McLeod, S. A. (2015). Jean Piaget. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.
html
Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980) was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions
of questions on English intelligence tests.
He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required logical thinking.
He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.
Piaget (1936) described his work as genetic epistemology (i.e. the origins of thinking). Genetics is the scientific study of
where things come from (their origins). Epistemology is concerned with the basic categories of thinking, that is to say, the
framework or structural properties of intelligence.
What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems as a way of grading
their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea of number, time,
quantity, causality, justice and so on emerged.
Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a
theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but
ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than
adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults.
According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all
subsequent learning and knowledge is based.
Piaget's Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:
It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.
It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information or specific behaviors.
It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in number
and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.
The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an
individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation
and environmental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies
between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.
There Are Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive Theory:
1. Schemas (building blocks of knowledge).
2. Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another
(equilibrium, assimilation and accommodation).
3. Stages of Development: sensorimotor preoperational concrete operationalformal operational.
Schemas:
Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to form a mental representation of the world.
Piaget (1952) defined a schema as: 'a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly
interconnected and governed by a core meaning'.
In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent
behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as
“units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions and
abstract (i.e. theoretical) concepts.
Assimilation and Accommodation
Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process of
adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through:
Assimilation – Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or
situation.
Accommodation – This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not
work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
Equilibration – This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive development did
not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.
Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. However, an
unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).
Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance
by mastering the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the
new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it.
McLeod, S. A. (2015). Jean Piaget. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
_____________________________
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development (http://www.psychologycharts.com/piaget-stages-of-cognitive-development.html)
Jean Piaget was a developmental psychologist best known for his theory of cognitive development. Piaget's stages deal with the nature of
knowledge (epistemology) and how humans come to gradually acquire it.
Stage Age Description
During this first stage, children learn entirely through the movements
they make and the sensations that result. They learn:
that they exist separately from the objects and people around them
Sensorimotor 0-2 yrs that they can cause things to happen
that things continue to exist even when they can't see them
Once children acquire language, they are able to use symbols (such as
words or pictures) to represent objects. Their thinking is still very
egocentric - they assume that everyone else sees things from the same
viewpoint as they do.
Preoperational 2-7 yrs
They are able to understand concepts like counting, classifying according
to similarity, and past-present-future but generally they are still focused
primarily on the present and on the concrete, rather than the abstract.
At this stage, children are able to see things from different points of view
and to imagine events that occur outside their own lives. Some organized,
logical thought processes are now evident and they are able to:
order objects by size, color gradient, etc.
Concrete understand that if 3 + 4 = 7 then 7 - 4 = 3
7-11 yrs
Operational understand that a red square can belong to both the 'red' category
and the 'square' category
understand that a short wide cup can hold the same amount of
liquid as a tall thin cup
However, thinking still tends to be tied to concrete reality
Around the onset of puberty, children are able to reason in much more
Formal
11+ yrs abstract ways and to test hypotheses using systematic logic. There is a
Operational much greater focus on possibilities and on ideological issues.
___________________________
Educational Implications McLeod, S. A. (2015). Jean Piaget.
Within the classroom learning should be student centered a accomplished through active discovery learning. The role of
the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition. Therefore, teachers should encourage the following;
o Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it.
o Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths".
o Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other).
o Devising situations that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium in the child.
o Evaluate the level of the child's development, so suitable tasks can be set.
Vygotsky's Cultural-Historical Theory Overview
http://study.com/Lesson Transcript/Instructor: Melissa Hurst
Lev Vygotsky's, cultural-historical theory of cognitive development is focused on the role of culture in the development of
higher mental functions, such as speech and reasoning in children. His theory is sometimes referred to as having a
sociocultural perspective, which means the theory emphasizes the importance of society and culture for promoting
cognitive development. Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interactions and culture in development
Vygotsky believed that adults in a society foster children's cognitive development in an intentional and systematic manner
by engaging them in challenging and meaningful activities.
Assumptions of Vygotsky's Theory - 6 major assumptions guide Vygotsky's theory........
1. The first assumption of Vygotsky's theory is that through both informal and formal conversations and education
adults convey to children the way their culture interprets and responds to the world. Specifically, as adults interact
with children, they show the meanings they attach to objects, events and experiences. …..For example, the father is
now reading to his daughter a book about transportation. The book describes the different modes of transportation
we use in our society (such as cars, trucks and boats). By presenting these concepts, the book shows the little girl
how our society classifies modes of transportation.
2. The second assumption of Vygotsky's theory is that thought and language become increasingly independent in the
first few years of life.
3. The third assumption explains that complex mental processes begin as social activities. As children develop, they
gradually internalize processes they use in social contexts and begin to use them independently. This internalization
process allows children to transform ideas and processes to make them uniquely their own. ….For example, the
child and father are simply reading a book, but this social activity is transforming the way the child perceives modes
of transportation. She will begin to classify these items herself when she sees cars, trucks and boats in real-life
settings.
4. Vygotsky also introduced the idea that children can perform more challenging tasks when assisted by more
advanced and competent individuals. Vygotsky identified two levels of development:
actual development, which is the upper limit of tasks a child can perform individually, and
level of potential development, which is the upper limit of tasks a child can perform with the assistance of a more
competent individual. According to Vygotsky, in order to get a true assessment of a child's actual and potential
development, we should assess capabilities both when the child is performing the activity alone and with a more
competent individual.
For example, a young child may know puzzle blocks belong in the holes, but can’t determine how to actually
put them in. Her level of potential development was being able to put the blocks in with the help of an advanced
individual.
5. Our next assumption is that challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth. Vygotsky described this as the
zone of proximal development, or commonly referred to as ZPD. ZPD is the range of tasks that a child can perform
with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently.
6. The final assumption is that play allows children to stretch themselves cognitively. Play allows children to take on
roles they would normally not be able to perform in real life. For example..a little girl is now five years old. She's
playing house with a friend. She is the mother and her friend is the child. Through make-believe play, she is able to
exhibit behaviors and be a mommy according to the rules of her society. For example, a mommy takes care of her
child, prepares food, etc. That would normally be impossible for a five year old in real-life to do.
___________________________________________
McLeod, S. A. (2014). Lev Vygotsky. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of important ways:
1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting/shaping cognitive development - this
contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development. (Vygotsky does not
refer to stages in the way that Piaget does).
(i) Hence Vygotsky assumes cognitive development varies across cultures, whereas
Piaget states cognitive development is mostly universal across cultures.
2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development (Piaget is criticized
for underestimating this).
(i) Vygotsky states cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone of
proximal development as children and their partners co-construct knowledge. In contrast Piaget maintains that
cognitive development stems largely from independent explorations in which children construct knowledge of their
own.
(ii) For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think
about.
3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive development (again Piaget is
criticized for lack of emphasis on this). For Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of language.
According to Piaget, language depends on thought for its development (i.e. thought comes before language). For
Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of
age, producing verbal thought (inner speech).
4: According to Vygotsky adults are an important source of cognitive development. Adults transmit their culture's tools of
intellectual adaptation that children internalize. In contrast Piaget emphasizes the importance of peers as peer interaction
promotes social perspective taking.
Effects of Culture: - Tools of intellectual adaptation
Like Piaget, Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic materials/abilities for intellectual development - Piaget
focuses on motor reflexes and sensory abilities. Lev Vygotsky refers to 'elementary mental functions' – o Attention o
Sensation o Perception o Memory
Eventually, through interaction within the sociocultural environment, these are developed into more sophisticated
and effective mental processes/strategies which he refers to as 'higher mental functions'.
For example, memory in young children this is limited by biological factors. However, culture determines the type of
memory strategy we develop. E.g., in our culture we learn note-taking to aid memory, but in pre-literate societies other
strategies must be developed, such as tying knots in string to remember, or carrying pebbles, or repetition of the names of
ancestors until large numbers can be repeated.
Vygotsky refers to tools of intellectual adaptation - these allow children to use the basic mental functions more
effectively/adaptively, and these are culturally determined (e.g. memory mnemonics, mind maps).
Vygotsky therefore sees cognitive functions, even those carried out alone, as affected by the beliefs, values and tools of
intellectual adaptation of the culture in which a person develops and therefore socio-culturally determined. The tools of
intellectual adaptation therefore vary from culture to culture - as in the memory example.
Social Influences on Cognitive Development
Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning and the discovery
and development of new understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the
process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.
According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor.
The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or
collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or
teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance…..
…..As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more independently. According to Vygotsky,
this type of social interaction involving cooperative or collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development.
In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development, one must understand two of the main
principles of Vygotsky's work: the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
More Knowledgeable Other
The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better understanding
or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the case. Many times, a child's
peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience…..
In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support employees in their learning process, are now
using electronic performance support systems. … Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate
and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be programmed with) more
knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does.
Zone of Proximal Development The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the
second important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal
Development.
This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child
can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and
encouragement from a skilled partner.
For example, a child able to solve a jigsaw following interaction with the father,
and has developed competence at this skill that will be applied to future jigsaws.
Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the
most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to
develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental
functions.
Vygotsky and Language
Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for communication purposes. Vygotsky viewed language
as man’s greatest tool, a means for communicating with the outside world.
According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays 2 critical roles in cognitive development:
1: It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children.
2: Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.
Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language: social speech which is external communication used to
talk to others (typical from the age of two); private speech (typical from the age of three) which is directed to the self and
serves an intellectual function; and finally private speech goes underground, diminishing in audibility as it takes on a self-
regulating function and is transformed into silent inner speech (typical from the age of seven).
For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years
of age. At this point speech and thought become interdependent: thought becomes verbal, speech becomes
representational. When this happens, children's monologues internalized to become inner speech. The internalization of
language is important as it drives cognitive development.
'Inner speech is not the interior aspect of external speech - it is a function in itself. It still remains speech, i.e. thought
connected with words. But while in external speech thought is embodied in words, in inner speech words dies as they bring
forth thought. Inner speech is to a large extent thinking in pure meanings.'
(Vygotsky, 1962: p. 149)
Vygotsky (1987) was the first psychologist to document the importance of private speech. He considered private speech as
the transition point between social and inner speech, the moment in development where language and thought unite to
constitute verbal thinking. Thus private speech, in Vygotsky's view, was the earliest manifestation of inner speech. Indeed,
private speech is more similar (in its form and function) to inner speech than social speech.
Private speech is 'typically defined, in contrast to social speech, as speech addressed to the self (not to others) for the
purpose of self-regulation (rather than communication)'. (Diaz, 1992, p.62)
Unlike inner speech which is covert (i.e. hidden), private speech is overt. In contrast to Piaget’s (1959) notion of private
speech representing a developmental dead-end, Vygotsky (1934, 1987) viewed private speech as:
'A revolution in development which is triggered when preverbal thought and preintellectual language come together to
create fundamentally new forms of mental functioning'.
(Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005: p. 1).
___________________________________________________
QUICK SUMMARIES from http://study.com/Lesson Transcript/Instructor: Melissa Hurst
Piaget's Theory Piaget focused on cognitive development in children and adolescents
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development described and explained the changes
in logical thinking of children and adolescents. Piaget proposed that children proceed
through four stages based on maturation and experience.
Piaget's theory is guided by assumptions of how learners interact with their
environment and how they integrate new knowledge and information into existing
knowledge.
Briefly, he proposed that:
1. children are active learners who construct knowledge from their environments
2. they learn through assimilation and accommodation, and complex cognitive development occurs through
equilibration
3. the interaction with physical and social environments is key for cognitive development
4. development occurs in stages
Vygotsky's Theory Vygotsky recognized the importance of speech in development
Lev Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development, referred to as his cultural-historical theory, focused on the role of
culture and social interactions. Vygotsky maintained that speech is a major psychological tool in the child's development of
thinking. As children age and develop, their basic speech becomes more complex.
Vygotksy's theory is guided by six major assumptions:
1. children develop through informal and formal conversations with adults
2. the first few years of life are critical for development, as this is where thought and language become increasingly
independent
3. complex mental activities begin as basic social activities
4. children can perform more difficult tasks with the help of a more advanced individual
5. tasks that are challenging promote cognitive development growth
6. play is important and allows children to stretch themselves cognitively
Comparing Theories of Learning
Jean Piaget Lev Vgotsky
To understand is to invent Understanding is social in origin
– Cognitive Developmental View - Sociocultural view
Learning is a solitary activity Learning is a social activity
Development is driven by conflict between stages Development is an input that comes from others
Development is universal Development is non-universal,
and stages are the same regardless of context depending on social and cultural context
Children acquire knowledge through their own exploration Children work with others to build knowledge
Development precedes learning Learning precedes development
Thought drives language Language drives thought
Inner speech becomes social speech Social speech becomes inner speech
http://ecmp13jayce.blogspot.in/2013/01/constructivism-in-nutshell.html
www.psychology.wikia.com www.mindmeister.com
ATTENTION SPAN
3 A preschooler working alone may spend Look for ways to keep preschoolers
yr. 3-8 minutes on an interesting activity interested in the activities they start.
and may finish it if it's easy. Encourage and follow their interests. Avoid
distracting them or taking over the
3½ Working alone, a preschooler can stay
activities.
yr. busy for 15 minutes if there are a variety
of interesting choices.
4 By 4, a child engrossed in an activity may Four-year-olds understand it is harder to
yr. ignore distractions such as the call to pay attention to uninteresting tasks, or
dinner. when distracted by noise or their own
Alone, the 4-year-old may spend 7-8 thoughts. They are more likely to stay
minutes on a single activity, or as much interested when they're comfortable with
as 15 minutes if the activity is new and the task or project and feel successful.
especially interesting (an eye exam, for They may need help to meet their
example). standards. Adults can also keep children
With a small group, a 4-year-old may interested in projects with impromptu
spend 5-10 minutes playing without games and humor.
interruption.
4½ Working alone, the pre-kindergartener
yr. may spend 2-3 minutes on a task chosen
by an adult such as getting dressed or
picking up toys.
5 By 5, most children can ignore minor Recognize that personal interest remains
yr. distractions. Alone, they will focus on a the most important motivation for 5-year-
single interesting activity for 10 or 15 olds. It will double the length of their
minutes and on an assigned task for 4-6 attention span.
minutes if it's easy and interesting. A
small group of children can work or play
together without interruption for 10-25
minutes.
6 Working alone on a single activity, a 6- Continue to build on children's interests and
yr. year-old may stay interested for as much stay alert to difficult tasks, so that you can
as 30 minutes. help.
Compiled from multiple sources by Helen F. Neville
For more information, contact the Parenting Press publicity department at (800) 992-6657
