2.

9 CLIPPERS
There are a variety of diode networks called clippers that have the ability to “clip”
off a portion of the input signal without distorting the remaining part of the alternat-
ing waveform. The half-wave rectifier of Section 2.7 is an example of the simplest
form of diode clipper—one resistor and diode. Depending on the orientation of the
diode, the positive or negative region of the input signal is “clipped” off.
There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel. The series con-
figuration is defined as one where the diode is in series with the load, while the par-
allel variety has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.

Series
The response of the series configuration of Fig. 2.67a to a variety of alternating wave-
forms is provided in Fig. 2.67b. Although first introduced as a half-wave rectifier (for
sinusoidal waveforms), there are no boundaries on the type of signals that can be ap-
plied to a clipper. The addition of a dc supply such as shown in Fig. 2.68 can have a
pronounced effect on the output of a clipper. Our initial discussion will be limited to
ideal diodes, with the effect of VT reserved for a concluding example.

+ +
vi R vo
– –

(a)

vi vo vi vo
V V V V

0 t t t t

–V –V

(b)

Figure 2.67 Series clipper.

Figure 2.68 Series clipper with

a dc supply.

There is no general procedure for analyzing networks such as the type in Fig.
2.68, but there are a few thoughts to keep in mind as you work toward a solution.
1. Make a mental sketch of the response of the network based on the direc-
tion of the diode and the applied voltage levels.
For the network of Fig. 2.68, the direction of the diode suggests that the signal vi
must be positive to turn it on. The dc supply further requires that the voltage vi be
greater than V volts to turn the diode on. The negative region of the input signal is

76 Chapter 2 Diode Applications

“pressuring” the diode into the “off” state, supported further by the dc supply. In gen-
eral, therefore, we can be quite sure that the diode is an open circuit (“off” state) for
the negative region of the input signal.
2. Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that will cause a change
in state for the diode.
For the ideal diode the transition between states will occur at the point on the
characteristics where vd  0 V and id  0 A. Applying the condition id  0 at vd 
0 to the network of Fig. 2.68 will result in the configuration of Fig. 2.69, where it is
recognized that the level of vi that will cause a transition in state is
vi  V (2.14)

V vd = 0 V
+ – id = 0 A
+ +
vi R vo = iRR = id R = (0)R = 0 V
Figure 2.69 Determining the
– – transition level for the circuit of
Fig. 2.68.

For an input voltage greater than V volts the diode is in the short-circuit state, while
for input voltages less than V volts it is in the open-circuit or “off” state.
3. Be continually aware of the defined terminals and polarity of vo.
When the diode is in the short-circuit state, such as shown in Fig. 2.70, the out- Figure 2.70 Determining vo.
put voltage vo can be determined by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the clock-
wise direction:
vi  V  vo  0 (CW direction)
and vo  vi  V (2.15)

4. It can be helpful to sketch the input signal above the output and determine
the output at instantaneous values of the input.
It is then possible that the output voltage can be sketched from the resulting data
points of vo as demonstrated in Fig. 2.71. Keep in mind that at an instantaneous value
of vi the input can be treated as a dc supply of that value and the corresponding dc
value (the instantaneous value) of the output determined. For instance, at vi  Vm
for the network of Fig. 2.68, the network to be analyzed appears in Fig. 2.72. For Vm
 V the diode is in the short-circuit state and vo  Vm  V, as shown in Fig. 2.71.
At vi  V the diodes change state; at vi  Vm, vo  0 V; and the complete curve Figure 2.71 Determining
for vo can be sketched as shown in Fig. 2.73. levels of vo.

vi vo

Vm
Vm – V
V
0 T T t 0 T T t
2 2
vi = V (diodes change state)

Figure 2.72 Determining vo when vi  Vm. Figure 2.73 Sketching vo.

2.9 Clippers 77
 EXAMPLE 2.20 Determine the output waveform for the network of Fig. 2.74.

Figure 2.74 Series clipper for

Example 2.20.

Solution
Past experience suggests that the diode will be in the “on” state for the positive re-
gion of vi —especially when we note the aiding effect of V  5 V. The network will
then appear as shown in Fig. 2.75 and vo  vi  5 V. Substituting id  0 at vd  0 for
the transition levels, we obtain the network of Fig. 2.76 and vi  5 V.

Figure 2.75 vo with diode in

the “on” state.

– + vd = 0 V

+ 5 V id = 0 A
+
vi R vo = vR = iR R = id R = (0) R = 0 V
Figure 2.76 Determining the
– – transition level for the clipper of
Fig. 2.74.

For vi more negative than 5 V the diode will enter its open-circuit state, while
for voltages more positive than 5 V the diode is in the short-circuit state. The input
and output voltages appear in Fig. 2.77.

vo
vi

20 vi + 5 V = 20 V + 5 V = 25 V

5V vo = 0 V + 5 V = 5 V
–5V T T t 0 T T t
2 2
Transition vo = –5 V + 5 V = 0 V
voltage

Figure 2.77 Sketching vo for Example 2.20.

The analysis of clipper networks with square-wave inputs is actually easier to an-
alyze than with sinusoidal inputs because only two levels have to be considered. In
other words, the network can be analyzed as if it had two dc level inputs with the re-
sulting output vo plotted in the proper time frame.

78 Chapter 2 Diode Applications

Repeat Example 2.20 for the square-wave input of Fig. 2.78. EXAMPLE 2.21

Figure 2.78 Applied signal for

Example 2.21.

Solution
For vi  20 V (0 → T/ 2) the network of Fig. 2.79 will result. The diode is in the short-
circuit state and vo  20 V  5 V  25 V. For vi  10 V the network of Fig. 2.80
will result, placing the diode in the “off” state and vo  iRR  (0)R  0 V. The re-
sulting output voltage appears in Fig. 2.81.

– + + – + +
+ 5V – 5V
20 V R vo 10 V R vo = 0 V
– +
– –

Figure 2.79 vo at vi  20 V. Figure 2.80 vo at vi   10 V. Figure 2.81 Sketching vo for

Example 2.21.

Note in Example 2.21 that the clipper not only clipped off 5 V from the total
swing but raised the dc level of the signal by 5 V.

Parallel
The network of Fig. 2.82 is the simplest of parallel diode configurations with the out-
put for the same inputs of Fig. 2.67. The analysis of parallel configurations is very
similar to that applied to series configurations, as demonstrated in the next example.

+ R +
vi vo

– –

vi vo vi vo

V V

0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t

–V –V –V –V

Figure 2.82 Response to a parallel clipper.

2.9 Clippers 79
 EXAMPLE 2.2 Determine vo for the network of Fig. 2.83.

Figure 2.83 Example 2.22.

Solution
The polarity of the dc supply and the direction of the diode strongly suggest that the
diode will be in the “on” state for the negative region of the input signal. For this re-
gion the network will appear as shown in Fig. 2.84, where the defined terminals for
vo require that vo  V  4 V.

– R +

vi vo = V = 4 V

V 4V
+ – Figure 2.84 vo for the negative
region of vi.

The transition state can be determined from Fig. 2.85, where the condition id 
0 A at vd  0 V has been imposed. The result is vi (transition)  V  4 V.
Since the dc supply is obviously “pressuring” the diode to stay in the short-
circuit state, the input voltage must be greater than 4 V for the diode to be in the “off”
state. Any input voltage less than 4 V will result in a short-circuited diode.
For the open-circuit state the network will appear as shown in Fig. 2.86, where
vo  vi. Completing the sketch of vo results in the waveform of Fig. 2.87.

Figure 2.85 Determining the

transition level for Example 2.22.

Figure 2.87 Sketching vo for

Example 2.22.

Figure 2.86 Determining vo for

the open state of the diode.

To examine the effects of VT on the output voltage, the next example will spec-
ify a silicon diode rather than an ideal diode equivalent.

80 Chapter 2 Diode Applications

Repeat Example 2.22 using a silicon diode with VT  0.7 V. EXAMPLE 2.23
Solution
The transition voltage can first be determined by applying the condition id  0 A at
vd  VD  0.7 V and obtaining the network of Fig. 2.88. Applying Kirchhoff’s volt-
age law around the output loop in the clockwise direction, we find that
vi  VT  V  0
and vi  V  VT  4 V  0.7 V  3.3 V

Figure 2.88 Determining the

transition level for the network of
Fig. 2.83.

For input voltages greater than 3.3 V, the diode will be an open circuit and
vo  vi. For input voltages of less than 3.3 V, the diode will be in the “on” state and
the network of Fig. 2.89 results, where
vo  4 V  0.7 V  3.3 V

Figure 2.89 Determining vo for

the diode of Fig. 2.83 in the “on”
state.

The resulting output waveform appears in Fig. 2.90. Note that the only effect of VT
was to drop the transition level to 3.3 from 4 V.

Figure 2.90 Sketching vo for

Example 2.23.

There is no question that including the effects of VT will complicate the analysis
somewhat, but once the analysis is understood with the ideal diode, the procedure,
including the effects of VT, will not be that difficult.

Summary
A variety of series and parallel clippers with the resulting output for the sinusoidal
input are provided in Fig. 2.91. In particular, note the response of the last configura-
tion, with its ability to clip off a positive and a negative section as determined by the
magnitude of the dc supplies.

2.9 Clippers 81
 Figure 2.91 Clipping circuits.

82 Chapter 2 Diode Applications

2.10 CLAMPERS
The clamping network is one that will “clamp” a signal to a different dc level. The
network must have a capacitor, a diode, and a resistive element, but it can also em-
ploy an independent dc supply to introduce an additional shift. The magnitude of R
and C must be chosen such that the time constant
 RC is large enough to ensure
that the voltage across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the inter-
val the diode is nonconducting. Throughout the analysis we will assume that for all
practical purposes the capacitor will fully charge or discharge in five time constants.
The network of Fig. 2.92 will clamp the input signal to the zero level (for ideal
diodes). The resistor R can be the load resistor or a parallel combination of the load
resistor and a resistor designed to provide the desired level of R.

C
+ – +
+ V

V R vo
–
–
Figure 2.92 Clamper. Figure 2.93 Diode “on” and the
capacitor charging to V volts.

During the interval 0 → T/2 the network will appear as shown in Fig. 2.93, with
the diode in the “on” state effectively “shorting out” the effect of the resistor R. The
resulting RC time constant is so small (R determined by the inherent resistance of the
network) that the capacitor will charge to V volts very quickly. During this interval
the output voltage is directly across the short circuit and vo  0 V.
When the input switches to the V state, the network will appear as shown in
Fig. 2.94, with the open-circuit equivalent for the diode determined by the applied
signal and stored voltage across the capacitor—both “pressuring” current through the
diode from cathode to anode. Now that R is back in the network the time constant
determined by the RC product is sufficiently large to establish a discharge period 5
Figure 2.94 Determining vo
much greater than the period T/2 → T, and it can be assumed on an approximate ba- with the diode “off.”
sis that the capacitor holds onto all its charge and, therefore, voltage (since V  Q/C)
during this period.
Since vo is in parallel with the diode and resistor, it can also be drawn in the al-
ternative position shown in Fig. 2.94. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the
input loop will result in
V  V  vo  0
and vo  2V
The negative sign resulting from the fact that the polarity of 2V is opposite to the po-
larity defined for vo. The resulting output waveform appears in Fig. 2.95 with the in-
put signal. The output signal is clamped to 0 V for the interval 0 to T/2 but maintains
the same total swing (2V) as the input.
For a clamping network:
The total swing of the output is equal to the total swing of the input
signal.
This fact is an excellent checking tool for the result obtained.
In general, the following steps may be helpful when analyzing clamping networks:
1. Start the analysis of clamping networks by considering that part of the in- Figure 2.95 Sketching vo for the
put signal that will forward bias the diode. network of Fig. 2.92.

2.10 Clampers 83
 The statement above may require skipping an interval of the input signal (as demon-
strated in an example to follow), but the analysis will not be extended by an unnec-
essary measure of investigation.
2. During the period that the diode is in the “on” state, assume that the ca-
pacitor will charge up instantaneously to a voltage level determined by the
network.
3. Assume that during the period when the diode is in the “off” state the ca-
pacitor will hold on to its established voltage level.
4. Throughout the analysis maintain a continual awareness of the location
and reference polarity for vo to ensure that the proper levels for vo are ob-
tained.
5. Keep in mind the general rule that the total swing of the total output must
match the swing of the input signal.

EXAMPLE 2.24 Determine vo for the network of Fig. 2.96 for the input indicated.

Figure 2.96 Applied signal and network for Example 2.24.

Solution
Note that the frequency is 1000 Hz, resulting in a period of 1 ms and an interval of
0.5 ms between levels. The analysis will begin with the period t1 → t2 of the input
signal since the diode is in its short-circuit state as recommended by comment 1. For
this interval the network will appear as shown in Fig. 2.97. The output is across R,
but it is also directly across the 5-V battery if you follow the direct connection be-
tween the defined terminals for vo and the battery terminals. The result is vo  5 V
Figure 2.97 Determining vo and
for this interval. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the input loop will result in
VC with the diode in the “on” 20 V  VC 5 V  0
state.
and VC  25 V
The capacitor will therefore charge up to 25 V, as stated in comment 2. In this
case the resistor R is not shorted out by the diode but a Thévenin equivalent circuit
of that portion of the network which includes the battery and the resistor will result
in RTh  0  with ETh  V  5 V. For the period t2 → t3 the network will appear as
shown in Fig. 2.98.
The open-circuit equivalent for the diode will remove the 5-V battery from hav-
ing any effect on vo, and applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the outside loop of
the network will result in
10 V  25 V  vo  0
Figure 2.98 Determining vo
with the diode in the “off” state. and vo  35 V

84 Chapter 2 Diode Applications

 The time constant of the discharging network of Fig. 2.98 is determined by the
product RC and has the magnitude

 RC  (100 k)(0.1 F)  0.01 s  10 ms
The total discharge time is therefore 5
 5(10 ms)  50 ms.
Since the interval t2 → t3 will only last for 0.5 ms, it is certainly a good approxima-
tion that the capacitor will hold its voltage during the discharge period between pulses
of the input signal. The resulting output appears in Fig. 2.99 with the input signal.
Note that the output swing of 30 V matches the input swing as noted in step 5.

Figure 2.99 vi and vo for the

clamper of Fig. 2.96.

Repeat Example 2.24 using a silicon diode with VT  0.7 V. EXAMPLE 2.25
Solution
For the short-circuit state the network now takes on the appearance of Fig. 2.100 and
vo can be determined by Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the output section.
5 V  0.7 V  vo  0
and vo  5 V  0.7 V  4.3 V
For the input section Kirchhoff’s voltage law will result in
20 V  VC  0.7 V  5 V  0
and VC  25 V  0.7 V  24.3 V Figure 2.100 Determining vo
For the period t2 → t3 the network will now appear as in Fig. 2.101, with the only and VC with the diode in the “on”
state.
change being the voltage across the capacitor. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law yields
10 V  24.3 V  vo  0
and vo  34.3 V

Figure 2.101 Determining vo

with the diode in the open state.

2.10 Clampers 85
 The resulting output appears in Fig. 2.102, verifying the statement that the input and
output swings are the same.

Figure 2.102 Sketching vo for

the clamper of Fig. 2.96 with a
silicon diode.

A number of clamping circuits and their effect on the input signal are shown in
Fig. 2.103. Although all the waveforms appearing in Fig. 2.103 are square waves,
clamping networks work equally well for sinusoidal signals. In fact, one approach to
the analysis of clamping networks with sinusoidal inputs is to replace the sinusoidal
signal by a square wave of the same peak values. The resulting output will then form
an envelope for the sinusoidal response as shown in Fig. 2.104 for a network appear-
ing in the bottom right of Fig. 2.103.

Figure 2.103 Clamping circuits with ideal diodes (5

 5RC  T/2).

86 Chapter 2 Diode Applications

 vo (V)
vi +30
20 V + +
C
vi – R vo
0 t 0 t
10 V
–10 V
–20 V – + –

Figure 2.104 Clamping network with a sinusoidal input.

2.11 ZENER DIODES

The analysis of networks employing Zener diodes is quite similar to that applied to
the analysis of semiconductor diodes in previous sections. First the state of the diode
must be determined followed by a substitution of the appropriate model and a deter-
mination of the other unknown quantities of the network. Unless otherwise specified,
the Zener model to be employed for the “on” state will be as shown in Fig. 2.105a.
For the “off” state as defined by a voltage less than VZ but greater than 0 V with the
polarity indicated in Fig. 2.105b, the Zener equivalent is the open circuit that appears
in the same figure.

Figure 2.105 Zener diode

equivalents for the (a) “on” and
(b) “off” states.

V i and R
The simplest of Zener diode networks appears in Fig. 2.106. The applied dc voltage Figure 2.106 Basic Zener regu-
is fixed, as is the load resistor. The analysis can fundamentally be broken down into lator.
two steps.
1. Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it from the network
and calculating the voltage across the resulting open circuit.
Applying step 1 to the network of Fig. 2.106 will result in the network of Fig.
2.107, where an application of the voltage divider rule will result in

R Vi
V  VL  L (2.16)
R  RL

If V  VZ, the Zener diode is “on” and the equivalent model of Fig. 2.105a can be
substituted. If V  VZ, the diode is “off” and the open-circuit equivalence of Fig. Figure 2.107 Determining the
2.105b is substituted. state of the Zener diode.

2.11 Zener Diodes 87