BORE HOLE ENVIROMENT & INVASION

After drilling through a permeable

formation, generally a filtrate-invasion
process begins. If the pressure in the mud
column exceeds formation pressure, then
fluid from the mud will move into the
formation (porous and permeable), leaving
a deposit of mud cake on the borehole wall

The flushed zone is defined as the

zone around the borehole where the
pores are 100% filled with mud filtrate

The transition zone contains a

mixture of mud filtrate and original
formation fluids
The virgin zone contains only
original formation water and/or
hydrocarbon saturation.
Resistivities:
Rt - Resistivity of the formation in the virgin zone, ohm-m
Rxo - Resistivity of the flushed zone, ohm-m
Rm - Resistivity of the mud, ohm-m
Rmc - Resistivity of the mudcake, ohm-m
Rw - Resistivity of 100% formation water, ohm-m
Rmf - Resistivity of 100% mud filtrate , ohm-m

Saturations:
Sxo -Mud filtrate saturation in the flushed zone, %
Sw - Water saturation in the virgin zone, fraction of pore volume in, %

Diameters:
dh - Diameter of the hole, m
di - Diameter of the flushed zone, m
Dri - Diameter of the flushed and transition zones together, m

Thicknesses:
h -Height of the bed being logged ,m
hmc - Thickness of the mudcake, m
 WELL LOGGING TOOLS

Caliper tool
Spontaneous Potential (SP)
Gamma Ray & Spectral Gamma ray
Resistivity Log
Density & Photoelectric
Neutron & APS tools
Sonic log
Objective
•A caliper log is a well logging tool that measurement of the
size and shape of a borehole along its depth
•The measurements can be an important indicator of cave or
shale swelling in the borehole.
 Caliper Logs
Uses of the caliper log are :-
 Contributory information for lithological assessment.
 Indicator of good permeability and porosity zones (reservoir rock) due to
development of mudcake in association with gamma ray log.

 Calculation of mudcake thickness:

hmc = (dbit – dh)/2, where h stands for the hole, in inches.

 Measurement of borehole volume:

Vh = (dh2/2)+1.2%, in liters' per meter.

 Measurement of required cement volume:

V cement = 0.5 *(dh2 – d2 casing) + 1%, in litres per metre.

to locate permeable zones as evidenced by the presence of a filter cake

Is also used to calculate the volume of cement needed behind the casing
 Spontaneous Potential (Self- Potential)
Objective: to detect the formation water resistivity (Rw)

Theory
1) Shale/ Sand/ Shale
2) Salinity contrast

•Measure the electrical potential in the formation

caused by salinity difference between the drilling
mud and the formation water.
•SP is generally and indicator of permeability.
•SP log is used to identify impermeable zones
such as shale, and permeable zones such as
sand, as well as several other uses.
The log: The SP log is a measurement of the natural potential differences (self-
potentials) between an electrode in the borehole and a reference electrode at the
surface. curve records the naturally occurring electrical potential (voltage) produced by
the interaction of formation connate water, conductive drilling fluid.

The deflection on the SP curve result

from electric currents flowing in the
mud in the borehole. These SP
currents are cause electrochemical
and electrokinetic origins.

Principles of SP measurement
1-A conductive fluid in the borehole.
2-A porous and permeable bed
surrounded by an impermeable beds.
3-A difference in salinity between the
borehole fluid and the formation
fluid.
When mud filtrate salinities are lower than connate
water salinities (i.e., Rmf is > Rw), the SP deflects
to the left (the SP potential is negative). This is
called a normal SP. When the salinities are
reversed (i.e., salty mud and fresh formation water,
Rmf < Rw), the SP deflects to the right. This is
called a reverse SP. Other things being equal, there
is no SP (and no SP deflection) at all when Rmf = Rw.

In sand A, we see that Rw is less than Rmf; which

means that formation water is saltier than the mud
filtrate. In sand B, the SP deflection is less than in
sand A and thus a fresher formation water is
indicated. In sand C, the SP is reversed, indicating
that formation water is fresher than the mud filtrate
and thus Rw is greater than Rmf. Somewhere in the
region of 7000 feet it may be guessed that Rmf and
Rw are equal.
•If Rmf > Rw
• shales will have a low SP
and clean sandstones will
have a higher SP
.
•If Rmf < Rw
• shales will have a high SP
and clean sandstones will
have a lower SP.

•If Rmf = Rw
• little SP will be developed
and the SP log will have very
little character.
The magnitude of SP deflections is always
measured from the shale line and for a clean,
water-bearing formation containing a dilute
sodium chloride solution is given by

SP = -K log (Rmf/Rw)

The constant K depends on the temperature and

salt types in formation water (K = 71 at 25°C )
Shale Volume Calculation
•Shaliness indicator

SPshale = -10 mV
SPsand = -40 mV
SPlog = SP reading from
the log = -25 mV

The percentage
of shale will be :
SPlog - SPshale / SPsand – Spshale
=-15/-30 = .5
or 50% shale
APPLICATIONS OF THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG

1- Determination of formation water resistivity "Rw".

2- Can be used quantitatively as an indicator of shale content.

3- Identify the permeable and impermeable beds.

4-correlation.

(SP can only be acquired in open hole, conductive mud

environment with Rmf≠Rw)
 GAMMA RAY LOG
0 API 100
•Generally, a gamma ray log indicates the amount
of shale present

•Measure Natural Radioactivity emissions from subsurface

formations.
–Potassium
–Uranium
–Thorium

•Gamma ray logs can be run in both open hole and cased-hole environments.

•Cased-hole gamma ray can be used to correlate with the open hole gamma ray.

•Low Natural Radioactivity

–Sandstone
–Limestone
–Dolomites

•High Natural Radioactivity

–Shale
–Organic rich rock (source rock)
Theory
This counter is When a GR
The tool consists
simply of a highly composed of a strikes the
sensitive gamma ray activated single crystal a small
detector in the form of sodium iodide flash of light is
a scintillation counter. crystal backed by produced.
a photomultiplier

it is amplified by a photomultiplier This flash is

which consists of a photocathode and too small to be
a series of anodes held at progressively measured using
higher electrical potentials, all of which conventional
are arranged serially in a high vacuum. electronics
Equipment: Scintillation Detector
 0 API 100
The simple gamma ray log (GR)
gives the radioactivity of the Shaly Sand

three elements combined, Shale

Very Shaly Sand

while the spectral gamma ray
log (NGS) shows the amount of Clean Limestone

each individual element Shale

Dolomite
contributing to this radioactivity.
Shale
Clean Sand

Volcanic Ash
Coal

Anhydrite
Shaly Sand
Halite (NaACl)
Volcanic Ash
Gypsum
Spectral Gamma Ray Log (NGT)

Curves Units Abbreviations

Total gamma ray API SGR or GR
uranium corrected
gamma ray API CGR
thorium PPM THOR or TH
uranium PPM URAN or U
Potassium % or PPM POTA or K

Restrictions: Logging speed is very slow.

• The three radioactive elements measured by the NGT
occur in different parts of the reservoir. If we know the
lithology, we can obtain further information.

• In Carbonates:

• U - indicates phosphates, organic matter and

stylolites.
• Th - indicates clay content.
• K - indicates clay content, radioactive evaporites.
• In Sandstones:

• Th - indicates clay content, heavy minerals.

• K - indicates micas, micaceous clays and
feldspars.

• In Shales:

• U - in shale, suggest a source rock.

• Th - indicates the amount of detrital material
or degree of shaliness.
• K - indicates clay type and mica.
-The simple gamma ray sonde
can be combined in many
tools; it is run both centered in
the borehole (sonic and
resistively tools) or against the
borehole wall, that is eccentric
(density and neutron tools).

Comparison of GR log from centered

(DLL-MSFL GR) and eccentered
(LDL-CNL- GR) tools.
Depth of investigation :
-The depth from which radiations can be detected by the simple
gamma ray tool is generally small but difficult to be precise about.

- One experiment fount that 75% of radiations detected came from a

14cm radius and 25cm vertically above and below the detector.

-the volume of investigation can be considered to be approximately

20 cm vertically above and below the detector (Along the borehole )
and 10 cm radially .
Depth of investigation of the gamma ray tool.
Gamma Ray Responses for Sedimentary Rocks
 Gamma Ray
0 api 150

Shale

Sand

Shale

Sand

Shale
 Shale volume
0 api 150
1) Pick a clean GR response

2) Pick a shale GR response

Shale
135
3) Scale between
90 Sand

GR log - Gr clean
Shale Vsh =
GR shale - Gr clean

GR 90 -> Vsh = 55%

35 Sand

Shale
Gamma ray logs are used for main purposes:

 Correlation between wells.

 Determination of bed boundaries (Top and Bottom).

 Evaluation of shale content within a formation

• Mineral analysis.
Resistivity Log
 Electrical types
Conventional Current Focused Current

Micro Log (ML) Micro Spherically Focused

Micro Lateral log
Micro Normal Latero Log Shallow (LLS)
Short Normal Latero Log Deep(LLD)
Long Normal Latero Log-3 (LL-3)
Lateral Latero Log-7 (LL-7)
theory
Conventional Tools Limitations Microresistivity Tools
Microresistivity devices are characterized
by short electrode spacings of only a few
inches. This limits such tools to very
shallow depths of investigation.
Microresistivity tools are useful in
determining the following:

 flushed zone saturation, Sxo

 residual oil saturation, (ROS)
 hydrocarbon movability
 invasion corrections to deep
resistivity devices

N
 Which Resistivity Log are
recommended

Induction logs are recommended when:

The hole to be logged is filled with fresh water or

The hole to be logged is filled with oil-base mud

The hole to be logged was air drilled

The Rmf/Rw ratio is greater than 2.5

 Resistivity rang Up To 200 OHMM

 Which Resistivity Log are
recommended

Laterlog are recommended when:

The hole to be logged is filled with Saline water

The Rmf/Rw ratio is Less than 2.5

 Resistivity rang Up To 40000 OHMM is Possible

 Exercise
Rmf Rw
0.1 0.02

0.2 0.045

0.15 0.1

which Type of Logging you choose

(Induction or Latero) in Porosity 15 % ?
 Resistivity Log

Deep (True)
Resistivity

Medium (Transition Shallow (Flushed

Zone) Resistivity Zone) Resistivity
Focused Electrode Resistivity Tools
Micro Spherically Focused Log (MSFL)
 Dual Laterolog Tool (DLL)
 EXAMPLE LOG WITH RESISTIVITY
GR LLD RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SP LLS CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15 LLD
CAL MSFL
6 16 0.2 200 0.2 200
10700

LLS
0.2 200

MSFL
0.2 200
10800

10900
Resistivity
Log
Micro Spherically Focused log (MSFL)
Measures flushed zone resistivity (Rxo)
when run with other resistivity logs

Indicate moveable hydrocarbons

Estimate invasion diameter when used

with deeper reading resistivity devices
Delineate thin beds

Run in both fresh and saltwater based

drilling fluids

Combinable with other logging tools

including DIL and DLL
A depth of penetration of about 4”
Laterologs
Laterolog tools were developed for high salinity drilling muds, applied to
drill through salt layers,
Both the induction and laterolog tools are superior to the older ES tools
to obtain a reliable value of the true resistivity of the uninvaded
formation.
They are also provide better resolution of thin beds, Both modes of the
dual laterolog have a bed resolution of 2 feet.
Focusing electrode systems are available with deep and medium
depths of investigation.
 Dual Laterolog (DLL)
Distinguish
between saltwater-bearing and
hydrocarbon bearing formations.

Determine true formation resistivity

(Rt) for calculating water saturation

Estimate invasion diameters

Indicate moveable hydrocarbons

Focused measurements with high vertical

resolution and deep depth of investigation.

Accurate deep (LLd) and shallow (LLs)

formation resistivity measurements.

Run in saltwater-based drilling fluids,

but may also be used in fresh water-
based drilling.
Laterologs: (LL)

It is a type of modern electrodes which have a number of electrodes.

• LL3 has 3 current emitting electrodes (vertical resolution is 1 ft).

• LL7 has 7 current emitting electrodes (vertical resolution is 3 ft).
• LL8 is similar to the LL7, but has the current return electrode
(vertical resolution is 1ft).

LL3 LL7
High-Resolution Induction Tools
 Invasion

Shale Low Invasion

Zero Water Bearing
Permeability Zone
No Invasion
 Low Invasion Transition
Oil Bearing Zone Zone
Oil

Transition
Zone
water
 LLS

LLD

MSFL

When MSFL = LLS = LLD

this indicates zero or very shallow invasion.

- When MSFL > LLS = LLD

this indicates moderate invasion.

- When MSFL > LLS > LLD

which indicates deep invasion.

When MSFL = LLS > LLD

This response indicates very deep invasion.
 Resistivity
0.2 Ohmm’s 2000
1 10 100 1000

Shale

Sand

Shale
Shallow

Hydrocarbon
Sand

Deep water

Shale
 Resistivity
0.2 Ohm’s 2000 Basic “Archie” resistivity formula:-
1 10 100 1000
a Rw
Sw =
Shale
n F m
Rt

Sand Sw = water saturation

Rw = formation water resistivity
Rt = formation resistivity
Shale = porosity
a, m, n are constants
400
(default a=1, m=2, n=2)

Example porosity = .26 (26%)

Sand
Sw = 100%
0.3
Rw = .02 (at reservoir temp)
Shale
Sw = 3%
 Borehole Imaging Methods
 Describe structures and features such as faults and fractures,
 Define and characterize sedimentary bodies and environments,
 Determine sedimentary dip direction,
 Recognize and evaluate thin beds and internal bed characteristics