Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION

Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
MODULE 3: COMBUSTION

Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production of heat,
or heat and light. Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the presence of an adequate
supply of oxygen.

ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMICWEIGHT MOLECULAR WEIGHT

Carbon C 12 12
Hydrogen H2 1 2
Sulfur S 32 32
Oxygen O2 16 32
Nitrogen N2 14 28

Composition of Air and Molecular Weights

a. Composition by weight
76.8 % nitrogen, 23.2 % oxygen
Or 76.8 / 23.2 = 3.3 lb of nitrogen per lb of oxygen

b. Composition by volume
79.0 % nitrogen, 21.0 % oxygen

Thus, in 100 moles of air, there are approximately 21 moles of O 2 and 79% moles of N2.

 = 3.76 or 3.76

Each mole of O2 entering the combustion chamber is accompanied by 3.76 moles of N2.

 Mass/Gravimetric Basis
O2 – 23.1%
N2 – 76.9%
Total = 100%
1 kg of dry air contains 0.231 kg O2 and 0.769 kg N2
.
= 3.32
.

Each kg O2 entering the combustion chamber is accompanied by 3.32 kg of N2.

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
Air – the oxidizer most often used in a combustion process
Reasons:
1) Air is free
2) Air is readily available
The combustion process may be simply expressed as follows:
Reactants Products of combustion

Fuel + Air Products of combustion + Heat liberated

C theoretical dry gas

H2 dry air CO2, CO2, O2, SO2, N2
O2 + O2 + water vapour(H2O)
N2 N2 +
S + solid refuse ash
M excess dry air +
+ combustible (unburned carbon)
moisture

Reactants – are components which exist before the reaction (combustion process).

Examples: Fuel and Air

Products – are components which exist after the reaction (combustion process).

Examples: Gaseous products such as CO2, CO, O2 (excess gas), SO2, N2 and H2O.

Theoretical Air, mta

 Also called stoichiometric air

 The minimum amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a unit mass of fuel.
 The exact or calculated amount of air required for the complete combustion of fuel.

Air Fuel Ratio, Wta

 Theoretical air-fuel ratio is the exact theoretical amount, as determined from the
combustion reaction, of air needed to burn a unit amount of fuel, kg air per kg fuel or lb
air per lb fuel.

𝑂
𝑊 = 11.53𝐶 + 34.36 𝐻 − + 4.32𝑆
8

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
Complete Combustion

 A combustion is complete if all the carbon in the fuel burns to CO 2, all the hydrogen
burns to H2O and all the sulfur (if any) burns to SO2.

Incomplete Combustion

 A combustion is complete if the combustion products contains any unburned fuel or

components such as CO, H, C and H2

Actual Air, maa

 The actual amount of air supplied for the complete combustion of fuel.
 Usually greater than the theoretical amount to increase the chance of having complete
combustion.

Actual air-fuel ratio, Waa

 Actual air-fuel ratio is determined by the presence of excess air which is defined as the
amount of air supplied over and above the theoretical air.

𝑊 = (1 + 𝑒)𝑊
Excess Air

 The amount of air supplied in excess of the theoretical amount.

𝑊 − 𝑊
𝑒=
𝑊

To insure complete combustion of all parts of the fuel present, in whatever form, the following
conditions must be fulfilled:

1. The amount of air should be such that it is sufficient to burn the fuel completely. Complete
combustion means complete oxidation of all the combustible materials in the fuel. A deficiency
of air causes incomplete combustion of fuel which results in considerable unburned fuel being
discharged from the furnace whereas too much supply of air dilutes the gases and cools the
furnace.
2. The air and fuel should be thoroughly mixed so that each combustible particle comes in intimate
contact with the oxygen contained in the air.
3. The fuel should remain in the furnace for sufficient time until it gets burned completely
4. The temperature in the furnace should be high enough to ignite the incoming air-fuel mixture.

Conversation of Mass Principle:

“The total mass of each element is conserved during a chemical reaction. That is, the total mass
of each element on the right-hand side of the reaction equation (PRODUCTS) must be equal to

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
the total mass of that element on the left hand side (REACTANTS) even though the elements
exists in different chemical compounds in the reaction and products.

COMBUSTION CHEMISTRY

In the case of solid and liquid fuels, we do the combustion of each element separately. The
important rule is that you must have the same number of atoms of each substance before and after
the process. This may be obtained by juggling with the number of molecules.

Reactants → Products
Fuel + Oxidizer → Products

Combustion of Carbon (C):

On mole basis:
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 + 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 → 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂

Note: The number of moles is not conserved during the reaction.

On mass basis:
12𝑘𝑔 𝐶 + 32𝑘𝑔 𝑂 → 44 𝑘𝑔 𝐶𝑂
8 11
1𝑘𝑔 𝐶 + 𝑘𝑔𝑂 → 𝑘𝑔 𝐶𝑂
3 3

This means that 1 kg of carbon requires 8/3 kg of oxygen for its complete combustion to
produce 11/3 kg of carbon dioxide. And, if the atmospheric air contains 23.1% oxygen by mass, the
theoretical amount of air required to burn 1kg of carbon completely is

8 𝑘𝑔𝑂 1𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑘𝑔

× → 11.5
3 𝑘𝑔𝐶 0.231𝑘𝑔 𝑂 𝑘𝑔

Combustion of Hydrogen (H2):

On mole basis:
1
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 + 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 → 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 𝑂
2

On mass basis:
2𝑘𝑔 𝐻 + 16𝑘𝑔 𝑂 → 18 𝑘𝑔 𝐻 𝑂

1𝑘𝑔 𝐻 + 8𝑘𝑔 𝑂 → 9 𝑘𝑔 𝐻 𝑂

This means that 1kg of hydrogen requires 8kg of oxygen for its complete combustion to produce
9 kg of water vapour. And, if the atmospheric air contains 23.1% oxygen by mass, the amount of air
requires to burn 1kg of hydrogen completely is

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
𝑘𝑔𝑂 1𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑘𝑔
8 × → 34.5
𝑘𝑔𝐻 0.231𝑘𝑔 𝑂 𝑘𝑔

Note: On a mass basis, the mass of mixture (or reactants) must equal the mass of products, but
on a mole basis, the number of moles of reactants and products are not necessarily equal.

Combustion of Sulfur (S):

On mole basis:

1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆 + 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 → 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑂

One mass basis:

32𝑘𝑔 𝐶 + 32𝑘𝑔 𝑂 → 64 𝑘𝑔 𝐶𝑂
1𝑘𝑔 𝐶 + 1𝑘𝑔𝑂 → 2 𝑘𝑔 𝑆𝑂

This means that 1kg of sulfur requires 1kg for its complete combustion to produce 2kg of sulfur
dioxide. And, if the atmospheric air contains 23.1% oxygen by mass, the theoretical amount of air
required to burn 1kg of sulfur completely is

𝑘𝑔 1𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
1 × → 4.32
𝑘𝑔 0.231𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

Free hydrogen – is based on the assumption that all of the oxygen of fuel is combined with the
hydrogen content in proper proportion and is given the equation

Typical Combustion Reaction of Hydro-Carbon or Gaseous Fuels

Combustion reaction with chemically-correct or stoichiometric condition general chemical formula of

the fuel is CnHm.
Fuel + Air + Heat = Product of Combustion

𝐶 𝐻 + 𝑎(𝑂 + 3.75𝑁 ) + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 → 𝑏𝐶𝑂 + 𝑐𝐻 𝑂 + 3.76𝑎𝑁 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡

For Carbon
n=b
For Hydrogen
m = 2c
For Oxygen
2a = 2b +c
a = n + 0.25m

𝐶 𝐻 + (n + 0.25m)(𝑂 ) + (3.75)(n + 0.25m)(𝑁 ) + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡

→ 𝑏𝐶𝑂 + 𝑐𝐻 𝑂 + 3.76n + 0.25m𝑁 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡

(n + 0.25m)(32 + 3.76 × 28)

𝑊 =
12𝑛 + 𝑚

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
137.28(𝑛 + 0.25 𝑚)
𝑊 =
12𝑛 + 𝑚

Equivalence ratio for a given mass of air, 

𝑊
𝜙=
𝑊

Note:
- Combustion reaction with greater amount of theoretical air, or having a fuel-lean mixture 𝜙 < 1
- Combustion reaction with lesser amount of theoretical air, or having a fuel-rich mixture 𝜙 > 1

ANALYSIS OF COAL

In order to assess the quality of coal, the following two types of analysis are made

Proximate Analysis

This analysis gives the approximate composition of the main constituents of coal. It is useful in
deciding its utilization for a particular industrial use. It means finding out weight percentage of
moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash in coal

Determination of moisture content in coal

About 1 gm of powdered, air dried coal sample is heated in silica crucible at 100 to 105 °C for
one hour. Percentage of moisture can be calculated from the loss in weight of the coal sample as

𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙

% 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 = × 100%
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Determination of Volatile Matter (V.M.) in coal

After the analysis of moisture content the crucible with residual coal sample is covered with a
lid, and it is heated at 950 ± 20 °C for 7.0 minutes in a muffle furnace. Percentage of volatile matter can
be calculated from the loss in weight of the coal sample as

𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙

% 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 = × 100%
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Determination of ash in coal

After the analysis of volatile matter the crucible with residual coal sample is heated without lid at 700 ±
50 °C for 30 minutes in a muffle furnace.

Percentage of ash content can be calculated from the loss in weight of the coal sample as

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑

% 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 = × 100%
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
Determination of fixed carbon

It is determined by subtracting the sum of total moisture, volatile and ash contents from 100.

% 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 = 100 − [ 𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑉. 𝑀. +𝑎𝑠ℎ)]%

Significance (or) Importance of Proximate Analysis

Moisture

High moisture content in coal is undesirable because it,

- Reduces Calorific Value of coal

- Increases the consumption of coal for heating purpose
- Lengthens the time of heating.

Hence, lesser the moisture content better is the quality of coal.

Volatile Matter

During burning of coal, certain gases like CO, CO2, CH4, H2, N2, O2, hydrocarbons etc. that come
out are called volatile matter of the coal.

The coal with higher volatile content,

- Ignites easily (i.e : it has lower ignition temperature)

- Burns with long yellow smoky flame
- Has lower Calorific Value
- Will give more quantity of coal gas when it is heated in absence of air.

Ash

- Ash is the combustion product of mineral matters present in the coal. It consists mainly of SiO2,
Al2O3 and Fe2O3 with varying amounts of other oxides such as Na2O, CaO, MgO etc.
- Ash containing oxides of Na, Ca and Mg melt early. (Low melting ash). During coke
manufacture, the low melting ash forms a fused lumpy - expanded mass which block the
interspaces of the ‘grate’ and thereby obstructing the supply of air leading to irregular burning
of coal and loss of fuel.
- High ash content in coal is undesirable because it (a) increases transporting, handling, storage
costs, (b) is harder and stronger, (c) has lower Calorific Value.

Fixed Carbon
- It is the pure carbon present in coal. Higher the fixed carbon content of the coal, higher will
be its Calorific Value.

Ultimate Analysis

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
This analysis gives the elementary constituents of coal and I t is useful to the designer of coal
burning equipments and auxiliaries. The ultimate analysis indicates the various elemental chemical
constituents such as Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, etc. It is useful in determining the quantity of
air required for combustion and the volume and composition of the combustion gases. This information
is required for the calculation of flame temperature and the flue duct design etc. Typical ultimate
analyses of various coals are given in the Table 1.6.

Typical Ultimate Analysis of Coals

Parameters Indian Coal, % Indonesian, %
Moisture 5.98 9.43
Mineral Matter (1.1 x Ash) 38.63 11.99
Carbon 41.11 58.96
Hydrogen 2.76 4.16
Nitrogen 1.22 1.02
Sulphur 0.41 0.56
Oxygen 9.89 11.88

Heating Value of Solid Fuels

The heating value of solid fuels may be determined by the following methods:

1. By the use of oxygen bomb calorimeter (most accurate values);

2. By computation based on the ultimate analysis of solid fuels.

Dulong’s Formula is the generally accepted formula for calculating the heating value of coal. It is
based on the assumption that all the oxygen in the fuel, and enough hydrogen to unite with it, are inert
in the form of water (H2O) and that the remainder of the hydrogen and all of the carbon and sulphur are
available for oxidation.

Dulong’s Formula as stated in the fuel bulletins of U.S. Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines
is used for calculating the heating value of coal. It is stated as follows:

HHV = 14,544 C + 62,028 𝐻 − + 4050 𝑆,

LHV = HHV – 1050 W, Btu/lb

Where: HHV = higher heating value, Btu/lbfuel

LHV = lower heating value, Btu/lbfuel

1050 = latent heat of water vapour, Btu/lbvapor

W = 9H, lbwater vapor/lbfuel

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
H = mass of hydrogen, lb/lbfuel

The heating value of coal may also be expressed in SI units based on Dulong’s formula:

HHV = 33,830 C + 144,270 𝐻 − + 9420 𝑆,

LHV = HHV – 2442 W, KJ/kg

Where: W = 9H, kgwater vapor/kgfuel

H = mass of hydrogen, kg/kgfuel

2442 = latent heat of water vapor, KJ/kg

Heating Value of Liquid Fuels

The heating value of liquid fuels may be determined by the following methods:

1. Using the oxygen bomb calorimeter. The true heating value of liquid fuels can be found by
direct calorimeter measurements.
2. Using an empirical formula based on specific gravity of the fuel which gives approximate values
only.

ASME Formula:

𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 17680 + 60 ∗ °𝐴𝑃𝐼, 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏

𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 41122 + 139.6 ∗ °A𝑃𝐼,

𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 9822 + 33.33 ∗ °𝐴𝑃𝐼,

Bureau of Standards Formula for all Petroleum Products:

𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 22230 − 3780 ∗ (𝑆. 𝐺. ) ,

𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 51705 − 8792 ∗ (𝑆. 𝐺. ) ,

𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 12350 − 2100 ∗ (𝑆. 𝐺. ) ,

Examples:

1. An ultimate analysis of bituminous coal as received shows the following:

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
C H2 O2 N2 S A M Total
78.28 4.98 4.78 1.37 1.20 6.23 3.16 100%

Calculate the theoretical amount of air needed for the complete combustion o a unit mass of fuel.

Solution:

𝑂
𝑊 = 11.53𝐶 + 34.36 𝐻 − + 4.32𝑆
8
0.0478
𝑊 = 11.53(0.7828) + 34.36 0.0498 − + 4.32(0.012)
8

kg
𝑊 = 10.583
kg

2. Coal has the following ultimate analysis in the as-fired or as-received basis:

C H2 O2 N2 S A M Total
71.7 5.21 8.39 1.3 3.40 6.50 3.50 100%

Determine the actual air for 20% excess air.

Solution:
𝑊 = 11.53𝐶 + 34.36 𝐻 − + 4.32𝑆

.
𝑊 = 11.53(0.717) + 34.36 0.0521 − + 4.32(0.0340)

kg
𝑊 = 9.843
kg

For the air to fuel ratio with 20% excess air

𝑊 = (1 + 𝑒)𝑊 = (1 + 0.20)(9.843)
kg
𝑊 = 11.812
kg

3. Ethane (C2H6) is burned with just twice the theoretical amount of air. How much air is used to
oxidize 6 kg of fuel?

Solution: (1st solution)

Let

Wta = theoretical air

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
Waa = actual air = 2Wta

Solving for the molecular weight of ethane

MW of C2H6 = 2(12) + 6 = 30

Solving for the mass percentage of each element present in the fuel

( )
C= x 100 = 80%

H2 = x 100 = 20%

Total = 100%

Solving for the mass of fuel required

Wta = 11.53C + 34.36 (H2 – ) + 4.32S,

= 11.53C + 34.36H2

Wta = 11.53(0.80) + 34.3(0.20) = 16.096

Waa = 2(16.096) = 32.192

Therefore, the total amount of air needed for the complete combustion of 6kg of C 2H6

maa = (32.192 )(6kg C2H6)

maa = 193.152 kg air

Second Solution

Fuel + Air -> Products

C2H6 + a (O2 + 3.76N2) -> xCO2 + yH2O + zN2

Material Balance:

C Balance H2 Balance O2 Balance

2=b 3=c a = b + ½c
b= 2 c=3 = 2 + 3/2
a = 3.5

N2 Balance: a (3.76) = (3.50)(3.76) = 13.16

1molC2H6 + 3.5 mol(O2 + 3.76N2)  2 molCO2 + 3molH2O + 13.16N2

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
Analysis by weight for : C2H6

1kg[(2x12) +6] C2H6 + (3.5)(16x2)kg O2 + 13.16(2x14)kg N2  2[12+(2x16)]kgCO2 +3[2+16]kg H2O + 13.16(28)kg N2

30kg C2H6 +112kg O2+ 368.48kg N2 88kg CO2 +96kgH2O + 368.48kg N2

Then,

𝐴𝑖𝑟 112kg O2 + 368.48kg N2 kg

𝑊 = = = 19.096
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 30kg C2H6 kg

Waa = 2(16.096) = 32.192

Therefore, the total amount of air needed for the complete combustion of 6kg of C 2H6

maa = (32.192 )(6kg C2H6)

maa = 193.152 kg air

4. In a combustion chamber, ethane (C2H6) is burned at a rate of 6kg/hr with air which enters the
combustion chamber at a rate of 132 kg/hr. Determine the percentage of excess air used during
this process.

Solution

e= x 100%

Solving for maa:

maa = = = 22kg/hr

Solving for mta:

mta = 11.50C + 34.5(H2 – ) + 4.32S

MW of C2H6 = 2(12) + 6 = 30 kg/kmole

( )
%C = x100 = 80%

%H2 = x 100 = 20%

Total = 100%

mta = 11.50(0.80) + 34.5(0.20 – ) + 4.32(0) = 16.1 kgair/kgfuel

.
Therefore, e = x 100 = 36.65%
.

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
5. Octane (C8H18) is burned with 50% excess air. Determine (a) the balanced reaction equation, (b)
the dew-point temperature of the products.

Solution:

(a) Basis: 1 kmole C8H18

Fuel + air -> Products

C8H18 + (1+e)a (O2 + 3.76N2) -> xCO2 + yH2O + eaO2 + zN2

Material balance

C balance H2 balance
8=x 9=y
x=8 y=9

O2 balance:

1.50a = x + ½ y + 0.50a

a = 8 + ½ (9) = 12.50

N2 balance

1.50a (3.76) = z

z = 1.50(12.50)(3.76) = 70.50

C8H18 + 1.50(12.50)(O2 + 3.76N2) -> 8CO2 + 9H2O + 6.25O2 + 70.5N2

C8H18 + 18.75O2 + 70.50N2 -> 8CO2 + 9H2O + 6.25O2 + 70.5N2

(b) Dew-point temperature of products, tdp

- is the temperature at which the water vapor in the products begin to condense
- is equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to the partial pressureexerted by
water vapor.

Note: The recommended flue gas temperature should be higher than the dew-point temperature to
prevent condensation of water vapor. If the flue gas temperature is lower than the dew-point
temperature then there will condensation of water vapor. The condensate will react with sulfur dioxide
to produce sulfuric acid which is highly corrosive to metal, thereby, corroding the internal of chimney or
stack.

ᶯ
PH2O = Pflue gas
ᶯ

where PH2O = partial pressure exerted by water vapor

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
ᶯH2O = no. of moles of H2O in the products

ᶯproducts = no. of moles of the products (flue gas)

Pflue gas = total pressure of the products

= atmospheric pressure

= Patm

PH2O = (101.325 kpa) = 9.72KPa

. .

tdp = tsat @ PH2O = tsat @ 9.72KPa (steam tables) = 45.26 °C

Note: ᶯH2O = 9 ---Please refer to the balance reaction equation in (a)

PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION

B. Solid Fuel (Coal)

a) Theoretical Combustion
CO2, H2O,
C, H2, O2, N2, S, A, M SO2, N2
Fuel Combustion Gaseous Products

Chamber Ar, ash in refuse

Air O2, N2, M Solid Refuse
Cr, combustible
in refuse

b) Complete Combustion
CO2, H2O, SO2,
N2, excess O2
Fuel C, H2, O2, N2, S, A, M
Combustion Gaseous Products

Chamber Ar, ash in refuse

Air O2, N2, M Solid Refuse
Cr, combustible
in refuse

c) Incomplete Combustion
CO2, CO, H2O,
SO2, N2, Excess
Fuel C, H2, O2, N2, S, A, M O2
Combustion Gaseous Products

Chamber Ar, ash in refuse 40

Air O2, N2, M Solid Refuse
Cr, combustible
in refuse
Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus

C. Liquid Fuels
CO2, H2O, (a)
SO2, N2

Fuel C, H2, O2, N2, S CO2, H2O,

Combustion
(b)
SO2, N2,O2
Chamber
Air O2, N2, M
CO2, CO, H2O,
(c)
SO2, N2, O2

Legend:

(b) Theoretical Combustion

(c) Complete Combustion
(d) Incomplete Combustion

Note: Nitrogen and moisture are inert gases. Therefore, N2 and M will not undergo chemical reaction
during the combustion process.

D. Gaseous Fuel
CO2, H2O, N2 (a)

Fuel C, H2, O2, N2 CO2, H2O,

Combustion
(b)
N2, O2
Chamber
Air O2, N2, M
CO2, CO, H2O,
Legend: (c)
N2, O2

(a) Theoretical Combustion

(b) Complete Combustion
(c) Incomplete Combustion

Products of Combustion: Gaseous Fuel

Products Theoretical Combustion Complete Combustion Incomplete Combustion

mCO2, C C yC
mCO, ᵩ ᵩ (1-y)C

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
mO2, ᵩ 0.231mta 0.231emta + 1.33(1-y)C

MN2, 0.769mta + N2 0.769maa + N2

MH2O, 9H2 + Wairmta ᵩ ᵩ

MSO2, ᵩ

Where: C, H2, N2, O2 are taken from the ultimate analysis of fuel

mta = actual air, kgair/kgfuel

e = excess air

Wair = humidity ratio of air

y = proportional part of carbon burned to CO2

(1-y) = proportional part of unburned carbon forming CO

DERIVATION OF FORMULAS

(1) mCO2

12kgC + 32kgO2 -> kg CO2

1kgC + kg O2 -> kg CO2

Proportions =

therefore, mCO2 = ×

mCO2 = C,

(2) mN2 = N2 (air) + N2 (fuel)

= 0.769 𝑚 + 𝑁 (𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙)

= 0.769 mta + N2 (fuel) Theoretical Combustion

= 0.769 maa + N2 (fuel) Complete and Incomplete Combustion

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
(3) mH2O = 9H2 + Wair mta

1 kg H2 + 8 kg O2 9 kg H2O

Proportion:

mH2O = 9 𝐻 + 𝑊 𝑚

= 9H2 + Wair mta , Theoretical Combustion

mH2O = 9H2 + Wair maa , Complete and Incomplete Combustion

(4) mO2

Excess air = maa - mta

= (1+e) mta - mta

= e mta , kgexcess air/kgfuel

mO2 = (e mta , kgexcess air/kgfuel) (0.231 kgexcess O2 /kgexcess air)

= 0.231 e mta Complete Combustion

(5) For Theoretical and Complete Combustion : y = 100% or y = 1

mCO2 = 𝐶,

For Incomplete Combustion

y CO2
C
(1-y) CO

.:. mCO2 = 𝐶,

C + 1/2O2 CO

12 kg C + 16 kg O2 28 kg CO

Proportion:

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus

mCO2 = (1 − 𝑦)𝐶

= (1 − 𝑦)𝐶 ,

Proportion:

mO2 = 0.231 e mta + (1 − 𝑦)𝐶 ,

Products of Combustion : Liquid Fuel

Product Theoretical Combustion Complete Combustion Incomplete Combustion

44 44 44
mCO2 𝐶 𝐶 𝑦𝐶
12 12 12
28
mCO Ø Ø (1 − 𝑦) 𝐶
12
mO2 Ø 0.231 e mta 0.231 e mta + (1 − 𝑦)𝐶

mN2 0.769 mta + N2 (fuel) 0.769 maa + N2 0.769 maa + N2

mH2O 9H2 + Wair mta 9H2 + Wair maa 9H2 + Wair maa
mSO2 2S 2S 2S

1 kg S + 1 kg O2 2 kg SO2

Proportion:

mSO2 = 𝑆

mSO2 = 2𝑆

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus

Products of Combustion: Solid Fuel

Product Theoretical Combustion Complete Combustion Incomplete Combustion

44 44 44
mCO2 𝐶 𝐶 𝑦 𝐶′
12 12 12
28
mCO Ø Ø (1 − 𝑦) 𝐶′
12
mO2 Ø 0.231 e mta 0.231 e mta + (1 − 𝑦)𝐶′

mN2 0.769 mta + N2 (fuel) 0.769 maa + N2 (fuel)

mH2O 9H2 + Wair mta + M (fuel) 9H2 + Wair maa + M(fuel)
mSO2 2S 2S 2S

Where: C’ = C - 𝐴,

Ar = ash in refuse

Cr = combustible (carbon) in refuse

A = ash from fuel analysis (ultimate)

C = carbon from ultimate analysis

C’ = actual amount of carbon burned

= applicable for solid fuel only

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus

Example 6. A coal has the following ultimate analysis in the as-fired or as-received basis:

C = 57.61 O2 = 5.80 A = 16.50

H2 = 5.73 N2 = 1.07 M = 10.00 S = 3.29

The plant using this coal has a coal pulverizer-drier system so that only dry coal is supplied to
the boiler. Other data are as follows:

e = 40% ; y = 87% ; Ar = 90%

Predict the Orsat analysis (dry volumetric analysis) of the flue gas and determine its density at
280oC and 140 kPa.

Flue Gas
As-Fired Basis CO2
CO
C H 2 O 2 N2 S A M C H 2 O 2 N2 S A O2
N2
Pulverizer H2O
Drier SO2
Boiler

Dry Air Ar = 90%

O2 N2 Cr = 10%
Refuse

Utltimate Analysis : As-Received Basis

C = 57.61%

H2 = 5.73%

O2 = 5.80%

N2 = 1.07%

S = 3.29%

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
A = 16.50%

M = 10.00%

Total = 100%

Conversion from As=Received Basis to Dry Fuel Basis

Ultimate Analysis : “Moisture Free” or Dry Fuel Basis

.
C= = 64.01%
( . )

.
H2 = = 6.37%
( . )

.
O2 = = 6.44%
( . )

.
N2 = = 1.19%
( . )

.
S= = 3.66%
( . )

.
A= = 18.33%
( . )

Total = 100%

mta = 11.50C +34.5 (H2 - ) + 4.32 S

.
= 11.50 (0.6401) + 34.5 (0.0637 - ) + 4.32 (0.0366)

= 9.44 kgair/kgfuel

maa = (1+e) mta

= (1+0.40) (9.44)

= 13.216 kgair/kgfuel

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
( . )( . )
C’ = C - = 0.6401 -
.

= 0.6197 kg C/kgfuel

Product of Incomplete Combustion:

mCO2 = 𝑦𝐶 = (0.87)(0.6197) = 1.98

mCO = (1 − 𝑦)𝐶 = (1 − 0.87)(0.6197) = 0.188

mO2 = 0.231 e mta + (1 − 𝑦)𝐶′

= 0.231 (0.40) (9.44) + (1 − 0.87)(0.6197)

= 0.98

mN2 = 0.769 maa + N2 (fuel)

= 0.769 (13.216) + 0.0119

= 10.175 kgN2/kgfuel
Ø for dry air
mH2O = 9H2 + Wair maa

= 9(0.0637) = 0.5733 kgH2O/kgfuel

mSO2 = 2S = 2(0.0366)

= 0.0732 kgSO2/kgfuel

Let mfg = mass of wet flue gas

= mCO2 + mCO + mO2 + mN2 + mH2O + mSO2

= 1.98 + 0.188 + 0.98 + 10.175 + 0.5733 + 0.0732

= 13.9695 kgflue gas/kgfuel

mfg = mass of dry flue gas

= mCO2 + mCO + mO2 + mN2 + mSO2

= 1.98 + 0.188 + 0.98 + 10.175 + 0.0732

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
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= 13.3962 kgdry gas/kgfuel

(a) Orsat Analysis : Dry Gas Volumetric Analysis

ƞdg = ƞCO2 + ƞCO + ƞO2 + ƞN2 + ƞSO2

𝑚𝐶𝑂 𝑚𝑂2 𝑚𝑁2 𝑚𝑆𝑂2
= + + + +

. 0.188 0.98 10.175 0.0732

= + + + +

= 0.045 + 0.0067 + 0.0306 + 0.3634 + 0.00114

= 0.44688

CO2 = (0.045/0.44688) (100) = 10.07%

CO = (0.0067/0.44688) (100) = 1.50%

O2 = (0.0306/0.44688) (100) = 6.85%

N2 = (0.3634/0.44688) (100) = 81.32%

SO2 = (0.00114/0.44688) (100) = 0.26%

Total = 100%

(b) Let ƞfg = no. of kmoles of wet flue gas

= ƞdg + ƞH2O = ƞdg +
.
= 0.44688 +
= 0.47873 kmole/kgfuel

.
MW of wet flue gas = =
ƞ .
= 29.18 kg/kmole

R = gas constant of flue gas,

.
R = = = 0.2849
.

Where: R = Universal Gas Constant

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
= 8.3143

PV = mRT
P = 𝑅𝑇 = p RT

pfg = =
( . )( )

pfg = 0.8886 kg/m 3

Example 7. A steam generator burns fuel oil that has the following chemical analysis by
mass in percentage:

C = 85.3 S = 0.50

H2 = 14.1 N2 = 0.10

Combustion takes place in 125% theoretical air. The flue gas leaves the air-
preheater at 170 kPa. What is the partial pressure of the stack gas to avoid
condensation in kPa? Take molecular weight of the flue gas as 28.80

Solution: Flue gas

C H2 N 2 S CO2
H2O
Fuel Steam SO2
Dry air O 2 N2 N2
Generator
O2 (excess)

mta = 11.50C +34.5 (H2 - ) + 4.32 S

= 11.50 (0.853) + 34.5 (0.141- 0)+ 4.32 (0.0050)

= 14.6956 kgair/kgfuel

maa = (1+e) mta

= (1.25) (14.6956)

= 18.37 kgair/kgfuel

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus

Products

Products of Complete Combustion:

mCO2 = 𝐶= (0.853) = 3.128

mO2 = 0.231 e mta = 0.231 (0.25) (14.6956)

= 0.849

mN2 = 0.769 maa + N2 (fuel)

= 0.769 (18.37) + 0.0010

= 14.1275 kgN2/kgfuel
Ø
mH2O = 9H2 + Wair maa

= 9(0.141) = 1.269kgH2O/kgfuel

mSO2 = 2S = 2(0.0050)

= 0.010 kgSO2/kgfuel

ƞdg = ƞCO2 + ƞO2 + ƞN2 + ƞH2O + ƞSO2

𝑚𝑂2 𝑚𝑁2 𝑚𝐻2𝑂 𝑚𝑆𝑂2
= + + + +

. 0.849 14.1275 1.269 0.010

= + + + +

= 0.6728

PH2O = 𝑃fg = (170) = 17.81 kPa

H2O

fg .

Example 8. A coal- fired steam boiler uses 3000 kg of coal per hour. Air required for
combustion is 15.50 kg/kg of coal at a barometric pressure of 98.20 kPa. The flue
gas has a temperature of 285oC and an average molecular weight of 30. Assuming
an ash loss of 11 percent and an allowable gas velocity of 7.5 m/s, find the diameter
of the chimney.

Solution: Chimney
ṁfg

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Steam Boiler
Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
ṁfuel

ṁair

ṁrefuse = ṁash

min = mout

ṁfuel + ṁair = ṁash + ṁfg

ṁair ṁash ṁfg

1+ = +
ṁfuel ṁfuel ṁfuel

ṁfg
1 + 15.50 = 0.11 +
ṁfuel

ṁfg kg lue gas

= 16.50 – 0.11 = 16.39
ṁfuel coal

ṁflue gas = (16.39) (3000) = 49,170 kg/hr

. .
Rflue gas = = = 0.2771

PV = ṁRT

Pfg Vfg = ṁfg Rfg Tfg

Pfg = pfg Rfg Tfg

pfg = fg
fg

fg
=
( . )(
.
)

= 0.6351 kg/m3

ṁflue gas = (AѴs p)flue gas

49,170 = 𝐷2 (7.5)(3600) (0.6351)

D = 1.91 m

Example 9. A fuel oil is burned with 50% excess air. What is the volume flow rate in m 3/min of
wet products at a pressure of 102 kPa and a temperature of 350 oC when the fuel is
burned at the rate of 45 kg/min? Assume that the combustion requirements of the
fuel oil are similar to those of C12H26.

Solution: Basis: 1kmole C12H26

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
Fuel + Air Products

C12H26 + (1+0.50) a(O2+3.76N2) xCO2 + yH2O + e a O2 + zN2

Fuel Dry air Products

Material Balance:

C Balance: H2 Balance: O2 Balance: N2 Balance:

12 = x 13 = y 1.50a = x + + 0.50a 1.50a (3.76) = z

a = x+ z = 1.50 (18.50) (3.76)

= 12 + (13) z = 104.34

a = 18.50

C12H26 + 1.50 (18.50)(O2 + 3.76N2) 12CO2 + 13H2O + 9.25O2 + 104.34N2

Fuel Air Products

C12H26 + 27.75 O2 + 104.34 N2 12CO2 + 13H2O + 9.25O2 + 104.34N2

ƞair . .
A/F (kmol basis) = =
ƞfuel

= 132.09
12 26

MW of C12H26 = 12(12) + 26 = 170 kg/kmol

MW of air = 29 kg/kmol

A/F (mass basis) = maa = 132.09 ( )

= 22,533 kgair/kgfuel

MW of wet products = 12(44) + 13(18) + 9.25(32) + 104.34(28)

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
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= 28.71 kg/kmole

. .
Rfg = = = 0.2896
fg .

PV = mRT

P = RT PѴ = RT

( . )( )
Ѵ = =

= 1.769 m3/kgflue gas

ṁair = (22.533) (45) = 1013.985 kgair/min

min = mout

ṁfuel + ṁair = ṁflue gas

ṁflue gas = 45 + 1013.985

= 1058.985 kg/min

Vflue gas = (ṁflue gas) (Ѵ flue gas)

= (1058.985) (1.769)

= 1873.34 m3/min

Example 10. An ultimate analysis of bituminous coal as-received shows the following:

C H2 O2 N2 S A M Total
78.28 4.98 4.78 1.37 1.20 6.23 3.16 100%
Calculate the higher heating value (HHV) of bituminous coal using Dulong’s empirical
equation.

HHV = 33,830 C + 144,270 𝐻 − + 9420 𝑆,

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
.
= 33,830 (0.7828) + 144,270 0.0498 − + 9420 (0.0120)

= 33,917.80 KJ/kgcoa

Example 11. A certain fuel oil gives a hydrometer reading of 20°API at a temperature15.6°C. Determine
the HHV of this fuel oil in kJ/kg using:

a. ASME Formula
b. Bureau of Standards Formula
c. Calculate the HHV of this fuel oil at 15.6°C on kJ/L
d. Compute the LHV of this fuel oil in kJ/kg
e. Determine the HHV of this fuel oil at 60°C in kJ/L

Solution:

a. ASME Formula:

𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 41122 + 139.6 ∗ °𝐴𝑃𝐼,

= 41122 + 139.6(20)

= 43914 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

b. Bureau of Standards Formula:

𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 51705 − 8792 ∗ (𝑆. 𝐺. ) ,

.
°𝐴𝑃𝐼 = − 131.5
. .@ . °

𝑆. 𝐺. @15.6°𝐶 = 141.5⁄(131.5 + °𝐴𝑃𝐼)

𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 51705 − 8792(0.934)

= 44035.25 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

c. 𝜌 @ 15.6°𝐶 = 1

𝜌 = 𝑆. 𝐺. (𝜌 ) = 0.934(1)

= 0.934 𝑘𝑔/𝐿

ASME Formula:

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Power Plant Engineering MODULE 3: COMBUSTION
Laguna State Polytechnic University Prepared by: Engr. Mark Augusto V. Agus
𝐻𝐻𝑉 = (43914 ) + (0.934 )

= 41015.68

Bureau of Standards Formula:

𝐻𝐻𝑉 = (44035.25)(0.934)

= 41128.92

d. LHV = HHV − 2442W

where: W = 9H and H = 26 − 15 (S. G. ), percent by weight

H = 26 − 15(0.934)

W = 9H = 9(0.1199) = 1.0791

∴ LHV = 43914 − 2442(1.0791)

= 41278.84

e. S. G. @ 60°C = (S. G. @ 15.6°C)(Correction Factor)

= (S. G. @ 15.6°C)[1 − 0.0007(t − 15.6)]
= (0.934)[1 − 0.0007(60 − 15.6)]
= 0.905

ρ @ 60°C = (0.905)(1) = 0.905

ASME Formula:

HHV = 43914(0.905)

= 39742.17

Bureau of Standards Formula:

HHV = 44035.25(0.905)

= 39851.9

Or 79.0/21.0 = 3.76 moles of nitrogen per moles of oxygen

56