Sarhad University of Science & Information

Technology, Peshawar
Program: MS Electrical Engg. Examination: Mid Term
Course: Power System Protection Semester: Fall, 2020
Time allowed: 24 hours Marks: 30

Student’s Name: Ibrar Khan

Registration No: SU-20-02-048-013

Student email: [email protected]

WhatsApp Contact: 03459790598

INSTRUCTIONS:

Answer All Questions in the same Question Paper under each question/section subsequently.

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Question # 1

Evaluate the selection of circuit breakers based on sub transient calculations and
relay settings for transient calculations?
Question # 2

Provide an analysis for using a factor of 1.6 in designing of protection system by the
manufacturers.

Question # 3

Why and where ROCOF (rate of change of frequency) relay and reverse power flow
relay installed.

Answer: ROCOF Relays:

ROCOF relays are used for the detection of “under frequency” and “over
frequency” conditions. The conceptual principle of operation is that grid stability
mandates a match between load and generation, and if this becomes imbalanced,
the frequency will either rise or fall based on excess generation or generation
shortfall respectively. In the scenario that a grid section becomes islanded, the
likelihood of a load/generation mismatch is high, therefore frequency will adjust,
and this movement can be detected by ROCOD relays.

ROCOF relays are generally installed on generators to detect both “under-

frequency” and “over-frequency” conditions. The purpose of the relays here is to
protect the generator by tripping it before the frequency becomes too low or too
high, thus avoiding potentially costly damage to the generator.

Reverse Power Relay:

A reverse power relay is a relay that prevents power from flowing in the reverse
direction. Normally, it is used when a generator runs in parallel with another
generator in order to prevent the power from the bus bar or another generator
from flowing back to the active generator when its output fails. The relay monitors
the power from the generator continuously and when the generator output falls
below a preset value, it quickly disconnects the generator coil.

The generator output can fail due to problems with the prime mover, – turbine or
engine that drives the generator, issues with speed controller, or different
frequencies during synchronization.

When the prime mover fails, the generator stops producing power and may instead
start drawing power from the other parallel sources and start motoring. The
reverse power relay senses any reverse direction of power flow and disconnects
the generator to avoid any possible damage.

Question # 4

Provide reason for the initiation of DC component during faults. Why this DC
component saturates the current transformer (CT) and how it can be minimized?

Answer:

Typically fault current consists a symmetrical ac component and a dc offset current.

To understand this concept, consider a transmission line unloaded exited by an
equivalent voltage source. The fault strikes at time t=t 0 This can be simulated by
.

closing the switch at t=t1

 R+ jωL or |Z|∠θ models the line impedance. The fault current in the line is
given by

i(t )=0 0≤t≤t 0

t−t 0
V sin (ω t+ φ−θ )
i(t )= m +I0 e
−
( )
τ
|Z| t≥t 0

Where τ is the time constant of the line τ =L/R. The fault current has two
components in it. The first component models the steady state sinusoidal ac
response while the second current is the dc offset current due to the presence of
inductive component in the circuit. Recall that current in an inductance cannot
change instantaneously. As t → ∞, the instantaneous dc current, a consequence
− +
of maintaining initial condition i(t0 )=i(t0 ) , decays exponentially to zero and the
current reaches the ac steady state values. While the dc offset current, would in
theory persist till infinity, its trace in the actual wave form would not be seen
−t
τ
beyond a certain time constants. Table-I illustrates the values of e up to 10 time
constants.

Time t=0 t=τ t = 2τ t = 4τ t = 6τ t = 8τ t = 10τ

 −t
τ 1 0.3678 0.1353 0.0183 0.0024 0.0003 0.00004
e

It is more or less obvious that, dc offset is not seen in the waveform after 5 time
constants. The value of I can be worked out by setting the current at t=t o to
0

zero.

This implies that

Vm
I 0=− sin (ωt 0 +ϕ−θ )
|Z|
Thus
t−t 0
Vm Vm −(
τ
)
i(t )= sin(ωt +φ−θ )− sin(ωt +φ−θ )e
|Z| |Z|

fig.2

Clearly, the peak value of dc offset current depends upon

 Time at which fault strikes

  Phase angle φ of ac voltage

 |Z| & θ of transmission line

Figure 2 shows the waveforms of

a) symmetrical ac component

b) dc offset current

c) total current for various values of θ,φ & t 0

It can be seen that severity of dc offset component in fault current is maximum

when

a) φ=θ

π
ωt 0 =±
b) 2

For example, if angle of transmission line is 800, then with φ = 800 &
π 1
t 0=
2×2 π×50 = 200 sec = 5msec, the severity of dc offset current would equal
Vm
I 0=
|Z| , which is also the peak value of symmetrical ac component of the current.
This leads us to an important conclusion. Viz. peak value

1) dc offset current can be as high as the symmetrical ac peak

2) The dc offset current can be positive or negative (see fig2)

3) Dc offset current may be totally absent

E.g. If ϕ=θ , t 0=0

4) While, in above analysis, we have considered a single phase current, a 3 φ

fault on a 3 φ transmission line would always induce dc offset current in at
least 2 phases.
In the remaining lecture, we analyze the effect of dc offset current on CT
performance.

DC- offset current and CT saturation

We now plan to show that CT can saturate on dc offset current. Also, we plan to
show that the resulting distortions in the CT secondary current can be un-
acceptably high. While doing this analysis, we will neglect ac symmetrical
component. In other words, we rest our belief in superposition theorem at least
qualitatively and will finally evaluate effect using it

Notice that the current that we are dealing with is non-linear, a rigorous
application of super position theorem is simply out of question.

First consider an ideal CT excited by the dc offset current source. An ideal CT will
faithfully replicates primary current waveform on the secondary side. Hence, the
secondary current would be given by
−t
I
i 2 ( t )= 0 e τ
N

and the voltage developed across CT secondary would be given by

−t
RI N2
v 2 ( t )= 0 e τ N=
N1
N where

Typical voltage waveform is shown in fig. (5)

 For simplicity, let us assume that the initial flux in the transformer core at t=0 is
zero φ( 0)=0 ; Then we can compute the flux in the transformer core by using
faraday’s law

dφ
V 2 =N 2
dt --------- (2)

t
⇒ φ(t )−φ(0)=∫0 v 2 dt
−t
RI 0
=
N2
(
τ 1−e τ )
LI 0 −t
= (1−e τ )
N2
−t
LI 0
φ(t )=φ(0 )+ (1−e τ )
⇒ N2

LI 0 −t
= (1−e τ )
N2 ------- (3)

As a consequence of dc offset current,

Thus, flux in the core increases exponentially to a peak value of
LI 0
φdmaxc =
N2 as t →∝¿ ¿

L Vm Vm
max
N |Z| |Z| φd c

Note that unlike ac voltage induced flux, which is sinusoidal, this flux is
unidirectional. The ac voltage induced flux has zero average value. However, dc
offset induced does not have this nice feature. The total flux in ideal CT core is a
summation of ac flux and dc flux.
d
The ac flux in the CT core can be obtained by substituting operator dt by jω .
Hence phasor relationship between phase V̄ 2 & φ̄ ac is given by

V2
φ̄=
jωN 2

If v2 (t )  Vm sin(t   ) , then

Vm π
φ ac= sin (ωt+ φ− )
ωN 2 2

The peak value of ac flux is given by

Vm
φ max
ac =
ωN 2

However V m=R2 I max

0
 max
max R 2 I 0
φ ac =
Hence ωN 2

and peak value of the total flux is given by

max
V m LI 0
φ max max
ac +φdc = +
ωN 2 N 2

In practice, if this flux exceeds the knee-point flux in the core (see fig.), then the
CT core will saturate.

As a
consequence of CT core saturation, the secondary current would not faithfully
replicate the primary current. Infact, in practice it is observed that CT secondary
current is clipped. The clipping of CT current leads to “blinding” of the relay which
cannot function further. Hence, CT saturation in presence of dc offset current is a
serious problem which relay designers have to face. Note that dc flux accumulates
gradually. (Depends upon the transmission line time constant ( τ ). It is apparent
that saturation should not occur immediately after the inception of the fault. Thus,
if the relay is fast enough in decision making, it is likely that a relaying decision
would be undertaken before the CT fully saturates. This is another important
reason for increasing the speed of relaying system. For bus-fault protection, where
the dc saturation due to dc offset current can be a significant contributing factor,
quarter cycle operations specifically are imposed. Similarly, a distance relay is
expected to operate within ½-1 cycle time.
CT oversizing factors

Typically, an efficient design of transformer would correspond to choosing the core

ac
cross section such that φm should be near the knee point of B-H curve. One
obvious way of avoiding the CT saturation on dc flux is to oversize the core so that
max max
for flux (φac +φ dc ) , the corresponding B is below the knee-point. Hence, the
max max
( φac + φdc )
max
factor φac is called core-oversizing factor.
max
φdc
1+ max
Core-oversizing factor = φac

LI o / N 2
=1+
RI 0 /ωN 2

ωL
=1+
R

X
=1+
R
Note that X/R in above equation is the transmission line X/R ratio. For a 220KV line
X/R ¿ 10. This would imply that transformer core should be oversized by a factor
of 11. For a 400KV line, typical value of X/R ¿ 20. This would imply an oversizing
required of about 21 times the usual design. Clearly this high amount of oversizing
is not practical. Thus, the important conclusion is that, protection engineers have
to live with the saturation problem.

Cautions in CT selection:

While choosing a CT for a particular application, it is necessary to observe

following precautions.

1. The CT rating and continuous load current should match. For example, if max
load current is 90A, a 100:5 Ct may be acceptable but 50:5 is not acceptable.
 2. The maximum fault current should be less than 20 times the CT rated
current. for example 100:5 CT can be used, so long as burden on the CT &
maximum primary fault current is below 2000A.

3. The voltage rating of CT should be compatible. For example, 100:5 C100

would give linear response, up to 20 times rated current provided CT burden
is kept below(100/20*5=1 Ω). With 2 Ω burden, this CT can be used only if
maximum current is limited to 1000A.

4. Parallel of CT’s e.g. in differential protection, or with SLG fault can create
significant errors in CT performance. One should in general ascertain that
magnetizing current is kept much below the pickup value.

Question # 5

How the short circuit current impacts the selection of protection system? Also,
explain the alteration in protection system design as we move towards the
generating system from the grid.

Answer: In power system mostly the faults are detected by the currents flowing
through an element. Whenever short-circuit occurs due to some abnormal
conditions in the system, the current is increased by very large scale. Generally
short circuit calculations are used for the protection and these calculations can be
used to select different conductor sizes and to specify various equipment’s such as
power circuit breakers etc. Similarly electrical faults are characterized by a
variation in the magnitude of the short-circuit current due to the effect of the
equivalent system impedance at the fault point that produces a decaying DC
component, and the performance of the rotating machinery that results in a
decaying AC component. The resulting short-circuit current is determined by the
internal voltages of the synchronous machines and the system impedances
between the machines voltages and the fault. Short-circuit currents may be several
orders of magnitude larger than normal operating currents. These high currents
when persisted can thermally damage equipment as well as can also cause
mechanical damage due to high magnetic forces windings & bus-bars. It is
therefore necessary to remove the faulted sections of a power system from service
as soon as possible to avoid short-circuit currents in the elements.

A Short circuit study is very crucial in power systems. Short Circuit analysis is
required to ensure that existing and new equipment ratings are adequate to
withstand the available short circuit current at each point in the electrical power
systems. It is used to determine the available fault current or short circuit current
at each point in the system. Based on that study, power system engineers can
easily determine the required interrupting capacity of the circuit breakers which
forms the basis of designing a proper relaying system. In addition it also helps to
ensure that personnel and equipment are protected by establishing proper
interrupting ratings of protective devices (circuit breaker and fuses). No substation
equipment can be installed without the knowledge of short circuit values for the
entire power distribution system.