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Can China emerge as a major player in the
Asia-Pacific salt market?
ARTICLE · JUNE 1996
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Vladimir Sedivy
Salt Partners Ltd.
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Can China emerge as a major player in the Asia-Pacific salt market?
V.M.Sedivy
Director Salt Technologies
KREBS SWISS, Zurich, Switzerland
Until 1987, China supplied some 10% of the Japanese industrial salt annual requirement.
Since 1988, Chinese salt exports to Japan became insignificant. Poor salt quality is
frequently blamed as being one of the reasons. What is the quality of the Chinese salt
today? Could the salt be upgraded or refined economically to meet the standards required
by the Japanese chloralkali industry? What market segments could be accessible for the
Chinese upgraded salt? What other measures would have to be taken for China to gain
access to the Asia-Pacific salt market? Krebs Swiss has investigated these questions.
The conclusions are discussed in this paper
1. Introduction
China is one of the largest solar salt producers in the world and the largest in the Asia-
Pacific region. Most of the Chinese salt production is near the sea coast and therefore near
the harbours. There has been an overproduction of salt in China, to the extent of millions of
tons. China is much nearer to Japan than the traditional salt suppliers Australia, Mexico or
Chile. China is in need of hard currency. One would think, Japan must be full of Chinese
salt. And yet ...
Until 1987, some 500,000 - 700,000 tpy of salt used to be exported from China to Japan. As
from 1988, the exports have been almost nil. Flooding of saltworks has been reported to
have caused China to lose the Japanese market. Poor quality of solar salt, much below the
standards set by the chloralkali industry, have been blamed for China not being able to start
exporting salt to Japan again.
Recently, Krebs Swiss has been investigating whether its salt purification technology could
economically improve the quality of the Chinese salt to the level that would allow its use by
the Japanese chloralkali industry. Krebs Swiss examined the Chinese solar salt, the salt
industry and the business environment intensively and reached the conclusion that there is
a potential for the Krebs Swiss salt technology in China.
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2. Present salt production methods in China
Approx. 50% of the total Chinese salt is being produced along the coast of the gulf of Bohai.
Approx. 80% of the salt in this area is available within reasonable distance from sea
harbours.
Evaporation rate in the area is approx. 1.5 m and precipitation is approx. 0.5 m per
annum. Storms occurring occasionally in the area during the crystallization season carry
most of the annual precipitation.
The area of the Bohai gulf consists of sediments only. Stones do not occur naturally. The
only available erosion resistant building material is red brick. Accordingly, bricks are being
used to build most of the erosion resistant structures in the saltworks.
Pre-concentration of sea water is being carried out in a series of rectangular ponds. Due to
the seasonal character of the production, concentrated brine is available only in limited
quantity and depth.
Saturated sea water is fed to rectangular crystallizing ponds with steep loose brick walls
needed to protect the pond dikes from erosion by storms. The storms are so severe that
they agitate the mother liquor in the crystallizing ponds, mixing it with the rain water,
causing undersaturation and dissolution of the salt, thus reducing the yield significantly. A
rain protection technique has been developed in China over the past years and has found
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Chinese solar salt
crystallising pond
with rain protection foil
widespread utilization. More than 50% of all crystallizing ponds have been equipped with
this device and the percentage is growing.
The technique consists of a rain protection plastic foil installed in each crystallizing pond
and kept rolled in a compartment alongside the pond. The foil is equipped with fixtures that
fit into railings located on the brick side of the pond. Each large saltworks avails of a storm
warning system that is capable of alarming the saltworks personnel within half an hour of
the coming rain. On sounding the alarm, workers pull the foil over the pond, fasten it on the
far side and connect the foil surface to rain water overflow gates located on the side of each
pond. After the storm, the rain water is drained, the foils are rolled back into position and
evaporation is resumed. The rolling of the foils is power assisted.
The procedure is manual. Labour requirement is high - the method is only effective if
completed within half an hour after the alarm and the foils are rolled back quickly after the
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storm. A mechanized, automated system is being developed, but it is only in a trial stage at
the present. The high labour requirement to operate the present rain protection system is
likely to persist for the next years.
Size of the crystallizing ponds is limited by the maximum size of the rain protection foil.
Consequently, the ratio of pond dike length to the crystallization area is high. The brick
walls represent a high and labour intensive investment. No mortar is used to join the bricks
because sand is not available locally. Therefore, the loose brick structures collapse
occasionally resulting in significant, labour intensive maintenance.
Harvesting of salt is manual. It is easier when the salt layer is loose. The idea of loosening
the salt by raking during the crystallization is old and has been practised not only in China,
but also in India and in other countries. Raking changes the crystallization behaviour of salt.
The salt crystals become large and hard.
The crystallizing pond bottom consists of mud. No permanent hard salt bottom technique
can be employed under the geological and climatic conditions in the area. Raking disturbs
the mud at the bottom of the ponds and makes the salt crystals become dark. Dark crystals
absorb more solar radiation energy and the rate of salt production is thereby increased. In a
production oriented (rather than quality oriented) economy, this effect is welcome. The
overall proportion of raked compared to non-raked salt production is therefore growing. Salt
raking is labour intensive. It is another element that makes high labour requirement in the
Chinese solar salt industry likely to persist.
Stockpiling is done manually in heaps of uniform size. The size of the stockpile is
determined by the reach of a simple mobile stacking conveyor which is manufactured
according to a standard design. The width of the earthen stacking dikes fits the maximum
width of the stockpile. A salt heap that is intended to store salt for extended period of time is
manually covered by reeds. This limits the salt losses due to rain. Prior to delivery, the reed
cover is removed from the stockpile - by hand.
In countries other than China, sea water evaporation and salt crystallization is a process
that is being left to nature. The saltworks personnel limits its interference to pumping the
brine and controlling the brine density. The only intensive work is the salt harvesting. This
can be mastered by hiring seasonal labour or by employing mechanical harvesters.
Under the circumstances of solar salt production in China, with a high labour requirement
throughout the production cycle, there appears to be no incentive to mechanize salt
harvesting - unless an entirely new and fully mechanized salt production technique is
developed that takes account of all the peculiarities of the climatic and other conditions
prevailing in China.
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3. Quality and upgradability of raked salt
Chinese raked salts from the Bohai gulf, from whatever saltworks they originate, are very
similar to each other. The salt crystals are very large, having a diameter of 8 - 25 mm. They
are round and hard, rather dark, of brown - grey colour. The crystal structure is uniform, the
crystals are monocrystals rather than crystal agglomerates.
The chemical analysis shows a high content of gypsum crystallized together with sodium
chloride and ingrown inside the crystals. The relatively small crystal surface compared to
the crystal volume leaves little area for surface impurities such as magnesium containing
mother liquor. Correspondingly, the magnesium content is always low, whether the analysis
is done shortly after the harvest or after an extended period of time. Some saltworks avail of
salt washing installations. However, due to the size and nature of the crystals, the chemical
composition of the washed salt is only little different from the unwashed salt.
The salt quality specification of the Japanese chloralkali industry is as follows:
Ca 0.04%
Mg 0.02%
SO4 0.12%
On average, the calcium and sulphate content of Chinese solar salt is three to four times
higher than that specified.
Krebs Swiss carried out a number of upgradability and refinability tests with Chinese solar
salts from Bohai Gulf to determine whether they may, after suitable processing, fulfil the
quality requirements of the Japanese chloralkali industry.
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Graph 1: Calcium
Upgradability of chinese solar salts
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
Ca [wt%]
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Characteristic crystal size [mm]
Raked 1 Raked 2 Raked 3 Raked 4 Non-raked
Graph 2: Magnesium
Upgradability of chinese solar salts
0.08
0.07
0.06
Mg [wt%]
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Characteristic crystal size [mm]
Raked 1 Raked 2 Raked 3 Raked 4 Non-raked
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Graph 3: Sulphate
Upgradability of chinese solar salts
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
SO4 [wt%]
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Characteristic crystal size [mm]
Raked 1 Raked 2 Raked 3 Raked 4 Non-raked
Graph 4: NaCl content
Upgradability of chinese solar salts
100
99.8
99.6
NaCl [wt%]
99.4
99.2
99
98.8
98.6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Characteristic Crystal Size [mm]
Raked 1 Raked 2 Raked 3 Raked 4 Non-raked
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The graphs show the results of the following tests:
Upgradability test without change of crystal size. This test illustrates how the salt quality
could be improved in a washing process operating with 100% efficiency .
Upgradability test with selective rupturing of salt crystals to a characteristic crystal size
of 6, 3 and 1.5 mm to free the embedded impurities followed by purification operating
with 100% efficiency and recovery of fine salt.
Refinability test with hydromilling of salt crystals to a characteristic crystal size of 0.8
and 0.4 mm to free the embedded impurities preceded and followed by purification
operating with 100% efficiency and recovery of fine salt.
The tests without change of crystal size show that the salt quality could be only marginally
improved in a washing process and that the resulting salt quality would be insufficient.
The curves illustrate the processing with selective rupturing of the salt crystals. They show
that a process reducing the characteristic crystal size to 1.5 mm will reduce the content of
Ca and SO4 impurities to the levels that are in accordance with the Japanese chloralkali
standards.
The Mg impurities in Chinese salts are much lower than required by the chloralkali industry.
This is a fact that is particularly appreciated by the chlorine producers using only caustic
and soda ash for brine purification.
The process with hydromilling purifies the salt to levels much higher than those specified,
but its employment may not be economical for the purpose of chloralkali feedstock
production.
4. Quality and upgradability of non-raked salt
When examining the quality and behaviour of the non-raked Chinese salt, it is first the fine
grain size that markedly differentiates it from the raked salt. The characteristic grain size is
only approx. 3 mm. The salt is somewhat purer than the raked variety - the purity is
approx. 99.5% NaCl. Calcium and sulphate are low, just slightly above the chloralkali limits,
but magnesium is much higher. What is worse is that the calcium to magnesium ratio is low,
much lower than 1. Worst is, however, that the calcium to magnesium ratio remains low
even after processing, although the overall purity of approx. 99.8% NaCl is achievable. The
chloralkali industry demands salt with calcium to magnesium ratio of at least 2, preferably 3
or more. Therefore, Chinese non-raked salt, whether raw or upgraded, would in general not
be acceptable to the chloralkali industry as a feedstock.
5. Significance of calcium to magnesium ratio
The chloralkali industry rejects salt with a low calcium to magnesium ratio because of the
processes that take place in the brine purification section of chlorine plants. In most chlorine
plants, calcium is precipitated with soda ash forming insoluble crystals of calcium
carbonate. Magnesium is precipitated with sodium hydroxide forming magnesium
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hydroxide. Magnesium hydroxide is a compound that is insoluble but hydrated and
therefore very light, floating in the brine like milk. It is very difficult to settle or filter away.
A one to one molar calcium to magnesium ratio corresponds to 1.67 calcium to magnesium
ratio by weight. When one mol of calcium precipitates together with one mol of magnesium,
then a combined crystal is formed that is compact and heavy enough to settle. More
calcium in the mixture further improves the mixed crystal behaviour. When the molar ratio of
calcium to magnesium is less than one, then the excess of magnesium remains in the brine
as milk of magnesium hydroxide.
The milk of magnesium hydroxide will overflow the clarifier, will pass the brine filter and
even the ion exchanger and will enter the chlorine cell. The brine in the chlorine cell is sour.
It converts the magnesium hydroxide into magnesium chloride which is highly soluble. The
dissolved magnesium ion will reduce the hydrogen overvoltage on the anode so that
hydrogen will evolve together with chlorine. Chlorine and hydrogen form an explosive
mixture that may explode in the cell or in the downstream units. Chlorine is highly
poisonous and chlorine escaping from the equipment endangers life. In membrane cells,
besides danger of explosion, the magnesium ion will enter the membrane causing voltage
rise, increase in power consumption and eventually a loss of membranes that cost some
USD 1,000.-/m2. Low calcium to magnesium ratio in salt has severe consequences. Salt
with low calcium to magnesium ratio is of little value and is not acceptable to the chloralkali
industry.
6. Structure of potential markets for Chinese industrial salt
The Asia-Pacific market for industrial salt consists mainly of a number of chlorine / caustic
and synthetic soda ash plants.
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Most of the chloralkali and soda ash plants in the region are located on the sea shore and
avail of ship off-loading facilities. Many plants are built on expensive, even reclaimed land
and therefore the space for salt storage is limited. Many chloralkali plants, particularly the
smaller plants, can receive salt only in small shipments. Only about one third of all the
chloralkali plants in Asia-Pacific region have a capacity larger than 100,000 tpy and need
more than 150,000 tpy of salt.
The salt presently supplied from Australia, Mexico and Chile is shipped across the Pacific
economically in large vessels carrying up to 150,000 tons of salt. Large shipments can be
received by the largest chloralkali and soda ash customers directly. The smaller customers,
able to receive only small shipments, must be served from an intermediate stockpile. This
operation involves reloading and short distance shipment. Alternatively, the salt must be
shipped across the Pacific in small vessels. Each alternative involves delivered cost to
smaller customers much higher than the average value of salt imports published in the
statistics.
From China, most of the small users of industrial salt in the region could be served at a
distance that represents just a fraction of the distance across the Pacific. The reduced
distance can compensate the higher cost of salt shipments in smaller vessels - say 10,000
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or 20,000 tons - that can be loaded in existing Chinese sea ports. Focusing on this segment
of the market, the apparent disadvantage of China - the lack of large ship loading facilities -
is a lesser obstacle to potential exports. From the point of view of shipment cost, China
could serve smaller industrial salt customers in the Asia-Pacific region competitively.
7. Price of Chinese salt
The official price of salt in China today is said to be RMB 226.-/t representing approx.
USD 26.-/t at the official rate of exchange. This is almost equal to the average landed cost
of salt in Japan according to the import statistics. Supplying at the average import price and
deducting the cost of shipment, the Chinese salt producer would receive less for exported
salt than for salt sold on the domestic market.
However:
• The official Chinese salt price is an administered price.
• The Chinese Government may offer incentives, such as tax allowances, that would
adjust the effective price of salt for export.
• The decision of the Chinese Government regarding the effective price of salt for export
may be guided by other considerations than cost of production and profitability. Desire
to widen the flow of foreign currency into the country is likely to play an important role.
• Export prices as low as USD 17.-/t have been reported, however, not for salt of
Japanese chloralkali standard.
• The landed cost of salt to the small chloralkali producers in the Asia-Pacific region is
higher than the reported value of imports to Japan of USD 26.- to 30.-/t. The Chinese
salt could be supplied to this market segment at a competitive price.
8. Conclusions
Quality and price will ultimately decide whether China can become a major supplier of
industrial salt to the Asia-Pacific region. It appears that quality and pricing levels, both
attractive to the small chloralkali customers and to the Chinese salt producers, are possible,
provided that:
1. The Chinese salt industry will produce salt of better quality, similar to the one presently
supplied from Australia, Mexico or Chile. Advanced and proven technology to purify the
presently produced Chinese raw salt to the required level economically is available from
Krebs Swiss.
2. The Chinese Government will offer incentives to export salt at price levels that allow
profitable production and return on investment in the purification technology.
3. Business partnerships between the Chinese salt suppliers and the trading companies
that have access to the market segment of smaller chloralkali producers in the Asia-
Pacific region will be formed.
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4. The potential for export of Chinese salt could be extended beyond the limits given by
the effectiveness of government measures and the size of the market segment of small
chloralkali plants only by producing salt of better quality at lower cost. This may be
achieved with the use of advanced technology such as salt crystallization in open ponds
with forced evaporation utilizing waste heat from power generation plants. This
technology that produces salt of top quality, independent of climatic conditions and at a
fraction of conventional solar salt production cost, is also available from Krebs Swiss.
9. Krebs Swiss
KREBS SWISS / Krebs & Co Ltd (CH-8022 Zurich, Switzerland, Fax +41-1-286 74 01,
Phone +41-1-286 74 74) is an internationally renowned company of chemical engineering
consultants and process plant contractors serving the salt, chemical and electrochemical
industries. Its reputation is founded on an impressive record of projects completed all over
the world.
10. The author
Vladimir M. Sedivy is a director of the salt technology department of Krebs Swiss. He
obtained a M.Sc. degree in chemical engineering from the University of Prague and a PED
diploma from the IMD Institute of Management in Lausanne. His professional experience
includes process design work with Badger in London and with Sulzer Escher Wyss in
Zurich. His interest in salt started in 1973 when he became manager of a salt factory
construction project in Africa. He invented the SALEX process in 1978. With Krebs Swiss
since 1979, he has been developing, marketing and implementing the SALEX technology
world-wide. He is married in Switzerland and father of two children. His hobbies include
skiing, jogging, music and theatre.
11. Acknowledgement
The author thanks Mr. Peter Chromec, marketing and process manager of the salt
technology department of Krebs Swiss, for collection and presentation of the data published
in this article.
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