GEOGRAPHYAll rights are reserved with the Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board, Lahore.| No part of this book can be copied, translated, reproduced or used for the preparation of test papers, guide books, key notes, helping books, etc. CONTENTS sr. Page] Sr. Page Bi,,| Contents RAR Contents Re 1. |Maps and Diagrams 1 | 7. | climate of Pakistan 55 2, JAgents of Landforms Change| 11 | & | Neighbouring Regions of | 62 3 loceans ands Pakistan v Oceans andi seas 9. | Problems of n 4, | Natural Disasters 31 Underdevelopment 5. | Major Environmental 40 | 10, | Introduction to Modern B Problems Techniques in Geography 6. | Natural Regions 47 Glossary 84 Ce |: Prof. Nadeem Fayyaz Govt. Postgraduate Collage, Asghar Mall Rawalpindh \> Prof. Sajid Mehmood Faroogi Govt Postgraduate College, Asghar Mall Rawalpindi |> Prof. Syed Atif Bukhari Govt. Postgraduate College, Asghar Mall, Rawalpindi \° Prof. Mian Muhammad Aslam (Late) [Review Committee] © Prof. Muhammad Khalid, Deptt of Geooraphy Gont. College of Science, Wahdat Road, Lahore + Prof. Sajid Mushtag, Department of Geography Govt Emerson Colege, Min «Prof. Muhammad Ghous, Dept of Geography ont, College of Science, Wahdat Road, Lahore «Miss Samaha Sajid, Dent. of Geography Bahauddin Zakariya University, Mutt (CEERIEDD - nana suhammad Akram Mrs. Ayesha Waheed Haq ° Naveed Fayyaz * Muhammad Ashraf Publisher: March 2016 Experimental istIMARSIAND Students‘ Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, students will be able to: discuss distribution maps. explain techniques to draw different diagrams. discuss the use of statistical data for diagrams. construct line graph, bar graph and pie graph using statistical data, evaluate merits and demerits of the diagrams. Map A representation of the features of an area of the Earth or whole of the Earth on a flat surface according to a scale is called a map. Maps are made to show the physical features, distribution of agricultural production, population distribution or political administrative divisions of any region, for example, physical feature maps or weather maps etc. In different regions of the world, there is variation in the distribution of industrial production, population, agricultural production and other resources. Geographers prepare maps by using different data and methods which help to obtain information about the areas quickly. To study different places of the world, first of all, knowledge of their location is important that can be acquired by maps. Maps not only identify the exact location of a place, but can also highlight its physical and economic significance, for example, with the help of political maps exact location and boundaries can be identified. Similarly, physical maps tell us about the physical features like mountains, plateaus, plains of any region. Weather map tells about ==Map of Pakistan (Poli the weather conditions of a country, It not only tells us about the current weather variation but also helps in forecasting the coming weather conditions on daily basis. Maps also help in determining the directions of different places. Aeroplanes and ships move to their destinations with the help of maps. There are many types of maps, Details of some maps are given below: 1. Atlas Maps Atlas maps are prepared for countries, continents and world with less details and general information. These maps provide important information about larger areas, for example, distribution of rainfall, temperature, forests, minerals and climatic conditions at continental level. ==2. Topographical Maps Topographical maps are prepared for smaller areas with all the details, for example, low lying and elevated areas, rivers, streams, forests, railways, roads, footpaths, canals and wells etc. present in that area 3. Cadastral Maps These are large scale maps. These maps contain more details as compared to topographical maps. These maps provide information at village level about ownership of farms and houses. Similarly, cadastral maps of cities provide detailed information about every house, block, street, road, parks and markets ete. 4. Distribution Maps Distribution maps are prepared to show and compare distribution of different phenomenon, for example, population of areas, number of cattle, mineral reserves, production and division of crops etc. Every phenomenon is shown at its real location keeping topography of the area in view. Area of a specific regionis considered while showing distribution of a phenomenon, There are two types of distribution maps, i.e., qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative maps only show production and not the quantity. Quantitative maps show variations in the production or numbers. Quantitative maps can be prepared by two methods that are dot maps and shade maps. DotMethod A dot distribution map is a map that uses a dot symbol to show the division of population or agricultural production of a specific area. Dot maps rely on a visual scatter to show distribution pattern. To prepare such distribution maps, area is divided into smaller units ie,, provinces, divisions, districts, tehsils ortowns. According to the data, number of dots is determined according to a scale in such a manner that number of dots should not be too a high or too low. In case oflargenumber of dots, there may be inadequate or alittle space available. On the other hand, fewer dots in a large unit may distort the correct visual concept of the map. Therefore, care has to be taken while selecting scale for dots. Before placing the dots on map, physical map of the region must be consulted to know that where most of the dots should be placed or where the dots are not required. This method is usually considered suitable for display of absolute data or total amounts. Any variation in production can be estimated from the number of dots. ==Population of Pakistan| according to year 2015] Dot map of 191.71 Million population T dot = 500,000 persons Pare eee Seale Source: Economic Survey of Pakistan (2014-15) Shading Method Sometimes to show a country’s. population or the production of various goods on the map, different colours or light or dark shades of one colour are used. The major drawback of this method is that the division of anything seems uniformly distributed everywhere. Whereas, variations may take place depending on the time and place. Sometimes to show agricultural production in different regions, it becomes difficult to ignore non- productive areas, ie, mountains, == Important Informal To show all kinds of crops producing areas with the help cof dot map, high mountainous ‘areas and river channels are avoided while placing dots. Similarly, unproductive and uninhabited areas must be left blank. Shade map of agricultural production rivers and lakes etc. and land use of Paksitan yDisadvantages of Distribution Maps + In general, the maps showing the distribution of the population are developed on the basis of the census. Most countries of the world have a census every ten years. Sometimes people live temporarily in a region ora country and after sometime, they move to other region or countries due to economic or political conditions. Therefore, it becomes difficult to show such mobile population on distribution maps. Within a country or a region, population density (persons per square kilometre) is usually displayed with the help of colours or shades of a colour which do not provide complete information about the region. It is difficult to differentiate between areas of dense population through colours or shades in different regions. + By distribution maps, the production or distribution of population of an area can easily be estimated. Often data used in producing these maps changes. So, it becomes mandatory to make changes in these maps according to the latest changes in the data. Itis beneficial, if distribution maps are produced by averaging the previous years because in doing so, variations in production of various years can be compensated. Methods of Showing Statistical Data In geography, diagrams are those conceptual sketches through which geographic information and data is transferred to the paper. These are called statistical diagrams. These are: 1. LineGraph 2. BarGraph 3. Pie Graph Let us study these diagrams in detail: Monthly Temperature of Lahore (°C) . 4s 1, Line Graph 0 In this diagram, 36 statistical data is displayed |» 90 with the helpofalineonthe | £25 fray graph, therefore, it is called B20 line graph. In this graphtwo |" 15 variables are discussed, one 10 Join as a variable quantity and eo as BPaaffsi? GRR 5325 8 38 other as a constant. To construct a line graph, two Months Line Graph ==lines are drawn that bisect normally at each other at 90 degrees. Constant variable ie,, days, months, years, kilometres and kilograms etc. is placed on horizontal axis (X-axis) where measurable variable i.e, rainfall, temperature, air pressure and production etc. is placed on vertical axis. To measure the values at vertical axis (Y-axis), an appropriate scale is determined. With the help of scale, values are marked in the form of dots for each constant variable, Then these dots are joined by a line to prepare a line graph. We cannot show the total quantity of any item with the help of line graph. For example, it is not possible to show the annual rainfall on a line graph. Similarly, the monthly or annual variation of population of any city or country can be shown but it is not possible to show the population ofall ities on this graph. Merits of Line Graph + With the help of line graph, more than one variables can be compared easily. For example, we can compare the annual temperatures and rainfall values of Karachi and Lahore, which is not possible on barand pie graph. + Line graphis the best way to show decrease or increase in annual, monthly and daily production of various items. Besides this, line graph is also used to show weather conditions, population, production, animal distribution, exports and imports of a country or region + Online graph, we can easily understand the fluctuations as well as the production of items. Demerits of Line Graph + We can show average quantities (annual rainfall or temperature etc.) on line graph but we cannot show percentages on it. + We cannot show the total quantity of any thing with the help of ine graph. For example, it is not possible to represent the annual rainfall with this graph, Similarly, we can show the annual or monthly change of population of any county or city on this graph but we cannot represent the population ofall ities onit 2. BarGraph In these days, bar graph is widely used in geography. In this graph, we show quantities in the form of bars of equal width on equal intervals. The height of the bar varies with quantity. Bars can be drawn both vertically and horizontally. This method is very useful for comparison of different quantities. For example, population of big cities of Pakistan, length of canals, marks of students in a ==100) 90 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) % 90 s8ses85e2 55 a feGebbbed esas Economic Survey of Pakistan Bar Graph subject, imports and exports of a country, areas and productions etc. are prepared. We can also shade and colour the bars. Merits of Bar Graph . The total quantity or production of any item can be shown on the bar graph. + Wecanalso compare different quantities of the same item. + The best feature of this graph is that we can easily show quantities on this graph. Demerits of Bar Graph + To show more than one item or quantity, we have to draw multiple bars or acompound bar. + tis possible to show value of only one item on the bar graph. 3. PieGraph Sometimes geographical data is displayed in the form of circles. This is called pie graph. In pie graph, 360 angles of a circle are divided into different sectors with the help of a formula, These sectors are given different colours, ==Formula for calculating angles is as follows: Given Quantity Total Quantity x 360 Students | Grade | Protractor-D 40 x 360 Formulas ———— = 72° 200 ‘Students scoring grades in annual examination, In the given pie graph, circle has been divided into different sectors with the help of given formula. For percentages, formula can be modified as follows. Percentage Value x 360 100 Merits of Pie Graph . Pie graphs are most suitable for showing percentage values and total quantities. + Pie graph covers less space as compared to line and bar graphs. It presents a better comparison between different quantities, + It shows the areas of different countries in a better way which is not possible on line and bar graphs. Pie graph is preferred to show production of power resources, ie., electricity or gas. Demerits of Pie graph + Pie graph is suitable to represent population of countries, areas and ==production etc. It is not suitable to show weather data, i.e., distribution of temperature, rainfall and wind pressure. + Calculations of percentages and division of circle into sectors is comparatively difficult and time consuming ——_eiss —— 1. A representation of the features of an area of the Earth or whole of the Earth ona flat surface according to scale is called a map. 2. Landforms like mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys and deserts are shown on physical feature maps. 3. Ingeography, statistical data displayed with the help of a line is called line graph. 4, Twovariablesare discussed on aline graph The total quantity or production of any item is shown on a bar graph. 6. Inbar graph, different quantities are shown with the help of bars with equal width, —aaas—_— 1. Tick(¥) the correctanswer. i. Inmany countries of the world, the censusis held after a period of a. threeyears b. fiveyears c_ eightyears dd. tenyears ii. Representation of statistical data in circular diagrams is called: a. piegraph b. line graph <._ bargraph d. shading method ili, The most suitable method to show distribution of temperature and rainfallis: a. bargraph b. piegraph .linegraph d. dotmethod ==iv. Unproductive or uninhabited areas in the map are a. filledin green b. left blank cc. filledin blue d. shaded v. _ Howmany types of graphs are discussed in your book? a 3 b. 4 a 5 d 6 2 Give short answers: i. Name methods of showing statistical data ii, Defineamap. iii, Write two characteristics of distribution maps. iv. Onwhat basis distribution maps are made? v._ Whatismeant by pie graph? vi. Howline graphis prepared? 3. Givedetailed answers: i. Explain different methods to show statistical data. ii, Describe the use of dot method in distribution maps. Also evaluate its merits and demerits, iii. Discuss the types of distribution maps. ‘aie + Show today’s temperature of five big cities of Pakistan on line graph. + Students may draw line and pie graphs and show annual rainfall and temperature data etc, on itunder the supervision of their teachers.(NGENIT LANDFORMS ( GHIANGE; Students‘ Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, students will be able to: © describe functions performed by different agencies responsible for micro-relief features. describe the work of rivers and landforms made by rivers describe glacier andits types. differentiate between thelandforms made by continental and alpine glaciers. recognize winds an agent of landforms change in the desert climate. describe the features made by wind, identify the waves as an agent of landforms change over the coastal rea. recognize features formed by any of these agencies with special reference to Pakistan, Landforms ferent types of landforms are found on our Earth because its surface is not uniform. These landforms have been created by internal and external forces of the Earth. Mountains, plateaus and plains etc,, are the major landforms created by the internal forces of the Earth. External forces of the Earth include different agents which create different landforms in different environments by erosion and deposition. These agents are river, glacier, wind and sea waves etc. Let us havea look on landforms created by these agents. Landforms made by River River is an important agent of landform change. Permanent rivers are found in those areas which receive ample rainfall regularly, Presence of ==mountains provides initial slope for the flow of surface water in tiny channels. These tiny channels join to form a river. A river after its creation, performs three types of geologic works. It breaks the rocks coming in its way. This act is called erosion. It transports the eroded material. This actis called transportation. It deposits the eroded material when its speed is very low. This act is called deposition 1. River's Erosional Landforms River creates the following landforms by erosion. i) _ V-Shaped Valley Inmountains the valley of the river gets deeper due to downward erosion and attains the shape of English alphabet 'V’. This landform is called V-shaped valley. Very deep valleys are often called ‘Gorges’. Such valleys are found in northern areas of Pakistan. i) Waterfall River bed may contain hard and soft rocks. Sometimes soft rocks are found beneath the bed of hard rocks. When the river cuts the upper layer of hard rocks on the bed, it tends to erode the lower soft rocks to a great depth. This act causes the fall of wateriin the form of sheet called waterfall. Levees River V-shaped valley Waterfall (Ox-bow lake Meanders Landforms made by river 12Pot Holes Sometimes the swirling action of stones in the water develop holes in the river bed. These are called pot holes. iv) | Meanders and Ox-bow Lake Occurrence of hard and soft rocks in the river's channel results in the creation of a winding path due to uneven erosion of the river. These are called meanders. Sometimes river after cutting the outer bends of the meanders attains a straighter channel, leaving behind a crescentic lake at the side. This lake is called ox-bow lake. Kalery lake on river Indus is an ox-bow lake. 2. River's Depositional Landforms i) Flood Plain In plains during floods, the river water comes out of its channel and spreads over vast stretches of land. During this process it deposits its sediments in the area. In this way a smooth plain comes into existence, which is called flood plain ii) Natural Levees Sand and silt accumulation along the banks of the river during floods make them high enough above the flood plain. These ridges of sand and silt are called natural levees. Delta When a river is about to enter the sea, its speed is reduced because of lack of slope. Here the river deposits its material in its channels, gets divided into branches and enters the sea forming a plain called delta, Landforms made by Glacier High mountains and polar areas are the coldest regions of the world which receive heavy precipitation in the form of snow. Upper layers of snow exert pressure on the lower layers and convert them into hard glass type layer over which the body of snow tends to flow down slope. This huge mass of moving ice iscalled glacier. Like river, glacier is also an important agent of landform change butits action is confined to high mountains and polar regions. Types of Glacier There are two major types of glacier. 1. Valley Glacier 2. Continental Glacier ==1) Valley Glacier Glaciers found on high altitude (mountains) are called valley / alpine glaciers. They move quickly as compared to continental glaciers because of slope. However, this movement is not more than a few feet per day. Initially valley glaciers tend to erode the rocks. But when they begin to melt, they start depositing the eroded material. In this way, new landforms are created by erosion and deposition. Erosional Landforms i irque In high altitude areas where glaciers are formed, accumulation of ice creates a bowl shaped depression known as cirque. ii) Cirque Lake /Tarn When valley glacier comes out of the cirque, the depression is filled with water to create natural lakes. These are called cirque lakes or tarns. Saif-ul-Muluk and Satpara in Pakistan are examples of such lakes. iii) U-Shaped Valley Glacier tends to erode its valley downwards as well as sidewards. Due to Cirque Hanging Valley Tarn U-shaped valley Later Moraine valley Glacier Medial Terminal joraine Moraine Landforms made by valley glacier ==this action, the valley gets widen and resembles english alphabet 'U'. That's why it is called U-shaped valley. Kaghan, Naran and Hunza are examples of such valleys. iv) Hanging Valley Just like a major river which is joined by small streams, a major glacier is joined by many small glaciers. The valleys of these small glaciers lie above the valley of main glacier and are called hanging valleys. v) Fjord Many mountain ranges are situated on the coasts. Here the valley glaciers directly descend into the sea and the sea water enters into their valleys Thesearecalled Fjords (drowned valleys). Such valleys are common in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Depositional Landforms Glaciers deposit the eroded material in the form of huge piles which are called moraines. The moraines are of following types: i) Lateral Moraine Glacier widens its valley by lateral cutting. This material is deposited on both sides of glacier in the form of a continuous ridge. This is called lateral moraine. Medial Moraine Where two valley glaciers join, their lateral morianes merge together to forma medial moraine. i) Terminal / End Moraine The arc shaped material deposited at the terminus of glacier is called terminal moraine. 2. Continental Glacier The polar lands away from equator have been covered by hugeice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica. These are continental glaciers which are thousands of feet deep and stretch over millions of square kilometres in area. Large area and lack of slope results in very slow movement. That's why they are mostly engaged in depositional work. The depositional landforms are: ==i) Marginal Lakes and Delta Kames. Natural lakes are often formed between the terminus of glacier and the rising land ahead. These lakes are formed by melt water streams. Sometimes material deposited in these lakes forms deltas, known as delta kames. Eskers Melt water streams often form tunnels in the glacier. These streams deposit fine material in the form of long winding piles in these tunnels. These are called eskers. Out-Wash Plain Often melt water streams deposit fine material over vast area of land ahead of glacier. This smooth plain is called out-wash plain. iv) Drumlins The material deposited directly by the glacier without melting in the form of elongated oval shaped hills is called drumlins. These hills often resemble inverted spoons or eggs. v) Terminal Moraine The arc shaped material deposited at the terminus of glacier is called terminal moraine. Drumlins Esker SKIS NL Delta kames Natural Lake i 4 / Continental glacier 5 Si oStream Terminal moraine Landforms made by continental glacier Landforms made by Wind There are no permanent streamsin deserts because the amount of rainfall is very low. As a result, the vegetation is also sparse in deserts. In these circumstances wind plays an important role in landform modification. Wind also creates new landforms by erosion and deposition like river and glacier. ==1 Erosional Landforms Wind performs erosional work in two ways. First it carries unconsolidated sediments with it. This process is called deflation. Second, it uses these sediments as tool for further erosion. This process is called abrasion. Following are some important erosional landforms: i) Zeugen Sometimes hard rocks underlain by soft rocks are present on the surface of Earth, Wind erodes the lower layers of soft rocks as compared to hard rocks. Asa result, the soft rocks become thin and hard rocks remain above these soft rocksin the form of labs, This landformis called zeugen. Zeugen _ Inselberg Mushroom rock Yardang Deflation basin Erosional landforms made by wind Mushroom Rock Further erosion of zeugen transforms the hard rocks into mushroom shaped rock residing over thinner soft rocks. Deflation Basin and Lakes When wind picks and carries loose sediments, shallow depressions are formed on the Earth's surface. These are called deflation basins. When rain water accumulates in these depressions, they become lakes which evaporate with time. iv) Yardang Sometimes a series of hard and soft rocks is present side by side on the Earth's surface. Uneven erosion of wind transforms these rocks in irregular shapes, which are called yardangs v) _ Inselberg When soft rocks are eroded completely by wind, columns of hard rocks remain behind at distant places. These are called inselbergs, ==2. Depositional Landforms The piles of sand deposited by wind are called dunes. These are of different shapes. Crescent shaped dunes, Longitudinal dunes Transverse dunes Coastal dunes Star shaped dunes| Depositional landforms made by wind i) Longitudinal Dunes These are long ridges of sand formed along the general direction of the wind, They are few feet high but their length may reach several kilometres. ii) Transverse Dunes These dunes make an angle of 90° degree with the direction of wind. That's why these are called transverse dunes. They are present in a wave-like form. Crescent Shaped Dunes / Barchans These crescent shaped dunes are called barchans. The sharp points of the crescent mark the wind direction. The windward slopes of barchans are gentle while the leeward slopes are steeper. iv) StarShaped Dunes When the wind direction is constantly changing, the dunes attain the shape ofa star. Their heightin the center may reach above 100 metres. v) Coastal Dunes In coastal areas, when wind blows towards the coast, crescentic dunes are formed. Their direction is opposite to Barchans. These are called coastal dunes. Landforms made by Sea Waves Waves of the river tend to erode inland areas whereas sea waves are an important source of landform change in the coastal areas on a larger scale. ==1. Erosional Landforms i) Caves Continuous wave attack at the bottom of cliffs create cavities, These cavities by further erosion transform into caves, Sea cliffs Sea arc Erosional landforms of sea waves ii) Headland and Bay Sometimes, sea water invades farther inland the Earth creating a bay. While the bordering land comprised of hard rocks remains well ahead in water. Thisis called head land. iii) SeaArchand Stacks Sea waves attack the head land from both sides. This continuous erosion results in creating an opening in the head land, This landform is called sea arch. When the sea arch is detached from the headland by further erosion, the remaining column like structures are called stacks. The landform made by sea waves can be seen in coastal areas of Pakistan especially at Cliffton. iv) SeaCcliffs On mountainous coasts, seaward slopes are exposed to wave attack. With time the slopes retreat and become perpendicular, These are called cliffs. The rate of retreat depends upon the nature of the rocks. 2. Depositional Landforms Apart from erosion, sea waves also deposit sand over the land adjacent to the sea. Due to this deposition, a smooth plain comes into existence which is known as coast. Further accumulation of sand may result in the formation of ==Bay Mouth bar Cuspatebar __Tombolo Spit bar Depositional landforms made by sea waves ridges known as bars. These bars are of different types: i. SpitBar Sea waves deposit sand on the coasts. Sometimes a bay comes along with acoast and the sand ridge extends in front of a bay. Itis called spit bar. Tombolo When a spit bar extends in open sea and connects the coast with a nearby island, itis called tombolo. Bay Mouth Barand Cuspate Bar Sometimes a spit bar extends from one end of the bay to join the other end. In this way, it separates the bay water from the sea. This is called bay mouth bar. Sometimes, two spit bars from opposite directions join together. This is called cuspate bar. —_ ess —— 1. Different types of landforms are found on our Earth because its surface is not uniform. 2, Mountains, plateaus and plains etc. are the major landforms created by internal forces of the Earth. 3. Landforms made by river, glacier, wind and sea waves can be observed in different areas of Pakistan. When sea water invades farther inland, itis called bay. In the beginning, a river mostly performs erosional work. Glaciers are found in high altitude and polar areas away from equator. In deserts, the landforms are mostly formed by the action of wind. In coastal areas, sea waves are the important source of creation of landforms. eNanes<_< 1 Tick(v ) the correct answer. Mushroom rock is formed by: a river b. wind < glacier d. sea waves ii. Landforms made by wind are found in: a. mountainous areas b. coastal areas c tropical areas d. desert areas il, The bar which connects the coastal area with an island is called a. spit bar b. bay mouth bar c —_cuspate bar d.— tombolo iv. River forms a V-shaped valley in: a mount b. plains < deserts d. deltas v. _Usshaped valley is formed by: a wind b. river < glaciers d. sea waves 2. Give short answers. i. What is meant by yardang? ji, How spit bar is formed? ji, How ox-bow lake is formed? iv. What is meant by coast? 3. Give detailed answers. i. Describe different landforms made by river. ji, Explain the landforms made by valley glacier. ji, Describe the landforms made by wind. jv. Discuss the landforms made by sea waves. ==Students‘ Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, students will be able to: © describe the main characteristics of major oceans and seas. © define the following features: * Sea * Gulf Bay® Bight *Channel/Strait ¢Peninsula Island #lsthmus © describe the configuration of ocean floor. © describe the nature and causes of various oceanic movements. © differentiate between waves, currents and tides Oceans and Seas A large body of water on the surface of Earth is called ocean and an adjacent smaller body of water is called sea, There are five oceans in the world These are: i) Paci» c Ocean It is the largest ocean of the world. Its area is 168 million square kilometres. It has an average depth of 4000 metres. Its marginal areas are comprised of deep trenches and volcanoes. Panama Canal which links Pacific Ocean with the Atlantic Ocean is among the important trade routes of the world. ii) Atlantic Ocean Itis the second largest ocean. Its area is 85 million square kilometres and it has an average depth of 3900 metres. Mid-oceanic ridge, which is the result of eruption of magma at the divergent plate boundary is the significant feature of this ocean, This oceanic ridge spreads across the Atlantic, Indian, Pacific and Antarctic Oceans. It is included in the active earthquake areas of the world. It is 22Arctic Ocean Atlantic Pacific ‘Ocean Pacific Ocean Ocean 2 Antarctic Ocean also the world’s most important and busiest trade route. Indian Ocean It is the third largest ocean. Its area is about 70 million square kilometres and it has an average depth of 3900 metres. It has its maximum stretch in southern hemisphere. Mid- oceanic ridge from the Atlantic Ocean also divides the floor of Indian Ocean in east-west portions. Deep trenches are also presentin which Java trench is 7400 metres deep. It has become an important trade route between western and eastern hemispheres due to the construction of Suez Canal which links Red Sea (Indian Ocean) with the Mediterranean Sea, iv) Antarctic Ocean Antarctic Ocean has an area of 22 million square kilometres and an average depth of 4000 metres. It has no distinct boundary with the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Extreme cold water and huge icebergs are characteristic features of this ocean v) Arctic Ocean Arctic Ocean is situated around the North Pole. It has an area of 15 million square kilometres and an average depth of 1200 metres. Shallow waters, low salinity and frozen surface are characteristic features of this ocean, 23Some Landforms Associated with Water Bodies i) Sea The part of ocean adjacent to the continental margins is called sea, ie, Arabian sea and Red sea etc. ii) Gulf A large but narrow part of ocean which invades farther inland is called gulf ie., Persian Gulf and Gulf of Mexico ete. Bay Contrary to gulf large and vast part of ocean which invades farther inland is called bay, ie., Bay of Bengal and Hudson Bay etc. iv) Bight Avery vast and extended bay is called bight, ie,, Great Australian Bight in the south Australia. v) Strait ‘A narrow passage of water which connects two large bodies of water i.e. ‘oceans or seas is called strait e.g. Strait of Gibraltar which connects Atlantic ‘Ocean with Mediterranean Sea. vi) Peninsula An area of land which is surrounded by ocean water from three sides except for an isthmus which connects it with the mainland is called peninsula i.e., Arabian and Indian Peninsula, vii) Island An area of land surrounded by water from all sides is called an island, i.e., Isthmus and Gulf Strait and IslandSrilanka, Indonesia and West Indies, etc. viii) Isthmus Anarrow strip of land which connects two large masses of land is called an isthmus, i.e. Isthmus of Panama which connects North and South American continents and the isthmus of Suez which connects Asia with Africa. Com guration of Ocean Floor Like Earth, the surface of ocean floor is not uniform as well. The undulating ‘ocean floors divided into the following parts: i) Continental Shelf The shallow part of sea which lies adjacent to the coastal areas is called continental shelf. This part of ocean has vital importance from the geographical, political and economic point of view. A country’s maritime borders, rights of mining and fishing, trade routes and strategic planning depends upon continental shelf. ii) Continental Slope The gentle sloping continental shelf ends at a steep slope which descends into the deep ocean. This is called continental slope. Continental Slope ‘Oceanic Ridges Continental Shelf Submarine. Trenches Configuration of Ocean Floor iii) Submarine Trenches /Canyons The continental slope merges into the deepest part of the ocean which comprises of narrow and deep V-shaped canyons called trenches. These trenches descend upto 10 kilometres under water. ==iv) Oceanic Ridges The central portion of ocean is usually comprised of vast undulating plain. This parthas an average depth of 4500 to 6000 metres. Volcanoes are also found in this portion in a series of a non-ending long ridge. This is called mid-oceanic ridge formed by the eruption of magma at divergent plate boundary. Movement of Oceanic Water ‘Ocean water never remains stagnant. It tends to move. Main causes of this movement are waves, currents and tides. Let us have a look on nature and causes of these movements. 1. Waves The movement of surface water is called wave. Waves in an ocean are generated due to different natural factors. Actually itis the movement of energy which is transferred in water particles from one to another. reaker CFS Trou su Break Trough Wavelength Wave Wave The top of the wave is called crest and the bottom is called trough. The vertical distance between crest and trough is called wave height. While the horizontal distance between two crests or troughs is called wavelength. As the wave travels towards the shallow waters of the coast, its height increases and length decreases. The crest gets narrower and sharp. This is called breaker. The sharp pointed crest travels ahead of the bottom part and breaks to make foam. This is called sur. Winds are the main cause of generating waves. Cyclones and tornadoes which originate and travel across the oceans also create waves. An earthquake near coastal areas or beneath the ocean floor can also generate huge waves Peer acon When earthquake originates beneath the ocean loot generates huge waves called Tsunamis2. Currents Rivers flow on land. Similarly, when the ocean water moves permanently ina specific direction, itis called current. The currents which flow from equator to polar areas are called warm currents. They increase the temperature of coastal areas e.g. Gulf stream along the eastern coast of North America in the Atlantic Ocean isa warm current. The currents which flow from polar areas to equator are called cold currents e.g. Labrador current in Atlantic and Kamchatka current in the Pacific Ocean are cold currents. Currents move clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. A larger current formed by joining of two currents is called drift. Where warm currents meet cold currents, fog is produced which is harmful for the sailing ships. Causes of Ocean Currents Following are the major causes of current circulation: i) Permanent Winds The most important cause of current circulation are winds. Winds force the ocean water to circulate in their general direction e.g, trade winds blow from east to west, while western winds blow from west to east. So the currents move eastwards under trade winds and vice versa under western winds. ii) Salinity of Oceanic Water Salinity variation also causes the ocean water to circulate. Water of inland seas is more saline than the water of open seas and oceans, So more saline water due to its greater density sinks downwards while less saline water moves upwards. This variation of salinity causes water circulation. iii) Temperature of the Oceanic Water Temperature difference is another cause of current circulation. Warmer water of equatorial regions moves upwards, while colder water of polar regions sinks downwards due to greater density. 3. Tides There is a continuous rise and fall in the sea level. Twice a day, the level rises and twice a day the level falls as well. This is called tides. The basic cause of tides is the gravitation of Moon. This reality was ==presented by Newton in his “Theory of Gravitation" in the seventeenth century. According to this theory, every two celestial bodies attract each other. So the Moon, which is nearest to the Earth, creates tides on Earth inspite of its lesser mass as compared to the Sun, Sun, as compared to Moon, is 390 times more distant from the Earth. So the effect of Sun's gravitation is 46% of the Moon's gravity on the Earth. According to nature, there are two types of tides. Daily tides occur twice with the interval of 12 hours 25 minutes. The effect of gravitation is maximum on the portion of Earth which is in front of the Moon andis minimum on the other side. But the centrifugal forces of the Earth maintain balance of tides on the other side too, So the effect of gravitation is equal on both sides of the Earth Monthly tides are of two types. Spring Tides | = | mo com The Earth revolves around ‘on the Sun and the Moon revolves ast date sth date around the Earth. During this stioon ee revolution it happens twice on the Istand 14th date ina lunar month that the Moon, Earth and Sun are in the same plane. The combined gravitation of Sun and Moon creates very high tides in the sea, These are called spring tides, haute ii, Neap Tides of moon Twice in the lunar month on the 7th and 21st date, it happens that the Moon and Sun are perpendicular to each other with reference to the Earth Gravitation of both bodies counter act each other resulting in the creation of low tidesin the seas, These are called neap tides. Difference between Waves, Currents and Tides 2ist date ‘of moon Winds, cyclones and earthquakes are major causes of generation of waves in the stagnant water. When winds force the ocean water to move in a specific direction, this, ==movement is called current. The continuous rise and fall of sea level due to the gravitation of Moonis called tides. N au aw The up and down and back and forth movement of water is called wave. Different types of water bodies are found on Earth which have different characteristics. The ocean floors not uniform like that Earth surface. Currents are caused by prevailing winds. Tides are caused by the gravitation of Moon. An important cause of ocean water movement is the difference of temperature.—_—_ esa 1. Tick (V) the correct answer. i. The scientist who presented the "Theory of Gravitation” was: a. Marconi b. Galileo < Newton 4. Edison ii, The largest water body on the surface of the Earth is called: a ocean b. sea strait d bay ili, Connects Atlantic Ocean to Mediterranean Sea: a. Malaccastrait —-b. English channel c.__Berring strait d. Gibraltar strait iv. Moon, Earth and Sun are in same plane on a. Land 14" date of lunar month b. 4" date of lunar month <7" date of lunar month d. 21° date of lunar month v. Waves which break to form foam, are called: a swell b. breaker c surf d. tsunami 2. Give short answer: i. What is meant by wave? ii, Define tides. ili, Differentiate between ocean and sea. iv. Whatis the difference between strait and isthmus? v. What is meant by ocean current? 3. Give detailed answers: i. Discuss characteristics of some important oceans. ii, Analyse different landforms found on the ocean floor. iii, Write down the causes of circulation of ocean currents. iv. Write a note on spring and neap tides. v. Write down the causes of waves BED resent goes int ==Students‘ Learning Outcomes | After studying this chapter, students will be able to: discuss the natural phenomena that cause disasters for mankind, analyze the impact of various natural disasters with special reference to Pakistan ‘examine the usual management practices including forecast, monitoring and mitigation, discuss main considerations in constructing buildings in earthquake prone areas. | list the safety measures that can be taken in case of earthquakes, floods, cyclones, volcanism and forest fire. discuss the measures that can be taken to avoid desertification, Natural Disaster "Any natural phenomenon which may cause loss of life and property for man is called natural disaster’. Volcanism, landslides, desertification, floods, cyclones, earthquakes and forest fires are such natural phenomena which cause destruction for mankind. Let us have a look on these natural disasters. 1. Volcanism The formation of molten rock material (magma) inside the Earth and the process of its coming out on the Earth surface is called volcanism. The magma when comes on the surface of Earth is called lava and it burns and destroys everything that comes in its way. Sometimes it comes out with an explosion and causes an earthquake. == Rising smoke during volcanismSometimes voleanic ash also comes out with lava and gases during volcanism. This ash may rise in the atmosphere upto several miles and causes environmental pollution. Volcanism in Pakistan Pakistan is fortunate that even lying in an active vibrant region, no dangerous and active volcano lies within its boundaries. However, some volcanic activities have been traced in some places of Hindu Kush mountain ranges and Balochistan. Safety Measures To mitigate loss of life and property in areas vulnerable to volcanism, an integrated monitoring system of volcanoes has been adopted throughout the world. In case of emergency, a warning is given in the hazard zone to prepare people to combat the disaster. 2. Landslides "Downslope movement of soil and weathered rock material under the influence of gravity is called landslide”. It may create an impact in many ways. It may cause loss of life and property. It may damage the construction severely. It may block the roads and damage the communication lines. It may block the flow of rivers ie. the creation of Ataabad lake in Gilgit is the result of river blockade by landslides. It may disturb the agricultural productivity in the affected areas Land Slides in Pakistan The northern areas of Pakistan are affected by landslides during the rainy season. Due to the construction of roads the slopes become unstable and vulnerable to landslides. Karakoram highway which connects Pakistan to China often remains blocked due to landslides. The unchecked tree cutting in mountainous areas of Pakistan is also a main cause of landslides. Safety Measures Methods of slope stabilization can be adopted in areas vulnerable to ==landslides to reduce their effects. Impacts of landslides can also be reduced by lowering the water table underground, by improving the irrigation system, by avoiding construction, by stopping unchecked tree cutting and by growing trees inthe affected areas. 3. Deserti» cation The extension of deserts at the expense of cultivable lands is called desertification, Although climate changes have always favoured the process of desertification but human induced activities, especially after the industrial revolution are very much responsible for increasing desertification. Due to this menace, agricultural production and useable water resources are depleting and migration of humans and wildlife from the affected areas is increasing. Asa result, shortage of food, drought and increase in poverty at local level may occur. Deserti» cation in Pakistan Pakistan is situated in warm and dry climatic region where the annual amount of rainfall is less than 25 centimetres. Arid to semi-arid weather conditions prevail in almost 80% area of Pakistan. The main cause of desertification in Pakistan is unsafe and poor ways of cultivation which result in soil erosion, lapse of fertility and continuous drop in biodiversity. Safety Measures To combat desertification, tree plantation can favour in two ways. Firstly, it reduces desertification by keeping weather conditions moderate. Secondly, it acts as hurdle to stop the spread of desertification towards cultivable areas. The use of organic fertilizers can enhance the fertility of land. People can be made aware about desertification and methods to stop it. Unchecked cutting of trees should be discouraged and modern ways of cultivation and irrigation should be adopted to stop desertification 4. Floods An overflow of river water out of its channel, which may cause damage to ==the nearby settlements is called flood. It is considered a natural disaster because it may be a cause of social and environmental degradation. It can damage any constructional frame- work, uncemented housing and buildings without deep foundations It may destroy bridges, roads, communication lines, crops, farms, orchards, livestock and cultural monuments as well. Loss of lives especially of women, children and aged can occur, alongwith the spread of diseases and epidemics. Floods in Pakistan Ascene of flood Pakistan has a natural system of rivers flowing out of the northern mountain ranges. These mountain ranges are a home of huge glaciers outsides the polar areas. Meltwater streams from glaciers feed these rivers. The upper plains of these rivers are situated in the rainy monsoon regions. In summers, the monsoon rains alongwith the melt water streams from glaciers cause heavy flooding in the rivers of Pakistan. Safety Measures Awareness about the flood risks should be given to the people of areas vulnerable to floods. Evacuation plan should be prepared to get people out of dangerous area. Electricity and gas supplies should be disconnected to avoid any accident. Camps should be established in safe areas to provide shelter and food to the affectees. Proper arrangements should be made for the return of affectees to their homes. Efforts should be made on governmental and non-governmental side for reconstruction of houses and rehabilitation of the affectees. 5. Cyclones Cyclone is a system of swirling winds which has a low pressure area in the center. The winds tend to circulate towards the center and produce rain with thunder and lightning. Wind speed exceeds upto 200 kilometres per hour. The winds have erosive power which destroys everything that comes in their way. Cyclones produce continuous rainfall in a short period of time which may cause ==flooding and loss of life and property. In coastal areas huge sea waves called storm surges are generated which may cause destruction ona large scale. Cyclones in Pakistan Arabian sea lies in the south of Pakistan. In Indian ocean, this is an important area of the origin of tropical cyclones. These cyclones affect the coastal areas of Pakistan. Thatta and Badin in Sindh, while Jeewani, Gwadar and Lasbela in Balochistan are the main areas affected by the cyclones Inadequate construction methods and inferior construction material, absence of laws of land use, lack of awareness of the local people, lack of education and poverty are the main causes of destruction caused by cyclones. In winter seasion, rain fall takes place in Pakistan due to cyclones which develope in mediteranean sea. cyclone Safety Measures Construction of resistant houses should be made possible. Forecast management system should be established in areas vulnerable to cyclones. As soon as the warning is given, arrangements should be made to shift the livestock and household items to safe places. Evacuation system should be established and mobilization of volunteers in the affected areas should be made possible. In case of evacuation, the house should be sealed after disconnecting power supplies. A risk map should be prepared about the estimation of extent and destruction caused by the cyclone to human life, livestock and infrastructure. Storage of drinking water, food, candles, matches and first aid material should be made possible, Keep in touch with radio and report to emergency rescue centers established by the government. 6. Earthquakes Sudden and intense vibration of the Earth crustis called earthquake. As thisis a sudden movement without any pre-occurring symbols, prediction of earthquake is not possible, Earthquakes destroy human settlements, buildings and infrastructure i.e, bridges, roads, railway lines, pipelines, water tanks and communication etc. Indirect damages include fire, loss of water reservoirs, and landslides etc. The most unrecoverable damage caused by the earthquake is the ==loss of valuable lives. Earthquakes in Pakistan ! The earthquake of 2005 in Azad Kashmir Geologically Pakistan lies in an |} resulted in the loss of almost 80,000 lives. active zone at the margin of three E tectonic plates. Indian plate is converging Arabian plate in the west. The geologic result of this convergence is the formation of Karakoram, Himalayas and the Hindu Kush mountain ranges in the north and northwest. This convergent boundary is also responsible for the occurrence of earthquakes in Pakistan andadjacentareas. Safety Measures Destruction by earthquakes To reduce the damages of earthquakes at minimum level, itis necessary to keep the people aware about three actions i.e. drop or sit down even in case of a slight tremor, cover your heads and hold something strong. Always keep heavy objects near or on the ground, Learn to disconnect the power supplies ie. electricity and gas in emergency. If you are outside the home, try to keep away from electrical wires and tall buildings which may drop on you. Keep the radio sets on to be informed. If there is fire, put it off. Don't enter the homes if the walls or structure is cracked. If there is leakage of gas then disconnect the supply and get out of homes. Beware of the aftershocks and only re-enter the homes when the vibrations have stopped completely. Construction in Earthquake Prone Areas There is possibility of recurrence of earthquake in earthquake prone areas. That's why following points should be kept in mind during construction. If new construction is inevitable, adopt specific construction designs to resist earthquake. Construct the building structure on resistant concrete columns. Avoid construction in sloping areas. Avoid use of heavy materials in the ceilings. 7. ForestFires The term forest fire is used for such uncontrollable fire which burns forests ==and other types of vegetation and causes damage to the associated wildlife There are various causes of forest fires which can be either natural ie. lightning associated with thunder storms or human i.e. accidents, negligence or criminal act etc. Forest fire badly affects the ecological system of the forests. It may result in loss of life and property in the nearby settlements. It destroys agricultural products i.e. wood, fruits and crops. It increases the temperature and causes environmental pollution. It disturbs the watershed areas and it may have a negative impact on human health and economic activities. Asscene of forest fire Forests in Pakistan Forests are considered asa valuable asset for a country. According to experts the average area under forests should be 25% of the country. Unluckily, area under forest in Pakistan is less than 5% of the country. Illegal tree cutting is a normal practice in Pakistan. Sometimes to cover this crime, forests are put on fire too. This act burns down the valuable economic assets of the country. Safety Measures Almost 52% of forest fires are the result of human negligence. So care and planning are the key issues involved in safety measures. In areas vulnerable to forest fires, avoid planning of development projects and settlements. If inevitable, use fire resistant material in construction. Clear the areas around forests from bushes, plants, dry leaves and broken branches which may aid the process of fire. Do notstore inflammable material like natural gas and petrol ete. near the forests. Grow spongy type of vegetation which can store a large amount, of water in their stems and are not easily inflammable. Select those areas for construction which are less vulnerable to firesi.e. flat ground should be preferred as compared to sloping surface. Train the people about firefighting. Establish an effective monitoring system of forests especially in warm and dry areas to stop such incidents as forest fires. Evacuation plans should be prepared to shift the people towards safer areas and avoid return till the fire is extinguished completely. ==Disaster Management Practices The disaster management system involves following three steps. 1. Forecast Management Practices These involve prediction and all such pre-measures that may help to keep the damages at minimum level 2. Monitoring These involve such measures which are taken during the disaster to fulfill theneeds and reduce the problems of the affectees. 3. Rehabilitation and Recovery These involve post-disaster measures which are taken for the speedy rehabilitation and recovery of the affectees. —_ ais ———— 1 Pakistan has been a victim of natural disasters from the past. 2, Any natural phenomenon which may cause loss of life and property for manis called natural disaster. Forests are considered valuable national assets throughout the world. 4, Volcanism, landslides, desertification, floods, cyclones, earthquakes and forest fires are different natural disasters. Safety measures can reduce the effects and damages of natural disasters. 6. Volcanic ash also comes out from volcanoes along with lava and gases ee L Tick (V) the correct answer: i. Thepercentage area of forests in Pakistan is: a less than 5% b. 15% c 25% d. 10% ji, Thenatural disaster causing destruction in mininmum timeis: a gyclone b. forest fire c. earthquake d. volcanism ==ii, | When the molten matter inside the Earth comes on the surface, itis called: a magma b. cyclone < —_ landslide 4. lava iv. Thepercentage of land under arid and semi-arid conditions in Pakistanis: a 20% b. 60% < 40% 4. 80% v. _ Theareas vulnerable to landslides in Pakistan are a. plains b. mountains <. deserts 4. tiverplains 2. Giveshortanswers: i. Whatis meant by natural disaster? ji, Describe three safety measures against floods. ji, Describe two ways to avoid the possibility of forest fires. iv. Write two causes of landslides. v. Whatis meant by desertification? 3. Give detailed answers: i. Describe theimpacts of floods in Pakistan. ii. Write note on cyclones. ji, Analyze the damages caused by earthquakes. jv. Discuss the disaster management practices. v. Analyze the impacts of desertification. actu Make alist of flood affected areas of Pakistan during the last ten years.Students‘ Learning Outcomes ‘After studying this chapter, students will be to: define an environmental problem. identify the causes for various environmental problems. describe the impact of various environmental pollutants on life. describe the nature and causes of global warming and evaluate its impact on life. describe the greenhouse effect. recommend solutions to avoid environmental pollution. Pollution Disproportionate presence of any unwanted substance which is harmful for human life is referred to as environmental pollution. The domestic, industrial waste and emissions from combustion of vehicles, trains and air traffic, pollute our natural environment. These are responsible for noise pollution as well as air pollution. The solid waste generates soil and land pollution, besides, it also produces water pollution. The environmentalists' opine that air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution and noise pollution are the principal concerns for humanity. Let us havea look on these forms of environmental pollution. 1. AirPollution The atmosphere is composed of different gases which envelop our Earth, This envelope of gases protects us from harmful portion of incoming solar radiation and also keeps the thermal balance of our planet whichis essential for survival of life. The natural and human interventions are considered responsible ‘A scene of == pollutionfor increasing the level of harmful gases, dust, smoke, water vapours, chemical compounds and impacts of ultraviolet radiations. The resultant environmental imbalance harms and pollutes our environment, Causes ofAir Pollution Volcanism, wild forest fire, tsunamis in the oceans, storms, unplanned industrialization, transportation and communication, deforestation, unsafe solid waste disposal, inefficient agricultural practices, wars and marine traffic are considered as the main causes of air pollution in these days. Impacts of Air Pollution The humanity is facing different problems as a result of air pollution, Acid rains, the depletion of ozone layer are causing minor health issues to major health problems these days. These include cataract, nose, throat and ear infections, headache, allergies and heart problems. Besides this, the prevalence of cancer, liver, kidney and lungs problems are also the signs of deteriorating air quality. The experts also attribute the decline of agricultural production to polluted air. 2. Water Pollution The unwanted change in physical ‘or chemical composition of water is referred to as water pollution. This causes damage to human life as well as adversely affects the plant and animal life, In these days, our water resources are rapidly being polluted due to the causes of human activities. Asscene of water pollution i Do you know! | while 3% is available in the form of rivers, springs, lakes, atmospheric moisture, glaciers and | underground waterreservoirs. 7] | f ' ! 72% of Earth surface is covered with water, out of which 97% of water is present in oceans | 1 | Causes of Water Pollution The use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, unsafe and inefficient agricultural practices, the disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluents in fresh water resources, floods, acid rains, open dumping and ==disposal of solid waste in coastal areas, the spillage and leakages from marine traffic, hospital waste and industrialization in present times are known sources of water pollution. Impacts of Water Pollution Water pollution not only affects human life but it creates negative impacts on all form of life. This reduces biological diversity on the planet Earth. Water pollution accelerates and promotes water borne diseases among mankind in the form of malaria and dengue. The use of polluted water causes abdominal problems, hepatitis, liver and kidney failures along with various types of cancer. Every year, an over whelming portion of human population becomes a victim of water borne diseases. The water borne diseases are transmitted through plants and animals to human bodies due to the process of biomagnification 3. SoilPollution The undesired physical or chemical change in the composition and structure of soil components that negatively impacts the organic life on the surface of the Earth is referred to as soil pollution. Causes of Soil Pollution According to environmentalists, the major reasons for soil pollution include untreated domestic, industrial, commercial and hospital waste disposal, the careless use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides in agriculture, deforestation, unplanned urbanization and careless constructional activities. The natural causes such as volcanism, earthquakes, soil erosion and desertification also contribute towards soil pollution Ascene of soil pollution Im pacts of Soil Pollution The impacts of soil pollution are more visible in high density urban areas as compared to low density urban and rural areas or underdeveloped regions The widespread impacts of soil pollution are visible in the form of growing health problems e.g. lungs, respiratory diseases, skin and different types of cancer are directly or indirectly attributed to soil pollution. Soil pollution not only contributes to water pollution but also leads to increase speed and scale of air pollution.4. Noise Pollution In our daily lives, we hear different types of sounds. Some of these are pleasant and audioable while the others being high pitched, become unbearable. When the volume and speed of these high pitched sounds create a disturbance for our hearing abilities, it is termed as noise pollution, Noise pollution is a type of environmental pollution, These unwanted sounds negatively impact physical and psychological health of the listener. The common sources of noise pollution are vehicular traffic, air traffic, factories and undesired use of pressure horns. Noise pollution not only disturbs the humans but also affect the terrestrial and aquatic life, Deforestation disturbs the wildlife and marine traffic disturb the aquatic life. Noise Pollution Causes of Noise Pollution The unnecessary and careless use of modern audio/video equipments, washing machines, air coolers, grinder machines etc. in our domestic life promote noise pollution in houses and neighbourhoods. Besides, the unnecessary and outdated social customs, public gatherings also cause noise pollution. Itis opined that the non-observance of procedures for reducing noise pollution in commercial, industrial, constructional activities and various means of communications are the major sources of noise pollution. Impacts of Noise Pollution In these days, the negative impacts of noise pollution on human health are widespread and visible in the form of hearing deformities, sleeplessness, headaches, high blood pressure and prevalence of psychological issues and social problems among the population in high density areas. Global Warming The natural forces have developed a protective gaseous envelope around the sphere of Earth. The human activities are responsible for changing the structure and composition of this protective layer. The resultant gradual increase in terrestrial temperature as a result of human interference in the natural environments referred to as global warming. ==Causes of Global Warming The environmentalists enlist the following reasons for global warming. According to them, the emission of greenhouse gases from the process of combustion as result of commercial, industrial, transportational and domestic activities are responsible for the phenomena, Deforestation, land and air pollution are the other main contributors for increasing the speed and scale of global warming in presenttimes. Global Warming Impacts of Global Warming Global warming negatively impacts the natural environment by increasing the sea level, glacial melting, floods and droughts, increase in global temperature, prevalence of the health problems among organisms, deforestation and fluctuations in the cycle of precipitation, Greenhouse Effect As you have studied in the previous classes that carbon dioxide, water vapours and dust particles absorb the terrestrial heat emission and keep the lower atmosphere warm for organic life. This process is called greenhouse effect. It keeps the terrestrial temperature suitable. The average temperature of the earth is 15° celsius. The uncontrolled increase in the amount of carbon dioxide, methane, choloroflorocarbons (CFCs), dust particles and water vapours causes air pollution which ultimately promotes the process of global warming and damages the protective ozone (O,) layer. The industrial revolution speeded up the carbon emission by increased burning of fossil fuels for industrial and mechanical activities. Strategies for Reduction of Environmental Pollution The following strategies may prove fruitful for reducing the level of environmental pollution. Proper disposal of waste material, cleanliness, minimizing the use of plastic bags, optimal use of energy resources, promotion of green values in daily life, promotion of plantation and awareness about the environment and our responsibilities towards environmental protection are keys to protect and keep our environment green and clean for all forms oflife ==———<— ks ——— 1. Water pollution causes negative impacts on human, terrestrial and aquaticlife. 2. All types of waste materials and careless use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers causes soil pollution. 3, Greenhouse effect keeps the terrestrial temperature suitable. Average temperature of the Earth is 15° Celsius. 5. Noise pollution negatively impacts on the physical and psychological health of the listener. 6. Thegradual increasein terrestrial temperature is called global warming. ee 1. Tick(v) the correct answer. i. Noise pollution causes: a. weakness of eyesight b. _lungsproblem hepatitis d. high blood pressure ii, Glaciersare melting due to: a. soilpollution b. — waterpollution <. globalwarming —d._ noise pollution i ismade of different gases a. lithosphere b. hydrosphere atmosphere d. _ biosphere iv. Ozone layeris depleting due to: a. waterpollution ——b, _soilpollution < — noisepollution ——d._airpollution v. Toxic gases enter the atmosphere due to: a. noisepollution —b, deforestation ==c. _ puttingwasteonfire d. use of chemical fertilizers 2. Give short answers. i. Whatis meant by pollution? ii, Whatis the cause of greenhouse effect? ili, Name the types of pollution iv. Give three strategies to reduce environmental pollution v. Whatismeant by global warming? 3. Give detailed answer. i. Describe the causes and impacts of water pollution. ji, Write the causes and impacts of soil pollution, ili, Describe the causes and impacts of global warming. iv. Explain the causes and impacts of air pollution. v._ Describe the impacts of noise pollution Arrangea discussion on "measures to reduce environmental pollution” in your school and write down the results ona chart,Students‘ Learning Outcomes | After studying this chapter, students will be able to: identify a region as a spatial entity. identify the major regions of the world in terms of climate. describe selected natural regions in terms of climatic controls and their impact on human activities. describe the importance of selected natural regions in terms of climate and human activities name some countries from each natural region, Region A geographical or ecological area having physical or cultural homogeneity is called region. Itis a spatial entity that may comprise one or some parts of the globe. It is not necessary that different areas comprising a region may be geographically inter-connected. Concept ofa Region The surface of Earth is not uniform. Due to this variation, the climate found in different parts of the Earth is not uniform too. Asa result, the way of living and economic activities of people alongwith natural vegetation and wildlife also differ from each other. On the other hand, there is uniformity as well. fwe can divide the Earth on the basis of physical and cultural diversity, we can integrate different parts of the Earth to form a region i.e. mountainous region, forest region, desert region and region of Muslim countries, etc. A region is a spatial entity which has a specific area, a geographic boundary and a specific location which can be described in terms of latitudes and longitudes or with reference to some other point. All regions are physically or culturally integrated with each other. ==Major Regions of the World On the basis of horizontal distribution of temperature, the world has been divided into three major regions. These regions are:- 1. Torrid Region This region lies between Tropic of Cancer (23.5” north) and Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° south) on both sides of equator. Southern parts of Asia and North America, northern parts of South America and Australia and central parts of Africa are included in this region. Sun rays fall vertically on the equator and surrounding regions. That's why the temperature remains high in the torrid region throughout the year. Maximum rainfall occurs on the eastern coasts of the continents which decrease westwards. That's why vast deserts are found in the central and western coasts of the continents. 2. Temperate Region This region lies on both sides of equator from Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn to Arctic and Antarctic Circle 66.5" respectively. Areas of Asia, Europe, North & South America, Africa and Australia are included in this region. The sun raysare oblique in this region. That's why intensity of temperature is not too high. Both seasons i.e. summers and winters are found. There is abundant rainfall in this region. Amount of rainfall is maximum on the west coasts of the continents which decrease eastward. That's why deserts are found in the interior of the continents. 3. Frigid Region This region lies on both sides of equator from the Arctic & Antarctic circles to North and South poles 90° respectively. Areas of Asia, Europe, North America and whole of Antarctica are included in this region. The sun rays are too oblique in this region. That's why, it is extremely cold region with no summer season Amount of rainfallis low. Maximum precipitation occurs in the form of snowfall Im portant Natural Regions In the above mentioned major regions of the world, there can be found further regions on the basis of physical homogeneity. These regions are: 1. Rain ForestRegion Location and Countries This region lies on both sides of equator between 5° latitudes within the ==xB Arctic Ocean WORLD i Natural Regions Pacific . Ki $6 ge" qua Indian - y a ee rope af Capricon [Antarctic Ocean an Forest Region y Cevunara reson onsoon Region Ml uecterranean Region EE] beser Region | steppe Region torrid region. Main countries in this region are Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka from Asia, Kenya, Uganda, Congo, and Gabon from Africa, Brazil, Columbia, Peru and Ecuador from South America Climate Because this region lies within torrid region, the average temperature remains above 27° centigrade throughout the year. The air gets heated and rises up, looses its temperature and causes rainfall. Thisis called convectional rain. The average annual rainfall exceeds 200 centimetres which is maximum in the world It is because of this abundant rainfall that the world's most dense forests are foundin this region, Hence, this region is called rain forest region Human Activities The people in this region depend upon forests and associated products for their food, clothing, shelter and economic activities. They still cover their bodies with tree leaves and build their houses on trees. The wood is excellent for ==furniture and construction. Agriculture plantation is the main economic activity. Natural rubber, cocoa, coffee, tea, banana and coconut are important products of this region, Other agricultural products include vegetables like cassava and yams which are grown by clearing a patch of forest. This type of agriculture is called Slash and Burn cultivation. This region is also known for the manufacturing of natural rubber and coconut oil 2. Monsoon Region Location and Countries This region also lies within torrid region on both sides of equator from 5° to 25° latitude on the eastern coasts of the continents. Main countries in this region are Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Vietnam, Philippines, Southern China from Asia, Madagascar from Africa, Southern Brazil from South America and North Eastern Australia, Climate On 21"June the sun rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Cancer while oblique on the Tropic of Capricorn. Due to this fact, the average temperature on the Tropic of Cancer exceeds 27°centigrade. This situation reverses on 22"December and temperature on Tropic of Capricorn exceeds 27° centigrade This attribute of monsoon region distinguishes it from rain forest region. The amount of rainfall varies too. In summers, the winds in this region blow from sea towards land. These moisture laden winds producing heavy rains are called summer monsoons. In winters the winds blow from land towards sea and hence produce no rainfall. Thisis the short dry period of this region. HumanActivities Timber from dense forests, natural rubber, tea, coffee, banana and coconut are main products of this region. An important economic activity of this region is rice cultivation which is grown on plains and mountain slopes. The amount of rainfall is very much favourable for this purpose. Due to favourable climate and presence of natural resources, this region is densely populated. It is making rapid progress in the industrial sector as well. Tea industry is a hallmark of, thisregion. 3. Mediterranean Region Location and Countries This region lies on both sides of equator between 30° to 45° latitudes on 50the western coasts of the continents within temperate region. This region includes west coast of United States of America (North America), surrounding areas of Mediterranean Sea ie,, Spain, Italy, Greece and Turkey (Europe), Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and South Africa (Africa), Chile (South America) and South Western Australia Climate Due to location in the temperate region and nearness to the sea, the average temperature of summers remains between 10° to 20° centigrade Contrary to monsoon region, maximum rainfall occurs in the winter season on the west coasts, while the summer season remains dry. Human Activities Mediterranean region is known in the world for its pleasant and temperate climatic conditions. Because of this attribute, it is also a densely populated region. Agriculture is an important economic activity for which winter conditions are very much favourable. This region is known in the world for the production of wheat, barley, grapes, olives and oranges. Livestock farming is also an important economic activity. It is also known for bakery, woolen textiles and beverage industry in the world 4. Steppe Region Location and Countries Steppe region lies on both sides of equator between 35° to 55" latitudes on the margins of the deserts. Mali, Niger, Chad, Sudan, Namibia from Africa, New South Wales and Victoria from Australia, central North America, northern parts of Argentina (South America) and Central Asian states are main counties included in this region. Climate As this region lies in the interior of the continents on the margins of deserts, the climatic conditions are better than the desert region. Average annual rainfall remains between 100 to 300 millimetres. Human Activities Because of adequate rainfall, this region is comprised of vast grasslands and is a major habitat of herbivores in the world. Livestock farming is an important economic activity. The single dominant crop of this region is wheat, ==whichis cultivated in all countries of this region on vast grasslands. Among these grasslands Prairies of North America and Pampas of South America are well known. In Europe and Asia these grasslands are named as steppes. 5. Tundra Region Location and Countries Tundra region lies in the north of equator between 60° and 75° latitudes surrounding the Arctic Ocean. A_ portion of Antarctica is also included in this region in the south of equator. Russian Siberian plain in Asia, Norway, Finland and Sweden in Europe, Canada and Alaska in North America are included in this region Climate The climate of this region is extremely cold. Winter season lasts for about eight months in which the temperature remains below freezing point. Summers are short in which average temperature remains below 10° centigrade. The snow melts in the months of July and August which increases humidity in the air and results in producing small amount of rainfall. The average annual rainfall in this regionis less than 250 millimetres. Human Activities Due to extreme cold weather the vegetation in this region is sparse and is comprised of bush and scrub forests, grass and lichen. Due to the lengthy winter season, the trees do not attain their full height. Different herbivores like caribou, walrus, reindeer and rabbits are found which tend to migrate towards temperate region as soon as the summer season ends. Human activities are almost absent. Due to extreme snow, the subsoil also freezes and the land remains useless for any type of activities. 6. DesertRegion Location and Countries The desert region lies in both torrid and temperate regions. In torrid region, it ies on both sides of equator between 15° to 25° latitudes in the west of the continents. This region includes the great Sahara desert which stretches across nine countries including Mauritania, Mali, Algeria, Chad and Sudan, the Kalahari Desert in Angola (Africa), Rajasthan desert in India, Thar desert in Pakistan, Iranian and Arabian deserts, Mongolian and Gobi desert (China) in Asia, ==along with deserts of Peru and Chile in South America and Central Australia. Climate The deserts in the torrid region are among the hottest and driest places of the world. Average temperature exceeds 32° centigrade and daily change of temperature remains high. The average annual amount of rainfallis well below 30 millimetres. Human Activities Human activities are limited due to intensity of temperature and scarcity of rainfall. Vegetation is also not very useful. However, the areas which have ground water resources are suitable for the date palms and dry farming with the help of springs and wells. People spend nomadic way of life in search of water. The region is also backward from the industrial point of view. —§!| is ——— ‘Summer and winter seasons are found in temperate region. Tundra is the region of extreme cold climate. Rain forest region is the region of hot and humid climate. Rice is an important product of monsoon region. In Mediterranean region, the summers are dry. Wheat is the important product of steppe region. NOWRYWNE The winter season is lengthy in the tundra region ——_a3 1. Tick(¥) the correct answer. i The average annual rainfall in rain forest region is: a 50millimetres —b. 200 millimetres < 200centimetres d. 400 centimetres. ii. Slash and Burn cultivation is practiced a. monsoon region b. _ steppe region tundra region d. rain forest region ==