EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD SERIES

RECENT TRENDS IN EDUCATION

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 EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE
AND GLOBALIZING WORLD SERIES
Motivation in Education
Desmond H. Elsworth (Editor)
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-234-7

The Reading Literacy of U.S. Fourth-Grade Students

in an International Context
Justin Baer, Stéphane Baldi, Kaylin Ayotte,Patricia J. Gree
and Daniel McGrath
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-138-3

Teacher Qualifications and Kindergartners’ Achievements

Cassandra M. Guarino, Laura S. Hamilton, J.R. Lockwood, Amy H. Rathbun
and Elvira Germino Hausken
2009 ISBN: 978-1-60741-180-2

Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's

Acquisition of Reading
Ana Carolina Pena (Editor)
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-236-6

Nutrition Education and Change

Beatra F. Realine (Editor)
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-983-4

Reading at Risk: A Survey of Literary Reading in America

Rainer D. Ivanov
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-582-9

Evaluating Online Learning: Challenges and Strategies for Success

Arthur T. Weston (Editor)
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-107-9

Learning in the Network Society and the Digitized School

Rune Krumsvik (Editor)
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-172-7

Rural Education in the 21st Century

Christine M.E. Frisiras (Editor)
2009 ISBN: 978-1-60692-966-7

IT- Based Project ChangeManagement System

Faisal Manzoor Arain and Low Sui Pheng
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-148-2
 Reading: Assessment, Comprehension and Teaching
Nancy H. Salas and Donna D. Peyton (Editors)
2009 ISBN: 978-1-60692-615-4 (Hard Cover Book)

Reading: Assessment, Comprehension and Teaching

Nancy H. Salas and Donna D. Peyton (Editors)
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Mentoring: Program Development, Relationships and Outcomes

Michael I. Keel (Editor)
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-287-3 (Hard Cover Book)

Mentoring: Program Development, Relationships and Outcomes

Michael I. Keel
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60876-727-4 (Online Book)

Enhancing Prospects of Longer-Term Sustainability

of Cross-Cultural INSET Initiatives in China
Chunmei Yan
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-615-9

Multimedia in Education and Special Education

Onan Demir and Cari Celik
2009. ISBN 978-1-60741-073-7

PCK and Teaching Innovations

Syh-Jong Jang
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-147-5

Academic Administration: A Quest for Better Management

and Leadership in Higher Education
Sheying Chen (Editor)
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-732-3

New Research in Education: Adult, Medical and Vocational

Edmondo Balistrieri and Giustino DeNino (Editors)
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-873-3

Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

Francis Wardle
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-643-2

Recent Trends in Education

Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas (Editors)
2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-795-8
EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD SERIES

RECENT TRENDS IN EDUCATION

BORISLAV KUZMANOVIĆ
AND
ADELINA CUEVAS
EDITORS

Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

New York
Copyright © 2009 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Recent trends in education / editors, Borislav Kuzmanovic and Adelina Cuevas.

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Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-61122-833-5 (eBook)


 CONTENTS

Preface ix
Chapter 1 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role
in the Lives of People with Disabilities 1
William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein, Shelley Kaplan,
María Verónica Reina and Peter Blanck
Chapter 2 Language-Cognition Interactions During Bilingual Language
Development in Children 39
Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian
Chapter 3 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High
School Level 71
Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca
Chapter 4 Teleology and Evolution Education 107
Kostas Kampourakis and Vasiliki Zogza
Chapter 5 The Cognitive Self-Regulation Approach to Pre-Secondary Writing
Instruction 131
Raquel Fidalgo, Olga Arias-Gundín, Jesús Nicasio García
and Mark Torrance
Chapter 6 Evaluating Problem Based Learning in Midwifery 155
C. Rowan, S. Beake and C. McCourt
Chapter 7 Shared Decision Making in Medicine: Challenges and Opportunities 175
Tara Tucker, Rajiv Samant and Dawn Stacey
Chapter 8 Putting PBL Into Practice: Powers and Limitations of Different
Types of Scenarios 195
Laurinda Leite, Isménia Loureiro and Paula Oliveira
Chapter 9 Back to the Future: The Effect of Advance Organizers in Music
Instruction 215
Bernard W. Andrews
viii Contents

Chapter 10 Demystifying Outdated Theories about How the Brain Works 239
Leslie Wasserman
Chapter 11 Tailoring and Webcasting for Patient and Student Health Education 253
Ray Jones and Inocencio Maramba
Index 263
 PREFACE

This important book presents new research from around the world in the field of
education. Technological advancement has broadened educational, employment and training
opportunities for students and adults with disabilities via distance education. This book
reviews the breadth of distance learning initiatives and their benefits and challenges for
learners with disabilities. Furthermore, it is generally known that continuous learning and
upgrading of knowledge in any area may result in a relatively permanent change of behavior.
This book examines how providing health care workers with knowledge in the area of
nosocomial infections may result in a more consistent implementation of hygienic and other
reasonable measures for the prevention of nosocomial infections. Patients and the general
public are now better educated and have access to vast amounts of medical knowledge. This
book also reviews the current status of medical decision-making, highlights the challenges in
trying to ensure that patients are empowered to participant in their decisions. Other chapters
in this book discuss how a child's bilingualism may affect his/her linguistic and cognitive
skills, the benefits of traditional e-learning for students and a discussion on Problem Based
Learning (PBL) model, in which problems appear at the beginning of the learning sequence,
being introduced by the teacher and solved by the students.
Chapter 1 - Jobs for the Future—with its partners Eduventures and FutureWorks—was
asked by the U.S. Department of Labor to synthesize the research literature on the challenges
facing adult learners in higher education today and emerging strategies for increasing the
number of adults over 24 who earn college credentials and degrees. This synthesis is meant to
provide perspectives on key issues facing adults as more and more of them see the need for
higher education credentials, not just for shortterm training. The project has two phases: first,
this document, which is a broad, synthetic overview of the issues; and second, a more indepth
exploration of particular highvalue topics that will be agreed upon by the partners and
department personnel.
Powerful economic, demographic, and market trends are reshaping the landscape of
higher education, particularly for adults. Moreover, it is wise to ask how these trends might
affect its key constituencies: employers who depend on increasingly highly skilled employees
for their competitive success and growth; job seekers who need more than high school
credentials to succeed in the economy; and workers who may have to, or want to, transition to
new careers.
Chapter 2 - Technological advancement has broadened educational, employment and
training opportunities for students and adults with disabilities via distance education. Distance
x Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas

education is a prized tool of K-12 and higher education, and for vocational training and
research. Advancing knowledge of accessible technology and universal design concepts have
coincided with the distance education movement, and with a federal mandate for accessible
technology under Section 508 of the amended Rehabilitation Act. However, studies of
website accessibility and universal applications designed to deliver online learning question
whether these tools permit equal and effective participation by people with varying
disabilities. Other studies of accessible virtual knowledge communities suggest needed
improvements to advance the inclusion of people with disabilities in online collaborative
research and training initiatives. This chapter explores the implications of the growing
distance education movement for people with disabilities. First, a review the breadth of
distance learning initiatives and their benefits and challenges for learners with disabilities.
Second, a discussion on applicable learning theory and practice, and the relevant mandates of
U.S. disability laws. Third, evaluate likely compliance on distance learning activities with
disability law and propose best practices to support distance education programs for equal
access and opportunity in employment, education, and other areas by the widest number and
variety of people.
Chapter 3 - A growing body of research suggests a close relationship between children‘s
development of linguistic and cognitive skills, with language development and cognitive
development mutually influencing each other. This chapter considers childhood bilingualism
as a special case of language acquisition, with implications for the relationship between
linguistic and cognitive processes. Specifically, during bilingual language development,
language input is phonologically more complex and spans two languages instead of one.
Given language input that includes phonetic inventories and vocabulary from two languages
(consisting of two labels for most concepts), linguistic and cognitive implications for
bilingual development are discussed. In addition, the chapter considers the consequences of
simultaneous activation of two language systems and the juggling of two language codes in
children. It is suggested that bilingual children may have a higher cognitive processing load
during language use and learning, resulting in both linguistic and cognitive differences
compared with monolingual peers. Recent research on linguistic and cognitive differences
between monolingual and bilingual children is placed in the context of current theoretical
models of language learning, development, and processing. In particular,consider recent
findings from monolingual and bilingual children in the context of learnability theory (with
an emphasis on the influence of input complexity on linguistic / cognitive development), and
in light of usage-based accounts of language acquisition (with an emphasis on the
development of potentially different cognitive skills in monolinguals and bilinguals). The
conclusion is that childhood bilingualism provides a unique context for examining the
interaction between linguistic and cognitive mechanisms during development.
Chapter 4 - This paper discusses some topics that stem from recent contributions made by
the history, the philosophy, and the didactics of science and are considered relevant to the
introduction of the special relativity theory in secondary education, adopting a contextualized
approach from a historical, epistemological and pedagogical point of view.
The results of several investigations into the teaching and learning of the Special
Relativity Theory are presented. Also, a discussion of the pedagogical approach that is
considered appropriate to introduce this theory at high school level as well as how the
treatment given to the theory by the textbooks more commonly used by teachers can influence
their pedagogical decisions and the students‘ understanding of this topic.
 Preface xi

The mental images of relevant concepts of Mechanics that Argentine secondary students
have and which are necessary in order to understand the Special Relativity Theory are
analyzed. The results seem to indicate that the examined group of students has not developed
appropriate schemata to solve problems in which these concepts are involved. Based on these
results, some objectives-obstacles that should be overcome by students in a classroom context
adopting a specific teaching proposal that will provide for the significant learning of the
special relativity theory.
An outline is offered of a teaching proposal to deal with the Special Relativity Theory in
Argentina at high school level. This proposal was designed within a theoretical framework
that takes into account epistemological, historical, psychological and pedagogical aspects
which are compatible among themselves.
Chapter 5 - According to the teleological view of nature before Darwin the function of an
organ determined its form, in other words organisms were considered to possess those organs
that would enable them to perform all necessary functions properly. Darwin‘s evolutionary
theory advanced the priority of form over function, in the sense that the existing variation and
the available forms within a population posed constraints to the possible performed functions.
Considering these, it is interesting that studies in conceptual development research have
shown that young children exhibit an intuitive teleological reasoning. Two different
explanations for its origin have been proposed which agree on that it is characteristic of
students‘ explanations for biological properties from very early in childhood. Since
teleological explanations both in pre-Darwinian times and in students‘ conceptual
development are based on preconceived plans or on the intention to achieve goals, in this
chapter the major types of teleology that Darwin‘s theory had to confront are described and
studies in conceptual development research focusing on intuitive teleological reasoning are
reviewed. Then particular implications for evolution education are discussed and it is
concluded that evolution instruction should focus on conceptual change from explanations
that presuppose design etiologies, which were popular in pre-Darwinian times and which also
predominate in students‘ intuitive reasoning, to explanations that presuppose consequence
etiologies which are compatible with Darwin‘s theory and current evolutionary biology.
Chapter 6 - Writing is a complex and cognitively demanding activity. It cannot be
performed as a sequence of discrete steps; it requires the simultaneous combination of several
strategies and the application of various mental resources. Writing is, therefore, both a
recursive and a dynamic process. To be successful, writers need an understanding of the
components of a quality text as well as knowledge of writing strategies that can be used to
shape and organize the writing process. In particular, writing competence requires appropriate
and self-regulated knowledge of strategies for planning what to write, and then revising what
has been written.
In this chapter, a review is presented of the recent research on the planning and revision
processes in writing in order to show the importance that these have in the development of
writing competence. Then, a description of the existing research is discussed, evaluating
strategy-focused intervention studies, to provide an overview of the nature of the
interventions programs and an indication of which have been most successful. In the second
part of the chapter, a description and summarized findings from (Torrance, Fidalgo, and
García, 2007; and Fidalgo, Torrance, and García, 2008). These studies move beyond existing
research by (a) exploring the effects of strategy focused instruction on students‘ writing
processes as well as on their written products and (b) demonstrating the long-term effects of
xii Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas

this kind of intervention. In a final section, the practical implications of this body of research
(both ours and others) are presented and suggestions for how lessons learned from this
research might be applied in the classroom.
Chapter 7 - Problem based learning (PBL) has been adopted widely in the education of
health professionals and is used in many disciplines worldwide including medicine, nursing,
midwifery and other medical allied professions. The rationale for a PBL based programme in
midwifery lies in the theoretical claims that it promotes the development of communication
skills, teamwork, sharing information, problem solving and developing independent
responsibility for learning (Wood 2003) and that it may increase retention of knowledge,
transfer of concepts and enhance intrinsic interest (Norman and Schmidt 1992).
PBL was initially developed in the 1980s in medical education in North America as it
was felt that classroom learning did not always transfer to the clinical setting. Early
developers of the approach felt that learning in small groups through the use of clinical
problems would make medical education more interesting and relevant to practice. In the
1990‘s an EBL based approach was adopted by schools of nursing and midwifery in the UK.
Since the main focus of midwifery practice is on normal, healthy pregnancy and birth, the
term enquiry based learning (EBL) has been used by many midwifery programmes, but PBL
is the most commonly used term in the literature and will be used in this chapter.
Chapter 8 - The information age has permeated all aspects of our everyday lives,
including health care. Patients and the general public are now better educated and have access
to vast amounts of medical knowledge, previously only available to health care professionals.
Concurrently, many patients want to play a larger role in their personal health care decisions.
Shared decision making (SDM) is a term used to describe the collaborative process by which
patients and their health care providers make medical decisions, and it is generally considered
to be the most preferred approach. In this chapter, a review of the current status of medical
decision making, highlight the challenges in trying to ensure that patients are empowered to
participant in their decisions, and discuss issues related to training health care providers to
assist and engage their patients in decision making. Also explored, is the opportunities that
SDM provides for improving health care in the future through better education,
communication, and exchange.
Chapter 9 - The most common Problem Based Learning (PBL) model is the one in which
problems appear at the beginning of the learning sequence, being introduced by the teacher
and solved by the students. This paper acknowledges a conception of PBL organized around
sets of problems formulated by the students from scenarios that may focus on a broad theme.
In such a PBL environment the teachers‘ key role is to select or develop scenarios that
can originate relevant problems from an educational point of view. Scenarios can be of
different types, ranging from the verbal to the image-based ones, and may induce different
problems, depending on the information they offer and the intriguing power they convey.
Bearing in mind the role of problems in a PBL sequence, the relationship between
problems and scenarios, and the fact that in traditional school settings students are hardly
given the opportunity to ask questions, two issues can be raised: are students able to formulate
relevant questions to be used for PBL purposes? How do different types of scenarios (texts,
comics and images) compare in terms of their potential to originate such questions? Are
teachers able to anticipate students‘ questions? What are the characteristics of the social
environment that better foster the formulation of high-level questions?
 Preface xiii

Results from research carried out with teachers and lower and upper secondary school
students suggest that students can formulate high-level questions from diverse types of
scenarios and that teachers can anticipate them. As far as the social environment is concerned,
results indicate that the older students are, the less valuable group work is in terms of high
level questions induction, whatever the type of scenario. However, results are not conclusive
with regard to the comparative effectiveness of diverse types of scenarios in what concerns
their power to induce relevant questions for PBL purposes.
Chapter 10 - This study assessed the effect of advance organizers in music instruction.
Four intact beginning instrumental grade nine classes participated in the study. Nine musical
concepts were used as the dependent variables: instrumentation, counting, note values,
slurring, key signature, meter, dynamics, harmony, and dotted note. The treatment group and
the control group were pre-tested and post-tested on their knowledge of the musical concepts
before and after the advance organizer instruction was implemented. For performance and
listening skill acquisition, post-test only was administered as the participants were beginners
without prior instrumental experience. Findings indicate that the learning of three concepts -
instrumentation, dynamics and harmony – was significantly affected by the independent
variable. None of the performance or listening skills based on the nine concepts were
significantly affected by the advance organizer instruction.
Chapter 11 - The field of Cognitive Science is dispelling some of the classical myths or
misunderstandings about how the brain learns, how brain development may be impacting
language acquisition and cognition. This is an exciting time to be an educator and to see the
incredible possibilities for the latest theories of how the brain develops and evolves. No
longer are people settled with the idea that the brain is ‗fixed‘ by the time a person reaches the
age of three, that you must throw our hands up in despair if a child comes to school not ready
to learn. Through the most recent research,it is learned that our mind can be enriched,
expanded and developed toward several levels of sophistication. This article draws upon the
marriage of the latest brain based research and technologies as they provide implications for
early detection of cognition and learning difficulties. This new direction in knowledge about
the development of the brain has great potential for the education of our children and the
stability of our nation as a global competitor.
In: Recent Trends in Education ISBN 978-1-60741-795-8
Editor: Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

DISTANCE EDUCATION INITIATIVES

AND THEIR EARLY 21ST CENTURY ROLE
IN THE LIVES OF PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES

William N. Myhill1, Deepti Samant1, David Klein2,

Shelley Kaplan3, María Verónica Reina3 and Peter Blanck3 
1.Burton Blatt Institute: Centers of Innovation on Disability
at Syracuse University (BBI), USA
2.Law, Health Policy and Disability Center, University of Iowa, USA
3.BBI, USA

ABSTRACT
Technological advancement has broadened educational, employment and training
opportunities for students and adults with disabilities via distance education. Distance
education is a prized tool of K-12 and higher education, and for vocational training and
research. Advancing knowledge of accessible technology and universal design concepts
have coincided with the distance education movement, and with a federal mandate for
accessible technology under Section 508 of the amended Rehabilitation Act. However,
studies of website accessibility and universal applications designed to deliver online
learning question whether these tools permit equal and effective participation by people
with varying disabilities. Other studies of accessible virtual knowledge communities

 William N. Myhill, Senior Research Associate, BBI, Adjunct Professor of Law, Syracuse University; Deepti
Samant, Research Associate, BBI; Shelley Kaplan, Director, BBI Southeast DBTAC; María Verónica Reina,
Senior Research Associate, BBI; Peter Blanck, Chair, BBI, University Professor, Syracuse University.
http://bbi.syr.edu/
 David Klein, Director of Technology, Law, Health Policy & Disability Center
 This research was funded, in part, by grants to Dr. Blanck from the U.S. Department of Education, National
Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR) for i) ―Rehabilitation Research and Training
Center (RRTC) on Workforce Investment and Employment Policy for Persons with Disabilities,‖ Grant No.
H133B980042-99; ii) ―IT Works,‖ Grant No. H133A011803; iii) ―Demand Side Employment Placement
Models,‖ Grant No. H133A060033; iv) ―Technology for Independence: A Community-Based Resource
Center,‖ Grant No. H133A021801; and v) ―Southeast Disability & Business Technical Assistance Center,‖
Grant No. H133A060094.
2 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

suggest needed improvements to advance the inclusion of people with disabilities in

online collaborative research and training initiatives. This chapter explores the
implications of the growing distance education movement for people with disabilities.
First, we review the breadth of distance learning initiatives and their benefits and
challenges for learners with disabilities. Second, we discuss applicable learning theory
and practice, and the relevant mandates of U.S. disability laws. Third, we evaluate likely
compliance on distance learning activities with disability law and propose best practices
to support distance education programs for equal access and opportunity in employment,
education, and other areas by the widest number and variety of people.

INTRODUCTION
This chapter explores the implications of the growing distance education movement for
people with disabilities. Technological advancement has broadened educational, employment
and training opportunities for students and adults with disabilities and nontraditional students
via distance education (Ex-Coach, 2006; Keller, 2006; Southeast DBTAC, 2005; Watson and
Ryan, 2006). Distance education rapidly is becoming a prized tool of K-12 and higher
education (Austin, 2007; Murray, 2006; Ryman, 2005; TSCandU, 2007a), and for vocational
training (Keller, 2006; TSCandU, 2007b). There is growing popularity in strictly distance
learning degree and certification programs in large part for their convenience (Mehta, 2007;
TSCandU, 2007c). Enactment of the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) spurred K-12
educators to find innovative and alternative means of improving student learning and
opportunities for the least successful children and those in rural or under-resourced areas
(Boseman Public Schools, n.d.; Cognos, 2004; GAO, 2004; Hasten, 2004; Myhill, 2004).
Distance education has become a popular approach (Watson and Ryan, 2006). Moreover,
distance education is proving to be a money maker for many educational programs and the
information and communications technology firms that serve them (Mintz, 2004).
Advancing knowledge of accessible technology and universal design concepts has
coincided with the distance education movement, and with a federal mandate for accessible
technology under Section 508 of the amended Rehabilitation Act (Blanck, Hill, Siegel, and
Waterstone, 2004). However, studies of website accessibility and applications designed to
deliver online learning question whether these tools permit equal and effective participation
by people with varying disabilities (NCD, 2006). A 2006-2007 study by Myhill, Cogburn,
Samant, Addom, and Blanck (in press) of accessible cyberinfrastructure-enabled knowledge
communities suggests needed improvements to advance the inclusion of people with
disabilities in online collaborative research and training initiatives.
In this chapter, first, the authors review the varieties and uses of distance education
programs and their implications for learners with disabilities. Second, we explore emerging
learning theory and practice for delivering distance education, best practices for instructing
learners with disabilities, and their civil rights to K-12 and higher education. Third, we
evaluate current distance education compliance with disability law and propose policy
initiatives and best practices for distance education programs that ensure equal access and
opportunity for learners with and without disabilities.
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 3

I. DISTANCE EDUCATION AND LEARNERS WITH DISABILITIES

The unique selling point of distance learning programs is the flexibility they provide to
potential students in terms of schedules and physical location (Ubell, 2000; Watson and Ryan,
2006). Distance education programs provided via mail, telephone, television, and fax services
have been in existence for decades (Matthews, 1999). The mainstream proliferation of
computer networks supported by high data transmission speeds in the 1980s made Computer
Mediated Communication among dispersed groups possible (Kock and Nosek, 2005).
Advances in information and communications technology, as well as hardware and software
systems greatly facilitate the use of the Internet to provide distance learning programs.
Today, distance learning courses utilize a range of technologies and varying degrees of
access to course materials, interaction with instructors and peers, and tools to complete course
requirements. K-12 and higher education recognize the inherent benefits of online learning
for ―promoting 21st century skills and global citizenship.‖ (Matthews, 1999; Watson and
Ryan, p. 10). In Part I we review the varieties and uses of distance education programs and
their likely implications for learners with disabilities. First we review the purposes, types, and
sources of distance education programs. Second, we consider the role of distance learning in
the lives of people with disabilities.

A. The Breadth of Distance Education Initiatives

Distance education has entered into nearly every imaginable realm of formal and
informal education, training, and certification. Traditional (i.e., brick and mortar) and virtual
(i.e., online only) colleges and universities offer both matriculated courses and classes for
professional development (Jung, Galyon-Keramidas, Collins, and Ludlow, 2006; NCES,
2003). Public and private companies and non-profits that specialize in a particular field, such
as law, teacher education, business and research skills, offer workshops and courses to meet
professional development (e.g., continuing legal education, Java enterprise development
certification, human subjects training), advancement, and other criteria (Lawline.com, 2006;
SkillSoft, 2007; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.). For instance, software
application skill sets required for jobs in administrative support, publishing, accounting,
payroll, software design, web design, human resources, and innumerable other positions
frequently require certification in the use of specific applications (SkillSoft, 2007).
State and local education agencies, including private and charter schools offering K-12
programs, provide standard curriculum and advanced placement credit via distance learning
(Watson and Ryan, 2006). While most K-12 distance programs arise from brick and mortar
schools, new programs are beginning to offer only a virtual experience. Trade and technical
schools that prepare students to be a dental assistant, paralegal, medical transcriptionist, home
inspector, or real estate salesperson among numerous other careers, offer online study and
examination leading to professional certification and licensure (TSCandU, 2007b). These
programs, occasionally free, serve nearly any educational or training purpose that a student,
school, employer, or public agency may have.
In this section we review the technologies involved in distance learning, possible
instructional arrangements, and the purposes or goals of varying distance learning initiatives.
4 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

We find these three factors are intertwined significantly, with important implications for
students with disabilities.

1. Types of Technologies and Instructional Arrangements

Moore (1989) categorized three types of interactions in traditional educational programs,
which are ―learner-content,‖ ―learner-instructor,‖ and ―learner-learner‖ interaction. The
degree to which each of these needs to be facilitated in a particular distance learning program,
along with the desired level of interaction, are important factors in the choice of technologies
and methods used to provide the learning opportunity (Parker, 1999). These programs operate
on a continuum from fully synchronous (in real-time) to fully asynchronous (e.g., self-paced).
Similarly, geographically distributed collaboration has three core components: people-to-
people (e.g., learner-learner and learner-instructor), people-to-resources (e.g., access to
datasets, shared documents, articles and meeting artifacts), and people to facilities (e.g.,
access to physical spaces where meetings are held) (Cogburn, 2005). The desired instructional
arrangement further may dictate the necessary technologies.
Choices of technology typically are made by the instructors and their employers (i.e.,
what technologies the school / training provider is willing and able to use) (Sherry, 1996). In
some instances, the learner may have a choice. Currently the primary technologies and
emerging practices used for distance education fall into one of three activities: web-based
learning, synchronous learning, and virtual reality. These categories are neither mutually
exclusive, nor do they operate in isolation from one another. Many distance learning
programs in the United States use a mixture of technologies to conduct distance education
programs and virtual classrooms. For example, the University of Nevada, Las Vegas offered a
class to train personnel in Assistive Technology using a range of applications to deliver
content and host interactions through email, discussion boards, streaming videos, and live
web chats (Babbitt, Thoma, and Adamson, 2002).

a. Web-based Learning
Web-based learning tools can be distinguished, in part, on the basis of their time of
occurrence, that is, synchronously or asynchronously (Bafoutsou and Mentzas, 2002).
Asynchronous learning opportunities are those where the human facilitator of learning does
not interact with the learner in real time, and commonly include websites and email (Codone,
2004). Designing web pages that host course content is a simpler means of providing
asynchronous learning opportunities on the World Wide Web (―Web‖). Such ―static web-
based educational‖ methodology may include linked HTML pages, presentations, and
documents, among others, in a variety of formats (Codone, 2004; Poindexter and Heck,
1999).
Web-based courses offer a range of asynchronous services such as email, electronic
bulletin boards, discussion forums, content management systems, mailing groups and
Listservs (Hiltz and Wellman, 1997; Maher, 1999; Watson and Ryan, 2006; Zhang, Zhao,
Zhou and Nunamaker, 2004). Several commercially available web-based course management
tools, such as the Blackboard suite of products, WebCT,1 and Lotus Notes, facilitate the
delivery of course content and student submissions in multiple formats (Lewis, MacEntee and

1 Blackboard and WebCT, previously supplied by independent companies, have merged under the Blackboard
(2005) banner.
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 5

Youns-Maher, 2002; Storey, Phillips, Maczewski and Wang, 2002). These tools include a
range of features allowing instructors to make content materials available, such as posting
linked HTML documents, and uploading documents and presentations in multiple formats
(e.g., Word, PDF, PowerPoint) (Lewis, et al.). In addition, they facilitate student assessment
activities through the capability of developing online quizzes and tests, conducting student
surveys, supporting assignment and paper submissions, and providing comprehensive
gradebook tools (Blackboard, Inc., 2004; Storey, et al.). Most course management tools, such
as Blackboard, allow instructors to set up online and face-to-face class discussions promoting
interaction between students, and include multi-media capabilities that offer an instructor
broad flexibility in the organization of a virtual classroom (Babbitt, 2003).
Open source applications increasingly provide content management systems where
students can collaborate asynchronously. For instance, two IT Works2 research projects at the
Burton Blatt Institute—which address the i) design of accessible open source business
applications and ii) effective accommodations for employees with disabilities in media
industries—use Google Docs and Spreadsheets (2007) to share and edit common evolving
documents (e.g., methods, findings) among the eight graduate student researchers and the
Project Director. This enhances regular faculty supervision, feedback, and direction of student
work.

b. Synchronous Online Education Using Multimedia

Synchronous learning permits geographically distributed real time interaction, discussion,
instruction, and demonstration among students and between students and the instructor. The
tools of synchronous programs may include Web casts, Web conferencing, text messaging,
application sharing, and others (Watson and Ryan, 2006). Web casts involve broadcasting
audio and video files over the Internet using data streaming, allowing viewers to hear, view,
and read data as it is being downloaded (Locatis, 2003). An advantage of Web casts is the
ability to broadcast in real time with simultaneous archiving for downloads on demand
(Locatis; Rowe, Harley, Pletcher and Lawrence, 2001; Xu, Fountain, MacArthur, Braunstein
and Sooriamurthi, 2004). This provides a medium to record live in-class sessions for
immediate broadcast or asynchronous access (i.e., replaying) to virtual classroom sessions
(Xu, et al.; Rowe, et al.). Web casting systems such as BIBS, the Berkeley Internet
Broadcasting System, also are able to stream videoconferences (Locatis). While Web casts
traditionally were viewed as one-way technology, developments in infrastructure and network
systems have led to increasingly interactive Web casts with integrated messaging capabilities,
means to submit questions to presenters, and facilitation of simultaneous audio transmissions
(Baecker, 2002; Schick, Kilgore, and Baecker, 2004).
Similarly, Web conferencing technologies have grown vastly more user-friendly and
robust, and less expensive (Osborn, 2005; Whitehead, 2005). These applications may
integrate instant (i.e., text) messaging, Voice and Video over Internet Protocol, application
sharing, an interactive whiteboard, uninterrupted streaming regardless of bandwidth, and
digital recording. Stand alone instant messaging applications such as AIM, Yahoo Messenger,
MSN Messenger, and ICQ commonly offer address books and filtering tools, allow users to
share files and data, and support Voice and Video over Internet Protocol conversations.

2
IT Works is funded by the National Institute for Disability and Rehabilitation Research (U.S. Department of
Education), Grant No. H133A011803.
6 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

Similarly, instant messaging programs are embedded into course management tools such as
Blackboard (2004) and web conferencing tools such as Elluminate Live! (Elluminate, 2006).
Recently academic libraries have started offering instant messaging reference services in
addition to email and web-based assistance (Foley, 2002).

c. Virtual Reality
Virtual reality simulations, traditionally delivered through desktop applications with the
help of special devices such as goggles and gloves, immerse the user in a 3-d virtual world
(Samant, Myhill, and Blanck, 2006). Virtual reality simulations also can be delivered
remotely to students who cannot be in the physical location of the equipment (Park, et al.,
2001). Tele-immersion applications seek to merge audio and video conferencing with virtual
reality environments (Leigh, 1999), to provide a collaborative space for individuals in remote
locations to interact and work with each other in virtual worlds (Mortensen, et al., 2002).
Motion capture avatars and annotations are capable of recording each user‘s head and hand
gestures, full body motion and voice, and other users can view these avatars using their own
immersive technology (Lee, Ghyme, Park, and Wohn, 1998; Mortensen et al. 2002). This
allows multiple users, in remote locations, to interact and work with each other through their
avatars.
These tools are being used in several distance learning programs. For instance, the
University of Illinois at Chicago and Central Missouri State University held a collaborative
class in which students were introduced to the culture and people of Harlem through a virtual
reality application called ―Virtual Harlem‖ (Park, et al., 2001). Students recorded their
opinions and actions in virtual reality through annotations that were saved and could be
retrieved later. Different exercises such as allowing a group of students to explore Virtual
Harlem together and allowing others to observe their actions through their avatars, permitted
students at different locations to explore this recreation of Harlem in a collaborative manner.

2. Providers of Distance Education

Providers of distance learning opportunities arise in a number of ways, such as driven by
an institutional mission, mandated by a legislative body, or selected to serve a financial
incentive (NCES, 2003; Watson and Ryan, 2006). These services frequently are provided to
reach and meet the needs of a broader, more diverse audience. This audience may have
challenges accessing the services because of physical location, absence of transportation,
expense, or special learning needs, among other factors, or simply may prefer the
convenience of not having to leave home (NCES, 2003; Watson and Ryan, 2006). Large
providers of distance education include traditional colleges and universities (both public and
private), state and local K-12 education agencies, trade and technical schools, and software or
business skill certification programs (NCES, 2003; SkillSoft, 2007; TSCandU, 2007b;
Watson and Ryan, 2006).
Federal and state agencies, their contractors, and the research groups they fund
increasingly use distance education tools for training, certification, or enhanced research
collaboration. The Institute for Food Laws and Regulations (2006) at Michigan State
University provides online training to earn the ‗International Food Law Internet Certificate.‘
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (n.d.) offers online training using
asynchronous streaming audio and video media including closed captioning, for healthcare
providers to acquire essential knowledge for the protection of human subjects. The Southeast
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 7

Disability and Technical Assistance Center (2007) funded by the National Institute on
Disability and Rehabilitation Research (U.S. Department of Education) offers a variety of
online educational tools largely targeting employers and business owners and providing
continuing education credits in matters regarding rights and responsibilities under the
Americans with Disabilities Act.
Notably, in 2004 the U.S. Department of Education published its policy
recommendations for use of the Internet and advancing technologies to improve public
education. Among the recommendations was ―Support E-Learning and Virtual Schools,‖
wherein the Department acknowledged:

In the past five years there has been significant growth in organized online instruction (e-
learning) and ―virtual‖ schools, making it possible for students at all levels to receive high
quality supplemental or full courses of instruction personalized to their needs. Traditional
schools are turning to these services to expand opportunities and choices for students and
professional development for teachers. Recommendations for states, districts and schools
include:

 Provide every student access to e-learning.

 Enable every teacher to participate in e-learning training.
 Encourage the use of e-learning options to meet No Child Left Behind requirements for
highly qualified teachers, supplemental services and parental choice.
 Explore creative ways to fund e-learning opportunities.
 Develop quality measures and accreditation standards for e-learning that mirror those
required for course credit. (U.S. Department of Education, 2004, pp. 41-42).

Watson and Ryan‘s (2006) comprehensive review of K-12 distance education initiatives
found 38 states have adopted ―state-led online learning programs, significant policies
regulating online education, or both.‖ (p. 6). These programs take many forms, including 1) a
unit of the state education agency or board of education (e.g., Idaho Digital Learning
Academy, Illinois Virtual High School), 2) an independent entity created by the state (e.g.,
Colorado Online Learning), 3) a separate school district (e.g., Florida Virtual School), 4) a
unit of a state university (e.g., University of California College Prep, 5) cooperatives that
operate in multiple states (and countries) with membership in the hundreds of schools,3 6)
state led yet privately funded schools (e.g., Louisiana Virtual School), 7) and multiple charter
schools (such as in Minnesota, Kansas, and Pennsylvania), among others (Watson and Ryan,
2006). They also range significantly in size, such as from 600 students (Hawaii E-School) to
68,000 students (Florida Virtual School) (Watson and Ryan).
Business skills training courses, such as the more than 2,000 offered by SkillSoft (2007),
range comprehensively across the IT, business, desktop, legal compliance, environmental and
occupational safety, and financial skill areas, and are among the more well-established and
lucrative distance education initiatives. Rapidly growing is the number of providers offering
college degree programs solely via the web (TSCandU, 2007a), however, on occasion raising
questions of quality. The University of Phoenix, a network of small brick and mortar
campuses in 39 states, though doing the majority of its teaching online, is in federal court

3
Virtual High School, Inc. (2007) has a membership of 457 schools, including one-third of Massachusetts‘ high
schools, and serves over 9,000 students worldwide (Watson & Ryan, 2006).
8 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

responding to allegations ―of fraudulently obtaining hundreds of millions of dollars in

financial aid,‖ and has come under fire for a 16% graduation rate, racing students through
course work, ―and instructional shortcuts, unqualified professors and recruiting abuses.‖
(Dillon, 2007).

B. Benefits and Concerns for People with Disabilities

A 2006 United Nations Global Audit of Web Accessibility, in part, concluded:

The Internet is the most vital tool to emerge in the last 50 years for enhancing the lives of
people with disabilities. It offers unprecedented access to information and services,
overcoming many of the obstacles that people with disabilities previously experienced. It
should be easier to shop online than choose clothes from a retail outlet that you can‘t see. It
ought to be easier to bank online than manoeuvre a wheelchair up the steps to the bank
building. It must be possible for people with disabilities to get online, because otherwise
society will suffer (United Nations, 2006a, pp. 19-20).

For the more than 20 million working age adults with disabilities, 15 million children
with disabilities, and the millions of students attending any one of the 10,793 public schools
(11.9% of all public schools) failing to make ―adequate yearly progress‖ for two consecutive
years,4 distance education may offer hope that an affordable choice or alternative is available
to facilitate their academic, technical, or professional achievement necessary to live
independent and self-determined lives (Blanck and Myhill, in press; NEA, 2006; RRTC,
2005). In 2001, 48% of U.S. two- and four-year colleges and universities (both public and
private) received requests for accommodations by persons with disabilities seeking to take
their distance education courses. Larger and public institutions received more requests than
medium/smaller and private institutions, respectively (NCES, 2003).
Individuals with disabilities may have the most to gain from effective distance learning
opportunities. Research consistently finds fewer successful outcomes for children with
disabilities as they age through K-12 education and transition into the adult world. For
instance, just 50% of all students with disabilities served under the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) graduate from high school (U.S. Department of Education,
2006). Transition planning, mandated by the IDEA for students ages 16 and older who
receive special education services (20 U.S.C.A. § 1414(d)(1)(A)(i)(VIII), 2005), frequently
lacks relevance, is poorly implemented or is ineffective (NCD, 2000a; 2000b). During the two
years following high school graduation, 5.7% of students with disabilities attend a four-year
college compared to 28.3% of their peers without disabilities (Wagner, Newman, Cameto,
Garza, and Levine, 2005). Educational achievement and rates of employment for people with
disabilities remain low compared to people without disabilities. For instance, in 2004 people
with disabilities were less than half as likely to earn a bachelors degree (12.7% vs. 29.8%)
and to be employed (38.3% vs. 78.6%) (RRTC, 2005). Moreover, following secondary

4
Adequate Yearly Progress is determined by applying state-defined ―high standards of academic achievement‖ that
are ―statistically valid and reliable‖ to evaluate whether all students and specific sub-groups of students (e.g.,
economically disadvantaged students, major racial and ethnic groups, students with disabilities, and English
language learners) are making ―continuous and substantial improvement.‖ (20 U.S.C.A § 6311(b)(2)(C),
2005).
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 9

education, services for people with disabilities become fragmented, significantly diminish in
scope and availability, overly target low paying jobs, and pose social and physical barriers
(Gill, 2005; NCD, 2003; Paul, 2000; Rao, 2004; Zaslow, 2005).
Much like school choice and voucher programs (i.e., other alternative edicational tools
with rising popularity), distance education is susceptible to significant criticisms and
drawbacks (Myhill, 2004). Both present concern with 1) inconsistent or unproven
effectiveness and accountability, 2) intentional or inadvertent ―creaming‖ (i.e., selection of
students), 3) the absence of teacher preparation and professional development standards for
the unique environments of distance education, and 4) the national shortage of highly trained
special education teachers (Myhill; Watson and Ryan, 2006).
Barriers to the accessibility of technologies are caused largely by three categories of
problems: technical, design, and intrapersonal barriers (Wimberly, Reed, and Morris, 2004).
Technical barriers occur because of either limitations in hardware (e.g., lack of computer
memory) or because of a user‘s lack of knowledge about a technology's usage (e.g., no
alternative strategies when an application does not work as expected). Design barriers occur
when applications lack design characteristics that will make information accessible. For
example, the most common barrier to university web pages is the lack of alternative text for
images (Schmetzke, 2001). Intrapersonal barriers occur when the learning environment does
not meet the needs of individual learner characteristics. For example, a two-hour web
conference may tax the stamina of a person with chronic fatigue syndrome.
Barriers inherent in the design of distance learning technologies specifically may exclude
individuals with varying impairments from success in these programs. We have found that
―persons with vision, hearing, fine motor, or cognitive impairments, and learning or attention
difficulties … experience the greatest barriers to effective communication when technologies
demand multi-sensory interaction (e.g., unimpaired hearing, vision, attention, and fine motor
skills), or permit limited forms of input/interaction (e.g., speech without closed captioning, or
mouse without keyboard access) (Myhill, et al., in press). Similarly, a 2006 report sponsored
by the United Nations (2006a) concluded there is global failure to provide the most basic
level of web accessibility to people with disabilities. Of the 100 websites used in the study,
selected from travel, finance, media, politics, and retail websites in 20 countries, most did not
meet the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) ―Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 1.0‖
(United Nations; W3C, 1999), widely regarded as the premier international standard (W3C,
2006).
Another study by investigators with the Southeast Disability and Business Technical
Assistance Center (2006) identified four factors impacting the distance learning experiences
of college students with disabilities: instructor characteristics, learner characteristics, design
barriers, and factors affecting systems change (e.g., key stakeholder buy-in). One project
found that many students with disabilities, specifically students with learning disabilities, had
limited computer skills (Southeast DBTAC). Similarly, instructors differ significantly in their
level of computer literacy. Investigators at four universities discovered that many faculty
members had limited experience using a computer, let alone with designing accessible web
pages or online courses (Southeast DBTAC; University of Florida, 2007).
Faculty and staff instructors may have little or no familiarity with the access needs of
students with disabilities. At Blue Ridge Community College, a majority of instructors
attending a workshop on web accessibility did not grasp even the most basic concepts of web
accessibility (Southeast DBTAC, 2006). Similarly, when 98 individuals representing higher
10 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

education institutions in eight Southeast states attended two one-day conferences on web
accessibility, the conferences provided 90% of them with their first exposure to the
information access and technology needs of students with disabilities—despite the fact that
almost 90% of participants were disability services coordinators, specialists, or directors
(Southeast DBTAC). Another project discovered that many instructors had no knowledge or
experience with students who had disabilities, nor did they have any idea how to provide
reasonable accommodations within the classroom, in online courses, or in testing (Blue Ridge
Community College, 2004).
Direct one-for-one transfer of course materials into online content may create significant
access barriers or fail to use the Internet in ways to enhance access to resources otherwise
unavailable to students with disabilities (Southeast DBTAC, 2006). Investigators at East
Tennessee Technology Access Center found online textbooks difficult to locate or different
from course content, and observed that students with physical disabilities encountered online
communication barriers with instructors. Obtaining buy-in from key educational
administrators and other key stakeholders is a significant challenge to the successful adoption
and implementation of policies and practices to ensure the accessibility of distance learning
opportunities (Southeast DBTAC).

II. THEORY, LAW AND PRACTICE

Since the early 1990s the Internet has evolved into a major medium for communication,
enabling learners to communicate at great distance in real time, or nearly real time. This
evolution has corresponded with a concurrent evolution in research about learning and a
rethinking of learning theory, which affects how accessibility of online learning can be
perceived and approached in online learning environments. As new theories and learning
practices emerge, we must test and apply them to the learning needs of all people, including
those with atypical learning needs, and especially to those with disabilities. In this part, we
discuss applicable social learning theory and practice emerging in the field of distance
education, the relevant federal laws addressing the rights of persons with disabilities to
effective distance learning opportunities, and appropriate educational services and programs
for learners with disabilities.

A. Social Learning Theory and Practice in the Distance Education Age

Social learning theories have had a profound effect on online learning. In these
theoretical frameworks, learning is not perceived as the acquisition of a static repository of a
domain of information. Instead, it is perceived as the product of individual experience as
constructed from immersion in a culture (Schenker and Scadden, 2002). The ability to create
a knowledge structure, to define problems, and to locate needed information to address those
problems are more valuable skills for students than learning a static database of information.
The teacher is no longer the repository and source of information. A teacher's responsibility,
then, is less as a lecturer and more as a coach, who supports and encourages students
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 11

throughout their learning process (Bruner, 1996). As Brown and Gray (1995) state, ―Learning
is less about absorbing information than it is about becoming a part of a community.‖ (p. 78).

1. Online Learning Environments

Online learning environments are communication platforms that allow students to
contribute to discussions and reach common understandings and shared meanings in the
context of the environment (Brown, Collins, and Duguid, 1989). As students come to
understand the culture of the domain through interactivity in class discussions and activities
that support multiple perspectives, and as they practice using the tools of the domain,
continuing their collaboration with other learners, they reflect on the concepts they have
encountered and how these concepts apply to practice. Eventually they arrive at a situated
understanding of how to function in the domain (Woodfine, Nunes, and Wright, in press). For
example, when learning about the concepts and theory of research methods, students may
discuss the issues using a collaborative discussion board and practice combining and
reframing their ideas through projects and papers, and then receive feedback from faculty and
peers. Eventually they arrive at a deep, practical understanding, a constructed knowledge of
particular research methods, and a theoretical schema for research methodologies in general.
Online communities where learners share knowledge that they care about are sometimes
referred to as communities of practice. Communities of practice have three components: 1)
domain, 2) community, and 3) practice (Wenger, McDermott, and Snyder, 2002). The domain
is the content that brings people together in a community, motivates them, and defines the
boundaries and values of the community. The community sets the tone for its members by
creating respect, trust, and a sense of belonging and by providing an atmosphere in which
individuals can share ideas and question assumptions. The practice is the ―set of frameworks,
ideas, tools, information, styles, language, stories, and documents that the community
members share. … [and] the specific knowledge the community develops, shares, and
maintains.‖ (Wenger, et al., p. 29). When these elements function well together, the
community becomes a knowledge structure, ―a social structure that can assume responsibility
for developing and sharing knowledge.‖ (Wenger, et al., p. 29).
For a community of practice to function, it must embrace a diverse membership (Wenger,
et al., 2002). Such communities often cross cultural boundaries. Membership may come from
different nations, regions, socioeconomic classes, corporate entities, and other cultural
divisions, including differing levels of ability. Although this diversity can cause
misunderstanding and conflict, a community of practice that supports a diverse membership
allows fertile ground for differing ideas, innovative ways of thinking about the issues people
care about, and a higher level of member commitment and participation (Wenger, et al.). To
enhance their value to members, communities should provide opportunities for differing
levels of participation, so that members have the option to shape their participation according
to their needs, abilities, and interests (Wenger, et al.).

2. Computer-Mediated Communication
According to Tu (2005), computer-mediated communication (CMC) provides a platform
upon which a community‘s knowledge structure can exist. To achieve successful
communities of practice, three critical areas of collaborative technologies should be
considered: personalization, digitization, and interactivity. Personalization describes how
individuals selectively present themselves in an online environment. CMC technologies allow
12 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

varying levels of participation and types of technologies. Learners can connect briefly and
frequently using mobile technologies or for long durations using a standard wired Internet
connection. Unique CMC factors that affect personalization include 1) synchronicity versus
asynchronicity, where learners can communicate in real time or according to their own
schedules, and 2) communication channels, which include text, audio, and video (Tu).
Personalization allows people with disabilities to present themselves in ways in which
they feel comfortable (Tu, 2005). For instance, people with sensory impairments, who may
take longer than others to access, process, and respond to information, can use asynchronous
communication to allow themselves time to collaborate with others comfortably. Learners
with visual impairments can use a screen reader to access asynchronous, text-based
information from a bulletin board. Learners with learning disabilities who may not be able to
respond quickly in writing to others in a learning community can take the time to edit their
writing, use a spell checker, and submit their response asynchronously, or they may choose
the use of a live video stream synchronously to speak their ideas, rather than rely on the
written word.
Digitization of content allows higher quality information to be available at increasingly
faster transmission speeds. Digitization continually increases access to information in new
ways (Tu, 2005). Higher quality audio and video are becoming more available in their
creation and distribution, and access to this information is now possible via wireless and
handheld devices, making quality information ubiquitously available to more individuals. For
people with disabilities, improvements in digital technologies help the conversion of quality
information to different sensory modalities and provide easy ways to create and access this
information (Tu). Voice recognition systems increasingly are more robust, allowing people to
convert their words to digital text accurately and with less effort. Realtime captioning is more
easily provided to users of video chat or conference rooms to enable individuals with hearing
impairments to participate actively in synchronous classrooms.
Interactivity provides learners the ability to engage in real collaboration in learning
environments through two-way communication. A learning environment affords four types of
interaction: learner-instructor, learner-content, learner-learner, and learner-interface (Tu,
2005). This interactivity allows learners to provide input into the knowledge base of the
learning environment, which is stored and made available to others for further interactivity
and for reference. The interactive processes of sharing, retrieving, validating, and managing
both new and archived knowledge (Tu) create an environment where the community
synergistically helps its members acquire useful and meaningful information and skills.

3. Adaptable, Accessible and Universal Design

For CMC to create successful communities of practice, the technology must permit use
by a diverse learner population, which includes people with disabilities. To understand how
technologies can be made accessible, designers, developers, and content providers of the
technologies should understand the distinction between adaptable design, accessible design,
and universal design. Technologies that are adapted to meet the needs of specific populations,
or even individuals, are less desirable than other designs because they can be expensive, time-
consuming, and idiosyncratic. Technologies designed to be accessible provide content that
can be accessed using assistive technologies, such as screen readers, and are more generally
available to a wide audience. However, universally designed technologies are designed to be
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 13

always accessible and can be used universally without the use of assistive technologies
(Mace, 2007; Seale, 2007).
Thus, universally designed technologies provide a much higher likelihood that they can
be used efficiently and effectively by a diverse population. For building a community, where
all individuals feel included and are full participants, adapted and accessible designs are based
on the assumption that at least two different populations are present, those with disabilities
(the abnormal) and those without (the normal), which can create a stigmatizing effect. On the
other hand, a universally designed technology assumes a single, continuous, but diverse
community, representing different characteristics and abilities (Iwarsson and Stahl, 2003).
The equalizing effect of this assumption promotes equal participation among participants in a
community of practice.

B. Disability Law and Policy

Landmark disability civil rights laws in the United States ushered in new eras of rights
for people with disabilities, and the recognition that ―[d]isability is a natural part of the human
experience [that] in no way diminishes the right of individuals to participate in or contribute
to society.‖ (20 U.S.C.A. §1400(c)(1), 2005). Moreover, people with disabilities have the
right to enjoy independent and self-determined lives, ―pursue meaningful careers, [and] enjoy
full inclusion and integration in the economic, political, social, cultural, and educational
mainstream of American society ….‖ (29 U.S.C. § 701(3), 2000).
Nearly three decades after the earliest of these laws (i.e., the Rehabilitation Act of 1973),
in passing the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), Congress found that

individuals with disabilities are a discrete and insular minority who have been faced with
restrictions and limitations, subjected to a history of purposeful unequal treatment, and
relegated to a position of political powerlessness in our society, based on characteristics that
are beyond [their] control … and resulting from stereotypic assumptions not truly indicative
of the individual ability … to participate in, and contribute to, society. (42 U.S.C. §
12101(a)(7), 2000).

These laws, however, did not foresee the technological advances of the Internet, or the
dramatic increase in distance education initiatives via the Internet. Not until the 1998
amendments to the Rehabilitation Act did laws seriously contemplate Internet accessibility. In
this section, we review applicable U.S. federal and state laws, and the United Nations 2006
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

1. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

A key goal of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) was to tear down the
physical and social barriers to equal opportunity for, and the full integration of, individuals
with disabilities throughout society (Blanck, et al., 2004). Titles II and III, which apply to
public and private post-secondary education and training schools, respectively, have
obligations to remove these barriers.
14 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

Barriers take many forms and impede not merely physical access (e.g., a hotel room or
public restroom), but access to meaningful communication (e.g., telephone, television, email,
or lecture), participation (e.g., in a classroom, board room, or parent-teacher or community
association meeting), and benefit of programs and services (e.g., enrolling for social security
benefits, healthcare coverage, or university courses) (Myhill, et al., in press; 42 U.S.C. §
12101, 2000).

ADA Title II requires state and local governments to ensure they do not exclude qualified
persons with disabilities from their programs, services, and benefits by reason of disability
(42 U.S.C. § 12132, 2000). For instance, to ensure effective communication, Title II was
found to require the accessibility of state and local government web sites. In Martin v.
Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (2002), a federal district court in Georgia
concluded that bus and transit service scheduling information on the MARTA website must
be accessible to persons who are blind. When a student with a disability ―meets the essential
eligibility requirements‖ for participation in or receipt of the services of state- or locally-
operated universities, colleges and trade schools, the school cannot turn the student away (§§
12131(2)-12132). Moreover, in a letter from Adriana Cardenas in the Office for Civil Rights
(OCR), to the President of California State University at Los Angeles, Cardenas indicated that
Title II:

requires a public college to take appropriate steps to ensure that communications with
persons with disabilities ‗are as effective as communications with others‘ …. OCR has
repeatedly held that the term ‗communication‘ in this context means the transfer of
information, including (but not limited to) the verbal presentation of a lecture, the printed text
of a book, and the resources of the Internet. (U.S. Department of Education, 1997; see also 28
C.F.R. § 35.160(a), 2006).

Public colleges and universities have an ―affirmative duty‖ to 1) ―make reasonable

modifications to policies, practices, and procedures,‖ 2) administer services in the ―most
integrated setting appropriate,‖ 3) remove architectural, communication, and transportation
barriers, and 4) provide necessary auxiliary aids and services to ensure students with
disabilities have opportunities equal to that of their peers without disabilities to receive
services and participate in programs and activities (Blanck, Hill, Siegel and Waterstone, 2005,
p. 345; Delano-Pyle v. Victoria County, 2002; 28 C.F.R. § 35.160(b)(1), 2006). For instance,
a state college needs to provide alternative (e.g., text to speech, Braille) formats of course
syllabi, applications, school rules, course directories, and signage to ensure that a student who
is blind can enjoy, comply with, and contribute to the college‘s programs and services. The
Title II entity, however, does not have to make ―modifications [that] fundamentally alter the
nature of its service, program, or activity ….‖ (U.S. Department of Justice, n.d., § II-3.6100).
One notable difficulty for ADA plaintiffs under Title II is the right of the states to claim
sovereign immunity to suit by its citizens. The courts have agreed with states that the ADA
does not constitutionally abrogate their sovereign immunity, except when an agent of the state
has violated a constitutional right of the plaintiff (Tennessee v. Lane, 2004; U.S. Constitution,
Amendment XIV, §§ 1 and 5; U.S. Constitution, Amendment XI). Some states have passed
laws codifying the ADA and implying their own abrogation of sovereign immunity. Arizona
and Virginia, for instance, have incorporated the Title II standards of the ADA into their
statutes, and imply the state may consent to be sued if it engages in practices prohibited by the
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 15

ADA (Arizona Revised Statutes, § 41-1492.06, 2006; Virginia Code Annotated, § 51.5-46,
2006). The majority of states have not incorporated the ADA within their statutes.
The mandate of § 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, which prohibits the same discriminatory
conduct by ―any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance,‖ (29 U.S.C. § 794,
2000) also may be invoked as Title II institutions of higher education commonly receive
federal funds for student aid, and in support of Pell and research grants (Miller v. Abilene
Christian University of Dallas, 1981; see also Tyndall v. National Education Center of
California, 1993). Likewise, Title II and § 504 are applicable to the programs and services of
public schools (K-12), that is, Title II as a local government agency and § 504 as a recipient
of Federal IDEA funds (Sandison v. Michigan High School Athletic Association, Inc., 1994).
Qualified students with disabilities may not be denied equal access to and the benefit of these
programs and services.
Private colleges, universities, trade schools, and businesses may not deny a student with a
disability the full and equal enjoyment of their services and facilities on the basis of disability
(42 U.S.C. § 12182(b)(1)(A)(i), 2000). ADA Title III requires that ―public accommodations‖
(e.g., cinemas, department stores, restaurants, and other entities with operations that affect
commerce) ensure that students with disabilities have ―full and equal enjoyment of the goods,
services, facilities, privileges, advantages, or accommodations.‖ (§ 12182(a)). Title III entities
specifically include private nursery schools, elementary and secondary schools, colleges and
―other place[s] of education.‖ (§ 12181(7)(J); Guckenberger v. Boston University, 1997).
Title III discrimination includes the ―failure to make reasonable modifications in policies,
practices, or procedures‖ to accommodate a student with a disability, unless the school
demonstrates that modifications would ―fundamentally alter‖ the nature of their services (§
12182(b)(2)(A)(iii)).
Although it is not settled U.S. law whether public accommodations offering services via
the Web are subject to ADA requirements, the evolving majority position indicates persons
with disabilities cannot be excluded from their web-based services if the Title III entity has a
nexus to a permanent physical location (Blanck, et al., 2004). The Eleventh Circuit Court of
Appeals, for instance, found that Congress intended ADA Title III to apply to public
accommodations with a ―physical concrete‖ presence and not solely a virtual presence
(Access Now, Inc. v. Southwest Airlines, 2002, p. 1319).

2. Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act

Section 508, enacted through the Workforce Investment Act of 1998, requires electronic
and information technologies (EandIT) used by employees of the federal government who
have disabilities, and utilized to provide federal services to persons with disabilities, are
accessible (29 U.S.C. § 794(a)(1)(A), 2000). These products and services include federal
websites, telecommunications, software, information kiosks, transaction machines,
multimedia, office equipment, and others (36 C.F.R. §§ 1194.4, 1194.21-.26, 2005).
Additionally, federal agencies may not ―develop, procure, maintain, or use‖ EandIT that is
not comparably accessible to persons with and without disabilities, unless accessibility would
pose an undue burden upon the agency (§ 1194.1).
Though § 508 does not apply to Title II or Title III entities, several states have adopted
similar standards, in part to comply with Title II, impacting the accessibility of state and local
government agency products, programs, and services for employees and members of the
public with disabilities (ITTATC, 2003; 2006). The State of Indiana, for instance, passed
16 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

legislation directing the Indiana Office of Technology (IOT) to develop standards that comply
with § 508, and which apply to all branches of state and local government (Indiana Code, § 4-
13.1-3(1)(a), (d), 2006). The standards developed require the accessibility of ―IT equipment,
software and services‖ including ―all web pages hosted by or for the state.‖ (IOT, 2005, p.1).
Similarly, the State of North Carolina enacted the Persons with Disabilities Protection
Act, which prohibits state and local government from denying ―the full and equal enjoyment
of the goods, services, facilities, privileges, advantages, and accommodations … on the basis
of a disabling condition.‖ (North Carolina General Statutes, § 168A-6, 2006). Statute further
directs the Office of the State Chief Information Officer (OSCIO) to develop and implement
standards for web portals that ―allow persons to access State government services on a
24-hour basis.‖ (North Carolina General Statutes, § 66-58.20(a)). The OSCIO (2005), in turn,
produced Standard 2.2.1 requiring state government full compliance with Priority 1 of the
World Wide Web Consortium‘s Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, and Practice 2.1.9
recommending that EandIT is accessible ―to the broadest possible range of users and
compatible with a wide range of assistive technologies.‖

3. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

Before the 1970s, half of all U.S. children with disabilities were warehoused in state
institutions, commonly offering squalid conditions and no educational opportunity (Blanck
and Myhill, in press). Since 1975, the IDEA5 has entitled children with disabilities to a free
and appropriate public education (FAPE), provided in the least restrictive environment,
including the necessary individualized educational and related services, and specialized
instruction to provide educational benefit (Blanck and Myhill; Myhill, 2004). Students
eligible for and receiving special education services comprise 14% (or 6.6 million) of all
children in U.S. schools (NCES, 2006). Children are eligible for IDEA services if identified
as requiring special education or related services due to a specific learning disability, autism,
a hearing or visual impairment, traumatic brain injury, an orthopedic impairment, a speech or
language impairment, mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance, or a health
impairment6 (20 U.S.C.A. § 1401(3)(A)(i)-(ii), 2005).
Like children without disabilities, those with special needs largely are capable of
academic and social achievement, high school graduation, and post-secondary education or
training, and employment (Browder and Cooper-Duffy, 2003; Cook and Gladhart, 2002;
Kohler and Field, 2003). In passing the ADA, Congress found that ―the Nation's proper goals
regarding individuals with disabilities are to assure equality of opportunity, full participation,
independent living, and economic self-sufficiency.‖ (42 U.S.C § 12101(a)(8), 2000).
Facilitating these achievements for children with disabilities, however, requires specialized
instructional methods, strategies, and materials, highly qualified special education teachers,
and effective transition planning. In section C below, we discuss best practices for educating
children and adults with disabilities in light of these legal mandates.
Central to these services is the annual development of an individualized education plan
(IEP) (Myhill, 2004). Specifically, the IEP 1) identifies the child‘s present competencies and

5
Formerly the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975), the Act was renamed the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990 (Katsiyannis, Yell, & Bradley, 2001). The Individuals with
Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 is the latest reauthorization of the IDEA.
6
Health impairments are ―chronic or acute health problems‖ causing ―limited strength, vitality or alertness‖ and
which ―adversely affect … educational performance.‖ (34 C.F.R § 300.8(c)(9), 2006).
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 17

needs; 2) articulates measurable goals and short-term objectives to remediate the needs; 3)
designates specialized services, modifications, supports, and supplementary aids to implement
the goals and objectives; and 4) determines the least restrictive environment(s) (LRE) in
which services will be provided (Myhill). Online distance learning services provided by state
or local education agencies to students receiving special education services must conform to
the individual child‘s IEP. Yet distance learning may pose significant accessibility barriers.
Moreover, such services run afoul of the FAPE mandate if inaccessibility impedes
educational benefit or imposes costs on the family such as having to purchase assistive
technologies, or if the services remove the student from the least restrictive or impose a more
restrictive environment.

4. The 2006 Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities

On December 13, 2006, the United Nations (2006b) adopted a new treaty aimed to
protect and promote the human rights of people with disabilities. The Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2007) (hereinafter ―Convention‖) does not create new
rights but specifically prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in all areas of
life. It opened for signature and ratification by Member States on March 30, 2007 (United
Nations, 2007). Once twenty countries ratify the Convention, it will enter force, leading to
new obligations for State Parties (Convention, Art. 4, § 1).7
The adoption of the Convention highlights a focus on ensuring access, a precept that has
evolved into a fundamental principle for human rights and development. Among other
provisions, the Convention contains measures making goods, services, and facilities
accessible to persons with disabilities (Convention, 2007, Art. 4, § 1(f)). Particularly, it
requires that Information and Communications Technology (ICT) be accessible to people
with disabilities (Art. 4, § 1(g)). Prior to the Convention, human rights treaties did not include
an explicit reference to new technologies. By mandating ICT accessibility, the Convention
affirms that disability rights and ICT are inextricably linked and, at the same time,
acknowledging ICT accessibility as a human rights issue. Under the Convention, States
Parties are obligated to establish structures to support its principles. Moreover, for each State
Party to the Convention the failure to ensure ICT accessibility will be considered a violation
of the principle of non-discrimination. Convention sections specifically addressing ICT are
presented in the Table below.
Non-specific provisions also contain implications for ICT development. General
provisions such as the Preamble indirectly recognize the importance of accessibility to ICT in
the context of enabling persons with disabilities full enjoyment of their rights (Convention,
2007, Preamble, § m, v). Although the Preamble does not establish binding obligations, it has
a fundamental role in determining the object and purpose of the treaty. Similarly Article 3
establishes the foundation for the interpretation and implementation of the CRPD, indicating
that accessibility is one of the Convention‘s ―General principles.‖ (Art. 3, § (f)).
Articles dealing with other substantive issues invariably reference the use of ICT. Article
29‘s promotion of participation in political and public life delineates measures to guarantee
the right to vote, with voting procedures facilitated by new technologies where appropriate
(Convention, 2007, Art. 29, § (a)). Article 30, which addresses participation in cultural life,

7
One hundred nations have signed the Convention, however, only Jamaica has ratified the Convention. United
Nations (2007).
18 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

recreation, leisure and sports, outlines the obligation to ensure intellectual property laws do
not constitute an unreasonable or discriminatory barrier for people with disabilities when
accessing cultural materials (Art. 30, § 1(c)). Removing such barriers often involves the use
of ICT devices. For instance, digitalizing printed materials is an effective way to provide
access to copyrighted texts for people with visual disabilities (Art. 21(b)). Finally, Article 32,
§ 1(d), which focuses on international cooperation, advocates the provision of technical and
economic assistance where appropriate, such as encouraging the sharing of technologies to
connect persons with disabilities with accessible and assistive technologies.

Table. 1. Convention Provisions Addressing ICT

Article 2 Definition of ―Communication‖ – ―includes languages, display of text, Braille,

tactile communication, large print, accessible multimedia as well as written,
audio, plain-language, human-reader and augmentative and alternative modes,
means and formats of communication, including accessible information and
communication technology.‖
Article 4 ―General obligations‖ Article establishes that States Parties shall promote
research and development, and the availability and use of new technologies,
including ICT (Art. 4, § 1(g)).
Article 9 Specifies measures to ensure access to people with disabilities, on an equal basis
with others, to ICT, including the Internet, and to eliminate obstacles and barriers
to information, communications and other services provided to the public,
including electronic services (Art. 9, § 2 (g)).
Article 9 Promote ICT design, development, production and distribution at an early stage,
so that these technologies and systems become accessible at minimum cost (Art.
9, §2 (h)).
Article 21 All provisions in the ―Freedom of expression and opinion, and access to
information‖ Article are relevant to ICT in virtue of Article 2. In this respect,
State Parties have to ensure the right to freedom of expression and opinion and
access to information on an equal basis with others and through all forms of
communication. In particular, they shall urge ―private entities that provide
services to the general public, including through the Internet, to provide
information and services in accessible and usable formats for persons with
disabilities‖ and encourage ―the mass media, including providers of information
through the Internet, to make their services accessible to persons with
disabilities.‖ (Art. 21, §§ (c)-(d)).

The implementation of the Convention in the realm of ICT will face numerous
challenges, as indicated by a large gap between today‘s accessibility difficulties and the goals
established by the Convention. The majority of the potential State Parties to the Convention
have developed programs addressing a variety of disability issues contained in its provisions
with relative success, but only a few have adopted and enforced accessible design standards
for ICT (UNESCO, 2005).
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 19

C. Instructing Learners with Disabilities

Students with disabilities are a diverse population with varying abilities, interests,
impairments and skills such as information and computer literacy. As such, students with
disabilities have significantly differing needs and require individualized methods for equal
and accessible distance learning opportunities. Investigators at the Southeast DBTAC (2005)
concluded that effective distance learning opportunities for students with disabilities is less
about their abilities, however, and more about the accessibility of the course itself.
Facilitating successful academic achievements for children with disabilities, and
transition, post-secondary education, training, and employment for adults with disabilities
requires specialized instructional methods, strategies, materials, modifications and
accommodations, highly qualified special education teachers for K-12, effective transition
planning, and instructors/faculty with the will and way to meet individual learner needs. We
review the range of needs, and best practices for meeting the needs, in general terms,
beginning with children, followed by transition, and adults with disabilities.

1. Children
The IEP, and the goals, strategies, arrangements, and modifications necessary to
implement the IEP, are essential for meeting the unique individual needs of each child with a
disability. Here is a glimpse at a fragment of the considerations necessary in preparing the
IEP, in light of the diversity of children served under the IDEA:

 Participating in a small group discussion for the child who is deaf; hearing
instructions from the physical education teacher above the din of the gymnasium for
a child using a hearing aid;
 Comprehending grade level reading assignments for the child with a learning
disability in reading; preparing written reports for the child with a learning disability
in written expression;
 Calculating large numbers or measuring angles for the child who is blind; following
the band conductor‘s directing for a child with low vision;
 Managing impulsive outbursts for the child with traumatic brain injury or a serious
emotional disturbance;
 Measuring distances and volumes for the child with dramatic Tourette‘s based tics;
 Maintaining focus for instructions, reading, test taking, and other tasks, amid typical
classroom distractions, for the child with Attention Deficit Disorder;
 Making a class presentation for a child with a speech impairment;
 Going on a class fieldtrip to a unique and remote geological area for a child with an
orthopedic impairment caused by Cerebral Palsy;
 Partnering on projects with other students for a child with Asperger‘s Syndrome.8

Research demonstrates that the least restrictive environment (LRE) and applicable best
practice for the vast majority of children with disabilities is to provide their educational

8
The lead author, formerly a special education teacher (1989–2001), regularly addressed these considerations by
facilitating the development and implementation of IEPs for hundreds of children with diverse disabilities.
20 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

services in inclusive classrooms (Frattura and Capper, 2006; Jenkins, Antil, Wayne, and
Vadasy, 2003; McLeskey and Waldron, 2007; Mortweet, Utley, Walker, Dawson, Delquadri,
Reddy, et al., 1999; NCD, 1994; Rea, McLaughlin, and Walther-Thomas, 2002; Waldron and
McLeskey, 1998). Inclusion refers to the provision of specialized educational services to a
child with a disability in the general education classroom (Waldron and McLeskey; Rea, et
al.). Some children require a more individualized service for a part of the school day, such as
physical therapy, counseling, or direct intensive reading instruction in a one-to-one (more
restrictive) setting (NCD, 1996; Vaughn and Linan-Thompson, 2003).
Additional evidence-based practices include 1) instructional strategies, such as small
group instruction, modeling and strategy training, teaching metacognitive strategies, peer
tutoring, cooperative learning, direct instruction, and functional instruction; 2) progress
monitoring and curriculum-based measurement; and 3) behavioral techniques, such as
precision requests, response costs, behavior momentum, self monitoring, and applied
behavior analysis (Browder and Cooper-Duffy, 2003; Cook and Schirmer, 2003; Deno, 2003;
Jenkins, et al., 2003; Landrum, Tankersley and Kauffman, 2003; Mortweet, et al., 1999;
Vaughn and Linan-Thompson, 2003). We discuss a few of these practices as applicable in
Part III (infra).
The highly qualified special education teacher is an essential member of the team that
develops the IEP, oversees its implementation, documents the child‘s progress, and reports
back to the team (Browder and Cooper-Duffy, 2003; Myhill, 2004; Vaughn and Linan-
Thompson, 2003). Since passage of the NCLB, this is one who 1) has full state certification
or licensure as a special education teacher; 2) has at minimum a bachelor‘s degree (20
U.S.C.A. § 1401(10)(B)(iii), 2005); and 3) meets applicable state requirements or
demonstrates competence in the core subject matters s/he teaches to children with special
needs (§ 1401(10)(B),(D)). Teachers new to the profession further must demonstrate subject
matter and teaching skill competence via passing a ―rigorous‖ state assessment, typically
leading to certification or licensure (20 U.S.C.A. § 7801(23)(B), 2005).

2. Transition
Transition services are ―a coordinated set of activities for a [student] with a disability‖
that are ―focused on improving [her/his] academic and functional achievement … to facilitate
… movement from school to post-school activities, including post-secondary education,
vocational education, integrated employment … , continuing and adult education, adult
services, independent living, or community participation.‖ (20 U.S.C.A. § 1401(34)(A),
2005). The services must be based on the student‘s needs, ―taking into account … strengths,
preferences, and interests; and includ[ing] instruction, related services, community
experiences, the development of employment and other post-school adult living objectives,
and, when appropriate, acquisition of daily living skills and functional vocational evaluation.‖
(§ 1401(34)(B)-(C)). Transition services must begin no later than age 16 and are developed as
part of the IEP (§ 1414(d)(1)(A)(i)(VIII)).
Effective transition services are essential for developing the skill base and confidence
necessary to live a productive, successful, and independent life (Center for Workers with
Disabilities, 2006). Student-centered planning, vocational assessment, parental involvement,
knowledge of legal rights, responsibilities and community resources, developing social and
self-advocacy skills, and a personal understanding of strengths, weaknesses and needs are
important components of effective services (Center for Workers with Disabilities;
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 21

Connecticut Transition Task Force, 2001; Kohler and Field, 2003). Among evidence-based
and highly promising practices for effective transition are

 comprehensive transition planning beginning at age 14

 educational decisions based on the student‘s interests, goals, and visions
 benefits planning and education
 paid work experiences
 interagency collaboration
 job search skills
 self-awareness and reflection
 ensuring jobs and training are in place upon high school graduation
 utilizing the Social Security Administration ―cash and counseling‖ waiver, which
permits consumer control over public funds to directly select and purchase
individualized support services
 maintaining transition services for one year beyond high school and into employment
or post-secondary education or training (Center for Workers with Disabilities; Kohler
and Field).

3. Adults
The primary aim of education and training for adults has become learning how to learn.
Research on adult education in the last two decades indicates career and vocational educators
place a over-emphasis on discrete job skills needed in the prevailing job market, which are
likely to be obsolete in a decade (Allsopp, Minskoff, and Bolt, 2005; Sizoo, Agrusa, and
Iskat, 2005). More importantly, adults must develop the skills to learn new skill sets, and be
lifelong learners, as employers and the job market will demand their willingness and ability to
adapt (Sizoo, et al.). The Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI) is one successful
tool for measuring strategic learning skills, described as 1) learning skills (i.e., information
processing, test-taking, identifying main ideas), 2) willingness to learn (i.e., motivation,
attitude, anxiety), and 3) self-regulation of learning (i.e., time management, self-testing,
concentration, study aids) (Sizoo, et al.).
Learning how to learn requires the willingness and self-regulation to identify weaknesses
and focus attention on improving those skills. Learning how to manage anxiety improves
performance significantly (Sizoo, et al., 2005). Adults with learning disabilities attending
college benefit from appropriate accommodations of materials and instruction, but may not be
prepared to learn new skills in the absence of essential learning strategies (Allsopp, et al.,
2005). Colleges and universities today cater to a broader range of student abilities, including
students with varying disabilities, and are involved in instructing learning strategies to assist
struggling students (Allsopp, et al.).
Internships, or experiential education, akin to paid work experiences for students with
disabilities transitioning out of high school, may be another important strategy. College
students with disabilities typically have less work experience and are less likely to complete
college than their peers without disabilities (Wagner, et al., 2005; Zafft, Sezun, and Jordan,
2004). Faculty and administrators in higher education, enhance academic and employment
outcomes for students with disabilities through developing experiential learning opportunities
in their community, and by offering course credit for these experiences (Zafft, et al.).
22 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

III. THE STATE OF ACCESSIBLE DISTANCE EDUCATION

Students with disabilities have engaged in distance education throughout the development
of these activities. Likely, distance education, whether via mail, fax, phone, another former
common method, or most recently the Internet, have experienced accessibility challenges that
may preclude their success. Prior to the Internet, distance learning was such a comparatively
small practice that it fell largely under the radar of most educators and students. Only since
distance learning transitioned and grew exponentially via the Internet into today‘s wide range
of such opportunities, has the question arisen whether these methods violate federal disability
laws.
In these early days of the 21st century, great numbers of formal education programs
operate profitable businesses, provide public services as agents of the state or local
government, or function under governmental mandates. In these capacities, educators are
responsible to ensure equal opportunities and appropriate educational services to persons with
disabilities. In this part, we review the experiences of learners with disabilities in light of
these mandates, analyze whether these programs comply with federal law, and provide
research-based best practices for proceeding with distance learning opportunities that offer
meaningful benefit to both persons with and without disabilities.

A. Experiences of Learners with Disabilities

Students with disabilities are gaining opportunities via online distance learning and
Internet resources to have individualized learning experiences (e.g., assignments and
feedback), extra practice, automated progress tracking and reporting to invested partners (e.g.,
teachers, parents), active participation in cooperative learning activities, and to review
simulations and skill modeling (Arrigo, 2005; Smith and Meyen, 2003). As a tool the Internet
is more cost effective to school systems compared with assistive technologies, because of its
multiple applications for multiple learners rather than singular use for specific users (Smith
and Meyen). The Web provides vast, inexpensive or free resources for the instructors of
students with disabilities, including electronic journals and databases, synchronous and
asynchronous communication tools (e.g., email, chat, public assignment or event
calendaring), tools for organizing information, multimedia literacy instruction, and
multimedia portfolio assessment (Smith and Meyen).
Persons with vision, hearing, fine motor, or speech impairments, attention or seizure
disorders, learning and other disabilities nonetheless find that many ICTs pose barriers to
their full participation in online activities. Persons with visual impairments do not get a
structural overview of a web page when first encountering it as do persons without visual
impairments (Arrigo, 2005). Graphic images that convey imbedded information are not
accessible to persons with significant visual impairments (Burgstahler, Corrigan, and
McCarter, 2006). Audio conferencing may exclude persons with speech impairments, or
persons with hearing impairments in the absence of closed captioning (Burgstahler, Corrigan,
and McCarter, 2004; Klein, et al., 2003). Video presentations without closed captioning or a
live sign language interpretor (onsite or remotely) pose these same barriers to persons with
hearing impairments (Burgstahler, et al., 2006). Instant messaging poses barriers to persons
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 23

with fine motor impairments in their hands and persons with specific learning disabilities in
reading or writing (Arrigo, 2005). The cost of voice recognition software, alternative input
devices, screen readers, and other assistive technologies, which provide access for persons
with varying impairments, may be prohibitive (Arrigo, 2005).
Many online courses provided by postsecondary institutions are not accessible (Arrigo,
2005). Multiple studies have shown that university web pages, including institutions in the
UK and Ireland, generally are not accessible, using baseline metrics such as Bobby, an
automatic accessibility checker (Rowland, 2000; Jackson-Sanborn, Odess-Harnish and
Warren, 2002; Kelly, 2002; Schmetzke, 2001; Thompson, Burgstahler, Comden, 2003).
Though most postsecondary institutions in a 2003 study indicated they provide online
distance education, ―only 18% indicated that they followed established accessibility
guidelines to a major extent; 28% followed guidelines to a moderate extent, 18% followed
guidelines to a minor extent, 3% did not follow guidelines at all, and 33% did not know if the
Web sites adhered to accessibility guidelines.‖ (Burgstahler, et al., 2004, p. 237).
One of the difficulties in producing accessibility for online instruction comes about
because faculty members often are responsible for getting their content on the Web. Although
these faculty are experts in their fields, they usually do not have time or motivation to learn
evolving methods for creating accessible online content (Cook, and Gladhart, 2002;
Edmonds, 2004). Further, instructional technology leaders on college campuses regard user
support and budget as higher priorities (Cook, and Gladhart, 2002). Currently, faculty are able
to upload their content to content management systems (CMSs), such as WebCT/Blackboard.
Since these web applications are created and maintained by third parties, some web-access
decisions are removed from university personnel. Although generally these CMSs are
becoming more accessible, some barriers remain (e.g., WebCT) (Illinois Center for
Instructional Technology Accessibility, 2006).
Many accessibility barriers can be avoided by careful planning of course design. Ideal for
this purpose are use of universal design principles. For instance, universally-designed
learning opportunities may employ ―materials in varying and redundant media,‖ offer
―alternative means to demonstrate knowledge/skill acquisition (e.g., written, spoken, work
product, demonstration, … PowerPoint or SMART board),‖ or include geographically-
distributed learning via ―distance learning modules, web-conferencing, instant messaging,
chat classrooms, VoIP (Voice and Video over IP), Listservs, and email
distribution/submission of materials).‖ (Myhill, 2006, p. 4).
Additionally, accessible Web casts can be created through the ability to stream different
forms of media simultaneously. The Independent Living Research Utilization program
(ILRU) holds regular Web casts and provides live captioning with each Web cast to make the
session accessible to participants with hearing impairments. Archived Web casts are
supported by documents containing complete transcriptions of the real time sessions (ILRU,
2006). The Law, Health Policy and Disability Center (2005; 2006) at the University of Iowa
similarly conducts numerous Web casts and interactive trainings with real time captioning
and free archived transcripts, such as for the Disability Program Navigator Leadership Audio
Conference Series, and the Center‘s many other online trainings and discussions.
Using cascading style sheets as the basis for accessible Web page templates,
―standardizes and simplifies the formatting of each page,‖ reduces time to build a new
accessible page, and simplifies navigation for a person using a screen reader or a keyboard
24 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

without a mouse (Burgstahler, et al., 2006). Alternative text tags provide screen readers
access to information imbedded in graphics (Klein, et al., 2003).
Accessibility features increasingly are integrated into online course management tools.
Blackboard (2004) software solutions are designed to comply with Section 508 regulations as
well as the W3C Web Accessibility Initiative Standards. Inbuilt features allow users to make
their course content and presentations more accessible using alternative text tags, multiple
presentation formats, client-side server maps, and accurate markup features such as header
elements. Moreover, the tools are compatible with assistive technologies, including screen
readers.
Researchers are developing adaptive course management tools tailored to individual
learners (Cirillo, Cozzolino, De Santo, Marsella, and Salerno, 2000), such as the Agent Based
Intelligent Tutoring System (ABITS), which acts as a remote private tutor (Capuano,
Marsella, and Salerno, 2000). These intelligent tutoring systems are configured to deliver
appropriate content using virtual training assistants that provide ad-hoc modifications based
on learner preferences (Cirillo, et al, 2000).

B. Distance Education Compliance with Disability Law

The enormous variety of purposes, uses, and applications for distance learning that reach
students with and without disabilities of all ages provides more opportunities to evaluate legal
compliance than this chapter can address. We narrow our focus to address three scenarios
with present or emerging high incidence distance education programs, in light of common
disabilities and applicable law.

1. State Supported Online High School Curriculum Courses

Scenario: Melanie, a high school student with grade level cognitive abilities, has limited
use of hands caused by muscular lock-up and slurred speech due to cerebral palsy. Melanie
receives special education and related services under the IDEA including speech-language
services, occupational therapy, adaptive physical education, and use of assistive technologies
to facilitate written and spoken communication. She intends to enroll in an advanced civics
elective available through the state‘s virtual high school for credit toward high school
graduation. The IEP team agrees the course is appropriate to meet her personal academic
goals toward applying for admission into a competitive liberal arts college.
The course is designed to be self-paced and reached from any computer with Internet
access. It entails extensive reading and writing assignments using specified online and/or
library resources. The course includes mini multimedia lectures, online progress quizzes, and
major assignments submitted via email. Melanie will be one of 30 students taking the course
around her state. The instructor provides general information to the students via a Listserv,
and is reachable during set office hours via phone or email.
Distance education services provided to K-12 students with disabilities are not likely to
meet their special needs if constructed and delivered outside of the IEP. One size fits all
instruction was the staple pedagogy that consistently failed children with disabilities prior to
the IDEA, and continues to do so when appropriate individualized services are not provided
(Cook and Schirmer, 2003; 20 U.S.C.A. § 1400(c)(2) and (5), 2005). The cornerstone of a
free and appropriate public education (FAPE) is the IEP, prepared annually by a
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 25

multidisciplinary team of experts,9 and which must be ―reasonably calculated‖ to meet the
student‘s specific educational needs (Myhill, 2004, p. 1057; Board of Education v. Rowley,
1982, pp. 206-207).
Violations of the FAPE occur when services a) are not free, b) are not appropriate, c) do
not meet state educational standards; d) do not comport with the student‘s IEP, e) are not
provided under public supervision, f) do not comply with IDEA procedural safeguards, g) do
not occur in the LRE, or h) do not provide educational content commensurate with that
provided to grade level peers without disabilities (Myhill, 2004). Common violations occur
when significant evidence indicates the design or implementation of the IEP was insufficient
(Myhill, 2004).
The online civics course is an excellent way for Melanie to experience advanced
curriculum appropriate to her individualized educational needs. Enrollment and participation
may not require fees from Melanie, though an exchange of funds may occur between her local
high school and the virtual (state) high school. If the online course typically is attended by
students away from school, and Melanie will need speech recognition technology to produce
and edit her writing along with an alternative input device to access and move through the
course materials, the IEP team must designate these needs in her IEP and provide them
without cost.
The IDEA procedural safeguards are due process rights provided to the student with a
disability and her family ensuring they have notice, the right to participate in all educational
decisions, access to applicable records, and meaningful opportunities to question and
challenge the appropriateness of the IEP and accuracy of records (20 U.S.C.A. § 1415, 2005).
They are intended to keep the family in the loop and the school accountable. A well designed
and implemented IEP prepared in collaboration among the members of the multidisciplinary
team is the best evidence that procedural safeguards have been followed.
Given the civics course follows and provides state approved curriculum and assessment,
and is facilitated and monitored by the state such as through a highly qualified teacher, the
course likely will comply with the IDEA. Though the course is provided to Melanie in
isolation from her peers without disabilities, if the IEP team agrees, this would not deny her
services in the least restrictive environment because it offers a highly normalizing learning
opportunity that is self-paced by preference and not segregated without choice.

2. Municipal College Degree Programs for Working Adults

Scenario: Raymond, a local book store clerk, is deaf. He reads lips with average accuracy
and uses American Sign Language (ASL) for the majority of his daily face-to-face
communications. Raymond‘s speech is significantly lacking in articulation as is typical of a
person who has been deaf since birth. Raymond was accepted into the City College library
sciences program as a qualified individual with a disability meeting the essential eligibility
requirements. The public college receives federal funding through grants and student loans.
As he works a regular 8 to 5, Monday to Friday shift, he will participate in the College‘s
working adults degree program, which provides many of the courses Raymond will need after
regular business hours or via online distance learning.

9
The team commonly includes the student‘s parent or guardian, school administrator, special and general education
teachers, and providers of any anticipated or currently provided related services (such as occupational or
physical therapy, speech language services, counseling, and assistive technology) (Myhill, 2004).
26 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

In the first year of Raymond‘s studies he will take general credit courses required of all
City College students, such as English and History, as well as introductory courses in the
School of Library Science. The courses largely are self-paced and reached from any computer
with Internet access. They entail extensive reading and writing assignments using specified
print materials. Compared to the often large sections of most first year courses, the evening
and distance courses average 20 to 40 students. All of Raymond‘s first semester courses
require a class meeting once per week, either in person or via web conference, where the
instructor and students engage in discussion of course subject matter. This also is an
opportunity for students to meet, form study groups, and raise questions to the instructor.
Title II of the ADA and § 504 of the Rehabilitation Act require City College to ensure
their communications with Raymond ―are as effective as communications with other[]‖
students (28 C.F.R. § 35.160(a), 2006). The College must 1) ―make reasonable modifications
to policies, practices, and procedures,‖ 2) provide services in the ―most integrated setting
appropriate,‖ 3) remove communication barriers, including those posed by the design of the
web resources, and 4) provide necessary auxiliary aids and services to ensure Raymond has
―an equal opportunity to participate in, and enjoy the benefits of‖ City College (Blanck, et al.,
2005, p. 345; U.S. Department of Education, 1997; 28 C.F.R. § 35.160(b)(1)). The College,
however, does not have to make modifications that ―fundamentally alter the nature‖ of their
programs and services (U.S. Department of Justice, n.d., § II-3.6100).
The online college courses are a beneficial public service to students with and without
disabilities in the community. As a student who is deaf, class discussions (in-person or
online), communications with the instructor, media presentations (e.g., class video), and audio
web course materials, for instance, must be provided to Raymond in an alternate format, that
is as equally effective for him as the audible components of these activities for his peers.
Whether attending the weekly class in person or via web conference, the College must
provide real time closed captioning or ASL translation for all such communications.
Notably, both closed captioning and ASL translation are reasonable accommodations
and/or necessary auxiliary services with costs to be borne by the College, not Raymond. Web
conferencing applications must have the capacity to display live captioning provided by a
third party, or real time video ASL translation. Web based course materials, such as
audio/video media clips, must provide concurrent captioning or a complete transcript of the
audio content. The College cannot require that Raymond attend weekly classes in a separate
location, such as where the ASL Translator is located. He must have a meaningful
opportunity to join his peers in an integrated setting.
Additionally, City College must accommodate Raymond‘s need to communicate with his
class peers (again whether in person or via web conference), in a manner ensuring equality of
communication. This may take the form of his signing to a translator who then speaks or
writes/types out his communication in real time. It may be reasonable to permit Raymond
extra time to speak in person or in class more slowly. Similarly, it may be more effective for
Raymond to type out his own messages via instant messaging or for a speech synthesizer to
enunciate. Importantly, the instructor must not dissuade Raymond from meaningful
participation by virtue of his requiring extra time for communication, but may consider all
available possibilities for the mutually optimal method. Given the range of reasonable
accommodations, it is unlikely the College could be held accountable to purchase a speech
synthesizer.
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 27

These accommodations are not likely to ―fundamentally alter the nature‖ of Raymond‘s
courses, such as to preclude their availability to him, as they largely are technological
extensions of the College‘s already existing course web conferencing system. The availability
of ASL translators has become a common and widely accepted practice under ADA.

3. Business Providing Skill Training and Certifications

Scenario: Eleanor is two years out of high school, providing administrative support for a
local insurance agency. She transitioned into the full-time position after working part-time
with the company during high school. Eleanor has minimal vision, whereby she can identify
shadows and some patterns, but is not able to discriminate faces, pictures, or words. Eleanor
is a skilled typist. She uses a standard keyboard for word processing along with a screen
reader and headset for reading back what she has written to check its accuracy. She also uses
the screen reader to browse the Internet and read email. Eleanor is proficient at reading and
typing Braille.
The office has a new claims adjuster position opening in the near future and Eleanor has
expressed strong interest in the position to her employer. The essential job functions will
require that she develop a few new skill sets, including client interviewing, auditing, and
business writing. She was referred to a private company, Stellar, that offers trainings
specifically for these skills, among many others, online via distance learning. Stellar is a
business engaged in substantial interstate commerce providing several hundred classroom and
distance learning courses. Stellar has its headquarters in another state, but a significant online
presence. The online option is convenient for her and many others with and without
disabilities, who do not live near the headquarters. Eleanor intends to register for the three
courses she requires and take the classes via distance learning. She will pay the complete
costs of the courses herself.
Stellar‘s web based distance courses are completely self-paced and accessed from the
Internet. They entail extensive reading of online textual material, preparing some written
reports, taking online quizzes and tests. The materials frequently are enhanced with
multimedia examples. The courses do not have assigned instructors; however, staff are
available via phone, email, and instant messaging to provide technical assistance.
As a Title III public accommodation, Stellar cannot deny Eleanor the full and equal
enjoyment of their services on the basis her disability (42 U.S.C. § 12182(a)-(b), 2000).
Stellar is obligated to make reasonable modifications to their procedures, practices, and
policies necessary to accommodate Eleanor‘s unique needs as a person with a significant
visual impairment. Eleanor, attending these courses in the evenings while at home, will use
her own computer and Internet access, and will supply her own screen reader and headset.
Stellar must ensure that its distance learning materials are compatible with screen readers so
that Eleanor effectively can navigate the course content. This includes providing alternative
text for all essential content that the screen reader otherwise cannot access, namely graphics.
Additionally, essential content provided only via video media require full text-based
descriptions. None of these modifications are likely to ―fundamentally alter‖ the nature of
Stellar‘s services as they are common variations on the already web-based course materials.
Moreover, compared with the two prior scenarios, the costs of assistive technologies and
services under Title III falls largely on the consumer.
28 William N. Myhill, Deepti Samant, David Klein et al.

C. Emerging Best Practices and Policy Recommendations

With increasing integration of the Internet and Web in education, several best practices
have emerged to ensure and facilitate accessibility in online courses. ―[U]niversally designed
technologies provide for input and interaction in multiple alternative and equally effective
ways (e.g., keyboard, mouse, or voice input; visual graphic or text output).‖ (Myhill, et al., in
press). The IDEA supports universally designed technology, ―as a vehicle for maximizing
curricular accessibility for all students, including those with disabilities‖ (Downing, 2006,
p.71). The Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST, 2006) suggests the following
Universal Design for Learning guidelines: a) multiple means of representation (i.e., both
technical and content presentation), b) multiple means of expression (i.e., ways for student to
represent knowledge), and c) multiple means of engagement (i.e., addressing affect and
motivation).
Developing a course to be accessible from the onset is less expensive and easier to design
than trying to modify or redesign existing inaccessible course materials (Burgstahler, et al.,
2006). Creating accessible web page templates and cascading style sheets, to be used as the
framework to create all distance learning courses by an institution, can facilitate compliance
with accessibility standards (Burgstahler, et al.). People with disabilities often know what
does and does not work for them. Meaningful involvement of students with disabilities is
essential for identifying specific barriers to their full participation in distance learning
activities (Blue Ridge Community College, 2004). Administrators and faculty can
demonstrate their respect for student expertise and time by providing course credit, tuition
reduction, or stipends commensurate with the time required to evaluate distance education
materials and to make recommendations for overcoming barriers (Blue Ridge Community
College, 2004; Southeast DBTAC, 2006).
Hands-on training and lab demonstrations are effective methods for developing staff
awareness of the access needs of students and faculty with disabilities, and developing skills
in creating accessible distance learning opportunities (Southeast DBTAC, 2006; University of
Florida, 2007). Blue Ridge Community College (2004) developed The Faculty Resource
Guide to Removing Information and Education Barriers to Students with Disabilities (2004),
to increase awareness about accessible ICT and the impact of different disabilities on a
student‘s ability to function successfully in an academic setting. When faculty and web
designers are trained to focus on the needs of the user, the accessibility of the end product is
much higher (University of Florida, 2007).
Designers must understand the range of barriers (e.g., fine motor, visual, stamina,
hearing, attention, memory, and others) for students with disabilities that arise with online
learning opportunities, and how these affect course content, presentation, and web page
formatting (Klein, et al., 2003; Samant, et al., 2006). For example, people with visual
disabilities need descriptions for graphics; adequate space around links might be necessary for
people who have fine motor difficulties using a mouse, and high rates of flickering or motion
on a web site may induce a seizure for persons with seizure disorders, or prove highly
distracting for persons with Attention Deficit Disorder (Klein, et al.; Wall and Sarver, 2003).
Placing questions at the end of a course segment, rather than at the end of a module (i.e.,
comprised of multiple segments), eases the strain on students with cognitive disabilities, such
as traumatic brain injury, to focus on and retrieve relevant information (Southeast DBTAC,
2006). Providing proactive technical assistance to instructors for making web sites and online
 Distance Education Initiatives and their Early 21st Century Role… 29

learning opportunities accessible, such as specific onsite or telephone consultation, the

creation of templates and online tutorials, archiving workshops, training materials, and
curricula online is strongly recommended (Southeast DBTAC, 2006; University of Florida,
2007).
Obtaining buy-in from educational administrators and other key stakeholders is vital to
the successful adoption and implementation of policies and practices to assure ICT
accessibility. Active involvement and support from key faculty and administrators can
provide a high level of necessary visibility (Southeast DBTAC, 2006; University of Florida,
2007). It is also important to identify and focus on ―Agents of Change.‖ Priority should be
given to reaching those stakeholders whose positions (e.g., information technology
specialists, dean/director of information technology, department chair) allow them to have an
immediate impact on the accessibility of websites and online courses (Southeast DBTAC,
2006).

CONCLUSION
Vast technological advancement rapidly is broadening the reach and diversity of distance
learning opportunities for students of all ages, needs, and abilities. Federal and state initiatives
are redefining educational policy and practice, and provide generous support to these
programs with significant funds. Private distance education enterprises are among the most
sophisticated and profitable providers of the job skill trainings in greatest demand.
U.S. disability law and policy mandate people with disabilities have the same rights to
independent and self-determined lives, to pursue meaningful careers, and to enjoy full
participation and integration in the political, economic, educational, and social mainstream as
persons without disabilities. Universal design principles offer a framework for the design of
distance learning technologies and services that provide effective access and meaningful
benefit to the most diverse range of learners. Public and private educators and businesses
must ensure their programs and services provide equal benefit to diverse learners with
disabilities. In so doing, society on the path to tearing down the last of the physical and
attitudinal barriers that historically have isolated and discriminated against people with
disabilities.

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In: Recent Trends in Education ISBN 978-1-60741-795-8
Editor: Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 2

LANGUAGE-COGNITION INTERACTIONS
DURING BILINGUAL LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN

Henrike K. Blumenfeld11 and Viorica Marian2

1.San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USA
2.Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA

ABSTRACT
A growing body of research suggests a close relationship between children‘s
development of linguistic and cognitive skills, with language development and cognitive
development mutually influencing each other. This chapter considers childhood
bilingualism as a special case of language acquisition, with implications for the
relationship between linguistic and cognitive processes. Specifically, during bilingual
language development, language input is phonologically more complex and spans two
languages instead of one. Given language input that includes phonetic inventories and
vocabulary from two languages (consisting of two labels for most concepts), linguistic
and cognitive implications for bilingual development are discussed. In addition, the
chapter considers the consequences of simultaneous activation of two language systems
and the juggling of two language codes in children. It is suggested that bilingual children
may have a higher cognitive processing load during language use and learning, resulting
in both linguistic and cognitive differences compared with monolingual peers. Recent
research on linguistic and cognitive differences between monolingual and bilingual
children is placed in the context of current theoretical models of language learning,
development, and processing. In particular, we consider recent findings from
monolingual and bilingual children in the context of learnability theory (with an emphasis
on the influence of input complexity on linguistic / cognitive development), and in light
of usage-based accounts of language acquisition (with an emphasis on the development
of potentially different cognitive skills in monolinguals and bilinguals). We conclude that

1 Corresponding Author: Henrike K. Blumenfeld, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, School of Speech, Language and
Hearing Sciences, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1518, E-mail:
[email protected].
40 Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian

childhood bilingualism provides a unique context for examining the interaction between
linguistic and cognitive mechanisms during development.

Keywords and Concepts: Analysis-control model, Attentional resource allocation,

Connectionist frameworks, Dual systems model, Emergentist accounts, Functionalist
accounts, Gavagai problem, Inhibitory control, Input complexity, Interactional dual
systems model, Joint attention, Learnability theory, Limited resources framework,
Metalinguistic awareness, Modular / domain-specific view of language, Mutual
exclusivity principle, Parallel language activation, Poverty of the stimulus, Self-
organizing model of bilingual processing, Statistical learning, Syntagmatic-paradigmatic
shift, Threshold model of bilingual cognitive development, Unitary system model,
Usage-based accounts

INTRODUCTION
Cracking the language code presents infants with a problem of extraordinary
computational complexity. Infants who learn their mother tongue have to identify patterns in
the string of speech sounds that they hear, and map these sound patterns onto meanings that
refer to objects, events, and other aspects of language. For children who grow up in bilingual
environments, decoding and separating two language systems is likely to provide an even
bigger challenge. What cognitive tools are available to babies to accomplish such impressive
feats? A growing body of research suggests that specific types of cognitive processes may
guide children‘s language acquisition, and that linguistic and cognitive development mutually
influence each other.
In the present chapter, we consider childhood bilingualism as a special case of language
acquisition, with implications for the relationship between linguistic and cognitive processes.
Since simultaneous acquisition of two languages is likely to pose particular cognitive
challenges, ways in which cognitive mechanisms are employed to acquire language may be
especially salient in bilingual children. In general, examination of the relationship between
linguistic and cognitive nonverbal processing is a central area of study in the cognitive
sciences (e.g., Bates, Dale, and Thal, 1995; Fodor, 1983; Tomasello, 2007). Theoretical
research in this area aims to delineate relationships between language and cognition and to
develop models that specify the involvement of nonlinguistic cognitive mechanisms during
language development and processing (e.g., Bates and MacWhinney, 1987, 1989; Dijkstra
and Van Heuven, 2002; Green, 1998; Li and Farkas, 2002; Norman and Shallice, 1986;
Tomasello, 2007). This line of research contributes to the decade-old debate between the
modular- / domain-specific view of language as an encapsulated and specialized module (e.g.,
Fodor 1983, 1985; Chomsky, 1988; Pinker, 1984) and the domain-general view of language
as a system that is tightly linked to nonverbal (and domain-general) cognitive abilities (e.g.
Bates, Thal and Marchman, 1991; Bates, Thal and Janowsky, 1992; Bates and MacWhinney,
1987; Tomasello, 2007)2. The modular / domain-specific view claims that language is a

2
In the present chapter, the term ―domain-specific‖ will be used to refer to processes that act within language and
are likely to be unique to language. Conversely, the term ―domain-general‖ will be used to refer to processes that
are involved in both language-specific and nonlinguistic tasks, and can therefore be assumed to be located
‗outside‘ and ‗above‘ language in the cognitive hierarchy.
 Bilingual Language Development 41

separable ―mental organ‖ (Chomsky, 1988), and that the neural correlates underlying this
mental organ are subsumed only by language processing and no other (nonlinguistic)
cognitive mechanisms. In contrast, the domain-general view claims that linguistic abilities are
(at least to some extent) supported by nonlinguistic cognitive processes.
The modular and domain-general views of language embody two distinct theories of
language acquisition. The modular view is that language abilities are cognitively
encapsulated. As a consequence, the modular view suggests that the linguistic system
develops without exterior cognitive influences, and that its features are largely innate.3 As the
infant becomes exposed to language input, only the specific features of the child‘s native
language(s) are determined with exposure, thus ―calibrating‖ a pre-existing system for a
specific linguistic community. This theoretical orientation is supported by the Poverty of the
Stimulus argument: Child language input is frequently incomplete and not always optimally
grammatical; nevertheless, children consistently acquire full linguistic systems (e.g.,
Bickerton, 1981; Pinker, 1984).
In contrast to the modular view, the domain-general view is that language abilities are
closely related to other cognitive abilities. As a consequence, language develops through
interaction with other cognitive abilities. That is, language emerges with exposure to, and
under the guidance of general cognitive learning mechanisms. This theoretical orientation is
supported by evidence that language is learned by way of general learning mechanisms that
systematically distill and make sense of the regularities within the language input. Research in
this area suggests that child language input is in fact not as poor as was previously believed,
and may be sufficient for the child to construct a language system, given a set of cognitive
abilities and biases (e.g., Dietrich, Swingley, and Werker, 2007; Maye, Werker, and Gerken,
2002). In the present chapter, recent findings in bilingual language development will be
considered through the prism of usage-based models of language learnability, which assume
that the linguistic input that children receive contains more information than is apparent, and
that children are in fact able to derive a language system based on patterns within this input
and under the guidance of general cognitive mechanisms (e.g., Tomasello, 2007).
The study of language-cognition interactions in bilingual development holds great
promise for the debate on how language is learned in general. Examination of the interface
between language and cognition in bilingual children, compared to their monolingual peers,
has the potential to contribute to debates in the cognitive sciences about the nature of
language, and to models of language development. In addition, it is becoming increasingly
important to understand mechanisms and pathways of bilingual language acquisition in
childhood, as the bilingual population is growing. Currently, approximately 5.2 million
bilingual children are enrolled in schools in the United States, which marks a 61% increase
from 1994 (c.f., Goldstein and Fabiano, 2007). It is projected that, by 2030, 40% of school-
age children in the United States will be native speakers of another language, and will be
acquiring English as a second language (e.g., Goldstein, 2000; Roseberry-McKibbin and
Brice, 2000). Therefore, the incidence of childhood bilingualism in the United States is
predicted to grow, and the numbers of adult bilinguals who learned two languages at an early
age will grow with it. In general, with the majority of adults throughout the world proficient
in a second language (e.g., Romaine, 1995), and with bilingualism on the rise in the United

3
But note that the language-specificity and innateness arguments are separable, since cognitive mechanisms that
are domain-general may also be innate.
42 Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian

States (e.g., US Census, 2000), the influence of bilingual experience on cognitive function
becomes increasingly relevant.
In the present chapter, we consider the nature of bilingual language input, the cognitive
consequences of such input, and possible mechanisms of bilingual language acquisition. First,
recent evidence is presented on how bilingual children separate two phonological and lexical
codes from the input, and how these language acquisition paths may influence and shape
cognitive processes, both in the linguistic and in the nonlinguistic domains. Second, we place
recent findings on bilingual language development in the context of current models of
language learnability- and usage-based accounts, and conclude that examination of linguistic
and cognitive processes in bilingual children, compared to their monolingual peers, may yield
evidence in support of theories that language development is guided by domain-general
cognitive processes.

LANGUAGE INPUT IN BILINGUAL CHILDREN: IDENTIFYING

TWO PHONOLOGICAL CODES
Newborns are exposed to a constant flow of speech input, and spend the first years of
their lives parsing this incoming information, first into systematic phonological patterns, and
then into words and sentences. Children who grow up in bilingual environments must
separate the incoming speech signal into two separate codes, each with its sound inventory,
phonological patterns, words, and grammar. Behavioral and computational research suggests
that, based on auditory input, children who grow up in bilingual environments construct two
phonological systems that are, at least to some extent, independent of each other (e.g.,
Goldstein and Fabiano, 2007; Keshavarz and Ingram, 2002; Li and Farkas, 2002; Paradis,
2001; Werker and Byers-Heinlein, 2008). Babies‘ ability to tell apart languages based on
sound is evident at birth: Newborns can distinguish between languages from different
rhythmical classes (e.g., Christophe and Morton, 1998; Nazzi et al., 1998). Therefore,
children are born with strong biases towards dissociating the language of their home-
community from other languages, suggesting that language differentiation is a built-in early
mechanism regardless of whether children grow up monolingual or bilingual.
In the first months of life, babies make quick progress in further distinguishing languages
in their environment from each other. Bosch and Sebastián-Gallés (1997) showed that, at 4
months of age, bilingual infants can distinguish between their two languages, even if the two
languages are within the same rhythm class. By 10-12 months of age, bilingual infants are
able to make different fine-grained distinctions within each of their two languages. For
example, Burns, Yoshida, Hill, and Werker (2007) showed that 10-12-month old French-
English bilinguals were able to discriminate category boundaries of voiced and voiceless
stops (i.e., voice onset time distinctions) accurately within both English and French, two
languages for which these category boundaries differ.
During the first year of life, infants undergo substantial perceptual reorganization, where
discrimination abilities for speech sounds that are part of the ambient language input are
honed, while discrimination abilities for speech sounds that are not part of the language are
reduced. While monolingual infants can successfully distinguish between a wide range of
phonetic contrasts early on, their sensitivity to non-native vowels is lost by 6-8 months of age
 Bilingual Language Development 43

(e.g., Kuhl, 2000; Polka and Werker, 1994), their sensitivity to non-native prosody variations
(such as tones in tone languages) is lost between 6-9 months of age (Mattock and Burnham,
2006), and their sensitivity to non-native consonants is lost between 10-12 months of age
(Werker and Tees, 1984). As a result of this perceptual reorganization, bilingual infants are
typically sensitive to a wider range of speech sounds than their monolingual peers by the end
of their first year of life, although this sensitivity may develop gradually, with one language
leading the other (for a review, see Sebastián-Gallés and Bosch, 2005).
Bilingual infants‘ ability to tell their languages apart from an early age, and to establish
fine-grained phonetic categories for each language independently, begs the following
questions: (1) Do bilingual children develop two phonological systems or an integrated
system, and (2) how do bilingual infants distinguish between phonological codes of their two
languages. Whether bilingual infants‘ phonological systems are initially shared or separated
remains an active area of research (e.g., Bhatia and Ritchie, 1999; Kehoe, 2002; Ingram,
1982; Keshavarz and Ingram, 2002; Paradis, 2001; Vihman, 2002). Models have been posited
to illustrate the view of an initially shared phonological system (the Unitary System Model,
Bhatia and Ritchie, 1999), the view that phonological systems develop separately from the
beginning (the Dual Systems Model, Keshavarz and Ingram, 2002), and the view that
phonological codes of the two languages are highly interactive from early on (the
Interactional Dual Systems Model, Paradis, 2001).
Evidence in support of an initial Unitary System includes findings that children may first
use components of the adult sound inventories that overlap across both of their languages
(e.g., Leopold, 1970) and that children may acquire phonological properties of their two
languages sequentially rather than simultaneously (e.g., Kehoe, 2002; Sebastián-Gallés and
Bosch, 2005). In turn, evidence in support of an initial Dual System includes findings that
children can distinguish between input from their two languages at an early age, and that
bilingual children‘s first words can show drastic differences across the two languages in terms
of phonological templates (e.g., 2-syllable templates in Italian and 1-syllable templates in
English, see Ingram, 1982). Evidence for an Interactional Dual System includes findings that
simultaneous acquisition of two phonological codes may result in acceleration of certain
aspects of learning (e.g., earlier Spanish coda acquisition in children acquiring Spanish and
German, Kehoe, Trujill and Lleo, 2001), and that initial words in one language may reflect
stress patterns of the other language (Keshavarz and Ingram, 2002). It has also been argued
that children do not develop phonological systems, but rather develop distributed knowledge
of a set of phonetic contrasts, and that phonological systems emerge in tandem with language-
specific vocabularies (Vihman, 2002). In sum, while the nature of early phonological
representations in bilingual children remains under debate, bilingual children can distinguish
between their languages early on, and are able to learn language-specific phonological
features, with occasional interaction between the two systems.
The nature of early phonological representations is likely to be tightly linked to how
bilingual infants approach the task of distinguishing between two types of language input. In
general, early evidence suggests that bilinguals‘ approach in distinguishing between
languages may differ from monolinguals‘ approach from an early age. Specifically, Bosch
and Sebastián-Gallés (1997) found differences in how monolingual and bilingual infants
distinguish between native and unfamiliar languages at 4 months of age. To assess speech
perception in pre-linguistic infants, the authors employed a Head Turn Task (also see Werker,
Polka, and Pegg, 1997), where infants were taught to turn towards a speaker from where they
44 Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian

heard a story told. Story sentences from one language were presented from a speaker to the
right, and sentences from another language were presented from a speaker to the left. Infants‘
attention to a space between the two speakers was restored after each trial by presentation of
colorful moving images. The authors measured how long it took infants to turn towards each
speaker, and found that monolingual children were quicker to orient towards their native
language than towards an unfamiliar language. In contrast, bilingual children were slower to
orient towards a familiar language than towards an unfamiliar language. The authors
suggested that bilingual infants‘ delay in orienting towards their familiar language (relative to
an unfamiliar language) may be due to an initial attempt to discern which of their two
languages is being spoken (also see Werker and Byers-Heinlein, 2008). Alternatively, it is
possible that, since bilingual infants are exposed to more complex and varied auditory input
(from two language systems instead of one), they may respond differently to unfamiliar input
in general, and may maintain an interest in relatively unfamiliar phonological input for a
longer period of time. In sum, findings suggest that bilingual infants approach language
differently than their monolingual peers early on during the acquisition process, with
differences likely to emerge as these future bilinguals start to separate two phonological
codes.
Further research is needed to examine whether bilingual infants start to develop separate
mechanisms for controlling their language systems at this early age. For example, children‘s
ability to discern which of their two languages is being spoken at any point in time would
imply early emergence of mechanisms to make such distinctions. Possible mechanisms for
early language differentiation might be early precursors of language tags (e.g., Green, 1998)
or language nodes (e.g., Dijkstra and Van Heuven, 1998, 2002) that emerge with
phonological knowledge, as well as a growing awareness of phonological regularities within
the input of each language. Language tags and language nodes have been posited to be part of
adult bilingual systems, and serve to identify and distinguish between the two languages
during processing. Language nodes and language tags are terms that refer to representations
that signal the language-membership of a word (e.g., Dijkstra and Van Heuven, 1998, 2002).
While a language tag has been posited to be part of each word‘s lexical representation, which
is in turn linked to cognitive control mechanisms (Green, 1998, see Figure 1A), language
nodes have been conceptualized as units that capture overall activation of a language across
multiple lexical items and across time (Dijkstra and Van Heuven, 1998, see Figure 1B). These
components of bilinguals‘ cognitive systems have been thought of as higher-level
representations that are closely related to a goal-oriented cognitive system.
Bilingual infants can distinguish between the phonologies of their two languages at 4
months of age. While they may start to develop precursors to the adult language control
system, it is also possible that bilingual infants rely solely on knowledge of distributional
sound regularities to distinguish between their languages at this early stage (e.g., Maye,
Werker, and Gerken, 2002; Li and Farkas, 2002), without formalizing attentional
mechanisms.
Differences in phonetic sensitivity (spanning two language systems instead of one) may
be reflected in bilingual infants‘ approach to language. That is, instead of starting to develop
cognitive mechanisms specific to distinguishing between two native languages, differences
between monolingual and bilingual infants in orienting towards an unfamiliar language may
be the result of a general prolonged sensitivity to contrasts within unfamiliar input.
 A. The Inhibitory Control Model B. The Bilingual Interactive Activation Model
Adapted from Green (1998) Adapted from Dijkstra and Van Heuven (1998)

Activation of the bilingual lexicon is controlled at various Activation of the bilingual lexicon is controlled at the
levels (at the level of specific language task schemas, and at the language node level. For example, activation of English word
level of a general supervisory attentional system, SAS). Within the representations, based on English input, results in activation of
lexicon, language-membership of words is determined via the English language node, which signals use of the English
language tags that are part of each words‘ lexical representation. lexicon by inhibiting words in the Dutch lexicon.

Figure 1. Cognitive control mechanisms that differentiate between languages during adult bilingual processing, including language tags as posited by the
Inhibitory Control Model, and language nodes as posited by the Bilingual Interactive Activation Model. Within each model, cognitive control components are
highlighted in grey.
46 Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian

As bilingual children‘s phonological systems become more elaborate over the course of
phonological and lexical acquisition, it remains an open question how the child‘s linguistic
system evolves towards the bilingual adult‘s linguistic system. Bilingual adults activate their
two languages in parallel when words in their two languages have phonological overlap with
each other. For example, if a Russian-English adult hears the word marker in English, s/he
may also look at a stamp (because the Russian word for stamp is marka) before identifying the
marker (e.g., Marian and Spivey, 2003a,b; also see Blumenfeld and Marian, 2007; Ju and
Luce, 2004; Weber and Cutler, 2004). Bilingual adults‘ ability to match auditory input to
words in both of their languages within the first 200-400 milliseconds of comprehension, and
to resolve this cross-linguistic competition in an efficient manner, reflects the flexibility of the
bilingual system. It is likely that the capacity to consider words from both languages, and to
resolve subsequent competition, is central to bilinguals‘ ability to switch between languages,
and that it requires cognitive control (e.g., Blumenfeld and Marian, in preparation; Green,
1998).
Early evidence suggests that the ability to resolve phonological competition is acquired
gradually. Early evidence from an eye-tracking study in 5- and 6-year old monolingual
children suggests that children also activate similar-sounding words in parallel within their
native language (similar to adults, Marslen-Wilson, 1987; McClelland and Elman, 1986), but
that competition from these similar-sounding words lasts over 1 second longer than it does in
monolingual adults (Sekerina and Brooks, 2007). This delay in competition implies that, at 5-
and 6 years of age, children are less efficient than adults at resolving competition at the
phonological level. It is likely that cross-linguistic activation of similar-sounding words
follows a similar pattern, and that the cognitive resources necessary to more efficiently reduce
phonological competition develop with age (e.g., Booth et al., 2003; Comalli, Wapner, and
Werner, 1962; Posner, Rothbart, Farah, and Bruer, 2001).
To summarize, as is the case in adults, children consider multiple similar-sounding words
in parallel during comprehension. However, children show delays in biasing the system
towards one of these words, suggesting less efficient mechanisms than adults in ―zooming in‖
on relevant linguistic information. It is likely that the efficiency of resolving within-language
competition mirrors the efficiency of resolving between-language competition (e.g., Marian
and Spivey, 2003a,b). Understanding the nature of between-language competition is linked to
understanding the need to formally distinguish between the two languages to avoid
interference. On the one hand, it is possible that this need arises early on during language
development, while the two phonologies are being acquired and elaborated. Specifically, the
ability to activate one language system more than the other may become crucial in order to
fully learn language-specific information, such as acoustic boundaries of phonemic categories,
and later phonotactic rules and phoneme-to-phoneme transition probabilities. For instance,
children become sensitive to specific phoneme transitions that occur frequently in the input,
and therefore have high transitional probabilities (Maye, Gerken, and Werker, 2002). As a
consequence, bilingual children may focus their attention on different clusters of phonemes
with high transitional probabilities in each of their languages, in order to parse out likely
words from the speech stream (Fennell, Byers-Heinlein, and Werker, 2007; for a review, see
Sebastián-Gallés and Bosch, 2005). On the other hand, it is possible that the need to formally
distinguish between the two languages only arises once the bilingual child accumulates
substantial word knowledge, and needs to efficiently retrieve words from one of the two
languages, while discounting similar words in the other language.
 Bilingual Language Development 47

LANGUAGE INPUT IN BILINGUAL CHILDREN: IDENTIFYING

TWO LEXICAL CODES
In identifying the meaning of word units in their auditory input, children face the
fundamental problem of mapping specific sound sequences onto specific referents in their
environment. This fundamental challenge, known as the Gavagai Problem1 (Quine, 1960), is
indicative of the fact that children rely heavily on environmental cues to guide their attention
towards specific objects while they hear language. Recent evidence suggests that attentional
processes are closely related to children‘s learning of words (e.g., Smith, Jones, Landau,
Gershkoff-Stowe, and Samuelson, 2002). At least two types of attentional processes may be
isolated, and it is likely that bilingual children make extensive use of both types of attentional
processes to build their lexicons.
First, children rely on mechanisms of joint attention, which allow them to assess what
aspect of the environment others are paying attention to, and to guide their own attention in the
same direction (e.g., Kaplan, Oudeyer, and Bergen, 2008). Mechanisms of joint attention allow
children to make use of visual cues in order to map referents onto auditory input, and recent
research suggests that bilingual infants may rely heavily on such visual cues (e.g., Weikum et
al., 2007). In general, research suggests that external visual cues may provide particular
support during bilingual acquisition, and that bilingual infants may pay closer attention to
visual cues in their environments, compared to their monolingual peers. A recent study by
Weikum et al. (2007) shows that 4- and 6-month old monolingual and bilingual infants can
distinguish different languages based on lip-reading (without auditory input). However, at 8
months of age, monolingual infants lose this ability, while bilingual infants retain it, and
maintain it into adulthood (Soto-Faraco et al., 2007). It is possible that bilinguals continue to
rely on visual external cues from faces to aid them in separating their two language systems
(Werker and Byers-Heinlein, 2008; also see Marian, 2009).
Second, in addition to paying attention to external cues to identify words from the speech
stream, bilingual children may also pay closer attention to language-intrinsic cues to guide
word acquisition. Children rely on their ability to pay attention to specific aspects of an object
that have been meaningful during previous exposures. For example, Smith et al. (2002)
showed that, as children learned words for objects with different shapes, they became
increasingly better at paying attention to the shapes of new objects, and at assigning words
they had learned to novel objects with the same shapes. Moreover, Booth, Waxman, and
Huang (2005) showed that 18-month olds pay attention to different aspects of referents during
word learning, depending on the type of referent: While children only paid attention to shape
when learning words for artifacts, they also paid attention to texture when learning words for
animates. These findings suggest that children can allocate attentional resources in a targeted
and goal-oriented fashion from an early age, based on conceptual information about a referent.
Moreover, this allocation of attention to specific aspects of an object is resistant to interference
from inconsistent visual cues. For example, Booth and Waxman (2002) found that children
treated objects as artifacts during word learning if they had received conceptual information

1
Quine illustrated the indeterminacy faced by the child in linking a specific sound sequence, such as gavagai, to a
specific referent in the environment. In the Gavagai example, if the child saw a rabbit run by, and an adult
speaker exclaimed ―gavagai!‖, would this word refer to the rabbit itself, to part of the rabbit, to the action of
running, or to any other aspect of the visual scene?
48 Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian

placing the objects in the artifact category, even if these objects had eyes. The finding that
conceptual knowledge can drive attention suggests that attention to specific aspects of
referents is allocated top-down, and is cued through an interface with the conceptual system. In
sum, while joint attention provides external cues about objects and their names, paying
attention to specific characteristics in the environment or the input can be seen as an internal
process that is initiated by the child based on experience.
In addition to paying attention to specific aspects of objects, such as shape or texture,
children may need to pay attention to fine-grained sound-differences between similar names
that reference different objects. For example, Stager and Werker (1997) showed that children
have initial difficulty in learning words that differ by only one phoneme, and are thus minimal
pairs (e.g., /bih/ and /dih/). When Fennel and Werker (2003) examined bilingual infants‘
ability to learn object names that were minimal pairs, they found that bilinguals could not
successfully learn such words until 20 months of age (while monolinguals had succeeded by
17 months, also see Fennel, Byers-Heinlein, and Werker, 2007). Since both monolingual and
bilingual infants were able to perceive phonological contrasts at an earlier age, the authors
concluded that limited cognitive resources might account for the findings, with a scarcity of
available resources resulting in an inability to encode fine-grained phonological contrasts
during word learning. It is possible that, because minimal pairs are perceptually the most
challenging, they require the most attentional resources to process, leaving fewer resources for
storage.
Specifically, bilingual children may initially have fewer cognitive resources available to
pay attention to nuanced sound-differences during word learning. Within a limited resources
framework, Bjorklund and Harnishfeger (1990) propose that, in development, a majority of
cognitive resources are utilized for processing. At this young age, processing is thought to
remain inefficient, necessitating allocation of these cognitive resources. As processing and the
coordination of linguistic mechanisms become more efficient, more cognitive resources can be
freed up for storage. Bilingual infants may recruit more cognitive resources overall to
accommodate early phonological and lexical development across two language systems.
Therefore, bilingual infants may have fewer resources available to pay attention to, and store,
highly similar-sounding words, resulting in later onset of word learning that requires nuanced
phonological distinctions. In sum, the finding of delays in minimal pair learning in bilingual
infants is consistent with the idea that bilingual infants expend additional processing resources
during word learning, since they have to make decisions about language membership, retain
two sets of phonotactic rules, and map sound sequences onto words in two languages.
As bilingual children overcome initial barriers in learning words from two language
systems, they soon encounter another hurdle that may prove more challenging for them than
for their monolingual peers: objects frequently have multiple labels. Learning of translation
equivalents for the same object may pose a special challenge to bilingual children because
early word learning has been shown to be biased towards assignment of one label to each
referent (e.g., Markman and Wachtel, 1988). This well-studied learning bias, known as the
Mutual Exclusivity Principle is one in a set of word learning constraints that is believed to help
children solve the Gavagai problem (Quine, 1960): If children hear a new word, but one of the
objects in their environment has already been assigned a name, then the new word must refer
to either a property or aspect of the already-named object, or to another object or action (e.g.,
Golinkoff, Mervis, and Hirsh-Pasek, 1994; Woodward, 2000). Research in the monolingual
language acquisition literature suggests that, by 5 years of age, monolingual children loosen
 Bilingual Language Development 49

the constraints of the mutual exclusivity principle, and start assigning multiple names to single
objects (e.g., tricycle, trike, bicycle, bike, Johnson, 1994). In an experiment measuring
response latencies during word naming in high-constraint and low-constraint contexts (e.g.,
contexts where multiple labels for an object can be used vs. contexts where only one label for
an object can be used), Johnson (1994) showed that, by the age of 9, children were sensitive to
nonlinguistic context, using context-appropriate words when multiple labels were available. In
addition, 9-year old children showed processing costs (delayed responses) when naming one of
multiple object names during high-constraint situations. The authors took their findings to
suggest that 9-year olds inhibited alternative names for the same object. The fact that Johnson
(1994) found an inhibition effect for 9-year olds, but not for 7- or 5-year olds (also see
Simpson and Lorsbach, 1983), is consistent with evidence that inhibitory control emerges
relatively late in childhood (Bjorklund and Harnishfeger, 1990; Booth et al., 2003).
Since bilingual children face the challenge of learning multiple object labels, not only
within-language but also between-language (i.e., translation equivalents), it can be predicted
that they start disregarding the mutual exclusivity principle earlier than their monolingual
peers. In fact, bilingual children have been shown to know both translation equivalents of
early-learned words as early as within their first 50 words (Mikes, 1990). Mattock, Polka, and
Rvachew (2006) recently showed that 17-month old bilingual infants were better than their
monolingual peers at learning multiple labels for newly-trained pseudowords. Au and Glusman
(1990) presented 3- and 6-year old bilingual children with novel stuffed animals, and provided
labels in both English and Spanish (presented by two different speakers). They found that
bilingual children accepted both labels for the object when they knew that the labels came
from different languages. To examine whether suspension of the mutual exclusivity principle
between languages would also result in its earlier suspension within language, Davidson and
Tell (2005) conducted a word naming experiment with 3- and 6-year old monolingual and
bilingual children. Children were shown familiar and unfamiliar objects, either by themselves,
or with an attached spare part. They were then presented with novel names for these objects,
and were asked whether the name referred to the whole object or to part of the object. The
authors found that 6-year old bilingual children did indeed suspend the mutual exclusivity
principle more frequently than their monolingual peers, and were more willing to accept a
novel name to refer to an already-named object. It is likely that bilingual children‘s lower
reliance on the mutual exclusivity principle is due to more frequent exposure to multiple
names for one object, and that it paves the way for acquisition of two lexicons. It remains an
open question whether bilingual children employ inhibitory control mechanisms to control
activation of multiple object names across languages. In the adult bilingualism literature,
evidence exists that selection of a word for production entails inhibition of its translation
equivalent (e.g., Green 1998). Given the evidence from monolingual children for use of
inhibitory control during naming of objects with multiple labels, it is likely that bilingual
children also employ cognitive control mechanisms to functionally separate multiple object-
names.
In sum, construction of a lexicon involves multiple stages, including detection of statistical
regularities and recurrent patterns within the speech stream, identification of words, and
separation of words that are similar to each other (either at the phonological level or at the
semantic or contextual level). Throughout each step in this process, bilingual children
encounter additional challenges, due to the complexity and breadth of input across their two
language systems. Therefore, throughout their early years of language acquisition, from
50 Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian

deriving phonological systems to constructing lexicons, bilingual children may address

computational challenges by recruiting more cognitive and attentional resources for processing
than their monolingual peers. In the next section, we focus more closely on the language-
cognition interface in bilingual children, by examining cognitive consequences of early
bilingual language exposure.

COGNITIVE CONSEQUENCES OF LEARNING AND USING TWO

LANGUAGE SYSTEMS
Close relationships between the linguistic and cognitive systems have been found in
monolingual children. For example, Nakamichi (2007) correlated children‘s performance on a
variant of the Stroop task (the day / night task)2 and a language-based counterfactual
conditional reasoning task, and identified a strong positive relationship between performance
scores on the two tasks. Using neuroimaging methodology, Blumenfeld, Booth, and Burman
(2006) correlated children‘s ability to make semantic judgments with the extent to which they
recruited the prefrontal cortex for this task, and found that low-performance children recruited
the prefrontal cortex more than high-performance children. In addition to these patterns in
monolingual children, findings in the linguistic and nonlinguistic domains suggest that
bilingual children may have a higher cognitive processing load during language use and
learning, resulting in both linguistic and cognitive differences from monolingual peers (for
other reviews, see Bialystok, 2005; Cook, 1997; Nicoladis, 2008).

BILINGUAL / MONOLINGUAL PROCESSING DIFFERENCES

IN THE LINGUISTIC DOMAIN

Bilingual children have been shown, on a number of tasks, to be more aware of the
function that language serves to accomplish certain communicative goals and that linguistic
symbols in themselves are arbitrary. This ability has been termed Metalinguistic Awareness
(e.g., see Bialystok, 2001; Ricciardelli, 1992). Bilingual advantages in metalinguistic
awareness have been examined at different levels of language processing. To probe
metalinguistic awareness at the phonological level (also see Bialystok, Luk, and Kwan, 2005;
Bialystok, Majumder, and Martin, 2003; Campbell and Sais, 1995; Rubin and Turner, 1989),
Chen et al. (2004) compared the performance of first-, second-, and fourth-graders who were
either Mandarin monolinguals or Cantonese-Mandarin bilinguals. Children performed same-
different tasks, where they had to judge whether two words sounded the same or different in
terms of tone, onset phoneme, or rime. In addition children performed oddity tasks, where they
had to choose the odd one out (in terms of tone, onset phoneme, or rime) upon hearing three
words. Overall, bilingual children outperformed monolingual children in terms of tone

2
The day / night Stroop task, based on the classical color-ink Stroop task (Stroop, 1935), is a cognitive control task
developed for use with children, and assesses children‘s ability to apply new linguistic labels and inhibit
previously-learned linguistic labels. Children are taught to say ―day‖ when they see a card with a moon on it,
and to say ―night‖ when they see a card with a sun on it. Young children have great difficulty with this task,
with performance improving around 6 years of age.
 Bilingual Language Development 51

awareness (Cantonese has a richer tone system than Mandarin), as well as for onset phoneme
and rime conditions. The authors suggested that bilingual children‘s exposure to two sound
systems lent them an advantage in terms of their analyses of sound units, especially at young
ages. Specifically, bilinguals‘ advantage was strong in the second grade, but became weaker in
the fourth grade.3 Research across a number of different phonological awareness tasks and age
groups suggests that bilingual children may not show phonological awareness advantages
across all tasks at all ages (e.g., onset rime awareness, syllable awareness, phoneme awareness,
etc), but rather that advantages are specific and shift as children get older, and with the onset
of literacy (e.g., Bruck and Genessee, 1995; Chen et al., 2004).
To probe metalinguistic awareness at the lexical level (also see Yelland, Pollard, and
Mercuri, 1993), Bialystok (1988) had 6- and 7-year old bilinguals and monolinguals perform
two word tasks to evaluate their sense that word labels are arbitrary. On a word substitution
task (for early versions of this task, see Piaget, 1929, and Ianco-Worral, 1972), children were
asked ―…suppose […] everybody decided to call the sun ‗the moon‘ and the moon ‗the sun‘.
What would you call the thing in the sky when you go to bed at night?‖ Bialystok predicted
that the word substitution task would measure both (a) children‘s sense of the arbitrariness of
words and (b) their cognitive control in maintaining word substitutions, and found that
bilingual children outperformed monolingual children on this task. In a more abstract task,
Bialystok then had children participate in a word concept definition task, where children were
asked ―What is a word? How can you tell if something is a word?‖ Bialystok found that
bilingual children were better than monolingual children at describing the concept of what a
word is, with partially bilingual children performing better than monolinguals, but worse than
proficient bilinguals.
Finally, to probe metalinguistic awareness at the grammatical level, Ricciardelli (1992)
had 5- and 6-year old bilinguals and monolinguals perform a word-order correction task,
where they were asked to help a puppet character correct her sentences (also see Bialystok,
1988). Children were presented with sentences such as ―Daddy the car washes‖. The authors
found that bilingual children were more successful at correcting these sentences than
monolingual children were. The authors suggest that, for bilingual children, increased
exposure to multiple structures allows them to think about language more flexibly, allowing
them to recognize the intended sentences, and produce appropriate corrections. Together,
findings of metalinguistic awareness across different language processing levels suggest that
bilingual children may develop a greater linguistic flexibility than their monolingual peers.
In addition to tasks that probe metalinguistic awareness at various processing levels, other
findings comparing bilinguals‘ and monolinguals‘ linguistic processing also suggest bilingual
advantages that may be linked to more detailed analysis of language in bilingual children. At
the syntactic-semantic interface, Sheng, McGregor, and Marian (2007) recently found that 5-
to 8-year old bilingual children may reach the syntagmatic-paradigmatic shift earlier than their
monolingual peers. The syntagmatic-paradigmatic shift marks a gradual re-organization of the
child‘s semantic system, where children shift from closely associating words that co-occur at
the sentence level (e.g., cold and outside) to closely associating words that occur in similar
contexts (e.g., cold and hot). This shift is believed to require a re-analysis of language that

3
The weaker bilingual advantage by the fourth grade is likely due to the fact that both monolingual and bilingual
children receive more explicit instruction about their language systems as they progress in school and may, as a
result, perform at ceiling in many phonological awareness tasks.
52 Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian

progresses from analyses of surface structure towards analysis of internal structural patterns. It
is possible that a quicker re-organization in bilingual children‘s semantic systems is brought
about by a greater awareness that the surface level is in fact arbitrary and serves to
communicate a consistent underlying system of meaning (e.g., see Bybee, 2001). In sum,
influences of bilingual exposure on processing can be observed throughout the linguistic
system, including the phonological, lexical, grammatical, and semantic levels. It is likely that
monolingual / bilingual differences across these processing levels can be attributed to
differences in processing demands as bilingual children construct their linguistic systems
across these levels.

BILINGUAL / MONOLINGUAL PROCESSING DIFFERENCES

IN THE NONLINGUISTIC DOMAIN

A growing body of research suggests that bilingual children outperform monolingual

children on tasks that require suppression of task-irrelevant information, tapping into processes
of inhibitory control and selective attention. This pattern has been shown across a number of
tasks where children were presented with conflicting information, resulting in two possible
responses to a stimulus. Bialystok and Codd (1997) compared monolingual and bilingual 4-
and 6 year olds on two tasks requiring assessment of quantity. One task required the children
to ignore irrelevant and conflicting information (e.g., a tower with fewer blocks was higher
than a tower with more blocks), while the other task contained no conflicting information.
Bialystok and Codd found that bilingual children performed significantly better than
monolingual children on the task containing irrelevant conflicting information, but performed
the same as the monolingual children on the task containing no conflicting information.
Similarly, Bialystok (1999) and Bialystok and Martin (2004) found that preschool children
who were bilingual were younger (6 years old) when they became successful at tasks that
required them to sort a deck of cards according to one rule (e.g., same shapes) and then switch
to sorting the same deck of cards according to another (interfering) rule (e.g., same colors).
Similar differences were found between bilingual and monolingual children on cognitive
control tasks involving the ability to reverse visually ambiguous figures (Bialystok and
Shapero, 2005), and on nonlinguistic inhibitory control tasks that involved competition
between two possible responses (e.g., Martin-Rhee and Bialystok, 2008).
Martin-Rhee and Bialystok examined the performance of monolingual and bilingual 4-
and 5 year olds on two different nonlinguistic inhibition tasks. On the first task (a classic
Simon task, Simon, 1969), children were shown either a red or a blue square, and were asked
to press a blue key (located on the right) when they saw a blue square, and to press a red key
(located on the left) when they saw a red square. On the second task, children saw an arrow
that pointed either right or left, and they were told to press a key on the right when the arrow
pointed right, and to press a key on the left when the arrow pointed left. Both the colored
squares and the arrows occurred sometimes to the right of a central fixation point and
sometimes to the left of a central fixation point. Conflict between responses was created when
the location of the stimulus was inconsistent with correct responses. For example, a blue
square (right key) would appear on the left side of the display, or a rightward pointing arrow
(right key) would appear on the left side of the display.
 Bilingual Language Development 53

Bilinguals‘ superior performance on these two inhibitory control tasks has been shown to
extend into adulthood (e.g., Bialystok, 2005). Others have replicated a bilingual advantage in
young adults on the nonlinguistic arrow inhibition task (Blumenfeld and Marian, in
preparation) and on Stroop-like flanker inhibition tasks (e.g., Costa, Hernandez, and Sebastián-
Gallés, 2008; Colzato et al., 2008), that involve identification of an arrow‘s direction (―<‖
points left), given surrounding arrows that point the opposite way (e.g., ―>>>> < >>>>‖). In
adult bilinguals who had learned both of their languages at an early age, Blumenfeld and
Marian (in preparation) recently showed a close correlation between performance on the
nonlinguistic arrow inhibition task and inhibition of similar-sounding words during language
comprehension. Therefore, early evidence suggests that inhibitory control performance on a
task that yields a bilingual advantage as early as at 4-6 years of age in bilingual children
remains a task at which adult bilinguals outperform monolinguals, and is directly related to
processing of ambiguous information during auditory word comprehension. As discussed in
the first section of the present chapter, bilingual children face language input that spans two
linguistic codes, resulting in more frequent ambiguity during language learning, both at the
phonological and lexical levels. We can thus speculate that a link between nonlinguistic
inhibitory control and auditory comprehension processing in bilingual adults is tied to
language development4, as children start to separate and elaborate two phonological codes and
start to extend them into two language systems that have to be easily accessible, with minimal
interference between the two systems.

DEVELOPMENTAL MECHANISMS
OF BILINGUAL / MONOLINGUAL DIFFERENCES

Current research suggests that children‘s linguistic-cognitive developmental trajectories

may vary depending on their linguistic experiences. A need continues to exist to isolate
specific mechanisms by which linguistic input (i.e., monolingual or bilingual) may
simultaneously influence linguistic and nonlinguistic cognitive processes. It is possible that the
organization of linguistic input into separate codes requires increased use of general cognitive
mechanisms, and that the use and honing of these mechanisms in turn influences linguistic and
nonlinguistic cognitive processes. One general cognitive mechanism that may be involved in
bilingual children‘s processing is inhibitory control, or the ability to suppress one response in
favor of another response. At the phonological level, bilingual infants are confronted early on
with the need to separate, and selectively pay attention to, two separate codes. At the lexical
level, bilingual children, more than their monolingual peers, rely on an ability to learn two
labels for one object, and to correctly choose one label over the other, based on language
context. At the grammatical level, bilingual children rely on learning which structures are
associated with which language, and on correctly applying them. In sum, bilingual children
may have to evaluate multiple linguistic options against each other more frequently than their
monolingual peers.

4
Whether second language development in later childhood or in adulthood can also be linked to changes in
nonlinguistic inhibitory control mechanisms remains largely unstudied, but evidence is emerging that cognitive
changes, perhaps of a somewhat different nature, are also linked to late bilingualism (e.g., Linck,, Kroll, &
Sunderman, in press).
54 Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian

Inhibitory control mechanisms, which aid in correct identification of one response, while
another response is suppressed, have traditionally been localized to prefrontal cortex during
neuroimaging studies and have been shown to develop slowly throughout childhood (e.g.,
Booth, Burman, Meyer, Lei, Trommer, Davenport, et al., 2003).
It is likely that development of inhibitory processes has its origin in children‘s first
confrontations with duality. For example, the ―terrible twos‖ generally mark a stage when
children begin to understand that their own wishes do not necessarily coincide with those of
others, and the word ―no‖ reaches peak frequencies of usage as children systematically explore
this phenomenon (e.g., Gopnik, Meltzoff, and Kuhl, 1999). Despite evidence that inhibitory
control processes may start to develop early in childhood, findings from neuroimaging suggest
that prefrontal cortex and executive control functions are not fully developed until the late
teens and early twenties (e.g., Luciana, Conklin, Hooper, and Yarger, 2005). Therefore,
language acquisition proceeds in the absence of fully developed cognitive control mechanisms.
This general delay in development of executive function, together with findings that childhood
bilingualism results in cognitive advantages in inhibitory control within the nonlinguistic
domain, suggests that bilingual experience may in some instances support the gradual
development of children‘s inhibitory control processes. Therefore, findings comparing
bilingual and monolingual children‘s performance on inhibitory control tasks suggest that
linguistic development may influence cognitive development. Specifically, it is likely that the
processing demands associated with language development train and hone cognitive function.
An example of such a potential relationship may be the case of inhibitory control and selective
attention, which provides a useful tool at various stages of phonological and lexical
acquisition. Use of these mechanisms within the context of language may render them
increasingly efficient as language acquisition proceeds and as language processing demands
grow. Conversely, more developed cognitive mechanisms are likely to constrain and guide
language development. For example, the cognitive constraint instantiated with the mutual
exclusivity principle aids children in directing their attention towards objects or features that
have not previously been labeled and might therefore map onto novel phonological input.
Similarly, instinctive use of cues in the visual environment creates an important framework for
mapping phonological sequences onto the visual world.
In sum, although a large aspect of monolingual language acquisition research is dedicated
to how children make use of cognitive mechanisms during language acquisition, and how
language acquisition may trigger the development of cognitive mechanisms, a need remains
for research and theoretical frameworks that explicitly link aspects of language development to
aspects of cognitive control. Establishing direct links between linguistic and cognitive domains
will have practical applications for education and speech-language services. In addition,
establishing links between linguistic and cognitive processes has theoretical implications.
Specifically, the finding that early bilingual exposure influences nonlinguistic cognitive
control functions provides strong support for a domain-general view of language where
general cognitive mechanisms are intimately involved with language processing. Clarification
of how cognitive and linguistic processes interact will further constrain the debate on
modularity vs. domain-generality, identifying which aspects of language can be tied to general
cognitive mechanisms, and which aspects may be domain-specific.
 Bilingual Language Development 55

TOWARDS A THEORETICAL ACCOUNT OF LANGUAGE-COGNITION

INTERACTION IN DEVELOPMENT
In the present section, we place current knowledge about language-cognition interactions
in bilingual children within the context of theoretical models of language learning,
development, and processing. In particular, we consider recent findings from monolingual and
bilingual children in the context of learnability theory (with an emphasis on the influence of
input complexity on linguistic / cognitive development), and in light of usage-based accounts
of language acquisition (with an emphasis on the development of potentially different
cognitive skills in monolinguals and bilinguals).

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM LEARNABILITY THEORY

As previously illustrated, monolingual and bilingual children receive drastically different
language input in the early years of their lives. How does this input influence their ability to
learn language? It is generally assumed that children‘s linguistic systems contain features that
constitute a subset of adults‘ linguistic systems and that, in order to extend their linguistic
repertoire towards the adult system, children have to be presented with complex input, at least
part of which is outside their current body of knowledge (for a review, see Gierut, 2007, and
Pinker, 1984). In this sense, complexity is in fact seen as a trigger for learning (Gierut, 2007).
For example, Gierut and Dale (2007) found that children‘s progress in phonological
development is typically more apparent in low frequency words, which are generally acquired
later in childhood and are frequently more complex. In other words, children are in need of
positive evidence of correct and extensive language features in order to correct previous
mistakes, and to expand their linguistic knowledge (Marcus, 1993).
Contextualizing bilingual development within learnability theory yields two potential
pathways (and outcomes) of bilingual language acquisition. On the one hand, it can be argued
that bilingual children consistently receive more complex input than monolingual children. For
example, bilingual children‘s phonological input spans the phonetic inventories of two
languages rather than one. Perhaps as a consequence of this complex input, bilingual children
may learn to maintain more of these phonetic contrasts based on increased positive evidence of
widespread phonetic contrasts. In the same vein, research has suggested that some bilingual
children have better phonological awareness than monolingual children (e.g., Bialystok,
Majumder, and Martin, 2003). This phenomenon may also be explained by the fact that
increased phonological complexity at the input level, in tandem with increased cognitive
complexity as children construct their phonological representations, may result in improved
phonological sensitivity, as well as in a tacit knowledge that phonological variation may be
meaningful.
On the other hand, given input that is distributed across two linguistic systems instead of
one, it is quite possible that bilingual children receive less positive evidence for specific
linguistic structures. For example, Bialystok, Majumder, and Martin (2003) compared
performance of two bilingual groups, relative to monolingual peers, on a phoneme
segmentation task. One bilingual group, Chinese-English bilinguals, was acquiring two
languages that had highly dissimilar phonetic inventories. The other bilingual group, Spanish-
56 Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian

English bilinguals, was acquiring two languages that had more similar phonetic inventories.
With Chinese-English bilingual children, Bialystok, Majumder, and Martin (2003) found a
disadvantage over monolinguals on phoneme segmentation. In contrast, with Spanish-English
bilingual children, the authors found an advantage over monolinguals on phoneme
segmentation. Given the differences between Chinese and English phonetic inventories, and
the relative similarities of Spanish and English phonetic inventories, it is possible that, while
Chinese-English children did not receive enough positive evidence for phonetic distinctions in
their languages, Spanish-English children did receive enough positive evidence and were able
to derive benefit from complex input.
In addition to the linguistic system, complexity and frequency of input may also influence
the cognitive system in bilingual children. Specifically, Wexler (1982) suggested that more
complex input requires more processing resources. It is possible, then, that children who
routinely receive language input that is more complex than the input of monolingual peers may
consistently recruit more cognitive resources for processing. Such increased recruitment and
repeated use of resources may eventually result in a more efficient processing system, as
evidenced by findings of bilingual processing advantages in the nonlinguistic domain (e.g.,
Martin-Rhee and Bialystok, 2008). Bjorklund and Harnishfeger‘s (1990) proposed a model of
limited resources, where increased recruitment of resources towards processing was posited to
incur costs at the storage (i.e., representational) level. Bialystok (1999) proposed a similar
analysis-control model to account for frequently observed cognitive advantages in bilingual
children, as well as for possible early representational limitations, evidenced in slower
bilingual vocabulary growth relative to monolingual peers (e.g., Verhoeven, 1994). While
learnability theory is typically concerned with linguistic behavior, given certain kinds of input,
the interaction between language and cognition in development can also be thought of within a
class of models known as usage-based accounts.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM USAGE-BASED ACCOUNTS

Usage-based accounts of language development (e.g., Bybee, 2001; Tomasello, 2007)
differ from other accounts of language development (e.g., generative or connectionist views)
in that they are functionalist accounts, ―based explicitly in the expression and comprehension
of communicative intentions (intention reading)‖ (c.f. Tomasello, 2007, pp 325). Thus, usage-
based accounts are first and foremost cognitive accounts of language learning. It is assumed
that children are born with an innate instinct to communicate, and that they have mechanisms
at their disposal to interact and orient themselves within their environment from the day they
are born (also see Gopnik, Meltzoff, and Kuhl, 1999). A center-piece of usage-based accounts
is children‘s ability to direct their attention towards relevant sources of information. For
example, at birth, children orient towards their native language and towards their mother‘s
voice, because they are exposed to both in utero. Children develop other attentional processes
within the first year of life, such as the capacity for joint attention, which will be their close
ally in learning the names of objects in their environments. Finally, children understand, even
pre-linguistically, that the purpose of language is communication, as they babble and coo
interactively with their caregivers. In sum, while usage-based accounts are similar to
connectionist accounts in that they posit statistical analysis and organization of language input,
 Bilingual Language Development 57

they differ from most current connectionist models in their functional approach. In short, the
intent to communicate and the ability to direct attention provide strong top-down biases on
perceptually based (i.e., bottom-up) language learning.
The linguistic challenges faced by bilingual children support a functionalist account of
language acquisition that incorporates an attentional component. Many cognitive differences
between monolingual and bilingual children emerge in the area of selective attention and
inhibitory control. For example, infants who acquire two languages have to orient towards one
language vs. the other, and separate two phonological and (later) lexical and grammatical
systems. Moreover, once bilingual children acquire language, they are likely to make more
decisions (such as what language to speak in) than their monolingual peers, necessitating a
cognitive/pragmatic decision component that is in close contact with the language system. In
this way, the manner in which bilingual children meet linguistic challenges may be more
clearly explained within a language learning account that incorporates an explicit attentional
component.
Although a strong case can be made for the presence of higher-level attentional
components in a functional framework of bilingual language acquisition, the consensus within
usage-based accounts remains that linguistic and cognitive learning is driven by input. At the
beginning of life, children listen to their environment and orient towards sources of salient
input. At this stage of development, the influence of goal-oriented cognitive biases is likely to
be minimal, with a focus on perceiving linguistic input, and identifying initial patterns in
making sense of this information stream through the use of general cognitive mechanisms. A
current developmental connectionist model of bilingual processing is the Self-Organizing
Model of Bilingual Processing (SOMBIP, Li and Farkas, 2002). The SOMBIP posits that the
bilingual system is dynamically organized with language acquisition, based on the principle of
lateral inhibition between representations. As such, inhibitory relationships emerge as the
bilingual system develops. Inhibitory control mechanisms within the Self-Organizing Model of
Bilingual Processing are language-specific, and are tightly linked to language representations
(despite the fact that lateral inhibition is a general and system-wide mechanism).
As bilingual representations are organized in the process of bilingual acquisition, native-
language and second-language representations form clusters, with lateral inhibition
mechanisms reinforcing this trend (Li and Farkas, 2002). As a consequence, it is likely that
stronger lateral inhibitory connections are present between language clusters (since activation
of one language typically implies de-activation of the other) than within language clusters
(since activation of within-language words co-occurs). Therefore, while the same inhibitory
control mechanism is present both within-language and between-language, it may act more
strongly across languages. An account of the present literature on bilingual development in the
context of the Self-Organizing Model of Bilingual Processing is particularly appropriate,
because the model is a dynamic developmental model, and may therefore be most suitable for
the description of emergence of linguistic and cognitive changes with bilingual experience.
Developmental models such as SOMBIP are heavily based on frequency of exposure to
language exemplars, and are based on the assumption that children derive linguistic knowledge
and structure from their linguistic environment. Empirical research suggests that this
assumption is a reasonable one. At the linguistic level, evidence exists that input frequency
influences learning. For example, research with infants suggests an especially strong reliance
on word frequency during word recognition at early stages of word learning, with gradual
maturation of the phonological system leading to better abilities to segment both high-
58 Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian

frequency words and nonwords from the speech stream (Singh, Nestor, and Bortfeld, 2008).
Nicoladis, Palmer, and Marendette (2007) showed that the accuracy with which French-
English bilingual 4- and 6-year olds produce regular and irregular verbs in their two languages
depends on the frequencies of these verbs within their input language (English and French
have different frequency distributions for regular and irregular verbs). Nicoladis (2005) found
similar frequency effects in a longitudinal case study of a child between the ages of 2 years 8
months and 5 years.
In general, words with high frequencies of occurrence in the language are more likely to
be words that children acquire early. A study with 8- and 13-year old monolingual and
bilingual children suggests that children perform better at recognizing high-frequency words
than at recognizing low frequency words (Windsor and Kohnert, 2004, but see findings by
Goldstein, Fabiano, and Washington, 2005, concerning overall frequency of language
exposure). Finally, recent evidence suggests that frequency-of-exposure effects may reach
beyond the word-level, with 17-month olds showing successful sound-to-meaning mappings
only for words that they had previously been exposed to during fluent speech, with
opportunities for segmentation (Graf Estes, Evans, Alibali, and Saffran, 2007), and with 2-year
olds showing better repetition of 4-word chunks that frequently occur in language input (e.g.,
―sit in your chair‖) than of chunks that are less frequent (Bannard and Matthews, 2008).
At the cognitive level, evidence of exposure-based influences is more sparse. Ricciardelli
(1992) compared monolingual and bilingual 5- and 6-year olds at different language
proficiencies on a number of cognitive tasks. Bilingual children only showed cognitive
performance advantages over their monolingual peers when they were highly proficient in both
of their languages. Based on these data, Ricciardelli proposed a Threshold Model of Bilingual
Cognitive Development (also see Cummins, 1979), with development of bilingual cognitive
advantages relying on the child reaching a certain level of competence in both languages. In an
earlier version of this model, Cummins (1979) had proposed a two-tiered threshold model,
where children‘s failure to reach the first (and lower) threshold of bilingual language
proficiency would result in cognitive performance lower than that of monolingual peers,
children‘s reaching the first (and lower) threshold of bilingual language proficiency would
ensure cognitive performance similar to that of monolingual peers, and children‘s reaching the
second (and higher) threshold of bilingual proficiency would ensure certain cognitive
advantages. This model is consistent with the idea that cognitive changes develop gradually
and dynamically as children acquire their two languages (e.g., for behavioral evidence of
gradually emergent cognitive changes see Bialystok, 1988; Kaushanskaya and Marian, 2008;
Yelland, Polard, and Mercuri, 1993), and it accounts for frequent variability in the literature in
terms of finding bilingual advantages.
For example, Kaushanskaya and Marian (2008) found that adult bilinguals who learned
their second language early in life (i.e., at an average of 3 years of age) were more successful
than monolinguals at learning novel words in adulthood and showed changes from
monolinguals in how they recruited working memory mechanisms to recall novel words. In
contrast, a group of bilinguals who learned their second language later in life (i.e., at an
average age of 12 years of age) showed trends towards the performance pattern of early
bilinguals, both in terms of learning novel words and in terms of recruitment of working
memory mechanisms (also see Van Hell and Mahn, 1997). Consistent with the threshold
model, it is likely that reaching of bilingual competence early in life conferred a set of
cognitive benefits on early bilingual participants that were reflected in different relationships
 Bilingual Language Development 59

between linguistic and cognitive processing, and in a lasting improvement in the ability to
learn new verbal material. In sum, bilingual children who show cognitive advantages are
typically raised in environments where both languages are frequently used from an early age,
and adult studies that have found bilingual advantages have also featured highly proficient
bilingual participants.

TOWARDS A DEVELOPMENTAL ACCOUNT

OF LANGUAGE-COGNITION INTERACTIONS

An emerging literature on bilingual language development suggests that, from its earliest
stages, bilingual acquisition differs from monolingual acquisition, not only in the fact that two
language systems are created instead of one, but also in terms of how cognitive resources are
employed to accomplish this end. While current studies are mostly concentrated in the
linguistic and nonlinguistic domains, research is needed that directly examines links between
linguistic and cognitive processes during bilingual development, in order to more fully specify
a developmental account of language-cognition interactions in bilinguals. Given current
findings in the linguistic and nonlinguistic domains, a picture of bilingual development is
emerging where increased complexity within the perceived input recruits and shapes cognitive
processes of selective attention and inhibitory control at early stages of language learning.
Table 1 provides a brief summary of this picture, where language acquisition challenges that
children face as they become bilingual are related to nonlinguistic, metalinguistic, and
linguistic aspects of processing that may be related to these learning hurdles.
While no current model of bilingual development can fully account for the confluence of
factors that interact during bilingual language development, we believe that a number of
developmental models make important contributions, and may in the future be combined into a
wider framework of linguistic / cognitive development. Specifically, connectionist frameworks
can effectively simulate children‘s statistical learning of regularities and patterns within the
phonological input, and the Self-Organizing Map of Bilingual Processing by Li and Farkas
(2002) realistically simulates bilingual infants‘ separation of auditory input into two distinct
phonological systems, based on the cognitive mechanism of lateral inhibition. Nevertheless,
the connectionist framework is currently lacking the functional cognitive dimension that is
likely to be an important contributor and guide to bilingual acquisition.
While adult models of bilingual language processing posit levels of intentionality and
language control (Dijkstra and Van Heuven, 2002; Green, 1998), the origin of such levels in
development has not currently been addressed. In the spirit of usage-based accounts, it may be
possible to derive cognitive mechanisms that support bilingual language development and
processing from domain-general cognitive resources, with increased efficiency and specificity
of cognitive mechanisms visible as the system matures and as language development
progresses.
60 Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian

Table 1. Examples of differences between bilingual and monolingual children in language

acquisition, linguistic processing, metalinguistic processing, and nonlinguistic processing

The speech signal contains two phonological codes instead of one.

Phonological codes have to be separated and individually refined.
Language Acquisition The speech signal has to be parsed for words according to two sets
Differences in Bilingual of phonotactic rules, transitional probabilities, and linguistic
Children contexts.
Two labels have to be learned for each object.
Exposure to two language systems instead of one may mean less
exposure to each language.

Bilingual infants are sensitive to a wider range of phonetic

Linguistic Processing contrasts than their monolingual peers.
Differences in Bilingual Bilingual children generate paradigmatic word associations more
Children frequently than monolingual peers.
Lower resting activation of representations and more effortful
retrieval / lower vocabulary.

Bilingual infants orient quicker to unfamiliar language input than

native-language(s) input; monolingual infants do the reverse.
Metalinguistic Processing
Bilingual children show better phonological awareness on some
Differences in Bilingual
tasks.
Children
Bilingual children perform better on lexical awareness tasks and
suspend the mutual exclusivity principle more frequently than
monolingual peers.

Bilingual children rely more strongly on visual cues, such as lip

Nonlinguistic Processing reading.
Differences in Bilingual
Children Bilingual children outperform monolingual children on
nonlinguistic inhibitory control tasks.

In general, the current state of science on bilingual development suggests that a broader
approach must be taken towards modeling language development, with a tight link to cognitive
development, and a cognitive system that encounters duality and conflict, and is trained to
appropriately resolve such situations. Importantly, the mutual influence of linguistic and
cognitive development on each other must be represented, such that linguistic exposure can
effectively trigger changes in cognitive control mechanisms. Finally, current functionalist
approaches can account for the demands of bilingual language acquisition, with language
development driven by an intention to communicate, and to achieve specific communicative
goals.
 Bilingual Language Development 61

CONCLUSION: LINGUISTIC AND COGNITIVE CONSEQUENCES

OF BILINGUAL DEVELOPMENT

Childhood bilingualism provides a unique context for examining the interaction between
linguistic and cognitive mechanisms in development. Specifically, evidence that bilingual
children differ from their monolingual peers in the linguistic and nonlinguistic domains,
supports the view that general cognitive tools may support language acquisition. In the words
of Liz Bates, ―[n]ature is a miser. She clothes her children in hand-me-downs, builds new
machinery in makeshift fashion from sundry old parts, and saves genetic expenditures
whenever she can‖ (Bates, 1979, p. 1). More recently, Gary Marcus wrote about language
―[w]here Shakespeare imagined infinite reason, I see something else, what engineers call a
―kluge.‖ A kluge is a clumsy or inelegant – yet surprisingly effective – solution to a problem.
Nature is prone to making kluges because it doesn‘t ―care‖ whether its products are perfect or
elegant. […] Adequacy not beauty is the name of the game‖ (Marcus, 2008, pp. 3-6).
Research in bilingual language development confirms the notion that children build a
language using general cognitive guides and building blocks, by showing that linguistic
experience in childhood seems to influence general cognitive processing mechanisms. Future
research on childhood bilingualism may further elucidate specific influences of bilingual input
on cognitive processing, while taking into consideration important factors in bilingualism
research, such as age of acquisition, language dominance, language exposure, the specific
language pairs that are being acquired, etc. (e.g., see Marian, 2008). Considering such factors
is important for theoretical reasons, in order to isolate specific mechanisms and thresholds for
language-cognition interaction, and for practical reasons, in order to define specific cognitive
consequences of childhood bilingualism across a tremendously diverse population of bilingual
children (e.g., see Goldstein, 2000).
Although bilingualism is pervasive (e.g., US Census, 2000), it is sometimes seen as a
disadvantage rather than an advantage, especially in education settings where English non-
native bilingual children may initially lag behind their monolingual peers in vocabulary
development (e.g., Verhoeven, 1994). It is less well-known that bilingualism may yield
significant cognitive benefits, both in childhood development and across the lifespan (e.g.,
Bialystok, Craik, Klein, and Viswanathan, 2004; Bialystok, Craik, and Freedman, 2007).
Research on how linguistic input influences cognitive capacities is increasingly necessary to
make the case for the teaching and maintenance of two languages in the education system.
Findings that cognitive benefits can be tied to aspects of bilingual processing may encourage
creation of language-learning environments where English non-native children can maintain
their first language (such as dual-immersion programs), and may provide support for early
foreign-language learning and immersion in standard curricula.
In sum, we propose that the study of language-cognition interactions in childhood
bilingualism can inform dynamics of language development in general, as well as the nature of
language. Specifically, current evidence that bilingual exposure during childhood results in
cognitive changes in the nonlinguistic domain lends support to the view that language is not a
strictly modular system, but is highly interactive with general cognitive mechanisms, and is
therefore (at least in part) a domain-general system. As a corollary, this recent evidence lends
support to usage-based accounts of language acquisition, with linguistic systems emerging
given statistical analysis of spoken input and general cognitive mechanisms that guide and bias
62 Henrike K. Blumenfeld and Viorica Marian

learning. The view of bilingual development that is proposed here is consistent with the view
of a dynamic bilingual system, where continuous reorganization of representation goes hand in
hand with language learning, and the system evolves with continued bilingual exposure (e.g.,
Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Li and Farkas, 1998). Recent evidence (e.g., Spivey, 2006) suggests
that, not only do linguistic representations undergo continuous re-organization during language
acquisition, but general nonlinguistic representations may also be honed and re-shaped with
continued exposure to specific language environments. The present chapter makes first strides
in extending this dynamic model to include higher-level cognitive function in bilinguals.

AUTHOR NOTE
Preparation of this chapter was supported in part by NIH grant NICHD-1R03HD046952-
01A1 to Viorica Marian. The authors would like to thank Margarita Kaushanskaya, Anthony
Shook, Scott Schroeder, and Caroline Engstler for comments and feedback on earlier drafts of
this manuscript.

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In: Recent Trends in Education ISBN 978-1-60741-795-8
Editor: Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 3

TEACHING AND LEARNING THE SPECIAL

RELATIVITY THEORY AT HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

Irene Arriassecq*1 and Ileana M. Greca†2

1
Núcleo de Investigación en Enseñanza de la Ciencia y la Tecnología
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas
Universidad Nacional Del Centro De La Pcia. De Buenos Aires
Campus Universitario, Paraje Arroyo Seco, Tandil, Pcia. de Bs. As. - Argentina
2
In-Praxis, Comunidades en Práctica.
Burgos, España

ABSTRACT
This paper discusses some topics that stem from recent contributions made by the
history, the philosophy, and the didactics of science. We consider these relevant to the
introduction of the special relativity theory in secondary education, adopting a
contextualized approach from a historical, epistemological and pedagogical point of
view.
The results of several investigations into the teaching and learning of the Special
Relativity Theory are presented. We discuss the pedagogical approach that we consider
appropriate to introduce this theory at high school level as well as how the treatment
given to the theory by the textbooks more commonly used by teachers can influence their
pedagogical decisions and the students‘ understanding of this topic.
We analyze the mental images of relevant concepts of Mechanics that Argentine
secondary students have and which are necessary in order to understand the Special
Relativity Theory. The results seem to indicate that the examined group of students has
not developed appropriate schemata to solve problems in which these concepts are
involved. Based on these results, we have formulated some objectives-obstacles that
should be overcome by students in a classroom context adopting a specific teaching
proposal that will provide for the significant learning of the special relativity theory.

*
[email protected].
†
[email protected].
72 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

We offer an outline of a teaching proposal to deal with the Special Relativity Theory
in Argentina at high school level. This proposal was designed within a theoretical
framework that takes into account epistemological, historical, psychological and
pedagogical aspects which are compatible among themselves.

1. INTRODUCTION
Albert Einstein is possibly the first Science celebrity who emerged from the media age
we live in. He was associated with ideas of transgression and rebelliousness. In addition to
this, several of the ideas related to his theory of relativity have been linked to the plots of
many science fiction productions. Although these connections could be arguable from the
point of view of science, they have certainly taken root in the minds of many young people.
Research into the different aspects of the incorporation of Contemporary Physics into high
school teaching has been carried out on a sample of students from more than fifty percent of
the Argentine provinces. The results of the research revealed that it is precisely the theory of
relativity the best-known reference to Physics among students, and that it is the one they
would be most interested in learning about. Nowadays it is extremely hard for teachers to
motivate teenage students to study Physics. Considering this, the good press given to
Einstein, especially during the World Year of Physics 2005, as well as his scientific
achievements, would contribute to the students‘ interest in the brilliant Special Relativity
Theory (SRT).1
On the other hand, the SRT is an especially rich theme for Science Education since the
students‘ first encounter with this theory should mean a crucial point in the learning of
Physics given the fact that the sense of continuity that may exist between traditional Physics
and relativist Physics is less relevant than what makes them different. In view of this, it is
desirable that students should develop a conceptual evolution as regards the SRT. We use this
term in the sense conveyed by Toulmin2 who uses it to refer to the coexistence of both
conceptions. The student is then able to identify the scope of validity of the ―old‖ conception
and to accept the truth and efficiency of the ―new‖ one.
Limited research work has been done on the students‘ and teachers‘ understanding of
concepts specifically connected with the SRT; most of the research dealing with concepts
related to the notion of relativity has to do with the relative movement within the Galilean
context. There exist many studies aimed at particular aspects of the SRT even though these
are mainly found within the sphere of university education, and to a lesser extent at secondary
level. (Saltiel y Malgrange, 1980; Hewson, 1982; Posner et al., 1982; Villani y Pacca, 1987;
Panse et al., 1994; Ramadas et al., 1996; Aleman Berenguer, 1997; Pietrocola e Zylbersztajn,
1999; Aleman Berenger y Pérez Selles, 2000; Martins y Pacca, 2005).
During the last few years, different approaches to teaching the SRT have been tried out
with quite varied results (e. g.: Bertali et al., 1979; G.I.R.E.P., 1991; Solbes, 1986 y Borghi et
al. 1993 en Villani y Arruda, 1998). On the one hand, some results obtained would suggest
that the ―enthusiasm‖ for learning the SRT could help overcome the difficulty that this
entails. On the other hand, however, according to some less optimistic results, the students do

1
Capuano et al., 1997.
2
Toulmin, 1997.
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 73

not interpret the relativist concepts taking the new concepts provided by the SRT as a starting
point, but in the frame of their spontaneous beliefs. What is more, according to those results,
the students‘ acceptance of this theory would be just temporary since it is opposed to their
deep convictions3. The difficulties one faces when teaching the SRT are certainly numerous.
Perhaps the most serious ones are the teachers‘ own professional training and the debatable
way in which many textbooks introduce the SRT giving distorted conceptual, historical and
epistemological views. That is the case in several countries such as Spain, Brazil, and
Argentina, where similar research has been conducted4.
In spite of these real obstacles, we reject the kind of statements that suggest that the SRT
is too abstract or that the students are not ready for it. This is sometimes argued by some
teachers in order not to introduce this topic (however valid it could prove to be.) Considering
the students‘ everyday experience, the traditional Mechanics we teach is also abstract.
According to the results of research into the students‘ understanding of traditional Mechanics
issues, the students have difficulty in constructing models in accordance to the ones
scientifically accepted by this theory which is considered to be more intuitive than others
including the SRT. Once again, it is worth stressing the importance of the students‘ interest in
the contents related to the SRT, which, as Ausubel5 points out, is one of the main conditions
for significant learning. Naturally, this is not enough for learning the SRT, but it is a key
previous factor.
In this chapter we introduce some elements in order to encourage teachers to deal with
the SRT in their classes. It consists of five sections of which the first two (items 2 and 3)
present a series of historical and epistemological reflections and some of the concepts we
consider appropriate for discussion. In the third section an example of a possible teaching
sequence is given, which has been put into practice at an Argentine secondary school in
Buenos Aires province (item 4). The results of the application of the teaching proposal are
discussed in the fourth section (item 5), and the last section presents possible approaches
(item 6).

2. SOME GUIDELINES TO DEAL WITH THE SRT AT SECONDARY

SCHOOL ADOPTING A CONTEXTUALIZED APPROACH
Several authors draw attention to the benefits of introducing Physics topics at secondary
level from a modern historical and epistemological point of view, which is called
contextualized approach. Matthews6 (1994) points out that, among other factors, introducing
topics related to the history and philosophy of science (HPS) in the teaching of science can
humanize science and facilitate the linking of science with personal, ethical, cultural as well
as political problems. Furthermore, this would encourage the development of reasoning skills
and critical thinking, and also contribute to a better understanding of scientific concepts. All
these aspects are necessary in order to fulfill the aims set up for teaching science in high-
school.

3
Villani,1992.
4
Rodríguez y Pietrocola, 1999; Arriassecq y Greca, 2005ª, 2006.
5
Ausubel et al, 1991.
74 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

According to the advocates of this contextualized approach, the history of science should
be used in class with the aim of helping students appreciate, among other things7,

a) The difficulties and obstacles that had to be overcome and the cultural, philosophical,
technological, etc. contexts in which the scientific theories developed and which
were different from the present one.
b) The fact that science is a human activity done by people who make partial
contributions by answering questions formulated in a particular period in history.
Seldom is there only one ―discoverer‖.
c) The fact that, in each period of history, scientists were not thinking about our
―present terminology‖ since they used the logic, methodological, and epistemological
tools, as well as the traditions prevailing at the time.

To sum up, through the HPS students should realize that the present knowledge is the
result of a long-term process in which theory and practical experience interrelate with each
other, and which is strongly influenced by philosophical, cultural, social, and even aesthetic
factors. Nevertheless, it has to be made clear that when using the HPS as a teaching tool to
provide scaffolding for a complex topic, oversimplification should be avoided. Otherwise, the
sense of the history of science, science itself as well as its concepts in teaching could be
distorted.
Even though the whole Physics syllabus could be approached from this viewpoint, the
SRT is too complex a topic to be dealt with in this way. The influence of the SRT has
exceeded the scope of Physics, and the knowledge of this theory is necessary in order to
understand the cultural productions of the 20th century. As Holton points out (1992), certain
breakthroughs in the field of science have had important consequences in other fields to such
an extent as to bring about substantial changes in the culture of that particular period. In the
same way as Newtonian Mechanics and Optics have influenced artists, thinkers, philosophers,
and politicians, some of Einstein‘s scientific works have had a significant influence on other
fields like philosophy, visual arts, or literature. Taking this point of view into account, we are
going to suggest some principles we consider necessary for introducing the SRT in high
school. A more detailed discussion of this can be found in Arriassecq y Greca (2002).

2. 1. Historical Contextualization of the SRT

A proper historical contextualization of the beginnings of the SRT should involve an

overview of what Physics was like at the time, and those contributions by researchers that
paved the way for this theory. The conditions of Physics until 1905 could be discussed for
this purpose.
The description of the Newtonian Mechanics program represents an interesting aspect in
connection with this. Until the end of the nineteenth century, it was believed that matter,
either discrete or continuous, was the constituent element of physical reality. The matter was
affected by forces (distance or contact forces) obeying the laws of Mechanics. According to
this viewpoint, the universe was a huge machine created by an ―engineer God‖. This theory

6
Matthews, 1994.
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 75

conceived the universe as corpuscles moving freely in a vast and uniform vacuum. It should
be noted that the other branch of Mechanics, the Cartesian one, did not support this
conception. They did not consider the universe a vacuum but a plenum. Since the birth of this
Newtonian idea of the universe, for almost two hundred years, its proponents had been
convinced they had the right theoretical framework within which they could explain ―every‖
phenomenon in nature, including the optical, caloric, magnetic, electrical, chemical, and even
biological ones. To put it briefly, ―At the same time, Mechanics gained precise meaning. It
became the theory that asserted that any observable phenomenon could be explained through
Newtonian Mechanics applied to the corpuscles that made up the universe and which are the
only real elements found in space and time‖8.
During the last third of the nineteenth century, the Newtonian program turned out to be
incompatible with the Physics of the time, especially with the Physics related to
electromagnetic phenomena. As a result, several scientists contributed to a new view of
nature. For example, whereas the Newtonian Mechanics program proposed the corpuscles as
the only real elements, Faraday suggested that the only real physical entity was force.
According to him, the world was a field of forces where some of them exerted pressure on the
contiguous ones, the particles being the points where potent forces converged. Since in the
explanation offered by Faraday there is no distance action, every change in one of the points
in space would bring about a change in the contiguous ones. As this process takes some time,
the disturbance would be propagated at finite speed. Through this theory that opposes
Newtonian Mechanics ideas, Faraday was able to explain some electrical phenomena.
Another important contribution was made by Maxwell, who developed a theory based on
the results of experiments on electrical and magnetic phenomena which had been carried out
during decades. This was an electrical and magnetic unified theory, condensed in four
equations that made it possible to demonstrate that the interaction between electrical and
magnetic phenomena can create permanent electrical and magnetic movement in the form of
waves that propagate at the speed of light. In accordance with the Mechanics principle that
established that waves required a material medium to be propagated, Maxwellian waves also
needed a corporeal medium so that their vibrations could support the electromagnetic forces
of the theory.
It is important to note that Maxwell had restated the notion of ether. Actually, as we have
already pointed out, the idea of the non-existence of a vacuum was still true for the Cartesian
branch of the Mechanics program. What Maxwell did was to introduce this idea in the
Newtonian branch, for the sake of the Mechanics in his theory. This hypothetical medium was
eventually called ―electromagnetic ether‖, and its search became a major topic of research.
There is another key characteristic of the electromagnetic theory proposed by Maxwell
that is related to what we mentioned above and contributed to the development of the SRT.
This is the fact that its equations enable us to deduce that, from the point of view of an
observer placed in that hypothetical ether, the waves are always propagated at the same speed,
irrespective of the speed of the source of those waves in relation to the observer. This concept
contradicts the Galilean transformations9 accepted by the Newtonian Mechanics Program.

7
Hodson, 1986; Kragh, 1989.
8
Boido, 1996, p. 357.
9
Let us remember Galilean transformations. For a reference frame S that is in rectilinear and uniform motion in the
direction of the axis x in relation to S‘, we obtain, x‘ = x + vt; y‘ = y; z‘ = z y t‘ = t. These transformations are
76 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

How did scientists react to this obstacle? One of the choices they had was to dismiss Maxwell
equations. However, such equations had already ―passed‖ all the experimental tests.
Another possibility was to consider Galilean transformations to be wrong. This was not
easy since it would have involved revising the whole Newtonian Mechanics because
Newtonian laws are invariant in relation to Galilean transformations10.
As a result, a middle ground was established. Only when applied to the ether at rest or all
the reference frames that were at rest with respect to the ether, were Maxwell equations to be
considered valid. In the case of reference frames that moved at constant speed in relation to
the ether, Maxwell equations had to be modified and the speed of light would be calculated
through the Galilean transformation. This experimentally confirmed that such ether could be
discovered.
This assumption was the starting point for the well-known experiments conducted by
Michelson and Morley.
There were many attempts at identifying the ether, that is to say, at detecting a change in
the speed of light within the reference frame of the earth which would move at a constant
speed in relation to the ether. After repeated failures, some studies were carried out in order to
modify the Mechanics program without altering the fundamentals of such. It was precisely
Lorentz who was in charge of these attempts to modify the theory by proposing new
equations about light transformation. These were not compatible with Galilean ones and

the usual ones within Classical Mechanics, which considers that time is always the same in all reference
frames regardless of the movement of such frames, and they remain valid for much lower speeds than that of
light.

10
The Galilean relativity principle stated that the laws of motion of bodies in a given space are the same in relation
to each other, provided they remain stationary or that they move in a rectilinear and uniform way - or, in other
words, that the laws that rule the phenomena preserve the same shape in both reference frames. This means
that all the phenomena studied, on a spaceship that is in motion for instance, should appear to be the same to
those on a stationary spaceship, with no way to determine, without external observation, whether the body is at
rest or in motion. As it is known, Newtonian laws are invariant with respect to Galilean transformations. The
problem arises because Maxwell‘s laws, which in principle originate in the same Newtonian theory, are not
invariant with respect to these transformations; Maxwell‘s equations do not preserve the same shape and, on a
spaceship in motion, the electrical and optical phenomena will be different from those of a stationary
spaceship, and so there would be a way of determining, without external observation, whether it is stationary
or in motion. For example, only from the perspective of an observer at rest, would the speed of light be the
same in every direction. In order to succeed in making electromagnetism equations invariant with respect to
Galilean transformations and, therefore, preserve Newtonian relativity, it was necessary to introduce new
terms into the equations that contained predictions of new electrical phenomena that did not exist. For this
reason, this attempt was abandoned.
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 77

provided an explanation for the results of the experiment conducted by Michelson and
Morley. Such equations are called Lorentz‘s transformations11.
A more ―epistemological‖ influence can be detected in the origins of the SRT. This
influence was due to Mach‘s criticism of Newtonian Mechanics. As Holton (1982) points out,
this influence is demonstrated in two crucial points of an article by Einstein published in
1905. In the first place, Einstein insists, right from the beginning of his article, on the great
importance of a profound epistemological analysis in order to solve Physics problems,
especially those regarding the meaning of the notions of time and space. The second point
that denotes Mach‘s influence is the fact that Einstein identifies reality with what can be
perceived through the senses.
Such was the context in which the SRT was conceived. When the old view of the cosmos
was being questioned due to a number of empirical, theoretical and epistemological problems,
the SRT offered possible solutions to them although they would mean a change in the idea of
the universe.
Apart from this historical contextualization regarding scientific matters, it is important to
highlight the general historical context, which will provide for an understanding of the
influence the SRT exerted outside the field of science. The SRT as well as quantum
Mechanics, which is another great theory that caused a revolution in science, were conceived
at the beginning of the twentieth century. That was a period of big political, artistic and
scientific changes which had in common the aim of finding new ways to approach reality,
moving away from the old conceptions.

2. 2. Epistemological Reflection on the Origins of the SRT

From an epistemological point of view, there are several aspects present in current
debates, which are worth discussing. Such aspects include the reflections on the origin of a
theory, its empirical contrasts, its applications, the role of the scientific community in the
development of a theory, as well as the influences of scientific production on society.

a) The Role of Experimentation in the Genesis of the SRT

There is evidence that confirms that the role Michelson‘s experiment played in the
genesis of the SRT has been minor and indirect. This evidence derives from a detailed
analysis of many studies in the field of the history of science, both general and scientific, that
include letters, interviews, statements, and autobiographical accounts. However, this opinion
was not popular among scientists. In fact, until recently, the scientific community regarded
the SRT as a huge theoretical success and the long-expected correct answer to Michelson‘s
experiment as well as the natural continuation of such12. This conception, influenced by the
scientists‘ empiricist view, is reflected in textbooks and reference books. This view is shared

11
Lorentz‘s transformations, for a system that travels at a speed v in direction of x in relation to another frame, are,
x  vt t  vx c 2
x'  t' 
1 v 1 v
2 2
2
c2
y‘= y; z‘= z; c
, with c as the speed of light. Lorentz found that if his
transformations were applied, Maxwell‘s equations remained invariant.
12
Villani, 1981.
78 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

by even brilliant books such as Berkley‘s Physics and Feynman‘s Lectures on Physics, as
well as others of recent publication.
Holton13 suggests that several events helped to reinforce this view. These include:

 The historical climate at that particular time, given the reluctance with which both
the results of Michelson‘s experiment as well as the SRT were accepted.
 The views expressed by Einstein himself in his first educational publications.
 The aim of textbooks, which is to convince students of the validity of a theory by
establishing connections between theory and experimentation.
 The prevailing experimental rationality in the scientific community.

In spite of this, a detailed revision of the genesis of the SRT suggests that, even though
Michelson‘s experiment had not been carried out, this fact would possibly not have
influenced the development of the SRT. Even before 1905, through Lorentz‘ work, Einstein
had learned of several vain attempts at determining the movement of the earth in relation to
the ether. However, according to some authors, it was not a concern for contradictory
experimental results but an aesthetical dissatisfaction what led him to write his article. There
was a need to have a new viewpoint to solve the theoretical contradiction that arose when
Maxwellian electrodynamics gave an explanation for the effects of motion between a magnet
and a conductor, depending on which of the two is at rest or in motion14. That need was the
starting point for the development of the SRT. In fact, the first paragraph of Einstein‘s article
in 1905 is devoted to accounting for the asymmetry between observable phenomena (that
depend only on the relative motion of the magnet and the conductor) and the decided
difference generally appreciated in both cases (whether the magnet or the conductor is either
at rest or in motion).
Suggesting that Einstein used Michelson‘s experiments as a starting point for developing
the SRT, helps to create in students a distorted view of scientific activity, favouring in this
way a completely empirical conception of science. In view of all the evidence that disproves
this, from an epistemological point of view15, it would be unwise to support such idea.

b)The Originality of the SRT

Important controversy was generated by Einstein‘s work16. In fact, there are as many
arguments in favour of the originality of his theory, as arguments that claim that it is the
logical corollary of other scientists‘ work. In our opinion, this fact provides another

13
Holton, 1973.
14
The explanation that emerges from Maxwell‘s equation is the following one; if the magnetic field is variable
(magnet in motion) there appears an electric field of certain energy that produces a current in the stationary
conductor. If the electric field is variable (conductor in motion) a field does not appear in the proximity of the
magnet at rest, but an electromotor force (e.m.f.) is established in the conductor. This force does not
correspond to any energy, but produces electric currents in the same direction and with the same intensity as
the previous electric forces – provided that the relative movement between the magnet and the conductor be
the same.
15
Matthews, 1994.
16
See, in this regard, a very interesting presentation in Villani‘s work (1981-1985), in which this author introduces
also the reason why Einstein‘s program succeeded in contrast to Lorentz‘, even though at the time there was
no empirical evidence for or against one of these theories.
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 79

possibility to deal in class with epistemological aspects whose discussion can favourably
influence the idea of science that students form throughout the learning process.
The knowledge of theories that dealt with the same issues as the SRT can help to
understand the revolutionary aspect of this theory, no matter how much influenced by other
scientists Einstein was. Moreover, it should be noted that historians have not reached
complete agreement on which works were really known by Einstein before the publication of
his theory.
We can cite two different opinions on this subject. The first is the one given by Sir
Edmund Whittaker, who was a renowned theoretical physicist whose work was concerned
with the history of science and who witnessed the revolution caused by the SRT. The other is
the view expressed by the physicist and science historian Gerald Holton. The reason for
choosing these two perspectives is that, apart from having been provided by these two
prestigious physicists, they put forward opposing views that promote a critical analysis of the
origins of the SRT. According to Whittaker, in his article of 1905 Einstein ―…expounded on
Poincaré and Lorentz‘ relativity theory‖17. Briefly, in his article of 1904, Poincaré made an
analysis of the criticism of classical principles, including Galilean and Newtonian relativity
principle, from the point of view of the Physics of that time. Poincaré argued for the need of a
change in Physics. He said, ―… we should probably have to develop new Mechanics of which
so far we have only had a glimpse, and in which the speed of light will become absolute as a
result of an increase in the inertia with the speed‖. Nevertheless, he did not state the new
relativity principle nor expand on his suggestion. Whittaker claimed that Lorentz‘ article of
1904 was the major contribution to the SRT since he assumed Einstein had based his work on
Lorentz transformations. However, Holton18 asserted that Einstein and his scientific circle
repeatedly denied this. Even Einstein himself assured not having read such article.
The purpose of this example is to illustrate that, following a historical and
epistemological contextualized view of the teaching of science, it would not be right to
introduce the SRT as the invention of a scientific genius. On the contrary, we should point to
the existence of other scientists working at the same time on the same problems. In other
words, we should stress that no scientific theory is developed in a conceptual vacuum.
It also would be interesting to analyze together with the students the kind of explanation
the SRT provided the scientific circle with. Battimelli19 believes that the distinguishing
feature of Einstein‘s theory lies in the fact of offering a new strictly theoretical model based
on some fundamental principles in order to account for things that require a scientific
explanation. This paradigmatic explanation radically changes the usual way in which models
were established within the Mechanics program – by reconstructing the properties from the
interaction between the main components. Since the development of the SRT, a new
paradigm of explanation has been adopted in Physics. In this paradigm, the properties of
phenomena observed in an empirical way and considered to be universally valid principles,
are the starting point of the theory20.

17
Whittaker en Holton, 1995.
18
Holton, 1995.
19
Villani, 1981, p. 30.
20
Apart from these points, the ―ideas‖ the STR generated in the scientific community can be the starting point to
analyze the originality of the theory. From the perspective of a physicist such as Feynman (1963) the most
relevant ones would be the fact that ideas that have been supported for a long period of time and have been
clearly demonstrated could be wrong, the fact that ―strange‖ ideas, such as time dilation when one is in
80 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

c)Reference to the Experimental Verification of the SRT

Even though the fact that a successful or failed verification could be definitive or not is
questioned from an epistemological viewpoint, in some cases there is no doubt about the
decisive role of empirical verifications in Physics. Some of the best-known epistemologists,
like Popper, Kuhn, Lakatos and Feyerabend, do not agree on this matter. In the case of the
SRT, great effort has been made to prove its validity. Attention to this verification should be
drawn in class, given the particularly counterintuitive aspects this theory reveals to those who
approach it for the first time. Among other publications that illustrate this, we can suggest an
article by Rossie and Hall that was published in Physical Review in 1941 and another one by
Friech and Smith that appeared in American Journal of Physics. These articles describe some
experiments that prove that tick of a clock as measured by an observer at rest is not the same
as the tick measured by an observer in motion.
However, it is necessary to stress that these experimental verifications were carried out in
a later context than the one in which the SRT originated. At the time of the SRT, such theory
was not empirically superior to Lorentz‘. In fact, that was the reason why Einstein was not
awarded the Nobel Prize for this theory but for the photoelectrical effect. For example
Fayerabend believes Lorentz‘ program was abandoned due to the development of quantum
Mechanics and not to the SRT.
One example of this is the fact that, contrary to classical Mechanics, the SRT has
succeeded in the experimental test of prediction of the addition of speeds. Astronomers have
detected in a galaxy a source of X rays from which luminous hot gas jets emerge. These
streams of gas travel along the same way but in opposite direction at a speed of 0.8c in
relation to the Earth. If the Galilean transformations were applied to calculate the speed of a
gas jet in relation to another one, the result obtained would be 1,6c, contrary to what the
second postulate of the SRT asserts. However, if, as the SRT proposes, Lorentz‘
transformations were applied, we would get 0,97c, which is the result experimentally
obtained through precise measurements with interferometers.

d)Reference to Applications of the SRT

Without taking sides in the epistemological discussion about ―the context of application‖
of a theory, it would be important that students reflect upon the fact that the SRT not only
deals with theoretical issues but mostly provides for the interpretation of different phenomena
such as subatomic particles, sources of nuclear energy, etc. For this reason, the SRT is not
regarded as a metaphysical thesis but as a physical theory that deals with empirical matters.
An example of this aspect that is closely related to our daily lives is the fact that ships
that use GPS (global positioning system) must take into account the relativist effects of time
dilation in order to work properly. Within this system, each satellite carries atomic clocks,
which are the most precise devices for measuring time. These clocks are based on the
frequency of the wave associated with the transition between two states of energy of
particular atoms or molecules. In order that the satellites could take precise measurements, the
time dilation of the clocks should be corrected21.

motion, can not be abandoned a priori, whether one likes it or not, and the fact that it is necessary to notice the
symmetry in laws, which is the way in which laws can be transformed and remain the same. This last approach
has characterized the research into the physics of particles and fields.
21
The first evidence for time dilation was precisely obtained in 1938 by using radiant hydrogen atoms. The faster
the atoms moved, the slower their vibration was in accordance with the STR. In 1971 four cesium atomic
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 81

2. 3. Impact of the SRT on other Fields

There are but a few theories that like the SRT have transcended the scientific field and
have had a sometimes strong influence on other areas, some of which students can hardly
imagine. These include philosophy, where it led to broad discussions, and the arts. As it was
previously pointed out, the fact of drawing attention to these aspects contextualizes scientific
knowledge and proves that this activity is not restricted to the scientific field but influences
other areas. However, students can realize this providing that the teacher encourages
discussion in this sense.

a)Impact ont The Scientific Circles

Scientists‘ reactions to the SRT varied considerably from one country to another.
Students should be encouraged to notice that this aspect shows that science is affected by the
social and cultural characteristics of a country, and that these can influence, either in a
positive or negative way, the promotion and support lent to an emerging theory.
We can appreciate this by analyzing the reactions in the countries with the most scientific
production like Germany, France, England, and the U.S.A. The German scientific community
was the only one that between the years 1905 and 1941 carried out a systematic analysis of
the SRT, despite the divergent opinions and a sometimes wrong interpretation of the theory.
Max Planck, who was a professor in Berlin and editor of Annalen der Physik, played a vital
role in this, supporting and promoting the SRT. At the same time, his follower von Laue
wrote the first book on the SRT in 1911. Contrary to this, in England the SRT was regarded
as an attack on the concept of ether which was totally relevant for the British Physics of the
time. This fact, as well as the mounting interest for Rutherford‘s newly created atomic theory,
made the SRT go unnoticed for years. Also in France and the U.S.A., for different reasons,
there was no considerable impact. In France, for instance, Poincaré never mentioned the SRT.
It is argued that he considered it to be only a minimal part of his theory. On the other hand, in
the U.S.A. the SRT was regarded as absurd and rather impractical.

b)Impact On Philosophy
Many philosophical issues deal with concepts of central importance that have been
modified by the SRT. These concepts pose questions such as, what kind of object do we refer
to when we talk about space and time? , are they, or the combination of them, a substantial
unit?, or do they address groups of relationships among things different from themselves? Or,
as Kant believed, could they possibly be shapes the mind imposes on a non spatial and non
temporal world? Accordingly, it is interesting to consider the different possible answers
science can give to these philosophical questions and see how they changed as a result of the
development of the SRT.
Discussions of time and space, which will be examined later in this work, began twenty
five years ago. However, nowadays such discussions will inevitably take Einstein‘s work into
account22. For this reason, students should be shown this close relationship between
philosophy and science which dates from the very origins of science.

clocks were sent aboard planes that made commercial flights and it was found that when they were compared
to the clocks that remained on earth, the ones that ―moved‖ recorded an average of around 100 nanoseconds.
22
Boido et al., 1998.
82 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

c)Impact on the Arts

It is worth analyzing the influences of science on the arts, especially the influence of
Physics on the conception of modern art, as reflected in the avant-garde art that has developed
since 1910.
The SRT replaced concepts which had been unquestionable so far with others which,
according to our notion of reality, are counterintuitive or even absurd. At the same time as
such theory developed, some artistic movements emerged which supported unconventional
conceptions of space and time, sometimes finding inspiration in non occidental cultures like
the ones in Africa and Oceania. Those cultures do not have a Euclidean conception of space
(a plane with straight lines) nor the idea that time passes at the same speed for everyone
regardless of who measures it. For example in painting, cubists (Pablo Picasso was one of the
creators of this style) distorted shapes, breaking in this way with the Renaissance tradition of
drawing in perspective. Different planes can be noticed in cubist pictures, for instance a face
with its sides overlapping. These would not be seen if it was drawn in perspective. The
volume of objects is broken allowing different angles to be seen at the same time. Another
artistic movement that developed in Zurich at the same time as Einstein was teaching in that
city was Dadaism. This movement broke with the occidental values ascribed to reality.
Essentially, they opposed to the rationality that is alleged to have led Europe into the First
World War.
As a result of this, many Art critics and historians tried to link the influences of the SRT
and the general relativity with some characteristics of the many avant-garde movements
between the year 1910 and the Second World War. On some occasions the art critics were the
ones who established the influences, as in the case of cubism, and on others the artists
themselves publicly stated that fact, as in the case of Dali. These references can be found even
today, like in the statements made by the plastic artist Matta when he presented his work in
1998 in Buenos Aires.
This fact does not necessarily mean that there was a direct influence, or that a linear
connection could be established between the relative aspects of art and Physics. Nevertheless,
this points out the importance of reflecting with the students on the fact that the development
of the SRT, as well as the other theories in other periods of time, takes place within a
particular scientific, social, cultural, and political context. Despite the difficulty in identifying
how the interaction between these contexts takes place, it is evident it does happen.
However, it should be made clear that the influences attributed to the SRT in art and
other cultural expressions sometimes brought about unfortunate results, to the extent of
distorting concepts of key aspects of the SRT, leading to a terminological confusion.
―Physical relativity‖, a term which has a clear meaning within the context of the theory, was
misunderstood as ―everything is relative‖, that is to say that all points of view on a matter are
equally valid and that ―truth‖ or ―reality‖ is the combination of all the views expressed on
such phenomenon. This was probably the most serious misunderstanding that the success of
the SRT caused outside the field of Physics. Even though you can adopt this epistemological
posture, such view does not emerge from the SRT, in which nature laws remain the same
regardless of the reference frame used. For this reason, the SRT is universally valid and even
more ―absolute‖ than classical Physics23.

23
In ―Feynamn‘s Lectures on Physics‖, Feynamn deals with this matter in a successful and humorous way.
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 83

3. CONCEPTUAL ASPECTS OF THE SRT

This section presents the concepts we consider should be stressed when introducing the
students to the main ideas of the SRT. The mathematics involved in the kinematic part of the
SRT does not cause any difficulty since it is relatively simple. Problems arise in the
comprehension process of the main concepts and the changes these introduce in the classical
way of thinking. As it has already been stated, many studies identify the difficulty the
students face when they have to understand the fundamental concepts of the SRT. As a result
of this, they either interpret them within a classical conceptual framework, which leads to a
misinterpretation of the phenomena, or they learn definitions and formulae by heart.
Unfortunately, both in textbooks and in class, the contents of the SRT are usually presented in
a strictly mathematical way that, although it is easier, makes students unable to grasp the
concepts involved and appreciate how they radically differ from their classical equivalents.
On the other hand, this conceptual understanding is vital for a contextualized view of Physics.
The reach and consequences of a scientific theory can be seen only by understanding what the
ideas expressed in the theory mean and to what extent they are novel and different from other
ways of understanding physical phenomena.
We have adopted Gastón Bachelard‘s view in order to select the most relevant concepts
to be discussed with the students. In his fundamental postulates, Bachelard argues that new
knowledge can be acquired only by drawing on previous learning, which is always false and
acts as an epistemological obstacle for scientific progress. These obstacles originate in
subjective knowledge and have to do with intuitive aspects, first experiences and general
knowledge, and even interests and opinions of an affective nature. Common knowledge
constitutes an epistemological obstacle for scientific knowledge since the first draws on
empirical evidence and the latter is based on the abstract world. As regards science education,
Bachelard points out the existence of pedagogical obstacles that hinder the students‘
acquisition of scientific knowledge. Such obstacles include ―basic experience‖ without a
critical analysis, the ―simplified presentation of laws‖, and the language as ―verbal
obstacle‖24.
With regard to the SRT, the concepts of space and time are, according to us, essential in
order to understand such theory and its consequences. However, the student has already
developed over the years his own definitions of such concepts. These constitute pedagogical
obstacles for learning the SRT, since they originate in ―basic experience‖ and have never
been analyzed from a scientific point of view. When we say in our Physics classes ―it is
divided by t‖, ―t is measured‖, ―a particle is analyzed in a particular point in space‖, and ―the
distance covered by a moving object is measured‖, etc., we rarely mention who takes the
measurements and how he does it. The same applies to time. Therefore, space and time
become pedagogical obstacles to be overcome by students in order to work out the theory. At
the same time, we consider that from an epistemological point of view, it is not possible for
students to build the concepts of space and time in the SRT unless they previously have the
notions of ―reference frame‖, ―observer‖ and ―simultaneity‖ within the frame of classical
Mechanics.

24
Bachelard, 1938, (ed.) (1997).
84 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

The following table presents a summary of the results of a survey25 which clearly shows
students‘ conceptions of the terms mentioned above. In the last row we indicate which
obstacles should be overcome by students in order to acquire new knowledge within the
framework of the SRT.

CONCE STUDENTS‘ CONCEPTIONS OBSTACLES

PTS
The notion of time is hard to Students assume that the
define. concept of time science deals
Time is a unity. with is the same as the one
Time is an absolute concept. we daily refer to.
Time Time is a relative concept. When students refer to
Time is symbolized on a clock. the concept of time from a
Time can be regarded as the supposed scientific point of
independent variable of a system of view, they commit mistakes
coordinate axes. such as confusing the terms
Time can not be represented. magnitudes and unities.
Nowadays it is not possible to Apart from that, they do not
travel in time for technological establish relationships
reasons. between these concepts and
It is not possible to physically the meaning of the process of
travel in time. measuring time magnitude.
Space can not be represented. Students‘ conceptions of
Space Space is the place occupied by space coincide with the
objects and the empty space in platonic model.
between.
The observer can be an Students relate the
individual or an instrument that notion of observer to the idea
Observ faithfully records facts. of a person who ―observes‖
er in the sense of ―watching‖ or
―looking at‖.

Two events are simultaneous Students consider that

Simulta when they occur at the same time simultaneity of events take
neity and place. place only if such events
occur in the same space.

Measur The instrument is the most The observer‘s role in

ing important feature in the measuring the measuring process is not
process. regarded as important by
students.

25
Arriassecq and Greca, 2005.
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 85

3.1. Insight into the Notions of Reference Frame and Relative Motion
within the Framework of Classical Mechanics

First of all, and before introducing the SRT, a serious discussion about the notions of
―reference frame‖ and ―relative motion‖ in the Galilean sense should be conducted, even
though these topics have already been developed before the relativist approach. Different
studies suggest that students have alternative notions in this respect. They regard the reference
frames as a piece of space connected with a concrete object, whose size and shape delimits
that space. Also, according to them, this reference frame, where an observer watches the
phenomenon, can include other smaller bodies. Despite the fact that the Galilean relativity
principle laws would quite simplify the matter, they are rarely employed by students. Thus,
they mistake the invariability of the laws between reference frames in relative motion for the
invariability of time within a given frame. In addition to this, research has shown that students
of Physics, and even graduates, tend to regard the ―reference frame‖ as a ―decorative touch‖
with no explanatory purpose. This demonstrates they lack a metaconceptual understanding of
the concept to be used as a tool that allows an appropriate formulation of the physical
relativity principle. These concepts of ―reference frame‖ and ―relative movement‖ are found
in the fundamental postulates of the SRT. Such are the invariability of all physical laws and
the invariability of the speed of light in a vacuum within inertial reference frames. For this
reason, and given the difficulties they present, such concepts should be thoroughly discussed
before approaching this theory.

3. 2. The Concepts of Space and Time and the Notions Associated

with Simultaneity and Observer

As we have already pointed out, it is important to insist on a conceptual treatment of the

notions of space and time since one of the most important consequences is precisely the
change in these concepts in contrast to the interpretation given by classical Mechanics.
However, when we try to define or deal with these concepts in class difficulties arise;
probably, one of the reasons for this has a connection with the fact that the concept of time,
according to Loma26, affects everything: work, economy, information, language, biology; it
determines our life, which itself is temporal‖.
In spite of these differences, all the notions of time can be analyzed as a continuum that at
the same time includes other notions at its ends. ―Motion‖ or ―change‖ is found at one end,
and ―rest‖, ―continuity‖ or ―duration‖ at the other one. In this regard, time and change seem to
be closely linked from a philosophical as well as from a scientific point of view. If we
consider this from a scientific perspective, on the one hand we place Galileo, Leibniz,
Berkeley, and later Mach, who regarded time as relative to movement and therefore, to
change. On the other hand, we find Newton, who had a conception of time as absolute,
universal, independent of movement, and that bore no relation to changes. Despite the fact that
in practice the non operational nature of the concept of absolute time leads to the use of the
Galilean concept of time as relative to movement, according to the Newtonian paradigm time
86 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

is common to all observers and bears no relation to matter. As a result, simultaneity is an

absolute concept, independent of the state of motion of the reference frames.
Newtonian concepts have been criticized throughout history. Berkely and Leibniz were
the first ones to do so at the time. However, the criticism expressed by Mach in his work
―Historical and Critical Analysis of Mechanics‖27 is probably the most relevant to the SRT. In
this work, Mach argued that absolute time has neither practical nor scientific value. He
considered that in order to be scientific, a notion of time should be objective, which is only
achieved through measurement. What is important is the instrument that should be placed
where the particular event takes place. Thus, the result achieved is not universal. At the
beginning of the twentieth century Poincaré supported Mach‘s view and in his discussion he
centered on two issues which were relevant to science and had not been considered before; he
refers to the circularity of some concepts of great importance for Physics, among which he
mentions precisely space and time. Poincare solves this problem by assuming that time is
what a specific measuring instrument shows and that the properties of time are the same as
that of the clocks, in the same way as the characteristics of space are the same as the ones of
the measuring instrument.
Poincaré‘s view proposes an alternative to the problem of circularity of the definition of
concepts such as space and time. However, another issue of central importance for Physics
arises. This is the notion of simultaneity, which is a primary and absolute concept in
Newtonian Mechanics since it is an essential property when the idea of absolute time is
accepted, and it requires that the measuring instruments (for example clocks) be where the
events take place. It is also necessary for the ones who will eventually manipulate the clocks
(observers) to be in touch with each other and ―decide‖ whether or not the events were
simultaneous.
In fact, Einstein himself started by adding complexity to the notion of time when he
proposed the idea of simultaneity; he said, ―We must take into account that all those
judgments in which time is involved, are always judgments that refer to simultaneous events.
If I say, for instance, ´that train arrives at seven´, I mean something like he hour hand on my
clock pointing at number seven and the arrival of the train are simultaneous events.‖
To illustrate these matters, Einstein used the following experiment. Let us imagine the
experiment is carried out on a railway track, where there is a torch that is at rest with respect
to the track. The torch emits a beam of light as shown in the diagram. Our purpose is to
determine the time when the event takes place.

Figure 1.

26
Loma, 1999.
27
Mach, 1949.
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 87

If the observer O (Figure 1), with his watch, is situated in the same position as the torch
and just in front of it, when the torch emits the beam of light the observer looks at his watch
and there will be no ambiguity as regards the time in which the event takes place (event and
instrument in the same place). However, if another observer is positioned, with his watch, at
A at a certain distance as the diagram shows, it will take some time for the same beam of light
to reach A. Therefore, when the observer positioned at A looks at his watch, the result will
not be the same as the one measured by O. If a third observer stands at B, he will record, for
the same event, a different time from the one recorded by O and A.
his proves how untenable are the Newtonian notion of time as absolute and universal,
and, as a result, the idea that simultaneity is a fact in any system. According to the SRT, two
events that appear to be simultaneous in a given reference frame, will not, in general, be
simultaneous in a second framework that is in motion with respect to the first one. Therefore,
simultaneity is not an absolute concept but depends on the state of motion of the observer.
This is the relativity of simultaneity.
This question is clearly illustrated in another thought experiment provided by Einstein.
Let us suppose a train carriage travels at constant speed and two bolts of lightning strike each
end of the carriage as shown in the picture. The bolts of lightning leave marks on the carriage
and on the ground, A’, B’, and A, B respectively. An observer O’, who is moving along with
the carriage and who is at rest with respect to it, is halfway between A’ and B’. Another
observer O, who is at rest on the platform, is equidistant from A and B (Figure 2). The events
observed by both O and O’ will be the flashes of light (Figure 3). Both flashes reach O at the
same time. As a result he will conclude that the events at A and B took place simultaneously
since they traveled the same distance at the same speed.

Figure 2
88 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

Figure 3.

If both events are this time considered from the point of view of observer O’, when the
light reaches observer O, observer O’ has moved as it is shown in the picture on the right.
Thus, the flash of light has already reached O’ whereas the light from A’ has not.
Einstein‘s interpretation of this result is based on the assumption that the speed of light
has the same value regardless of the reference frame in which it is measured. If this is so, the
reason for the fact that one of the flashes of light from the bolts of lightning A’ and B’ arrives
before the other one, is that the bolt of lightning that strikes the front of the carriage does it
before the other lightning strikes the rear of such carriage. Therefore, two events which prove
simultaneous for O are not simultaneous for O’.
The concept of simultaneity may prove to be confusing for those students who do not
accept the relativity principle that demands the equivalence between the physical laws within
the inertial reference frames. Thus, students tend to regard the observation recorded by an
observer positioned on the ground as more real than the one by an observer who is in
motion28.
We have made a detailed analysis of this matter in order to show the need to discuss in
class the concepts of space and time as well as the role of these concepts in classical
Mechanics to be later ―reinterpreted‖ within the framework of the SRT. Even though we are
not going to enlarge on this, it can be appreciated that the observer plays a key role within the
SRT. In the field of classical Physics, in which the speed of light has an unlimited value, it is
enough to regard an observer as a person positioned within a reference frame, with a
particular instrument, such as a chronometer to record time. Ricci29 believes that students
would associate the idea of observer with that of a person who ―observes‖ in the sense of
―watching‖ or ―looking at‖. Therefore, it is essential that the student should realize, from a
Physics point of view, that ―observing‖ is not the same as ―measuring‖ within the context of
the SRT. At the same time, ―measuring‖ requires that the notion of observer should be
redefined. For this reason, the notion of ―observer‖ within the SRT should include the idea of
recording events that have occurred in distant places.
The deductions about the quantitative relations for time dilation and length contraction
could be simply made through any of Einstein‘s imaginary experiments which are found in
most textbooks. The reference frames, the measuring instruments as well as the operational
way of measuring, what has been observed by each observer in his reference frame, and also
the fundamental postulates of the SRT should be highlighted.

3.3. The Concept of Space-Time and Minkowski’s Diagrams

After the article on the SRT had been published in 1905, a new mathematical
interpretation was given to this theory when the mathematician Hermann Minkowski
developed the new concept of space-time. Einstein himself used the mathematical concept
developed by Minskowski, who was his professor at university, when he later constructed the
general theory of relativity. Even though the algebra involved in Minkowski‘s mathematical

28
Aleman Berenguer and Pérez Celles, 2000.
29
Ricci, 2000.
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 89

formulation of the SRT could not be grasped by secondary students, the graphic solution30
offered by such approach could be dealt with. This, in addition, allows reintroducing the
discussion of the concepts of reference frame and simultaneity.
Based on the idea that not only the positions of the objects but especially the events that
take place at a certain time are important within the SRT, Mikowski proposed an
interpretation of the universe as a four-dimensional space-time web. This replaced the idea of
assigning one temporal and three spatial dimensions to each event.
Let us suppose that a person moves with URM along a railway track. An observer O who
is at rest with respect to the railway notices that the rear of the train enters the tunnel at the
same time as the front comes out of it. The following diagram (Figure 4) shows what that
observer O notices about the movement and position of the carriage at every instant. The line
of the diagram that indicates how an object progresses through space and time, in this case
how it moves, is called world line. The positions of the front of the carriage in space and time
recorded by O are represented by each point on that line.

Figure 4.

The interpretation of the diagram is the following:

30
See, for instance, the supplementary topics A and B by Resnick, 1977, and the appendices A and B by Mook and
Varguish, 1998.
90 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

- The vertical lines represent the entry into the tunnel and the exit from it. Given the
fact that the tunnel is at rest with respect to the observer, the position is the same as
time progresses.
- There is a point where the world line of the front of the carriage is intersected by the
line representing the position of entry into the tunnel. That point at which the two
lines intersect represents an event, which is the entry of the train into the tunnel. The
other events are the exit of the front of the train (intersection of the world line of the
front of the train and the exit from the tunnel) and the entry of the back of the train
into the tunnel (intersection of the world line of the back of the train and the entry
into the tunnel). It can be appreciated that the rear of the train enters the tunnel at the
same time as the front emerges from it. This takes place at 8 units of time.

Let us analyze now a space time diagram for events that take place in two spatial
dimensions as well as a temporal one. Let us suppose a beam of light is emitted at a particular
instant of time, at a certain point in space. As time progresses, the beam will evolve into a
sphere of light. After a millionth of a second (1.10-6s) the sphere of light will have a 300m
radius; after two millionths of a second, a 600m radius, etc. The evolution of the flash of light
from the initial event can be graphically represented as a three-dimensional cone in four-
dimensional space-time which is called future light cone of the event (Figure 5). Another cone
can be symmetrically drawn. This cone is known as past light cone of the event, and it is
made up of the number of ―possible‖ events from which, provided they were beams of light,
the original event could be reached. These past and future light cones of a certain P event
(present event) divide space-time in three regions as can be seen in the picture.

Figure 5.

The absolute future of P event is the internal area of the future light cone of such event,
and it is made up of all the possible events which could be affected by what is happening to P
at that precise moment. The absolute past of P event is the internal area of the past light cone
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 91

of such event, and it is made up of the number of possible events that would be able to affect
P if they moved at the same or less speed than the speed of light. The elsewhere is the area of
space-time outside the past and future cones of light of event P and it comprises the events
that can not affect or be affected by P at that particular moment. Yet, an event B can
eventually affect us; if the sun exploded at that exact moment, we would only learn about
such event 8 minutes later and it could not affect us before that time.
This kind of diagram can help to imagine and represent some key concepts of the SRT. In
principle, a light cone can be built for each event that develops in space-time, which
comprises all the possible luminous ways such event may follow. The postulate that
establishes that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light is also represented. This
means the path any object takes through space-time is represented by a line that necessarily
falls within the light cone of an event that includes it (Figure 6).

Figure 6.

Now we are going to discuss how this kind of diagram allows deciding for or against the
simultaneity of events that occur in different reference frames. For this purpose, we will again
consider a thought experiment proposed also by Einstein. A passenger O‘ is aboard a train
carriage that travels at constant speed v with respect to another observer O who is positioned
within an inertial reference frame, for example at rest in relation to the platform. O‘ is
positioned at exactly the middle of the carriage and at a certain moment he turns on a torch.
Let us suppose the carriage is equipped with a sophisticated system that allows the two doors
P1 and P2, which are situated at the front and at the rear of the carriage, to open when the
light from the torch reaches them. Instead of using Lorentz‘ transformations to decide upon
the simultaneity of the events for O and O‘, Minskowski‘s diagrams can be used. This can be
done in a qualitative way, which means not assigning any speed to the train. It is only
assumed that it travels at a speed close to that of light. At the same time, and in order to
simplify the diagram, we will give the speed of light a value ―1‖ (in this way the straight line
that represents it will form a 45 degrees angle with both axes) and therefore, (if the speed is
calculated applying the condition that c = 1) instead of representing time on one of the axes (it
is a rule within the SRT to represent time on the vertical axis) we will be representing ct. As a
result, according to observer O, the space-time diagram for the events of the opening of the
door at the front (E1) and the opening of the door at the rear (E2) is the following (Figure 7).
92 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

Figure 7.

- P1 and P2 are the world lines for the doors at the front and at the rear, which
according to O’, remain in the same place and are therefore represented by parallel
lines running perpendicular to the x-axis.
- H1 and H2 are the world lines for the beams of light emitted by the torch. As a value
of ―1‖ has been given to c, these beams are represented by two straight lines forming
a 45 degrees angle with respect to the axes.
- The intersections of the world lines of the beams of light and the carriage doors
represent the events of the opening of the doors E1 and E2. It can be appreciated in
the diagram that these events are simultaneous for O’.

Let us see now what O would represent (Figure 8).

Figure 8.

The behaviour of the beams of light is not modified, which agrees with the second
postulate of the SRT, even though the train aboard which the torch is would be in motion in
relation to O. For this reason, the world lines are the same as the ones in the previous
diagram. However, the representation of the world lines for the doors, which according to O
are moving at the speed of the train, does change. Accordingly, the lines are no longer
perpendicular to the axis x but form an angle that has the same value as the tangential arc of
the speed of the train measured by O. From O‘s point of view, event E1 precedes E2.
Based on the previous conclusion, we can discuss whether it is possible to alter the order
in which two or more events take place by only changing the reference frame. Or, in other
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 93

words, if it is possible to contradict the causality principle (every cause precedes the effect).
Minkowski‘s diagrams can be used in order to answer these questions.
Consider now the following thought experiment. A beam of light is emitted by a torch A
at the same instant of time as such torch is turned on (event 1), and another torch E is turned
on when the light from A has not reached it yet (event 2). The places where the events 1 and 2
occur are far enough as to allow that observers positioned in different inertial reference
frames could reach different conclusions as regards the temporal order in which the events
happen; event 1can precede, take place after, or at the same time as event 2, depending of
where the observer is positioned.
Let us see what happens in the following picture (Figure 9):

Figure 9.

In the case that has been represented, the places where the above-mentioned events occur
are close enough for the beam of light from torch A to reach torch E before it is turned on. In
this situation all the observers, regardless of the state of motion, will agree on the temporal
order in which the events take place; event 1 precedes event 2. This is the case when two
events are linked by causality. Let us suppose that event 1 is the cause of event 2 (the light
from torch A turns on torch E). In order for this to happen, a signal should travel from the
place where A is to the one where E is and, as we have already discussed it, the SRT does not
allow the speed of propagation of data to be higher than that of light. Therefore, both torches
must be close enough so that the light from A could reach E before it is turned on. The fact
that any observer notices the same temporal order for the events can be interpreted by
assuming that it is not possible for an observer to move in such a way as to record the effect
before its cause.

3.4. Clarification of Paradoxes

As the SRT started to be discussed within the scientific sphere, spirited debates were held
which were usually regarded as paradoxes. It would be interesting to encourage in class the
discussion of any of them and explain the reason why in fact they are not such. ―The twins‘
paradox‖ and the ―length contraction paradox‖ are among the best-known ones. In the twins
paradox two astronauts have the peculiarity of being identical twins in order to allow the
comparison of the biological effects of time dilation on each of them. Through an experiment,
the astronauts move away from each other at a speed comparable to that of light. It can be
supposed that both of them travel away from each other aboard spaceships with a rectilinear
and uniform motion. In this way, each of them makes calculations (assuming they know the
94 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

SRT) and arrives at the conclusion that it is the other the one who remains younger, given the
fact that the laws are invariant in both frames. However, they can not ―empirically
corroborate‖ this until they see each other face to face. In order to do this, one of them should
turn around and catch up with the other leading to the fact that the twin who comes back will
be younger than the other. How can this be possible if the situation is, in principle,
symmetrical? The return of one of the twins means regulating speed, and, even when it is
possible to disregard acceleration (making the trip last as much time as possible so that the
time that acceleration takes could be disregarded) and to assume that the return trip is made in
a rectilinear and uniform way, the twins will be in two different inertial frames. This fact
makes this situation asymmetrical for them and proves the paradox invalid. This is a
qualitative way of solving the paradox within the context of the SRT31.
Another interesting paradox, which is related to subatomic Physics, is the muons
paradox. The muons are basic and unstable particles with the same electric charge as the
electron and 207 times its matter; they can be produced when cosmic radiation strikes atoms
at a great height in the atmosphere. The average life of the muons is 2,2 s when it is
calculated within a reference frame at rest in relation to them. If, added to this, we take into
account that their speed is approximately the same as that of light it can be assumed that these
particles travel 600 meters before disintegrating. However, the distance between the higher
layers of the atmosphere surrounding the earth‘s surface (within the earth‘s reference frame)
is of much more than 600m and, in spite of that, the particles are experimentally detected on
the earth‘s surface. This apparent paradox is solved through time dilation. Let us consider
that, within the earth‘s reference frame, the muons travel in relation to it at a speed close to
that of light; therefore, the time measured within the earth‘s reference frame is t   t . If
we assume that the speed of the muons is approximately of 0,99c, it follows that t   16s .
As a result, the distance covered by the muons as measured from the Earth is vt   4800m
(Figure 10).

Figure 10.

31
Another option is to adopt a graphic solution by using Minkowski‘s space-time diagrams.
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 95

In 1976, in Geneva, Switzerland, the laboratories dependent on the CERN (European

organization for Nuclear Research), were able to make the muons move at a speed of 0,9994c
by means of potent elementary particles accelerators. The life time of the muons in motion
was measured and the value obtained was approximately 30 times higher than that of the
muon at rest, proving right, as a result, the predictions of the SRT.
The paradoxes (or the explanations that look like such) generally motivate students and
the discussions to which they may lead demand the reconsideration of conceptual aspects that
are crucial for understanding the SRT. We can also include here discussions about major film
productions that usually motivate teenagers, and analyze the conceptual errors from the point
of view of Physics, and particularly, of the SRT. Typical examples of such productions are
the three versions of ―Back to the future‖, ―Terminator I and II‖, ―Star Trek‖ (either its
version as film or as TV series), and ―Philadelphia Experiment‖ (which specifically alludes to
an experiment on relativity). In most of them, either the principle of the speed of light as a
limit is violated, or the implications of the SRT are distorted allowing the fact of travelling
backwards to the past.

4. DESIGN OF A TEACHING SEQUENCE

In order to design a teaching sequence, three complementary principles are applied, an
epistemological, a psychological, and a pedagogycal one. In the epistemological principle, as
has been stated in the previous section, Bachelard‘s approach is adopted. According to
Bachelard, a deep epistemological analysis of the intrinsic problems of a given theory is the
starting point for conducting research into such. Following Bachelard (1991), the
epistemological analysis of the content of the SRT is taken as starting point (Arriassecq y
Greca, 2002). This analysis helps define the central concepts we intend students to interpret
and build within the frame of this theory. These concepts are the concepts of space-time, and
the notions associated with reference frame, observer, simultaneity, and measurement, which
are essential to the relativist understanding of space-time.
The psychological principle was defined by basing it upon a synthesis of various
perspectives on the development of concepts which help interpret how students are able to
conceptualize some specific content in class. Some aspects of the theories constructed by
Vergnaud (1990), Ausubel et al. (1991) and Vigotsky (1987) were particularly taken into
account and were adopted as complementary theoretical frameworks.
Although some important teaching consequences stem from the theoretical references
previously mentioned, it is considered necessary to adopt some specific teaching approach.
Therefore, we have followed Jean Louis Martinand (1986)32 who proposes for the design of a
teaching sequence, the notion of ―objectives obstacles‖. This means that the intellectual
progress to be achieved within a teaching context should correspond with the overcoming of
epistemological, psychological, and methodological obstacles. In this way, the teaching
objectives, especially in science education, should not be defined a priori and regardless of
the students‘ mental pictures, which is what usually happens, but should agree with the
intellectual transformations students undergo when a certain obstacle is overcome.. In a

32
Martinand, 1986.
96 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

similar way to Bachelard‘s, Martinand stresses the need for not regarding the obstacles as a
negative aspect of learning, which could lead to a block preventing students from achieving
the desired objective, but as a dynamic and motivating aspect. It is necessary to evaluate from
this perspective all the existent and possible obstacles, and decide upon the ones that seem
could be overcome at the given level, within the given content and context in which they are
expected to be overcome. In this connection, Astolfi33 argues that the main problem in
promoting learning involves selecting, from among the range of possible objectives, the ones
which seem appropriate for a sequence, and which, in terms of obstacles that can be
overcome, are demanding enough for students to feel motivated but which, at the same time,
are carefully set so that, within the class context in interaction with other students, the teacher
and the materials at hand, the students are able to arrive at the desired solution.
In this way, based on the difficulties present in the conceptualization of time, space,
observer, simultaneity, measurement, and reference frame, we made a list of objectives-
obstacles which should be overcome by the student, within the classroom context and
mediated by the teacher, in order to meaningfully learn the SRT. These objectives-obstacles
appear in the table below.

CONCEPTS OBJECTIVES
To analyze the concept of time from different
perspectives: from a philosophical, a scientific, and a
psychological point of view.
To appreciate the range of possibilities of graphically
Time representing time magnitude.
To identify the concepts involved in the process of
measuring time.
To interpret the concept of time within the paradigm of
the SRT recognizing the differences with classical
Mechanics.
To redesign the space model built, adapting it to meet
the requirements of classical Mechanics.
Space To interpret the concept of space within the paradigm
of the SRT recognizing the differences with classical
Mechanics.
Observer To redefine the notion of observer adapting it to the
SRT.
To analyze the different possibilities of simultaneous
events within classical Mechanics.
Simultaneity To analyze the different possibilities of simultaneous
events within the SRT.
To appreciate from a Physics point of view that within
the context of the SRT ―to see‖ is not the same as ―to
Measurement measure‖.
To study the relation among the measurement process,

33
Astolfi, 1999.
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 97

observer, and instruments.

To solve different problematic situations which demand
Reference Frame an analysis within different reference frames.
Postulate To analyze the role of the postulates within the SRT.
Scientific Theory To discuss the present status of the SRT.

Taking into account the results obtained in various research works (Arriassecq y Greca,
2002, 2003, 2005 a, b, y c, y 2007) and the theoretical framework adopted, a teaching
proposal has been developed in order to deal with the SRT. Such proposal comprises five
stages.
In the first stage, questions of a historical and epistemological nature are discussed. These
refer to the notion of science, the characteristics of scientific work, the evolution of ideas in
science, and the influences of the social, historical, and cultural context on the birth and
validation of scientific theories.
In the second stage, the concepts of classical Mechanics which are necessary in order to
interpret the SRT or which are even substantially modified by the theory are thoroughly
revised.
Then, we deal with the concepts of electromagnetism that come into conflict with
Classical Mechanics and which are later reintroduced by Einstein in the SRT.
Afterwards, the fundamental aspects of the SRT are discussed, based on the original
article of 1905 and by analyzing it from different perspectives so that the student is able to
build new schemes that will enable him to deal with situations that demand the reformulation
of classical concepts.
Finally, in the fifth stage of the proposal, it is intended that students get acquainted with
some aspects of Alfred Einstein‘s life as an ordinary man, which go beyond the ―myth‖.
The key concepts of the SRT are reintroduced at different stages when the proposal is put
into practice, using a range of representations of them such as the algebra and graphics in
Minkowski‘s diagrams. This kind of representation allows qualitative estimates that include
the possibility of comparing the measurements made by different observers, deciding upon
the simultaneity of events, etc. An important part of the discussion takes as a starting point the
situations-problem in which the obstacles are present. The different stages of this proposal
and the estimated time each will take are detailed in the appendix.

5. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TEACHING PROPOSAL

5.1. Context of Application

In this section we describe the results of the implementation of the teaching proposal that
has been designed to teach the SRT and has been carried out at polimodal level at an
Argentine school.
A qualitative methodological approach has been adopted for this analysis. Such analysis
demands a detailed description of the contextual aspects involved. In this particular case,
these aspects, which are briefly described below, relate to the institution where the
investigation was conducted, the authorities, the teacher, the group of students, and the kinds
98 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

of bonds that existed among them, as well as the kind of work to which both teacher and
students were used to, the work strategies they applied, the estimated time the proposal would
take, and the adjustments that it was necessary to make considering the particular
circumstances that could not be anticipated.
The group of students that took part in the investigation was the third year class of High
Scool level with a scientific orientation at a traditional school of the town of Tandil in Buenos
Aires province. The group was composed of twenty seven girl students who had two weekly
hours of Physics. The topics of Physics they had dealt with in the two previous years involved
Newtonian dynamics and kinematics; in third year, they had dealt with topics concerning
optics (especially geometry) before approaching the SRT.
The school authorities gave us enthusiastic support over the course of the investigation.
We consider it important to highlight that in order to conduct the investigation within the
selected class, an agreement was made both with the teacher and with the students in which
the role of the researcher in the classroom was established; she would be an observer and not
a participant. The kind of relationship she intended to establish with the students and the
teacher who took part in the investigation was also made clear so that they could work
comfortably, in a relaxed way as they were used to.
The intended work atmosphere was generated and the students were inhibited when
working, even when the researcher approached them with the tape recorder in order to record
some discussion.
As regards the qualifications of the teacher in charge of the subject, she holds a
bachelor‘s degree in Physics and Mathematics and has ten year‘s teaching experience. When
this proposal was implemented, she had not done any postgraduate courses, neither on this
specific content nor on pedagogy; the courses she had attended were the training courses
offered by the Ministry of Education or the local university.
With regard to her knowledge of the SRT, this teacher, just like other teachers in this
town, had only been formally instructed in this topic when doing Modern Physics, which is
only one subject of the course of studies at the teaching training college.
On several occasions, the teacher said that due to her lack knowledge of the topic she felt
insecure, even though she was ready to face the challenge of approaching it. Every time she
solicited for support, this was given to her through meetings in order to discuss particular
aspects of the written material or the proposed activities.

5.2. Results of the Implementation

In order to evaluate the application of the teaching proposal, we examined in a

complementary way the results obtained through the gathering of data from different sources
– initial test, post-test, activities done by the students (solutions given to the proposed
activities, written tests, mind maps, stories, and cartoons). A detailed discussion of this
analysis can be found in Arriassecq‘s doctoral thesis, in the press. Owing to the fact that many
of the activities were done in groups, this is not an individual evaluation but an evaluation of
the group as a whole.
The results of the analysis of the activities that have been selected to evaluate the
teaching proposal, seem to indicate that, even though the circumstances were not the most
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 99

favourable ones34, many of the proposed objectives have been achieved as it can be
appreciated in the fact that students overcame some of the epistemological obstacles detected
in the description of the initial profile of the group that took part in the investigation. The
results we have obtained show that the students were able to modify some concepts they used
when dealing with Classical Mechanics matters which were not correct from a scientific point
of view. Had these modifications not been made, the topics of the SRT that are scientifically
agreed upon would not have been incorporated in a meaningful way.
The analysis of activities related to Classical Mechanics concepts (initial test, problem
solving, making mind maps, devising stories, cartoons, and the final test) would suggest that
the obstacle of conceiving the concept of time in Physics as we do in daily life, or reducing
this concept to only its units of measure, has been overcome. The modification of this
conception would be due to the objective of identifying the concepts involved in the process
of measuring time.
At the same time, the debate on the history of the concept of time led the students to add
complexity to the concept, becoming aware of the difficulties that a pragmatic view of such
would entail. Therefore, the students‘ response to different activities and their comments in
class seem to indicate that the objective of analyzing time from different perspectives
(philosophical, scientific, etc.) has been achieved – in accordance with the first mentioned
objective.
The concept of simultaneity was approached in class through some activities. Despite the
fact that, as regards Classical Mechanics, the mind maps made by the students did not select
this concept, there seems to be a favourable development of other concepts connected with
this one, such as reference frame, observer and measurement, which are fundamental to the
SRT. In the answers to the initial questionnaire, which coincided with the results obtained
with other groups (Arriassecq and Greca, 2005 b and c), the first concept was not taken into
account in order to approach different proposed situations and the second one was reduced to
the idea of a person who ―watches‖ or, to put it redundantly, ―observes‖.
After working in class and doing different problem solving activities throughout the
implementation of the proposal, these conceptions were modified coming closer to a
scientifically accepted one. For the purpose of illustrating this point new ways of
conceptualizing have been transcribed; ―the movement of an object can only be described by
adopting a reference frame‖ (A1); ―in order to determine the speed of an object both a
reference frame and an observer are required‖ (A2); ―the observer who intends to describe
some physical phenomenon should adopt a reference frame and use the appropriate
instruments for each kind of measurement‖ (A3); ―if an observer has to record times, he needs
instruments that are synchronized with those of another observer in order to compare results‖
(A4).
According to the results, it can be assumed that the following objectives have been
achieved:

34
The two periods of Physics were divided in two different days. One of those days was Monday to which all the
national holidays were moved. Therefore, many classes were missed. On the other hand, several activities
typically done by students in their senior year (trips, special days) and other institutional ones ( teacher
training courses) took place on the days assigned to Physics classes.
100 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

 To analyze the relationship between process and measurement, observer and

instrument
 To solve different problematic situations that require an analysis from the
perspectives of different reference frames
 To notice that, from a scientific point of view, that within the context of the SRT
measuring is not the same as ―observing‖
 To examine the relationship between measuring process, observer, and instruments

The rest of the concepts that have been selected following an epistemological analysis,
are within the conceptual field of the SRT, and have been evaluated according to the results
obtained from the students‘ mind maps of the SRT, cartoons or stories, and a final test.
As regards the concept of space, it has been initially detected that the students‘
representations agreed with the Platonic model that states that ―space is the place that bodies
occupy‖. A radical modification of such interpretation of the concept of space was made, as
we can appreciate by comparing the initial test with the final one in which twenty six out of
twenty seven students disagree with such statement. In connection with this, the following
objectives seem to have been achieved:

 To interpret the concept of space within the conceptual field of the SRT establishing
the differences with Classical Mechanics
 To interpret the concept of time within the conceptual field of the SRT establishing
the differences with Classical Mechanics

All the four groups that made mind maps of the SRT were able to identify relativity both
in space as in time in relation to the adopted reference frame. As regards the cartoons, five out
of the six groups stated the same as it was expressed in the mind maps. With regard to the
final test, all of the students answered that the measurements of certain length depend on the
reference frame adopted by the observers, even though half of the answers that offered an
argument for which measurement would be smaller were incorrect. This shows that, even
though there is evidence that the students are able to notice one of the consequences of the
SRT, which is length contraction, they are not capable yet of solving specific problems that
involve this concept.
As regards the concept of simultaneity, out of the four mind maps made by the groups of
students, two considered this concept as relevant, and established appropriate connections
with other concepts, showing an understanding of the relativity of simultaneity as a
consequence of the SRT. One of the other two groups did not even mention this, and the other
one placed it on the mind map but did not establish important connections with other
concepts. On the other hand, only one group mentioned and made correct use of this concept
in the cartoons. In the final test, twenty four students selected the correct option that stated
that the simultaneity of two events can be established even when such events do not occur in
the same place. In spite of the fact that this point could suggest that the obstacle noticed in the
initial test would have been overcome –the students used to think that events could be
simultaneous provided they occurred in the same place – we are aware of the fact that there
was not enough time to deal with different cases of simultaneous events both within the field
of Classical Mechanics as within the field of the SRT as it was stated in one of the objectives.
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 101

We believe that this is the reason for the different answers in the final test and for the fact that
this concept did not appear as relevant in the maps and the stories and/or cartoons.
With regard to the concept of postulates, these were identified and appropriately
connected with other concepts of the SRT. In the stories and cartoons, two, out of the six
groups, included them in their productions, two other groups did not take them into account,
and the other two mentioned only one of the postulates. In the final test, almost all the
students (twenty three and twenty seven students respectively) gave a correct answer to the
items that involved the concept of postulate, which seem to indicate that they have been able
to incorporate the meaning given to this concept within the context of the SRT. This means
that the aim of analyzing the role of the postulates within the SRT has been accomplished.
However, there was no opportunity to see if from an epistemological perspective more
appropriate meaning was given to this concept than the one expressed in the initial test.
A similar case to that of the postulates applies to the concept of scientific theory. Even
though there are no elements to assert that they have modified the concepts from an
epistemological point of view, there seems to be evidence that the obstacle initially detected –
a narrow view of scientific theories – has been overcome, at least in relation to the example
they dealt with, the SRT. Therefore, the objective of discussing the present status of the SRT
has been achieved.
All of the students answered – in the final test – that the SRT is not a mere theoretical
speculation, but an experimentally verified theory accepted by the scientific community. Also
all of the students asserted that the SRT has technological applications and have knowledge of
one of such with more implications for daily life such as the GPS. Apart from that, almost in
all the answers (twenty six) it was asserted that SRT did not emerge in answer to Michelson
and Morley‘s failed experiments. As regards the ―creation‖ of the SRT, a bit more than half of
the answers stated that the theory had not been formulated exclusively by Einstein although,
as we have already suggested, it is possible that there has been a problem with the
interpretation of the instructions or with the formulation of such, since the ones who argued
for Einstein‘s exclusive authorship also added that he did not construct it in a conceptual
vacuum and that there were other scientists who made contributions to the SRT.
With regard to the personal aspects of Einstein‘s life – a stage of the proposal which
could not be dealt with at length for reasons of time – although that was not what the material
was intended for, the students highlighted the most ―scandalous‖ aspects of his private life
and they seemed to have intended to ―compare‖ his professional performance with his
personal attitudes. It seems as if they were unable to realize that these are two different
spheres, and that was precisely the idea that was intended to be conveyed through the
discussion but there was no opportunity to facilitate this in an appropriate way. The students
assumed that being bright, dedicated, creative, successful, renowned, etc. ―guaranteed‖ a
successful private life, too. Another aspect that was contrary to the nature of the proposal and
appeared in connection with this point was the fact that two groups considered two
characteristics of Einstein´s work – his ―solitary‖ work ―isolated from the problems of
society‖ – as desirable for scientists in the present.
To sum up, we consider that, given the circumstances in which this proposal was applied,
the results obtained, at least as regards the conceptual aspect, have been quite satisfactory,
taking into account that there are signs that indicate that most of the proposed objectives have
been achieved.
102 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

Despite the difficulties with the application, the results achieved by this group of students
on this occasion in terms of the learning of concepts that are central to the SRT, seem much
better than the ones obtained when approaching the SRT in a way we could call traditional,
by having a textbook as only teaching resource.
Therefore, we consider it really is possible to introduce elements of the SRT in secondary
school by using the material we have designed, in spite of the teachers‘ lack of knowledge of
the topic and the little time available. Apparently, this introduction to the theory proves
profitable for students not only in the sense that they are introduced to more ―modern‖
Physics – even though this is one century old! – but also because it seems to allow them to
revise and gain a deeper understanding of classical concepts such as the concepts of time,
space, reference frame, simultaneity, observer and measurement, which go unnoticed in
traditional teaching practices.
On the other hand, the question that necessarily arises is whether this proposal proves too
lengthy (and ambitious) to be carried out at secondary level in the present circumstances. In
other words, is it possible for other teachers to apply this proposal? If the contents of the SRT
are dealt with during the last term of the last school year, as it was the case this time and
seems to be standard practice, the answer will be negative. The proposal should then be
abridged at the risk, of course, of omitting some fundamental elements of its epistemological,
educational, and psychological conception.
However, considering how relevant it proves to students to develop a better
understanding of classical concepts that emerges precisely from contrasting them with the
relativist ones, it would be desirable that teachers become convinced of the importance of
dealing in detail with the SRT and not leaving this topic for the end of the last year of
secondary school. From this perspective, the whole proposal could be perfectly put into
practice since, according to the results outlined in this chapter it does not present students
with any ―insurmountable‖ difficulties in understanding such topic, except for the problems
any new topic may pose.
In spite of these problems, the experience we have gained through sharing this material
with teachers working at secondary level – one of whom was the teacher in charge of the
class in which the proposal was put into practice – indicates that the material is relevant to
them, gives them a more global view of the SRT, of its central concepts and their relationship
with classical ones, and of the historical and epistemological aspects involved in its creation.

6. FINAL COMMENTS
In this chapter we aimed to contribute to the incorporation of topics that are more
relevant to the present into the science syllabus at secondary school, within a contextualized
framework for science education.
We believe that studying historical cases such as the SRT, and placing them in the time
such theories were formulated, would prevent students from adopting a distorted view of
scientific methodology and from considering scientists as ―super geniuses‖. Therefore,
students would be allowed to see how different ideas become more powerful concepts that
together build conceptual frameworks like scientific theories. Apart from that, this approach
makes it possible to appreciate the contributions made by several historical characters towards
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 103

the creation of a new scientific conception, even though later they were not successful, or did
not receive the recognition of their peers at the time they developed their ideas. We consider
it important to stress once again that the introduction of the SRT can not be restricted to a
historical and epistemological approach that does not include a conceptual discussion
especially of those concepts regarded as relevant and which precisely give sense to such
approach.
The proposed teaching sequence has been put into practice with students taking their last
year at secondary school, obtaining the positive results we have outlined, especially as
regards the significant learning of concepts that play a key role in the SRT, the understanding
of several questions concerning the construction and acceptance of a scientific theory, as well
as a more profound and interesting revision of many concepts which are central to Physics.
We are now working on the construction of applets through Minkowski‘s diagrams, so that
students could make use of them when this proposal is applied in the future. In this way
students would be able to work with these kinds of diagrams which would otherwise not be
possible since they are difficult to make without the aid of computers, and demand too much
time on students. We hope that the use of these applets will help students grasp concepts such
as reference frame, simultaneity, proper and improper time, and length, and will give them the
possibility of making qualitative and quantitative estimates within the context of the SRT.
Finally, we would like to point out that the teaching approach we have adopted – a
historically and epistemologically contextualized approach which was conceptually,
psychologically, and pedagogically supported – can be used to introduce at secondary school
other topics concerning modern and contemporary Physics, most of which pose problems
from a teaching perspective similar to those with the SRT. These include lack of conceptual
knowledge on the part of teachers, superficial or unattractive approaches in textbooks, and
sometimes the absence of any.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The first authoress of this work has received financing by the National Agency of
Scientific and Technological Promotion, FONCyT (BID 1728/OC-AR) - PICT - 05 Nº:
34479-234.

APPENDIX
FIRST STAGE (Estimated time: two-hour class plus the amount of time the student
devotes to reading and doing the activities outside the classroom). It comprises one activity
and one text discussion.

1) Introduction
2) Scientific knowledge: its origin and some distinctive features.
2.1. Aristotelian cosmology.
2.2. The main characteristics that differentiate scientific knowledge from other kinds of
knowledge.
104 Irene Arriassecq and Ileana M. Greca

Second Stage (Estimated time: two classes of two hours each plus the amount of time the
student devotes to reading and doing the activities outside the classroom). It consists of ten
activities and text discussions.

1) Revision of the main concepts of Newtonian Mechanics which are necessary in order
to interpret the SRT.

1.1 The concept of motion within Physics. Activity 2.

1.2 The concept of speed. Activity 3.
1.3 Change of reference frame
1.3.1 Equation corresponding to the identity transformation
1.3.2 Equation of transformation for stationary reference frames which are separated by
a constant distance
1.3.3 Galilean equations of transformation
1.4 The concepts of space and time
1.5.1 Application of Galilean transformations to calculate the distance between two
points
1.5.2 Application of Galilean transformations to calculate the speed of a
body in motion
1.5.3 Application of Galilean transformations to calculate the acceleration of a body in
motion
1.6. Galilean relativity principle

Third Stage (Estimated time: a two-hour class plus the amount of time the student
devotes to reading and doing the activities outside the class). It consists of one activity

1. The aspects of electromagnetism linked with the SRT

1.1. Brief account of the concept of ether
1.2 Maxwell‘s theory and its incompatibility with Galilean equations of transformation

Fourth Stage This stage comprises a total of six activities and text discussions.

1. Special theory of relativity

1.1. Let us start from the beginning: the ―origins‖ of the SRT
1) How can we define and measure time?
2.2.1 The role of simultaneity in the measurement of time
2.2.2 Operational definition to establish the moment when an event takes place
2.2.3 Synchronization of clocks
2.2.4 Relativity of simultaneity
2.2.5 Determining the time when an event occurs from the point of view of an observer
who is in motion with respect to it
(Estimated time: a two-hour class plus the amount of time the student devotes to reading
and doing the activities outside the classroom)
 Teaching and Learning the Special Relativity Theory at High School Level 105

2) Determining the length of an object from the point of view of an observer who is in
motion in relation to it
3) Lorentz‘ equations of transformation
4) Transformation of velocities within the SRT
(Estimated time: a two-hour class plus the amount of time the student devotes to reading
and doing the activities outside the classroom)

5) New relation between the concepts of space and time within the SRT: the space-time
5.6.1 Minkowski‘s diagrams
5.6.2 Applications of Minkowski‘s diagrams
(Estimated time: a two-hour class plus the amount of time the student devotes to reading
and doing the activities outside the classroom)

6) Experimental verifications, applications, and impact of the SRT

5.7.1 The origin of the SRT
5.7.2 Experimental verifications
5.7.3 Technological applications of the SRT
5.7.4 Impact of the SRT on different fields
(Estimated time: a two-hour class plus the amount of time the student devotes to reading
and doing the activities outside the classroom)

7) Albert Einstein, a man

(Estimated time: a two-hour class plus the amount of time the student devotes to reading
and doing the activities outside the class) It comprises an activity and text discussions

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de la Relatividad Especial en el nivel polimodal argentino a partir de un estudio de caso.
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In: Recent Trends in Education ISBN 978-1-60741-795-8
Editor: Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 4

TELEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION EDUCATION

Kostas Kampourakis*1 and Vasiliki Zogza†2

1
Geitonas School, P.O. Box: 74128, Vari Attikis, 16602, Athens, Greece
2
Department of Sciences of Education and Early Childhood Education,
University of Patras, 26500 Rion Patras, Greece

ABSTRACT
According to the teleological view of nature before Darwin the function of an organ
determined its form, in other words organisms were considered to possess those organs
that would enable them to perform all necessary functions properly. Darwin‘s
evolutionary theory advanced the priority of form over function, in the sense that the
existing variation and the available forms within a population posed constraints to the
possible performed functions. Considering these, it is interesting that studies in
conceptual development research have shown that young children exhibit an intuitive
teleological reasoning. Two different explanations for its origin have been proposed
which agree on that it is characteristic of students‘ explanations for biological properties
from very early in childhood. Since teleological explanations both in pre-Darwinian times
and in students‘ conceptual development are based on preconceived plans or on the
intention to achieve goals, in this chapter the major types of teleology that Darwin‘s
theory had to confront are described and studies in conceptual development research
focusing on intuitive teleological reasoning are reviewed. Then particular implications for
evolution education are discussed and it is concluded that evolution instruction should
focus on conceptual change from explanations that presuppose design etiologies, which
were popular in pre-Darwinian times and which also predominate in students‘ intuitive
reasoning, to explanations that presuppose consequence etiologies which are compatible
with Darwin‘s theory and current evolutionary biology.

Keywords : evolution; teleology; design; intuitive explanations; etiologies.

*
[email protected] , [email protected].
†
[email protected].
108 Kostas Kampourakis and Vasso Zogza

INTRODUCTION
In order to explain a particular effect, one needs to identify its cause. Causes are usually
to be found in the past and to precede their effects. For example, the circulation of the blood
can be explained in terms of the function of the heart (‗blood circulates in the body because
the heart pumped it‘) and the particular arrangement of the books in a bookshop can be
explained in terms of the action of the bookshop owner (‗the books are distributed on the
bookshelves thematically because the bookshop owner put them that way‘). However, these
particular effects can also be explained in a different way. The circulation of the blood can be
explained in terms of the function of the heart in the human body (‗blood circulates in the
body in order to deliver oxygen to the tissues‘) and the particular arrangement of the books in
the bookshop can be explained in terms of the intention of the bookshop owner (‗the books
are distributed on the bookshelves thematically in order to facilitate customers in finding the
books of their interest‘). These explanations, in which the effect seems to serve a particular
goal or purpose (telos), are called teleological explanations. In teleological explanations
something happens ‗for the sake of‘ something else; something takes place ‗in order to‘ make
something else possible. Hence, at first sight in the teleological explanations mentioned above
causes seem to be found in the future. However, this is not the case because one also needs to
take into account the evolutionary and developmental history of the human circulatory system
as well as the intention of the bookshop owner (for relevant analyses see Ruse 2003; Lewens
2004; Ariew 2007).
Teleological explanations, within the Western intellectual tradition, have their roots in the
philosophies of Plato (427-347 B.C.) and of his student Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) (Lennox
1992a; Ariew 2002). These two philosophers built the foundations for the study of natural
philosophy and natural history, and their views had an enormous influence on scientific
thought until the 19th century. In this chapter the major aspects of Plato‘s and Aristotle‘s
teleological reasoning are presented, and their relation to the teleological reasoning of
William Paley (1743-1805) and Georges Cuvier (1773–1838), respectively, is also discussed.
Paley‘s and Cuvier‘s were the most important (teleological) approaches to the study of nature
at the beginning of the 19th century and were actually those that Charles Darwin‘s (1809-
1882) theory had to confront. However, even Darwin‘s explanations can be considered in a
particular, limited sense as teleological.
Teleological explanations have also been found to exist among students‘ intuitive
explanations of biological phenomena (Southerland et al. 2001; Shtulman 2006; Kampourakis
and Zogza 2008). Two explanations have been proposed for the origin of this reasoning.
According to one view young children prefer teleological explanations mostly for biological
kinds. They view artifacts, such as chairs, and biological traits, such as eyes, as existing to
perform particular functions and tend to differentiate them from non-living natural objects,
such as mountains, which are not considered to perform particular functions (Keil 1992;
1994; 1995). According to another view, teleological explanations result from young
children‘s understanding of intentionality and are not limited to any particular type of objects
until later in development. Hence, children think that both artifacts and natural objects of any
type (both living and non-living) perform a particular function (Kelemen 1999a; 1999b;
1999c). Despite these differences, both proposals agree that children adopt design-based
teleological explanations for living kinds early in childhood which are maintained until the
 Teleology and Evolution Education 109

age of 10 years old. Moreover, a separate body of research suggests that teleological
explanations seem to be independent of the religiosity of students‘ families (Evans, 2001;
Kelemen, 2003). This body of research suggests that, besides students‘ religious views, a
major obstacle for understanding evolution might be this intuitive teleological reasoning.
Several studies in conceptual development research have documented that resistance to
scientific ideas may derive from assumptions and biases that originate early in childhood and
that may persist into adulthood. Both adults and children have been found to resist acquiring
scientific information when it clashes with their intuitions about the world. Moreover, it
seems that the main source of resistance depends on what children know before they are
taught about science, and as far as evolution is concerned it is their teleological intuitions
about agency and design that make it difficult to accept (Bloom and Weisberg, 2007). In
addition, patients with Alzheimer disease were found to have a tendency to provide
teleological explanations similar to that of pre-school children, as they explained that rain
exists in order to provide water for plants and animals and that trees existed in order to
provide shade. These findings suggest that the preference for teleological explanations may
persist throughout life and reemerge when other beliefs are limited or compromised
(Lombrozo et al. 2007). Hence, analyzing and understanding students‘ teleological
explanations may be useful for evolution education. For this reason, these explanations could
be the target of any instruction aiming at conceptual change, as a prerequisite to achieve
learning.
The process of conceptual change is the process that leads to the rejection of old concepts
and to the accommodation of new ones. This requires a conceptual conflict situation during
which students find their current concepts inadequate for grasping new phenomena
successfully and, as a result, replace or reorganize their concepts. For conceptual change to
occur there must be dissatisfaction with existing concepts, and the new concepts must be
intelligible, must initially appear plausible, and must suggest the possibility of a fruitful
research program (Posner et al. 1982). Conceptual change can be not only the replacement of
old concepts with new ones but also the replacement of an old pattern of constructing
explanations with a new one. Hence, conceptual change from intuitive to evolutionary
explanations can be achieved if students have found their explanations insufficient to explain,
if they have found the new explanations easy to understand and to apply to new cases as well
as sufficient to explain phenomena they have been previously unable to explain, and if the
new explanations have the potential to open new areas of inquiry. A conceptual change
process from intuitive to evolutionary explanations should include: a) documentation of
students‘ intuitive explanations, b) a conceptual conflict situation, where students‘ intuitive
explanations would be challenged, and c) instruction on how to apply the new explanatory
framework to novel cases. The more critical of these stages is the stage of conceptual conflict.
Three conditions need to be fulfilled in order that students experience conceptual conflict
between two conceptions: a) both conceptions have to be intelligible b) both conceptions have
to be comparable and c) only one of the two conceptions has to be plausible (Hewson and
Hewson 1984). Hence, for conceptual conflict to occur between explanations it is necessary
that students can understand both of them, that they can compare them to realize that they are
in conflict and that they can apply both of them to new cases and realize that only one of them
is plausible. If this process is successful, conceptual change will probably occur; students will
reject their intuitive explanations and they will accommodate the new, more plausible ones
introduced to them during instruction.
110 Kostas Kampourakis and Vasso Zogza

In this chapter, the major types of teleology that Darwin‘s theory had to confront are
described and it is shown that it differs significantly from the theories of Paley and Cuvier.
Moreover, the sense in which Darwin‘s theory can be regarded as teleological is explained; in
his case the explanation for the presence of traits is based on their function without any
reference to final ends or purposes that drive the development of the organism. Hence, it is
argued that Darwin‘s explanations are a type of teleological explanation (that is based on
consequence etiologies) which is essentially different from the teleological explanations of
Paley and Cuvier in which final ends predominate (that is based on design etiologies). In
addition, studies in conceptual development research focusing on students‘ intuitive
teleological explanations are reviewed and it is shown that students exhibit a preference for
design etiologies from very early in childhood. We conclude that evolution instruction should
focus on conceptual change from design etiologies, which predominate in students‘ intuitive
reasoning, to consequence etiologies which are compatible with current evolutionary biology.

TELEOLOGY IN THE HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

Platonic and Aristotelian Teleology

Plato had addressed in his dialogues some important issues that would later become
central questions both in philosophy and in science. In Timaeus, Plato attempted to explain
the creation of the universe as the artifact of a Divine Craftsman or Demiurge. The motive to
develop this idea seems to have been the wide spread of the view of mechanistic materialism
in the beginnings of the 4th century B.C., according to which there was no design and order in
the structure of the universe. Plato considered the universe as a logical, living entity
possessing a soul which was the primary cause of any transformation. As the dominant entity,
the soul controlled everything through the final causes which determined every action in
which the soul was involved, managing to impose control on any chance events (Κάλφας
1995, p. 85-90). For Plato, the final cause of the creation of the universe was the transfusion
of the soul of the Demiurge in his artifact, something that could be achieved by the imposition
of order over disorder. Order in the perceived universe was equal to the existence and
domination of the mind. The universe should have a body, but a mind and a soul as well in
order to be a perfect artifact. Hence, the major aim of the Demiurge was to form the universe
and to create its soul (Κάλφας 1995, p. 69-70).
This process had to take into account the actions of Need that seemed to impose
constraints to the work of the Demiurge. Need was a second force, after the Demiurge, and
was the mythical equivalent of the action of the co-causes, meaning the properties that had to
do with the structure of matter. Thus, Plato recognized two types of causes: the divine (final)
and the necessary (mechanistic), causes and co-causes respectively, and thought that they
were interdependent and not in conflict (Κάλφας 1995, p. 283). Consequently, the universe
was an artifact that resulted from the purposeful and rational action of the Demiurge that had
finally dominated over the irrational Need (Κάλφας 1995, p. 92). Teleological explanations
predominate in Timaeus, and its actual contribution in natural philosophy is the perception of
the universe as an artifact as well as the domination of teleology over mechanistic causality
(Κάλφας 1995, p. 107-109). This idea eventually regards the natural world as ―unnatural‖,
 Teleology and Evolution Education 111

as it is not the product of natural processes but the product of art and of a benevolent and wise
craftsman (Lennox, 2001, p. 281).
Aristotle, a student of Plato, was influenced by his teacher‘s views. However, his
philosophy differs significantly from Plato‘s. The differences between these two philosophers
can be summarized in the statement that Aristotle viewed theology in natural terms whereas
Plato viewed nature in theological terms. Aristotle inherited the teleological argumentation
against mechanistic materialism from Plato (Κάλφας 1999, p. 53). But contrary to Plato,
Aristotle posed important questions relevant to biological phenomena which he attempted to
answer through their deep understanding; he tried to provide answers by identifying natural
causes within the organisms, rather than by looking for causes beyond the organism (Moore
1993, p. 41-42). Aristotle thought that there were four causes acting within nature and that
knowledge could be gained through their understanding. These causes were the Efficient
cause, the Material cause or matter, the Formal cause or form and the Final cause and
Aristotle considered all four of them as necessary for explanations (Κάλφας 1999, p. 116-
117). Matter and form were not causes in the current sense of the term; the former referred
not only to the material a body was made of but also to any circumstance required to make
this happen, whereas the latter referred to the internal structure and not only to shape of the
body (Κάλφας 1999, p. 201).
Aristotle thought that final causes served the maintenance of the organism. In particular,
the final cause for the existence of an organ would be its usefulness to the organism that
possessed it when it would use it (Ruse 2003, p.17-19). Contrary to Plato who accepted
teleological explanations as long as the explanandum was the outcome of rational design,
Aristotle thought that organisms acquired some features because they were functionally
useful to their life without any requirement of a preceding intention or design (Lennox 1992a;
1992b). For Aristotle the teleological approach was the main approach to understanding
biological phenomena and it seems that in many cases it actually made him identify functions
that would not have been noticed in a solely descriptive approach. In Timaeus, Plato had
described the possible role of invisible structures in the organisms‘ functions, thus failing to
identify the exact structures that were involved in particular functions. On the contrary,
Aristotle, having studied systematically the anatomy of organisms, succeeded in explaining in
detail which structures were related to particular functions (Cosans 1998).

The Teleological Approach to the Study of Nature Before Darwin

Before Darwin the teleological approach was widely used to explain the origin of the
complex structures that could be found in nature. The world was considered to exhibit so
much complexity that could only be explained as the result of the work of a Designer. This
argument is briefly described as the argument from design. An important criticism of this
worldview came by David Hume (1711-1776) who made the following objections: a) evil,
imperfections and wasted material could be found in the world, b) more than one designers
could be perceived to exist, and c) the argument as originally stated could explain some but
not all types of complexity found in the world (Oppy 1996). Hume‘s criticism resulted from
his empiricist approach in the study of nature and from his intention to protect philosophy
from the anti-empiricist approach of theology: ―…that the universe, sometime, arose from
112 Kostas Kampourakis and Vasso Zogza

something like design: But beyond that position he cannot ascertain one single circumstance,
and is left afterwards to fix every point of his theology by the utmost license of fancy and
hypothesis. This world for aught he knows, is very faulty and imperfect, compared to a
superior standard…‖ (Hume 1779/1993, p.71). However, in pre-Darwinian times and despite
Hume‘s criticism, the Platonic and the Aristotelian teleological approaches in the study of
nature found two important proponents: William Paley and Georges Cuvier, respectively.
Paley was the major proponent of natural theology and believed that the complexity and
perfection of the natural world, documented by its empirical study, were the most powerful
argument for the existence of God (Ruse 2003, p.41). According to this view, all patterns,
symmetries and laws found in nature reflected the thoughts of God. Consequently, the study
of nature was a way to prove His existence. This approach, to prove something that should
not demand proof, could have been considered blasphemous in earlier times. But Paley lived
at the end of a long period of reformations, of production of new knowledge and of
expression of heretical ideas. Hence, as philosophers like Hume had injured the authoritarian
status of religion, through the argument that it was based only on faith and not on factual data,
Paley tried to confront this skepticism with rational arguments and data taken from the study
of nature (Thomson 2005, p. 6-10). In particular, Paley used the metaphor of the organism as
a watch and of God as a watchmaker, according to which a complex structure, like the watch,
could not have emerged accidentally but required the existence of a designer, in this case of a
watchmaker (Paley 2006/1802, p.7-8). By comparing a stone and a watch in terms of
complexity and by putting emphasis on the idea of a complex as well as of a self-replicating
watch, Paley came to two major conclusions: 1) the more complex the parts of a structure
were, the more powerful was the evidence of the existence of a designer and 2) the more
complex the design was, the more intelligent and capable was the designer. Then, based on
these conclusions, he attempted to support that tissues, organs, organisms and ecosystems
were much more complex than a self-replicating watch and hence they demanded an even
more capable designer: God (Ariew 2007). The analogy between Paley‘s designer and Plato‘s
Demiurge is obvious; however it is important to note that not everybody in the mainstream
Church approved of attempts to prove God through science. Contrary to what natural
theology suggested, the traditional view was that the existence of God could be documented
through the study of the Bible (Thomson 2005, p.8).
On the other hand, the most important proponent of Aristotelian teleology in the time
before Darwin was Cuvier, who had been influenced by the works of Aristotle (Taquet 2006,
p.179-184). One of his major contributions was the synthesis of paleontology, classification
and comparative anatomy on the basis of a teleological view of nature according to which
function determined form. The founding principle of Cuvier‘s biology were the ―conditions
for existence‖ (conditions d‘ existence), which were a synonym for the final causes.
According to this principle the Creator, having taken into account the conditions that were
necessary for the survival and the reproduction of an organism, had created those organs that
were needed to achieve this goal (Ruse 2003, p.60-64). Cuvier‘s teleology formed the
foundations of biology before the publication of Darwin‘s Origin of Species (1859). It was
accommodated by naturalists both within France and abroad, especially in Great Britain
because it was in accordance with the widespread view of natural theology (Appel 1987,
p.41). It should be noted that Cuvier was a Protestant; natural theology was a mostly British
phenomenon and was not widely accepted in Catholic France (Appel 1987, p.55-57). The
principle of the conditions for existence was very different from Paley‘s approach. Although
 Teleology and Evolution Education 113

Cuvier accepted the existence of a Creator, he did not put emphasis on the confirmation of
His existence but on the explanation of the features that organisms possessed on the basis of
their function. An organism could not exist if it did not fulfill the conditions necessary for its
existence; hence the several parts of the organism should be coordinated in such a way so as
to make its existence possible. It should be noted that the conditions that Cuvier referred to
had to do with the organism exclusively and not with the conditions of the environment in
which he lived (Reiss 2005). A crucial consequence of Cuvier‘s teleological approach was
that evolution was not only empirically false, but also conceptually impossible. If the
structure of the organisms was arranged in teleological terms, then the transition from one
form to another would be precluded. Transitional forms would not be suited, in teleological
terms, neither for the way of life of the ancestors, not for that of the descendants because their
parts would fail to serve the purpose of the organisms overall well-being. Consequently, there
could be no link between different groups, no transitional forms and hence no evolutionary
transition through time (Ruse 2000).

The Teleological Structure of Darwinian Explanations

The relation of Darwin‘s theory to teleology has been viewed in many different ways by
philosophers of science. Karl Popper (1902-1994) initially suggested that Darwin‘s theory
was not a scientific theory but rather a ―metaphysical research program‖, which was not much
better than the theistic (teleological) view of adaptation, although it had some practical value
(Popper 1974, p. 134-138). Contrary to this view, Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996) considered
Darwin‘s theory as the first of the evolutionary theories that not only rejected the notion of
evolution as a goal-directed process but also provided the arguments for the abolition of that
teleological kind of evolution (Kuhn 1996, p. 171-172). Finally, some later philosophers think
that Darwin‘s theory relieved teleological explanation from supernatural elements and placed
it in the context of nature. The view that evolutionary explanations which appeal to natural
selection are in fact teleological explanations results from the fact that the explanation for the
presence of a feature is based on its function and to its contribution to the survival of its
possessors (Ayala 1970; Brandon 1981; Lennox 1993; Ruse 2002; Depew 2008).
The presence of an organ that performs a particular function may be explained through
this function, by invoking natural selection: if an organ has been maintained through the
survival of its possessors during the process of natural selection as a consequence of its
function, it can be suggested that the cause of the presence of this organ is the fact that it
performs this function. In other words, the explanation for the presence of the organ is based
on the consequence of its existence, which is its function (Wright, 1973). This is described as
a consequence etiological approach to function, as it is based on processes that presuppose
consequence etiologies. The Darwinian explanation based on natural selection is unlike any
of the standard forms of teleology of the 19th century (Paley, Cuvier); however, it is
inherently teleological as the advantage that a trait provides to its possessors explains its
increase, or its presence, in a population. When one examines the Darwinian explanation
carefully, a robust form of teleology is revealed. The structure of the Darwinian explanation
can be described as follows:
114 Kostas Kampourakis and Vasso Zogza

1. Trait V is present in population P

2. V has effect E
3. E is advantageous to P
4. Therefore, V in P would be selectively favored
5. Therefore, E is the cause of V‘s presence in P (Lennox 1993).

Several objections have been raised on the relation between Darwin‘s theory of natural
selection and teleology. These are based on the argument that Darwin‘s relation to teleology
cannot be documented only on the basis of the structure of his arguments, while ignoring the
epistemological aspects of teleology in the study of nature. According to this view Darwin‘s
approach was not teleological, he considered teleology and its supporters as the major
opponents his theory had to confront and when it seems that teleological language is used in
his writings it is due to his being careless in the use of language (Ghiselin 1994; Ghiselin
2003/1969, p. 134-159; Mayr 2004, p. 42). In addition, these authors have suggested that the
word teleonomy might be used in order to describe ―systems operating on the basis of a
program, a code of information‖ and to designate ―the apparent purposefulness of organisms
and their characteristics‖ (Mayr 1961, p.1504) as well as ―to designate the sort of
adaptationist thinking that ought not to be confused with teleology‖ (Ghiselin 1994, p. 489-
490). However, an objection has been raised to the use of this term because the etymological
roots of the term teleonomy would suggest that it means ‗laws which refer to ends‘, which is
essentially what Kant and his followers intended to describe by the term teleology (Lennox
1994, p.493). A more recent definition suggests that ‗a teleonomic process or behavior is one
that owes its goal-directedness to the influence of an evolved program‘ (Mayr 2004, p. 51).
According to this, the term teleonomic is not a substitute for the term teleological in general
but only for one of its different meanings; teleonomic processes are characterized by two
components: they are guided by a genetic program and they depend on the existence of some
endpoint, goal or terminus that is ‗foreseen‘ in the program that regulates the behavior or
process (p.52).
It should be noted that Darwin‘s relation to teleology was not clear even to his
contemporaries, as he was praised and blamed both for promoting and for undermining
teleology (Beatty 1990, p. 124). As Peter Bowler has stated ―…this view [that any mechanism
for maintaining adaptation is compatible with design] is difficult to sustain in the case of
natural selection, where the element of chance variation seems to make the outcome
unpredictable and where death is the driving force of change‖ (Bowler 2003, p.205). In this
sense Darwin‘s theory differs significantly from the teleological approaches of the 19th
century. Consequently, it is important to make clear what kind of teleology his theory entails,
as the explanation for the presence of traits is based on their function without any reference to
final ends or purposes that drive the development of the organism. According to Darwin, the
explanation that e.g. birds have wings because wings are for flying is understood in terms of
an evolutionary argument in which it is explained how possessing wings provided a fitness
advantage to individual birds, resulting to wings being selected and eventually becoming
prevalent in bird populations. This is a teleological explanation which is not based on a final
end or a purpose but on a natural, selective process (Ariew 2007). The major features of the
teleological explanations of Paley, Cuvier and Darwin are presented in Table 1.
 Teleology and Evolution Education 115

Table 1. The major features of the teleological explanations of Paley, Cuvier and Darwin

Relation
Factor that
Type of Final ends Cause of between Type of
determines
teleology served adaptations form and explanation
the final ends
function
Structure Α
Final end: survival
External External function exists in order
Yes of the organism in a
(Paley) (God) determines to perform
given environment
form function B
Internal (the Final end: survival Structure Α
function
Internal preservation of the organism exists in order
Yes determines
(Cuvier) of the (independently of to perform
form
organism) the environment) function B
Structure Α
Differential survival form exists because
Selective
No - of organisms in a constraints it has
(Darwin)
given environment function performed
function B

Function in Biology: Historical and Non-Historical Accounts

Another objection to the etiological account has to do more generally with the existence
of teleological explanations in biology. This is based on an analysis described as functional
analysis (Cummins 1975), and is actually an attack on the consequence etiological approach
to functions presented above (Wright 1973). The etiological approach to functions has been
defended by several philosophers (Neander 1991; Griffiths 1993; Kitcher 1993; Godfrey-
Smith 1994; Allen and Beckoff 1995). However, it has been argued that to explain the
existence of a trait in terms of the function it has performed and still performs provides an
inadequate view of the evolutionary process (Cummins 2002). Cummins argues that
biological traits exist not because of their functions but because of their developmental
histories. Whether or not a trait has a function and what that function happens to be is
independent of whether it was selected for it. To explain selection, Cummins suggests, one
must look not at the function of a trait but on how well the several varieties of a trait are
functioning, because selection presupposes the existence of such variation. Hence, the
explanation of the existence of traits in terms of their functions can be misleading. Such
explanations ―either run into the fact, fatal to classical teleology, that the crucial details of
evolutionary (or ontogenic) development predate anything with the function that is supposed
to do the explaining, or they founder on the fact that competing traits in selection scenarios
typically have the same function. Things don‘t evolve because of their functions any more
than they develop because of their functions‖ (Cummins 2002, p. 169).
Although this account seems to be entirely opposed to the etiological analysis, it has been
suggested that these ideas should be integrated with each other. On one hand functional
analysis focuses on the identification of current causal contributions in complex processes, a
very prominent activity in physiological studies. On the other hand, etiological analysis
116 Kostas Kampourakis and Vasso Zogza

focuses on the origin of functions through selective processes, with functions making causal
contributions to responses to older selection pressures. Functional analysis on its own can be
quite liberal as it might explain any complex system as performing a function e.g. that a
function of a particular arrangement of rocks is to contribute to the widening of a river delta
or that the function of particular mutations is to promote the formation of tumors. On the
other hand, the etiological analysis may not be always applicable as there are traits that
perform functions although they have not been selected for these functions. However, when
this is the case the etiological analysis can provide useful information for the origin of a trait
that cannot be obtained through the functional analysis (Kitcher 1993). Even if the unification
of these two approaches is not accepted, it is still clear that the etiological and the functional
analyses are both real, important and distinct (Godfrey-Smith 1993). This seems to be like a
pluralistic approach to the study of functions that may provide two distinct definitions: a
historical one which is based on Wright‘s etiological analysis of functions and explains how a
trait has been selected for the function it currently performs and a non-historical one that
which is based on Cummins‘ functional analysis that explains the function itself. Interestingly
enough, historical and non-historical definitions exist for adaptation as well (Lewens 2007).

TELEOLOGY IN CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH

The Origins of Intuitive Teleological Reasoning

Evidence from cognitive development research suggests that children naturally construe
the biological world in teleological terms. This evidence comes mainly from the research of
Frank Keil (1992; 1994; 1995) and Deborah Kelemen (1999a; 1999b; 1999c) who have
provided two distinct explanations for this. Keil has argued that children naturally construe
the biological world in teleological terms because of the particular properties of biological
kinds, whereas Kelemen has argued that this happens because children tend to construe
everything in these terms.
In particular, according to Keil teleological explanations are mainly used in biological
thought which is an autonomous mode of construal. As a result, students distinguish
organisms from artifacts, although they can be given teleological explanations as well. In
Keil‘s view this is due to two main differences between organisms and artifacts: a) although
both organisms and artifacts exhibit properties that could be explained in teleological terms,
on the basis of the purposes they seem to serve, there is a major difference in that these
purposes are usually more self-serving for the organisms (for example roses have thorns to
keep animals from getting at them whereas barbed wire has barbs to keep animals from
getting at something valuable to humans) and b) organisms have clear essences and causally
more potent ones compared to artifacts (Keil 1994, p.248-249). Keil has argued that young
children are sensitive to the advantages of the teleological-functional mode of construal for
organisms, tending to associate it with organisms than with other sorts of things. Hence, he
suggested that in addition to the intentional and physical stances a design stance might also
exist that would look at things as if their properties were designed for purposes and that this
seems to be the preferred mode of explanation for properties of organisms (Keil 1992, p.127-
128).
 Teleology and Evolution Education 117

The teleological stance seems to be appropriate for biology because it highlights

properties characteristic of, but not restricted to, organisms such as:

1. Organisms reproduce, preserving the important properties of their kind through

inheritance.
2. Organisms have complex, heterogeneous internal structures made up of units that are
often arranged in functional hierarchies.
3. Organisms grow and undergo canonical and usually irreversible patterns of change
that strongly individuate them.
4. Most of the phenomenal properties of the organisms are due to an intrinsic
developmental program.
5. The phenomenal properties of organisms are usually diagnostic of underlying non-
phenomenal ones.
6. The properties of the organisms are related to the purposes they seem to serve.
7. Organisms maintain various patterns of homeostasis (Keil 1992, p.106-107; Keil
1994, p.236-237).

According to Keil the last property is perhaps the most distinctive one between organisms
and artifacts. Organisms seem to have mutually supportive networks of causal relations
among their properties, which are highly interrelated because they tend to support, either
directly or indirectly, the presence of each other. Consequently, the presence of a property
will help increase the likelihood of other properties being present: if each property increases
the odds of the survival of the organism, it will increase the likelihood of all other properties
through survival (Keil 1995, p.236).
On the other hand, according to Kelemen the bias to view objects as made for some
purpose derives from an early sensitivity to intentional agents and their behavior as object
makers and users. The teleological bias to explain all kinds of phenomena in terms of
purposes might occur due to children‘s drawing on their early knowledge of intentional
behavior. Thus, in the absence of other explanations they treat objects of all kinds as artifacts
that have been intentionally made to serve a purpose (Kelemen 1999a). In one study,
preschool children were asked what they thought living things, artifacts, non-living natural
objects and their physical parts were for. Despite the fact that they were explicitly given the
option to answer that these were not ‗for‘ anything, four and five year old children provided
answers in which they considered almost every type of object and part as having a particular
function (not only eyes were for seeing and noses for smelling but also mountains were for
climbing and clouds for raining). In a second study, it was investigated if children really
considered these activities as functions or as things that the objects simply could do or be
used to do. As in the previous case, the study found that preschool children explained the
origin of objects or parts of all types in teleological terms, as having been intentionally made
for a purpose (Kelemen 1999b). Finally, in a third study it was found that seven and eight
year old children provided teleological explanations for both living and non- living natural
objects. They did not only explain animal properties, such as long necks, in terms of a
purpose, but also used this kind of explanation for non-biological natural properties, such as
pointy rocks, even after they had heard a description of the non-teleological physical process
by which natural objects are formed (Kelemen 1999c). These findings suggest that, rather
than being selectively teleological, preschool and elementary school children possess a
118 Kostas Kampourakis and Vasso Zogza

general teleological bias, a promiscuous teleology, unlike older children and adults who
usually restrict their teleological view to biological properties. According to this proposal,
people find purpose-based explanations compelling because teleological explanations derive
from a mode of thought that is familiar: intentional reasoning. People‘s tendency to attribute
purpose to objects might derive from our ability to attribute purpose to the minds of agents.
Moreover, people seem to have an early awareness of intentional object use as, during
infancy, most of the objects that children encounter are artifacts, whose presence in their
environment is explained by the way agents use them to achieve their own goals (Kelemen
1999a, p.466).
Despite their different views on the actual developmental process, both Keil and Kelemen
suggest that children with no particular biological knowledge intuitively provide teleological
explanations to explain biological properties and functions. However, although Keil and
Kelemen agree about the role of teleological explanations in explaining biological parts (e.g.
why do giraffe's have long necks?), they disagree about their role in explaining entire animals
(e.g. why are there giraffes?). Kelemen has argued that young children overextend
attributions of function, purpose, and design to all types of objects. Hence, pre-school
children tend to ask ‗‗What is it for?‘‘ questions and to look for purpose or function for all
objects, both organisms and artifacts (Kelemen 1999b). Moreover, in order to provide
explanations for the existence of particular properties children think of organisms as artifacts
(Kelemen 1999c). On the other hand, Keil suggests that preschool children look for different
information about animals and artifacts, and although they ask about the functions of artifacts,
they do not impute design and function to organisms. Hence, they are more likely to ask
questions about functions and behaviors of artifacts than to ask similar questions for animals.
Thus, children are able to clearly distinguish between organisms and artifacts from very early
in childhood (Greif et al. 2006).

The Intuitions for Purpose and Design in Nature

Since an agreement seems to exist that teleology predominates in children‘s intuitive

explanations about biological phenomena, it was examined if the social-religious background
of students may have an influence on their explanations. In particular, one such study in the
USA investigated if children from Christian fundamentalist school communities expressed
more creationist views than children coming non-fundamentalist school communities on the
issue of the origin of species. The conclusions of this study were particularly interesting. The
participants were divided into three groups, based on their age: 5-8 years old, 8-10 years old
and 10-13 years old. Most students from fundamentalist school communities provided
creationist explanations to all tasks, independently of their age. On the contrary, students from
non-fundamentalist school communities provided explanations that were different in different
age groups. However, 8-10 year old students of this background provided mostly creationist
explanations, which is a very interesting finding that shows that it is not only the religious
background of the family that may have an influence on students‘ beliefs. All participants
seemed to endorse mixed beliefs, with evolution mostly applied to organisms, besides man
for whom creation was preferred instead (Evans 2001). In general, in many instances the
social-religious background of the students was found to have an influence on their
explanations of the origin of species; however, in ages 8-10 years old children were found to
 Teleology and Evolution Education 119

exhibit a bias for endorsing intentional accounts of how species originated, regardless of the
religiosity of their background.
Similar findings were reported by another study that involved American and British
students. Based on the assumption that America and Britain share many cultural
characteristics but differ in religiosity, with the British being less religious than the
Americans, the study aimed at investigating if there was a difference in American and British
elementary, aged 7-10 years old, students‘ preferences for teleological explanations (Kelemen
2003). What was novel in this study was data on British students, as data form Americans
was obtained from an older study (Kelemen 1999c). Despite some differences in details, the
explanations of students of both groups were quite similar, as they generally preferred
teleological explanations both for organisms and for natural objects. Although British
children were considered less likely to be exposed to statements reinforcing the notions of
intention or design in nature, the amount of exposure that they might have received was
sufficient. In other words, it could be argued that children only require a minor or no
environmental support to establish a bias to apply teleological explanation promiscuously.
The reason for this could be that the tendency to attribute purpose to objects may easily be
established, having as its primary source the cognitive predisposition to attribute purpose to
others‘ actions (Kelemen 2003).
These studies suggest that the teleological stance is not necessarily the result of the
religiosity of students‘ social background. Then, perhaps children are naturally inclined to
privilege intentional explanation and are oriented toward explanations characterizing nature
as an intentionally designed artifact. A bias to explain, plus a preference for intentional
explanation, may then be what leads children, in the absence of other knowledge, to a
generalized view of objects as intentionally created by someone for a purpose. Then, if
children have beliefs about purpose and about the intentional origins of nature, it might be
possible that they are intuitive theists, insofar as they are predisposed to develop a view of
nature as an artifact of nonhuman design (Kelemen 2004). To accept this characterization, it
was necessary to show that children‘s tendency to reason about natural phenomena in terms
of a purpose (Kelemen, 1999b) and their intuitions about intelligent design in nature, whether
or not they come from fundamentalist religious backgrounds (Evans 2001), were related in a
systematic fashion.
To examine if such a relation exists, British elementary school children (aged 6-10 years
old) were given tasks probing their intuitions about purpose and intelligent design in the
context of their explanations about the origins of natural phenomena. In particular, they were
shown photographs of two artifacts (a hat and a boat), two animals (a bird and a monkey),
two natural events (a thunderstorm and a flood) and two nonliving natural objects (a mountain
and a river). Children were told that they would be asked questions about these objects for
which nobody might know the answer and that they should give their best ideas. Then they
were asked to answer: a) open-ended origins questions b) closed ended origins-teleology
questions and c) closed-ended intelligent-design questions. It was found that children were
most likely to provide teleo-functional explanations for artifacts as well as for artifact-like
natural objects and animals, but not for natural events, to open-ended questions. The same
pattern of results was documented in younger children‘s responses in the closed-ended
origins-teleology task and closed-ended intelligent-design task, in which artifacts and animals
were particularly identified as being the products of intentional creation. Moreover, these
teleological and intelligent design intuitions were found to be interconnected. The results
120 Kostas Kampourakis and Vasso Zogza

suggested that there was a systematic connection between children‘s teleo-functional

explanations of nature‘s origins and their intuitions about the nonhuman intelligent design of
nature. Children who provided purpose-based explanations of nature also endorsed the
existence of a creator agent, in a manner that might be informed by their understanding of
artifacts. However it was not clear how robust this connection was and if it existed at the
preschool age (Kelemen and DiYanni 2005).

Teleological Explanations and Design or Consequence Etiologies

Given the widespread agreement that teleological explanations are characteristic of

biological phenomena, an important distinction between two types of teleological
explanations needs to be made. According to Lombrozo and Carey (2006), teleological
explanations presuppose processes with consequence etiologies. In some cases, when there is
an intention to achieve a goal, consequence etiologies are in fact design etiologies. Lombrozo
and Carey considered design etiologies as a subset of consequence etiologies and noted that
before Darwin few non-intentional processes were well characterized, and even today
consequence etiologies that are not also design etiologies present a special challenge.
Hereafter, we will refer to all non-intentional processes as consequence etiologies and to all
intentional ones as design etiologies. Hence, two main types of teleological explanations may
be found which are based on: a) design etiologies, which satisfy the requirement of being
preceded by an intention to have a function or achieve a goal (e.g. that a feature results from
the actions of a God-Creator) and b) consequence etiologies, which are non-intentional
processes (e.g. a feature is an outcome of the process of natural selection). The teleological
explanations that were described in the studies of Keil, Kelemen and Evans are based on
design etiologies. In most cases, students had the tendency to explain the origin of biological
features on the basis of their function, by implying that they were appropriately designed in
order to perform these functions. This is the reason why it is necessary to focus on etiological
analysis rather than on functional analysis. While functional analysis makes no reference to
the past, the etiological analysis highlights past events or circumstances that explain the origin
of a particular trait and of its function. This is entirely opposite to the design etiologies that
students intuitively accept and if used properly it can promote a conceptual conflict situation
that is necessary for conceptual change.
Teleological explanations based on functions are accepted and have a heuristic value
when they are causally justified. In explaining the cause of a forest fire one is likely to
mention the unattended campfire and not the presence of oxygen, although both are necessary
causal factors. The cause that will be selected is the one that is likely to be useful in
prediction by making a difference in future cases. Functions can be legitimate explanations
only when they were also causes of what is being explained. However, having played a causal
role is not sufficient; there must be reason to think the function is the campfire rather than the
oxygen. This additional requirement will be met when the function is useful in prediction. A
function can have predictive utility and can be expected to make a difference in future cases if
the relevant process has previously occurred in a function driven manner. Thus, teleological
explanations should be restricted to cases where the function not only played a causal role,
but did so through a causal process that conforms to a predictable pattern (Lombrozo and
Carey 2006). As mentioned, one important parameter of the framework is identifying the
 Teleology and Evolution Education 121

difference-making factors. Hence, the explanations can have the following structure: in
explaining a forest fire by appeal to lightning, one indicates a cause (i.e. the lightning),
presupposes a broader regularity of which the explanandum is an instance (i.e. that lightning
can cause fires under certain conditions) and determines which aspects of the complex causal
etiology of the explanandum are explanatorily relevant (i.e. the lightning but not the presence
of oxygen or the sound of accompanying thunder) (Lombrozo 2006).

Students’ Teleological Explanations of Evolution

Many studies have documented that secondary students, and undergraduates, tend to
provide teleological explanations for evolution. However, it should be noted that researchers
have not always explicitly distinguished teleological explanation from other types of
explanation. On the contrary, in several studies although it was found that students tended to
attribute the origin of traits to predetermined plans or to the achievement of desired goals,
their preconceptions about evolution were characterized as Lamarckian, a characterization
that actually masks their teleological nature (Kampourakis and Zogza 2007). For example
during the pre-test of one study 35 out of 50 secondary students provided teleological
explanations for evolution. In particular, these students explained the appearance of traits as
the consequence of the animals‘ requirements for survival, while often the explanations for
the evolution of a trait contained the words need or necessary (Settlage 1994). In a study with
college students, it was found that most of them understood evolution as a process in which
species respond to environmental conditions by changing gradually over time and they
attributed changes in traits to need-driven adaptive processes (Bishop and Anderson, 1990).
In another study with college students it was found that their knowledge about evolution be
fore instruction was limited and mixed. The most common alternative conceptions were
related to teleology and ranged between 19.36% and 26.12% of the total number of responses
(Jensen and Finley, 1996). In an interesting study with students of various ages the patterns
that characterize students‘ explanations of biological phenomena were explored. Teleological
explanations about biological phenomena were the most prevalent category in all grade
levels. However, it seemed that there was some improvement in students‘ ability to reason
scientifically within biological domains as grade levels increased (Southerland, Abrams,
Cummins and Anselmo, 2001). Finally, in a recent study of 14-15 year old students‘ intuitive
explanations of evolution, it was found that in most cases teleological explanations
predominated, with the end or goal being the survival of the species. It was found that in
general students had the tendency to look for purpose or plan when they did not have
adequate information (Kampourakis and Zogza, 2008).
Teleological explanations seem to prevail in biology because: a) Organisms seem goal-
oriented because their structure is often adapted to their survival, b) People tend to project
from their own goals and intentions to natural phenomena, c) Teleological explanations have
apparent explanatory value because they tend to make us feel that we really understand the
phenomenon in question, as it is accounted for in terms of purposes, with which we are
familiar from our own experience of purposive behaviour, and d) There is heuristic value to
teleological approaches, as in the history of science biological research that was motivated by
a teleological orientation often resulted in important scientific discoveries (Zohar and
Ginossar, 1998). Teleological explanations are compatible with religious beliefs about
122 Kostas Kampourakis and Vasso Zogza

Creation and Intelligent Design and perhaps make evolution seemingly easier to understand.
If it is explained that it is consequence and not design etiologies which should be applied to
explain evolution by natural selection there are two possible outcomes: a) one may fail to
understand evolution, as it is more easily understood in terms of design rather than in terms of
natural selection, and b) one may not accept evolution because the elimination of design is not
compatible with his religious beliefs. These two outcomes may not presuppose each other, as
the relation between understanding and accepting evolution is not clear and diverse findings
stem from research in post-secondary settings. One body of research suggests that
understanding evolution may influence its acceptance and that the misunderstanding of the
nature of evolutionary theory may be motivated by factors shaped by students‘ beliefs
(Dagher and Boujaoude 2005). Moreover, teaching about the nature of science can enhance
understanding of evolutionary theory if students discuss their beliefs in relation to scientific
knowledge (Dagher and BouJaoude 1997). On the other hand, students may also perceive a
negative impact of evolutionary theory on the social and the personal aspects of life, and
regard the consequences of accepting evolution more negative when more time was given to
its teaching (Brem et al. 2003). However, another body of research suggests that no
relationship may exist between the understanding and the acceptance of evolution. Students‘
initial acceptance of evolution may not influence their subsequent learning of the subject
(Ingram and Nelson, 2005). More generally, students may have an understanding of
evolutionary theory without accepting its validity, or alternatively, they may accept the
validity of the theory based upon a poor understanding of it (Sinatra et al. 2003). These
findings do not provide a definite answer, but suggest that beliefs about evolution cannot be
regarded in isolation. A proper understanding of evolutionary theory and its consequences
may require lessons from the philosophy of science about what empirical claims are, as well
as lessons from moral philosophy about the difference between empirical claims and moral
claims (Lombrozo et al. 2006).

CONCLUSION
The main aim of this chapter was to integrate aspects from the history and philosophy of
science with newer findings from cognitive developmental psychology, in order to suggest
what the history and philosophy of science can contribute to the analysis of students‘ intuitive
explanations and to the development of a conceptual conflict situation that would facilitate
conceptual change. To summarize, the term teleology has been used to refer to two distinct
processes: a) those processes in which a function serves an ultimate goal such as the survival
of the organism, where the explanation for the presence of an organ is based on this particular
ultimate goal (a design etiology) and b) those processes in which no ultimate goals exist and
where the explanation for the presence of an organ is based on the function it performs, a
consequence of which has been the survival of the organism (a consequence etiology). Such
explanations are teleological because the presence of an organ is eventually explained on the
basis of the proximate goal that it serves: its function. However, there is a major difference as
well: in the first case the proximate goal serves an ultimate goal, the survival of the organism,
whereas in the second case no ultimate goals are served and it is the proximate goal that is the
cause of the survival of the organism and of the presence of the organ. In other words, in the
 Teleology and Evolution Education 123

first case the explanation for the presence of an organ is based on the function it performs in
order to fulfill the ultimate goal it was intended to serve, whereas in the second case the
explanation for the presence of the organ is based on the function it has performed in the past
and still performs, as well as on the fact that this function has been and still is beneficial for
the organisms that possessed it. A misunderstanding of evolution may exist because the
distinction between explanations based on design or consequence etiologies is not always
made clear. While evolution could theoretically be explained in both ways, and perhaps
people intuitively tend to explain it in terms of design and purpose, only those explanations
which presuppose processes with consequence etiologies are acceptable. The research
reviewed in this chapter suggests that teleological explanations predominate in ages 8-10
years old and that they are independent of the religiosity of the family. However, religiosity
seemed to have an influence in older ages as students coming from more religious
backgrounds gave more teleological/creationistic explanations than children from less
religious families who tended to give more evolutionary explanations. Hence, students‘
religious views may not be the only obstacle in understanding evolution. What may be
another major obstacle, especially in younger ages, are their teleological intuitions. If this is
the case, poor understanding and acceptance of evolution might be due to the fact that
students do not experience a conceptual conflict at the ages when teleological intuitions
predominate.
When students come across a peculiar organism, with which they are not familiar, they
will probably wonder what some of his characteristic body structures are for. For example, if
they saw an elephant or a giraffe for the first time, some very peculiar animals with which we
are familiar, they might wonder why they need such a long trunk or such a long neck,
respectively. If the students were aware of the habits of these animals, they would probably
provide the following answer: ―the elephant has a long trunk in order to collect food and bring
it into its mouth‖ or that ―the giraffe has a long neck in order to browse on the leaves of trees
and feed itself, when the food on the ground is not adequate‖. In the same sense, the students
would say that fishes have particular (hydrodynamic) shapes in order to move easily and
quickly in the water, that polar bears have thick furs in order to stay warm in the cold
environment in which they live or that many animals have a body color that resembles their
environment in order to conceal themselves and escape from their predators. These
explanations seem quite sound. Many adults would provide these particular explanations and
they might also be found in biology textbooks. The answers to ―Why?‖ questions often have
the form ―In order to‖ and explain the presence of particular body structures on the basis of
the function they seem to perform. Thus, we might say in brief that the usual answer to the
question ―Why do individuals of species O have structure A?‖ is that ―Individuals of species
O have structure A in order to perform function Β‖. This answer is logically sound but
incorrect from a biological point of view. Biological research has not yet documented any
single instance of purposive acquisition of body structures that perform particular functions.
In other words, there is no evidence that would support the answer that ―Individuals of
species O have structure A in order to perform function Β‖. Of course, in all these cases it
certainly is a fact that ―In individuals of species O function B is performed by structure A‖.
But these two sentences are not the same. Structure has a causal role in the production of
function, but not vice versa. The function depends on the structure but the structure does not
depend on the function. This is due to the fact that in the first place body structures have
arisen through a process that does not take into account the functions (purpose) they may
124 Kostas Kampourakis and Vasso Zogza

serve. In other words, the emergence of a body structure in a species is not explained by the
function it serves; it is only the spread of a body structure within a species that can be
explained by the function it performs. This is a crucial point as the emergence and the spread
of a trait are the outcomes of entirely independent processes.
The answer to the question ―Why do individuals of species O have structure A?‖ consists
of two parts. The first part suggests that the emergence of structure Α was unpredictable, in
the sense that it was the outcome of a natural process that might have had several possible
outcomes of which one eventually arose, independently of any goal or purpose. The second
part suggests that structure A exists in individuals of species O because it contributed to the
survival of their ancestors in a particular environment, while those individuals that did not
possess this structure vanished. But is it possible that the spread of the structure in a
population is not related to the survival of the individuals which possess it and that its spread
is not an outcome of a natural selection process? Of course; not all traits are adaptations.
Consequently, the answer to the question ―Why do individuals of species O have structure
A?‖ can be the following: ―Individuals of species O have structure A because it happened to
emerge in their ancestors and because, possibly but not necessarily, happened to contribute to
theirs and their descendents‘ survival in a particular environment‖. An answer like
―Individuals of species O have structure A in order to perform function Β‖ is mistaken
because no biological phenomenon could have ensured the emergence of structure A and its
usefulness. In other words, structure A might have never emerged or it might have emerged
but eventually prove to have been useless if the individuals of the species lived in another
environment. In any case, the existence of a structure in the individuals of a particular species
can be explained by a historical process through which it emerged and spread and not by the
function it performs.
A requirement for effective evolution instruction is putting emphasis on the fact that
causes are not to be found in the future. It is necessary that students realise that their intuitive
teleological explanations reverse the course of nature, as the emergence of a feature seems to
precede its cause, and that causes are to be found in the past. Evolution is a historical process;
as a result there is a causal dependence on particular antecedent conditions or events; had
these never existed, there would have been a different evolutionary outcome (Beatty 2006).
To achieve this, it is important that teachers note the distinction between design etiologies,
which are related to the intention (of factors internal or external to the organism) to achieve a
preconceived goal, and non-intentional consequence etiologies, which are related to the
Darwinian theory of evolution through natural selection. Such a distinction requires
carefulness in how evolutionary explanations are described by teachers or are presented in
textbooks. Hence, students should not learn that adaptation results from a change in the
structure, the functions or the behavior of an organism that took place in order to provide it
the ability to survive in some environmental conditions. This is what is implied when it is
stated that, for example, bacteria were adapted to antibiotics or that bacteria developed
resistance to antibiotics. Students should understand that such an explanation is wrong as
bacteria cannot intentionally develop resistance to antibiotics. Students should be given more
accurate explanations such as that adaptation results from a change in the structure, the
functions or the behavior of an organism that accidentally took place and happened to provide
it the ability to survive in particular environmental conditions, and was preserved through
natural selection. Hence, bacteria did not adapt to antibiotics; within their population some
individuals happened to have resistance to antibiotics. These individuals survived whereas
 Teleology and Evolution Education 125

non-resistant individuals vanished. In other words, it was the population and not the
individuals that eventually adapted to antibiotics. A change of explanatory framework from
design etiological explanations, which characterize students‘ intuitively explanations, to
consequence etiological explanations could be a major aim of the conceptual change process
in evolution. Recent research also suggests that this kind of conceptual change can take place
with a quite satisfactory outcome (Kampourakis and Zogza, 2009).
An aim of science education should be making students able to distinguish scientific
explanations from non-scientific ones. Especially in the case of evolution students should also
be able to identify the limits between scientific content knowledge about the history and
evolution of life on the earth and philosophical or religious views about life‘s purposes and
meanings. No matter how important these are, they fall outside the realm of science. Hence,
science education should make clear that although all organisms have an inherent program
coded in their genes, it determines their development but not their future; that science cannot
prove or even support the existence of destiny or fate and that such questions fall outside its
realm. On the contrary, life is, at least in part, the outcome of contingent events that guide the
interactions between organisms and their environment in an unpredictable way. No-one‘s life
is predetermined; its course depends in part on the organisms themselves and in part on
events that can be neither predicted, nor controlled. If students accept this view of life and
liberate themselves from dogmatic and fatalistic views, a major contribution to scientific
literacy will have been made.

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In: Recent Trends in Education ISBN 978-1-60741-795-8
Editor: Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 5

THE COGNITIVE SELF-REGULATION APPROACH

TO PRE-SECONDARY WRITING INSTRUCTION

Raquel Fidalgo*1, Olga Arias-Gundín1, Jesús Nicasio García1

and Mark Torrance†2
1
Área de Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación, Departamento de Psicología,
Sociología y Filosofía, Universidad de León, Spain
2
Division of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT
Writing is a complex and cognitively demanding activity. It cannot be performed as
a sequence of discrete steps; it requires the simultaneous combination of several
strategies and the application of various mental resources. Writing is, therefore, both a
recursive and a dynamic process. To be successful, writers need an understanding of the
components of a quality text as well as knowledge of writing strategies that can be used
to shape and organize the writing process. In particular, writing competence requires
appropriate and self-regulated knowledge of strategies for planning what to write, and
then revising what has been written.
In this chapter, we first present a review of the recent research on the planning and
revision processes in writing in order to show the importance that these have in the
development of writing competence. Then, we describe the existing research, evaluating
strategy-focused intervention studies, to provide an overview of the nature of the
interventions programs and an indication of which have been most successful. In the
second part of the chapter, we describe and summarize findings from our own studies
(Torrance, Fidalgo, and García, 2007; and Fidalgo, Torrance, and García, 2008). These
studies move beyond existing research by (a) exploring the effects of strategy focused
instruction on students‘ writing processes as well as on their written products and (b)
demonstrating the long-term effects of this kind of intervention. In a final section, we
discuss the practical implications of this body of research (both ours and others) and

*
Correspondence should be directed to Raquel Fidalgo e-mail: [email protected]
†
Or to Mark Torrance: [email protected].
132 Raquel Fidalgo, Olga Arias-Gundin, Jesús Nicasio García et al.

make suggestions for how lessons learned from this research might be applied in the
classroom.

INTRODUCTION
The impact of the cognitive approach to writing has been remarkable. According to this
approach writing is understood as much more than just a motor activity. It demands reflective
thinking processes to be used when planning text, whilst drafting, and when the text is revised
process (Tynjälä, Mason, and Lonka, 2001). Students tend to have difficulty in implementing
these writing processes and this problem persists in teaching writing at school.
Contemporary research is focused on viewing writing as a process rather than as a
product (Boscolo, 1995). In general, the focus of investigation is on the processes that shape
writing, thus the writer must pay attention to the generation of ideas and when revising the
text. Writing is a complex task that requires the coordination of several mental activities.
These do not necessarily occur in a set sequence. Rather, writers simultaneously and
dynamically combine various strategies and resources. Writing is also a communicative act
and a social event between the writer and audience. The writer has to clearly establish the
communicative intention, the goal and the type of text (Beal, 1996; McCutchen, 2006). The
writer also has to consider the audience, in terms of the reader‘s characteristics and
expectations to determine what they can or must write (Boscolo and Ascorti, 2004).
Moreover, the writer has to master the topic that they are writing about as well as generating
relevant ideas that will be expressed in the text (McCutchen, Francis, and Kerr, 1997; Perez,
2001). The writer must also control the coherence of the entire text by clarifying the message,
reorganising and/or modifying ideas. Throughout the writing process it is necessary to
translate from ideas into words. This activity does not mean writing isolated words or
sentences; they must be organized so that they cohere. It is rare that the first draft that a writer
completes successfully communicates their message. It is necessary to create one or more
versions. The writer makes both surface modifications, such as orthographic and grammatical
corrections, as well as modifications at a deeper level, such as the reorganisation of the text
over the various drafts (Alamargot and Chanquoy, 2001, p. 1).
The seminal and original cognitive model of writing processes proposed by Hayes and
Flower (1980) describes three processes used in writing: planning, translating, and revising.
These are retained but reconceptualized more recent papers (Hayes, 1996, 2004). Planning is
a reflective process by which content for the text is generated and organised. It combines low-
level memory retrieval processes with more strategic problem solving, decision-making and
inferencing. Translation is the process by which planned content is transformed into full,
coherent text. The revision process is again reflective, involving reading, interpretation, and
editing of the text-produced-so-far. Planning, translating and revising are under executive
control and are driven by specific task schemas (Hayes, 2004). Arguably, a core component
of writing expertise development is the learning of appropriate schemas.
 The Cognitive Self-Regulation Approach to Pre-Secondary Writing Instruction 133

Planning

Successful planning involves high-level cognitive skills. As a result, it is costly in terms

of cognitive resources (Kellogg, 1996) and can employ as much as two thirds of the total
production time (Alamargot and Chanquoy, 2001, p.33). Expert writers tend to spend more
time planning than novice writers. Planning can occur on a number of levels. It can involve
constructing outlines that represent the global structure of the texts, but can also making
decisions about whether to add more content to the current sentence or to start a new one.
Therefore, planning can be both general and specific in nature, and plans can develop both
prior to the writing of full text and evolve during drafting (Galbraith, 1996). It is also possible
to make a distinction between process and content planning. Writers need to not only plan
what to say and how to say it but how to strategically order the various different activities and
processes that combine to make text generation possible (Hayes and Nash, 1996).
It seems clear that planning, and particularly the interrelationships among different
planning sub processes is both complex and currently not well understood (Alamargot,
Favart, Coirier, Passerault, and Andriessen, 1999). Research does, however, suggest that
novice and expert writers differ in how they plan. Expert writers tend to plan more and can be
quite articulate about the various aspects of their planning. They formulate goals for their text
and then develop plans to achieve those goals. By contrast, novice writers typically carry out
little explicit conceptual planning prior to writing (McCutchen, 2006). Cameron and
Moshenko (1996) reported that sixth-grade writers spend on average slightly over two
minutes planning before beginning to write. When explicitly asked to plan in advance, novice
writers often have difficulty separating planning from translating. Younger writers‘ planning
tends to be dominated by the generation of content, and planning and translating are tightly
intertwined. Rhetorical planning – making decisions about how content is best expressed to
achieve communicative goals – remains relatively rare, even into late adolescence.
Instructional attempts to improve writers‘ texts by developing more sophisticated planning
strategies often meet with limited success (McCutchen, 2006).

Revision

Like planning, revision is a high level composite process that weighs heavily on the
writer‘s limited attentional capacities (Beal, 1996; McCutchen, 1996). A distinction is often
made between effective revision on paper and mental revision – rehearsal of content before it
is committed to paper. Alamargot and Chanquoy (2001, p. 100) proposed the following
understanding of revision: Revision occurs when something (e.g., a word) is altered (added,
deleted, substituted) to reach a certain goal (improving style, developing content). This
change can be made to text that had already been transcribed, or to text in the head and has a
particular effect (either enhancing or detracting from the quality of the text), and a particular
cognitive cost.
Hayes (1996, 2004) argued that revision involves a combination of critical reading,
problem solving and text production and that these are coordinated by an overall task schema.
Accordingly they provided evidence supporting the existence of a revision task schema.
Generally, novice writers seem to operate under a revision schema which dedicates most
effort to revision of the surface aspects of the text at the expense of the changes to message or
134 Raquel Fidalgo, Olga Arias-Gundin, Jesús Nicasio García et al.

rhetoric, although there is sometimes a shift to deeper level revision in older writers
(Butterfield, Hacker and Plum, 1996). McCutchen et al. (1997) argued that the development
of deeper level revision is related to the writers‘ ability to read texts critically. Wallace,
Hayes, Hatch, Miller, Moser and Silk (1996) report an intervention that improves writers‘
revision by helping them to develop a revision schema that directs attention to the deep rather
than to the surface aspects of texts. Similarly, Beal, Garrod, and Bonitatibus (1990) found that
young writers revised more effectively when instructed to monitor their text comprehension
during revision.
When it is necessary to solve a problem within an existing text, the writer must recognize
the problem and then take appropriate steps to correct it. Such problem-solving involves
comparing a representation of the actual text to a representation of the intended text. Several
processes in this sequence can be problematic for novice writers (McCutchen, 2006). First,
novice writers are less likely to engage in much planning and their memory representations of
the intended text are often vague. Second, writers can have difficulty in forming an accurate
representation of the text that they have already written and this can inhibit their ability to
revise effectively. Novice writers have difficulty distinguishing between information that is
presented directly in the text, or might reasonably be inferred by the text‘s intended reader,
and the background knowledge that they themselves bring to their re-reading. They therefore
miss errors in their own texts that they readily see in texts written by others. One effective
strategy for helping students in this respect is to introduce peer interaction into the revision
process (Boscolo and Ascorti, 2004). Third, writers may have difficulty in generating
alternative language to correct a problem even though they have detected it. Fourth, revision
processes are likely to place substantial demands on cognitive capacity. This will be
particularly the case with younger writers for whom low level writing and reading processes
more demanding, and who are likely to have poorer strategies for managing cognitive load
(Piolat, Rosoussey, Olive, and Amada, 2004). As a result of these issues, novice writers
encounter more difficulties than expert writers in diagnosing and correcting text problems.

Strategy Focused Writing Instruction

If the goal of writing instruction is to help novice writers to develop the skills and
strategies that are associated with writing expertise, then it is helpful first to define writing
expertise. Boscolo (1995) suggested that an expert writer is a thoughtful planner, a coherent
organizer, a careful reviser, and an audience-sensitive message-sender. In order to reach such
a level of competence it is necessary to develop writing strategies that make novice writers
become sensitive to these different aspects of writing. Such strategies would address each
writing process and sub-process, from the planning through to the revision stage (Alamargot
and Chanquoy, 2001).
There has been recent growth in the number of studies evaluating the effects of different
methods of writing instruction (Pritchard and Honeycutt, 2006). Whereas research in the
1970s and 1980s tended to concentrate on how the components of the writing process are
related to writer and text variables, there has been a more recent focus on research specifically
designed to measure improvements in the quality of the written product as a result of using
different teaching strategies. There has been a particular focus on the effects of teaching
particular cognitive strategies for managing the writing process. Learners are seen as being
 The Cognitive Self-Regulation Approach to Pre-Secondary Writing Instruction 135

actively engaged in all aspects of writing: planning, composing, and revising the multiple
drafts of their text (Allal, 2004).
A number of studies have demonstrated benefits for teaching planning and revision
strategies (e.g., Bryson and Scardamalia, 1996; Danoff, Harris, and Graham, 1993; de la Paz,
2005; de la Paz and Graham, 1997, 2002; Englert, et al., 1991; Simons, et al., 1994; Yeh,
1998). A recent meta-analysis of studies evaluating a broad range of different forms of
writing instruction identified strategy-focused interventions as the most effective, with a large
mean effect size (Graham and Perin, 2007). These include studies of both learning disabled
and typically-developing writers of ages ranging from 4th to 10th grade. Studies have explored
writing in both expository and narrative genres, and several have demonstrated that training in
one strategy generalizes to performance in another. For example Bryson and Scardamalia
gave typically-developing 10th-grade writers instruction in both planning and revision
strategies. They found that on a persuasive writing task students who had experienced the
intervention produced better argued, more reflective, and better quality texts, but found no
difference in spelling errors or text length.
Several studies have explored teaching revision strategies independently of planning
(e.g., Arias-Gundín and García, 2006; Cameron, Edmund, Wigmore, Hunt, and Linton, 1997;
Fitzgerald and Markham, 1987; García and Arias-Gundín, 2004), and with appropriate
teaching methods this can have a positive effect on the quality of students‘ texts. Effective
instruction appears to require some sort of scaffolding for the revision process by, for
example, providing learners with revision guides (Chanquoy, 1997) and that students are
given feedback on the effectiveness of their revisions (Matsumura, Petthey-Chavez, Valdes,
and Garnier, 2002; Perez, 2001). Sharing revision activities with peers seems particularly
effective (Boscolo and Ascorti, 2004; McCutchen, Francis, and Kerr, 1997; Rouiller, 2004).
In the remainder of this chapter we first describe a strategy focused intervention that we
call Cognitive Self-regulation Instruction (CSRI) aimed at developing the quality of writers‘
texts by developing effective strategic writing processes. We then summarize an evaluation of
this approach (García and Fidalgo, 2006; Torrance, Fidalgo, and García, 2007 and Fidalgo,
Torrance, and García, 2008). Finally, we draw some general conclusions for teaching
practice.

THE COGNITIVE SELF-REGULATION INSTRUCTION MODEL - CSRI

CSRI is aimed at both normally-achieving students and students with learning disabilities
in pre-secondary education and between 11 to 12 years of age. It shares characteristics with
other successful instructional models. These include Graham and Harris‘ self-regulated
strategy development model (SRSD; Harris and Graham, 1996; Graham, 2006; Graham and
Harris, 2003), Englert and co-worker‘s cognitive strategy development model (Englert et al.,
1991; Englert, Raphael and Anderson, 1992), and Wong and colleagues‘ intensive writing
interventions in students with learning disabilities (Wong, Butler, Ficzere and Kuperis, 1996;
1997; Wong, Butler, Ficzere, Kuperis and Corden, 1994). Each of these approaches aims to
achieve a progression from declarative knowledge of writing strategies, through the ability to
apply procedures in specific writing tasks (which requires both ability engage strategies and
understanding of when they are most appropriately applied), to independence, where the
136 Raquel Fidalgo, Olga Arias-Gundin, Jesús Nicasio García et al.

writer has the ability and motivation to spontaneously apply appropriate strategies to their
own writing. They also all emphasize dialogue between teacher and students, recognize the
social origins of self-regulation, and promote the use of self-dialogue to regulate students‘
own behavior.
These principles are brought together in an instructional approach that emphasizes
teacher modeling and student emulation. Students observe the teacher while he or she models
the particular strategy to be taught – planning an expository text, for example – and then
emulates what they have seen. The intention is that for each strategy students move through a
sequence of observation, then emulation, then self-control and finally independent self-
regulation (Schunk and Zimmerman, 1997; Zimmerman, 2000). Students‘ learning is
scaffolded by the use of a range of support materials. These include mnemonics to aid
memory about, for example, the different functions of planning, and blank tables or grids
which students can used to structure their thinking, and procedural prompts. These can
steadily be removed over the course of an instructional program as students develop fluency
and independence in the writing strategies that are being taught.
The instructional pattern of the CSRI model consists of four sequential instructional
stages. Through this instructional sequence students are guided towards a self-regulated
competence through the guidance provided by materials or the teacher. This scaffolding is
faded out through the instruction program. The first instructional stage aims at developing in
students a mental framework and terminology through which to understand subsequent
process-focused instruction. The aim is to broaden students attention to include not just
mechanical aspects of writing (spelling, sentence structure, and so forth) but substantive
features of both the text (the need for well structured and audience-focused content) and
process (the importance of planning and revision). In CSRI students are taught about
generation of ideas, planning, or organization of ideas, thinking about audience, revising, and
other processes, drawing heavily on established cognitive accounts of wiring (e.g., Hayes and
Flower, 1980). In this way students develop specialized cognitive schemas for understanding
the kinds of planning, translating and revising skills and sub-processes that are characteristic
of more competent writers. The intention is that this framework will allow students to manage
and regulate the complex higher level set of cognitive processes associated with the planning
or the revision processes taught in later stages.
Knowledge about planning is taught using the mnemonics ―POD‖ and ―OAIUE‖ (or just
―the vowels‖). POD is drawn from previously evaluated interventions (e.g., Mason, Harris,
and Graham, 2002) and represents three steps in the development and use of writing plans:
Picking ideas - generating ideas related to the theme of the text, Organizing ideas, and
Developing text. Students are encouraged to plan in advance of writing full text and to make
use of these plans while writing, but also to be open to the possibility of further developing
these plans once writing has started. The Vowels expand the Organizing component of POD.
O (Objetivo) encourages students to develop high level goals for their text. A (Audiencia)
indicates the need to identify and accommodate reader needs. I (Ideas) points to the need to
deliberately generate and list possible ideas for the text. U (Unir ideas) stands for ―link ideas‖
and encourages students to explicitly think about and decide how these ideas will be
organized. Finally E (Esquema / Schema) encourages students to think about standard
structures and genre conventions for the kind of text that they were producing (García and
Fidalgo, 2006).
 The Cognitive Self-Regulation Approach to Pre-Secondary Writing Instruction 137

Revision is support by the mnemonic LEA (RED in English), which highlights the three
main steps of the revision process. Students Read (Leer) the text several times and in different
ways. First, they must read the text closely paying attention to the structure, paragraphs, and
inter-paragraphs links. Secondly, they must quickly reread their text paying attention to lower
level features (spelling, punctuation, sentence syntax). Students are encouraged to Evaluate
(Evaluar) what they read and, lastly, to make (Actuar, Do) the necessary changes.
The second instructional stage involves modeling the use of mature planning and
revising strategies. During this stage the teacher or instructor thinks aloud in front of the
students while planning, drafting, and revising text. This demonstrate how the framework and
mnemonics introduced in first stage can be used to regulate writing processes. Think aloud is
partly spontaneous and partly pre-prepared. The teacher asks themselves questions like ―what
should I do before the writing task?‖, ―What do should I do first…, second…, later?, ―what
should I do during the drafting phase?‖ and so forth. In each case the teacher would then
provide a response based round the mnemonics introduced above, and then relate these to the
particular writing task in which they are engaged. Also included in the self-regulation
processes are the questions about self-efficacy, attributions and motivation.
After the modeling, the students and the teacher collectively analyze and reflect on the
most important actions of the writing process, the necessary steps in writing and their
importance. Finally, they should summarize the most relevant conclusions about the writing
process performed and the self-regulation strategies and procedures that were used and their
importance in achieving good quality text. In the context of writing instruction, as is the case
for teaching other procedural skills, modeling and observation has been shown to be more
effective than direct instruction (e.g., Couzijn and Rijlaarsdam, 1996). Students who learn by
observation ―step back‖ from the writing task and can focus on the learning task, creating a
learning opportunity to broaden their knowledge about writing (Braaksma, van den Bergh,
Rijlaarsdam and Couzijn, 2001; Braaksma et al., 2004; Couzijn, 1999).
The teacher engages offers two forms of this metacognitive modeling: a coping model
and a mastery model. Coping modeling involves the teacher occasionally making errors or
adopting sub-optimal strategies, but them immediately correcting these mistakes. Mastery
modeling involves writing without explicitly making and correcting mistakes. Some
researchers have shown that a coping model is more effective than a mastery model
(Kitsantas, Zimmerman, and Clearly, 2000; Zimmerman and Kitsantas, 2002). Arguably,
though, mastery models are also valuable as they serve to provide a benchmark against which
students can evaluate their own performance.
In the third instructional stage students learn to emulate the strategies that were modeled
in the previous stage. Like the teacher that they were observing, the students thought aloud.
Thinking aloud is an excellent technique for developing metacognitive knowledge and self-
regulation strategies. In general, it helps students develop greater control and awareness about
the cognitive writing processes and the self-regulation skills in writing. It helps them to guide
their thoughts during the writing process. It increases their self-control as writers and can also
improve their writing performance. Students think more precisely, carefully and
systematically when they are thinking aloud. Besides, the teacher or peers can identify and
diagnose any misunderstood or misused concepts, rules, facts, important omissions and
inadequate or incomplete knowledge, approaches or skills in writing if students are thinking
aloud (Hartman, 2001). Students are first trained to think aloud. Later, working in pairs, the
first student models the specific writing process while the second student carefully and
138 Raquel Fidalgo, Olga Arias-Gundin, Jesús Nicasio García et al.

analytically assesses the student‘s writing processes and strategies. The second student must
have an active role, analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the writing process that they are
observing, and provide guidance when necessary. The students then swap roles. Working in
pairs in this way, in addition to observing modeling by the teacher, is particularly helpful
because observers are more likely to take on the behaviors they are observing when they
perceive similarity between the person modeling and themselves (Bandura, 1986). Of course
when the model is a peer there is no guarantee that the modeled behavior will be effective.
However safeguards are provided both by telling observers that they should be critical, and by
close monitoring from the teacher.
When the writing process is finished, all the students along with the teacher, initially in
pairs and later in a big group, analyze and reflect on the most important actions of the writing
process, their need for the self-regulation strategies and procedures that had been used and
their importance in achieving a quality text.
Finally, in the fourth instructional stage students work individually, again thinking aloud,
observed by the teacher. In this stage all procedural facilitations are eliminated although
teachers provide feedback about their performance. During this stage, students should begin
to shift their attention from the modeled processes to the performance outcomes (Zimmerman
and Kitsantas, 2002). The intention is that they also move from thinking of the strategies as
the teachers, and therefore externally imposed, to being their own strategies and adapted to
their own personal needs. Progressively, the students will learn to apply strategies flexibly to
different writing tasks. This process of personalization is aided by asking students to make
their own list of writing strategies that they feel that they can use in their future writing.
Evaluation of the CSRI approach to teaching writing suggest that it is capable of
delivering substantial and enduring improvements in the writing competence of typically-
developing sixth-grade students. This research is described in detail in Torrance, Fidalgo, and
García, 2007 and Fidalgo, Torrance, and García, 2008, and is summarized next.

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CSRI

CSRI is designed to be implemented by in within mainstream schools and with students
with a full range of literacy ability. We therefore implemented CSRI with Spanish sixth grade
students (aged between 11 and 12 years old) as part of their normal literacy (Spanish
language) lessons and taught by their normal literacy teacher. In the Spanish educational
system this is the final year of primary (elementary) level schooling. We compared writing
performance prior to and following the intervention with that of a control group who
continued in normal literacy lessons and were tested at the same intervals. We explored ways
in which CSRI affects students‘ writing competence both in the short term and over an
extended period, and with respect to both product quality and writing process. If CSRI is
effective and acts by changing students‘ writing strategies, then we would expect to see not
only improvements in text quality but also a move towards writing strategies that emphasize
planning and revision.
 The Cognitive Self-Regulation Approach to Pre-Secondary Writing Instruction 139

Sample and Design

Our study sampled 95 Spanish sixth-grade primary school students (39 girls and 56 boys)
with a mean age of 11 years and 7 months. These students were taken from four different
classes. Three of these classes were within the same school (N = 22, 24 and 25, respectively)
these students received the CSRI instructional program. The fourth class attended a different
but similar school. This class formed the control group (N= 24). Writing performance in these
students was assessed prior to intervention, immediately post-intervention, and twelve weeks
after intervention (or at equivalent times in the control). We also tested 56 of the original
intervention sample two years after they had completed CSRI and returned to the normal
literacy curriculum (20 girls and 36 boys with mean age of 14 years and 1 month). These
were compared with a normal-curriculum control group formed of 21 students of the same
grade (7 girls and 14 boys) with a mean age of 14 years and 4 months, and who had not
participated in the CSRI intervention but who had for the previous two years been studying at
the same school and attended the same classes as the intervention sample. This control group
had very similar curriculum performance and Standardized Ability Test scores to the
intervention sample.
Writing performance was assessed with tasks that involved students composing short
expository essays about topics related to previous curriculum content whilst logging their
writing activities at frequent, random intervals. At baseline and post-test, all the participants
wrote essays in the same genre, using the compare-contrast genre which had been trained in
CSRI condition. To determine whether the effects of CSRI generalized to other kinds of
expository task at delayed post-test (12 weeks after the intervention) the three different
classes that comprised the CSRI group completed tasks in different genres. Class A
completed a compare-contrast task (the same task as the ordinary curriculum group), Class B
completed a task that involved expression of an opinion, and Class C completed a task
involving the description of a causal relationship. At long-term follow up (two years after the
intervention) both groups wrote compare-contrast essays. In each case, the themes of the
writing tasks were supported by additional topic-related material.
The instructional program developed with the experimental groups was based on the
CSRI model described previously. According to this model, the instructional program
followed the four general stages of training, over 10 weekly sessions lasting between 60 and
75 minutes each. Table 1 summarizes this instructional program. It includes the instructional
stage, the number of sessions, the contents, strategies, techniques, and supportive materials.
The program was delivered by the students‘ normal literacy teacher, who received specific
training from the researchers.
140 Raquel Fidalgo, Olga Arias-Gundin, Jesús Nicasio García et al.

Table 1. Summary of the instructional program based on Cognitive and Self-Regulation

Instruction

Session Instructional Focus Strategies and Materials

Techniques
Stage 1 - Self-knowledge of writing process
1st Writing functions Brainstorming Conceptual writing map
Types of texts Group discussion Writing process matrix
Writing products Direct and explicit Matrix and examples of different
Importance of writing instruction types of texts
Writing processes Previous knowledge Matrix of self-regulation procedures
Self-regulation procedures Interactive explanation
Functional examples
2nd Processes directly Explicit instruction and Matrix of the writing planning
involved in planning explanation process
Planning strategy: POD + Mnemonic rules Mnemonic chart POD + THE
OAIUE Memory strategies VOWELS
P = Pick ideas Example of text
O = Organize your ideas

O = Object
A = Audience
I = Ideas
U = Unite ideas
E = Draft Essay

D = Develop your text

4th Knowledge of the Direct and explicit Writing process matrix

translating process instruction Example of text
Textual structure Previous knowledge Matrix of the editing process
Coherence Interactive explanation Organizer
Links Functional examples

The vowels: O = Organize

your ideas

O = Object
A = Audience
I = Ideas
U = Unite ideas
E = draft Essay

6th Knowledge of the revision Direct and explicit Writing process matrix
process instruction Matrix of the revision process
Mechanical and Previous knowledge Organizer
Substantive revision Interactive explanation Mnemonic chart RED revising
Revising strategy: RED Functional examples of strategy
R = Read text mechanical and Matrix of the type of revisions:
E = Evaluate text substantive revision mechanical vs substantial
D = Do necessary changes
 The Cognitive Self-Regulation Approach to Pre-Secondary Writing Instruction 141

Table 1. (Continued)

Session Instructional Focus Strategies and Techniques Materials

Stage 2 - modeling of writing process
3rd Self-regulation of the Cognitive modeled – Example of thinking aloud
planning processes: POD coping model – mastery Coping model of planning process
+ THE VOWELS model Mastery model of the planning
Strategy Thinking aloud process
Self-regulation Registration planning sheet
procedures
Group discussion
5th Self-regulation of the Cognitive modeled – Example of thinking aloud
translating processes coping model – mastery Coping model of the translating
THE VOWELS Strategy model process
Thinking aloud Mastery model of the translating
Self-regulation process
procedures Registration translation sheet
Group discussion

7th Self-regulation of the Cognitive modeled – Examples of thinking aloud

revision processes RED coping model – mastery Coping model of the revision process
Strategy model Mastery model of the revision process
Thinking aloud Final registration sheet
Self-regulation Matrix of the revision processes:
procedures mechanical and substantial
Group discussion RED strategy
8th Self-regulation of the Cognitive modeled, Graphic Organizer of the planning
writing process mastery model process sheet POD + THE VOWELS
Thinking aloud Strategy
Self-regulation Graphic Organizer of the revision
procedures process sheet RED Strategy
Group discussion
Stage 3 - Emulation of the modeling, working in pairs
9th Self-regulation of the Emulative performance Graphic Organizer of planning
writing process Thinking aloud process sheet POD + THE VOWELS
Self-regulation Strategy
procedures Graphic Organizer of the revision
Social feedback process sheet RED Strategy
Working in pairs
Stage 4 - Emulation of the cognitive modeling working alone
3rd /home Self-regulation of the Individual performance Graphic Organizer and control list: the
task planning processes Thinking aloud planning process sheet
Self-regulation List of Self-regulation procedures in
procedures the planning process
Social feedback
5th /home Self-regulation of the Individual performance Graphic Organizer of the translating
translating processes Thinking aloud process sheet
Self-regulation List of Self-regulation procedures in
procedures the editing process
Feedback social
142 Raquel Fidalgo, Olga Arias-Gundin, Jesús Nicasio García et al.

Table 1. (Continued)

Session Instructional Focus Strategies and Techniques Materials

7th / home Self-regulation of the Individual performance Matrix of the revising process:
revision processes Thinking aloud mechanical and substantial
Self-regulation procedures RED strategy
Social feedback List of the Self-regulation procedures
in the revision process
10th Self-regulation of the Individual performance Graphic Organizer of the planning
writing process Thinking aloud process sheet POD + THE VOWELS
Self-regulation procedures Strategy
Social feedback Graphic Organizer of the revision
process sheet RED Strategy

Assessment

Product analyses involved more text-based measures of productivity, coherence and

structure and reader-based (holistic) quality ratings. Productivity concerns the quantity of text
that is produced for each task and was measured by counting the number of words,
paragraphs, and sentences. Coherence measures are concerned with the different linguistic
indicators of referential or relational coherence ties (Haliday and Hassan, 1976; Sanders,
Spooren and Noordman, 1992). These ties that serve to link the different components of the
text (clauses, sentences, paragraphs). We identified and counted seven types coherence-tie,
based on specific lexical markers: anaphoric, lexical, meta-structural, structural, connective,
reformulating, and argumentational. These are described and illustrated in Table 2. Texts
were scored in terms of coherence-tie density (number of ties of a particular type per 100
words) to control for text-length effects. All texts were analyzed by two trained judges with
an inter-rater reliability of .97 (Pearson r) across all seven categories, with agreement of .85
for anaphoric ties and of more than .95 for all other categories. Finally, structure was
evaluated in terms of whether the text included the three main parts of text: introduction, main
body and conclusion.
Reader-based measures involved expert raters scoring each text, as a whole, for the
overall quality, for structure and coherence. These ratings were based on a method described
and evaluated by Spencer and Fitzgerald (1993), and involved evaluation against a list of
specific criteria. These are summarized in Table 3. All texts were rated by two independent
judges, both of whom were blind to group membership. Correlations (Pearson‘s r) between
judges‘ ratings were .91, .83, and .89 for, respectively, structure, coherence, and quality.
Process measures were derived from a ―writing log‖ technique (Torrance, Thomas, and
Robinson, 1999) which involves collecting time-sampled, concurrent, probed self-reports of
the students‘ writing activities. While performing the writing tasks students periodically hear
electronic beeps (on average one every 90 seconds). When they hear the beep they
immediately indicate the activity in which they are currently engaged, choosing from a list of
seven on a writing-log sheet.
 The Cognitive Self-Regulation Approach to Pre-Secondary Writing Instruction 143

Table 2. Coherence ties used in text-based quality assessments

Label Description Examples

Anaphoric These are pronouns and John is teacher. He works at school.
other devices for anaphoric El lobo es un mamífero y come carne, su
reference estatura es grande, y tiene una cola larga y sus
orejas son puntiagudas. En el pueblo hay
muchas casas, unas grandes, otras pequeñas,
allí nací yo.
Lexical These are semantic John is teacher at school. John got this job in
overlaps or exact lexical 1990. El lobo es un mamífero y come carne. El
repetitions between words zorro es un mamífero igual que el lobo. El lobo
(subjects or objects) y el zorro se parecen en que tienen el hocico
puntiagudo.
Meta-structural These are phrases linking Now, I will describe…; The previous
sentences or pointing out paragrapsh talks about…El resultado de la
previous or subsequent text discusión se recogerá más tarde..La
content. consecuencia de ese encuentro vendrá
después..El siguiente texto va a tratar sobre…
Structural These are specific linguistic First…; second…; finally…; later…;
markers for structuring the eventually…pues, bien.., por cierto…, en primer
information. For example: lugar, después, otro….
at first, second, later,
Connective These are specific linguistic And…; also…; as well as…además, y…, por
markers that link different tanto, entonces..., por el contrario, sin embargo,
parts of text. For example: pero...
and, besides, as well as,
also, etc.
Reformulation These are specific linguistic In conclusion…; that is to say…; in other
markers that summarize (in words…es decir, o sea..., mejor dicho, mas
conclusion, finally), bien..., en todo caso, aunque, también..., en
explain (that is) or reiterate conclusión, en definitiva...
of a point in a different
form (in other words).
Argumentational These are specific linguistic For example…; however…; despite this…en
markers that persuade realidad, de hecho..., por ejemplo…
(however, despite this) or
provide evidences (for
example)

These activities were labeled and defined as follows: reading references (I am reading
the reference materials), thinking about content (I am thinking of things to say in my text);
writing outline (I am writing a plan of what I‘m going to write in the text or I am using my
notes to make a detailed outline); writing text (I am drafting full text rather than making
notes); reading text (I am reading though all or part of my text); changing text (I am making
changes to my text, for example correcting orthographic mistakes, changing words, adding
144 Raquel Fidalgo, Olga Arias-Gundin, Jesús Nicasio García et al.

words, eliminating words, etc.); unrelated (I am doing or thinking something unrelated to the
text, for example: looking for a pen, looking through the window, etc.).

Table 3. The descriptive criteria of reader-based measures of compare-contrast essays

(based on scheme developed by Spencer and Fitzgerald, 1993)

Measure Criteria
Structure The rater considered the presence and development of six characteristics:
Background information to present the text.
Structural cues
An introduction: a topic or thesis sentence to establish the general comparison-
contrast.
Clearly developed organization either whole by whole or part by part or likeness-
differences.
Unity within individual paragraphs and in the case of a theme within the entire
paper.
A conclusion which reiterates the purpose of the paper, to show comparisons or
contrasts or both

Coherence The rater considered the presence and development of seven characteristics:
Topic or theme identified
Topic or theme extended without digressions
A context which oriented the reader
Details which were organized in a discernible plan which was sustained
throughout the text.
Cohesive ties linking sentences and / or paragraphs
Discourse which flowed smoothly
Conclusion statement creating a sense of closure.

Quality The rater considered the presence and development of seven characteristics:
Clear sequence of ideas
Text development with little or no irrelevant ideas.
Good organization
Fresh, vigorous word choice.
Variety of interesting details
Correct sentence structure
Correct punctuation, capitalization and spelling.

Time spent in each of seven activities through writing process was estimated by
multiplying the number of times that a participant indicated a particular activity in their
writing log by the mean inter-beep interval.
These activities were collected in a blank writing log divided into multiple sections each
listing the seven possible writing activities. Each activity was indicated with a specific
symbol or picture which, after training, became familiar to the students. This helped to
minimize the extent to which completing the log diverted attention from the writing task.
Students were trained in using this method prior to completing the baseline assessment. We
then determined the students‘ accuracy in using the categorization scheme by indicating the
activities of a writer at 25 different examples of activities during their writing process. The
comparison of the students‘ categorization with that of an expert judge showed good
 The Cognitive Self-Regulation Approach to Pre-Secondary Writing Instruction 145

agreement (kappa = .87 for both the initial study when assessed again for the long-term
follow up).

Results

We first describe effects of CSRI on the students‘ texts, and then on writing processes. In
both cases we made separate comparisons for baseline vs. post-test (for immediate effects of
CSRI) and baseline vs. delayed post-test (for more persistent effects). If CSRI is effective we
would expect to find increases in quality and use of planning and revision that were greater in
the intervention sample than in the control. If this difference is found and has not occurred by
chance then trial (baseline vs. post-test or baseline vs. delayed post-test) by group
(intervention vs. control) interactions should, therefore, be statistically significant.
As Table 4 indicates, there were statistically significant improvements in the quality of
texts produced by students in the intervention group compared with controls, and this
improvement was sustained in the delayed-post-test assessment. We also found that after
attending CSRI students were more likely to use anaphoric, structural, and meta-structural
devices for making their text cohere. Arguably this demonstrates an increased tendency to
attend to reader needs rather than just expressing ideas as they occur.
CSRI also appeared to have a substantial effect on the extent to which participants made
use of introductory and concluding paragraphs. At post-test only 2 (8%) of the ordinary
curriculum group included introductions in their text, compared with 67 (94%) of CSRI
participants. Similarly, only one student in the ordinary curriculum group wrote a concluding
paragraph, whilst 61 (86%) of the CSRI students did so. This pattern was repeated at delayed
post-test. Of the 22 CSRI participants that performed the compare-contrast task, 21 (95%)
wrote introductions and 20 (91%) wrote concluding paragraphs, compared with two and one
students, respectively, in the ordinary curriculum condition. This outcome was generalized to
the opinion and cause-and-effect tasks with, 21 (87%) and 25 (100%) of students,
respectively, writing introductory paragraphs, and 19 (79%) and 24 (96%) writing
conclusions. There was also a substantial increase in the use of paragraphing by the CSRI
group at post- and delayed-post tests, effects that were absent in ordinary curriculum group.
Although the intervention focused exclusively on writing compare-contrast essays, the
effects generalized well to the opinion and cause-effect tasks that were completed by sub-
samples of the intervention group at delayed post test.
Two years after CSRI instruction most of these effects were maintained, albeit with rather
more modest effect sizes (Table 5). CSRI students produced better quality text, with more
sophisticated coherence ties, compared with controls. They were also more likely to include
introductory paragraphs (but not conclusions).
 Table 4. Comparison on reader- and text-based quality measures taken at baseline, post-test and delayed post-test (12 week)
for CSRI and control students

Baseline Post-test 12-weeks Baseline vs. post-test Baseline vs. delayed post-test
Control CSRI Control CSRI Control CSRI F (1, 93) p η2 F (1,44) p η2
Reader-based measures
Quality 2.46 (.55) 2.4 (.60) 2.21 (.25) 5.29 (1.06) 2.17 (.50) 4.91 (1.11) 214.4 .001 .70 94.8 .001 .68
Coherence 2.4 (.47) 2.25 (.5) 2.31 (.44) 3.82 (.53) 2.52 (.45) 3.89 (.31) 146.9 .001 .61 94.4 .001 .68
Structure 1.94 (.76) 1.76 (.53) 1.71 (.66) 3.73 (.71) 1.94 (.61) 3.84 (.36) 158.7 .001 .63 91.3 .001 .67
Text-based measures
Word count 83.2 77.4 (22.5) 84.4 (42.0) 92.9 (26.4) 94.3 (31.2) 106 (23.5) 7.16 .01 .14
(29.4)
Paragraph count 1.4 (.6) 1.7 (1) 1.6 (.9) 3.6 (1.1) 1.8 (.5) 3.8 (.4) 26 .001 .22 44.9 .001
Anaphoric ties 1.51 1.61 (2.59) 1.44 (1.66) 3.9 (2.48) 2.39 (2.09) 3.98 (2.47) 12.2 .001 .12 7.3 .01 .14
(1.24)
Reformulation ties 0 .09 (.62) .10 (.34) 1.06 (.60) .30 (.97) 1.29 (.51) 22.4 .001 .19 4.3 .04 .09
Structural ties .90 (2.02) .37 (1.66) .40 (1.97) 1.51 (1.23) .32 (.52) 1.52 (.89) 9.1 .003 .09 6.8 .012 .13
Meta-structural ties .05 (.27) 0 0 1.1 (.55) .20 (.58) .94 (.33) 97.3 .001 .51 26.8 .001 .38
Note: Results are given for just those effects that were statistically significant. Means at 12 weeks are just for students who completed the compare-
contrast essay (n = 24). F ratios are reported for test by group interactions.
 The Cognitive Self-Regulation Approach to Pre-Secondary Writing Instruction 147

Table 5. Comparison differences in reader- and text-based quality measures between

CSRI and control groups two years after intervention

Control CSRI Differences between

(CSRI vs. control)
M (SD) M (SD) t p r2
Reader-based measures
Quality 2.1 (.77) 2.8 (.94) 2.64 .010 .10
Coherence 2.52 (.93) 3.18 (.79) 3.09 .003 .13
Structure 2.95 (1.20) 3.73 (1.14) 3.08 .003 .13
Text-based measures
Reformulation ties .13 (.23) .30 (.48) 2.10 .04 .03
Meta-structural ties .04 (.11) .16 (.27) 2.67 .009 .04
Note: Results shown just for statistically significant effects

CSRI had a rather more mixed effect on students writing strategies. There was a much
greater tendency, relative to controls, for CSRI students to plan their texts. However, we found
no effect of the intervention on students‘ tendency to read and make changes to their text.
Revision was more or less absent for all writing tasks in both groups. As for the long term
follow up, the analysis of the differences between the CSRI and the control group concerning
the time spent on the different writing processes only showed a statistically significant higher
time spent on writing the outline process in the CSRI than the control group. The explicit
planning activity, in the form of outline-writing, was greater for the CSRI group compared to
the control group. Again, however, there was no evidence that CSRI students were more likely
to engage in revision.
CSRI does, therefore, appear to offer substantial benefits for sixth grade writers. Students
who experienced CSRI produced better quality text, even two years after intervention
Specifically, the texts of CSRI participants suggested greater consideration of audience and of
communicative and pragmatic goals. In the terms of Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) this
finding suggests a shift in the students towards a more knowledge transforming approach to
writing. This effect was accompanied by, and perhaps resulted from, a substantially increased
tendency for students to systematically plan their texts.
These findings are consistent with previous research. As we discussed above, recent
systematic literature reviews focusing on instructional practices for teaching writing, indicate
that strategy-focused instruction has a strong impact on the quality of students‘ written
products (Graham, 2006; Graham and Harris, 2003; Graham and Perin, 2007). In particular,
the Self-Regulated Strategy Development instructional model (SRSD) has been proven
effective and yielded a large average effect size. This model shares key instructional
techniques and strategies with the CSRI approach to teaching writing. A feature of our
evaluation that is absent in the research reviewed by Graham and co-workers was the long-
term follow-up. Our findings suggested that the benefits of the CSRI were still present nearly
two years after the intervention was delivered. CSRI students continue to produce significantly
better quality texts and tended to spend more time planning their texts than their peers who
followed the normal curriculum in writing instruction. This suggests that CSRI, and by
implication other strategy-focused interventions, promote a more strategic and self-regulated
approach to writing, especially in relation to planning processes, which is enduring, and does
148 Raquel Fidalgo, Olga Arias, Jesús Nicasio García et al.

not developed spontaneously under more traditional writing instruction, at least until after the
eighth grade.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR WRITING INSTRUCTION

Our findings therefore suggest that strategy instruction aimed at developing independent
use of self-regulatory cognitive strategies is important if students are to achieve writing
competence. On this basis it is possible to draw some recommendations for the teaching of
writing in regular school settings. These are summarized below.
There is clearly a relationship between students‘ knowledge about what constitutes a
mature writing process, and their ability to apply mature strategies to regulate their own
writing behavior. Metacognitive knowledge and self-regulation strategies should, therefore, be
imparted in a complementary fashion. At first, teachers should instill and foster prior
metacognitive knowledge of the writing process in their students. The declarative knowledge
of writing (what is writing) answers questions about, for example, the range of different
cognitive strategies that might be adopted and the defining characteristics of different textual
genres. Procedural knowledge of writing (how to write) enables students to apply strategy and
text knowledge to their own writing. It is important also that students have conditional
knowledge – understanding of when and why to use declarative and procedural knowledge. In
writing this refers to when to use a specific writing strategy, what writing strategies are most
suitable for the different kinds of texts, why to use a specific writing strategy at a specific
moment of the writing process, or when and why to use a specific textual genre. This kind of
metacognitive knowledge of writing should focus on the substantive or higher-order cognitive
processes in writing.
There are a variety of approaches to developing metacognitive knowledge of writing.
Teachers should support interactive guided dialogues using techniques such as discussion
groups, group reflection, questioning or brainstorming. Our experience is that it is important to
promote students‘ self-reflection about their self-knowledge, their gaps and limits. Another
effective technique is the use of metacognitive knowledge evaluation matrices. These matrices
promote explicit declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge about each writing process
(Schraw, 2001). These matrices can be used as to assess students‘ existing knowledge, as part
of an explicit teaching strategy, or to encourage memory and understanding after the training
program. They can also be completed in a group context to encourage discussion, self-
reflection and dialogue between students. Getting students to engage in analysis of existing
texts serves both to provide knowledge of important features of different genres but also, and
as importantly, gives them evaluation skills and strategies that they can apply to both
production and revision of their own texts.
As students begin to acquire the necessary prior knowledge, instruction can then shift
towards developing self regulation. Teacher modeling followed by student emulation appears
particularly effective in this respect. This approach appears to be generally effective in
developing students ability to self-regulate (Zimmerman and Kitsantas, 2002). In the context
of writing this type of learning by observation has been shown to be more effective than other
methods (Braaksma, et al., 2001; Braaksma et al., 2004; Couzijn, 1999). We have found that
think-aloud methods, where teachers (and then peers) externalize their thinking while writing
 The Cognitive Self-Regulation Approach to Pre-Secondary Writing Instruction 149

is a particular effective approach to modeling. However in practice we have found that ―think-
aloud‖ needs itself to be supported. Teachers need to rehearse particular self-questioning and
self-instructing devices in advance of modeling in front of the class. From the students‘
perspective, therefore, that teacher – as the expert model – is simply doing what she would
normally do when composing a text, and we think that this is important. However, to
maintaining this illusion requires that the teacher does some advance preparation. The CSRI
intervention made use of think-aloud not just when initially demonstrating strategies to
students but during subsequent emulation, both with when students worked in pairs and even
when they finally wrote alone. This both helps to make strategies salient and explicit, and
means that teachers and other students have at least some access to, and are therefore able to
comment on, the internal mental processes that are the focus of the intervention.
Self-regulation in writing can also be promoted by means of specific techniques, such as,
mnemonic devices for the cognitive strategies of writing, cognitive modeling and emulation
and the thinking aloud technique. The cognitive strategies developed in this way allow
students to manage and regulate the complex higher-level set of cognitive processes associated
with planning, drafting and revision. Teachers are likely to find that students require
considerable support – both through shared writing activities and supporting written materials.
This needs to be removed gradually in order to promote autonomous, self-regulatory use of the
strategy being taught. Our evaluation of CSRI suggests that gradual removal of scaffolding in
this way results in most students spontaneously adopting pre-planning strategies, even two
years after instruction with no subsequent reinforcement. However the same was not true for
revision strategies. Students appeared to understand the function and possible benefits of
revision, and could emulate teacher modeling, but they did not then spontaneously revise their
own texts. This may be for motivational reasons. Whereas deliberate planning necessarily
occurs primarily before drafting has starting, particularly when the writing task is short,
revision is predominantly a post-drafting activity. Motivation is generally likely to be lower at
this point. Students are also likely to feel that if they have carefully planned their text, then
followed this plan when writing, there is little to be gained from then reading through what
they have written. Unless goals change during writing, which for students completing
relatively short, teacher-provided tasks, is unlikely, or there is reader input that reveals that
they have not been as successful in communicating their ideas as they though they were,
students are unlikely to perceive any need to change their text. Developing an inner-critic –
internal processes that allow writers to distance themselves from their text and see it from the
perspective of intended readers – may be something that is beyond young writers.
In conclusion, therefore, strategy focused writing instruction in general, and the specific
methods used to implement this in the CSRI intervention in particular, appear to be effective in
helping students at the top end of elementary school develop into more mature writers.
Specifically this approach appears more effective, or at least to add substantial value to,
traditional approaches to writing instruction that focus solely on characteristics of the written
product. The very large effect sizes found for immediate and short-term effects of CSRI in our
evaluation (compared to more modest average effect sizes found by Graham and Perin, 2007)
can in part be explained by the almost total absence of process oriented teaching in the Spanish
literacy curriculum. In contexts where normal writing instruction is already more processes
focused, as is increasingly the case in the UK, for example, effects may be less marked.
However, we believe that the range of methods adopted by CSRI, and perhaps particularly the
150 Raquel Fidalgo, Olga Arias, Jesús Nicasio García et al.

extensive use of think-aloud-based modeling and emulation, are have the potential to make a
useful contribution to writing instruction across a broad range of contexts.

NOTE
During this research, we received competitive funds from Ministerio de Investigación,
Ciencia e Innovación --MICINN: Ministry of Research, Science and Innovation- from the
Spanish Government, project SEJ2007-66898-EDUC (2007-2010), with European Union
FEDER funds. And Excellence Research Group funds from Junta de Castilla y León (GR259),
and with European non FEDER funds for 2009-2010-2011 (BOCyL 27 on April 2009). Both
awarded to the third author.

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In: Recent Trends in Education ISBN 978-1-60741-795-8
Editor: Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 6

EVALUATING PROBLEM BASED

LEARNING IN MIDWIFERY

C. Rowan, S. Beake and C. McCourt

Center for Research in Midwifery and Childbirth,
Thames Valley University, London, UK

Problem based learning (PBL) has been adopted widely in the education of health
professionals and is used in many disciplines worldwide including medicine, nursing,
midwifery and other medical allied professions. The rationale for a PBL based programme in
midwifery lies in the theoretical claims that it promotes the development of communication
skills, teamwork, sharing information, problem solving and developing independent
responsibility for learning (Wood 2003) and that it may increase retention of knowledge,
transfer of concepts and enhance intrinsic interest (Norman and Schmidt 1992).
PBL was initially developed in the 1980s in medical education in North America as it
was felt that classroom learning did not always transfer to the clinical setting. Early
developers of the approach felt that learning in small groups through the use of clinical
problems would make medical education more interesting and relevant to practice. In the
1990s an EBL based approach was adopted by schools of nursing and midwifery in the UK.
Since the main focus of midwifery practice is on normal, healthy pregnancy and birth, the
term enquiry based learning (EBL) has been used by many midwifery programmes, but PBL
is the most commonly used term in the literature and will be used in this chapter.
From the beginning of the 1990s, midwifery education in the UK moved away from
being based in a hospital setting to being university based and is now largely a degree course
with 50% clinical experience and 50% academic. There are two courses available at present,
an eighteen month programme for those who have already trained as nurses and a three year
degree or diploma programme for those entering midwifery directly with no previous nursing
experience. In the UK, midwifery is an independent profession, and midwives may provide
total care for healthy pregnancy and birth, referring to medical professionals if needed for
medical problems or complications (NMC Midwives Rules 2005). PBL was first introduced
as a total approach to midwifery education in 1998 in the UK and has now been adopted for
156 C. Rowan, S. Beake and C. McCourt

aspects of the curriculum in a large proportion of UK universites offering midwifery

programmes.
In 2001 McCourt and Thomas evaluated the first midwifery PBL programme in the UK
when it was initially set up; this was followed by a further evaluation once it was an
established programme and initial responses to change likely to have stabilised. This chapter
draws on that evaluation to explore the the perceptions of the students and the teachers of the
effectiveness of this educational approach.
PBL is generally based on scenarios or ‗problems‘, particularly in most medical
programmes, the scenarios are discussed in ‗triggers‘ for the students. However the ‗triggers‘
used in the midwifery programme studied here are not usually scenario based, but designed to
address broad areas for learning, for example, normal antenatal care, or care in labour. A
‗trigger‘ is presented to the students at an initial tutorial, for example, a video clip of a woman
in labour. Students are then encouraged to identify their existing relevant knowledge, learning
issues and questions. Each student identifies an aspect to explore in depth and after a period
of independent study relay their findings to the group in two subsequent tutorials with a final
tutorial designed as summary and consolidation. There are about 7 triggers per year. In
addition to the trigger/tutorial process, students attend about 4-6 fixed resource sessions per
trigger, which are lecture style sessions led by a teacher on subjects relevant to the trigger,
clinical skills workshops and complete an anatomy and physiology work package as part of
the college based component of their education (Thomas et al 1998). Students also spend an
equal amount of time in practice placements, where classroom learning should be extended
and reinforced. This programme runs across two university sites both as an 18 month
shortened programme for those already trained as nurses and a three year direct entry
programme.
The overall aim of the study was to investigate key questions raised in the existing work
on problem based learning in education for health professionals. Such questions include;

 Is it effective in preparing professionals for practice?

 What are the students‘ perspectives of this method of learning?
 What are the outcomes, both short and long term?
 What are the teachers‘ perceptions of a PBL based curriculum?

LITERATURE REVIEW
Much of the literature on PBL education in health care has emerged from the field of
medical education, with a smaller number in relation to nursing education. Four reviews of
medical education in the early 1990s (Albanese and Mitchell 1993, Berkson 1993, Vernon
and Blake 1993, Norman and Smidt 1992) found student evaluations and clinical performance
was improved. However, in a few instances students scored lower in basic science
examination and viewed themselves as less well prepared for practice than their
conventionally trained counterparts (Albanese and Mitchell 1993). The reviews by Berkson
(1993), Norman and Smidt (1993) and subsequently Colliver et al (2000) concluded that there
was no clear evidence to demonstrate an important advantage of a PBL curriculum over more
traditional programmes in terms of knowledge acquisition and clinical skills, although
 Evaluating Problem Based Learning in Midwifery 157

students may find it more motivating and enjoyable. Further studies in medical education
since the publication of these reviews also indicate that there were no significant differences
in students‘ examination results between PBL and more traditional programmes (Prince et al
2003, Mennin 2003).
Studies in nursing education similarly do not demonstrate clear benefits of a PBL
approach in terms of tested outcomes (Newman 1995, Beers 2005). Lewis and Tamblyn
(1987) using a multiple choice test and assessment by clinical instructors found no significant
differences in measurable theoretical or problem solving outcomes between a group of senior
nursing students who voluntarily participated in a problem based learning programme and
those who voluntarily remained in the traditional format, although some might argue that the
students in this context may have opted for the style that suited their personality best,
therefore achieving similar results.
In evaluating nine cohorts from a problem based learning programme in occupational
therapy Sadlo (1994) found positive evaluations by students, staff and supervisors. Students
received higher marks for their professional skills such as treatment planning and
interpersonal skills than for knowledge, which brings into focus questions about the nature of
professional knowledge.
Limited research literature exists in relation to the effectiveness of a PBL based approach
in midwifery education. McCourt and Thomas (2001) in their analysis of formal assessment
of UK students did not find clear evidence of change to students‘ overall examination
performance, and clinical mentors regarded the group as having similar levels of midwifery
knowledge to previous students, but their perceived strengths were the ability to use research,
independence in learning, critical thinking and questioning. Similarly, the course external
examiner noted few differences in the shift from the traditional to the problem-based
curriculum.
However, grading on assessments may not be a good indicator of the effectiveness of an
educational programme. Research that focuses on formal outcomes may not be the most
appropriate tool for the complexities of education. It may be that PBL educated students
perform better in the long term and retain knowledge by focusing on understanding rather
than rote learning, or engaging in deep rather than surface learning. Randomized controlled
trials may be inappropriate, untenable and unethical in many education settings and even with
randomized controlled trials there is an assumption that both groups are equivalent, but in
educational terms it is impossible to maintain blinding and therefore success or failure cannot
be confidently attributed to the intervention: teachers or students may be more or less
enthusiastic depending on their attitudes to the different educational approaches being
compared and motivation is known to influence educational outcomes.
Research on the students‘ perspectives in medical education has generally found that
students evaluated the PBL approach more positively than traditional curricula (Kaufman and
Mann 1996, Moore et al 1994). Studies of other health care professions such as occupational
therapy have also viewed PBL positively in terms of developing skills of information
management and clinical reasoning (Sadlo 1997). PBL was found to increase motivation
among nursing students (Biley 1999). A previous study of midwifery students found positive
views of their skills in using and conveying information, but anxieties about their factual
learning (McCourt and Thomas 2001).
Some studies demonstrate that students benefit from working in small groups (Albanese
and Mitchell 1993, 2001, Willis et al 2002) enabling students to verify information, develop
158 C. Rowan, S. Beake and C. McCourt

professional behavior, teamwork and communication skills (Biley 1999). Learning in groups
is believed to combine the acquisition of knowledge with other skills and attributes relevant to
practice. However the benefits of working in groups are dependent upon the nature of the
group and the participation and contribution of group members (Steinert 2004, Willis et al
2002) clear goals and the style of the tutors as facilitators (Steinert 2004).
Several studies from differing disciplines identify students‘ initial anxiety or uncertainty
with PBL (Moore et al 1994, Sadlo 1997, McCourt and Thomas 2001), and this appeared to
relate to the apparent lack of structure or guidance. Anxieties may also be around the time
spent searching for relevant resources (Lobb et al 2004) and uncertainty with regard to the
depth and breadth of knowledge required (Solomon and Finch 1998). Despite the perceived
advantages and benefits of PBL, nursing students experienced uncertainty, dissatisfaction,
frustration, stress with regard to finding resources and managing the workload and lacked
confidence in their own abilities (Biley and Smith 1999). Some of this may be related to the
transition from a more didactic approach to learning. McCourt and Thomas (2001) found that
the process was often experienced as challenging and students worried about their reliance on
other group members to cover all the areas of learning. They also expressed considerable
anxiety and uncertainty about their progress and the depth of their knowledge.
It may be that the benefits of a PBL based programme may be seen in the longer term.
There are a limited number of studies which explore the longer term effects of a PBL based
programme on practioners. Studies in medical education found that medical students were
satisfied with their programme in preparing them for practice and tended to favour the PBL
based course (Antepohl 2003, Prince et al 2005, Jones et al 2002). A small study of nursing
graduates found that graduates evaluated the PBL programme well (Biley and Smith 1998). A
small south African study of nursing students and their supervisors found that PBL graduates
tended to fare better in terms of their problem solving ability (Ulys et al 2004). A study of
occupational therapists 8 months after graduation found that PBL encouraged a holistic
approach, teamwork problem solving skills and information retrieval but some students felt
that these skills were intuitive rather than learnt from PBL (Reeves et al 2004).This again was
a small study with a low response rate.
Studies of the teachers‘ perspective found they were uncertain how to intervene and
manage the difficulties which could arise in groups (Kaufman and Holmes 1996, Haith
Cooper 2003). Savin Baden (2003) in her study of PBL amongst various professions found
that the lack of time to explore all areas of knowledge to the same depth was an area of
conflict for many staff as was a discrepancy they felt between a constructivist approach and
the requirements of professional practice. The only study which included the perspective of
midwife teachers was undertaken by McCourt and Thomas (2001). Key processes in the
teachers‘ early experience were around letting go of the previous curriculum, developing
facilitation skills, ‗getting the balance‘ and maintaining personal motivation and subject
interest. The teachers involved were familiar with and favoured participative and discursive
educational approaches. However, they expressed uncertainty about the degree of shift
towards facilitation, the level of students‘ responsibility for their learning and how they
should balance the principles of student-driven approaches with the structures and
requirements of professional education (McCourt 1999).
A number of key themes emerge from the literature. There appears no convincing
evidence that PBL is superior to other programmes in terms of outcomes, although few
studies have involved long terms measures. PBL appears to lead to increased motivation and
 Evaluating Problem Based Learning in Midwifery 159

satisfaction amongst students and develops skills such as information management,

communication skills and clinical reasoning. Challenges and difficulties appeared to be
related to the initial anxiety of students and the uncertainty about their level of knowledge and
being dependent on the contributions of others in the group. Evaluating educational
programmes is fraught with difficulty as studies are difficult to compare because of the wide
variation in conditions, settings, practices, styles of facilitation, size of groups and types of
student (Newman 2003). Medical students, for example, tend to be a highly selected atypical
group. Studies in medical education may have different philosophical underpinning with a
focus on teaching diagnostic skills and therefore may not be directly applicable to nursing and
midwifery. Traditional programmes may vary, some being more interactive than others,
therefore it may be inappropriate to make comparisons across disciplines between PBL and
other approaches. For example, the traditional midwifery programme with which the PBL
programme studied here involved was compared and valued student discussion and
participation (McCourt and Thomas 2001). However some of the themes identified in the
literature were echoed in our analysis of the midwifery students‘ experience, as we discuss
below.

METHODS
A qualitative study using semi-structured interviews and focus groups was conducted to
explore the perceptions of students, graduates and teachers in a university in the South East of
England, based on two separate sites.
The study addressed three key areas related to a PBL based programme in midwifery:

 the experience of current students (4 cohorts);

 follow up of graduates five years after completing a PBL based programme;
 an exploration of the experiences of the teacher using a PBL approach.

Data were collected on the outcomes of student grades; however there were insufficient
numbers available to draw conclusions.

Current Students

Focus groups were used to elicit students‘ views of the PBL approach. They are
considered to be well suited to obtaining information about people‘s experiences and
perceptions of events and issues and are a way of listening to people and learning from them
(Morgan 1998). They draw on group interaction, combining elements of individuals
interacting with one another and participant observation to produce data and insights that
would be less accessible without the interaction found in such a group (Morgan 1993).
Focus groups were held in the first semester of both the three year and 18 month
midwifery programmes across two sites (n=4 groups) and these were repeated in the final
semester of the students‘ programmes (total=8 groups). The following questions guided the
focus group discussions:
160 C. Rowan, S. Beake and C. McCourt

 What is your understanding of PBL?

 What has your experience of PBL been like?

This included perceptions of the facilitator‘s role, the effectiveness of the approach and
working with one another. The purpose of the focus group was explained verbally and in
writing to the students and participation was voluntary. The numbers of students in each
group are shown in table 1.

Table 1

Site A Site B
3 year; Semester 1 9 9
3 year; Semester 6 18 5

18 month; Semester 1 14 5
18 month; Semester 3 8 15

Two researchers conducted each focus group. These discussions were tape recorded and
transcribed.

Graduates

Given the lack of clear evidence to indicate that PBL is either more or less effective in
terms of formal educational outcomes, it was concluded that it would be useful to look at the
effects of the programme on the graduates in practice. Research on the views and experiences
of PBL graduates may help to unpick the questions that could not be answered by an
examinations-based measurement approach.
A questionnaire was sent to three groups of students, three months following
qualification; of 66 sent out in total 34 questionnaires were returned (19 from those on the 18
month programme and 15 from the three year programme) across the two sites.
To gain an insight into any longer term effects in practice, those involved in an earlier
study (McCourt and Thomas 2001) were interviewed 5-6 years following their graduation.
This involved two cohorts: the last cohort to undertake the traditional midwifery programme
and the first cohort of students to undertake the PBL programme. They had all previously
qualified as nurses and completed an 18-month midwifery programme. Using their last
known contact details, attempts were made to contact all the graduates in both cohorts by
letter and/or telephone. Owing to the long period (5-6 years) since qualifying and a highly
mobile population, this proved challenging. Of the 35 ‗pre PBL‘ group four could be
contacted, all of whom agreed to be interviewed (one by telephone). Of the 37 PBL based
graduates, seven could be contacted of whom two refused, giving being too busy as the
reason. Four were willing to be interviewed face to face and one who had moved out of the
area gave her views in writing giving a total of five responses.
The midwives were asked, using a semi structured topic guide, to discuss their views of
how the course prepared them for practice.
 Evaluating Problem Based Learning in Midwifery 161

Teachers

The third arm of the study was an exploration of the perspectives of the midwife teachers
and the ways in which they understood their role and responsibilities. The midwife teachers
were divided into two groups, those who had been facilitators since the implementation of the
PBL based programme and those who had no experience of the previous curriculum. There
were 25 teachers in the department of whom 13 were interviewed following random selection
from each of the two groups.

Data Analysis

The key themes in each focus group were identified. One researcher undertook detailed
analysis of the recordings, coding them to identify themes and categories. A second
researcher, who also took notes, analyzed the data independently and the themes and ideas
generated were compared and then discussed within the research team. Interviews with
teachers and graduates were transcribed in full and coded in detail using open codes generated
from the data to identify key themes from each interview. The key themes from the interviews
with graduates were then compared cross-sectionally and key themes from the interviews as a
whole identified. The themes from the graduates who had undertaken a PBL based
programme and those from a traditional programme were identified separately and
subsequently combined. These were then compared with the themes identified in the focus
groups in the original study undertaken three months following the students‘ graduation
(McCourt and Thomas 2001). To ensure the reliability of the analysis, the researchers
analyzed the data independently and then discussed their preliminary findings together
Ethical permission was granted from the institution‘s ethics committee. Participants were
assured that their views would be treated confidentially and entirely separate from course
management, and all group participants were asked and agreed to respect this confidence.

Findings

Key themes from the three arms of this study are identified and discussed; these were:

 issues related to the tutorial process, group dynamics

 the initial anxiety and uncertainty that students experience
 The relationship of theory to practice.

The views of the students, graduates and teachers are discussed together under each
theme. We found considerable commonality of themes across the different perspectives, and
where differences of view were found, we highlight this.
162 C. Rowan, S. Beake and C. McCourt

The Process

The PBL process involves students meeting initially to discuss learning needs from the
trigger and what topics they will tackle, then independently researching these and feeding
back to their peers, discussing and then consolidating their knowledge in the last of three
tutorial sessions. Although the intention of the approach was to stimulate group discussion,
from their accounts of the process there appeared to be an emphasis on individual
presentations. Many students reported that feeding back information to their peers in a
presentation style made them anxious, but could also be tedious, particularly if all the
feedback for a trigger was undertaken on the same day. The graduates also felt that because
they were focusing on their individual feedback and were nervous about this they may have
missed what others were saying and this added to their worries about gaps in their learning.
This echoed their concerns expressed in the original study (McCourt and Thomas 2001).
Because of their own anxieties they did not always value or learn from the contributions of
others:

It‘s really nerve racking talking in front of your peers. Now we are getting a bit more
confident, but it‘s still quite scary- you are concentrating so much on getting your information
out that whatever has gone before you is a blur, that‘s what I found anyway. Because I was so
desperate to get mine said and done then after you can listen. S3 (student).

Everyone is nervous about their own one and lots of the time I felt I missed what everyone
else was saying because you were psyched up to present your own. 3 (PBL graduate).

Some students communicated better than others. They recognized that visual aids helped
but that they did not always have the time to develop these. Students tended to believe that
they had to adopt a teaching type role retaining a quite didactic model of education, which
may have fed their anxieties because they believed they were ‗teaching each other‘ rather than
being taught by ‗an expert‘. They tended to focus on individual presentations rather than a
more discursive approach where students talk about what they found, raising questions,
discuss and learn from this. It may be that this is more difficult in the early part of a
programme when knowledge is limited but may also reflect previous models of learning,
anxiety around feeling that they have to come up with a right answer or a notion of learning
as primarily fact-based rather than enquiry-based:

If you haven‘t got the knowledge base it‘s difficult to question because there is nothing to
question and at the same time there is everything to question. S18 (student).

It is therefore important that tutors model a questioning approach to the students in a way
which might help generate debate. In this programme, students were given a series of initial
classroom sessions on finding, understanding and critiquing evidence, but they may have
found the relevance of this difficult to appreciate early in their programme, so this needed re-
enforcement at intervals throughout. In some groups all students read around the topic area of
the trigger as a whole and brought information for discussion to the group. Those who did this
found it more helpful than individual research on an identified aspect.
 Evaluating Problem Based Learning in Midwifery 163

All the students found the approach very time consuming and this influenced the quality
of their work. They felt that there was little time to look up the references provided by their
peers
Many of the teachers interviewed found it was challenging to discourage the students
from using rigid ways of presenting their findings and to encourage a more discursive
approach to help draw out the students‘ knowledge. They felt that there was still some way to
go with regard to helping students to question each other as this was often perceived as
threatening. Teachers tried to hold back and tease out the students‘ thinking and reasoning
rather than answering their questions for them. They sometimes needed to challenge the
students to think about what they were saying and how that related to practice:

If I have sat back and nobody in the group has challenged then I would ask the group what did
you make of that. What have you taken from that? Occasionally I put the person on the spot
by asking them to repeat what they said and to explain their understanding of it. 2 (teacher)

Teachers also felt that the students were poorly prepared for feeding back and discussing
their findings. Some of the teachers expressed uncertainty about their role in terms of how
much to intervene, for example in suggesting that a quieter member speaks first she may be
taking over responsibility or about how much to give and what to do if a student was missing
things. For some it was difficult to gauge how much to intervene and how much to stand
back. The literature highlights the fact that too little information may result in hostility
(Alvari 1995 Crookes et al 2001, Pansini Murrell 1996) but added that too much may be
stifling and lead to conflicting objectives (Haith Cooper 2000). Teachers felt that their role
was also dependent on the stage of the programme and the nature of the group. With the
students‘ increasing experience the ability to follow the process becomes a learned behavior,
so that as the group matures, and their level of knowledge and confidence increases, the level
of intervention should be progressively reduced (Pansini-Murrel 1996).
The students saw the teacher as helping to steer them in the right direction and help them
clarify their learning, helping the group reflect on the process and make decisions. Some
wanted more feedback about how they were doing but recognized that they would know from
the teachers if they were off track.

The facilitator feels a bit like big brother it‘s like the unknown curriculum and if you side
track or you want to go elsewhere then a big light goes off. S18 (student)

The students felt that the role of the teacher changed over time but also that teachers
varied in their style and approach. This would sometimes cause resentment between groups.
They suggested that there should be a standard for teachers. It was important to the student
that the teacher was enthusiastic, knowledgeable, in touch with practice and helped them
consolidate their learning.

Anxiety and Uncertainty

Although some students in the focus groups found a PBL approach a better way to learn
in that they were more likely to understand and remember information when they had
researched it themselves, many appeared particularly anxious about the level and depth of
164 C. Rowan, S. Beake and C. McCourt

knowledge required. Particular concerns were expressed around ‗factual‘ knowledge such as
anatomy and physiology:

Some things were good in PBL and it did give you the opportunity to go off and get your own
research subject but a lot of the time we were all new students we didn‘t really understand the
subject so you didn‘t really know if you were getting the benefit from other students what they
brought back was it really what we needed to know. 3 (PBL student).

I didn‘t like it at the beginning for the first 6 months I felt like I didn‘t learn anything; the
basic knowledge wasn‘t addressed really. I didn‘t get enough feedback as to whether the
information I was getting was the right one. S 18 (student).

Students throughout the programme requested more input, guidance and feedback from
the teacher. Some would have liked a list of what should be covered in that trigger (even
though the initial tutorials used brainstorming and discussion to identify what should be
learnt) and they valued tutors who gave quizzes and activities to help consolidate learning:

I think it might have been a good idea if we had a guide as to what was expected of each
trigger, we come into the trigger almost blind, we don‘t know what is expected of us and I
think they are giving us the responsibility of facilitating they should give us the means to do
that. W3 (student).

As indicated in discussing process issues, the number of individual presentations was

time consuming and participants reported that this and student absences sometimes meant
cutting into time for consolidation in the final session of each trigger, thus increasing anxiety
about this area.
However one group recognized that they might have learnt more than they thought they
had, and that they were not always aware of what they had learnt until they were in practice:

I don‘t think you know how much you know until you need to put it into practice and that‘s
when you realize actually I do know all this. S3 (student).

I think I knew more than I thought I knew 4 (PBL graduate).

Although students did receive ‗fixed resource sessions‘ and skills workshops, all the
midwives from the PBL programme felt that they would have benefited from more of a
balance between the PBL approach and lectures in their programme. They felt that a
combination would be better with some input by the teacher first:

I‘d prefer more of a combination really I wouldn‘t like to do a course like that really again
myself, totally PBL because it was too isolated. It was too much wishy washy 1 (PBL
graduate).

I wanted the teacher to open my eyes to the whole range of issues. If you have got to have
people in the ring who all don‘t know what the issues are you are not going to have a really
lively discussion. 1 (PBL graduate).
 Evaluating Problem Based Learning in Midwifery 165

The questionnaire given to the students 3 months following completion of their

programme also identified that the students wanted more lectures, particularly anatomy and
physiology and pharmacology and that they would have liked some further direction from the
teacher especially with regard to the PBL process.
These comments echoed closely the initial anxiety expressed in the earlier study about
the level of their knowledge and wanting more input from the teacher (McCourt and Thomas
2001). A better initial grounding and preparation for PBL might, therefore, improve the
quality of the experience, reducing anxiety about learning in a PBL approach and giving the
students more confidence to enquire and discuss. Although initial introductory and guidance
sessions were given for students, they did not always appreciate the significance of these
early in the programme when overwhelmed by new information and routines and so may not
have benefited from these as much as they might. The pressures of professional programmes,
which are time limited and with ever increasing demands for content are particularly salient
here, as teachers and students felt a tension between process and content of the programme.
While students understood the importance of process, they inevitably felt anxiety about the
content of their learning.
PBL graduates also felt that they would have benefited from more guidance and
clarification from the teacher. They felt discussion was limited because of their own lack of
knowledge and one said that the confidence to question only came later on in the course. One
graduate reported feeling better able to appreciate the benefits of the PBL programme after
completing it and that the theory and practice came together well once in clinical practice, but
at the time she wanted more from the teacher, especially at the beginning:

It‘s good that I‘ve done it now, but at the time while doing it I needed more, but having done
it now I can see how it works. (PBL graduate).

The literature also highlights the need for time for students to adapt to the approach and
the need for expectations to be made explicit to minimize feelings of insecurity (Taylor and
Burgess 1995, Ryan 1993, Wetzel 1996).
The four graduates who had studied prior to the implementation of PBL stated that they
enjoyed their programme. In contrast to those who had studied on a PBL based programme,
they appeared to have an easier transition from their previous nursing programme and a
clearer sense of direction with less initial anxiety early on in the programme. They appeared
to value the balance between lectures and seminars, which had smaller groups for discussion.

Learning in Groups

Some students felt that the group acted as a stimulus to their learning and that they had an
obligation to the rest of their group to contribute, but not all, and the skills of working
together developed over time. They also recognized that students had differing abilities,
cultural backgrounds and different learning styles.
Many felt that the size of the group was important and that if the number was around ten
everyone had to participate. If the group was too small there would be a reduced number to
find information but too large a group would increase the nervousness and time taken when
giving feedback and result in boredom and a lack of focus. The optimum size of group in the
166 C. Rowan, S. Beake and C. McCourt

literature is given as varying from 5-8 (Westburg and Jason 1996) and in this study, ten-
twelve was felt to be the maximum effective group size.
Students felt that learning depended on the individual student‘s motivation and that this
had an impact on the group:

It‘s an OK way of learning. If you are the person who will go home and study and literally put
your mind to it then you are ok, but if you aren‘t then it never gets followed up. S3 (student).

Resentments could occur in the group if members did not contribute as they had agreed.
Most felt that it was important to set ground rules. However it was sometimes difficult for the
students to question each other because of their lack of knowledge and to give honest
feedback for fear of upsetting others in the group:

You don‘t get anything from it no-one else is supporting you and you are left feeling am I too
hard on my colleague so that at the end of the day you just think oh well let it go. W18
(student).

Although most teachers undertook some form of peer review they recognised that
students were reluctant to evaluate each other honestly. This reluctance to challenge one
another did not appear to change over time and peer review was felt to be ―pointless as it was
not truthful‖. They saw ability to work with others as a central aspect of practice, which
should be supported by this educational approach, but acknowledged that students did not
find this easy in practice.
The questionnaire given to students 3 months following graduation also highlighted that
aspects which they felt should be improved were the poor contribution of some group
members.
The PBL graduates had generally enjoyed working in small groups, although sometimes
members were very disparate both in terms of their attitudes towards one another and the
course. All acknowledged that the quality of the work and consequently their learning was
dependent on the group, their participation and the standard of work produced. In some
groups the standard of work by individuals varied and poor contributions led to frustration:

The way people presented wasn‘t as good as a teacher we had to go away and learn the whole
thing again I had to go and read up. 4 (PBL graduate).

One graduate had felt bored as a student and held back by others in her group who
appeared less interested. Another felt as though she was a self-taught midwife and that no one
knew how much knowledge she had.
The graduates also stated that they felt weak students were not always identified or
followed up by the teacher and that questioning or appearing to challenge their peers was
difficult. One suggested that the student‘s participation in the trigger should be formally
assessed.

You don‘t want to make anyone feel bad so you don‘t say anything so months and weeks can
go by. 3 (PBL graduate).
 Evaluating Problem Based Learning in Midwifery 167

Teachers felt that PBL was well suited to motivated articulate students who have a sense
of responsibility, but that it may be less effective for weaker, less motivated students who
found it difficult to access or understand information. The difficulty of facilitating a mixed
ability group was perceived as a challenge by the teachers and that the quality of work varied
hugely between different individuals so that the ―good students‖ were perceived by staff and
students as ―carrying‖ those who were less able or motivated. Some were concerned that the
more able students may be held back.

I have found it extremely difficult in the mixed ability in the group in being able to encourage
and facilitate those who are able and want to and can easily present, balancing that out with
those who for whatever reason, have a constant reason for not doing it. 4 (teacher).

I can see in the group that they have already decided unconsciously I think ‗ok I don‘t need
your information because you cannot be trusted to provide it so I can concentrate and learn
this. 4 (teacher).

Although no research concerning the occurrence of dysfunctional PBL groups has

appeared in the literature, difficult groups have been observed by teachers (Wetzel 1996).
Kaufman and Holmes (1996) found that lecturers‘ common concerns when facilitating PBL
groups were related to difficulties with group dynamics and Mpofu (1998) that group
members do not always openly confront one another, preferring to maintain group harmony.
Several teachers in the study described the role of the tutor as encouraging the group to
work together and in helping students to think of themselves as a team rather than being in
competition with each other. They also saw their responsibility as trying to steer a middle
path between stretching the able students and protecting them, whilst drawing in the less able.

I suppose one thing I emphasise right from the beginning is that it‘s team learning and the
group is where the learning takes place, and they are there to help each other, it‘s not a
competition. 12 (teacher).

Sometimes teachers found it was felt necessary to take time out from the trigger material
to discuss what was happening in the group to deal with conflicts and resentments. Hughes
and Lucas (1997) recognised that the tutor needs to feel confident in handling group dynamics
and should focus concentration on perceiving the dynamics of the particular group in
question. This should include an agreed contract about what is acceptable and what is not
acceptable as a reference point.
The importance of the group working together and supporting each other was a key
theme in this study and was also highlighted in the previous study (McCourt and Thomas
2001) and in other literature (Das Carlo et al 2003; Mpofu et al 1998). This view expressed by
students on the programme appears to have changed little following graduation, even after
five years. They tended to see group issues as a challenge, less in terms of benefits such as
teamwork and more with regard to anxieties about acquiring knowledge, and even the longer-
term graduates did not highlight the advantages of group working in the programme for their
subsequent practice experience. Teachers saw this as a key rationale for the PBL approach,
but encountered a number of challenges with this in practice, using a range of skills and
strategies to support effective group working and learning.
168 C. Rowan, S. Beake and C. McCourt

RELATIONSHIP TO PRACTICE
For some students theory and practice related well. This was an important aim of
adopting the PBL approach, following much discussion in the literature about perceived
theory-practice gaps in nursing and midwifery education, even though UK midwifery students
spend 50% of their time in practice placements. Following the theory with a relevant clinical
placement enabled integration of both:

We came back and it just felt that everything we had done had all come together for us.. The
theory side and then when you put it with the practical side when you come back afterwards it
all comes together in one. I quite enjoy it actually S3 (student).

Many recognized that the process would stimulate them to ask questions and be less
accepting of given facts and that it was good preparation for answering women‘s questions in
practice. They also felt they were developing skills of accessing information which would be
enable them to continue learning following qualification.
However this was not a universal view and some students expressed anxiety about their
level of knowledge for practice and felt that they were poorly prepared with regard to clinical
skills. Some students in both three-year and 18 month groups felt that the university relied on
the clinical area to teach and mentors relied on the university. They found that mentors were
often too busy or too tired to teach and they felt that some lacked a knowledge of the
curriculum and expected too much of them. Some of the graduates also felt that the enquiring
approach in theory was not always followed up in practice which was often hierarchical and
based on a medical model. Although the literature suggests that PBL enables students to
relate theory to practice, the practice environment was not always conducive to supporting
students learning in this way and students did not always relate theory and practice well.
However similar comments about a theory practice gap were made by the students on the
traditional programme.
The practical aspects of the programme were clearly identified as vital to the graduates‘
learning and satisfaction with their programme whichever programme they had undertaken
and there was a strong emphasis on the quality of their clinical placement and the importance
of continuous support from the mentors. Pre PBL graduates highlighted the value they placed
on the enthusiasm of the teachers and their ability to link theory to practice with their own
experience.
Graduates from the PBL based programme felt that theory made more sense with
practical experience. One felt that once in practice the theory became clearer and that she was
able to see the woman in a holistic way. She felt that she had developed a questioning
approach:

I had to look at everything as a whole, you have to interlink and look at the woman as a whole
person and the baby. 4 (PBL graduate).

Two students interviewed from the three-year programme who were not intending to
practice following qualification both felt that the programme had not prepared them well and
that the PBL approach had not worked well for them. 62% of recent students surveyed (n=21)
said that the course prepared them for practice either very well or quite well. When asked
 Evaluating Problem Based Learning in Midwifery 169

what they found to be the most helpful aspects of the programme they mentioned the PBL
tutorials, discussion, clinical practice, and praxis sessions . Other issues which the students
felt should be changed included providing more practical experience and skills sessions.
The importance of the college tutors‘ presence on the clinical site was stressed by both
students and graduates and sessions conducted by link teachers in practice were valued. It was
felt by most of the PBL graduates that more teaching of skills sessions was required in
college, although the number of skills sessions did not change with the introduction of PBL.
Students in the previous study also identified the gap between theory and practice,
particularly when they were working in a medicalised environment where they did not always
feel confident to question practice (McCourt and Thomas 2001). There was no strong
evidence that this was different for PBL graduates but those interviewed were less likely than
the pre-PBL graduates to mention concerns about a theory-practice gap.
Interviews with the teachers also raised concerns that the PBL approach was not always
followed up in practice and that students did not necessarily apply classroom learning to
practice. This has been addressed in some measure by developing the preparation of mentors:

They are studying very hard in relation to the issues that we present them, yet the transference
from that to other aspects doesn‘t seem to be taking place as yet … it may be that they don‘t
have the time to apply the skills to other things 2 (teacher).

The comments from current students and graduates highlight the limited effects the style
of college-based education may have in practice, and perhaps also highlight the need for PBL
courses to be designed in a manner which is more integrated with the clinical learning
environment. Although it might be hoped that the PBL approach will gel more easily with
practice experience of students, this cannot be assumed, and practice environments may not
always reflect the principles of an enquiry-based approach to learning, by giving space or
priority to questioning, use of evidence and critical appraisal in approaching real-life practice
situations.

CONCLUSION
Although PBL may be practiced in a variety of ways the literature strongly suggests that
there are coherent themes emerging from a range of studies. These shared themes can be
found across a number of professional disciplines, such as medicine, occupational therapy and
nursing. However, we note that there are differences in the social and educational background
of students in different professions, and differences in programme focus and aims, such as the
problem focused approach of medicine, versus the health and wellbeing focus of midwifery,
reflecting childbirth as a healthy life event for most women. This meant that findings from
wider literature could not be applied uncritically to midwifery education, but the presence of
shared themes suggests these have general relevance to understanding the impact of problem-
based learning for professional practice.
Key themes in this study were that students appreciated the aims of the PBL approach,
though they sometimes focused their understanding of this around ‗learning how to get
information‘ rather than on an enquiring and critical-analytic approach to obtaining and using
information. Additionally, they expressed quite high levels of anxiety about their learning,
170 C. Rowan, S. Beake and C. McCourt

which our longer-term interviews suggest does not necessarily decline with time, or with the
reassurance of positive formal outcomes and practice experience, a theme highlighted in
several studies (Moore et al 2004, Sadlo 1997, Solomon and Finch 1998, Biley and Smith
1998, McCourt and Thomas 2001). These anxieties reflect concerns about how one learns,
and about obtaining basic ‗factual‘ knowledge, which perhaps stem from an underlying
tension between content and process in education. While the theoretical roots of PBL, in
constructivist philosophies of learning, suggest that process will profoundly influence the
nature and effectiveness of ‗content‘ of learning, this is not easily appreciated by students
who have previously experienced quite different models of what it is to learn. As health
professional programmes are externally regulated, with specific areas of content to be
covered, to ensure competent and safe practice, this tension is likely to remain present.
Several of the key themes to emerge illuminate further the challenges for students and
teachers, which may contribute to such anxieties. We found that students tended to treat the
tutorial process of individually ‗presenting‘ their learning as ‗performance‘ by the students or
as ‗students teaching each other‘, rather than as feedback to generate discussion, shared
learning and reflection on what they had learnt in their independent research. This may result
from the broad, less problem-based triggers in the midwifery curriculum as compared to those
commonly used in medical education, since a wide range of topics needed to be covered. It
may also reflect a generally lower level of confidence among the students, reflected in the
students‘ reluctance to debate, and their difficulty in seeing the concept of critique as different
from ‗criticism‘. The teachers attempted to encourage a more discursive approach through
modelling a questioning approach and providing development for academic critiquing skills
but did not feel this was always adequate. Ways of distributing learning tasks may need to be
reviewed to encourage further discussion in tutorial groups.
The importance of good group dynamics was identified by students, graduates and
teachers, and the way in which individuals worked together and contributed affected their
learning and is a theme in the literature (Steinert 2004, Willis 2002). Strategies to help
facilitate group working are therefore important. Teachers valued group work highly as an
important, often neglected aspect of professional practice, but this may not have been
conveyed clearly to students, who did not mention the learning about working in groups
which took place as an important skill for practice.
Although theoretical and practical aspects of the programme were related, the students
did not always feel well prepared for practice, a problem also identified by the pre-PBL
students in our earlier implementation study (McCourt and Thomas 2001). However, in our
longer-term follow up interviews it was apparent that students after the introduction of PBL
were more likely to mention being able to make connections with practice, and were also
more likely to show interest and appreciation of continuing education and the relevance of
research to practice.
Positive aspects of the curriculum identified by the students were that the PBL approach
enhanced understanding and memory and skills in information retrieval and critiquing
research. Similar themes were identified by the midwives in practice who had completed their
programme.
Students on the three-year programme generally appeared more positive than those on the
18-month programme. These differences may be accounted for by the fact that direct entry
students had more time to learn about the process or that students on the three year
programme did not have anything to compare their programme with as they had not
 Evaluating Problem Based Learning in Midwifery 171

completed nurse training. Alternatively, it might be argued that nursing-qualified students

who had not previously studied using a PBL approach, brought more didactic concepts of
education, and differing expectations of practice to the programme, given the less
autonomous status of UK nursing compared with midwifery. There were also differences in
views between student groups on different sites reflecting the diverse populations. Such
questions would need to be addressed further in larger-scale studies.
These detailed findings have implications for curriculum development and for facilitators
in modelling questioning to stimulate student‘s learning, in clarifying expectations and roles,
in providing a rationale for the approach and in providing feedback and some form of
consolidation of learning as well as an ability to enable the group to work together.
The findings also have wider implications for planning and decision-making about styles
of education, as well as how to deliver a PBL approach effectively. From the previous
literature and this study there is evidence of student anxieties relating to learning which need
to be addressed in this approach to education if it is to achieve the potential benefits it claims
to offer. Key issues to be addressed include further work on the relationship between college-
and practice-based education with a PBL approach; students‘ understandings of the nature of
professional education and the importance of life-long learning and an enquiring approach the
techniques for working in groups and for encouraging and promoting a discursive approach to
trigger topics; the appropriate balance between ‗content‘ and ‗process‘ in learning (given the
inevitable tensions between the demands of professional regulation and the nature of a
constructivist approach); and the needs for regular consolidation, formative assessment and
feedback to assure, as well as ensure, that learning is taking place.
We recommend that future research should include a further focus on longer-term impact
on professionals, comparing the formal outcomes (which in most studies are similar across
PBL and traditional approaches) with evidence of impact on attitudes, practices and career
paths. This may help to illuminate the remaining questions about effectiveness of PBL theory
in practice. More detailed research should also focus on the delivery of PBL programmes,
highlighting those approaches to PBL which are most likely to deliver the positive outcomes
desired.

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Editor: Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 7

SHARED DECISION MAKING IN MEDICINE:

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

Tara Tucker1, Rajiv Samant*2 and Dawn Stacey3

1
Faculty of Medicine at the University of Ottawa and a Palliative Care Physician at the
Bruyère Continuing Care Center
2
University of Ottawa and a Radiation Oncologist at The Ottawa Hospital
3
School of Nursing at the University of Ottawa and an Associate Scientist at the Ottawa
Health Research Institute

ABSTRACT
The information age has permeated all aspects of our everyday lives, including
health care. Patients and the general public are now better educated and have access to
vast amounts of medical knowledge, previously only available to health care
professionals. Concurrently, many patients want to play a larger role in their personal
health care decisions. Shared decision making (SDM) is a term used to describe the
collaborative process by which patients and their health care providers make medical
decisions, and it is generally considered to be the most preferred approach. In this
chapter, we will review the current status of medical decision making, highlight the
challenges in trying to ensure that patients are empowered to participant in their
decisions, and discuss issues related to training health care providers to assist and engage
their patients in decision making. We will also explore opportunities that SDM provides
for improving health care in the future through better education, communication, and
exchange.

*
Corresponding Author: Tara Tucker, Division of Palliative Care, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, 43
Bruyere St., Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1N 5C8, Phone: 613-562-6262 ext. 1067, Fax: 613-562-6371, Email
[email protected]
176 Tara Tucker, Rajiv Samant and Dawn Stacey

INTRODUCTION
The process of decision making in the clinical medical context has evolved over the years
from the paternalistic stance, in which the physician made medical decisions independently,
and carried them out with varying degrees of informing the patient [1], to the current belief
that patients should have the choice to take a more active role in decision making, if they
desire [2]. Recent studies have shown that the majority of patients prefer to choose how they
will engage in the decision making process relevant to their health [3,4,5,6]. Those decision
making options that a patient may choose include leaving all decisions to the medical team;
having the medical team make the final decision while respecting the patient‘s opinion;
sharing the responsibility of the decision making; making the decision independently while
considering the opinion of the team; and making decisions alone without the input of the team
[7).
Patients‘ preferences about how much they wish to be involved in decision making may
vary depending on the clinical situation, health status, and age [8,9,10]. Furthermore, these
preferences are likely to change over time if patients are exposed to tools, such as decision
aids, that support them in the process of decision making.. When given the opportunity to
choose, some patients may still routinely prefer to have the physician make treatment related
and other medical decisions [10]. However, studies suggest that the majority prefers a more
active or shared role [3,11]. In fact, there is early data to support that active involvement in
treatment decisions is associated with better quality of life [9]. Active involvement of patients
in decision making has also been shown to improve patient satisfaction and decrease
decisional conflict between patients and clinicians [12,13,14,15].
Decision making in the context of a child with life-limiting illness has added complexity
for a number of reasons: a) parents act as surrogate decision makers; b) children have varying
ability to share in decision making that is not merely based on age but on maturity,
developmental level, and competence; and c) there can be conflict between clinicians and
parents as to the rights of the child [16,17,18]. Parents of ill children have varying ability and
desire to be involved in decision making, and their desire for involvement depends on the
clinical situation, their decision making style, and their own knowledge of alternatives
[19,20,21]. With increasing awareness of the benefits of a more participatory decision making
process, and increased expectations of patients‘ control over their child‘s medical care,
professional associations are endorsing the use of participatory decision making processes
that involve clinicians, patients, children, and parents [22,23,16].
Although engaging patients in a more participatory form of decision making is not an
intuitive process, studies have shown that it is a skill that physicians can learn with structured
educational sessions [12,24,25,26]. In particular, one type of participatory decision making,
coined shared decision making (SDM), has been extensively studied as a method in which the
clinician and patient develops a partnership and both participate in the decision making
process [27-29]. This chapter will review the current status of healthcare decision making,
highlight the challenges of educating health care providers in how to engage their patients in a
shared decision making process, and explore opportunities to improve health care delivery
through better communication and discussion between health care providers and their
patients/clients.
 Shared Decision Making in Medicine: Challenges and Opportunities 177

DECISIONAL CONFLICT
Given the variety of different medical options available, whether for making a diagnosis
or for treatment, there are many opportunities in which patients may experience decisional
conflict. Decisional conflict occurs when an individual is confronted with a decision for
which there is ―uncertainty about which course of action to take when choice among
competing options involves risk, loss, regret or challenged personal life values‖[30]. As
shown in Table 1, individuals experiencing decisional conflict are more likely to change their
mind, delay making a decision, regret the decision they made, fail a knowledge test and blame
their doctor for bad outcomes [31-33]. Although there may be obvious indicators for
decisional conflict such as verbalized uncertainty, there are also subtle signs that can include
perseverance over the decision, concern about possible side effects or bad outcomes, and
feelings of distress or tension [34].
Many individuals making preference-sensitive medical decisions experience decisional
conflict; which has been clearly documented in post-menopausal women considering
hormone replacement therapy and patients with atrial fibrillation considering anticoagulation,
screening for prostate, breast or colon cancer, considering infant vaccination, and deciding on
cancer surgery [30]. The modifiable factors which appear to contribute most to patients‘
decisional conflict are consistent across studies and include feeling uninformed, being unclear
about their values, and being unsupported in the decision making process [33,34].

Table 1. Patients experiencing decisional conflict are more likely to

 change their mind

 delay making the decision
 feel regret
 fail a knowledge test
 blame the practitioner for bad outcomes

THE CONTEXT OF SDM, INFORMED DECISION MAKING (IDM)

AND INFORMED CONSENT

The concepts of shared decision making (SDM), informed decision making (IDM), and
informed consent are related in their goal to increase patients understanding and control in
their medical care; however, it is important to understand how each is different and what sets
SDM apart in order to critically evaluate the literature and effectively practice SDM.
Informed consent arises from a legal requirement in which a discussion must occur between a
patient and a clinician prior to a medical intervention. The clinician imparts knowledge of
purpose, risks, benefits, and alternatives relevant to the decision, and the patient agrees or
refuses to proceed. In some clinical scenarios (i.e. laparotomy for a gunshot wound), this may
be the most appropriate method of making a decision [35]. The result of this process is the
signing of a document that assumes that appropriate discussions occurred, and subsequently
reducing physician liability. Discussing how patients wish to receive information, or what
role they wish to take in the decision making is not required in this process [36]
178 Tara Tucker, Rajiv Samant and Dawn Stacey

With informed decision making (IDM), a patient is able to make a decision based on
having a good understanding of the nature of a disease, treatments, risks, benefits, and
uncertainties involves similar aspects. Informed decision making interventions do not
necessarily require a one-on-one discussion with a clinician, provided that enough
information is given to a patient such that they can make an informed decision, for example
through mass media, or computer based teaching tools [37]. As in informed consent, there is
no requirement for the clinician to discover the patient‘s preference for role in the process,
and there may be minimal interaction between patient and clinician.
Shared decision making includes many of the same elements of IDM, in fact, it can be
defined as a type of IDM [37]. What distinguishes SDM from other types is the concept of
partnership and sharing of decision making between the patient and the clinician [29,37] and
this is highlighted in Table 2. It also involves the components of defining the clinical
problem, presenting options (including doing nothing further) identified by both patient and
clinician discussing pros and cons of each option, identifying patients values and preferences,
discussing patients self-efficacy in following a plan, checking and clarifying understanding
throughout the process, and arranging follow up when the decision is made [38]. Shared
decision making is further defined as a process whereby patients together with their clinicians
discuss current evidence on options and arrive at a mutually agreed choice [27,29,39]. This
definition has been expanded by Elwyn and colleagues to include the explicit identifying by
the practitioner of the uncertainties or equipoise surrounding the decisions [39]. Therefore,
SDM facilitates an individualized patient-centered approach with patients actively
participating in achieving high quality decisions that are based on their own informed values
[40-42]. Through this type of process the patients‘ views are clearly acknowledged and
valued by the health care team members and incorporated into the decision making system.
Table 3 summarizes the main reasons for its importance.

Table 2. Key aspects of shared decision making

 A patient (with or without family) together with one or more practitioners

 Both parties share information
 Both parties take steps to build a consensus about the preferred treatment
 An agreement is reached on the treatment to be chosen

Table 3. Importance of achieving shared decision making

 Provide patient-centered care

 Comply with legal and ethical patient rights
 Be responsive to patients‘ desire to be involved
 Remain accountable for screening and treatments used
 Improve patient satisfaction with the decision-making process
 Potentially improve patients‘ health care outcomes
 Shared Decision Making in Medicine: Challenges and Opportunities 179

SHARED DECISION MAKING IN CLINICAL

PRACTICE – THE PATIENT’S PERSPECTIVE
A shared process of decision making has been found to be important in both cancer and
non-cancer patients. As illustrated in Figure 1, recent surveys of the general public across
multiple cultures and with many different health conditions have shown that the majority
want and expect to be fully involved in decisions about their health care [43-46]. Although a
small proportion of patients do prefer a completely passive or completely active decision
making role, the prevailing approach within the last decade for the majority of patients has
been SDM [3,9,11,46-49]. Decision making in the cancer population has been examined in
prospective studies in which patients were asked their preference for role in decision making
at the end of a first time clinic visit [3,9,11]. The majority of patients preferred a shared role
in decision making, as opposed to having the decision made predominantly by themselves or
the clinician. Hack et al. [9] re-examined their participants three years later and discovered
that there was a significant increased in the desire to have an active or collaborative role in
decision making over time. Amongst non-cancer patients, there is evidence to support the fact
that the majority of patients in this population also wish a more shared role in decision
making [6,43,44]. Limitations in many studies relate to small sample size, and the fact that
most are conducted in one population recruited from a single clinic at a single point in time.
Despite these limitations, these quantitative studies suggest that there is a significant
subgroup of patients who prefer a shared decision making process.

Figure 1. International survey of the general public‘s views of how medical decisions should be made
(Magee, 2003).
180 Tara Tucker, Rajiv Samant and Dawn Stacey

Published studies suggest that patients do not want a paternalistic style of decision
making, nor are they comfortable with having the sole responsibility for decision making
[1,43,44,50]. There is variability in patient‘s preferred role in decision making depending on
gender, age, perception of illness, and sociocultural background, amongst others [7,8,10,51].
A national, population based survey of 2,750 adults in the US indicated that half of them
preferred that physicians make final decisions about health matters. The majority, however,
wished to discuss options and be able to give their opinions [10], suggesting a need for
continued bi-directional information exchange. While SDM allows patients and their families
to take more control over health-related decisions, this consumer centered approach has
limitations [27,52]. The burden of decision making can lead to significant patient uncertainty
and anxiety, and clinicians may not be comfortable with carrying though with patients‘
chosen options. In fact, patient preferences can change over time [9] so it is imperative for
physicians and other health professionals to be skilled in multiple techniques of decision
making, and skilled in ascertaining the individual patient‘s preference.
The variability of patient‘s participation as identified in research studies may be due to
limitations in the design of quantitative research tools. Although validated tools do exist [9,53
- 55], these tools may inadvertently exclude important concepts relevant to decision making.
In particular, the fact that decision making is an ongoing process, not a static one, and the fact
that patients may not have a full appreciation of the importance of their input may impact on
the results of quantitative, one time assessments [8]. Also, patients often make decisions in
the context of a larger social unit, the impact of which is not captured in studies that focus on
the individual [8]. Whilst it is clear that there is a variation in patient preferences, there is
growing evidence that decisions made using a SDM approach have beneficial outcomes for
patients in terms of satisfaction, increased confidence in decisions, lowered decisional
conflict, and improved compliance with treatment [9,13,14,15,56,57]. These patients also
identify higher overall quality of life, and higher physical and social functioning [9,58]. No
studies have indicated a negative impact of SDM.
Given the fact that SDM first involves eliciting the patient‘s needs and preference for role
in decision making, its initial steps will actually guide the clinician to engage the patient in
the decision making style appropriate for that patient. In the pediatric context, there is an
added complexity that parents often act as surrogate decision makers for their children.
Including a child with life-limiting illness in decision making may involve discussions of the
possible death of that child which requires openness and honesty to create an atmosphere of
trust and to give the child maximum opportunity to participate [59]. Lack of openness and
honesty are often leads to regret on the part of the parent if the child dies [60], which may
complicate subsequent bereavement. There is a degree of decisional uncertainty associated
with surrogate decision making when a parent is attempting to make decisions for their child,
especially when the decision making process does not include a needs assessment of the
parents own needs, and adequate information sharing [61]. Greater involvement of physicians
and sharing in decision making situations of high uncertainty for parents is necessary so that
parents do not feel abandoned [62].
The literature that supports SDM in pediatrics is in its relative infancy compared to that
in the adult population. However, it is becoming increasingly evident that parents do wish to
have a choice and that there is acceptance and increased satisfaction with a SDM model [63-
65]. Although it is important to involve the children in decision making if possible [63], the
 Shared Decision Making in Medicine: Challenges and Opportunities 181

barriers to engaging them include age, cognitive level, maturity, parental restrictions, amongst
others [66-68].

SHARED DECISION MAKING IN

CLINICAL PRACTICE – THE CLINICIAN’S PERSPECTIVE
Physicians are frequently unable to ascertain to what extent their patients wish to be
involved in decision making [3,11]. In fact, they may underestimate their patients‘ preference
to be involved in decision making [60,70], and they may not adequately involve patients in
the decision making process [61,71]. Patient preferences may be difficult to predict, and are
not correlated with age, gender, educational status, or income [3,43]. Despite evidence that
SDM is the preferred approach to decision making, many clinicians have not embraced it
[72], and they do not involve patients to the extent that the patient desires [73-75] If
physicians are unaware of preferences or unskilled in SDM, they will not be able to meet their
patients needs [51], and patients may not receive appropriate guidance to make decisions
suitable for their individual circumstances.
Licensing bodies and professional organizations provide guidelines for the required
competencies of physicians which endorse a collaborative and active approach to decision
making, in keeping with the principles of SDM [16,22,23]. However, as shown in Table 4, a
number of barriers to SDM exist including lack of time, and a judgment on the part of the
physicians that shared decision making is not appropriate due to characteristics of the patient
or the medical problem, and limited familiarity with the concepts of SDM [26,76]. As well,
lack of training in interviewing skills, higher-volume practice, and lack of satisfaction with
professional autonomy may preclude active involvement of patients [77]. Lack of time has
been identified as one of the most frequently indicated barriers, even amongst physicians who
have a high level of comfort with SDM [78].

Table 4. Common barriers and facilitators of shared decision making (Gravel et al.,
2006- AN UPDATE REVIEW OF THIS IS NOW IN PRESS – Legare et al., in press
with Patient Education and Counselling special issue from Freiberg conference)

Barriers Facilitators
#1 Time constraints #1 Motivation of health professional
#2 Lack of applicability due to pt #2 Perception that SDM will lead to
characteristics positive impact on clinical process
#3 Lack of applicability due to clinical #3 Perception that SDM will lead to
scenario positive impact on clinical outcome
#4 Presumed patient preferences not in #4 Perception that SDM is useful/practical
keeping with SDM
#5 Not agreeing to ask patients their #5 Patient preference for SDM
preferred role for decision-making
Others include lack of self-efficacy and
familiarity with SDM
182 Tara Tucker, Rajiv Samant and Dawn Stacey

Facilitators of SDM have also been identified (Table 4), and strategies to increase SDM
knowledge and skills amongst physicians have been implemented and evaluated.
Communication problems of physicians are not solved merely with time and clinical
experience [79]. Educational interventions have been shown to increase communication skills
[25], even when delivered as short, intensive courses [24]. There is an increasing evidence
base that interventions such as educational training workshops, and using tools to screen for
decisional conflict in routine clinical practice may be effective in overcoming some of the
identified barriers [12,80,81,29,39,72].

Methods of Evaluating Clinician’s Engagement in SDM

A number of techniques to measure the clinician‘s ability to engage patients in the SDM
process have been validated. The OPTION scale, or ―observing patient involvement‖ scale, is
completed by raters who assess a consultation between a patient and clinician and evaluate
the degree of shared decision making that occurs in the interaction. It examines how well
problems are defined, role preference is evaluated, options are discussed, information is
provided, and decisions are made [82]. The Decision Support Analysis Tool (DSAT) consists
of six categories of decision support skills, and four categories of communication skills.
Similarly to the OPTION scale, raters observe an interaction between patients and physicians
and rate the items of the scale to provide an overall score [83]. Both scales can be used to
evaluate video or audio recordings of decision making encounters. They are strictly
performance based tools, and so they cannot be used to infer cognitive processes and
products. There are also many other tools available to assess decision making concepts [53-
55] but they all have their limitations and as yet no single instrument is able to identify and
measure all aspects related to the process of SDM.

DECISION SUPPORT
Decision support has emerged has a major area of research with a host of clinical
applications, so various decision support frameworks have been proposed [40-42]. The goals
of decision making support have been summarized by O‘Connor et al. [1] in the Ottawa
Decision Support Framework (Figure 2) as including the following: determining if a decision
needs to be made; providing counseling, decision tools and coaching; and reaching a high
quality decision. Decision support specifically requires the following elements to be achieved:
clarifying the decision and the patients‘ needs with regards to the decision making process;
providing facts and probabilities; clarifying the patient‘s values; providing support, guidance
and coaching; and moderating and facilitating progress. Decision quality in this context is
defined as being evidence-based, and supported by the best and most recent information
available, and entirely consistent with the values of the patient [40].
 Shared Decision Making in Medicine: Challenges and Opportunities 183

Figure 2. The Ottawa Decision Support Framework (O‘Connor et al., 2003).

FACILITATING PATIENT PARTICIPATION

The key to fostering patient involvement in decision making is to have a strategic
framework that can be adapted according to individual needs. Specifically, patients require
targeted approaches to prepare them for participating in the medical consultation, sharing in
the decision making process, and overcoming factors contributing to decisional conflict.
Ideally, these interventions should help patients recognize when decisions need to be made,
understand the current scientific evidence, clarify their values associated with the various
possible outcomes of the treatment options, and achieve a quality decision [54].
Often, usual patient information materials are not adequate [69,70,83]. Although they
provide some general information, they are less useful in terms of helping prepare patients for
a specific decision. Both decision aids and decision coaching facilitate the patients‘ active
role in the SDM process and can help them achieve higher quality decisions [50].
Question prompt sheets and consultation planning are two effective interventions to
facilitate patient involvement in the medical consultation. Question prompt sheets are
standardized sets of questions that can be used by patients to acquire information during the
consultation [84]. Research indicates that patients who use these question prompt sheets
asked more questions and their information needs were more likely to be met, but there was
no difference in anxiety or satisfaction when compared to patients in the control group [84-
86]. Consultation planning is a process whereby patients are coached by trained facilitators to
make their own list of questions to ask within the medical visit [87].
184 Tara Tucker, Rajiv Samant and Dawn Stacey

Typically the individuals trained to help patients prepare for their medical consultations
are nurses, patient navigators or cancer center resource centre staff. Breast cancer patients
who participated in consultation planning were more satisfied and reported fewer barriers to
communicating with their oncologist [49,87]. However, further research is required to address
what effects these interventions have on improving discussion of patients‘ informed values
associated with their options, which is an important element of decision quality.
Patient decision aids are tools that are designed to translate evidence into a patient
friendly format by providing information about the options, benefits, and risks along with
implicit methods of clarifying personal values [90]. Many decision aids also include
information on the condition, probabilities of outcomes related to the various options
(including the associated benefits and harms), exercises to help patients explicitly clarify their
values and guidance in the steps involved in decision making. The essential elements of
patient decision aids are illustrated in Table 5. Most patient decision aids are self-
administered and are available in a variety of formats including paper-based resources, videos
and DVDs, and computer software. However, there are also practitioner-administered
decision aids which can involve more complex approaches [91-93]. The internet has become
the most widely available resource for disseminating patient decision aids given the ease of
updating the tools as new evidence emerges and the minimal costs associated with
dissemination.
A recent update of the Cochrane review of patient decision aids identified 55 randomized
controlled trials to assess their efficacy [50] and Table 6 summarizes the main benefits of
SDM that have been identified in these studies. These decision aids covered a variety of areas
including medical treatments, surgical options, screening and vaccination. In general, patient
decision aids were found to consistently improve patient knowledge and accurate risk
perceptions, reduce decisional conflict and result in choices that were concurrent with
patients‘ values. When specific decision aids were compared to usual care, those who
received patient decision aids had higher average knowledge scores. Also, studies comparing
detailed patient decision aids with simpler ones showed a similar but smaller improvement.
Decision aids with descriptions about outcomes and probabilities were more likely to provide
accurate risk perceptions than those that did not. Furthermore, there was an approximate 50%
reduction in the proportion of patients who assumed a passive role in decision making when
decision aids were incorporated. Decision aids did not appear to have any adverse effects on
anxiety, health status, or patient satisfaction based on the studies that have been published.
Patient decision aids can potentially reduce over-use of some interventions, such as
aggressive surgery for breast cancer and hormonal replacement therapy with estrogen for
post-menopausal women, and also reduce the under-use of other interventions, such as colon
cancer screening [50]. Patient decision aids have also been shown to reduce the use of
aggressive interventions when the base rates are already low. For example, women with early
stage breast cancer who utilize the decision aids are less likely to choose a mastectomy
compared to lumpectomy plus radiation even when the baseline rates of mastectomy are quite
low [93,94].
Decision coaching is another process facilitating patient engagement in SDM [95].
Decision coaches are health care professionals who are trained to do the following: (a) assess
patients with decisional conflict and related needs; (b) tailor decision support to address the
patients‘ specific needs by offering patient decision aids and/or providing evidence- based
information, verifying understanding, clarifying values, and building skills and assessing
 Shared Decision Making in Medicine: Challenges and Opportunities 185

support; (c) guide patients through the decision making process; and (d) monitor for the
factors that can influence implementing the decision (such as motivation, self efficacy and
barriers).

Table 5. The essential elements of patient decision aids

Inform

• Provide facts
• Condition, options, benefits, harms
• Communicate probabilities

Clarify values

• Share patient experiences

• Ask which benefits/harms matters most
• Facilitate communication

Support

• Guide in steps in deliberation/communication

• Provide worksheets, list of questions

Table 6. Effect of patient decision aids. (O’Connor et al., Cochrane Library, 2003)

• Improve decision quality by:

- 15% higher knowledge scores

- 70% more realistic expectations (probabilities)
- better match between values and choices

• Reduce decisional conflict (9 points)

• Help undecided to decide (50%)
• Support patient to participate in decision making with 40% less passive in decisions
• Reduce over-use of some treatments
- -25% surgery
- -20% PSA
- -29% HRT
• Potential to reduce under-use of some treatments when base rates are very low.

Studies of decision coaching indicate that, when combined with patient decision aids, it
improves decision quality, increases patient satisfaction and is cost-effective [96,97]. For
example, in a study by Wirrman et al. [97] on the effect of decision aids plus nurse coaching
for men considering prostate cancer treatment, they found that men in the coaching
intervention group had higher knowledge scores and were more likely to receive treatment
consistent with their values.
186 Tara Tucker, Rajiv Samant and Dawn Stacey

Health-related call centers have been established in the United States and elsewhere in
the world to integrate decision aids, decision coaching and patient participation in relation to
medical decision making [98]. Often decision support will require a combination of
approaches including clinical consultation with the physician and the health care team as well
as patient decision aids and coaching. These approaches are now being integrated into clinical
care pathways in various health care systems in order to facilitate their acceptance and uptake
[98,99].

IMPLEMENTING PATIENT DECISION AIDS

In order to successfully implement interventions to improve SDM, such as decision aids
in clinical practice, there must be good access to these interventions, health care professionals
must be aware of and skilled in using them, and environmental structures that support their
use must be in place [99]. The Cochrane inventory of patient decision aids has documented
over 500, with more than 200 that are currently available [15]. Some decision aids are
produced by academic teaching institutions while others are mass-produced by health
information organizations. Mass producers of decision aids include: the Foundation for
Informed Medical Decision Making (www.fimdm.org); Healthwise (www.healthwise.org);
the Mayo Clinic (www.mayoclinic.org) and the Ottawa Health Research Institute
(www.ohri.ca/decisionaide). The Ottawa Health Research Institute also has a personal guide
for patients that is an interactive tool and useful for exploring almost any medical decision.
Given the number and variable quality of available patient decision aides currently
available, a group of international experts from 14 countries have established a consensus on
a set of criteria for judging their quality [50]. These criteria are categorized into the domains
of essential content, development process, and evaluation. The International Patient Aides
Standards (IPDAS) Collaboration‘s criteria is available as a checklist (www.ipdas.ca) and is
currently being used to quality rate patient decision aids that are publicly accessible. The
quality ratings are available at: www.ohri.ca\decionaide, under the category of decision aid
library inventory (DALI). The IPDAS checklist was designed to be used by all stakeholders
in the decision making process including developers, patients, health care professionals,
health care insurers, administrators, policy makers and researchers in order to critically
appraise individual decision aids or to compare across available decision aids on the same
topic.
Patients can access most available decision aids directly on the internet or be given the
decision aid or its URL by health care professionals or disease-specific community resource
programs [98]. For example, several cancer programs have integrated decision aids and
decision quality measures within the process of care for women with breast cancer
considering treatment options [100,101]. In primary care, cancer screening decision aids have
also been incorporated into routine medical visits [102-103]. Some factors identified as
influencing successful implementation of decision aids in practice were reminders in the
scheduling system, patient decision aids integrated with patient flow through the clinic and
physicians recommending them [76,100].
 Shared Decision Making in Medicine: Challenges and Opportunities 187

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FUTURE

There are still considerable gaps in knowledge and further research is required to evaluate
the influence of patient decision aids and decision support in general on patient-clinician
communication, best practices for streamlining and updating processes, and down-stream
effects, such as patient satisfaction and overall health outcomes, once they become more fully
utilized (98). It is important to establish more effective ways of making decision support tools
accessible to patients, including low literacy groups. For example, researchers at Baylor
College of Medicine are testing the use of a ―soap opera‖ approach for the presentation of
information on breast cancer treatment decisions within video formatted patient decision aids
[104]. Finally, patient decision aids and other tools will need to have routine updating built
into the development process in order to insure that they capture emerging evidence as soon
as it becomes available. As well, barriers to the use of decision aids will have to be overcome
including: limited health care professionals‘ skills in SDM and decision coaching, perceived
time constraints, lack of awareness of patient decision aids, and the limited number of
decision aids available [74,98,105].
Training health care professionals in shared decision making and use of decision aids will
need to be carried out on a very broad scale, and this many also require the development of
certification standards [98]. A fairly dramatic change needs to occur with regards to medical
culture and how patients and health care professionals interact. Clinical practice models to
best support the introduction of shared decision making and patient decision aids within
clinical practice are needed. This will require increased infrastructure investment from the
entire health care system. Despite this expected need for added resources, evidence suggests
that total health care costs could, in fact, be reduced by fully engaging patients in SDM
[96,97]. Mandating, through the accreditation process, that all health care facilities
incorporate SDM principles may also encourage the use of routine shared decision making
practice [98]. Legally mandating these interventions into the informed consent process has
recently occurred in Washington State [106]; however, its effects have yet to be determined.
By creating an environment where patients expect to be supported in decision making and
making it easy for clinicians to prescribe standardized patient decision aids, we are more
likely to incorporate these interventions as part of routine quality health care [98]. Although
significant progress has been made with regards to evaluating the potential benefits of SDM,
the impacts on health care outcomes remain uncertain. Future endeavors will need to focus
heavily on education, training, implementation and monitoring of outcomes and compliance.

SUMMARY
Patients want to be involved in their health care decisions and have a right to do so.
Given the preference-sensitive nature of many medical decisions, it is essential to use
decision making approaches that acknowledge the patients‘ informed values. To support their
involvement in decision making, patients need access to clinicians skilled in decision making
and effective interventions such as question prompt sheets, consultation planning, patient
decision aids and decision coaching. Considerable effort is required to ensure that shared
decision making and effective interventions to facilitate this process are incorporated into
188 Tara Tucker, Rajiv Samant and Dawn Stacey

medical care pathways and the informed consent processes. The result will be to achieve high
quality decisions by balancing patient autonomy with clinician expertise, encouraging open
dialogue between patients and their health care team, and sharing in the responsibility for
these decisions.

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In: Recent Trends in Education ISBN 978-1-60741-795-8
Editor: Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 8

PUTTING PBL INTO PRACTICE: POWERS

AND LIMITATIONS OF DIFFERENT TYPES
OF SCENARIOS

Laurinda Leite, Isménia Loureiro and Paula Oliveira

University of Minho, Braga, Portugal

ABSTRACT
The most common Problem Based Learning (PBL) model is the one in which
problems appear at the beginning of the learning sequence, being introduced by the
teacher and solved by the students. This paper acknowledges a conception of PBL
organized around sets of problems formulated by the students from scenarios that may
focus on a broad theme.
In such a PBL environment the teachers‘ key role is to select or develop scenarios
that can originate relevant problems from an educational point of view. Scenarios can be
of different types, ranging from the verbal to the image-based ones, and may induce
different problems, depending on the information they offer and the intriguing power
they convey.
Bearing in mind the role of problems in a PBL sequence, the relationship between
problems and scenarios, and the fact that in traditional school settings students are hardly
given the opportunity to ask questions, two issues can be raised: are students able to
formulate relevant questions to be used for PBL purposes? How do different types of
scenarios (texts, comics and images) compare in terms of their potential to originate such
questions? Are teachers able to anticipate students‘ questions? What are the
characteristics of the social environment that better foster the formulation of high-level
questions?
Results from research carried out with teachers and lower and upper secondary
school students suggest that students can formulate high-level questions from diverse
types of scenarios and that teachers can anticipate them. As far as the social environment
is concerned, results indicate that the older students are, the less valuable group work is
in terms of high level questions induction, whatever the type of scenario. However,
results are not conclusive with regard to the comparative effectiveness of diverse types of
scenarios in what concerns their power to induce relevant questions for PBL purposes.
196 Laurinda Leite, Isménia Loureiro and Paula Oliveira

INTRODUCTION
Problem Based Learning (PBL) is a teaching and learning methodology first developed
during the late sixties, at MacMaster University, School of Medicine, to promote effective
education of prospective medical doctors (Boud and Feletti, 1997; Duch, 1996). It leads to the
mastery of new conceptual knowledge through the resolution of problems (Boud and Feletti,
1997; Duch, 1996; Lambros, 2002). In addition, it promotes the development of problem
solving competencies as well as social and communicational skills (Lambros, 2004).
However, opposite to what could be expected, the idea of using problems as starting points
for learning has originated different conceptions of PBL, and a wide variety of PBL models,
ranging from teacher to student centered models (Savin-Baden and Major, 2004). The latter
case includes the most typical PBL model that is the one in which problems appear at the
beginning of the learning sequence, and are solved by the students (Lambros, 2002; Savin-
Baden and Major, 2004). It should be emphasized that, usually, each PBL sequence includes a
single or very few problems embedded in problem contexts brought in by the teacher. This
paper acknowledges a rather different conception of PBL, described in Leite and Afonso
(2001) and put into practice by Gandra (2001). It is organized around sets of interrelated
problems that are formulated by the students from scenarios. The scenarios may be brought in
by the teachers and must focus on a quite broad theme. Thus, problems formulated from a
scenario may require students to work out a set of concepts that constitute the core of an
everyday or a curriculum relevant theme. The added value of working on sets of interrelated
problems rather than on individual problems lies in the fact that the former promotes
conceptual integration and facilitates the development of overarching ideas. In addition,
problem formulation by the students themselves increases their motivation to engage in an
inquiry process aiming at solving the problems. If students feel the problems to be solved as
their own problems, then the problem solving process will be less painful for them (Watts,
1991) and learning will be more rewarding (Lambros, 2004) and everlasting.
Introducing PBL in school curriculum may be an easy or a complex task depending on
the sort of curriculum that is acknowledged. Problem-based curricula promote the integrated
development of conceptual and procedural competencies (Margetson, 1997) as students learn
from their attempts to find out solutions for the curriculum prescribed problems. This type of
curriculum differs from problem-oriented curriculum as well as from problem solving
curriculum (Ross, 1997). In the former type of curriculum, relevant problems are used as
criteria for selecting content to be included in the curriculum but students may learn it
through a variety of educational strategies. In the latter case, the curriculum main goal is to
foster the learning of problem solving strategies and therefore the focus is on the problem
solving process being conceptual leaning released to a second plan. In addition, to these types
of curriculum one can think about concept-based curricula, that prescribe the concepts and
principles that students are required to learn, regardless of their relationship to problems. If
this type of curriculum is to be approached from a problem-based perspective, problems to be
selected must require the learning of the prescribed concepts.
The conception of PBL acknowledged above has been put into practice in secondary
school science teaching within concept-based (Gandra, 2001) and competencies-based
(Esteves, Coimbra and Martins, 2006) curricula frames. Although both curricula emphasize
the concepts to be learned, the competencies-based curriculum is more flexible and it
 Putting PBL Into Practice: 197

facilitates alternative planning both intra and inter school subjects. The same PBL approach
has also been implemented in a science teacher education context (Leite and Esteves, 2005;
Esteves and Leite, 2005).
It is worth noticing that, in such a PBL environment the teachers‘ key role is to select or
develop scenarios that can originate relevant problems from an educational point of view
(Lambros, 2002). Scenarios can be of different types, ranging from the verbal to the image-
based ones (Lambros, 2002; Dahlgren and Öberg, 2001). Dalghren and Öberg (2001) got
some empirical evidence that different types of scenarios may induce different problems,
depending on the information they offer and the intriguing power that underlies them. Thus,
bearing in mind the role of problems in a PBL sequence, the relationship between problems
and scenarios, and the fact that in traditional school settings students are hardly given the
opportunity to ask questions, four main research issues can be raised: are students able to
formulate relevant questions to be used for PBL purposes? Are teachers able to anticipate the
questions that students raise from a scenario? How do different types of contexts (texts,
comics and images) compare in terms of their potential to originate such questions? What are
the characteristics of the social environment that foster the formulation of high-level
questions?
This paper aims at shading some light on these issues by providing empirical information
on the characteristics of good scenarios as well as on the best social conditions of using them
for students‘ question formulation purposes.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Questioning in the Science Classroom

Questioning is a competency required if teachers are to foster students‘ reflection and to

develop their critical thinking abilities (Wragg and Brown, 2001). Nowadays curricula
acknowledge the development of such behaviors in students, and research indicates that
teachers use lots of questions in their classrooms (Atwood and Wilen, 1991; Tenreiro Vieira
and Vieira, 2005). However, the majority of the questions formulated by the teachers are low
level questions aiming at accessing to rote learned information (Bennett, 2003; Jesus, 1997;
Wragg and Brown, 2001) and giving feedback to the students (Chin, 2006). Consequently,
questions requiring divergent evaluative thinking seem to be very rare in teachers questioning
practices (Bennett, 2003; Jesus, 1997).
Despite the fact that elaborating answers to high level questions is a way of developing
learning and thinking skills, these abilities are best accomplished by those who show
questioning skills (Schein and Coelho, 2006). In fact, questioning skills are necessary to
maintain a permanent positive attitude of interest and curiosity towards the real world
(Palmer, 2007) that is required for lifelong learning purposes (Wellington, 2000). Whether in
school or in daily life, learning does not take place by chance but it is rather driven by a more
or less conscious and subject centered motive. Seeking for deep understanding, looking for
patterns as well as for outliers (whether data or ideas), making judgments, evaluating plans or
solutions are examples of behaviors associated with more or less conscious questioning
abilities whether or not driven by explicit questions.
198 Laurinda Leite, Isménia Loureiro and Paula Oliveira

If a student centered learning perspective is acknowledged, motives for learning should

be conscious and strictly related to subjects‘ interests (Jenkins, 2006). Also, these are
necessary conditions for autonomous learning to take place and for learning to continue after
school (Albanese and Mitchell, 1993; Hennessy, 1993; Duch, 1996). Therefore, learning how
to question the environment is a way of growing in knowledge as well as a way of
experiencing an active and responsible citizenship (Hofstein et al., 2004).
Students‘ as well as teachers‘ questions have concentrated researchers‘ attention for a
quite long time. Several research studies focused on the types of questions asked by the two
groups of subjects as well as on the relationship between them. Despite the fact that different
authors use different categories of questions (Chin, 2001; Chin and Chia, 2004; Dahlgren and
Öberg, 2001; Dori and Herscovitz, 1999; Hofstein et al., 2004; Marbach-Ad and Sokolove,
2000), results indicate that students as well as teachers formulate a variety of questions with
low level questions prevailing over the high level ones. In addition, there seems to be a
relationship between students‘ questions and teachers‘ teaching methodologies (Marbach-Ad
and Sokolove, 2000). This result emphasizes the importance of having teachers using active
methodologies, as these seem to promote students‘ questioning abilities. Besides, fostering
questioning abilities increases the complexity of the questions formulated and leads students
to ask higher-level questions by the end of the secondary school (Hofstein et al., 2004) and
the university (Dori and Herscovitz, 1999).

PBL and the Role of Scenarios

Problems are the starting points for learning in a PBL context. The motivational power of
problems is therefore a key factor for PBL success. The more real problems are or look like,
the more students will feel learning meaningful and appealing. This is important because
motivation positively influences learning (Wellington, 2000) and contextualization promotes
retention (Boud and Felettti, 1997; Albanese and Mitchell, 1993; Hennessy, 1993; Duch,
1996). These are the main reasons why several authors emphasize de importance of scenarios
to contextualize science education problems (Boud and Felettti, 1997; Albanese and Mitchell,
1993; Hennessy, 1993; Duch, 1996; Rennie and Parker, 1996; Lambros, 2004). The
motivational power of the problems is dependent on the scenario within which problems
emerge. Hence, scenarios should engage, puzzle, challenge, motivate students and lead them
to raise high-level questions that require an inquiry approach to be solved (Lambros, 2004;
Mauffette, Kandibinder and Soucisse, 2004). This means that scenarios are not good or bad in
any absolute sense. The usefulness of scenarios depends on their power to activate students‘
minds. Consequently, it means that criteria for scenario selection or construction should be
students‘ interests dependent (Lambros, 2002, 2004). It can be expected that the older the
students are, the easier it is to find appropriate scenarios (Lambros, 2004) from a motivational
point of view. In fact, high secondary school students can more easily imagine themselves in
the role of a professional (e.g. policeman, a nurse, an architect, or a teacher) than junior high
school students do (Lambros, 2004). This may lead them to better feel the relevance of a
context and the meaning of a given piece of knowledge (Lambros, 2004).
According to some authors (Lambros, 2004; Savin-Baden and Major, 2004), scenarios
may have different formats, ranging from text-based (e.g. newspaper or journal article,
poems) to image-based (e.g. picture, drawing), and they may also combine different
 Putting PBL Into Practice: 199

languages (e.g. comics, song, video). While text based scenarios can offer more details to the
reader, they may also be less motivating and become boring for those who do not enjoy
reading too much. Image-based scenarios are less informative and leave more room to
imagination and creativity. Scenarios that combine two or more languages may overcome the
disadvantages of one with the strengths of the other. It should also be emphasized that
scenarios should be related to students‘ world and interests (Alcázar, 2006; Boud and Feletti,
1997; Lambros, 2004; Savin-Baden and Major, 2004; Mauffette et al, 2004; Barrel, 2007) as
there is some evidence that students understand problems better when they can relate them to
their everyday lives, so that they look like real (Gandra, 2001).
Besides, scenarios should not induce answers (Dahlgren and Öberg, 2001; Hmelo-Silver,
2004; Alcázar, 2006) and should be as short as possible to not bore students (Dahlgren and
Öberg, 2001). These are the main reasons why it may be hard to find out a scenario ready to
be used as such. The most likely is that real scenarios need to be adapted to cut off irrelevant
information and/or to eliminate information that might lead to anticipate answers.
Besides, despite the fact that to build a good and motivating scenario is never an easy
task (Mauffette, Kandibinder and Soucise, 2004), it is even harder to do it when PBL is to be
integrated in a concept based curriculum. When this type of curricula is at stake, scenarios
have an additional requirement: they need to raise problems that require a certain amount of
concepts to be learnt. Therefore, the first task to be carried out is the identification of the
concepts and the competencies that students are expected to develop (Esteves and Leite,
2005). Afterwards a matching scenario is to be prepared or selected. Of course, the scenario
has to be appropriate to students‘ age (Lambros, 2002; 2004) in order to offer challenges that
students are able to overcome.

Questioning from Scenarios

The majority of the studies aiming at analyzing students‘ questioning from scenarios
dealt with only one type of scenario. In most of these studies the format of the scenario was a
text-based one and therefore no comparison between types of scenarios could de done.
When students are explicitly asked to formulate questions from scenarios, they formulate
more questions than they usually do in the classrooms (Costa et al., 2000; Leite and Palma,
2006) although they may not be able to formulate as much questions as they are asked to
(Leite and Palma, 2006; Leite, Palma and Leme, 2007). In addition, whatever the format of
the scenario, students formulate questions of diverse levels of complexity, even though the
low level questions prevail over the other (Chin, 2001; Chin and Chia, 2004; Sanjosé et al.,
2006). Opposite to what could be expected, younger students seem to ask more questions than
older students do (Costa et al., 2000). This result may be due to the fact that older students
have higher levels of expertise on the issues dealt with in the scenario and therefore they do
not find it necessary to ask too many questions. On the other hand, students seem to be more
interested in explanations of phenomena than on their implications, as they ask more
questions focusing on causes than on consequences (Gomes, 1999). In addition, the level of
students‘ questions does not seem to correlate with students‘ conceptual performance (Harper,
Etkina and Lin, 2003). This means that low achievers can ask better questions than high
performers probably because the former feel that they have a lot to learn. However, older
students seem to ask more complex questions than younger students (Sanjosé et al., 2006).
200 Laurinda Leite, Isménia Loureiro and Paula Oliveira

This may mean that the level of complexity of the questions is dependent on students‘
cognitive abilities that develop with age.
Dahlgren and Öberg (2001) compared students‘ questions asked from five different types
of scenarios: comics, picture, drawing, saying, and text from journal. All the scenarios raised
the five types of questions used by authors for data analysis purposes: encyclopaedic,
meaning-oriented, relational, value-oriented and solution-oriented. However, the most
frequent types of questions were found to depend on the types of scenario. In fact, comics
raised more meaning-oriented questions while the picture raised more encyclopaedic
questions and the drawing more solution-oriented questions. As far as the text and the old
saying are concerned, no type of questions was found to prevail. According to the authors, the
motivating power of the students as well as the level of information they convey may explain
the effect of the type of context on students‘ questions.
It should also be noticed that when the formulation of questions takes place in small
groups, the level of the questions tends to be higher than when questioning takes place in a
students‘ individual basis (Chin and Kayalvizhi, 2002; Dahlgren and Öberg, 2001; Leite and
Palma, 2006). This result suggests that if questioning from scenarios is to be carried out for
PBL purposes, then it might be worthwhile to have students working in small groups in order
to increase the number of high level questions.

METHODOLOGY
Synopsis of the Study

Two research studies were conducted in order to answer the research questions presented
above. Study one (drawing heavily on Loureiro, 2008) focused on the relationship between
the questions formulated by secondary school students and those anticipated by physical
sciences teachers from three different types of scenarios. Study two (based on Oliveira, 2008)
concentrated on the relationship between different social conditions of the learning
environment used for secondary school students‘ questions formulation from the same three
types of scenarios. The conditions taken into account were individual question formulation,
group question formulation and group formulation following individual formulation.

Sample

Study one included a sample made of 30 physical sciences teachers and 176 7th, 9th, and
11th graders. Teachers were spread over of the northern part of Portugal. Students were
selected on a class basis, from three secondary schools located in the north of the country as
well.
Study two involved 175 9th and 11th grade students, belonging to six classes from three
secondary schools in the northern part of Portugal. To attain the objectives of the study two
groups of students were required: one that should formulate questions only in group settings
and another one that should start by formulating questions in an individual basis. Therefore,
 Putting PBL Into Practice: 201

the six classes were arranged in such a way as to originate two groups of students attending
the two grade levels.

Data Collection Instruments

Data were collected by means of questionnaires. Basically, the questionnaires included

scenarios from which students were supposed to raise questions. Three types of scenarios
were chosen: text, comics and picture. These types of scenarios were selected due to the
different levels of information that they explicitly convey to the reader. The reason for this is
that Dahlgren and Öberg (2001) got some evidence that the level of information conveyed by
a scenario exerts influence on the questions formulated by the students. The text is the type of
scenario that offers more information and the picture is the one that explicitly offers a less
amount of information. The scenarios were created or adapted by the authors. They focus on
science issues that are both related to the school curriculum and relevant from a social point
of view. These issues are: seasons, global warming, and energy.
Two versions of a questionnaire were prepared within the scope of study one: one of
them was addressed to students and the other one was addresses to teachers. Besides, in order
to prevent the negative influence of tiredness, the questionnaire was divided into two parts,
each of them including threes scenarios. In addition, the type of scenario and the content the
scenarios focus on were combined in such a way that each set includes the two content topics
and the three types of scenarios.
As far as study two is concerned, two versions of the questionnaire were also prepared,
one of them to be answered individually by the students and the other one to be answered by
small groups of students. The differences between the two versions lay on the conditions in
which they ask students to perform the task of formulating questions from the scenarios.
The questionnaires were content validated with three science education specialists and
they were also tested for adequacy to the respondents. Based on the results of this validation
phase, some adjustments were made in order to increasing content validity as well as its level
of adequacy to the subjects.

Data Analysis

When answering to the questionnaires, subjects produced a mixture of questions,

statements, and meaningless ideas. After separating the questions from the rest of students‘
production, the questions formulated by the different kinds of subjects in the diverse study
conditions were analyzed based on Dahlgren and Öberg (2001) typology of questions.
Encyclopaedic question were considered as low level questions while meaning-oriented,
relational, value-oriented and solution-oriented questions were taken as high level questions.
In each one of the studies, one of the authors did the analyses twice in order to increase data
reliability. Discrepant results were discussed with the first author and data analysis was
revised in order to get consensual data.
Table 1 shows examples of questions included in each category.
202 Laurinda Leite, Isménia Loureiro and Paula Oliveira

Table 1. Examples of questions included in each category

Types of questions Examples of questions

What is global warming?
Encyclopaedic What are biomass and bio-combustibles?
What means does Portugal have to increase energy efficiency?
Why there are no seasons in the equator?
Why climate changes happen?
Meaning oriented
Bearing in mind that Portugal has got the necessary legal tools, why are
we not able to use energy better?
What are the causes of the seasons?
Relational What are the consequences of gases emissions?
What are the vantages and disadvantages of hybrid vehicles?
What is the relationship between economy and gases emission?
Value oriented What is the best choice: bio-diesel or bio-ethanol?
What are the alternative energies that are most viable in Portugal?
What can we do in order to avoid climate change?
Solution oriented What can we do to reduce global warming?
What sort of measures can be taken in order to reduce the energy crises?

RESULTS
Students’ Produced Questions Versus Teachers’ Anticipated Questions

As it is shown by graph 1, diverse types of scenarios and science topics led to different
mean numbers of questions formulated per student. These mean numbers range from 1.9 (9th
grade, news-type climate change scenario) to 4.7 (7th grade, news-type seasons scenario).
However, when comparing the performance of the students belonging to each one of the three
grade levels in the formulation of questions from the three types of scenarios, two types of
patterns were found, one for each science topic.
As far as the climate change scenarios are concerned, there is a well-defined type of
pattern with a maximum for the Comics scenarios and a minimum for the news scenario. This
means that the three types of scenarios had similar effects in terms of raising questions on the
three grade levels. It also means that the most provocative scenario was the comics type
scenario, whatever the grade level. In addition, a comparison of the relative position of the
specific patterns obtained for the three grade levels indicates that seventh graders were the
students that formulated higher mean numbers of questions, irrespective of the type of
scenario. This result may be due to the bigger sense of curiosity of the youngest students
(Chin and Chia, 2004; Sanjosé et al., 2006) that may have lead them to ask more questions
than their counterparts did. In addition, the increase in the mean number of questions from 9th
to 11th grade may reveal that older students are either more able to ask questions (Costa et al.,
2000; Sanjosé et al., 2006) or more worried about the issue of climate change than their ninth
grade counterparts are, despite having studied the issue deeper at school. Hence, subjects‘
sense of curiosity, cognitive development and familiarity with the issue dealt with in the
 Putting PBL Into Practice: 203

scenario may exert influence on the mean number of questions formulated by the students
although this influence does not interfere with the power of the diverse types of scenarios to
induce questions.
When the Seasons topic is at stake, the patterns obtained for the diverse grade levels were
less clear than in the climate change case although they all show a maximum for the news-
type scenario. Besides, their relative position compares to the one obtained for the climate
change scenarios. This result reinforces the idea of curiosity leading younger students to
produce more questions and the positive influence of cognitive development and/or schooling
on the number of questions produced by the students.
Comparing the three types of scenarios in terms of power to produce questions about
seasons and climate change, it seems that the type of scenario that includes more details in
terms of information (news) was the one that induced more questions in the cased of the
seasons but the scenario that combines text and image (comics) was the one that originated
more questions in the climate change case. Therefore, no straightforward relationship was
found among the three types of scenarios with regard to the number of questions they induce
and the provocative feeling they originate in students.
Graph 2 shows the mean number of questions that teachers anticipated that students
belonging to the same three grade levels would produce from the same of scenarios.

7,0

6,0

5,0
students' mean number of questions

7th grade S
4,0 7th grade CC
9th grade S
9th grade CC
3,0 11th grade S
11th grade CC

2,0

1,0

0,0
News Comics Image
T ypes of scenarios

Graph 1. Students‘ mean number of questions formulated from the three types of scenarios, per grade
level and topic (S=Seasons; CC= Climate Change).
204 Laurinda Leite, Isménia Loureiro and Paula Oliveira

7,0

6,0
Teachers' mean number of questions
5,0
7th grade S
4,0 7th grade CC
9th grade S
9th grade CC
3,0
11th grade S
11th grade CC
2,0

1,0

0,0
News Comics Image
T ypes of scenarios

Graph 2. Teachers‘ mean number of questions anticipated from the three types of scenarios, per grade
level and topic (S=Seasons; CC= Climate Change).

A comparison graph 1 and graph 2 suggests that teachers‘ patterns are more ill-defined
than were those obtained in the students‘ case. However, a closer look at graph 2 indicates
that patterns may depend at least in part on the school level in which teachers were focusing
on. In fact, well-defined patterns were got for both topics at the low secondary school levels
but these patterns are a bit different from those obtained with for the upper secondary school
level. Nevertheless, specific teachers‘ patterns are roughly similar for the climate change
topic and quite different for the seasons ones. In addition, teachers‘ patterns for the climate
change topic differ from the students‘ ones. Hence, as far as the type of scenario that
originates the highest numbers of questions for the climate change topic is concerned, it
seems that there is no opposition between students and teachers. However, the same does not
apply to the type of scenario that originates the lowest number of questions, as it is the news
one for the students and the image one for the teachers. On the other hand, the patterns got for
the seasons scenarios have a maximum at the news (as in the students case) one and a
minimum at the image one (which differs from the students case). Thus, it seems that
teachers‘ anticipation of students‘ questions from the three types of scenarios was more
accurate for the low secondary school grade levels than it was for the 11th grade.
A comparison of the two graphs referred to above indicates that the mean numbers of
questions anticipated by the teachers tends to be larger than the mean numbers of questions
formulated by the students from each scenario. Also, with the exception of 11th grade climate
change comics scenario, opposite to what was obtained with the students (graph 1), teachers
(graph 2) seem to believe that the younger students are, the more questions they would
 Putting PBL Into Practice: 205

produce from the three scenarios and science topics. Possible explanations for this
relationship may be related to teachers‘ belief in that the number of questions: depends on
students curiosity in such a way as the younger students are, the more curious they are, and,
therefore, the more questions they produce (Bennett, 2003; Chin and Chia, 2004); decreases
as students mastery level of the issues increases (Bennett, 2003; Costa et al., 2000).
Graph 3 shows the types of questions formulated by students belonging to the three grade
levels from the three types of scenarios dealing with the two science topics. The two most
frequent types of questions formulated by the students, whatever the type of scenario, the
grade level and the topic are the encyclopaedic and the meaning-oriented questions. However,
there is a tendency for the meaning-oriented questions to prevail over the other types of
questions, except for the 7th grade when students concentrated on the climate change news
and comic scenarios. Also, news and comics scenarios compare in terms of percentage of the
two most frequent categories of questions and they differ from the image one. In fact, there is
a big distance between the percentages of meaning-oriented and encyclopaedic questions,
especially in the two lower grades. It should be stressed that although students produced large
amounts of encyclopaedic questions, this type of questions has a low cognitive demand (Chin
and Brown, 2000; Costa et al., 2000; Dalghren and Öberg, 2001; Leite and Palma, 2006) and
therefore includes non-challenging and inappropriate questions for the implementation PBL
approach. However, it should be noticed that the meaning-oriented questions might be used
for PBL purposes (Chin and Kayalvizhi, 2002; Leite and Palma, 2006), as providing an
answer to them requires an understanding of the issue that is at stake (Chin and Kayalvizhi,
2002; Dalghren and Öberg, 2001; Leite and Palma, 2006).
Relational, value-oriented and solution-oriented questions were quite rare although the
third type of questions seems to be a bit more frequent when climate change based scenarios
are at stake. The results suggests that despite the fact that climate change is a current topic
often discussed in mass-media and dealt with in the school as the consequences of the climate
change are a threat to life on earth, students did not produce too many questions providing
evidence that they feel curious and worried about it. As far as the seasons topic is concerned,
the explanation for students having produced few high level questions may lay in the fact that
they take seasons for granted and therefore think of them as something that they cannot
interfere with.
The percentages of the different types of questions that teachers anticipated that students
of the three grade levels would formulate from the three types of scenarios focusing on the
two science topics (seasons and climate change) are shown in Graph 4.
A comparison of graphs 3 and 4 reveals that teachers‘ anticipation of students‘ questions
is quite consistent with students‘ formulation of questions. In fact, the majority of the
questions that teachers anticipated that students would formulate from the diverse scenarios
are meaning-oriented and encyclopaedic questions (graph 4), These are also the types of
questions that prevail among students‘ formulated questions (graph 3). Likewise in students‘
questions (graph 3), meaning-oriented questions prevail over the teacher anticipated
encyclopaedic questions in all but two cases: 7th grade seasons and climate change. In
addition, it should be noticed that although teachers anticipated that students would
formulated a low percentage of the three higher level questions (as students did), the
percentages of questions that they anticipated are higher than those obtained with the
students.
206 Laurinda Leite, Isménia Loureiro and Paula Oliveira

100,0

90,0

80,0

70,0

60,0 Encyclopaedic
Percentage

Meaning orient ed
50,0 Relational
Value orient ed
40,0 Solution oriented

30,0

20,0

10,0

0,0
11th

11th

11th

11th

11th

11th
7th
9th

7th
9th

7th
9th

7th
9th

7th
9th

7th
9th
S CC S CC S CC
News Comics Image

Graph 3. Types of questions formulated by the students from the different types of scenarios focusing
on the two topics (S=Seasons; CC= Climate Change).

100,0

90,0

80,0

70,0

60,0 Encyclopaedic
Percentage

Meaning orient ed
50,0 Relational
Value orient ed
40,0 Solution orient ed

30,0

20,0

10,0

0,0
11th

11th

11th

11th

11th

11th
7th
9th

7th
9th

7th
9th

7th
9th

7th
9th

7th
9th

S CC S CC S CC
News Comics Image

Graph 4. Types of questions anticipated by the teachers from the different types of scenarios focusing
on the two topics (S=Seasons; CC= Climate Change).
 Putting PBL Into Practice: 207

Also, the percentages of solution-oriented questions anticipated by the teachers were

higher for the climate change scenarios than they were for the seasons ones, which is in
agreement with data obtained from the students. Thus an overall analysis of the results
indicates that, in general, teachers succeeded in anticipating the types of questions formulated
by the students and that the success on the anticipation seems to be quite independent of the
type of scenario.

Questions Formulated Under Diverse Social Conditions

Ninth and 11th graders were asked to formulate questions from three types of scenarios
(news, comics and image), focusing on the energy crisis issue, in three different social
conditions: individual formulation (I), formulation in small groups (G), formulation in small
groups after formulation in an individual basis (IG). According to data given in graph 5, the
social conditions under which the questions were produced from the three types of scenarios
led to similar patterns of the individual (I) and group (IG and G) mean numbers of questions
in the 9th grade. In fact, in the 9th grade, maximums were got for the news scenario and
minimums for the comics whatever the social conditions under which the questions were
produced.

12,0

10,0
Students' mean number of questions

8,0

I
6,0 IG
G

4,0

2,0

0,0
News Comics Image News Comics Image
9th grade 11th grade

Graph 5. Students‘ mean number of questions formulated from the three types of scenarios focusing on
the topic energy, in diverse social conditions (I=Individually; G=small Group).
208 Laurinda Leite, Isménia Loureiro and Paula Oliveira

As far as the 11th grade is concerned, two social conditions (G and IG) yield similar
specific patterns that differ from the pattern of questions formulated by students in an
individual (I) basis. This difference in patterns is due to the fact that the news scenario
originated a mean number of questions per student when they formulated them in an
individual basis lower than the mean number of questions per group when they did it in the
other two social conditions. It is worth noticing that the formulation of questions (only) in
small groups led to larger means of questions per group than their formulation by groups of
students that had produced questions individually before trying to produce them in small
groups. This result is opposite to the expectation based on social constructivism (Vygotsky,
1986) that group work would yield a larger variety of questions than individual work would
do (Chin and Kayalvizhi, 2002; Palma and Leite, 2002). A possible explanation for this
unexpected result may be due to the fact that the previous production of questions in an
individual basis may reduce students‘ curiosity and willingness to repeat the task although in
a different social condition, that is in a small group basis. The different position of the
individual pattern in 9th and 11th grade with regards to the other two social conditions patterns
is in agreement with the result described in the previous section according which 11th graders
produced higher mean numbers of questions than 9th graders did. However, while group work
seems to have had no meaningful reducing effect in the 9th grade, it had a reducing effect in
the 11th grade in all but the news type scenario. This may mean that the role of group work
decreases as the school grade increases probably due to the increase of students‘ cognitive
development and critical thinking (Costa et al., 2000; Jesus, 2001).
Graph 6 shows that encyclopaedic and meaning oriented questions were the types of
questions that prevailed among the questions formulated by the students from the three
scenarios based on the energy crisis issue.
It also shows that with the exception of the case of 11th graders formulating questions in
small groups, the most frequent questions were the encyclopaedic-like type of questions. This
result differs from the seasons and the climate change scenarios (previous section), where the
meaning-oriented questions usually prevailed over the encyclopaedic ones for both students‘
formulated questions and teachers‘ anticipated ones.
As far as the three higher-level types of questions are concerned, students produced small
amounts of these types of questions. This result is consistent with the one described in the
previous section in relation to the seasons and the climate change topics. A comparison of the
percentages of questions formulated by students of both grade levels in the diverse social
conditions reveals that, with the exception of 11th grade IG, whatever the grade level and the
social condition, similar patterns were obtained for the solution-oriented questions. These
patterns have a maximum for the comics-type scenario. It seems hard to find an explanation
for this but it may happen that this specific scenario contains some piece of information that
led students to feel the need for measures to solve the energy crises to be taken.
In addition, it seems that 11th grade produced larger percentages of relational questions
than their 9th grade counterparts. This may indicate that these students felt a deeper concern
about the energy crises and a willingness to better understand the energy issue. Despite the
fact that the percentages are very small, whatever the grade level and the social conditions,
the image seems to be the type of scenario that originated lowest percentages of value-
oriented questions. This may mean that students are not used to interpret images and/or that
they need a considerable basis of information about a given issue in order to feel compelled to
try to better understand it (Dahlgren and Öberg, 2001).
 Putting PBL Into Practice: 209

70,0

60,0

50,0

Encyclopaedic
Percentage

40,0 Meaning orient ed

Relational
30,0 Value orient ed
Solution orient ed

20,0

10,0

0,0
News

News

News

News

News

News
Image

Image

Image

Image

Image

Image
Comics

Comics

Comics

Comics

Comics

Comics
9th 11th 9th 11th 9th 11th
I IG G

Graph 6. Percentage of the different types of questions formulated by the students from the three types
of scenarios focusing on the topic energy, in diverse social conditions (I=Individually; G=small Group).

Thus, an overall analysis of the results indicates that students formulated larger mean
numbers of questions from scenarios focusing on the energy issue than from those scenarios
dealing with the seasons and the climate change scenarios. Also, group work seems to be
more productive if used as the only environment in which questions are produced than if it is
used together with individual work.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The introductory section of this paper presented four research questions that guided the
research reported above.
As far as the first research question is concerned, results indicate that low as well as
upper secondary school students are able to formulate questions from diverse types of
scenarios and science topics. Moreover, a part of those questions are appropriate to be used as
starting points for PBL purposes. However, the three types of highest-level questions
(relational, value oriented and solution oriented) are quite rare.
With regard to the second research question, results suggest that in general teachers are
able to anticipate the types of questions that students would formulate. Besides, the success of
their anticipation does not depend on the students‘ secondary school level. However, an
additional analysis of the specific content of the questions would inform about whether or not
teachers‘ and students‘ questions concentrate on the same specific content or on different
210 Laurinda Leite, Isménia Loureiro and Paula Oliveira

contents. Nevertheless, this analysis would be more reliable if a stronger one-to-one

relationship between teachers and students was assured by the sampling procedures.
In what concerns the third research question, it can be stated that all the three types of
scenarios (news, comics, image) originated considerable amounts of questions, when
students‘ formulations of questions is at stake as well as when teachers‘ anticipation of
students‘ questions is considered. However, despite the fact that some repeated patterns and
relationships were found, the results of the study were not elucidative in terms of providing
clear evidence for or against a given type of scenario. Therefore, it seems that more research
is needed in order to better explore the powers and limitations of the diverse types of
scenarios, including those that were dealt with in this research.
As far as research question number four is concerned, it seems that group work can offer
a valuable environment for younger students to formulate questions from scenarios but it does
not convey any added value to previous individual question formulation. However, as high
level questions are rare, it would be interesting to content analyze them in order to find out
whether different groups and different students focus on the same specific contents or in
rather different ones. If the latter is the case, whatever the social condition used for questions
formulation purposes, than it would be worth to have students in a class sharing the questions,
specially the high level ones, so that the whole class can become aware of the issues raised by
the scenario and decide on whether or not it is worth doing some inquiry in order to solve
them.
Despite the limitations of this study and the issues that deserve further research, it seems
that scenarios concentrating on broad themes can be prepared by teachers and used with
secondary school students in order to introduce PBL in concept based curricula without
taking the risk of preventing students from learning the prescribed contents. This may not be
exemplary way of doing PBL but it might be a way to start introducing a valuable learning
strategy in the secondary school of many countries, including Portugal. However, bearing in
mind that students are not used to ask questions although they are able to produce a few high
level ones (Baram-Tsabari, 2006; Chin, 2001; Costa et al., 2001; Zee et al., 2001), then it
seem necessary to find strategies able to develop questioning competencies (by freely asking
questions about real world or from constructed scenarios) so that students start producing
more questions that are appropriate for PBL purposes. In addition, as it seems that there is a
positive correlation between the cognitive demand of the science classes and the cognitive
level of students‘ questions (Bennett, 2003), then teachers should increase the cognitive
demand of the science classes, namely through their own questioning practices so that they
can help students‘ to become better questioners and better prepared to engage in active
methodologies, including PBL environments.

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Editor: Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 9

BACK TO THE FUTURE: THE EFFECT OF ADVANCE

ORGANIZERS IN MUSIC INSTRUCTION

Bernard W. Andrews and D. L. Trumpower

Faculty of Education, University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

ABSTRACT
This study assessed the effect of advance organizers in music instruction. Four intact
beginning instrumental grade nine classes participated in the study. Two of the classes
were randomly assigned to receive the advance organizer treatment, whereas the other
two classes served as controls. Nine musical concepts were used as dependent variables:
instrumentation, counting, note values, slurring, key signature, meter, dynamics,
harmony, and dotted note. The treatment group and the control group were pre-tested and
post-tested on their knowledge of the musical concepts before and after the advance
organizer instruction was implemented. They were also tested on their performance and
listening skills based on the musical concepts following instruction. Findings indicate that
knowledge of three concepts - instrumentation, dynamics and harmony – was
significantly affected by advance organizer instruction. None of the performance or
listening skills based on the nine concepts were significantly affected by the advance
organizer instruction.

Keywords: advance organizers, music instruction, concept learning

INTRODUCTION
1
An advance organizer is an instructional device designed to facilitate the learning and
retention of meaningful verbal information. Advance organizers are introduced prior to new
learning material and are presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality and
inclusiveness. They are usually based on the main concepts, principles or generalizations of a

1
The term ―facilitate‖ is used in this paper to refer to a deliberate manipulation designed to enhance learning
beyond what might otherwise occur if this technique were not used.
216 Bernard W. Andrews

subject or discipline. David Ausubel (1960, 1963) described two types of organizers: an
2
expository or abstract organizer and a comparative or concrete organizer. Ausubel and his
associates demonstrated that both types of organizers facilitate learning (Ausubel, 1960;
Ausubel & Fitzgerald, 1961, 1962; Ausubel & Youssef, 1963).
Abstract organizers describe a concept, principle or rule at a higher level of conceptual
organization (i.e., superordinate level). For example, beginning instrumental music students
often learn to play an instrument (subordinate level) without fully understanding its place
within the concert band structure. An abstract organizer on instrumentation would introduce
the concept of concert band as a performing ensemble comprised of groups of instruments,
called families, each with distinctive characteristics. Such an organizer would be presented to
the class verbally and/or through visual aids, video, internet or the demonstration of
instruments prior to students learning about their individual instruments. For example:

Concert Band = brass + woodwind + percussion

A concert band is comprised of three groups of instruments called families: brass,

woodwind and percussion, each with their own characteristics. Brass instruments (e.g.,
trumpet, tuba) are made of brass alloy and sound is produced with a cup-shaped mouthpiece.
Different notes are produced with either valves (e.g., French horn) or slides (e.g., trombone).
Woodwinds (e.g., oboe, bassoon) were originally made of wood, although more recently they
are made with metal or plastic, and different notes are produced with keys. Sound is produced
by airflow (e.g., flute) or a vibrating reed (e.g., clarinet), Percussion instruments are made
with a variety of materials, such as wood, metal and more recently synthetic materials (e.g.,
drums), and sound is produced by striking. These instruments may be multi-pitched (e.g.,
orchestra bell), or single-pitched (e.g., wood block).

A concrete organizer (comparative level) presents an analogy which enables learners to

discriminate new ideas from similar ones in their cognitive structure. For example, high
school students are familiar with a broad range of popular ensembles, such as rock bands and
folk groups. A concrete organizer relates the new learning - groups of instruments form an
ensemble - to what the students currently know. Such an organizer would present examples of
popular ensembles to the class using posters, powerpoint presentation, music videos and/or
internet sites.

Many popular types of bands are comprised of groups of instruments. For example:

Rock Band = guitars + keyboards + percussion

Jazz Ensemble = brass + winds + rhythm section

Folk Group = vocals + guitars + strings

2
Initially, the terms expository and comparative were introduced which were gradually replaced by abstract and
concrete, respectively.
 Back to the Future: The Effect of Advance Organizers in Music Instruction 217

Teacher Comment: In the audiovisuals of these bands (i.e., posters/powerpoint

presentations/music videos/internet sites), let‘s identify each group of instruments and name
each one within the group.

ADVANCE ORGANIZERS IN LEARNING

Advance organizers have been employed successfully in different areas of the
curriculum. Cames, Linbeck and Griffin (1987) used an advanced organizer with high school
physics students and demonstrated a mild positive effect with its use. Tajika, Taniguchi,
Yamamoto and Mayer (1988) demonstrated the effectiveness of pictorial organizers in grade
5 mathematics. Williams, Hall, Lauer, Stafford and DeSisto (2005) found that grade 2
students taught using advance graphic organizers demonstrated transfer to uninstructed
compare-contrast text, thereby illustrating that explicit instruction in reading comprehension
is feasible and effective for young students. Langan-Fox, Waycott and Albert (2000) found
that linear and graphic advance organizers can assist novice populations learn about the
functions of new technology. O‘Bannon, Pucket and Rakes (2006) successfully integrated
graphic organizers with technology to facilitate student learning of unfamiliar information.
The use of various forms of advance organizers in second language learning has been
extensively studied by researchers (Hanley, Herron & Coles, 1995; Herron, 1994). Chung and
Plass (1996) focused on the effects of advance organizers in a foreign language classroom,
and they demonstrated that visual advance organizers are effective for facilitating reading
comprehension among second-language learners. Aural advance organizers can also enhance
second language comprehension (Chung & Huang, 1998), and they may improve reading and
listening comprehension of foreign language materials by providing students with background
information (Chung, 1999; Chung, 2002; Herron, York, Cole & Linden, 1998). Lin & Chen
(2006) found that a question advance organizer (aural) rather than an abstract organizer
(verbal) was the most effective cognitive strategy for enhancing English-as-a-Second
Language learners‘ comprehension of content-based lessons.
Several meta-analyses of advance organizers have also been undertaken. Luiten, Ames
and Achkerson (1980) examined 135 studies and concluded that advance organizers have a
small, facilitative effect upon learning as well as retention. Stone (1984) examined 29 studies
and reported that advance organizers facilitate the long-term retention of new, unfamiliar
material. More recently, Swanson (2001) found that advance organizers and explicit practice
were the greatest predictors of positive outcomes for adolescents with a learning disability.
There is a paucity of research in music education on the effect of advance organizers on
instruction. Indeed, neither educational researchers nor music educators have published the
results of any empirical studies in the readily available literature (e.g., ERIC, PsycINFO). The
situation is identical in the other arts disciplines; that is, dance drama and visual arts. This is
perhaps unfortunate. Music educators, such as Edwin Gordon (1971), Robert Sidnell (1973),
Larry Sledge (1971) and Dorothy Taylor (1979) have made reference to the learning theories
of David Ausubel and its importance for the learning and retention of musical information.
Gordon (1971) theorized that advance organizers offer the potential for improving the
learning of musical concepts (predominantly aural), and also for alleviating the problem of
mechanistic rote learning in performance-based programs. In an analytic study, Sidnell (1973)
218 Bernard W. Andrews

explored the implementation of the advance organizer in a musical context by postulating

examples of its utilization at subordinate, comparative and superordinate levels of cognitive
differentiation. Sledge (1971) outlined how the advance organizer could be designed and
utilized in performance-based programs to reconcile new learning with what the learner
already knows, thereby enhancing retention during rote reception learning. Some practical
applications of this conceptual framework were also published by the first author for music
educators (Andrews, 1991, 1995).

DEVELOPING ADVANCE ORGANIZERS FOR MUSIC INSTRUCTION

Instrumental music offers a unique experience in the school curriculum as learning an
instrument requires more than skill acquisition: it involves thinking, feeling and doing
simultaneously, and developing this ability in a relatively controlled environment for the most
part (e.g., band, choir or orchestra class). As students acquire a higher level of technical
proficiency, their ability to interpret more complex music and express themselves musically
increases substantially. Advance organizers facilitate this development as the strategy
presents new material at a higher level of abstraction, generality and inclusiveness, and
bridges the gap between the learner's cognitive structure and the material-to-be-learned
(Ausubel, Novak & Hanesian, 1978). The two types described by Ausubel (1960, 1963) – the
abstract organizer, which presents material at a higher level of abstraction, and the concrete
organizer, which uses relatively familiar material to identify similarities and differences
between old and new concepts, foster cognitive processing which promotes meaningful
learning.
Rote learning, however, still remains prevalent in music instruction because it is an
efficient means of achieving musical skill without an in-depth theoretical knowledge. In the
very early stages, this may be justified to a certain extent by the limited cognitive framework
of the child. Although rote learning will tend to occur where verbal answers are required,
anxiety levels are high, understanding is difficult, or skills are being acquired, it need not
continue as the predominant form of instruction to the extent that it often occurs. Meaningful
learning is a more effective way of acquiring knowledge than rote learning. When a new idea
is made meaningful (i.e., it becomes a clear, differentiated and sharply articulated content of
awareness), it is less likely to be forgotten because it is less vulnerable to interference from
arbitrary associations. Ausubel, Novak and Hanesion (1978) found that organizers were
especially effective where concepts were closely related and developed sequentially with an
awareness of the students‘ existing knowledge structure. To increase the possibility of
meaningful learning occurring in an aural-based and expressively-orientated discipline,
advance organizers were developed and implemented for this study based on musical
concepts introduced sequentially in beginning instrumental class instruction. These advance
organizers set the stage for learning by providing a framework in which musical concepts
were identified, discussed and related to the students‘ experiences (Callison, 2000).
In this study, Suchman's (1972) broader definition of an organizer was adopted; that is,
"any idea, image, recollection, abstraction - any available pattern that can add to the
meaningfulness of an encounter" (p. 174). Viewed in this way, an advance organizer becomes
a highly flexible strategy for a larger number of situations, including music learning which
 Back to the Future: The Effect of Advance Organizers in Music Instruction 219

involves both knowledge of the discipline, and performing and listening skills. It can be a
rule, principle or generalization presented as a statement, didactic description, question,
demonstration, or even a musical recording. The form, then, is less important than that it be
clearly understood and be related to the material it is organizing.
The substantive element of meaningful learning allows for greater storage as the learner
retains only the substance of the ideas rather than the exact words in expressing them. Hence,
the concept of melody is easier to retain than its description – ‗a melody is a series of notes.‘
By analogy and transfer to aural cognition, it was speculated that the tonal memory of a
melody (i.e., its shape) would be easier to retain than each individual note when preceded by
an advance organizer; that is to say, a musical organizer could potentially improve listening
and also performance skills (Andrews, 1989). Consequently, an investigation of the effect of
advance organizers on the students' performing and listening skills was also undertaken.

METHODOLOGY
The primary question asked in the study was: "Does the treatment group acquire
significantly more knowledge about musical concepts than the control group after advance
organizer instruction is implemented?" In this study, advance organizers were developed
(after Suchman, 1972) for ten musical concepts and integrated into the curriculum (of the
treatment group but not the control group) for study. The selected concepts were based on
3
curricular materials for a beginning instrumental class : i) instrumentation (Inst); ii) counting
(Coun); iii) note values (NotV); iv) slurring (Slur); v) key signature (KeyS); vi) meter (Metr);
vii) dynamics (Dyns); viii) harmony (Harm); ix) dotted note (DotN); and x) form (refer to
Appendix 1). Since the treatment and control groups did not complete the post-test section on
4
‗form,‘ this concept was omitted. The secondary question was: ―Is there a significant
difference between the treatment group and the control group on performance and listening
skills based on the musical concepts?‖
In this study, the quasi-experimental method was adopted using the untreated control
group pre-test and post-test design (Cresswell, 2002) with multiple concepts (after Andrews,
2008). Four intact grade 7 instrumental music classes were selected, two of which were
randomly assigned to receive advance organizer instruction. The Treatment group (Trt n=48
comprised of Trt1 n=24 + Trt2 n=24) was taught using advanced organizers. The control
group (Con n=54 comprised of Con1 n=28 + Con2 n=26) was taught using the traditional
teacher-directed approach (i.e., teacher as conductor). All four beginning instrumental classes
were taught by the same music teacher who had five years of instrumental teaching
experience. She was also coached in the use of advance organizers.
The instruments for this study – knowledge, performing and listening tests – were
developed by the principal author, a teacher educator with 15 years of experience teaching
instrumental music in schools, in collaboration with the music teacher. Before
implementation of the study, the tests were reviewed by a panel of teachers with instrumental
teaching experience and researchers with expertise in learning theory and psychology to

3
The four music classes used Learning Unlimited which is published by Hal Leonard.
4
―Form‖ was not adequately taught as several students missed school due to a flu virus.
220 Bernard W. Andrews

confirm content validity. Subsequently, the tests were piloted for reliability with a sample of
beginning instrumental students prior to the commencement of the study (Andrews, 1994).
Both treatment and control groups were pre-tested and post-tested on their knowledge of
each of the musical concepts using a multiple-choice written test which measured
comprehension at superordinate, comparative and subordinate levels of cognitive
differentiation in congruence with advance organizer theory (refer to Appendix II). Multiple
choice tests have been used previously by researchers undertaking advance organizer studies
(e.g., Chung, 2002; Kreiner, 1996).
A post-test on performance and listening skills was also administered. It was not feasible
to do a pre-test on performance and listening skills as the students were beginners without
prior instrumental experience, and they were unfamiliar with the musical concepts. Five of
the concepts were assessed using a performance test (counting, slurring, key signature,
dynamics and dotted notes), and the other four concepts were assessed with a listening test
(instrumentation, note values, meter and harmony). The performance test pieces were selected
from the band method in use (i.e., Learning Unlimited), and accuracy was measured when
students correctly played rhythms (counting), slurs, accidentals (key signature), dynamics,
and dotted notes. The listening test was developed by the music teacher and refined by the
researcher, and accuracy was measured when students correctly recognized instrumentation,
note values, meter and harmony.
The means of the subsections covering each of the nine musical concepts on the
knowledge pre-test and post-test, and on the performance and listening post-tests, were
calculated for both treatment and control groups. Two Group membership (Treatment,
Control) by two Time (Pre, Post) split-plot Analyses of Variance (ANOVAs) with repeated
measures on the second factor were conducted to assess the effects of advance organizer
instruction on knowledge of each of the nine concepts because it is the most generally used
model in dealing with pre-test and post-test data (Cook & Campbell, 1979). Independent t-
tests were conducted to compare the two groups on their performance and listening skills for
the nine concepts.
Because we conducted multiple ANOVAs and t-tests (9 of each), use of conventional
alpha levels for each test might yield an unacceptably high Type I error rate across all of the
tests. Therefore, to maintain the overall Type I error rate at 0.05, an additive (Bonferroni)
inequality was used to determine the alpha level for each test. For m tests, the alpha level for
each test is given by the overall alpha level divided by m (Huberty & Morris, 1989). Thus
0.05 / 9 = 0.006 was the significance level used for each ANOVA and t-test.

RESULTS
Primary Question

―Does the treatment group significantly acquire more knowledge about musical concepts
than the control group after the advance organizer instruction is implemented?"

The means for both pre-test and post-test knowledge of the nine concepts for both
treatment group and control group are presented in Table 1. As indicated, the means for the
 Back to the Future: The Effect of Advance Organizers in Music Instruction 221

post-test are greater than those for the pre-test for both treatment and control groups, with
instrumentation, slurring, dynamics, harmony and dotted note being more pronounced.
Indeed, the main effect of Time was statistically significant for all nine concepts, indicating
an overall increase in knowledge from pre-test to post-test.
The primary question of interest, however, is addressed by the Group membership by
Time interactions. If a given advance organizer is more effective than the traditional teacher-
directed approach, then the increase in knowledge test scores from pre to post should be
greater for the treatment than control group. Results indicate that only the Group membership
by Time interactions for the concepts of instrumentation, dynamics and harmony were
statistically significant. For these three concepts, means indicate greater acquisition of
knowledge (i.e., increase from pre to post) in the treatment than control group (see Figures 1
– 3). For all other concepts, knowledge acquisition was not significantly different between
the treatment and control groups (see, e.g., Figure 4).

Table 1: Means (and standard deviations) of knowledge pre and post-tests by concept
for treatment and control groups.

Treatment Control
(n=48) (n=54)
Concept Pre Post Pre Post
*Inst 3.167 (1.117) 4.354 (1.139) 3.346 (1.118) 3.500 (1.129)
Coun 3.812 (1.179) 4.667 (1.191) 3.615 (1.255) 4.942 (0.873)
NotV 3.562 (1.367) 4.937 (1.099) 3.462 (1.488) 5.173 (1.098)
Slur 2.872 (1.569) 5.447 (0.855) 2.462 (1.488) 4.942 (1.162)
KeyS 3.149 (1.503) 4.298 (1.397) 2.731 (1.374) 3.885 (1.215)
Metr 3.457 (1.187) 4.543 (0.780) 3.481 (0.980) 3.981 (0.828)
*Dyns 2.261 (1.405) 5.239 (0.947) 2.423 (1.194) 4.442 (1.364)
*Harm 3.609 (1.437) 5.543 (1.005) 3.788 (1.319) 4.885 (1.003)
DotN 2.696 (1.245) 5.522 (0.863) 2.615 (1.157) 4.654 (1.083)
* Significant Group by Time interaction, p < .006

Table 2: Means (and standard deviations) of Listening (L) and Performance (P) skills
post-tests for treatment group and control groups*.

Concept Treatment Control

Inst (L) 1.851 (1.142) 1.673 (1.080)
NotV (L) 5.915 (0.282) 5.846 (0.538)
Metr (L) 3.933 (1.286) 4.020 (1.530)
Harm (L) 5.348 (0.849) 5.000 (0.990)
Coun (P) 4.723 (1.246) 4.885 (1.132)
Slur (P) 4.800 (2.085) 4.981 (1.863)
KeyS (P) 4.867 (1.618) 4.346 (2.047)
Dyns (P) 5.116 (1.238) 4.980 (1.556)
DotN (P) 4.826 (1.198) 4.615 (1.623)
*None of the pre-post differences are significant at the p=.006 level.
222 Bernard W. Andrews

Secondary Question

―Is there a significant difference between the treatment group and control group on
performance and listening tests based on the musical concepts?‖

For performance and listening, the means on the nine concepts for the treatment group
are quite similar to those for the control group (see Table 2). Independent t-tests revealed no
statistically significant differences between the two groups on performance and listening
skills for any of the nine musical concepts studied.

DISCUSSION
Referring to Table 1, for the concept of instrumentation the mean knowledge post-test
score (4.354) was much greater than the mean knowledge pre-test score (3.167) in the
treatment group, while hardly any change was found in the control group from the pre-test
(3.345) to post-test (3.500). This significant group membership by time interaction is
illustrated graphically in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Change in instrumentation.

For both the concepts of dynamics and harmony, the mean knowledge scores increased
from pre-test to post-test for both the treatment and control groups, but the increase in the
treatment group was more pronounced. Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the significant group
membership by time interactions for dynamics and harmony, respectively. Thus, while
students were able to acquire knowledge of dynamics and harmony without an advance
organizer, those students who used an advance organizer appear to have acquired knowledge
at a greater rate.
 Back to the Future: The Effect of Advance Organizers in Music Instruction 223

Figure 2. Change in Dynamics.

Figure 3. Change in Harmony.

For the rest of the concepts, no group membership by time interactions were obtained.
Although knowledge of each concept increased for both treatment and control groups, it did
so at almost the same rate. Take the concept of slurring as an example. For the treatment
group, the mean post-test knowledge score increased by 2.575 (i.e., 5.447 - 2.872), and for the
control group, the mean post-test score increased by 2.480 (i.e., 4.942 - 2.462) (see Table 1).
Figure 4 shows this homogeneous change over time; that is, both treatment and control
groups changed the same amount from pre-test to post-test.
The untreated control group with pre-test and post-test is a frequently used design and is
often interpretable. However, as with other quasi-experimental designs, one can never be
entirely sure that attribution of a causal relationship, or lack thereof, between independent and
dependent variables is correct: there are several threats to internal validity that may be
224 Bernard W. Andrews

difficult to control due to lack of true randomization of individual students to conditions.

Those threats, such as the interactions between group membership and maturation, local
history, instrumentation and motivation, may come to play a role in a study. For example, the
test results of the students on the nine concepts may have been affected by the interaction
between maturation and treatment condition. We do not know whether the appropriate time
interval was used between the pre-test and post-test to allow for the effect of the treatment. It
may be possible that any facilitation generated by the advance organizers used in this study
require more time to become realized than afforded by the pre – post interval used. Indeed,
institutional constraints impacted on the timing of the pre-test at the beginning of the second
semester and administration of the post-test prior to final examinations at the end of the
semester.

Figure 4. Change in Slurring.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

This study demonstrates that acquisition of knowledge concerning the concepts of
instrumentation, dynamics and harmony improved significantly through the use of advance
organizer instruction. This finding has implications for the teaching of these concepts to
beginning instrumentalists, albeit recognizing that further study is required to substantiate
these results.
The teaching of instrumentation focuses on the identification of different types of
instruments (e.g., flute, clarinet, trumpet, etc.), the recognition of those instruments that
constitute a family of instruments (e.g., brass, woodwind, percussion or strings), and an
understanding of those families that constitute large ensembles (e.g., concert band, symphony
orchestra, etc.). In beginning instrumental courses, it is an essential concept which is not
overly difficult to grasp as students have ready access to many of the instruments and are
actively engaged in learning them. However, they do experience some difficulty
understanding the basis for the groupings; for example, saxophones are made of brass but
 Back to the Future: The Effect of Advance Organizers in Music Instruction 225

played with a reed and consequently are classified as woodwinds. In this context, the advance
organizer offers the possibility of providing a framework for understanding the organization
of the instruments based on acoustical properties and historical usage.
The teaching of dynamics is a concept of moderate difficulty which requires an
understanding of contrasts (loud - soft) and gradations of sound (soft to loud; loud to soft),
and which requires an ability to translate these concepts into instrumental performance. This
process involves cognitive (recognizing the dynamic symbols), affective (interpreting
dynamic symbols within a particular context), and psychomotor (performing the passage
delineated by dynamic symbols) functions. A knowledge of dynamics is essential to the
effective musical interpretation of music. Consequently, advance organizer instruction could
potentially lead to improved musical interpretations by young instrumentalists.
Of the three concepts where a significant effect of advance organizer instruction was
found, teaching harmony is the most problematic for teachers of beginning instrumentalists.
Instrumentalists can "hear" harmony, "feel" harmony, "see" harmony (e.g., multiple parts in
sheet music and musical scores), but they cannot "hold" it like a musical instrument. Unlike
melody which is akin to speech, harmony has no equivalency in language. We read and speak
words and sentences, thereby expressing our thoughts sequentially in a linear fashion.
Similarly, students read and play notes and melodies, thereby expressing musical ideas which
move horizontally through time. For this reason, the concept of melody is grasped relatively
easily by young students. In contrast to melody, harmony is a vertical concept that involves
several notes played together and moving forward coherently (i.e., harmonic progression).
Young people simply do not have a frame of reference for harmony as they do for melody
(i.e., language). However, it is through the development of harmony that architectonic forms,
such as the symphony, concerto, tone poem and music drama, were brought to fruition. For
this reason, the study of harmony in the music curriculum is essential to understanding our
Western European heritage. Advance organizer instruction offers a unique opportunity for
teachers to help students understand this concept.
Knowledge of the three concepts – instrumentation, dynamics and harmony - that was
significantly affected by advance organizer instruction are common to students‘ lived
experiences. Young people see and hear musical instruments and listen to dynamics and
harmony on a regular basis; for example, when watching music videos, listening to their
IPod‘s or MP3 players, attending concerts, and when they are of age, going to nightclubs.
These three concepts require neither score reading ability nor performance ability for the
concepts to be understood; that is, they do not have to read music or play an instrument to
acquire knowledge of instrumentation, dynamics or harmony. Indeed harmony, the more
complex of the three, is intrinsic to human physiology.

Harmony is formatted to present sequences of suspensions and resolution to dissonant

and consonant experiences. The length of time it takes for a suspension or dissonance to
resolve … play‘s on the listener‘s nervous system by affecting his or her attention and
anticipation. (Schneck & Berger, p. 237)

Many young people are tuned-in to their IPods or MP3 players throughout a good part the
day and often tuned-out to what is going on around them, much to the annoyance of their
teachers and parents. Their evenings are often taken up with video games, complete with
music sound tracks, on an array of devices - computers, television, X Box, Sony Play Station,
226 Bernard W. Andrews

and now cell phones. In the music youth hear, dynamics and instrumentation support
harmony by intensifying and colouring listeners‘ responses, thereby keeping them involved in
the musical experience and extra-musical experience. Consequently, it appears to the observer
that young people‘s ears are ―glued‖ to their IPods and their eyes are ―glued‖ to video games.

In support of harmonic intent, dynamics further alerts the listener to what is in store, as
exemplified by the music of ‗horror‘ films, for instance. Dynamics can drive the music,
determine where it is heading, and thus contribute to the overall form of the work. Increases
and decreases in volume, supported by certain instrumental timbres, evoke entrained
responses from the listener. (Schneck & Berger, 2006, p. 237)

Why weren‘t knowledge of the other seven concepts – counting, note values, slurring,
key signature, meter and dotted note – significantly affected by advance organizer
instruction? All of these concepts represent new knowledge for most beginning instrumental
students (except for those few enrolled in private music lessons), and each requires an ability
to read music. Furthermore, all of these concepts are physically operationalized by playing a
musical instrument. For example, a student recognizes a curved line in music notation that
connects two notes as a slur, and then he or she plays the second of the two notes without
tonguing it. As the participants in the study were beginning instrumentalists, it is likely that
the inability to read music and play an instrument impacted on their learning of the seven
concepts. Alternatively, the concepts represent essential procedural knowledge for beginners
and consequently may not be amenable to advance organizer instruction. Acquisition of more
advanced knowledge of the seven concepts could be examined with advance organizers in the
second year of an instrumental program, when more complex note values, slurring patterns,
etc. are introduced.
The lack of significance of the impact of advance organizer instruction on knowledge of
meter may appear surprising when one considers that young people consistently experience
rhythm, alongside dynamics and harmony, on a regular basis. However, rhythm is a complex
concept involving the elements of beat (pulse of the music), meter (arrangement of strong and
weak beats), and pattern (duration of notes in a melody or chords in a progression). Meter is a
higher-order element than beat. Almost all popular music is written in 4/4 time; that is, a
series of four beats with a pattern of accents - strong-weak-medium-weak - which is
constantly repeated throughout the song. The meters introduced to beginning instrumentalists
in their first year of study included 2/4 and 3/4 which have recurring beat patterns of strong-
weak and strong-weak-weak, respectively. These meters are most commonly used in the
march (2/4) and the waltz (3/4). Since marches and waltzes are seldom experienced by
students outside of a school music program, it could explain why knowledge of the concept of
meter was not significantly improved through advance organizer instruction.

CONCLUDING COMMENTS
This study indicates that the advance organizer is an effective instructional method for
the teaching of instrumentation, dynamics and harmony to beginning instrumental music
students. The reason that no significance was found on the performance and listening skills
may be that the advance organizer places more emphasis on conceptual knowledge while
 Back to the Future: The Effect of Advance Organizers in Music Instruction 227

beginning band performance emphasizes the development of playing skills. Perhaps more
experienced instrumentalists could benefit from a conceptual framework in refining their
performance skills. However, due to the limitations of the quasi-experimental design used
here, further study is required to provide supporting evidence for the results shown by this
study. Additional research is also recommended to explore the use of advance organizers with
more experienced instrumentalists to examine the viability of advance organizers for
improving performance skill and interpretation.

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APPENDIX 1

ADVANCE ORGANIZERS IN MUSIC INSTRUCTION

1. Instrumentation

Superordinate Level:

Concert Band = brass + woodwind + percussion

A concert band is comprised of three groups of instruments called families: brass,

woodwind and percussion, each with their own characteristics. Brass instruments (e.g.,
trumpet, tuba) are made of brass alloy and sound is produced with a cup-shaped mouthpiece.
Different notes are produced with either valves (e.g., French horn) or slides (e.g., trombone).
Woodwinds (e.g., oboe, bassoon) were originally made of wood, although more recently they
are made with metal or plastic, and different notes are produced with keys. Sound is produced
by airflow (e.g., flute) or a vibrating reed (e.g., clarinet), Percussion instruments are made
with a variety of materials, such as wood, metal and more recently synthetic materials (e.g.,
drums), and sound is produced by striking. These instruments may be pitched (e.g., orchestra
bell), or non-pitched (wood block).

Comparative Level:
Many popular groups are also comprised of groups of instruments.

Rock Band = guitars + keyboards + percussion

Jazz Ensemble = brass + winds + rhythm section
Folk Group = vocals + guitars + strings

Teacher Comment: In the audiovisuals of these bands (i.e., posters/powerpoint

presentations/music videos/internet sites), let‘s identify each group of instruments and name
each one within the group.
230 Bernard W. Andrews

Subordinate Level:
Each instrument in a concert band belongs to the brass, woodwind or percussion families.
Your clarinet is made of wood, produces sound by vibrating a reed and produces different
notes by depressing keys. It is a woodwind. Your trumpet is made of brass alloy, etc.

2. Counting

Superordinate Level:
Music in our culture is measured, which means that we can count it. Most of our music is
in 4/4 time, which means there are four beats in each bar and each quarter note gets one beat.
We measure each bar by counting out four beats.

Comparative Level:
Counting music is similar to counting our money. Four quarters (25 cent pieces) equals
one loonie. If we have several quarters and wanted to know how many dollars we have, we
measure them into separate piles. To achieve this we would count

1 2 3 4 | 2 2 3 4 | 3 2 3 4 | 4 2 3 4 , etc.

Subordinate Level:
When we count notes in a bar we write the number of the beat under the note (i.e., 1 2 3
4). If the note receives more than one beat, we correct the numbers with a line (i.e., a half note
is counted 1-2 and a whole 1-2-3-4). If a note receives less than one beat, we use "&" (e.g., 2
eighths are counted 1 &).

3. Note Values

Superordinate Level:
Musical symbols, called notes, are used by musicians to represent sounds. The duration
of different sounds, from long to short, is represented by whole, half, quarter and eighth notes.
The relationship between different notes is a ratio of 2:1; that is, two eight notes are equal in
value to a quarter note, two quarter notes are equal to a half note, etc.
 Back to the Future: The Effect of Advance Organizers in Music Instruction 231

Comparative Level:
Money also has a ratio of 2:1. For example, two quarters (25 cent pieces) have the same
value as a 50 cent coin. Similarly, two quarter notes have the same value as a half note.

Subordinate Level:
Two eight notes are equal in value to a quarter note. We can feel eighth notes by running
and quarter notes by walking on the spot. Try saying ―alligator hungry‖ while running and
walking on the spot, and you will understand the relationship of eighth notes to quarter notes
(i.e., the 2:1 ratio).

4. Slurring

Superordinate Level:
Slurring notes is a way of connecting sounds so that a smooth, flowing line is possible.

Comparative Level:
Tonguing notes is like walking. Slurring notes is like skating. Staccato is like hopping.

Subordinate Level:
A slur is a curved line that connects two notes of different pitches. Tongue the first note
and move to the second note without tonguing. Keep the air moving.

5. Key Signature

Superordinate Level:
The key signature is the sign post at the beginning of the piece of music. It is located
beside the time signature and consists of one or more sharps, or one or more flats. It tells you
that certain notes must be altered when you play them.

Comparative Level:
A key signature is like a detour. When you travel with your parents and you encounter
construction, you must follow the signs and take an alternate route.

Subordinate Level:
A key signature consists of sharps or flats. The sharp indicates that a note must be raised
a semi-tone; the flat indicates that the note must be lowered a semi-tone.

6. Meter

Superordinate Level:
Meter is the grouping of beats in music. You are familiar with 4/4 time. Music can also
be written in 3/4 time where there are 3 beats to a bar and each quarter note receives 1 beat.
232 Bernard W. Andrews

Comparative Level:
Many things around us are organized with fours; for example, four wheels on a car, four
corners in a room, four stoplights at an intersection. Can you think of some items that are
organized in three's (e.g., men's three-piece suite, triangle, etc.)?

Subordinate Level:
3/4 meter consists of a strong beat and two weak beats. The feel of 3/4 is quite different
than 4/4 as it is lilting and flowing. The most common piece in 3/4 time is the waltz.

7. Dynamics

Superordinate Level:
Dynamics are the volume levels that musicians employ to convey their interpretation of a
piece. It is essential that all the members of a group pay attention to the dynamic markings so
that the appropriate musical effect is achieved.

Comparative Level:
Have you ever played with the volume dial on your radio? What is the effect on your
parents when you turn it up loud? Why is music in restaurants turned down so low?

Subordinate Level:
Dynamic markings in a piece tell us how loud or soft to play, or gradations in-between.
Forte which is written ƒ means to play loud with a full sound. Piano which is written p means
to play with a soft sound. Between the two extremes there is mƒ and mp: mezzo forte for
moderately loud and mezzo piano for moderately soft.

8. Harmony

Superordinate Level:
Harmony is created when two or more parts sound together in a pleasing manner.

Comparative Level:
Listen very carefully to the sounds around you. Close your eyes and listen to your
heartbeat, your breathing, the sounds in your classroom, and the sounds in the hall. Listen to
how all these sounds blend to forma soundscape to our everyday life.

Subordinate Level:
In music, one of the earliest types of harmony was called a round. When we play
different parts of the song all together, it sound pleasing and we obtain harmony. We can
achieve this by dividing the piece into four parts. Each part will start the song in sequence
after the previous part plays the opening bar. By playing the round in this way, we create
harmony.
 Back to the Future: The Effect of Advance Organizers in Music Instruction 233

9. Dotted Note

Superordinate Level:
A dot increases the value of a note by half its value. For example, if a quarter note
receives one beat, a dotted quarter note will receive a value of 1 + ½ beat.

Comparative Level:
In the military, a stripes and half stripes on your shoulder indicates that you are an
officer. The addition of a half stripe denotes a higher rank: one stripe for a second lieutenant;
one and a half stripes for a first lieutenant; two stripes for a captain; two and a half stripes for
a major, etc. With each half stripe, one also increases the value of one's pay by a half.
Consequently if the second lieutenant's salary is $20,000, the first lieutenant‘s salary would
be $30,000, etc.

Subordinate Level:
A dotted quarter note is equal to the value of a quarter note (1) + an eighth note (½) tied
together, or alternately, three eighth notes tied together (½ + ½ + ½ ). A quarter note is
counted 1-&-2 and is written with another eighth note or rest added to complete the second
beat, that is 1-&-2 &.

10. ABA Form (Not Tested in the Study)

Superordinate Level:
Musical form is identified by contrasting sections which are labelled with capital letters
(e.g. A, B, C, etc.).

The simplest form ‗A‘ is one section and is best exemplified by a nursery rhyme or a one-
verse song, such as Frère Jacques. If there are two sections, the second section is labelled ‗B,‘
and it is labelled a two-part form, that is ‗AB.‘

Comparative Level:
Many things around us are organized into parts. For example, a house has a roof, a main
floor, and a basement; and our classroom consists of a floor, ceiling and walls. Can you think
of some more items with different parts? Can you think of something where two of the parts
are the same?

Subordinate Level:
‗ABA‘ form was created when the first section ‗A‘ was followed by a different section
‗B,‘ and then ‗A‘ was repeated. Composers initially used the term Da Capo a Fine (which
means to go back to beginning and play section ‗A‘) to lengthen a musical work. Also, it
saved them the work of re-writing all of section ‗A‘ again.
234 Bernard W. Andrews
Back to the Future: The Effect of Advance Organizers in Music Instruction 235
236 Bernard W. Andrews
Back to the Future: The Effect of Advance Organizers in Music Instruction 237
238 Bernard W. Andrews
In: Recent Trends in Education ISBN 978-1-60741-795-8
Editor: Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 10

DEMYSTIFYING OUTDATED THEORIES

ABOUT HOW THE BRAIN WORKS

Leslie Haley Wasserman

Department of Education, Heidelberg University, Tiffin, OH

ABSTRACT
The field of Cognitive Science is dispelling some of the classical myths or
misunderstandings about how the brain learns, how brain development may be impacting
language acquisition and cognition. This is an exciting time to be an educator and to see
the incredible possibilities for the latest theories of how the brain develops and evolves.
No longer are we saddled with the idea that the brain is ‗fixed‘ by the time a person
reaches the age of three, that we must throw our hands up in despair if a child comes to
school not ready to learn. Through the most recent research, we know that our mind can
be enriched, expanded and developed toward several levels of sophistication. This
chapter draws upon the marriage of the latest brain based research and technologies as
they provide implications for early detection of cognition and learning difficulties. This
new direction in knowledge about the development of the brain has great potential for the
education of our children and the stability of our nation as a global competitor.

INTRODUCTION
In 1700 BC, Egyptians tinkered with the brain and were involved in brain research. Each
century since then has brought more information about how the brain functions with
advancing brain research. Theories have come and gone. Some were correct, other were not.
With the advancement of technology and more defined research, scientists and educators are
able to rethink and redefine brain research and its implications to educating children. This
chapter will explain briefly how the brain supports learning from a historical to a current
basis. Brain development as it relates to language and cognition will be examined by the
theories of Piaget, Bloom, Gardner, Siegler, and Sousa.
240 Leslie Wasserman

There are many theories in education as well as many theorists who have developed
theories only to have them disproved by other theorists. This is the way of education. As
more and more knowledge is gained, theories change. Interesting enough, several theorists
were correct in their time only to have been dismissed by the general thinking of their era.
Upon further investigation it is discovered that these theorists were really onto something and
were correct in their thinking. Piaget‘s theories were discounted before they were accepted
years later by the American educational system. This chapter will discuss theories throughout
history in the last century that has made an impact in early childhood education and language
acquisition.

THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT – THE STAGES

Piaget studied brain research by developing his theory about the stages of development
that children go through as well as the ages children generally develop these levels of
development (Piaget, 1936). His theories were not widely accepted in the 1920s and 1930s.
When Piaget revisited his theories in the 1950s, he went to great lengths to dispel some
misinterpretations of his theory. Development does have some irregularities, especially across
cultures. Children are not at the same level of development across the continuum. Some
children are at a stage 2 in one level of development and could be a stage 1 in another area of
development. These ideas were better accepted once he further explained the different
nuances of his thinking and his theories. The Americans were much more open to Piaget‘s
theory in the 1960s. The demise of the learning theory was helpful to Piaget‘s increasing
popularity. Piaget‘s diversity of contributions between the years of 1940 and 1980 has helped
to develop the significant accomplishment of the study of children. The ages and stages
theories of Piaget continue to inform our understanding of the brain‘s growth.
There are a series of different types of ―stages theories‖ that American educators
embraced. Gesell had an age profile that was deeply rooted in the work of G. Stanley Hall.
Developmental tasks were the theory of Havighurst (1949). Erikson‘s work (1950) was very
much like the developmental tasks theory and his theory of stages made an impact on
American nursery school curricula (Murray, 1979).
At first Americans misinterpreted Piaget‘s theory by thinking his beliefs were behaviorist
in nature since those interpreting his theories were trained behaviorists. Many times Piaget is
labeled as a maturationist or a learning theorist even though his main concern is not learning
about changes in behavior that deal with external stimulation, but rather intellectual
development (Piaget, 1963).

BRAIN RESEARCH AND EDUCATION IN THE 20TH CENTURY

Computers in the 20th century provided new and wonderful technology to process
information and concepts. The advent of computers had helped make Piaget more acceptable
in psychology in the 1960s (Murray, 1979). Computers were programmed with activities that
tested the users‘ mental functioning. It is this type of programming that leads to the
 Demystifying Outdated Theories about How the Brain Works 241

understanding that the human mind was much more complex and intricate than previously
thought.
The theories of this time labeled people as right-brained and left-brained learners. Based
on this theory, the people who were considered to be left brained were much more logical,
rational, analytical, specific, and objective whereas the people who were considered to be
right-brained were much more random, intuitive, holistic, subjective and general.
During the 1990s, brain research exploded and educators were able to relate the
implications of the research to the curriculum that they taught to enable the students to learn
better. Constructivists had strongly influenced education and had caused a paradigm shift
with assessments. Language arts (Bruner, 1986), mathematics (Schifter, 1996), and science
(Yager, 1991) were also a part of the shift due to the hands-on, student centered,
constructivist style learning that is being taught in schools (Gibson and McKay, 2006).
Constructivists believe that people develop based on knowledge gained by social and physical
interactions with others and their environment (Piaget, 1956). Another constructivist,
Vygotsky, believed that knowledge is gained through interaction with social and cultural
interactions. The constructivist theories are basically about knowledge and the nature of it.

BRAIN RESEARCH IN EDUCATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY

The brain is a complex, interconnected system that is connected to everything in the
body. As once believed in the 20th century, the left- brained, right-brained theory no longer
exists due to medical advancement. Neuroscience has shown that the brain makes connections
to experiences that are relative. Imaging still is an indicator as to what is going on inside the
brain.
Each time the brain is stimulated, that experience rewires the brain. The new information
is carried to the brain in synapses. Each day, there will be thousands of synapses that die off.
The brain is able to identify information that is not important or relevant. This information
will die off while other information that is relevant will be stored in the brain. Emotions are a
part of learning but have their own area of the brain to be stored. Emotions can create long-
term memories based on the experience of the emotional situation either good or bad.
Children can lose over 20 billion synapses per day between early childhood and
adolescence (Eliot, 2001). The critical windows of learning play a factor in this development
as well (Slegers, 1997). The brain is wired in such a way that if one does not use it, one will
lose it. These ―windows‖ of learning take place when information flows easily into the brain.
These windows are only open for a short time. These windows of development occur in
phases from birth to age twelve when the brain is most actively learning from its
environment.
It is during this period that the foundations for thinking, language, vision, attitudes,
aptitudes, and other characteristics are laid down. After this period, the windows close, and
much of the fundamental architecture of the brain is completed (Slegers, p.2). Slegers states
that educators face problems with students due to the use of old methods of teaching and not
instructing based on new brain research to target these ―windows‖.
These ―windows‖ are important for all aspects of learning, especially in infants. The
infant brain is already highly differentiated at birth and according to Bates (1999) the standard
242 Leslie Wasserman

brain plan is both innate and localized. Man is the only species that is able to acquire
language which means language is innate.
The infants‘ brain is highly plastic. This means that it can be molded (Bates, 1999). Even
with a brain injury, a baby has the ability to bounce back and relearn much of what is
necessary to function properly (Bates). Bates conducted research about the infant brain and
language development. Bates‘ theory about how the brain organizes itself for language is as
follows:

1. Linguistic knowledge is not localized in a clear and compact form in either the infant
or the adult brain.
2. Left hemisphere injuries are not associated with aphasia if those injuries occur early
in life. Instead, the infant brain is highly plastic, permitting alternative ―brain plans‖
for language to emerge if the standard situation does not hold.
3. However, the infant brain is not a tabula rasa; it is already highly differentiated at
birth, and certain regions are biased from the beginning toward modes of information
processing those are particularly useful for language, leading (in the absence of focal
injury) to the standard form of brain organization for language.
4. The processing biases that lead to the ―standard brain plan‖ may be both innate and
localized, in both infants and adults, but they are not specific to language (p. 199).

According to Sousa (2006) there is still a debate whether educators should use the brain
research to their advantage in the classroom. This should not prevent educators from using
their new found knowledge and putting it toward enhancing the students‘ learning. Sousa
suggests that recent discoveries from brain research have yielded these results:

 The human brain is constantly reorganizing itself with each new input of knowledge.
 Revealed more about how the brain acquires spoken language.
 Developed scientifically based computer programs that dramatically help young
children with reading problems.
 Shown how emotions affect learning, memory, and recall (p. 5).

This new information that is being gathered about brain research can have an impact on
education and learning as more facts are uncovered with further testing.
Research has shown that the brains of girls and boys organize differently from very early
on and continues until their formative years that lead to different preferences for learning
(Sousa, 2006). More girls than boys are left-hemisphered. The left-hemisphere is wired for
empathy and the right-hemisphere is wired for understanding and building systems (Sousa).
This statement is not to be seen as a stereotype since it is not the case exclusively.
As the century continues, more brain research will bring about new and improved
information that can be used to make education and learning better. Is it possible that we can
even be able to pinpoint difficulties to the point of being able to fix them and see a decrease
of disabilities in students? One cannot know the range of knowledge gained from studies and
research but one would like to believe that it could be possible.
 Demystifying Outdated Theories about How the Brain Works 243

THEORIES, THE BRAIN AND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

There were several different theories as to how language acquisition develops. The
behaviorist theory emphasizes that language is only partially learned through imitation.
Parents reward, correct, ignore, or punish the child‘s communication in terms of the language
usage. Positive, negative, and neutral feedback plays a key factor in communication behaviors
and language acquisition (Skinner, 1957).
The cognitive-transactional theory believes that language acquisition develops from basic
social and emotional drives. The idea of this theory is that drives come from a need for love
and care and these drives prompt language acquisition. The child is a reactor to human social
contact that is crucial for survival. Language is considered to be a part of living and with
enough interaction, patterns of this sensory receiving system are able to become decoded and
then eventually the child becomes a fluent speaker. Piaget (1952), Bruner (1960), and
J. McVicker Hunt (1961) were believers of this theory. At one time, early childhood
educators were strong believers of this theory.
There are other theories that were supported with research, each of them had some truth
involved in each study but none were completely accurate. Montessori (1949) described a
series of language development stages that she observed and recorded. According to Costello
(1967), she has divided language acquisition into nine steps:

1. Individual sounds.
2. Syllables.
3. Simple words often doubled syllables like ―dada‖. This is when the child first is said
to speak, because the sound he produces communicates an idea.
4. Understanding and saying words that are the names of the objects (nouns).
5. Understanding and saying words that refer to qualities of objects named (adjectives).
6. Understanding and saying words that refer to the relationship of objects named.
7. Explosion into language (verbs and the exact from of nouns and adjectives, including
prefixes and suffixes).
8. The forms for present, past, and future tenses of verbs, use of the pronoun as a word
that ―stands in place of‖ a name.
9. Construction of sentences with mutually dependent parts (p. 57).

Siegler (1978) believed that children‘s spoken language is based on four subtests
throughout the ―preoperational period‖ that tend to be representational rather than
transformational.

Substage 1: Isolated Centration -lasts 1 year between the ages of 1-2.

Child repeats relevant words such as hi and bye.
Substage 2: Unirelational Encoding- begins around second birthday.
Repeats two words together
Substage 3: Birelational Encoding-around age three.
Child can master patterns or frames that refer to actions or objects
Substage 4: Birelational Encoding with Modification- around age of 4-5.
Children can encode and repeat sentences having several fully differentiated
244 Leslie Wasserman

Linguistic frames arranged in the conventional subject-verb-object pattern

(p. 49).

Even though children pass through these stages, it is their environment and specific
experiences that affect each child‘s development. The child‘s short term memory regulates
the speed at which the child‘s sequencing progresses. It has been discovered that ―memory
grows from one unit at age one to two to five units at age four to five years‖ (Siegler, 1978, p.
54).
The predetermined theory is a theoretical based position that language acquisition is
innate. The human brain is believed to be wired to master any language. This is the position
that brain based researchers have come to believe and have proved to be correct through their
many studies and research.
Recent research has indicated that spoken language is far more complex than thought
before. The Broca‘s area and Wernicke‘s area are responsible for spoken language as well as
several other neural networks that are scattered throughout the left hemisphere (Sousa, 2006).
Although the infant‘s brain can respond to many sounds, only the ones that are repeated will
be remembered. By the age of twelve months, the brain can distinguish the infant‘s native
language and ignores foreign sounds (Sousa, 2006). ―Babies begin to distinguish word
boundaries by the age of eight months‖ with words such as ―green house and greenhouse‖
even though people do not pause when speaking (Sousa, 2006, 181).
Boliek and Lohmeier (1999) wrote of a study conducted on infants by Dr. Andrew
Meltzoff to determine if Piaget‘s theory of development was correct. Meltzoff found that
babies at least twelve days old were able to imitate mouth movements of adults (Boliek and
Lohmeier). According to Piaget‘s theory, this does not take place until about one year of age.
The infants were able to self-correct the movement to match that of the adult and so Meltzoff
declared the lip and tongue protrusions and mouth movements to not be reflexive (Boliek and
Lohmeier).
According to Boliek and Lohmeier (1999), Meltzoff also disproved another of Piaget‘s
theories based on his study. He disproved Piaget‘s sensorimotor stage. Piaget has three stages
of sensorimotor development: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Meltzoff found that infants
intentionally explored their surroundings and were able to adapt to different conditions. This
theory challenges Piaget‘s theory that infant behavior is reactionary. Meltzoff‘s theory is
much more of a multimodality approach to learning (Boliek and Lohmeier, 1999). Meltzoff
believes the development of linguistic skills in young children can affect not only respiration
function, but also the overall verbal output.
Language is broken into two categories: words and grammar. These two components are
developed at different times and in different areas of the brain. Phase shifts (system
instability) might explain the observed increase in speech dysfluencies during a period of
rapid growth (Boliek and Lohmeier, 1999). According to the Boliek and Lohmeier, it is this
dynamic systems theory that holds the answers for much of the development that takes place
during infancy. In Eliot‘s (2001) research she determined that people are able to speak seven
hundred speech sounds in one minute of normal speech. It is during this development that the
plasticity of the brain continues. This learning window could be an excellent opportunity to
teach the child a second language since the brain is already wired for language acquisition.
The brain of a baby comes prepared to learn language. The babies are able to recognize
their mother‘s voice while they are inside the womb (Montanaro, 2001). As early as nine
 Demystifying Outdated Theories about How the Brain Works 245

months of age, a child is able to understand sound patterns. As the baby is listening, the brain
is mapping the different sounds into categories (Cohen, 1999). It has been found that the
language center in the brain shows response when people talk to the infant beginning at birth
(Montanaro, 2001). The lack of interaction can cause delays or even mutism as the child
grows.
The window of opportunity for language is from birth until age ten (Slegers, 1997).
Montanaro (2001) states that there are two different stages involved in language acquisition:
prelanguage and linguistic. The first stage is prelanguage that begins before birth and lasts
until the age of ten or twelve months. Montanaro (2001) calls this period ―silence‖ (p. 2)
when babies are taking in everything they hear. The second stage is the linguistic stage that is
from the ages of twelve to thirty-six months. By the time a child is three years old 97% of
children are able to connect 2-3 words to form phrases and simple sentences (Slegers).
Montanaro states that it is this period that is a ―sensitive period for naming things‖ (p. 2). It is
important for the child to learn the correct terminology of words.
Children are born with equal sides of the brain (Slegers, 1997). The right side develops
first and grows faster. This is the side of the brain that deals with emotion. The left side of the
brain starts to grow later and is in charge of new learning (Slegers). The left hemisphere of
the brain has the information processing center that plays an important part in the
development of language skills (Jensen, 2005). The brain when viewed with an fMRI shows
that children who have normal language skills have lop sided brains (Slegers). That being the
case, it is not surprising that the children with language disorders have brain sides of equal
size. Both sides of the brain can work independently and can work together.
Between birth and the age of five, a child‘s experience aids in the development of
language skills in the brain (Jensen, 2005). Beginning around 19 months until around 31
months, the child will have a learning explosion of the most language thus far in his
development (Jensen). Jenson (2005) states that development of language can be described in
this manner:

1. Hearing it. The more words a child hears, the better. The highly fluctuating tonality
of ‗parentese‘ is helpful from birth to 12 months.
2. Speaking it. The more a child speaks, the better.
3. Hearing parents speak normally. Normal ‗grown up‘ talk is beneficial for babies at
any time after 6 month ( p. 24).

The function of the left hemisphere of the brain includes verbal functioning such as
talking, reading, writing, and understanding the speech of other people (Pink, 2006). The left
hemisphere is sequential and the right hemisphere is simultaneous (Pink). Pink describes it
this way that ―the right hemisphere is the picture, and the left hemisphere is the thousand
words‖ (p. 19). The left side handles what is said and the right side identifies how it is said
such as the facial expressions, eye contact, gesture, and intonation (Pink; Gardner, 2006).
With both sides of the brain functioning properly, the listener is able to understand the full
meaning of what is being said.
246 Leslie Wasserman

THE IMPORTANCE OF THINKING SKILLS

Too often children are given answers to remember rather than problems to solve. -
Robert Lewin
How true this statement can be. Asking yes or no type questions is easy. It is easy for the
teacher and it is easy for the students. Does it have a purpose? At times, yes and no questions
are acceptable if you are working with infants, toddlers and young preschoolers. These types
of questions are good if you are taking attendance or lunch count but it is not very affective in
the classroom when it comes to children‘s learning. Children need to be able to think. There
are many different types of thinking and each has its‘ own place in education. Recall is great
for math facts, spelling words, phone numbers and the like but children also need to have
higher level thinking skills in order for them to be able to process information and synthesize
what they have learned. Recall is the first step in thinking. This is when the brain must
retrieve information stored, and then analyze the material and form some kind of judgment
about the material before forming an answer. Thinking is complex. It involves many different
functions to be able to think logically. It is important for teachers to teach using higher level
thinking skills by modeling them for the students. This is an important aspect of retention and
developing continued vocabulary and cognitive development.
Bloom had created levels of complexity of thought by creating his Bloom‘s taxonomy
that rated the levels of knowledge to evaluation. His original model was written in 1956. In
figure 1, the base starts with knowledge, followed by comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis, and lastly, evaluation (Bloom, 1981).

Retrieved on July 20, 2006 from http: web.odu.edu/educ/llschult/blooms_taxonomy.htm

Figure 1 Bloom‘s Revised Taxonomy

 Demystifying Outdated Theories about How the Brain Works 247

As the years passed, teachers continued to follow this easy to understand method to
engage their students in higher level thinking skills. In 2001, the taxonomy was revised using
the same six levels but changed the wording of three levels to verb forms and interchanged
the top two levels (See Figure 2). The revised taxonomy suggests a more open model (See
Figure 2). This loosening of the hierarchy was created due to what has been learned by brain
research that different areas of thinking can be used to solve the different parts of the problem
(Sousa, 2006).

Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy

Generating new ideas, way of viewing things Designing

Creating Constructing
Planning
Imagine
Inventing
Compose
Infer
Justify an idea, decision, or thought Judge
Evaluating Critique
Appraise
Assess
Hypothesizing
Breaking information into its parts to explore Analyze
Analyzing relationships, understanding Compare
Contrast
Finding
Organize
Distinguish
Using existing information and using it in a Executing
Applying different way in another situation Practicing
Implementing
Calculate
Apply
Explaining concepts or ideas and thoughts Summarize
Understand Classify
Outline
Discuss
Explain
Interpret
Recalling information Define
Remember Label
Recall
Recognize
List
Describe
Name
Retrieved on August 15, 2006 from http://nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html

Figure 2 Bloom‘s Revised Taxonomy

248 Leslie Wasserman

It is important to provide extensive practice of the lower level skills so that the students
become comfortable with the questioning techniques and can master the techniques in order
to be able to move up to the other levels (Bloom, 1981). Apply the concepts when instructing
the children by having them process information in terms of the verbs such as analyze,
evaluate, and create to help them have a deeper understanding of the material that they can
attach meaning to it for retention (See Figure 2).

IMPLICATIONS FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

In early childhood textbooks, it would be difficult to not find Piaget mentioned
somewhere within the text. Depending on the author of the textbook, the text contains
differing levels of Piaget‘s theory. Most texts contain Piaget‘s theories in detail, some in
moderation, and others mention only certain aspects of his theories (Murray, 1979).
Regardless of how Piaget is mentioned in textbooks, his impact is clearly evident in the field
of early childhood education. The interpretation of Piaget‘s theory ranges widely and the
differing interpretations have lead to different early childhood curricula.
Many early childhood educators feel that Piaget picked up where John Dewey left off.
Piaget revolutionized the study of thought and child language. The theories of constructivists
and behaviorists helped to teach educators how individuals acquire and process new
information. When given new information, our brains create neuron-pathways. The more
information that is attained, the stronger the path ways will become. People are able to rewire
their brains to accept new ways of learning.
Children are curious and children should be able to explore their environment to learn
about it. Like Montessori, Piaget believed that children should be able to do things
themselves. Children need to be involved in their learning and have interactions with the
environment to develop. Piaget believed in uninterrupted blocks of time for the students to
learn. From the thinking of Montessori, Piaget built on her work of blocks of time and was a
factor in the development of uninterrupted play periods within the early childhood classroom.
Bloom‘s theory about speed is one expression of learning. Bloom believed that good
learning needed time to reflect to be able to process the information. His strong beliefs about
the importance of environmental influences had such an impact that his theory aided in
establishing the Head Start Program in the United States. Asking open ended questions can
lead to critical thinking that falls under Bloom‘s taxonomy. Open ended questioning is also an
aspect of Piaget‘s theories. This questioning technique gives the child time to think and
reason to develop his cognition.

CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES
The teacher‘s knowledge about how the brain functions and learns will influence how the
material is taught. Each individual learns differently. It is up to the teacher to find out what
type of learner each student is and to teach the students accordingly. This is not to say that the
teacher should only teach in a hands-on manner if most of the class is kinesthetic learners, or
to teach using lecture for the auditory learners, or to show visual representation for the visual
 Demystifying Outdated Theories about How the Brain Works 249

learners, this means that the teacher should have the flexibility to teach using a variety of
teaching styles (Sternberg, 2004; Gardner, 2006). The teacher can give the students a Multiple
Intelligence Inventory to find out what type of learners each student is to determine the type
of teaching styles to be used in the classroom (Gardner, 2006). Flexibility is important for
both the teacher and the students. Students also need to learn how to do things in new ways
and leave their comfort zone of their learning style in order to grow educationally. This
should be done occasionally to help the student develop their learning style. This type of
teaching may be different for some classroom teachers who believe that lecture is the most
effective way to teach and it may be difficult for these teachers to teach outside the box by
using varied teaching styles (Sternberg, 2004).
Assessment of the students can be a different issue with varying learning styles. Students
should be able to be assessed within their learning style. Teachers should be able to give
assessments that truly measure what the student has learned. A visual student may make a
PowerPoint, or a kinesthetic learner a diorama or something that he can make with his hands.
Some students may prefer the traditional aspect of assessment with a research paper. There
are so many ways the teacher can assess the students, from individual work to group work
such as: reenactments of the book, poster presentations, creating a movie, writing their own
story, creating an art portfolio, or any other kind of project that best meets the student‘s
learning style. By doing this, the teacher is able to see what the student has learned about the
topic. It is important for the teacher to let the students choose the activity for the assessment
within boundaries of the assignment.
Although cooperative learning groups are good for some students who may be less
extroverted, it can be difficult for the gifted student. Gifted students in cooperative learning
groups many times are the ones who are teaching the others in the group and are not being
challenged and are not learning themselves (Sternberg, 2004). Knowing this, the teacher
needs to be aware of what type of project the student chooses so that the assessment is not one
that is too easy or a too difficult assignment, or one that will not be successful for the student.
It is the teachers‘ responsibility to help the students find ways that best meet their learning
styles and best meet their individual needs for learning.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Fullan (2006) discussed the need for school reform and to have the school system
changed to meet the new standards of education. Once the school system is reformed then the
whole school system needs to be overhauled. To do this is no easy feat. The goal is to raise
the bar in education and to close the gap between the poor schools and the rich schools.
―Achieving literacy for all students is just a start from adequate to good‖ (Fullan, p. 14-15).
Literacy should be the goal for 100% of the students. This bar should never be lowered. In
order for students to have literacy, they need to have a good, solid foundation of language and
readiness. This strong base will aid in the development of literacy skills as the children grow
and mature.
Having public preschools is one way to be sure that each child gets a free education
during his formidable years when an early childhood education will give all children strong
foundation in literacy, social skills, and learning. There are several cities that have adopted
250 Leslie Wasserman

this practice for their school systems and a few states have joined in, as well. Reform is
needed to increase literacy skills of the very young and to be sure that each child is entitled to
a free education.
In the long run, having a free preschool program is less expensive to the school district
since it addresses many of the learning issues at a young age with intervention. If the students
do not receive intervention at an early age, they are more likely to have to receive special
services throughout their school years which can be a longer lasting expense to the school
district.

CONCLUSION
There are many different theorists who have theories that have stood the test of time:
Piaget, Bloom, Gardner, and Siegler. Sousa has made major contributions in the area of brain
development and research, especially for educators. Sousa writes about the newest studies and
research and compiles it in such a manner that it is user friendly and informative. By learning
how the brain learns, educators are able to understand how best to teach the children along
with understanding the child‘s developmental level the child is physically, mentally, socially,
and cognitively. The more knowledge an educator has about brain development, the better
able the educator is able to acquire and apply the knowledge, the better they can instruct the
children. New theories about language acquisition should be explored by the educators to
make the most of learning ―windows‖. This impact will increase the children‘s retention and
processing of language and give them success with language.
Brain functioning is interesting and amazing research. It is capable of so many different
skills that it is hard to know exactly what else the brain is capable of doing. Each brain is
unique and the potential for learning is enormous. If educators use the windows of
opportunity for learning, students will be capable of so much more processing and retaining
information than was once imagined. It is up to the educator to make the most of it for our
future‘s sake.

REFERENCES
Bates, E. (1999). Language and the infant brain. A companion to cognitive science, 32, 195-
205.
Bloom, B.S. (1981). All our children learning: A primer for parents, teachers, and other
educators. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Boliek, C.A. and Lohmeier, H. (1999). From the big bang to the brain, Journal of
Communication Disorders, 32, 4, 271-276.
Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Cohen, D.L. (1999). Good beginnings for all children: From brain research to action,
Elementary and Early Childhood Education, 3, 1-35.
Costelloe, M.J. (1967) (trans.). Maria Montessori‘s the discovery of the child. Notre Dame,
IN: Ballantine Books.
Eliot, L. (2001). Language and the developing brain, NAMTA Journal, 26, 2, 8-60.
 Demystifying Outdated Theories about How the Brain Works 251

Fullan, M. (2006). Turnaround leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Gardner, H. (2006). Changing minds: The art and science of changing our own and other
people‘s minds. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Gardner, H. (2006). Five minds for the future. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Gibson, S. and McKay, R. (2006) What constructivist theory and brain research may offer
social studies. Retrieved March 27, 2006 from www.quasar.ualberta.ca/css/ Css_35_4
/ARconstructivist_theory.html
Hunt, J.M. (1961) Intelligence and experience. New York: Ronald.
Jensen, E. (2005) Teaching with the brain in mind (2nd ed.). VA: ASCD Publication.
Jensen, E. (2006). Enriching the brain: How to maximize every learner‘s potential. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Montessori, M. (1949) The Absorbent Mind, New York: Dell
Montanaro, S. (2001), Language acquisition, NAMTA Journal, 26, 2, 1-7.
Murray, F.B. (Ed.). (1979). The impact of Piagetian theory. MD: University Park
Press.http://nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html
Piaget, J. (1936). The origins of intelligence in children. New York: W.W. Norton and
Company, Inc.
Piaget, J. (1952). The language and thought of the child. London: Routledge.
Piaget, J. (1963). The psychology of intelligence. New York: Routledge.
Pink, D.H. (2006). A whole new mind: Why right-brainers will rule the future. New York,
NY: Berkley Publishing Co.
Shifter, D. A constructivist perspective on teaching and learning mathematics, Phi Delta
Kappan, 3, p. 492-499.
Siegler, R.S. (2000). Childhood cognitive development: The essential readings. Malden, MA:
Blackwell.
Siegler, R.S. (Ed.). (1978). Children‘s thinking: What develops? NY: Halsted Press.
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Learning. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Slegers, B. (1997). Brain development and its relationship to early childhood education,
presented at EDEL Seminar in Elementary Education (Long Beach, CA, April 17, 1997).
Sousa, D.A. (2006). How the brain learns (3rd ed.). CA: Corwin Press.
Sternberg, R.J. (2004). Thinking styles. UK: Cambridge University Press.http:
web.odu.edu/educ/llschult/blooms_taxonomy.htm
Yager, R. (1991). The constructivist learning model: Towards real reform in science
education, The Science Teacher, 58, 6, 53-57.
In: Recent Trends in Education ISBN 978-1-60741-795-8
Editor: Borislav Kuzmanović and Adelina Cuevas © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 11

TAILORING AND WEBCASTING

FOR PATIENT AND STUDENT HEALTH EDUCATION *

Ray Jones and Inocencio Maramba

University of Plymouth, UK

ABSTRACT
This chapter is about the 'connectedness' of different ways of presenting health
information. Information for individual patients can be tailored via 'user-models' which
may include the patient's own medical record. There is evidence that tailoring
information in this way can make it more relevant and useable for patients and their
families. For example, in rigorous randoamised trials we have shown that tailored
information is more likely to be shown by cancer patients to their confidants. There may
be impact on psychological wellbeing, but this has been more difficult to show.
Traditional e-learning for students has well known advantages such as convenience
of time and being able to work at the student's own pace and review material in different
ways. However, the reduced 'connection' with the lecturer and other students may mean
that students are less motivated to engage with the material. We have been developing
simple ways of delivering live webcasting with a simultaneous chat room. User reaction
from students has been favourable but there are many practical aspects to improve.
Although there is evidence that computers can be used successfully for psychological
therapy and patient education approaches to this could be improved by inclusion of live
webcasting. For example, computerised cognitive behavioural therapy has proved
successful for anxiety and depression but there is also some evidence that this approach is
less successful if there is no human contact. A combination of live webcasting to provide
human contact and motivation together with tailored information education may be the
best way forward.
However, there are many unanswered questions about the use of these technologies
particularly amongst new user groups. For example, how does the use of asynchronous
methods such as email differ from synchronous methods such as chat rooms. Chat rooms

*
A version of this chapter was also published in E-Learning: 21st Century Issues and Challenges, edited by
Audrey R. Lipshitz and Steven P. Parsons, published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. It was submitted by
appropriate modification in an effort to encourage wider dissemination of research.
254 Leslie Wasserman

may provide more ‗connection‘ but perhaps users need time to think. We will be
exploring such issues with groups of older people.

INTRODUCTION
Information for patients comes in many formats. Most patients get the majority of their
information face-to-face from health professionals. However, information from TV, the press,
books, leaflets, and of course the Internet plays an increasing role. Information may be
‗pushed‘ by professionals – in the form of (for example) an anti-smoking or safe sex
campaign, or may be ‗pulled‘ by patients seeking more information about their condition.
Information may be sought to help in making a joint decision with the health care provider, or
may be sought simply for ‗peace of mind‘. Information can be targeted at particular groups by
the language and imagery used and by the medium and timing of the output. Health promoters
use the services of marketing experts to help develop images and phraseology suitable for
their target audiences. Charities and other providers of condition specific information develop
and test their booklets, leaflets, and web pages with focus groups and interviews amongst the
target populations. However, information cannot only be targeted at particular groups but also
tailored to the individual patient. This chapter is about studies that have sought to take that
further step from targeting a particular group of patients to tailoring the information for
individuals.
Tailoring is just one way of trying to ‗connect‘ better with the user. Another way is
through the use of synchronous methods such as webcasting and in this chapter we describe
our experience of live webcasting with simultaneous chat room both for students and for
patients.

TAILORED INFORMATION FOR PATIENTS

Information for individual patients can be made more relevant, enabling them to
‗connect‘ with the information by tailoring it via 'user-models' and information about the
patient, from onscreen questionnaire or some other source such as the patient's own medical
record [1]. There is evidence that tailoring information in this way can make it more useable
by patients and their families. For example, we have carried out two randomised trials
comparing tailored information with general information for patients with cancer receiving
radiotherapy in a hospital in Glasgow, Scotland [2,3]. The first study [2] included 525
patients with breast, prostate, cervical, or laryngeal cancer just starting a course of
radiotherapy. One group were offered general cancer information on a touch screen computer
located in the outpatient area of the hospital, together with a paper copy of what they viewed
on screen. Another group of patients used the same computer but instead of seeing just
general information started with information from their own medical record, and then as they
navigated away from that moved into more general information. We found that patients
offered this tailored information were more likely to show the paper copy of the information
to someone else, were more likely to rate the information highly and showed a greater
reduction in anxiety (as measured by the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale [4]) over 3
months than those with general information only. A subsequent study [3] of 400 patients and
 Demystifying Outdated Theories about How the Brain Works 255

their confidants confirmed that patients were more likely to show booklets including, and
tailored by, personal information, to their confidants.
This approach of giving patients access to their own medical record and using the
information to tailor further explanation about their condition can be extended to virtually all
groups. In another study we successfully took this approach with patients with schizophrenia
in a day centre in the Gorbals in Glasgow [5]. We had no major problems in sharing the
medical record and tailoring information for this more difficult-to-engage group.
Information for patients can be tailored in a number of ways. For example, Grasso [6]
attempted to develop a conversational method to put counter arguments to users about their
dietary choices. In her approach the arguments presented to users were tailored according to
their previous responses.
Others, such as Marsden [7], have used online questionnaires. She recruited female
university students and asked them to complete online questionnaires about their dietary,
exercise, and other lifestyle choices. She compared the impact of tailored versus general
emails sent to the students encouraging behaviour that might help prevent subsequent
development of osteoporosis. She used Prochaska and Di Clemente‘s [8] stages of change
model to choose which type of message to send.
Kroez, Werkman, and Brug [9] recently reviewed the use of tailored information in
dietary advice. Most of the studies used online questionnaires about food, exercise, other
lifestyle issues such as whether the user smoked to generate advice or a health plan as a letter
or a leaflet. Most studies found that those with personalized advice increased their daily
servings of fruits and vegetables.
Another way of tailoring is to make better use of the information already seen onscreen
or given via leaflet. Many websites now record the pathway that users have followed. This
information could be used to tailor information. This approach was pioneered by Mellish and
others in Edinburgh in a novel experiment in museums in which a handset was to give audio
information about the exhibits being viewed. The aim was that the handset would send the
users position to a computer which could then generate an explanation such as ‗This exhibit
that you are looking at is similar to the one that you have just seen in that. In comparison to
the XXX exhibit that you saw before on the second floor this piece. In the end, the main
system was delivered through a standard web interface, but the idea could be revisited [10].
The information needs of patients change over time. A person newly diagnosed with
cancer requires different information to someone who has been living with cancer for some
time and had multiple treatments. Information for patients needs to be built up over time. In
face to face dialogue with a health professional, they professional will partly remember what
has already been discussed but also confirm this to gradually help the patient to build an
understanding of the situation. If this is to be done in some form of automated dialogue the
computer program needs to adapt to current questions or information requests and build upon
what has been said before. Dialogue systems are well described by Bickmore and Giorgino
[11] with illustrations from their work with Fitrack exercise advisor [12] and other systems.
Lastly, these approaches to tailoring information normally assume some ‗user model‘ by
which to select and modify the information presented. One of the most well known consumer
websites which constructs a dynamic user model is Amazon (www.amazon.com). Most
readers will know how this site, based on the user‘s current choice, suggests books that other
readers who have made the same choice, have gone on to buy. The same approach can of
256 Leslie Wasserman

course be made with health information and can be particularly useful where there is a very
large amount of information for which a ‗dynamic‘ index could be constructed, tailored to the
particular user.
In general, tailoring helps people connect with the information. A systematic review of
tailored information in a range of settings and conditions has explored the effects of using
computers to tailor printed information to the individual patient, with positive effects on
patient satisfaction, knowledge, and anxiety [13].

WEBCASTING FOR HEALTH EDUCATION

Other ways of improving the connectedness of computerised approaches to health
education include better connection with the author or therapist, for example, through
synchronous direct connection such as some form of video connection or chat room. The
same technologies can be used to improve connectedness in e-learning for health students.
We describe here how we tried, then abandoned, the use of interactive satellite TV and have
since taken two main approaches to the development of live webcasting. These methods are
being developed for use with students and patients separately, as well as for joint learning
between students and patients.
In the 1990s the University of Plymouth acquired a link from their TV studio to the
TDS4b satellite uplink, on loan from the European Space Agency (ESA). The ESA satellite
had a ‗footprint‘ of the whole of Europe and provided high quality delivery giving access to
learners at sites where terrestrial networks was restricted, for example, due to the non-
availability of high bandwidth links. Between 2002 and 2005 this facility was used for
interactive TV panel discussions with audience interaction via telephone or email to the panel
chair. Although the format of the programmes worked well, expansion to new sites was
difficult because of the cost of installing a satellite receiver. Broadcast costs, including TV
studio time and satellite connect time, were also prohibitive with a total cost typically of £600
per one hour programme. Finally, at existing sites access to rooms where the satellite
receivers were connected was a problem [14]. Our experience with satellite TV emphasised
the need to be able to deliver education via the Internet. A webcasting facility was developed
in 2005.
We have developed webcasting mini-studios comprising a camera, computer, and mixer
with connection to video streamer. Initially we simply streamed video and interacted with the
audience via email. Since then we have used two software environments enabling a
simultaneous chat room.
GoodMood WIP is a webcasting application (www.goodmood.net/GoodMood/Products )
that includes a number of features in addition to video, such as presentation media,
whiteboard, audience feedback, audience polling, speaker biography and document
attachment. In some initial trials of GoodMood we had two ‗windows‘ for users the direct
video feed of talking head and the Powerpoint converted as a ‗flash‘. However, this approach
seemed to remove a certain amount of the control from the lecturer, particularly in the need to
prepare the ‗flash‘ from Powerpoint some time before the time of webcast. Using the
ministudio, from where the presenter, in real time, mixed the Powerpoint and ‗talking head‘
output and just used the GoodMood chatroom overcame this problem.
 Demystifying Outdated Theories about How the Brain Works 257

The other approach has been to develop a chatroom within which we embed the
videostream. The web chat software used was ajaxchat (http://www.ajaxchat.org), which is
free software, licensed under the Gnu Public Licence (GPL). Ajaxchat is written in PHP, a
web scripting language, and uses the MySQL relational database to store messages and data.
Among the features of ajaxchat are fast response time, use of avatars, personal messaging,
emoticons, and inline URLs. We modified the ajaxchat programme code to embed the
webcast stream. The ajaxchat method has a limitation in the length of the message that can be
posted to the chat room compared to GoodMood WIP. We also have had some concerns
about the bandwidth required on the server. However, it currently has many other advantages.
GoodMood requires Active X and some of our non-University users do not have
administrative rights on their computers to install this. We have also had problems with
firewalls for GoodMood that we have not had with ajaxchat. We have so far not reproduced
the useful ajaxchat features of avatars, list of signed-on members, and parallel chatrooms,
within GoodMood WIP. The main advantage of the ajaxchat approach is that it is free of
charge and open source. We continue to pursue the use of both methods so as to identify and
use the most useful features of each.
We have used live webcasting with chatroom for a number of events for our own
University students and others. For example, in early May 2007 we ran a one day online e-
health workshop. We had 15 participants from Malaysia, Pakistan, Iran, Germany, Scotland
and England and three presenters. Comments from participants included: ‗all in all an
enjoyable learning experience for me, with lots of potential‘, ‗the potential for web casting is
enormous‘, ‗I much liked the discussion and its momentum. I also liked that you did not use
voice as a medium for communication, but used text based chat for this purpose‘, ‗I‘ve never
done a chatroom ever, so being able to chat with many people in real time online was really
interesting and beneficial‘.
Various practical issues about delivery arose and these are being addressed. They include
the need for practice and guidance for the facilitators in this new medium, getting the right
balance between presentation and discussion, and deciding which elements need to be live
and which can be pre-recorded and made available beforehand.

LIVE WEBCASTING IN PATIENT EDUCATION AND ONLINE THERAPY

We are currently exploring the use of live webcasting for patients with anxiety or
depression. Depression and anxiety are common problems and impose large economic and
social burdens. These costs can be substantially reduced by effective treatment and patients
generally prefer psychological therapies to medication. Computerised cognitive behavioural
therapy has been shown effective. In the UK, the National Institute of Clinical Excellence
reviewed computerised cognitive behavioural therapy (CCBT) for anxiety and depression
[15] and have recommended use of CCBT. However, the effectiveness of CCBT may suffer
through lack of human contact. In our own work we developed a multimedia CCBT package
to help patients in the management of stress. The pilot study [16], in which a research
assistant introduced the computer system to patients and asked how they ‗got on‘ with the
package after use the package seemed very successful in reducing anxiety. However, in a
subsequent randomised trial [17] in which patients had to access the system without any
258 Leslie Wasserman

support in a public library the package was less successful. We concluded that human contact
was an important feature of use of CCBT. Others have found the same [18].
We are currently working with Williams, Martinez, Prestwich and others (University of
Glasgow), authors of www.livinglifetothefull.org.uk, a self help cognitive behaviour website
for people with anxiety or depression. We are exploring different ways in which we can
improve the connection between patients, website and therapist. For example, live
webcasting, in which a therapist appears live on the patient‘s computer and leads a chat room
discussion with patients typing their anonymous questions and comments, should provide
more ‗connection‘ than a simple email. However, it requires that patients log on to their
computer at a certain time and that they have both the technical ability and the requisite
hardware to participate. Furthermore, live webcasting will be more costly than a simple email.
Methods need to be easy to use so as to remain accessible to the widest population possible
(accepting that the target population is already limited to Internet users) and the trade-off
between extra cost and possible additional effectiveness needs to be examined. In our current
research we aim to compare different types of motivational support and their acceptability to
users, the feasibility of long term implementation and maintenance of these interventions, and
how they impact on ‗connectedness‘.
Unlike our webcasting for students (above) in which we used webcasting ministudios, in
this new work, therapists will be working from their office or home and the videostream will
be ‗captured‘ on a webcam. We have so far encountered a number of problems in pursuing
this approach including interruptions in the video stream. This occurred during multicasting
(sending video to more than one viewer) and was due to network bandwith limitations. Some
have these have been overcome by using a streaming media server, such as Microsoft Media
Server, which receives video being ―pushed‖ from the therapist's computer and rebroadcasts it
to the viewers. This results in a more stable video output because the streaming server has a
larger dedicated network bandwidth as well as greater computing power. But as of yet, we
have not found a totally robust solution suitable for use with novice Internet users,
particularly those with anxiety or depression.

FINDING APPROPRIATE MEASURES OF CONNECTEDNESS

We are exploring different ways of measuring ‗connectedness‘. ‗Connectedness‘ between
therapist and patients is part of the concept of therapeutic alliance and the Working Alliance
Inventory developed by Horvath and Greenberg [19] a frequently used measure. They
developed therapist and client versions both designed to yield three alliance scales,
corresponding to the supposed (according to Bordin [18]) three components of the therapeutic
alliance: Goal, Task, and Bond. Shortened versions of these scales were produced by Tracey
and Kokotovic [21] and used in a recent study of Internet-based cognitive behavioural therapy
[22-23]. Knaevelsrud and Maercker studied 96 patients with posttraumatic stress reactions
allocated to 10 sessions of German language CCBT and concluded that a stable and positive
online therapeutic relationship can be established through the Internet which improved during
the treatment process. Studies of Internet –based patient information where the ‗therapist‘ (or
site author) is less clearly identified, have used various measures of usability. For example, in
our cancer studies [2,3] we used a series of Likert style questions asking about the relevance,
 Demystifying Outdated Theories about How the Brain Works 259

ease of use comprehensiveness, understandability, etc of the information. Finding or

developing appropriate measures of connectedness, for therapists with virtual patients, or for
lecturers with e-learning students will be necessary to have consistent ways of comparing
different technologies.

CONNECTION VERSUS ‘TIME TO THINK’

Although methods such as webcasting may make participants feel more ‗connected‘ there
may also be a disadvantage in that with synchronous methods people do not have time to
reflect and construct appropriate communications. Even healthy young adults often prefer
asynchronous modes of social contact—such as mobile phone text messaging—over real time
voice calls for managing challenging interpersonal exchanges [24]. We are currently
exploring whether older people come to value the opportunity for thoughtful and unhurried
reflection on message content afforded by email and bulletin board messaging, and
differentiate this from the more immediate but cognitively challenging demands of Internet
chat and instant messaging.

SHARED LEARNING BETWEEN STUDENTS,

PATIENTS AND THE PUBLIC
Although there is no strong evidence as yet, there may be benefits in ‗efficiency‘, and for
patients and students, from shared e-learning. We have explored the possibility of live
webcasts shared by students and patients. Patients may be experts in their own conditions and
have a role to play in educating health professionals and other patients, about the impact and
effects of the condition [25]. Their expertise has been under-utilised, but there is insufficient
evidence about the costs and effectiveness of service user involvement in e-learning and
whether it is beneficial to try to inform and educate patients and staff in the same learning
environment. It is not clear whether students of the health professions and patients will be
comfortable learning with each other, nor whether the information needs of patients and
professionals are too disparate to make shared learning possible. There is certainly evidence
that nursing students may use information aimed at patients to help with coursework [26]
while many patients access ‗professional‘ literature [27], indicating that it may be possible to
share some materials or ‗events‘ even though each group might require other sources of
information more specific to their needs. We broadcast a number of programmes aimed at
patients, students and staff. These included prostate cancer, epilepsy, hypertension, access to
health information, diabetic foot ulcers, head injury, and multiple sclerosis. We aim to
develop this idea with webcasts aimed at combined audiences but with follow up information
tailored to groups or even individuals.
260 Leslie Wasserman

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, tailoring information and live webcasting are both ways in which we can
help patients and students connect more both with the information and the therapist or
lecturer. Ways of combining these approaches should be a productive line of research but
there are both practical and theoretical issues to be addressed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Dave Hurrell, Zoe Portman, Adrian Vranch, Matt Newcombe,
Gail Wilson, Faye Doris, Fraser Reid and others who have helped with this work.

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 INDEX

age, xiv, xv, 8, 20, 21, 22, 28, 37, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46,
A 47, 48, 50, 51, 53, 58, 61, 72, 109, 118, 120, 135,
139, 175, 176, 180, 181, 192, 199, 200, 239, 240,
acceleration, 43, 94, 104
241, 243, 244, 245, 249
access, xii, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17,
agent, 14, 120
18, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 32, 35, 38, 255,
agents, 22, 117
256, 257, 259, 262
aging, 63, 64
accessibility, xii, 1, 2, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19,
aid, 8, 15, 19, 47, 54, 103, 136, 186, 193, 194, 249
22, 23, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 36, 37
AIM, 5
accommodation, 27, 109
air, 228
accountability, 9, 30
Airlines, 15, 29
accounting, 3, 78
Albert Einstein, 72, 105
accreditation, 7, 187
Alberta, 173
accuracy, 25, 27, 58, 144, 220
alertness, 16
achievement, 8, 16, 20, 121, 127, 150
alpha, 220
ACM, 30, 32, 33, 38
ALT, 36
acoustic, 46
alternative, 2, 8, 9, 14, 18, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 49, 85,
acoustical, 225
86, 121, 134, 197, 202, 211, 242
acquisition of knowledge, 158
alternatives, 176, 177
activation, xii, 39, 40, 44, 45, 46, 49, 57, 60, 63, 66
alters, 66
acute, 16, 191
Alzheimer disease, 109
ADA, 13, 14, 15, 16, 26, 27, 29
Amazon, 255
adaptation, 113, 114, 116, 124, 125
ambiguity, 53, 87
ADHD, 29
amendments, 13
administration, 225
American Sign Language, 25
administrative, 3, 27
Americans with Disabilities Act, 7, 13, 29, 37
administrators, 10, 21, 29, 186
AMS, 66
adolescence, 133, 241
Amsterdam, 62, 66, 151, 152, 211
adolescents, 66, 152, 154, 189, 217, 233
anatomy, 111, 112, 156, 164, 165, 173
adult, xi, 8, 20, 21, 31, 36, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49,
animals, 49, 109, 116, 118, 119, 123, 126
53, 55, 58, 59, 126, 180, 242, 244
antibiotics, 124
adult education, 20, 21
anticoagulation, 177
adult population, 180
anti-smoking, 254
adulthood, 47, 53, 58, 64, 109
anxiety, 21, 158, 159, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 168,
adults, xi, 1, 2, 8, 16, 19, 21, 25, 31, 41, 46, 53, 109,
169, 180, 183, 184, 218, 219, 253, 254, 256, 257,
118, 123, 180, 242, 244, 259
258, 260, 261
advocacy, 20
anxiety disorder, 261
Africa, 82, 190
aphasia, 242
appendix, 97
264 Index

application, xiii, 3, 5, 6, 9, 31, 73, 80, 98, 101, 131, base rates, 184, 185
232, 246 beams, 90, 92
arbitrary associations, 218 behavior, xi, 20, 56, 67, 114, 117, 124, 136, 138,
Argentina, xiii, 71, 72, 73, 105, 106 148, 158, 163, 240, 244, 261
argument, 41, 100, 111, 112, 114, 128, 260 behavioral disorders, 33
Aristotelian, 103, 110, 112, 125 behaviorists, 240, 248
Aristotle, 108, 111, 112, 126, 127 belief systems, 126
Arizona, 14, 30, 36 beliefs, 73, 109, 118, 119, 122, 126, 129, 248
articulation, 25 bell, 3, 227
artistic, 77, 82 benchmark, 137
assessment, 5, 20, 22, 25, 32, 52, 144, 145, 157, 171, benefits, xi, xii, 2, 3, 14, 21, 26, 38, 58, 61, 63, 69,
174, 180, 191, 192, 249 73, 135, 147, 149, 157, 158, 165, 167, 171, 176,
assignment, 5, 22, 48, 153, 249 177, 178, 184, 185, 187, 259
assistive technology, 25, 30 bereavement, 180
Assistive Technology Act, 30 Best Practice, 28
assumptions, 11, 13, 109 bias, 48, 61, 117, 119
asthma, 192 Bible, 112
asymmetry, 78 bilingual, xii, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48,
asynchronous, 4, 5, 6, 12, 22, 253, 259 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61,
asynchronous communication, 12, 22 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68
Athens, 107, 127 bilingualism, xi, xii, 39, 40, 41, 49, 53, 54, 61, 63,
athletes, 32 64, 67
atmosphere, 11, 94, 98, 180 binding, 17
atomic clocks, 80, 81 biomass, 202
atomic theory, 81 birds, 114
atoms, 80, 94 birth, xiv, 25, 42, 56, 75, 97, 127, 155, 241, 242,
atrial fibrillation, 177 244, 245
attachment, 256 blame, 177
attention, 9, 21, 22, 28 blocks, 52, 248
Attention Deficit Disorder, 19, 28 blood, 108
attitudes, 35, 101, 157, 166, 171, 172, 241 bonds, 97
audio, 255 boredom, 165
auditing, 27 Boston, 15, 32, 38, 65, 66, 194, 232, 250
Australia, 188 bottom-up, 57
autism, 16 boys, 139, 242
autonomy, 128, 181, 188 Braille, 14, 18, 27
availability, 9, 18, 27, 256 brain, xv, 16, 19, 28, 66, 239, 240, 241, 242, 244,
awareness, 21, 28, 40, 44, 50, 51, 55, 60, 63, 64, 67, 245, 246, 248, 250, 251
118, 137, 153, 176, 187, 218 brain development, xv, 239, 250
brain functioning, 245
brain functions, 239, 248
B brain injury, 16, 19, 28, 242
brainstorming, 148, 164
babies, 40, 42, 191, 244, 245 brass, 216, 225, 226, 227
bachelor‘s degree, 20, 98 Brazil, 73
back, 20, 27, 90, 94, 137, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167,
breast, 254
168, 192, 231, 242
breast cancer, 184, 186, 187, 188, 190, 191, 192,
background information, 217
193, 194
bacteria, 124
breast carcinoma, 188
bandwidth, 5, 256, 257, 258
breathing, 230
barrier, 9, 18
Britain, 119
barriers, 9, 10, 13, 14, 17, 18, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 48,
British children, 119
181, 182, 184, 185, 187, 189
Buenos Aires, 71, 73, 82, 98, 106, 213
base rate, 184, 185
 Index 265

building blocks, 61 classical, xv, 50, 79, 80, 82, 83, 85, 88, 96, 97, 102,
buses, 8 115, 239
classification, 30, 112
classroom, xiii, xiv, 5, 10, 14, 19, 20, 27, 32, 34, 35,
C 38, 71, 96, 98, 103, 104, 105, 132, 151, 155, 156,
162, 169, 212, 217, 230, 231, 232, 233, 242, 245,
call centers, 186
248
Canada, 31, 175, 189, 190, 194
classroom teacher, 249
cancer, 177, 179, 184, 186, 188, 190, 191, 192, 193,
classroom teachers, 249
194, 253, 254, 255, 258, 259, 260
classrooms, 4, 12, 20, 23, 34, 151, 152, 197, 199,
cancer care, 188, 192
212, 232
cancer screening, 186, 190, 194
clients, 176
cancer treatment, 185, 187, 191, 194
climate change, 202, 203, 204, 205, 207, 208, 209
carbon, 36
clinical, 261
carcinoma, 188
clinician, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182, 187, 188
carefulness, 124
closure, 144
caregivers, 56, 193
clouds, 117
case study, 31, 32, 58, 211, 260
clusters, 46, 57
cast, 23, 31
CMC, 11, 12
casting, 5, 257
Co, 29, 251
categorization, 144
coaches, 184
category b, 42
Cochrane, 184, 185, 186, 189, 193
Catholic, 112
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 193
causal relationship, 139
codes, xii, 39, 42, 43, 53, 60, 161
causality, 93, 110
coding, 161
CBT, 257, 258
cognition, xv, 30, 40, 41, 50, 55, 56, 59, 61, 127,
Census, 42, 61, 68
151, 152, 212, 219, 239, 248
cerebral palsy, 24
cognitive, 253, 257, 258
CERN, 95
cognitive abilities, 24, 40, 41, 200
certification, 2, 3, 6, 20, 187
cognitive biases, 57
cervical, 254
cognitive capacities, 61
cesium, 80
cognitive capacity, 134
channels, 12
cognitive development, xii, 39, 40, 53, 54, 55, 59,
Chat rooms, 253
60, 63, 65, 67, 116, 122, 202, 203, 208, 246, 251
chemotherapy, 193
cognitive dimension, 59
childbirth, 169
cognitive domains, 54
childhood, xii, xiii, 39, 40, 41, 49, 53, 54, 55, 61, 64,
cognitive effort, 153
107, 108, 109, 110, 118, 189, 240, 241, 243, 248,
cognitive function, 42, 54, 62
249, 251
cognitive impairment, 9
children, xii, xiii, xv, 2, 8, 16, 19, 20, 24, 30, 34, 35,
cognitive level, 58, 181, 210
38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51,
cognitive load, 134, 232
52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65,
cognitive performance, 58
66, 67, 107, 108, 109, 116, 117, 118, 119, 123,
cognitive perspective, 154
126, 127, 151, 152, 176, 180, 189, 190, 191, 192, cognitive process, xii, 39, 40, 42, 50, 53, 54, 59, 61,
239, 240, 242, 244, 245, 246, 248, 249, 250 64, 136, 148, 149, 182, 218
chronic fatigue syndrome, 9
cognitive processing, xii, 39, 50, 59, 61, 64, 218
circulation, 108
cognitive science, 40, 41, 250
citizens, 14
cognitive system, 44, 50, 56, 60
citizenship, 3, 198
cognitive tasks, 58
civil rights, 2, 13, 14, 30, 35, 37
cognitive tool, 40, 61
civil society, 31
coherence, 127, 132, 142, 145
classes, xv, 3, 11, 26, 27, 42, 73, 83, 98, 103, 139,
cohort, 160, 194
200, 210, 215, 219
266 Index

collaboration, 4, 6, 11, 12, 21, 25, 33, 34, 36, 173, confounding variables, 219
191, 220 confusion, 82
college campuses, 23 Congress, vii, 13, 15, 16, 37
college students, 9, 29, 121, 126, 232 congruence, 220
colleges, 3, 6, 8, 14, 15 Connecticut, 21, 31
colon, 177, 184 connectionist, 56, 57, 59, 66
colon cancer, 177, 184 connectionist models, 57
Colorado, 7 consensus, 57, 126, 178, 186, 190
colorectal cancer, 193 consent, 14, 177, 178, 187, 188, 190, 192
colors, 52 consolidation, 156, 164, 171
Columbia, 125 Constitution, 14, 37
Columbia University, 125 constraints, xiii, 48, 107, 110, 115, 127, 181, 187,
comfort zone, 248 225
commerce, 15, 27 construct validity, 220
communication, xiv, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 18, 22, 24, 26, construction, 49, 103, 198, 211, 229
31, 34, 35, 56, 62, 155, 158, 159, 175, 176, 182, constructivist, 158, 170, 171, 241, 250, 251
185, 187, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 243, 257, 261 constructivist learning, 251
communication skills, xiv, 155, 158, 159, 182, 189, contextualization, 74, 77, 198
192, 193 continuity, 72, 85, 194
communicative intent, 56, 132 contractors, 6
communities, xii, 1, 2, 11, 12, 34, 36, 38, 118, 190 control, xv, 13, 21, 33, 40, 44, 45, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52,
community, 11, 12, 13, 14, 20, 21, 26, 34, 41, 42, 77, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 110,
78, 79, 81, 101, 186 132, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 145, 146, 147, 176,
competence, xiii, 20, 58, 131, 134, 136, 138, 148, 177, 180, 183, 215, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224,
153, 176 225, 256
competency, 173, 197 control group, xv, 138, 139, 147, 183, 215, 219, 220,
competition, 46, 52, 66, 68, 167 221, 222, 223, 224, 225
competitor, xv, 239 controlled trials, 157, 184
complexity, xii, 39, 40, 49, 55, 56, 59, 63, 65, 86, 99, Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities,
111, 112, 176, 180, 198, 199, 246 17
compliance, xii, 2, 7, 16, 24, 28, 180, 187 conversion, 12
complications, 155 cooperative learning, 20, 22, 33, 249
components, xiii, 4, 11, 20, 26, 43, 44, 45, 57, 68, Coping, 137, 141
79, 114, 131, 134, 142, 178, 244, 258 coping model, 137, 141
composition, 150, 152, 153 correlation, 53
comprehension, 46, 53, 56, 63, 68, 83, 134, 150, 217, cortex, 50
220, 232, 233, 246 cost-effective, 185
computer skills, 9 costs, 17, 20, 26, 27, 49, 56, 184, 187, 191, 193, 194,
computer software, 184 256, 257, 259
computer-mediated communication (CMC), 11 counseling, 20, 21, 25, 182
computers, 253, 256, 257 course content, 4, 10, 24, 27, 28
computing, 258 course work, 8
concentration, 21, 167 Court of Appeals, 15
conception, xiv, 72, 75, 77, 78, 82, 85, 99, 102, 128, courts, 14
195, 196 coverage, 14
conceptualization, 96 creativity, 199
concrete, 15, 68, 85, 216, 218 credentials, xi
conductor, 19, 78, 219 credit, 3, 7, 21, 24, 26, 28
confidence, 20, 158, 161, 163, 165, 170, 180 critical analysis, 79, 83
conflict, 11, 60, 64, 97, 109, 110, 120, 122, 126, 158, critical thinking, 73, 157, 197, 208, 248
176, 177, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185, 188, 189, 190, criticism, 77, 79, 86, 111
191, 194 cross-sectional, 161
conflict resolution, 64 cues, 47, 54, 60, 144
 Index 267

cultural character, 81, 119 digital technologies, 12

culture, 6, 10, 11, 30, 74, 127, 172, 187, 227 digitization, 11
curiosity, 197, 202, 203, 205, 208 dilation, 79, 80, 88, 93, 94
curricular materials, 219 disabilities, xi, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15,
curriculum, 3, 20, 25, 30, 31, 139, 145, 147, 149, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,
156, 157, 158, 161, 163, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 135, 151, 152, 154,
196, 199, 201, 217, 218, 226, 241, 248 233, 242
curriculum development, 171 disability, xii, 2, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,
customers, 108 22, 25, 27, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 217
Cybernetics, 31 disabled, 38, 135
disadvantaged students, 8
discipline, 128, 215, 218
D disclosure, 191
discounting, 46
daily living, 20
discrimination, 15, 17, 42, 66, 67, 68
Dallas, 15, 34
discriminatory, 15, 18
Darwin‘s theory, xiii, 107, 110, 113, 114
disorder, 110
Darwinism, 128
dissatisfaction, 78, 109, 158
data analysis, 200, 201
distance education, xi, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13,
database, 10, 257
22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36
David Hume, 111
distance learning, xi, xii, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 17, 19,
death, 114, 180, 191
22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 36
debates, 41, 77, 93
distress, 177, 261
decision makers, 176, 180
distribution, 12, 18, 23
decision making, xiv, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180,
diversity, 11, 19, 29, 65, 240
181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190,
doctors, 196
191, 192, 193, 194
dominance, 61
decision support tool, 187
doors, 33, 91, 92
decision-making process, 178
draft, 132, 140
decisions, xi, xii, xiv, 21, 23, 25, 48, 57, 71, 133,
duality, 54, 60
163, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183,
due process, 25
185, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194
duration, 85, 228
declarative knowledge, 135, 148
dynamic systems, 244
decoding, 40
dyslexia, 38
definition, 33, 51, 86, 104, 114, 178, 218
delivery, 4, 32, 171, 176, 191, 256, 257
Delphi, 190 E
demand, 5, 9, 21, 29
dementia, 63 ears, 65
density, 142 earth, 76, 78, 81, 125, 205
Department of Education, 1, 5, 7, 8, 14, 26, 37 economic, 257
Department of Health and Human Services, 3, 6, 37 economic assistance, 18
Department of Justice, 14, 26, 37 economically disadvantaged, 8
dependent variable, xv, 215, 219, 222 ecosystems, 112
depression, 253, 257, 258 Eden, 191
depressive symptoms, 261 Education, i, ii, iii, v, xi, xii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
designers, 12, 28, 111 10, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31,
detection, xv, 49, 239 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 72, 105, 106, 107, 126,
developing brain, 250 127, 128, 129, 151, 153, 171, 172, 173, 181, 211,
developmental process, 118 212, 213, 215, 231, 232, 240, 241, 248, 250, 251,
diabetic, 259 253, 256, 257, 260, 261
diesel, 202 Education for All, 16, 32
dietary, 255 educational background, 169
differentiation, 42, 44, 217, 220 educational policy, 29
268 Index

educational programs, 2, 4 ESA, 256

educational psychology, 153 estrogen, 184
educational research, 217 ethanol, 202
educational services, 10, 20, 22 ethics, 161
educational system, 138, 240 ethnic groups, 8
educators, 2, 21, 22, 29, 34, 217, 239, 240, 241, 242, etiology, 121, 122, 126
243, 248, 250 Europe, 82, 193, 256
elderly, 192 European, 256
e-learning, xi, 7, 30, 36, 37, 38, 253, 256, 259, 261 European Space Agency (ESA), 256
electric charge, 94 European Union, 150
electric current, 78 evening, 26
electric field, 78 evidence, 253, 254, 259
electromagnetic, 75 evidence-based practices, 20
electromagnetism, 76, 97, 104 evil, 111
electron, 94 evolution, xiii, 10, 72, 90, 97, 107, 109, 110, 113,
electronic, 260 118, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129
elementary particle, 95 evolutionary process, 115
elementary school, 117, 119, 149 examinations, 160, 225
elephant, 123 executive function, 54
email, 4, 6, 14, 22, 23, 24, 27, 131, 253, 256, 258, exercise, 255
259 expenditures, 61
embargo, 143 experimental design, 225, 226
emission, 202 expertise, 28, 132, 134, 188, 199, 220, 259
emotion, 245 experts, 254, 259
emotional, 16, 19, 33, 241, 243 exposure, 10, 41, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 57, 58, 60, 61,
emotions, 242 119
empathy, 242 eye, 46, 63, 245
employees, xi, 5, 15 eye contact, 245
employers, xi, 4, 7, 21 eyes, 48, 108, 117, 164, 230
employment, xi, 1, 2, 8, 16, 19, 20, 21, 34, 35, 36
empowered, xi, xiv, 175
encapsulated, 40, 41 F
Encoding, 243
facial expression, 245
end-of-life care, 193
facilitators, 158, 161, 171, 181, 183, 189, 192, 257
energy, 78, 80, 201, 202, 207, 208, 209
failure, 9, 15, 17, 58, 157
energy efficiency, 202
faith, 112
engagement, 28, 184
family, 17, 25, 118, 123, 178, 189, 225
England, 67, 68, 81, 127, 128, 129, 159, 233, 257
fatalistic, 125
English as a second language, 41, 67
fatigue, 9
enterprise, 3
fax, 3, 22
enthusiasm, 72, 168
fear, 166
environment, xiv, 9, 11, 12, 16, 17, 19, 25, 33, 42,
February, 30, 31, 34, 36
47, 48, 56, 57, 113, 115, 118, 123, 124, 125, 168,
federal funds, 15
169, 187, 195, 197, 198, 209, 210, 218, 241, 244,
federal government, 15
248, 259
federal law, 10, 22
environmental conditions, 121, 124
feedback, 5, 11, 22, 62, 135, 138, 141, 142, 151, 153,
environmental influences, 248
162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 170, 171, 197, 211, 243,
epilepsy, 259
256
epistemological, xii, xiii, 71, 72, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79,
feeding, 162, 163
80, 82, 83, 95, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 114
feelings, 165, 177
equality, 16, 26
fees, 25
equipment, 6, 15, 16
females, 219, 222
ERIC, 217
Feynman, 79, 106
 Index 269

film, 95 generalizations, 215

finance, 9 generation, 132, 133, 136, 260
financial aid, 8 genes, 125
financing, 103 Geneva, 95
fire, 8, 121 genre, 136, 139, 148
fires, 121 Georgia, 14
firewalls, 257 Germany, 81, 190, 257
firms, 2 gestures, 6
first language, 61 gifted, 249
First World, 82 girls, 139, 242
fitness, 114 global warming, 201, 202
fixation, 52 gloves, 6
flexibility, 3, 5, 46, 51, 191, 248 goal-directed, 113, 114
flood, 119 goals, xiii, 3, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24, 37, 50, 60, 107,
flow, 42, 186 118, 121, 122, 127, 133, 136, 147, 149, 158, 182
fMRI, 245 God, 74, 112, 115, 120, 129
focus group, 159, 160, 161, 163, 172, 254 goggles, 6
focus groups, 159, 161, 163, 172, 254 google, 32
focusing, xiii, 107, 110, 147, 157, 162, 199, 204, government, vii, 14, 15, 16, 22, 30
205, 206, 207, 209 Government Accountability Office, 32
food, 123, 255 GPS, 80, 101
Ford, 188 grades, 159, 205
foreign language, 217, 232 grading, 157
forest fire, 120 grants, 1, 15, 25
formal education, 22, 160 graph, 202, 204, 205, 207, 224
Fox, 217, 232 Great Britain, 112
France, 81, 112, 190 Greece, 107
free education, 249 greenhouse, 244
freedom, 18 grids, 136
frequency distribution, 58 grounding, 165
Friday, 25 group interactions, 146, 225
fruits, 255 group membership, 142, 223, 224
frustration, 158, 166 group size, 166, 231
functional analysis, 115, 120 group work, xv, 167, 170, 195, 208, 209, 210, 249
functional approach, 57 grouping, 229
funding, 25 groups, xiv, 3, 4, 6, 8, 26, 51, 55, 81, 98, 99, 100,
funds, 15, 21, 25, 29, 150 101, 113, 118, 119, 139, 147, 148, 155, 157, 158,
furs, 123 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170,
171, 172, 174, 187, 198, 200, 201, 207, 208, 210,
216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 226, 227, 249, 253,
G 254, 255, 259
growth, xi, 7, 56, 127, 134, 240, 244
Galileo, 85, 106
guardian, 25
gas, 80 guessing, 219
gas jet, 80 guidance, 41, 136, 138, 158, 164, 165, 181, 182, 184,
gases, 202
257
gastrostomy tube insertion, 191
guidelines, 23, 28, 181, 189
gauge, 163
gel, 169
gender, 180, 181, 219, 222 H
gene, 215
general education, 20, 25 H1, 92
general knowledge, 83 H2, 92
generalization, 65, 218 handheld devices, 12
270 Index

handling, 167 hostility, 163

hands, xv, 23, 24, 239, 241, 248, 249 human, 3, 4, 6, 13, 17, 18, 37, 67, 74, 108, 240, 242,
Harlem, 6, 35 243, 244, 253, 257
harm, xv, 167, 215, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 225, human activity, 74
226, 230 human brain, 67, 242, 244
harmony, xv, 167, 215, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 225, human experience, 13
226, 230 human resources, 3
Harvard, 30, 38, 67, 68, 106, 127, 128, 129, 172, human rights, 17
173, 250 human subjects, 3, 6, 37
Hawaii, 7 humans, 116
head, 256, 259 humorous, 82
head injury, 259 hybrid, 202
Head Start, 248 hydrodynamic, 123
health, xi, xiv, 16, 155, 156, 157, 169, 170, 171, 172, hydrogen, 80
175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 184, 186, 187, 188, hydrogen atoms, 80
189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 253, 254, 255, 256, hygienic, xi
257, 259, 261, 262 hypertension, 259
Health and Human Services, 3, 6, 37 hypertext, 260
health care, xi, xiv, 6, 14, 156, 157, 173, 175, 176, hypothesis, 68, 112
178, 179, 184, 186, 187, 189, 190, 191, 194, 254
health care costs, 187, 191, 194
health care professionals, xiv, 175, 184, 186, 187 I
health care system, 186, 187
ICT, 17, 18, 28, 29, 37
health care workers, xi
id, xiv, 9, 13, 17, 99, 145, 155, 157, 164, 169, 170,
health education, 256
205
health information, 186, 253, 256, 259, 262
Idaho, 7
health problems, 16
IDEA, 8, 15, 16, 19, 24, 25, 28, 32
health status, 176, 184
identical twins, 93
hearing, 9, 12, 16, 19, 22, 23, 28, 50
identification, 49, 53, 54, 64, 115, 199, 225
hearing impairment, 12, 22, 23
identity, 104
heart, 83, 108
idiosyncratic, 12
heartbeat, 230
Illinois, 6, 7, 23, 32
height, 94
illusion, 149
hemisphere, 242, 245
imagery, 254
heterogeneous, 117, 225
images, xiii, xiv, 9, 22, 35, 44, 71, 195, 197, 208,
heuristic, 120, 121
254
high school, xi, xii, xiii, 7, 8, 16, 21, 24, 25, 27, 33,
imagination, 199
38, 71, 72, 74, 198, 212, 216, 217
imitation, 243
higher education, xi, xii, 1, 2, 3, 10, 15, 21, 32, 35,
immersion, 6, 10, 61, 67
36, 37
immunity, 14
higher quality, 12, 183
impairments, 9, 12, 16, 19, 22, 23
high-frequency, 58
implementation, xi, 10, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 29, 37, 97,
high-level, xiv, xv, 133, 195, 197, 198
99, 161, 165, 170, 171, 186, 187, 189, 205, 210,
holistic, 142, 158, 168, 241
217, 220, 258
holistic approach, 158
impulsive, 19
homeostasis, 117
in utero, 56
honesty, 180
incentive, 6
horizon, 35
incidence, 24, 41
hormone, 177
inclusion, xii, 2, 13, 35, 253
hospital, 155, 254
income, 181
hospitalization, 189, 191
incompatibility, 104
hospitalized, 188
independence, 135, 136, 157
host, 4, 182
independent variable, xv, 84, 215
 Index 271

indeterminacy, 47 insurance, 27
Indiana, 15, 32 integration, 13, 28, 29, 66, 168, 196
indication, xiii, 131 intellectual development, 240
indicators, 142, 177 intellectual property, 18
individual differences, 152, 225 intelligence, 250, 251
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 8, 16, intensive care unit, 189
32, 33, 37 intentional behavior, 117
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement intentionality, 59, 108
Act, 16, 32 intentions, 121
induction, xv, 195 interaction, xii, 3, 4, 5, 9, 12, 28, 34, 37, 40, 41, 43,
inequality, 220 56, 61, 75, 79, 82, 96, 134, 159, 178, 182, 211,
inertia, 79 222, 223, 241, 243, 244, 256
infancy, 62, 63, 68, 118, 180, 244 interaction effect, 223
infants, 40, 42, 43, 44, 47, 48, 49, 53, 57, 60, 64, 65, interactions, 4, 41, 55, 59, 61, 125, 145, 146, 222,
66, 68, 189, 242, 244, 245 224, 225, 241, 248
infections, xi interactivity, 11, 12
infinite, 61 interdependence, 64
information age, xiv, 175 interdisciplinary, 152
information and communication technology, 18, 35 interface, 12, 41, 48, 50, 51, 255
information exchange, 180 interference, 46, 47, 53, 66, 68, 218
information processing, 21, 242, 245 internal processes, 149
information retrieval, 158, 170 internal validity, 225
information sharing, 180 Internet, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 18, 22, 24, 26,
Information System, 260 27, 28, 31, 34, 36, 37, 38, 184, 186, 216, 254,
Information Technology, 29, 30, 31, 32, 36, 37, 38 256, 258, 259, 261, 262
informed consent, 177, 178, 187, 188, 190 Internet Protocol, 5
infrastructure, 5, 187 internists, 192
inheritance, 117 interpersonal skills, 157
inherited, 111 interpretation, 17
inhibition, 49, 52, 53, 57, 59, 63, 64, 66 interrelationships, 133
inhibitory, 49, 52, 53, 54, 57, 59, 60, 66, 67 interstate, 27
injuries, 242 interstate commerce, 27
injury, vii, 16, 19, 28, 242, 259 interval, 144, 225
Innovation, 1, 150 intervention, xiii, 65, 131, 134, 135, 138, 139, 145,
input, 9, 12, 23, 25, 28 147, 149, 157, 163, 177, 185, 193, 249, 260
insecurity, 165 interview, 161
insight, 160 interviews, 77, 159, 161, 170, 254
inspiration, 82 intonation, 245
instability, 244 intrinsic, xiv, 47, 95, 117, 155
instinct, 56 invasive, 188, 191
institutions, 8, 10, 15, 16, 23, 34, 161, 186 inventories, xii, 39, 43, 55
institutions of higher education, 15 investment, 187
instruction, xiii, xv, 5, 7, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 29, ions, 56
36, 51, 107, 109, 110, 121, 124, 126, 131, 134, Iran, 257
135, 136, 137, 140, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, Ireland, 23, 33
152, 153, 172, 211, 215, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, isolation, 4, 25, 122
222, 225, 226, 231
instructional methods, 16, 19
instructional practice, 147 J
instructional techniques, 147
JAMA, 190, 192, 193
instructors, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 19, 22, 27, 28, 30, 31, 157,
Jamaica, 17
212
Japan, 66, 190
instruments, 86, 88, 96, 99, 191, 216, 225, 226, 227
Japanese, 67
272 Index

Java, 3 learners, xi, xii, 2, 3, 8, 10, 11, 12, 21, 22, 24, 29, 32,
job skills, 21 64, 66, 68, 135, 153, 154, 216, 217, 232, 241,
jobs, 3, 9, 21 248, 256
Jordan, 21, 38 learning difficulties, xv, 239
judge, 50, 144 learning disabilities, 9, 12, 21, 23, 29, 31, 35, 38,
judges, 142 135, 151, 152, 154, 233
judgment, 181, 246 learning environment, 9, 10, 11, 12, 61, 169, 200,
Jun, 66, 194 259
Jung, 3, 33 learning process, 11, 79
junior high school, 198 learning skills, 21
learning styles, 165, 249
learning task, 68, 137, 170
K left hemisphere, 242, 244, 245
legislation, 16
K-12, xii, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 15, 19, 24, 31, 34, 36, 38
Leibniz, 85, 86
Kant, 81, 114
leisure, 18
kappa, 145
liberal, 24, 116
Keynes, 233
lifelong learning, 197
kinematics, 98, 231
lifespan, 61
kinesthetic, 248, 249
lifestyle, 255
knowledge acquisition, 156
likelihood, 13, 117
knowledge construction, 211
limitation, 257
knowledge transfer, 194
limitations, 9, 13, 56, 179, 180, 182, 210, 226
linear, 82, 217, 226
L linguistic, xi, xii, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 48, 50, 51,
53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65, 68, 142,
labour, 156 143, 151, 244, 245
Lafayette, 32 linguistic information, 46
language, xii, xv, 8, 11, 16, 18, 22, 24, 25, 39, 40, linguistic processing, 51, 60
41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, linguistic representation, 62
55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, linguistically, 56, 68
68, 69, 83, 85, 114, 126, 127, 134, 138, 217, 226, links, 28, 54, 59, 137, 256
232, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 248, 249, listening, xv, 159, 215, 217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 226,
250, 254, 257, 258 231, 232, 244
language acquisition, xii, xv, 39, 40, 41, 42, 48, 49, literacy, 9, 19, 22, 51, 125, 138, 139, 149, 153, 187,
54, 55, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 66, 68, 239, 240, 243, 249
244 literature, xi, 259
language development, xii, 39, 40, 41, 42, 46, 53, 54, loans, 25
56, 59, 60, 61, 62, 242, 243 local government, 14, 15, 16, 22
language impairment, 16 location, 3, 6, 15, 26, 52
language processing, 41, 50, 51, 54, 59, 63, 66 logging, 139
language proficiency, 58 London, 37, 67, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 152, 155,
language skills, 245 171, 172, 173, 211, 212, 213, 250
laparotomy, 177 long period, 79, 112, 160
laryngeal cancer, 254 long-term retention, 217
law, xii, 2, 3, 15, 22, 24, 29, 30, 33, 37 Los Angeles, 14, 34, 37, 126
laws, xii, 2, 10, 13, 14, 18, 22, 32, 33, 74, 76, 80, 82, Louisiana, 7
83, 85, 88, 94, 112, 114 love, 243
laws of motion, 76 low-level, 132
LEA, 64, 137 lymph, 193
leadership, 33, 250 lymph node, 193
 Index 273

meta-analysis, 135, 152, 172, 173, 191, 232, 233

M metacognitive knowledge, 137, 148, 152
metaphor, 112
machinery, 61
Microsoft, 258
machines, 15
midwives, 155, 160, 164, 170
magnet, 78
military, 230
magnetic, vii, 75, 78
Ministry of Education, 98
magnetic field, 78
Minnesota, 7, 127
mainstream, 3, 13, 29, 112, 138
minority, 13, 154
maintenance, 61, 111, 258
minors, 192
Malaysia, 257
mirror, 7
males, 219, 222
misinterpretation, 83
malignant, 191
misleading, 115
management, 4, 5, 6, 21, 23, 24, 31, 157, 159, 161,
missions, 202
257, 261
Missouri, 6
Mandarin, 50
misunderstanding, 11, 82, 122, 123
mandates, xii, 2, 16, 22
MIT, 64, 65, 66, 67, 128
manipulation, 215
mnemonic devices, 149
MANOVA, 220, 221, 222
mobile phone, 259
mapping, 47, 54, 244
modalities, 12
market, xi, 21
modeling, 20, 22, 60, 136, 137, 138, 141, 148, 149,
marketing, 254
150, 246
marriage, xv, 239
models, xii, 39, 40, 41, 42, 55, 56, 57, 59, 65, 73, 79,
mass media, 18, 178
135, 136, 137, 150, 152, 162, 170, 187, 196, 253,
Massachusetts, 68, 128
254
mastectomy, 184
modules, 23
mastery, 137, 141, 196, 205
molecules, 80
materialism, 110, 111
momentum, 20, 257
mathematics, 83, 217, 241, 251
money, 2, 227
matrix, 140
morphemes, 67
maturation, 57, 225
mother tongue, 40
Maxwell equations, 76
motion, 6, 28, 33, 75, 76, 78, 80, 85, 86, 87, 88, 92,
meanings, 11, 40, 114, 125
93, 95, 103, 104
measurement, 20, 31, 86, 95, 96, 99, 100, 102, 104,
motivation, 21, 23, 28, 136, 137, 157, 158, 166, 185,
160
196, 198, 225, 253
measures, xi, 7, 17, 18, 82, 142, 144, 146, 147, 158,
motives, 198
186, 202, 208, 220, 258
motor activity, 132
media, 5, 6, 9, 18, 23, 26, 27, 72, 105, 106, 178, 191,
motor skills, 9
205, 256, 258
mountains, 108, 117
medical care, 176, 177, 188
mouse, 9, 24, 28
medical student, 158
mouth, 123, 244
medication, 257
movement, xii, 1, 2, 20, 72, 75, 76, 78, 82, 85, 89,
medicine, xiv, 155, 169, 189
99, 244
melody, 219, 226
multidisciplinary, 25, 192
membership, 7, 11, 44, 45, 48, 225
multimedia, 15, 18, 22, 24, 27, 232, 257
memory, 9, 28, 58, 66, 67, 132, 134, 136, 148, 152,
multiple sclerosis, 259
153, 170, 219, 242, 244
muon, 95
memory retrieval, 132
muons, 94, 95
men, 185, 190
music, xv, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 225, 226,
menorrhagia, 193
227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232
mental image, xiii, 71
musical information, 217
mental processes, 149
musicians, 228, 229
mental retardation, 16, 34
mutations, 116
messages, 26, 257, 260
274 Index

nurses, 155, 156, 160, 184, 262

N nursing, xiv, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 165, 168, 169,
171, 172, 173, 192, 193, 259
naming, 49, 64, 66, 245
nursing care, 192
narratives, 151
nurturance, 127
Nash, 133, 152
nutrition, 260
nation, xv, 239
National Academy of Sciences, 64
National Center for Education Statistics, 34 O
National Council on Disability, 34, 35, 36
National Education Association, 35 obligation, 18, 165
native-language, 57, 60 obligations, 13, 17, 18
natural, 13, 77, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 117, observations, 224
119, 120, 121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 211 obsolete, 21
natural selection, 113, 114, 120, 122, 124, 125, 126, occupational, 7, 24, 25, 157, 158, 169, 173
129 occupational therapists, 158, 173
NCES, 3, 6, 8, 16, 34, 35 occupational therapy, 24, 157, 169, 173
NCLB, 20 Oceania, 82
NEA, 8, 35 OCR, 14
neck, 123 older people, 254, 259
neonatologists, 191 oncology, 189, 190
nerve, 162 online, xii, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 22, 23, 24, 25,
nervousness, 165 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 127,
network, 5, 7, 33, 173, 258 190
neural network, 244 online communication, 10
neural networks, 244 online learning, xii, 1, 2, 3, 7, 10, 28, 37, 38
neuroimaging, 50, 54 on-the-job training, 68
Nevada, 4 openness, 180
New Jersey, 62, 127, 128 opioid, 192
New Orleans, 30 opposition, 204
New York, v, vii, 31, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 125, optical, 75, 76
126, 128, 150, 152, 153, 174, 231, 250, 251 optics, 98
New York Times, 31 orchestration, 151
Newton, 85, 125 organ, xiii, 41, 107, 111, 113, 122, 242
Newtonian, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 85, 86, 87, 98, 103 organism, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 117, 122, 123,
Newtonian concepts, 86 124
Newtonian theory, 76 organization, 5, 38
NHS, 261 orientation, 41, 97, 121
NIH, 62 originality, 78, 79
No Child Left Behind, 2, 7, 30, 31, 32, 35 osteoporosis, 255
Nobel Prize, 80 otitis media, 191
nodes, 44, 45 outliers, 197
non-biological, 117 outpatient, 192, 254
non-native, 42, 61, 67, 68 output, 28
non-profit, 3 oxygen, 108, 120
nonverbal, 40, 66
normal, xiv, 13, 67, 138, 139, 147, 149, 155, 156,
244, 245 P
North America, xiv, 155
North Carolina, 16, 35 Pacific, 126
nuclear, 80 pain, 192
nuclear energy, 80 Pakistan, 257
nurse, 171, 172, 185, 198 paleontology, 112
nursery school, 15, 240 palliative, 189
 Index 275

palliative care, 189 philosophy, xii, 71, 73, 74, 81, 108, 110, 111, 122,
paradigm shift, 241 125, 126, 128, 129
paradox, 93, 94, 173 Phoenix, 7
parallelism, 66 phone, 22, 24, 27, 246
parameter, 120 phonemes, 46
parental involvement, 20 phonological, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,
parents, 22, 36, 176, 180, 189, 190, 191, 229, 245, 54, 55, 57, 59, 60, 63, 64, 65, 67
250 phonological codes, 43, 44, 53, 60
Paris, 129 phonology, 65, 68
participant observation, 159 photoelectrical, 80
particles, 75, 80, 94, 95 photographs, 119
partnership, 176, 178 physical education, 19, 24
passenger, 91 physical interaction, 241
passive, 179, 184, 185, 191 physical sciences, 125, 200, 211
pathologists, 65 physical therapy, 20, 25
pathways, 41, 55, 186, 188, 248 physicians, 176, 180, 181, 182, 186, 189, 192, 193
patient rights, 178 physicists, 79
patient-centered, 178, 189, 190 physics, 80, 211, 212, 213, 217
patients, xi, xiv, 109, 128, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, physiological, 115
180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 192, physiology, 156, 164, 165, 172
193, 194, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, Piagetian, 250
261 pilot study, 194, 211, 257, 261
payroll, 3 planning, xiii, 8, 16, 19, 20, 21, 23, 131, 132, 133,
PBL, xi, xiv, xv, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, 145, 147,
162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 149, 150, 151, 152, 157, 171, 183, 184, 187, 193,
172, 173, 174, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 205, 197
209, 210, 212 plants, 109
pedagogical, xii, xiii, 71, 72, 83 plastic, 82, 227, 242
pedagogy, 24, 98, 232 plasticity, 244
pediatric, 180, 189, 190, 192 platforms, 11
peer, 20, 34, 134, 138, 166 Plato, 30, 108, 110, 111, 127
peer review, 166 play, xiv, 102, 175, 216, 225, 226, 228, 229, 230,
peer tutoring, 20, 34 231, 241, 248, 259
peers, xii, 3, 8, 11, 14, 21, 25, 26, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, pluralistic, 116
47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 102, pluralistic approach, 116
135, 137, 147, 148, 162, 163, 166 Poincaré, 79, 81, 86
Pennsylvania, 7 polar bears, 123
perception, 43, 66, 67, 68, 110, 180 policy initiative, 2
perceptions, 126, 156, 159, 160, 172, 173, 174, 184, policy makers, 186
188, 190, 192 political power, 13
performers, 199 politicians, 74
permit, xii, 1, 2, 9, 12, 26 politics, 9
perseverance, 177 polling, 256
personal, 255, 257 poor, 41, 122, 123, 166, 233, 249
personal life, 177 population, xiii, 12, 13, 19, 41, 61, 68, 107, 113, 114,
personal values, 184 124, 160, 179, 180, 258
personality, 157 portfolio, 22, 249
persons with disabilities, 8, 10, 14, 15, 17, 18, 22, 37 portfolio assessment, 22
Peru, 210, 212 Portugal, 195, 200, 202, 210
pharmacology, 165 positive correlation, 210
Philadelphia, 95 positive relation, 50
philosophers, 74, 108, 111, 112, 113, 115 positive relationship, 50
philosophical, 74, 81, 85, 96, 99, 125, 159 postsecondary education, 36
276 Index

posttraumatic stress, 258 property, vii, 18, 48, 86, 117

posture, 82 prostate, 177, 185, 190, 254, 259
power, xiv, xv, 195, 197, 198, 200, 203, 211, 258 prostate cancer, 185, 190, 259
powers, 210 protection, 6, 63
pragmatic, 57, 99, 147 PSA, 185, 190, 194
praxis, 169 psychology, 122, 125, 126, 128, 129, 150, 220, 231,
predators, 123 232, 240, 251
prediction, 80, 120 PTSD, 261
predictors, 217 public, xi, xiv, 3, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21,
pre-existing, 41 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30, 34, 35, 38, 175, 179, 188,
preference, 25, 109, 110, 119, 127, 128, 177, 178, 249, 258, 262
179, 180, 181, 182, 187 public education, 7, 16, 24, 34, 38
prefrontal cortex, 50, 54 public funds, 21
pregnancy, xiv, 155 public schools, 8, 15, 35
pre-linguistic, 43, 56 public service, 22, 26
premature babies, 191 pupils, 211
pre-planning, 149
preschool, 52, 117, 118, 120, 127, 249
preschool children, 52, 117, 118, 127 Q
preschoolers, 245
qualifications, 98
press, 2, 8, 9, 11, 14, 16, 28, 30, 34, 38, 52, 53, 66,
quality of life, 176, 180, 191
72, 98, 173, 181
quantitative research, 180
pressure, 75
quantum, 77, 80
prevention, xi, 260
questioning, 148, 149, 157, 162, 166, 168, 169, 170,
primary care, 186, 192, 194
171, 197, 198, 199, 200, 210, 211, 213, 246, 248
primary school, 139
questionnaire, 99, 160, 165, 166, 192, 201, 254
prior knowledge, 148
questionnaires, 160, 201, 255
private, 3, 6, 8, 13, 15, 18, 24, 27, 29, 101
quizzes, 5, 24, 27, 164
proactive, 28
probability, 220
probe, 50, 51 R
problem solving, xiv, 99, 132, 133, 155, 157, 158,
196 R&D, 261
problem space, 69 radar, 22
problem-based learning, 169, 172, 211, 212, 213 radiation, 94, 175, 184
problem-solving, 134, 213 radio, 229
procedural knowledge, 148 radiotherapy, 254
processing biases, 242 radius, 90
producers, 186 railway track, 86, 89
production, 18, 49, 77, 81, 112, 123, 133, 148, 153, rain, 54, 109
201, 208 random, 139, 161, 241
productivity, 142, 172 range, 3, 4, 7, 16, 19, 21, 22, 26, 28, 29, 42, 60, 96,
profession, 20 97, 135, 136, 138, 148, 149, 164, 167, 169, 170,
professional development, 3, 7, 9 202, 216, 242, 248, 256
professions, xiv, 155, 157, 158, 169, 172, 259, 261 ratings, 142, 186
profits, 3, 31, 34 rationality, 78, 82
prognosis, 193 reading, 19, 20, 23, 24, 26, 27, 47, 56, 60, 68, 103,
program, 4, 14, 15, 23, 25, 32, 33, 38, 74, 75, 76, 78, 104, 105, 132, 133, 134, 143, 149, 151, 153, 199,
79, 80, 109, 113, 114, 117, 125, 136, 139, 140, 217, 232, 242, 245
148, 157, 192, 249, 255 reading comprehension, 153, 217, 232
programming, 240 real estate, 3
proliferation, 3 real time, 4, 5, 10, 12, 23, 26, 256, 257, 259
propagation, 93 reality, 4, 6, 33, 74, 77, 82, 233
 Index 277

reasoning, xiii, 50, 67, 73, 107, 108, 110, 118, 127, responsibility for learning, xiv, 155, 171
151, 157, 159, 163 responsiveness, 190
reasoning skills, 73 restaurants, 15, 229
rebelliousness, 72 retail, 8, 9
recall, 58, 242 retardation, 16, 34
reception, 217 retention, xiv, 155, 198, 215, 217, 231, 232, 233,
recognition, 12, 13, 23, 25, 57, 64, 66, 67, 68, 102, 246, 247
225 rhetoric, 134
recollection, 218 rhythm, 42, 67, 216, 227
reconcile, 217 rhythms, 220
recreation, 6, 18 right hemisphere, 245
recruiting, 8, 50 risk, 102, 177, 184, 188, 191, 210
rectilinear, 75, 76, 93 risk perception, 184
reduction, 28, 254 risks, 177, 178, 184
reference frame, 75, 76, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, rote learning, 157, 217, 218, 231
91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104 routines, 165
refining, 226 rural, 2, 32, 33, 193
reflection, 21, 148, 153, 170, 197, 259 Russian, 46, 67
reflectivity, 151
regression, 261
regular, 5, 23, 25, 58, 148, 151, 152, 171 S
regulation, 21, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142,
safeguards, 25, 138
148, 149, 152, 153, 154, 171
safety, 7
regulations, 24
salaries, 32
Rehabilitation Act, xii, 1, 2, 13, 15, 26, 35
salary, 230
reinforcement, 149
sales, 32
rejection, 109
sample, 72, 139, 145, 179, 200, 220
relational database, 257
sampling, 210
relationship, xii, xiv, 39, 40, 50, 54, 81, 98, 99, 102,
SAS, 45
122, 125, 139, 148, 161, 171, 195, 196, 197, 198,
satellite, 80, 256
200, 202, 203, 205, 210, 228, 243, 251, 258
satisfaction, 159, 168, 176, 178, 180, 181, 183, 184,
relationships, 33, 40, 50, 57, 58, 81, 84, 210, 247
185, 187, 192, 193, 256
relativity, 72, 76, 79, 82, 85, 87, 88, 95, 100, 104
scaffolding, 74, 135, 136, 149
relevance, 8, 162, 169, 170, 198, 258
scandalous, 101
reliability, 142, 161, 201, 220
scarcity, 48
religion, 112, 126
scheduling, 14, 186
religiosity, 109, 119, 123
schema, 11, 133, 216
religious belief, 121, 126
schemas, 45, 132, 136
religious beliefs, 121, 126
schizophrenia, 255, 260
Renaissance, 82
school, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15,
repetitions, 143
16, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,
reproduction, 112
38, 41, 51, 71, 72, 73, 74, 97, 98, 101, 102, 103,
research and development, 18
107, 109, 117, 118, 119, 132, 138, 139, 143, 148,
resentment, 163
149, 151, 153, 154, 155, 173, 192, 195, 196, 197,
resistance, 109, 124, 126
198, 200, 201, 202, 204, 205, 208, 209, 210, 212,
resolution, 64, 196
213, 216, 217, 218, 219, 239, 240, 241, 249
resource allocation, 40
school activities, 20
resources, xiii, 3, 4, 10, 14, 20, 22, 24, 26, 33, 40, 46,
schooling, 138, 203
47, 48, 50, 56, 59, 63, 131, 132, 133, 158, 184,
science education, 83, 95, 102, 125, 198, 201, 211,
187
212, 251
respiration, 244
science teaching, 196
response time, 257
scientific community, 77, 78, 79, 81, 101
responsibilities, 7, 20, 161
scientific knowledge, 81, 83, 103, 122
278 Index

scientific method, 102 shares, 11, 135, 147

scientific progress, 83 sharing, xiv, 5, 11, 12, 18, 102, 155, 176, 178, 180,
scientific theory, 79, 83, 101, 103, 113 183, 188, 210, 255
sclerosis, 259 short term memory, 244
scores, 50, 139, 184, 185, 225 shortage, 9
search, 21, 68, 75, 211, 260 short-term, 17, 149
searching, 158 shoulder, 230
second language, 41, 53, 58, 64, 66, 67, 69, 217, 244 side effects, 177
Second World, 82 sign, 22, 228
Second World War, 82 signals, 45
secondary education, xii, 9, 13, 16, 19, 20, 21, 35, signs, 101, 177, 229
71, 135 similarity, 138
secondary school students, xv, 195, 198, 200, 209, simulations, 6, 22
210 singular, 22
secondary schools, 15, 200 sites, 14, 23, 28, 156, 159, 160, 171, 256
secondary students, xiii, 71, 89, 121 skating, 228
security, 14 skill acquisition, xv, 23, 215, 218, 231
segmentation, 55, 58, 65, 68 skills, xi, xii, xiv, xv, 3, 7, 9, 10, 12, 19, 20, 21, 27,
seizure, 22, 28 28, 39, 55, 65, 67, 73, 133, 134, 136, 137, 148,
selecting, 96, 196 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 164,
selective attention, 52, 54, 57, 59, 63 165, 167, 168, 169, 170, 181, 182, 184, 187, 189,
Self, 40, 57, 59, 67, 131, 135, 140, 141, 142, 147, 192, 193, 196, 197, 215, 218, 219, 220, 222, 226,
149, 152 244, 245, 246, 249, 250
self help, 258 skills base, xv, 215, 222
self monitoring, 20 skills training, 7
self-awareness, 21 smoking, 254
self-control, 136, 137 social construct, 208
self-efficacy, 137, 152, 178, 181 social constructivism, 208
self-knowledge, 148 social environment, xiv, xv, 195, 197
self-organizing, 66 social learning, 10
self-reflection, 148 social learning theory, 10
self-regulation, 21, 136, 137, 138, 140, 148, 152, Social Security, 14, 21
153, 154 social skills, 249
self-report, 142 social structure, 11
self-reports, 142 social support, 260
self-talk, 151 society, 8, 13, 29
semantic, 49, 50, 51, 63, 65, 67, 143 sociocultural, 180
semantic processing, 63 socioeconomic, 11
semi-structured interviews, 159 software, 3, 6, 15, 16, 23, 24, 33, 256, 257
sensitivity, 42, 44, 55, 66, 117, 154 sorting, 52
sensory impairments, 12 sounds, 40, 42, 64, 228, 230, 243, 244
sensory modalities, 12 South Africa, 190
sentence processing, 62 space-time, 88, 89, 90, 91, 94, 95, 104
sentences, 42, 44, 51, 123, 132, 142, 143, 144, 226, Spain, 73, 131
243, 245 spatial, 36, 81, 89, 90
separation, 49, 59 special education, 8, 9, 16, 17, 19, 20, 24, 31, 32, 33,
sequencing, 244 38, 152
series, 33, 73, 95, 162, 219, 240, 243, 258 special relativity, xii, xiii, 71
services, vii, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, Special Relativity Theory (SRT), xii, xiii, 71, 72,
21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 35, 54, 249 105
sex, 254 species, 118, 121, 123, 124, 126, 241
shade, 109 specific knowledge, 11
shape, xiii, 11, 42, 47, 48, 76, 85, 111, 131, 132, 219 specificity, 41, 59, 127
 Index 279

speculation, 101 suppression, 52

speech, 9, 14, 16, 19, 22, 24, 25, 26, 40, 42, 43, 46, surface modification, 132
47, 49, 54, 58, 60, 64, 65, 66, 68, 226, 244, 245 surface structure, 52
speech perception, 43, 66, 68 Surgeons, 189
speech sounds, 40, 42, 64, 244 surgery, 177, 184, 185, 193
speed, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 85, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93, surgical, 184
94, 95, 99, 104, 244, 248 survival, 112, 113, 115, 117, 121, 122, 124, 243
speed of light, 75, 76, 77, 79, 85, 88, 91, 95 Switzerland, 95
spelling, 135, 136, 137, 144, 246 symbols, 50, 62, 225, 228
spheres, 101 symmetry, 80
sports, 18 symptoms, 63, 261
spreadsheets, 32 synapses, 241
SRT, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, synchronous, 4, 5, 12, 22, 34, 38, 253, 254, 256, 259,
85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 261
100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105 syndrome, 9
stability, xv, 239 syntactic, 51
stages, 49, 54, 57, 59, 97, 109, 136, 139, 218, 240, syntax, 62, 137
243, 244, 255 synthesis, xi, 95, 112, 246
stakeholder, 9 systems, 3, 4, 5, 9, 12, 18, 22, 23, 24, 30, 255, 261
stakeholders, 10, 29, 186
standards, 7, 8, 9, 14, 15, 16, 18, 24, 25, 28, 29, 32,
33, 173, 186, 187, 191 T
state laws, 13
Taiwan, 33
statistical analysis, 56, 61
target population, 254, 258
statutes, 14
target populations, 254
stereotype, 242
tax base, 32
stimulus, 40, 52, 165
taxonomy, 246, 248, 251
storage, 48, 56, 219
teacher preparation, 9
strain, 28
teacher training, 98
strategies, xi, xiii, 9, 16, 19, 20, 21, 31, 32, 33, 36,
teachers, xii, xiv, xv, 7, 9, 16, 19, 22, 25, 34, 36, 71,
97, 127, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138,
72, 73, 98, 102, 103, 124, 138, 148, 156, 157,
139, 140, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 153, 167, 182,
158, 159, 161, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170,
196, 210, 232
195, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206,
streams, 80
207, 209, 210, 213, 220, 226, 246, 249, 250
strength, 16
teaching, xii, xiii, 7, 20, 61, 71, 72, 73, 74, 79, 82,
stress, 43, 79, 80, 102, 158, 257, 258
95, 97, 98, 101, 102, 103, 122, 132, 134, 135,
stress reactions, 258
137, 138, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 159, 162, 169,
stressors, 173
170, 171, 172, 173, 178, 186, 189, 196, 198, 210,
stretching, 167
211, 219, 220, 225, 226, 232, 241, 248, 249, 251
strikes, 88, 94
teaching experience, 98, 219, 220
structuring, 143
teaching strategies, 134, 151
student group, 171
team members, 178
student retention, 232
technical assistance, 27, 28, 37
students‘ understanding, xii, 71, 73, 127, 129, 171
technological advancement, 29
subjective, 83, 241
technology, xii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 13, 18, 23,
substitution, 51
25, 28, 29, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38
Sun, 190
teenagers, 95
supernatural, 113
teens, 54
supervision, 5, 25
telecommunications, 15
supervisors, 157, 158
teleology, xiii, 107, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 118,
supplemental, 7
119, 121, 122, 126, 128, 129
supply, 27
telephone, 3, 14, 29, 160, 256
support services, 21
television, 3, 14
280 Index

temporal, 63, 81, 85, 89, 90, 93 transfer, xiv, 10, 14, 151, 155, 194, 217, 219
Tennessee, 10, 14, 37 transference, 169
tension, 165, 170, 177 transformation, 76, 104, 110
test data, 220 transformations, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 91, 95, 104
test scores, 171, 224 transfusion, 110
text messaging, 5, 259 transgression, 72
textbooks, xii, 10, 71, 73, 77, 78, 83, 88, 103, 123, transition, xi, 8, 16, 19, 20, 21, 31, 32, 35, 46, 80,
124, 248 113, 158, 165
theology, 111, 112, 128 transitions, 46, 189
theoretical, 260 translation, 26, 48, 49, 66, 141
theory, xii, 2, 10, 11, 34 transmission, 3, 12
therapeutic, 258, 261 transplantation, 189
therapeutic relationship, 258 transportation, 6, 14
therapists, 158, 173, 258, 259 traumatic brain injury, 16, 19, 28
therapy, 20, 24, 25, 173, 177, 184, 253, 257, 258, travel, 9, 80, 84, 91, 93, 94, 229
261 treaties, 17
thinking, 11, 74, 83, 114, 126, 127, 129, 132, 136, trees, 109, 123
137, 138, 141, 143, 148, 149, 151, 163, 197, 211, trial, 44, 145, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 257, 260, 261
218, 240, 241, 246, 248, 251 triggers, 152, 156, 170
third party, 26 trust, 11, 180
Thomas Kuhn, 113 tuition, 28
Thomson, 30, 112, 129 tumors, 116
thorns, 116 Tunisia, 37
threat, 205 tutoring, 20, 24, 34
threatening, 163 twins, 93
threats, 225 two-way, 12
three-dimensional, 90 Type I error, 220
threshold, 58, 67 typology, 190, 201
thresholds, 61
tics, 19
time, 4, 5, 10, 12, 17, 21, 23, 26, 27, 28, 253, 254, U
255, 256, 257, 258, 259
UK, 23, 33, 257
time constraints, 187
uncertainty, 158, 159, 161, 163, 177, 180, 191
time consuming, 163, 164
undergraduate, 153, 172, 211, 212
timing, 225, 254
undergraduates, 121
title, 37
UNESCO, 18
Title III, 15, 27
unification, 116
toddlers, 245
uniform, 75, 76, 93
Tongue, 228
United Kingdom, 131, 190
top-down, 48, 57
United Nations, 8, 9, 13, 17, 37
total product, 133
United States, 4, 13, 34, 41, 186, 190, 194, 248
tracking, 22, 46, 63
univariate, 232
trade, 6, 14, 15, 37, 258
universe, 74, 77, 89, 110, 111
trade-off, 258
universities, 3, 6, 8, 9, 14, 15, 21
tradition, 82, 108
university education, 72
training, xi, xiv, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 13, 16, 19, 20, 21,
university students, 255
24, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 37, 68, 73, 98, 135, 139,
updating, 184, 187
144, 148, 150, 171, 175, 181, 182, 187, 189, 192
uplink, 256
training programs, 30
upload, 23
traits, 108, 110, 114, 115, 116, 121, 124
urology, 193
trans, 250
users, 5, 6, 12, 16, 22, 24, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258
transcript, 26
transcripts, 23
 Index 281

watches, 85, 99
V water, 109, 123
web, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 14, 15, 16, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 33,
vaccination, 177, 184
34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 89, 246, 251, 254, 255, 257
vacuum, 75, 79, 85, 101
web pages, 4, 9, 16, 23, 254
validation, 97, 201, 261
web-based, 4, 6, 15, 27, 36, 38
validity, 72, 78, 80, 122, 201, 220, 225
webcasting, 253, 254, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260
values, xv, 11, 82, 177, 178, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187,
websites, 4, 9, 14, 15, 28, 29, 31, 255
215, 219, 220
wellbeing, 113, 253
variability, 58, 180
Western Europe, 226
variables, 134, 231
wheelchair, 8
variance, 225
windows, 241, 250, 256
variation, xiii, 55, 62, 68, 107, 114, 115, 159, 180,
wireless, 12
221, 224
women, 169, 172, 177, 184, 186, 188, 190, 194, 260
vegetables, 255
wood, 227
vehicles, 202
word frequency, 57
vein, 55
word naming, 49
vibration, 80
word processing, 27
Victoria, 14, 31
word recognition, 57, 64, 66, 67, 68
video, 256, 258
workers, xi, 147
virtual reality, 4, 6
Workforce Investment Act, 15
virtual world, 6
working memory, 58, 66, 67, 152, 153
virus, 219
workload, 158
visible, 59, 151
World War, 82
vision, 9, 19, 22, 27, 241
World Wide Web, 4, 9, 16
visual environment, 54
worldview, 111
vocabulary, xii, 39, 56, 60, 61, 246
writing, xiii, 12, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 63, 131, 132,
vocational, xii, 1, 2, 20, 21, 36
133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142,
vocational education, 20, 36
143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153,
vocational training, xii, 1, 2
154, 160, 231, 245
voice, 6, 23, 28, 42, 56, 65, 212, 244, 257, 259
writing process, xiii, 131, 132, 134, 135, 137, 138,
VoIP, 23
140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 147, 148, 151, 152
voting, 17
writing tasks, 135, 138, 139, 142, 147
Vygotsky, 208, 213, 241
WWW, 36

W Y
W3C, 9, 24, 38
yield, 42, 61, 208, 220, 258
walking, 228
young adults, 31, 53, 259
Wall Street Journal, 34, 38
younger children, 119
Washington, 261