

(a) (b)

FIGURE 26.5 High-density polyethylene sheath of (a) the Higashi Kobe and (b) the Tatara bridges.

TABLE 26.4 Mechanical Properties of Different Cable Materials

Material Specific gravity Tensile strength (MPa) Young’s modulus (MPa) Failure strain
Steel 7.85 1750–1900 200 6
Aramid fiber 1.35 1400–1800 50–70 2–4
Glass fiber 1.85 600–900 30 2
Carbon fiber 1.55 1900–2300 120–400 0.6–1.9

FRP composites have many advantages as structural materials such as high strength, relatively
high elastic modulus, light weight, long-term durability, high dielectric strength, low axial thermal
expansion, low maintenance, design flexibility, tailored esthetic appearance, and low tooling and
installed costs. On the other hand, their demerits are the rupture without yielding, low elastic modulus
of some kinds of the materials, anisotropic properties, low shear and impact resistance, and high
material cost that may be gradually improved by the progress of manufacturing technology and
widespread use.
Although the use of FRP composites is now becoming popular in structural engineering, carbon
fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) as a cable material seems the most ideal application. Actually, CFRP
stay cables have already been employed on several cable-stayed bridges for pedestrian use. In the far
future, CFRP or some other FRPs may be used for the main cables of suspension bridges and greatly
increase the limiting span length. The mechanical properties of different cable materials are shown in
Table 26.4.
CFRP cables are produced as assemblies of the wires made up of carbon fibers and an epoxy resin
matrix. The design considerations for cables made of unidirectional CFRP wires are similar to those
for steel cables, with a few exceptions due to the highly anisotropic nature of the material. So far,
CFRP stay cables have been made by twisting CFRP wires. Although twisted fiber rope makes coiling
possible, resulting in ease in handling, care must be taken on the strength loss of the wires in a
bundle and friction between wires. Since the decrease in cable strength is also brought by side

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 26-14 Handbook of Structural Engineering

pressure and bending, the diameter of a reel and the radius of curvature of the saddle should not be
small. As the strength of epoxy resin deteriorates by the effect of ultraviolet radiation, the CFRP
cables shall be protected by covering.
The trial design of a super-long-span suspension bridge for which CFRP main cables are used indicates
that the bending moment and vertical deflection of the stiffening girder significantly increase due to the
light weight of the structure [6], while the dimensions of towers and foundations can be greatly reduced.
It is recommended to reduce the sag/span ratio of the main cables.

26.3 Suspension Bridges

26.3.1 Structural System
26.3.1.1 Components of a Suspension Bridge
A suspension bridge typically consists of the following components (Figure 26.6):
1. Main cables that suspend the bridge deck.
2. Main towers that support the main cables. Sometimes lower subtowers are positioned between the
main tower and the cable anchorage to lead the cable to the anchorage.
3. Stiffening girder, either solid-web girder or truss, being incorporated with the bridge deck.
4. Hangers or suspenders that connect the bridge deck with the main cables.
5. Anchorages that anchor the main cable. They are usually massive concrete blocks, in which the
anchor frame is embedded.
In very special situations occasionally encountered in short-span bridges, some components other
than the main cables and the bridge deck may be omitted.

26.3.1.2 Classification
The structural system of suspension bridges may be classified by the following factors:
Number of spans. A suspension bridge may be single-span, two-span, three-span, or multispan. The
number of main towers is one for two-span, two for single- and three-span, and more than two for
multispan bridges (Figure 26.7). Two-span suspension bridges have been rare because they are less
efficient as recognized from Equation 26.2. Single-span suspension bridges have straight backstays.
Three-span suspension bridges are the most popular, in particular for long-span bridges and the ratio of
side spans to main span is mostly 0.2 to 0.5. Although multispan suspension bridges have been rare
because of great flexibility, their applicability is being studied for the future straits crossings [7].
The major concerns about multispan suspension bridges are the design of intermediate towers and
cable erection.

Side span Main span Side span

Hangers Main cable

sag Main cable

Tower Cable anchorage

Stiffening girder

FIGURE 26.6 Suspension bridge.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-15

FIGURE 26.7 Single-, three-, and multispan suspension bridge (from top).

Continuity of stiffening girder. The stiffening girders are typically either simply supported on each span
or continuous over two or more spans. The former is called two-hinged and commonly used for road
bridges. Although continuous girder with intermediate supports is not economical as also recognized
from Equation 26.2, it is advantageous for a rail bridge to improve runnability of trains. Furthermore,
in the Great Belt Bridge, which is a road bridge with a center span of 1624 m, the girder is continuously
supported by the cable system through three spans. The economical design was attained in this case by
omitting the vertical support of the girder at the towers and fixing the main cables to the stiffening girder
by clamps at the midspan.
Arrangement of hangers. Hangers are either vertical or diagonal. The latter makes the entire suspended
structure a kind of truss incorporated with the main cables and the bridge deck.
Method of cable anchoring. The main cables of a suspension bridge are either externally anchored to
the anchor blocks or self-anchored to the stiffening girder. Although the latter is rare, a more detailed
description will be made in the following.
26.3.1.3 Self-Anchored Suspension Bridge [8]
Self-anchored suspension bridges do not require massive end anchor blocks. Instead, the main cables are
anchored to the stiffening girder. Accordingly, the girder is subject to large axial force in addition to
bending and shear, and the girder must be placed before the main cables are erected. Therefore, this type
of structure is limited to moderate spans. Recent examples of the self-anchored suspension bridge are the
Konohana Bridge in Japan (1990, three spans), the Yongjong Bridge in Korea (2000, three-span double-
deck truss), and the replaced San Francisco Oakland Bay East Bridge (two spans). The first two bridges
have 300 m center span, whereas the span of the Bay Bridge will be 385 m long. The Konohana Bridge is a
monocable type, while two main cables of the other two bridges are converged at the peaked tower top.

26.3.2 Analysis of Suspension Bridges

Because a suspension bridge is very flexible and the bridge deck is suspended from the main cables by
thin hangers, a different approach from other types of bridge structures should be taken in its analysis.
26.3.2.1 Behavior under Vertical Loads
The overall behavior of a suspension bridge is given by the deflection theory where the vertical deflection
of cables due to live load is considered in the equilibrium of the structure. The premised assumptions in
this case are (1) the cable is completely flexible, (2) the stiffening girder is horizontal and straight, (3) the
original form of the main cable is a parabola, (4) all dead loads are sustained by the main cable, and
(5) the hangers are inextensible and closely spaced. Thus, the bending moment M(x) of the stiffening
girder under live load is given by
MðxÞ ¼ M0 ðxÞ  Hp yðxÞ  ðHw þ Hp ÞvðxÞ ð26:2Þ

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 26-16 Handbook of Structural Engineering

where M0(x) is the bending moment due to the live load in a beam without cables, having the same span
length, y(x) is the ordinate of the cable, measured from the straight line connecting cable supports, v(x)
is the vertical deflection due to live load, Hw and Hp are the horizontal components of cable tension due
to dead load and live load, respectively.
It is understood from the above equation that the stiffening girder of a suspension bridge subject to
vertical live load can be replaced by the beam shown in Figure 26.8, and the bending moment in the
stiffening girder decreases with increase of cable tension and deflection. The longer the span length is,
the more conspicuous this effect becomes. In other words, the cable tension very much contributes to
the stiffness of a suspension bridge, and since almost all dead loads are sustained by the main cable, the
stiffening girder of a suspension bridge is not necessary to be so stiff even if the span is long.

26.3.2.2 Behavior under Horizontal Load

Lateral forces caused by wind or earthquake in horizontal direction are to be transmitted from the
stiffening girder to the main cables through flexible hangers because the deformation of the girder is
larger than that of the main cables due to the difference of the horizontal loads and their stiffness. This
effect is more pronounced as seen in Figure 26.9 in the center region of the span owing to large
inclination of hangers. Consequently, the lateral bending moment induced in the girder is not so large
in the region of the mid-span.

26.3.2.3 Design Analysis

Equation 26.2 indicates the nonlinearity between live load and the bridge responses. In long-span
suspension bridges, however, Hw þ Hp can be assumed nearly constant because Hw is much larger than
Hp, and therefore the analysis becomes quasilinear and the influence line analysis can be used on the
conservative side (the linearized deflection theory) [9]. This simplified treatment is useful in a very early
stage of preliminary design.
More accurate analysis shall be performed at the subsequent design stages including detailed design.
With the progress of computer application nowadays, the finite displacement analysis for the entire

P −Hpd2y /d2x

Hw + Hp Hw + Hp

FIGURE 26.8 The equivalent beam of a suspension bridge.

Pc (x, t)

h

Pf (x, t)
v

FIGURE 26.9 Transverse deformation of a suspension bridge under wind load.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-17

suspension bridge structure is available taking into account the discreteness and elongation of hangers,
deformation of towers, and so on.

26.3.3 Design Procedure

After the type of structural system and the span arrangement are decided, the design of suspension
bridge superstructure is performed according to the procedure shown in Figure 26.10 [10].
26.3.3.1 Design Loads
Accurate evaluation of dead load is important in suspension bridge design because its contribution to
the main components of the bridge is large. Design live load can be reduced from a probabilistic
viewpoint with increasing span length and road width. The dynamic magnification due to running
vehicles is usually negligible for design of the main cables, towers, and stiffening girder of a large
suspension bridge owing to its long span and low natural frequencies.
The dynamic analysis is inevitable in seismic and wind-resistant design of flexible suspension bridges.
Although the seismic forces induced in the superstructure are relatively small due to its long natural
period, attention should be paid on possible large displacement of the stiffening girder and great forces
transferred to the supports under seismic loading. Aerodynamic stability often dominates the design of
a suspension bridge and some appropriate cures may be needed (cf. Chapter 9 of Section II) [11].

Start

Initial conditions
Configuration
Span length
Cable sag
Assumption of members
Dead load
Stiffness

In-plane analysis Out-of-plane analysis Dynamic analysis

(seismic analysis)
Live load Wind load Earthquake

Analysis of the tower

Design of members
Cables
Stiffening girder Design of tower members

No Verification Verification No
of the assumed value of the aerodynamic
of member stability

Yes Yes

End

FIGURE 26.10 Design process of a suspension bridge superstructure.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 26-18 Handbook of Structural Engineering

26.3.3.2 Main Cables

The final form of the main cable of a suspension bridge is a parabola. Sag/span ratio is determined to
optimize construction cost of the entire bridge, and sometimes in consideration of the aerodynamic
stability as it affects the dynamic characteristics of the entire structure. In general, the sag/span ratio is
1
around 10 irrespective of span length.
As mentioned in Section 26.2.2, the parallel-wire cable is exclusively used in very long-span bridges,
whereas the spiral ropes or LCRs have been sometimes adopted in moderate- or short-span suspension
bridges.
26.3.3.3 Hangers
Hanger cables are arranged to be either vertical or diagonal (forming a truss). The latter aimed at
increasing the damping properties and stiffness of the structure, and was first adopted in the Severn
Bridge in the United Kingdom in 1966, followed by two large suspension bridges in Europe. But it was
abandoned afterwards due to the fatigue injuries in the Severn Bridge.
The spiral or strand ropes have been widely used on the hangers of suspension bridges. Exceptions are
the LCRs as in the Little Belt Bridge in Denmark and the PWS in the latest Japanese suspension bridges
(Akashi and Kurushima). The hangers are connected to the main cable either by pin or by laying around
the cable.

26.3.3.4 Main Towers

To meet the condition that the longitudinal movement of the main cable at the tower top should be
theoretically allowed in a suspension bridge, towers are classified into rigid (saddle on rollers at the tower
top), rocking (hinged at the tower base), and flexible types. Nowadays, the rocking type and flexible type
are used in short-span and long-span bridges, respectively. In the case of the intermediate tower(s) of a
multispan suspension bridge, the main cables may be fixed by anchoring them to the top of the rigid
tower. The tower height above the deck is governed by the sag of the main cable.
Except the A-shaped tower used on some self-anchored suspension bridges or pedestrian bridges, the
main towers consist of basically two vertical shafts connected to each other with horizontal struts at the
top and underneath the bridge deck. Between these struts and between the lower strut and tower base,
two shafts are often connected by additional strut(s) (portal-type tower) or diagonal members (braced-
type tower). The vertical shafts can be slightly inclined. The member axis of inclined shafts typically
coincides with the center line of the main cable at the tower top.
The main towers of suspension bridges may be made of either steel or concrete. Although almost all
stiffening girders are steel structures, reinforced concrete towers have been prevalent in the recent
European and Chinese bridges. Since the flexible towers are subject to both compression and bending,
strength as well as elastic stability analysis shall be carefully conducted.
The steel tower shaft has a closed section consisting of stiffened plates. The outline of the cross-section
is a rectangular, T-, or cross-shape. The latter two shapes are composed of multicells. The tower base
where axial force, lateral force, and bending moment are transmitted into the foundation is either
grillage (bearing transmission type) or embedded type (shear transmission type). On the other hand, the
shaft of concrete towers has a rectangular hollow section. Since the main towers of a suspension bridge
is outstanding and symbolic, esthetic consideration should be taken into account in its configuration.

26.3.3.5 Stiffening Girder (Bridge Deck)

The role of the stiffening girder is not only to give stiffness to the entire structure but to distribute the
loads applied after the completion and transfer them to the main cables through hangers. However, since
the stiffness provided by cable tension is quite large in long-span suspension bridges and almost all the
dead load is sustained by the main cables, the rigidity of the stiffening girder may be not so large even if
the span length is long. On the other hand, because the torsional rigidity of the stiffening girder is
significant to ensure the flutter stability of a suspension bridge under wind, it is intended to constitute
closed box effects structurally even if the girder is a trussed structure, by providing with both upper and

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-19

lower lateral bracings. The ratio of fundamental natural frequencies in torsion and in bending is
recommended to be 2.0 or higher.
Although short-span bridges are often provided with I-girders, the stiffening girder of a long-span
suspension bridge is usually either a truss girder or a box girder. Its design is mainly governed by the
function such as traffic requirement, the necessary stiffness, and aerodynamic stability, as well as the site
conditions of erection and maintenance. Selecting an aerodynamically stable cross-section has usually
priority. Use of either streamlined box section or the section with openings such as a truss of small
solidity factor and steel open-grating floor will meet this requirement. Three typical examples of the
stiffening girder are shown in Figure 26.11. Although a truss girder has been used on double-deck

(a) 22,860

3,050
31,860

(b) 36,000

7,232

41,000

(c) 35,500
14,000

FIGURE 26.11 Examples of stiffening girder of modern suspension bridge: (a) Severn Bridge; (b) Tsing Ma Bridge
and (c) Akashi Kaikyo Bridge.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 26-20 Handbook of Structural Engineering

bridges, adoption of big fairings on both sides of the cross-section and longitudinal openings on upper
and lower decks features the Tsing Ma Bridge in Hong Kong (Figure 26.11b).
Even if the stiffening girder is simply supported, both supports are designed as movable shoes in long-
span suspension bridges; that is, the stiffening girder is suspended by tower links at the tower and end
links at the abutment. The wind bearings preventing transverse displacement of the girder are installed
on the horizontal strut of the tower and on the abutment. When no vertical support is provided at the
tower, the lateral support at the tower can be accomplished by applying vertical sliding bearings between
the girder and the inner surfaces of the tower shafts as in the case of the Great Belt Bridge.
In many long-span suspension bridges, the stiffening girder is fixed to the main cables at the center of
main span by either rigid clamps or diagonal stays, which are called the center tie and the center diagonal
stay, respectively. These aim at constraining the asymmetric vibration mode of torsion and the relative
longitudinal displacement between the cables and the girder, resulting in the reduction of secondary
bending stress in short hangers and the increase of longitudinal restoring force of the girder. In the case
of the diagonal stay, it may be proportioned to fail at a certain service limit state.

26.3.4 Stress Ribbon Bridge

Stress ribbon bridges are a kind of earth-anchored suspension bridges (Figure 26.12). The stretched
cables are encased in the concrete slab which is used as the bridge deck. As understood from
Equation 26.2, the cable tension due to the dead load and prestressing, in addition to bending rigidity of
the deck slab, contribute to the stiffness of the entire bridge. Although the sagged form is inevitable in the
stress ribbon bridge, the maximum longitudinal slope is limited from the function of the bridge. On the
other hand, very large tensile force in the cable is associated with increase of the cost. Therefore, this type
of structure has been applied so far to the pedestrian bridges having short or moderate span length,
although the structure is efficient, very slender, and elegant. In their design, care should be taken in
forming a smooth transition between the slab and the abutments [12].

26.3.5 Erection
26.3.5.1 Towers
The control of erection accuracy in holding verticality is very important in tower construction. Steel
towers are erected by using tower cranes and creeper traveler cranes. When open water area is available,
floating cranes are sometimes used together. Because very tall and slender steel towers are vulnerable to
wind-induced vibrations, in particular during the free standing stage of erection, some damping devices

116,000
5,500 105,000 5,500
4,500
4,500

6,500
6,500

FIGURE 26.12 An example of stress ribbon bridge.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-21

1 Live wire 3
2
Dead wire

1 Spinning wheel 2 Wire

3 Wire reel 4 Stand shoe

FIGURE 26.13 Operating principle of aerial spinning. (Source: Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority, Technology of
the Seto-Ohashi Bridge, Japan, 1989, with permission.)

are often installed. In the case of the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, a set of tuned mass dampers are left as
permanent fixtures inside the shafts. In constructing concrete towers, the towers are slip-formed in a
continuous operation, employing self-climbing forms, tower cranes, and concrete-pumping buckets.
26.3.5.2 Main Cables
The erection of parallel-wire main cables of a suspension bridge is executed by either aerial spinning (AS)
method or prefabricated strand (PPWS) method. In the former, the total cable section is assembled on
site from individual 5 mm wires pulled across an anchorage to the other anchorage over the tower
saddles. The conventional sag-control method spans individual wires in free-hang condition and the sag
of each wire is individually adjusted to ensure the wires to be of equal length (Figure 26.13). The problem
of this method was the sensitiveness of the quality of the cables and the erection period to such site
working conditions as wind environment and spinning equipment.
A new method that is called the tension-control method was developed in Japan (Figure 26.14) and
has been applied not only to the Japanese bridges but also to the Second Bosporus and Great Belt
bridges. Although adjustment of individual strands is still required, the idea of this method is to keep the
tension in the wire constant during cable spinning to obtain uniform wire lengths.
On the other hand, the PPWS method was introduced to reduce the labor and the weather sensitivity
and consequently to speed up erection work. Although the limitation of this method may lie in the
weight of the strand and the size of the reel, it was successfully applied to the world’s longest Akashi
Kaikyo Bridge, requiring strands with a length of 4000 m and a strand plus reel weight of 95 tons.
Now that the AS and PPWS methods have been improved step by step and experience has been gained,
the method undertaken depends on the cost and period of construction at the specific site or area.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 26-22 Handbook of Structural Engineering

Forward
2 1

Return

1 Reel (tension control) 2 Spinning wheel

3 Live wire guide roller

FIGURE 26.14 Operating principle of tension control method. (Source: Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority,
Technology of the Seto-Ohashi Bridge, Japan, 1989, with permission.)

26.3.5.3 Stiffening Girder

The erection of the stiffening girder in the main span of a suspension bridge proceeds either from the
mid-span to the both towers (girder-section method) or vice versa (cantilevering method). The former is
typically applied to the box-type girder. The prefabricated blocks of the girder are transported to the site
by deck barges and tugboats and lifted up to the designated position. Then the blocks are connected with
hinges and finally welded or bolted together. In the case of the Kurushima Kaikyo bridges in Japan, a self-
controlled barge maintaining its position by means of computer monitoring and a quick-joint system
shortening the erection time were developed and used to cope with the fast and complex tidal currents at
the site.
On the other hand, the cantilevering method is typically adopted when the open sea area cannot be
utilized for erection or when a trussed stiffening girder is to be erected. Preassembled panels of the truss
girder are erected by cantilevering them from the towers and anchorage blocks. If the situation allows,
some large blocks are erected by floating cranes.
The connections of the girder section during erection is temporarily hinged or rigidly connected. In
the former case, the joints are loosely connected until all sections are positioned. It enables simple and
easy analysis of the behavior of the structure under erection and usually temporary reinforcement of the
members is not needed, while the countermeasures against wind instability should be taken if necessary.
In the rigid-connection method, full-splice joints are immediately completed as each girder block is
erected into place. This keeps the girder smooth and rigid, resulting in high construction accuracy. But
temporary reinforcement of the girders and hangers to resist transient excessive stresses or controlled
operation to avoid overstress will be sometimes required.

26.4 Cable-Stayed Bridges

26.4.1 Layout of Structural System
A cable-stayed bridge is considered a girder elastically supported at the anchoring points of stay cables,
but the girder is subjected to not only bending and shear but also axial forces due to the horizontal
component of tension in stay cables (Figure 26.15). The degree of statical indeterminacy increases with
increasing number of stay cables. The jacking devices arranged at the cable anchorages can not only
adjust for relaxation in the cables or errors in the cable length but also modify the cable forces, and hence
the prestressing by cables can improve the dead load stress distribution in the girder.
The wide design possibility is available in cable-stayed bridges because of a variety of alternatives
for configuration, structural system, and relative stiffness of each element. This is the reason why

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-23

FIGURE 26.15 The equivalent beam of a cable-stayed bridge.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 26.16 Typical cable-stayed bridges: (a) partially earth-anchored two-span bridge and (b) three-span
bridge with intermediate piers in the side span.

cable-stayed bridges can be applied to not only very long-span bridges but also to short-span pedestrian
bridges. In contrast to a suspension bridge, a cable-stayed bridge is typically a closed structural system; in
other words, mostly a self-anchored system. Since a cable-stayed bridge can be built usually without
massive anchor block and temporary staging, it is particularly advantageous in areas where the soil
condition is not so good.
As compared with a suspension bridge, the stiffness of a cable-stayed bridge is greater because the
cables are straight though the limit span length of the former may be longer than the latter.
26.4.1.1 Alignment of Bridge
Although most bridges are straight or skewed, a cable-stayed bridge can be designed as a curved bridge.
The Katsushika Harp Bridge in Tokyo has the bridge axis forming an S-shape curve because of the
complex site conditions from the adjacent rivers and road alignment. The anchors of single-plane stay
cables were positioned symmetrically with respect to the tower, so as to minimize the transverse bending
moment in the tower. The girder of a curved bridge should be torsion-stiff.
26.4.1.2 Span Allocation
Although the three-span structure is most prevalent, two-span layouts are widely acceptable in a cable-
stayed bridge. Even the asymmetric span allocation can be designed economically and be esthetically
pleasing. When the side spans are very short, all or some of the stay cables may be earth-anchored
(Figure 26.16a). The earth-anchored stay cables make the whole structure stiffer and hence more
advantageous in planning super-long-span cable-stayed bridges.
If the situation allows, it is advantageous to provide the intermediate piers in the side spans
(Figure 26.16b) or to extend the suspended side spans continuously toward further one or a few spans in
order to increase the stiffness of the entire structure.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 26-24 Handbook of Structural Engineering

On the other hand, multispan cable-stayed bridges are also attractive. Examples are the Maracaibo
Bridge (cantilevered multispan P/C bridge, 235 m span) in Venezuela built in 1962, the Mezcara Bridge
(167 þ 311.4 þ 299.5 þ 191 m) in Mexico built in 1994, the Ting Kau Bridge (127 þ 448 þ 475 þ 127 m)
in Hong Kong built in 1998, the Rion Antirion Bridge (286 þ 3  560 þ 286 m) in Greece built in 2004,
and the Millau Viaduct (204 þ 6  342 þ 204 m) in France also built in 2004.

26.4.1.3 Multiple-Span Bridge

When a cable-stayed bridge has more than three spans, the bending moment in the intermediate towers
may be very large or the structure will be subject to large deformations under the action of live load. In
order to cope with the problem, various alternative methods (Figure 26.17) such as using rigid frame
towers (Rion-Antirion Bridge), tying the tower tops of each other with horizontal cables, tying the tower
tops to the girder and tower intersection point at the adjacent towers (Tsing Kau Bridge), adding
additional tie-down piers at span centers, or crossing cables at mid-spans can be employed [13]. Since
these methods has merits and demerits, an appropriate measure shall be selected depending upon the
conditions of the respective bridge.

26.4.1.4 Cable Arrangement

In the longitudinal direction, stay cables are arranged to be single-plane or two-plane. In the former,
cable anchorages at the girder are positioned at the central reserve and the girder should be torsion-stiff.
But the single-plane arrangement has such advantages as the reduced size of substructures and the better
visual impression given to both users and viewer, while it has naturally shorter limiting span length

FIGURE 26.17 Alternate solutions for multispan cable-stayed bridges (from top: rigid intermediate pylons; head-
cables connecting tower tops; cables connecting tower top and an adjacent pylon at the deck level; overlapped stays
in the mid-span area). (Adapted from Virlogeux, M., Struct. Eng. Int., IABSE, 1, 61, 2001, with permission.)

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-25

compared with a two-plane cable system: currently the Tsurumi Bridge in Yokohama, Japan, has the
maximum span length of 510 m. On the other hand, the double-plane system may be formed either as
two vertical planes or as twin inclined planes connected from the edge of the deck to either an A frame or
inverted Y frame tower. Inclined stays increase the stiffness and stability, particularly in torsion, of the
structure and are advantageous for very long spans.
Viewing from the transverse direction, the cable arrangement can be classified into harp, fan, and
radial types (Figure 26.18). Although the fan-type system is popular because of the advantages in
proportioning bridge components, the harp-type cable system is sometimes preferred for either pleasing
appearance or more constraint upon longitudinal displacement of the bridge deck.
The use of a small number of stay cable(s) with large diameter has shifted to a multistay system since
the end of the 1960s. The closely spaced multistay system has such advantages that additional bending
moment in the girder is reduced, a stay cable is individually replaceable, and the anchorage details
become more compact and simple.

26.4.1.5 Extradosed Prestressed Concrete Bridge

In an extradosed prestressed concrete bridge, the concept of which was first proposed by a French
engineer U. Mathivat, the cables behave as external prestressing with a large eccentricity and the girder
provides a significant part of the global load carrying capacity of the superstructure, whereas a typical
cable-stayed bridge has a more flexible deck and relies on the stay cables to provide the global vertical
load carrying capacity for the structure. In appearance, however, it is difficult to distinguish an extra-
dosed bridge (e.g., Figure 26.19) from a cable-stayed bridge. Its apparent feature is lower towers and
thick deck as compared with a cable-stayed bridge.
Extradosed bridges are used to span normally 100 to 200 m, but the Kiso River Bridge
(160 þ 3  275 þ 160 m) and the Ibi River Bridge (154 þ 4  271.5 þ 157 m) near Nagoya, Japan, could
span about 275 m by using the steel box girders in the middle part of main span.

(a)

Radial type

(b)

Fan type

(c)

Harp type

FIGURE 26.18 Stay-cable layout.

FIGURE 26.19 Extradosed bridge.

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 26-26 Handbook of Structural Engineering

26.4.2 Configuration and Design of Structural Components

26.4.2.1 Stay Cables
Since the types, corrosion protection, and vibration control of cables were already mentioned in Section
26.2, just the anchoring techniques of cables in cable-stayed steel bridges will be reviewed herein.
The structural details to anchor stay cables at the main girder or the tower shall be designed so as to
smoothly transmit cable tension to the main structural component, to be as simple and compact as
possible, to be easy in fabrication and maintenance, and to have good appearance. Care shall be also
taken on the fatigue and secondary stresses of both cables and anchorages. Although the types of
structural details are manifold, the typical ones are given in the Sections 26.4.2.1.1 and 26.4.2.1.2.

26.4.2.1.1 The Stay Anchor at the Girders

1. Spray saddle/anchor girder type — The combination of spray saddle and anchor girder has been
used for thick cables, but is not prevailing now.
2. Anchor girder (block) type — The anchor girder or the anchor block is inserted in the main girder
by welding or bolting.
3. Bracket type — The bracket that anchors the stay cable is projected outside the main girder.
4. Pipe anchor type — The pipe that anchors the stay cable is incorporated with the web of a main
girder.
5. Gusset type — The cable socket is connected to the gusset extended from the web of a main girder.

26.4.2.1.2 The Stay Anchor at the Tower

In the earlier bridges having a small number of thick stay cables, the hinged or fixed saddle over which
cables are continuous was used. But nowadays, use of thin stay cables is prevailing and the typical types
of anchorage are as follows:
1. Saddle type (e.g., Zarate-Brazo Largo Bridge, Yokohama Bay Bridge).
2. Anchor girder type (e.g., Speyer Bridge, Tempozan Bridge).
3. Bearing plate type (e.g., Kurt-Schumacher Bridge, Torikai-Ninnaji Bridge).
4. Pin-socket type (e.g., Stroemsund Bridge, John O’Connel Memorial Bridge).

26.4.2.2 Towers
Since the action of stay cables becomes inefficient with decreasing inclination, the stay inclination is
usually taken as 25 to 65 , or the tower height of a cable-stayed bridge is around 14 to 15 of the main span
and hence much taller than that of a suspension bridge with equivalent scale.
Almost all towers of the recent cable-stayed bridges are made of concrete though steel towers were used
on the earlier steel bridges and presently almost all Japanese bridges have steel girders. Now concrete
towers can be used for very long-span cable-stayed bridges such as the Normandy Bridge over the Seine
(850 m span) and the Su-Tong Yangtze River Bridge (the world’s longest span 1088 m) now under
construction in China, with advances in concrete construction and formwork technology. In the
Stonecutters Bridge (1018 m span) now under construction in Hong Kong, the top one third of 290 m
high single-pylon tower will be a composite steel/concrete structural section. The steel skin will be
fabricated from stainless steel for reasons of appearance and durability.
Development of bending moment in pylons was prevented in the earlier bridges by the use of rocker or
sliding saddles and pinned tower feet, but those of recent bridges except for very short spans are mostly
made integral with the pier or sometimes with the girder.
Wider choice is available in the tower form of a cable-stayed bridge as compared with a suspension
bridge. This feature is advantageous in view of esthetical design. The tower form in general has dis-
tinctive characters, attaining increasing levels of refinement and rationality as time passes. Needless to
say, the design of the tower must adapt to the stay cable layouts and to the topography and geology of the
bridge site, and carry the forces economically.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-27

FIGURE 26.20 Various forms of cable-stayed bridge tower.

The typical forms of cable-stayed bridge towers are shown in Figure 26.20. The single pylon adapting
to a single-plane cable system has to be usually situated within the central median of the roadway and
hence an additional width of deck is required for the necessary clearance to traffic. The inverted Y-shape
tower is used for both single-plane and double-plane cable systems, while A- or inverse V-shape towers
adapt to a double-plane cable system. The H-shape tower is the most logical form structurally for a
two-plane cable system. In the case of the A or inverted Y towers, the spacing of two shafts under the
deck is often narrowed to reduce the size of the foundation. These diamond-shape towers have been used
for long-span cable-stayed bridges such as the Tatara (Japan), Yangpu (China), and Baytown (United
States), but the visual aspect of securing the strength of the portion under the deck should be carefully
pursued.

26.4.2.3 Bridge Deck

In cable-stayed bridges, the solid-web girders precede the truss girders except for double-deck designs for
both structural and esthetic reasons. These girders or bridge deck are subjected to not only bending and
torsional moments as well as shear forces but also axial forces. The closer spacing of cables in a multistay
system allows a more slender bridge deck. Although the stability of the girder as a beam-column is
generally not yet a serious problem owing to elastic and almost continuous support by stay cables so far,
the overall stability of the structure must be checked by using a nonlinear, second-order analysis for
super-long-span cable-stayed bridges [14].
As for the cross-section of the steel girder in a cable-stayed bridge, there seems two ways at the
moment. One is a single or double box as seen in many long-span cases. Orthotropic steel plate deck is
incorporated with the steel girder and the circumscribed shape of the cross-section is usually trapezoidal
or hexagonal, mainly for aerodynamic reason. Another way is the use of shallow-plated edge girders
connected with cross-girders. For wider bridges and longer span bridges than 500 m, Leonhardt and
Zeller [15] suggest the use of similar cross-sections of all steel structures with an orthotropic steel deck,
and that no box girder is needed and simple edge beams are sufficient. However, a box girder with high
torsional rigidity should be used when the stay cables are arranged in a single plane along the center line
of the bridge deck.
The use of a composite steel/concrete girder on cable-stayed bridges may be categorized into the latter.
Prefabricated or in situ concrete slabs are connected with longitudinal edge girders and cross-beams in
steel by stud shear connectors. The compressive forces from the stay cables can be sustained by the
concrete slab. The Yangpu Bridge in Shanghai with a long main span of 602 m is provided with double-
web edge girders. Figure 26.21 shows two typical examples of steel girders used in large cable-stayed
bridges.
One trapezoidal or two rectangular box designs are most popular in prestressed concrete cable-stayed
bridges. But as in the case of the composite girder mentioned above, the longitudinal edge beams

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 26-28 Handbook of Structural Engineering

(a) 30,350
2,675 12,500 12,500 2,425 250

500
2,60 50
2,100

700
2,955 24,440 2,995

(b) 20.0 m
1.75 m 7.0 m 2.5 m 7.0 m 1.75 m

FIGURE 26.21 Examples of steel girder of cable-stayed bridge: (a) composite girder of the Nanpu Bridge and
(b) steel box girder of the Tatara Bridge.

connected by the transverse beams and incorporated with the stay anchors are sometimes employed.
Even in the prestressed concrete girders, wind nose may be added to the cross-section when the span
is long.
When the ratio of the side span to main span length is small, the use of steel girders in the main span
and continuously extended concrete girders in the side spans is one of the solutions to attain the rational
and economical design. If the situation allows, it is advantageous to provide with intermediate supports
for the side-span girders in this case.
Most of the truss girders for cable-stayed bridges are employed in double-deck cases, as exemplified in
several Japanese designs. Among them, the Hitsuishijima and Iwakurojima bridges (Figure 26.22) were
designed to carry four lanes of roadway traffic on the upper deck and ordinary type railway tracks as well
as double Shinkansen rail tracks on the lower deck. Yokohama Bay Bridge, which carries six lanes of
roadway traffic on the respective decks, is unique in that the upper chord of its truss is a shallow steel box
section stiffening the girder system and concealing power and communication cables. The truss girder of
the Higashi-Kobe Bridge is shallow and of Warren type without vertical members, so it appears slender
for a double-deck road bridge.
26.4.2.4 Vertical Support of Girder
A variety of supporting conditions have been adopted in modern cable-stayed bridges [16] because the
selection of the supporting conditions for longitudinal movement is rather adaptable owing to the
existence of stay cables and flexible towers. Less constraint in the bridge axis direction yields longer
natural periods of the corresponding motion and thus reduces the seismic inertia forces. However, less
constraint on the longitudinal movement of the girder may cause large bending moment in the towers
and larger displacement of the girder. The effect of temperature change should be also taken into
account. Figure 26.23 illustrates the potential combinations of supporting conditions for three span cases
that are most prevalent in long span cable-stayed bridges.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-29

Highway
2 lanes 2 lanes

13 m
Railway

30 m

FIGURE 26.22 Typical cross-section of the Seto Bridge.

Type (a) or (e) in the figure, where one support is made as a fixed hinge and all other supports are
longitudinally movable, have been widely used for bridges with medium or short span length because
temperature effects are released and the seismic force applied to the substructure is relatively small. With
increasing span length, design and construction of the pier fixed to the girder become difficult due to the
increase of seismic reaction. The supporting condition (e) has been preferred to (a) in Japanese bridges
because the expansion of the girder end under temperature change is smaller and the size of the tower
foundation is relatively large for reasons other than earthquake effect. The supporting condition (a) may,
however, be preferable when the height of the tower below the bridge deck is large and the end support is
on the abutment.
When large clearance height is required, the bridge deck is often provided with fixed hinges at both
flexible towers as in (c) or is rigidly connected to these towers. The stresses due to temperature change
can be released owing to the flexibility of the towers and seismic reactions can be sustained by both tower
piers. Some difficulties may arise, however, in giving the towers both the flexibility to absorb defor-
mation of the girder due to temperature change and the stiffness to cope with seismic effects. The
additional thrust induced in the girder should be also borne in mind in this case.
Prevalent in long-span cable-stayed steel bridges in Japan are the various devices connecting the girder
elastically with towers or abutments ((b), (d), or (h) in Figure 26.23). In the Meikoh-West bridge and
some other bridges, elastic restraint was provided by attaching horizontal cables between the girder and
the tower, while large belleville springs were fitted to the rocker bearings at each end pier of the
Hitsuishijima and Iwakurojima bridges. The purpose of these devices was to reduce and distribute
seismic forces, to control the longitudinal movement of the girder, and also to find a compromise with
temperature effect.
The advantage of all movable support types, (f) and (g) in Figure 26.23, is to reduce the seismic
inertial force of the girder by attaining very long natural periods of longitudinal sway motion. The
so-called floating type (g), where the vertical support at the tower is omitted, leads to a noticeable
reduction of the bending moment in the girder at the towers. However, care should be given to
excessive displacement of the girder and proneness of instability of the towers. In the Higashi-Kobe
Bridge, newly developed vane-type dampers were installed on the end piers as stopping devices
against unexpectedly severe earthquakes. The use of short tower links in the Yokohama Bay Bridge or
thick rubber shoes on the side span of the Ikuchi Bridge was also aimed at optimizing seismic design
under the given conditions.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 26-30 Handbook of Structural Engineering

Type of
supporting
conditions

(a) Fixed at one end

of girder

(b) Elastically fixed

at each end of
girder

(c) Fixed at tower

piers

(d) Elastically fixed

at tower piers

(e) Fixed at one

tower pier

(f) Movable at all

supports

(g) Floating

Floating but
elastically
(h)
constrained at
tower piers

(i) (Elastically) fixed

at all supports

(j) Fixed outside

FIGURE 26.23 Different supporting systems of cable-stayed bridge.

26.4.3 Erection of Cable-Stayed Bridges

Different from an earth-anchored suspension bridge, the erection of which proceeds from anchorages
and towers, to cable, and then stiffening girder, the different main components of the self-anchored
cable-stayed bridges may be erected in parallel. During cantilever erection of the girder from the tower

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

 Cable-Supported Bridges 26-31

toward mid-span, the stay cables will have to be installed and tensioned every time an anchor point at the
girder is reached. In some cases, even the construction of the pylons will proceed in parallel with the
erection of the girder and stay cables. More detailed description on the erection of cable-stayed bridges
are given in the book by Gimsing [17].
The construction methods used on the towers of cable-stayed bridges are typically not different from
those of suspension bridges. For smaller or moderate size of steel towers, the erection may be carried out
by traveler crane or floating crane with tall boom.

References
[1] Ernst, H.J., Der E-Modul von Seilen unter Beruecksichitigung des Durchhanges, Bauingenieur,
No. 2, 52, 1965.
[2] Podolny, Jr., W., Current corrosion proyection methods for stay cables, in IABSE Report 83-2,
Symp. Extending the Life-Span of Structures, 855, 1995.
[3] Ito, M., Tada, K., and Kitagawa, M., Cable corrosion protection system for cable-supported
bridges in Japan, op. cit. [2], 873.
[4] Lapsley, R.D. and Granz, H.R., Experience, developments and trends for improved durability of
stay cables, op. cit. [2], 879.
[5] Recommendations for Stay Cable Design, Testing and Installation, 4th ed., Post-Tensioning Insti-
tute, 2001, sec. 5.2.
[6] Maeda, K. et al., Applicability of CFRP cables to ultra long span suspension bridges, IABSE Report
84, Conf. Cable-Supported Bridges (in CD-ROM), 2001.
[7] Lin, T.Y. and Chow, P., Gibraltar Strait crossing — a challenge to bridge and structural engi-
neering, Struct. Eng. Int., IABSE, No. 2, 53, 1991.
[8] Ochsendorf, J.A. and Billington, D.P., Self-anchored suspension bridges, J. Bridge Eng., ASCE, 4–3,
151, August 1999.
[9] Peery, D.J., An influence line analysis for suspension bridges, Proc. ASCE (ST), 80-581, 558, 1954.
[10] Okukawa, A., Suzuki, S., and Harazaki, I., Suspension bridges, in Bridge Engineering Handbook,
Chen, W.-F. and Duan, L., Eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000, chapter 18.
[11] Ito, M., Suppression of wind-induced vibrations of structures, in A State of the Art in Wind
Engineering, IAWE, Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, 281, 1995.
[12] Schlaich, J. and Engelsmann, S., Stress ribbon concrete bridges, Struct. Eng. Int., IABSE, 4, 271,
1996.
[13] Virlogeux, M., Bridges with multiple cable-stayed spans, Struct. Eng. Int., IABSE, 1, 61, 2001.
[14] Tang, M.-C., Buckling of cable-stayed girder bridges, Proc. ASCE, 102-ST9, 1695, 1976.
[15] Leonhardt, F. and Zeller, W., Past, present and future of cable-stayed bridges, in Cable-Stayed
Bridges — Recent Developments and their Future, Ito, M. et al., Eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1, 1991.
[16] Ito, M., Supporting devices of long span cable-stayed bridge girder, in Innovative Large Span
Structures, Srivastava, N.K. et al., Eds., Canadian Soc. Civil Engineers, Montreal, 2, 255, 1992.
[17] Gimsing, N.J., Cable Supported Bridges — Concept & Design, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1998,
chapter 7.

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Copyright 2005 by CRC Press