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General hygiene principles for meat handling

Current recommendations for handling all meat products are to keep them clean, cold and covered in
order to maintain quality and protect against food poisoning and disease. Generally contamination
occurs when the product comes into contact with dirty hands, clothing, equipment or facilities. If the
product is kept clean there will be little or no contamination by microorganisms whether bacteria, yeasts,
moulds, viruses or protozoa or by helminths and poisonous chemicals.

EFFECT OF BACTERIAL GROWTH ON THE SHELF-LIFE OF MEAT AND

MEAT PRODUCTS
The total viable count of bacteria (TVC) expressed as organisms/cm2 or as organisms/g on fresh meat or
a meat product sets a limit to its shelf-life. Meat will “spoil” with TVC at 106/cm2 because of off-odours.
Slime and discoloration appear at 108/cm2. The main factors determining the time taken for the TVC to
reach these levels are the initial count due to contamination during slaughtering and processing, further
contamination during storage, temperature, pH and relative humidity. An example of how the level of
contamination affects shelf-life is shown in Table 1.

After cleanliness, keeping meat products cold is the second most important requirement in order to
achieve a desirable shelf-life. Microorganisms rapidly proliferate at elevated temperatures and slime
development is a definite visual sign of microbial growth. The importance of temperature in the control of
microbial growth is shown in Table 2.

Bacteria relevant to meat, meat products and other food are divided into three groups according to the
temperature range within which they can grow: mesophiles 10–45°C, psychrophiles 0–28°C and
psychrotrophs 10– 45°C, or slow growth at 0–10°C. Mesophiles will not grow below 10°C but
psychrotrophs, of which Pseudomonas are the more important, will grow down to 0°C. The nearer to 0°C
the storage temperature the slower the growth of the spoilage bacteria and the longer the shelf-life (Fig.
9).

TABLE 1
Effect of initial contamination on the storage life of lean beef

Initial bacterial count Days at 0°C

(org./cm2) before slime development
100 000 8
10 000 10
1 000 13
100 15
10 18

TABLE 2
Relationship between storage temperature and slime development

Storage temperature (°C) Days before slime develops

0 10
1 7
3 4
5 3
10 2

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16 1

Under ideal conditions bacteria double in number every 20 minutes. A single bacterium multiplies to over
one million in less than seven hours:

Time Number of bacteria

12.00 1
12.20 2
12.40 4
13.00 8
14.00 64
15.00 512
16.00 4 096
17.00 32 768
18.00 262 144
18.40 1 048 576

Some bacteria cause product spoilage, others cause food poisoning. The former limit product shelf-life
but the latter cause illness. Almost all foodpoisoning bacteria are mesophiles so refrigeration below 10°C
offers good protection. Many mesophiles cause spoilage, but since meat is refrigerated most spoilage is
due to psychrophiles. Storing meat at temperatures close to 0°C will inhibit the growth of pyschrotrophs.
Shelf-life will be extended by avoiding contamination through good hygiene practices.

Aerobic bacteria have an absolute requirement for oxygen which limits their growth to the meat surface.
Anaerobic bacteria grow within the meat as they need the absence of oxygen. Facultative anaerobes can
grow slowly within oxygen but grow better in its presence. Food-poisoning bacteria are anaerobes and
facultative anaerobes. The most important spoilage bacteria (Pseudomonas spp.) are aerobic.

9. Different types of bacteria can

grow within different
temperature ranges

Water is required by micro-organisms so reducing the water available below the optimum level will
prolong shelf-life. If meat is stored at a relative humidity (RH) below 95 percent, moisture will be lost from

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the surface. Since most spoilage bacteria, being aerobic, can grow only on the surface, this surface
drying will extend the shelf-life. Moulds (fungi) are able to grow in drier conditions than bacteria so that
desiccation has a selective effect on microbial growth.

Meat pH is the level of acidity in meat. Stored sugars are broken down to lactic acid. In living muscle it is
near 7.0 (above this is alkaline, below is acid). It falls to 5.4–5.6 within 24 hours. High final-pH values
result when animals are exhausted at slaughter, for instance because of fighting in lairage or transport.
Spoilage bacteria multiply rapidly on high-pH meat and shorten the shelf-life. Exhausted animals should
be rested before slaughter.

A high TVC resulting from severe contamination during slaughter or processing will shorten the shelf-life
even in ideal conditions. It also indicates poor hygiene so that contamination with food-poisoning bacteria
is likely.

EFFECT OF CONTAMINATION ON SENSORIC PROPERTIES OF MEAT AND

MEAT PRODUCTS
Aerobic spoilage by bacteria and yeasts usually results in slime formation, undesirable odours and
flavours (taints). Colour changes, rancidity, tallowy or chalky flavours from the breakdown of lipids may
also occur. Colour changes as a result of pigment oxidation may be grey, brown or green discoloration.
Aerobic spoilage by moulds results in a sticky surface, musty odours, alcohol flavours and creamy, black
or green discoloration.

Anaerobic spoilage which occurs either within the meat or on the surface in sealed containers where
oxygen is absent or very limited is marked by a souring due to the production of organic acids and
gases.

FOOD POISONING
Food poisoning may be due to infection or intoxication. Infection is caused by the consumption of live
bacteria which multiply in the body producing characteristic symptoms. Intoxication is due to toxins in
food produced by bacteria before the food was eaten. Toxins are chemical compounds which may linger
in food with no microbes growing in it, and are therefore very dangerous.

Salmonellae are facultative anaerobes which cause infectious food poisoning. Ten or 20 cells of
Salmonella typhi are sufficient to cause typhoid but 10 000 to 100 000 cells of other species may be
necessary to cause an infection. Some are host-specific affecting the animal from which the meat was
produced but failing to cause infection when consumed by man. Typical symptoms of salmonellosis
include diarrhoea, fever and vomiting. The illness may last one to 14 days after a 12 to 24-hour
incubation period. Victims may excrete the bacteria for weeks after the symptoms subside. Poor
personal hygiene will cause contamination of meat.

Staphylococcus aureus is a facultative aerobe that causes intoxication. It lives in the nose, throat, hair
and skin and on animal hides. Meat is contaminated by handling and by sneezing or coughing. Minute
amounts of the toxin will cause illness, which starts within one to eight hours of eating poisoned food.
Nausea, vomiting and shock may last for one to two days. On rare occasions it is fatal. This bacterium
does not produce off-odours or spoilage so it cannot be easily checked. Refrigeration will control its
growth. Cooking may destroy the bacteria but not the toxin as it is heat stable. It is particularly
troublesome in cooked cured meats, normally as a result of recontamination after the curing process in
subsequent handling, for instance during slicing.

Clostridium botulinum, an anaerobe, produces the toxin botulin, one of the most poisonous substances
known. This attacks the central nervous system causing death by respiratory paralysis. Dormant cells
occur everywhere in the soil, fish, animals and plants. High-moisture, low-acid, low-salt conditions at
above 3°C favour growth and toxin production. Control measures must destroy spores or prevent growth
and toxin formation. Botulism is usually due to undercooking processed meats. Pressure-cooking will
give commercial sterility. Pasteurization (heating to 70°C) and adding salt (NaCl) and sodium nitrite
(NaNO2) is used for canned ham. Refrigeration (0–10°C) is essential for vaccum-packed meats. Frozen
storage prevents growth.

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Clostridium perfringens, an anaerobic bacterium, is a common cause of food poisoning but is rarely fatal.
It grows well in warm meats so is usually found in left-over meats that have not been kept chilled and not
been reheated to 70°C to kill the bacteria present. The main symptoms are diarrhoea and weakness
which last for 12 to 24 hours after an incubation period of eight to 20 hours.

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General hygiene rules for facilities, equipment and personnel in

the meat industries
It is essential that all meat-processing operations, whether slaughtering, cutting or further processing, be
carried out in a clean area and, as much as possible, that the products be protected from contamination
from all sources.

When meat-processing operations are carried out within a facility specifically built and maintained for
meat processing, sources of contamination can be much more easily and adequately controlled. The
following requirements are considered essential to good sanitary preparation of meat and meat products.

FACILITIES
Floors. Brick, tile, smooth concrete or other impervious, waterproof materials are suitable for floors. In
some areas wooden floors will suffice if they are tight, smooth, in good repair and properly maintained.
Wooden floors are not suitable in areas where slaughtering or curing takes place and meat juices and
moisture collect.

Drains. To carry away waste liquids, there should be sufficient drains of the proper size that are correctly
located, trapped and vented. All floors should be sloped toward the drains. Generally for adequate waste
disposal, one drain is needed for each 18 m2 of floor space in slaughtering areas, and one drain for each
46m2 in processing and other areas.

Walls. Glazed tile, smooth cement plaster, rustproof metal panels and smooth plastic panels that are
properly caulked are all acceptable for walls in processing and refrigerated areas because they can all
be effectively cleaned and sanitized. Other materials are also acceptable if they can be satisfactorily
cleaned. In no instance should walls be made of materials that absorb moisture or other liquids. Ceilings
must be tight, smooth and free from any scaling that may fall into the meat products, and should also be
of moisture-resistant materials. All light bulbs should be covered with unbreakable material to prevent
broken pieces from falling into the product.

Doors and doorways. All doorways through which the product must pass, whether suspended on rails
or lying on hand trucks, should be wide enough to ensure that the meats never touch the doorways
risking contamination. Wooden doors and doorways should be covered with metal with tightly soldered
seams.

Water supply. Whether from individually owned and controlled sources such as wells or streams or from
a municipal system, the water supply must be potable and abundant cold and hot water must be
distributed to all parts of the operation.

Lighting. In all areas where products are critically examined during sanitary control or for cleanliness,
50-foot candles of light should be provided. For adequate visibility 20-foot candles of light should be
provided wherever any processing occurs. In all other areas, such as dry storage, there should be
sufficient light to keep the area orderly and sanitary.

Refrigeration. The main purpose of refrigeration is to cool the meat down after slaughter and to maintain
it in a chilled state for shorter or longer storage periods and for cutting and further processing. If frozen
storage is provided and utilized, it should be maintained at the lowest possible temperature for maximum
shelf-life. Minus 18° to -12°C is satisfactory freezer storage; however, large quantities of product must
either be quickfrozen prior to storage or thinly spread out to facilitate freezing. It is also recommended
that all rooms where meat is processed, except in the slaughter and cooler storage areas, should be
maintained at a temperature of about 12°C. In facilities where no refrigeration or cooling is furnished in
processing areas, the handling of meat products is possible if all equipment contacting the products is
throughly cleaned and sanitized from time to time (recommended every four hours). Frequent cleaning is

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necessary because in warmer temperatures bacteria multiply rapidly and the risk of product
contamination increases.

EQUIPMENT
The equipment needed for converting livestock into meat products need not be elaborate and expensive.
The amount of equipment will depend on the slaughtering and processing procedures employed. If
possible, all equipment should be made of stainless steel or plastic, be rust resistant and easily cleaned
and sanitized.

All equipment should be constructed of stainless steel, galvanized steel, aluminium or approved plastic.
Wooden tables are not acceptable because wood absorbs meat juices and fats and cannot be
thoroughly cleaned. Hardwood cutting-boards maintained smooth and free from checks and cracks may
be used. Cutting tables covered with other than hard plastic are not acceptable for contact with meat.

2. A knife sterilizer mounted on a stainless steel sink

should contain water at 82°C

1. Sinks for workers' use should be stainless steel with

soap dispensers and paper towels at hand. This is an
example of a stainless-steel sink with kneeoperated
taps. Foot-operated types are also acceptable, but not
handoperated types

All other equipment should be of the type that can be taken apart and thoroughly cleaned. Any stationary
equipment must be located far enough from walls to permit proper cleaning around and under it.

In all areas there should be conveniently located foot-pedal or kneeoperated wash-basins with hot and
cold water, soap and disposable towels (Fig. 1). In slaughtering areas, lavatories should be convenient to
the dressing operations. Hot-water containers, either electric or steam-heated to 82°C, should be
available for sanitizing tools contaminated with diseased material or other filth during dressing (Fig. 2).

Rails must be located high enough to prevent meat from touching the floor. For beef carcasses, the
minimum height for rails should be 3.4 metres, while 2.4 metres is sufficiently high for small livestock
such as goats, hogs and sheep. Rails should also be far enough away from fixed objects and walls to
avoid contact.

PERSONNEL HYGIENE
Probably as important as anything in the production of clean, wholesome, unspoiled products is the
attitude of the workers toward cleanliness. Personnel with clean hands, clothing and good hygienic
practices are absolutely essential to the production of high-quality foods.

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All clothing should be clean, in good repair and made of washable material. Street clothing should be
covered with coats or gowns while handling exposed product. White or light-coloured clothing is most
desirable and garments that become soiled or contaminated should be changed when necessary.

All persons working with exposed meat products should have their hair under control, either completely
covered with a clean cap or hat or confined by a hairnet to prevent hair from falling into products.

Safety devices such as aprons, wrist guards and mesh gloves must be made of impervious material,
clean and in good repair. At no time should leather aprons, wrist guards or other devices be worn unless
clean, washable coverings are used over them. Light-coloured rubber or plastic gloves may be worn by
product handlers only if clean and in good repair (Fig. 3).

No person working with meats should wear any kind of jewellery, badges or buttons that may come loose
and be accidently included in the product.

Shoes and boots should be worn at all times and should be appropriate for the operations being
conducted. They should also be made of impervious materials (Fig. 4). Any aprons, knives and footwear
that become contaminated during operations should be routinely cleaned in areas or facilities provided
for that purpose.

No cloth twine, belts or other similar materials should be used to cover implement handles or used in
other places where they may harbour filth and serve as a ready source of product contamination.

3. Workers must wear clean and protective 4. Footwear should be waterproof so that it can
clothing. Note the hairnet to prevent be washed frequently, and always when
contamination from loose hairs and the chain- moving to another part of the factory
mail apron and glove to protect from knife cuts

All unsanitary practices should be avoided by meat handlers. No one should smoke or use tobacco in
areas where edible products and ingredients are handled, prepared or stored, or where equipment and
utensils are cleaned. When handling edible products, scratching the head, placing fingers in or around
the nose or mouth, sneezing or coughing on the product should never occur. Workers must also guard
against contaminating products from localized infections or sores.

Workers can contaminate carcasses and meat through handling, coughing and sneezing. This may
cause rapid spoilage of the meat or, more seriously, food poisoning. Coughs and sneezes are a
particularly effective way of transmitting bacteria to meat. Transfer of faecal matter either of animal or
human origin to the meat is particularly hazardous. Most contamination on the hands of workers in
slaughter floors with faecal matter comes from the hides and fleeces.

5. Hands should be frequently washed under 6. Particular attention should be paid to

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running hot water and always after visiting the cleaning under the fingernails with a brush
toilet, smoking, coughing or sneezing,
handling money, garbage, soiled or infected
material

Hands should be washed frequently to remove all visible soiling. Stainless-steel sinks without plugs
should be conveniently accessible to all workers. Water should be supplied at approximately 43°C to a
simple tap which is foot- or knee-operated. Liquid disinfectant soap and paper towels should be available
(Fig. 5). Particular attention should be paid to cleaning under the fingernails (Fig. 6). Hands should also
be thoroughly washed after using the toilet, smoking, coughing or sneezing, handling money, garbage or
soiled or infected material.

7. The cleaning operation begins

with clearing all debris from the
floor

8. All surfaces must be

thoroughly washed down at the
end of each day

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All precautions should be taken to prevent product contamination by visitors or other persons who are
simply passing through the work area.

ROUTINE CLEANING OF ROOMS AND EQUIPMENT

The floors should be kept clear of all debris (Fig. 7), such as hooves and horns, in slaughterhalls or other
inedible parts or fat and meat particles in cutting, processing and by-product handling areas, and must
be frequently washed down. At the end of each day a thorough cleaning programme should be followed
(Fig. 8). All matter should be removed from floors, platforms, gullies, etc., followed by a thorough hosing
down of walls, floors and all surfaces to loosen dirt. Finally a strong cleaning solution should be applied
and left for a while before being rinsed off. A thorough inspection should be made afterwards and any
areas remaining soiled should be cleaned again.

In order to maintain the cleanest possible products a standard cleaning routine of the equipment should
be established. Initially all large pieces of refuse material should be scraped or swept together and
disposed of. Follow-up should include scrubbing of the equipment using brushes and a soap or detergent
and a complete sanitizing with hot water at 82°C and an approved chlorine or iodine rinse. Finally, a
coating of light mineral oil can be applied to metal equipment, particularly that not fabricated of stainless
steel, to prevent rust.

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Introduction
The activities of the meat sector may be divided into three stages - slaughtering, meat cutting and further
processing. Each stage involves completely different technical operations which must not be viewed as
separate and independent processes. There are significant interactions between the stages and
shortcomings at one stage can have a serious negative impact on the product or process in a
subsequent stage. They may influence technological, biochemical or microbiological aspects.

Improper slaughtering techniques such as faulty stunning, bleeding, skinning, evisceration and carcass
splitting can damage parts of the carcass and certain byproducts and make them unsuitable for further
use. Poor standards of hygiene during slaughtering or carcass handling result in high levels of mirobial
contamination in the meat, thus reducing the shelf-life and adversely affecting the sensoric properties of
products fabricated from this raw material. Although controls imposed on the meat industries have
become more stringent and effective, improper treatment of slaughter animals and poor meat-handling
techniques persist in many meat plants. These problems are evident in many developing countries. Apart
from deficiencies in veterinary meat inspection, which is not the subject of this publication, serious
shortcomings with regard to general meat hygiene and meat technology can frequently be observed.
This is to some extent due to the lack of adequate facilities in the meat sector in developing countries,
but carelessness and lack of skills on the part of the personnel involved in meat operations are also
important factors.

The purpose of these guidelines is to disseminate practical information on meat hygiene and meat
technology to meat industry personnel, such as supervisors and extensionists, and to provide the
necessary encouragement for improving production in the meat sector and reducing post-harvest losses.
The guidelines comprise basic techniques in slaughtering, meat cutting and further processing and the
respective hygienic regulations applicable to both the small-scale and the medium-sized meat plants.
Adherence to these basic guidelines would contribute to the production and consumption of safe, good-
quality meat and meat products.

Since there is a wide variety of procedures and products in the meat sector all over the world, some
technologies and names of meat cuts and meat products known locally may differ slightly from the terms
and descriptions used in this publication. However, the technological, microbiological and biochemical
properties of the raw material (meat) do not vary significantly and the guidelines given in this publication
can easily be adapted to local conditions.

Where appropriate, reference is made to the traditional meat-handling methods without refrigeration,
since these conditions are likely to prevail in the near future in many developing countries, particularly in
rural areas. On the other hand, in view of the growing populations not only in urban but also in rural
areas, refrigeration as a means of meat preservation will become more and more important and
information on these aspects is included. Refrigeration of meat will also have a positive impact on the
introduction of further processing of meat in developing regions, since refrigerated meat under suitable
hygienic conditions is essential for most meat-processing operations.

Furthermore, the strict adherence to general hygienic rules in the meat industry can minimize food-borne
diseases. These guidelines can therefore also play a useful role in the public health sector.

The publication is based on contributions from the following authors:

J.J. Sheridan and P. Allen, National Meat Research Institute, Dunsinea (Ireland): Hygienic slaughtering
and meat handling;

J.H. Ziegler, Meat Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, Philadelphia (USA) (retired): Meat cutting;

M. Marinkov and M.D. Suvakov, Institute for Meat Technology, Belgrade (Yugoslavia): Meat processing.

The technical editor is G. Heinz, Senior Officer (Meat Technology), FAO, Rome.

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Meat as raw material, non-meat ingredients and basic techniques

in further processing of meat
TYPES OF ANIMAL TISSUE SUITABLE FOR MEAT PROCESSING
Meat is defined as those animal tissues which are suitable for use as food. These are the main soft
tissues of the carcass: muscle, mainly skeletal (30– 65 percent), fatty (10–45 percent) and connective
tissues. Other animal tissues used as food, and also to some extent in meat processing, are the internal
organs including the blood.

Muscle tissue

The structural unit of muscle is a specialized cell, the muscle fibre, which constitutes 72–92 percent of
the muscle volume. The membrane surrounding the muscle fibre is called the sarcolemma and the
intracellular substance the sarcoplasm. The muscle fibre is composed of many myofibrils, which consist
of thick and thin filaments (myofilaments). The special arrangement of these and the bands of myofibrils
give the fibre a striated appearance under a microscope (cross-striated muscle). The filaments consist
almost entirely of the myofibular proteins actin (thin 20– 25 percent) and myosin (thick 50–55 percent)
(Fig. 122). Although they make up only 7 percent of muscle weight, they are mainly responsible for a
very important property of meat, its ability to retain water and bind added water (water-holding capacity,
WHC). The water-holding capacity is of particular importance in meat processing.

Connective tissue

Connective tissues are distributed throughout all body components -skeleton, skin, organs, fat, tendons
and muscles. There are three kinds of connective tissue fibre: collagen, reticulin and elastin. Collagen
constitutes 20–25 percent of total protein, and has a major (negative) influence on meat tenderness.

Skin (from pigs only) (Fig. 123) has excellent swelling and binding abilities owing to its high collagen
content. It is therefore ideal for meat products such as emulsion-type cooked sausages provided it is
properly scalded, completely dehaired, usually singed, scraped, washed and de fatted.

Fatty tissues

The main fatty tissue deposits are in septa between muscle bundles (intramuscular fat), in spaces
between muscles (intermuscular) and between skin and muscles (subcutaneous or backfat) (Fig. 123
and 124). Fat depots are also found around internal organs. The main depot is found around the kidneys
(perirenal, leaf or kidney fat) (Fig. 124). Fatty tissues can be graded as “firm” (backfat, jowl and brisket)
and “soft” fatty tissues (leaf perirenal fat) depending mainly on their connective tissue content.

Internal organs

Depending on local regulations and eating habits, the following are commonly used in sausage
manufacture (Figs 125, 126 and 127):

122. Whole muscle and crosssection of

a muscle cell: 1 whole muscle; 2
muscle cell (muscle fibre); 3
sarcolemma; 4 sarcoplasm; 5 band of
myofibrils; 6 myofibrils; 7 thin
myofilament (actin); 8 thick
myofilament (myosin)

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Heart after removing the pericardium is used as any other kind of meat.
Liver is used for making various types of liver sausage and paste, because its proteins have high
emulsifying capacity.
Tongue trimmed of all the hyoid bones, tonsils, and mucous membranes, can be cured and dried
whole, used to make meat batter, or cured and canned (ox or pork tongues).
Lungs. Beef lungs can be used to make cooked sausages. Pork lungs are frequently not fit for
human consumption as they can be contaminated by scalding water.
Kidneys are often contaminated to a certain extent with heavy metals or other residual substances
and the consumption in higher quantities is not recommended in some countries.
Tripe is the rumen and reticulum of ruminants, opened and rinsed. All the dark tissues (internal
linings) must be removed by cooking (62– 65°C).
Stomach of pigs, properly cleaned, is used as a natural casing for cooked sausages.
Intestines are mainly used as casings for various sausages.
Blood is highly perishable and must be handled carefully to avoid contamination during collection.
To prevent coagulation blood is either defibrinated (Fig. 127) or a solution of sodium citrate 1.6
percent or phosphate 1 percent is added. Blood plasma obtained by centrifuging should be cooled
as quickly as possible to 0°C. Whole blood is used to make blood sausage, liver sausage, and
blood pudding. Blood plasma can be used for meat emulsions (batter).

123. Pieces of defatted pork skin

(above), and cutting off the skin
from stick of pork backfat
(below)

124. Cutting off the pork fat on pork side (A) and the brisket (below), and
perirenal (above) fatty tissues on beef side (B)

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125. Some internal organs of pig: 1 126. Some internal organs of beef: 1
heart; 2 liver; 3 tongue; 4 kidneys; 5 heart; 2 liver; 3 tongue; 4 kidneys; 5
lungs; 6 stomach lungs; 6 stomach

127. Blood being manually defibrinated

(left), blood coagulated (right)

General remarks

All raw materials must be fit for human consumption. After inspection, final dressing, removal of
condemned and dirty parts and washing, all meat and organs must be immediately hung on hooks and
moved to a cooler to await processing.

Carcasses may be fully or partially boned before chilling provided high hygienic standards are rigidly
observed. A high degree of skill and special organization of labour is required. If small-scale producers
cannot chill the carcasses, they may use hot-boned meat for sausage production or meat batter. Hot-
boned meat has a high WHC so the use of phosphate is avoided. However, beef must be processed
within four hours and pork within one hour of slaughter.

PSE and DFD meat. Pre-slaughter stress may result in abnormal undesirable muscle conditions called
“pale, soft and exudative” (PSE), and “dark, firm and dry” (DFD) (Fig. 128). PSE meat is frequently found
in pork caused by a sudden stress before slaughter. Glycogen levels are raised in response to the stress
so that post-slaughter glycolysis is elevated leading to a build-up of lactic acid and a rapid fall in muscle
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pH to below 5.8 within one hour. This results in partial protein denaturation reducing WHC and increasing
drip loss. A prolonged period of stress prior to slaughter such as fighting during transport and lairage
causes exhaustion and the depletion of glycogen reserves. Post-mortem glycolysis and lactic-acid
production are therefore reduced, the pH falls slowly and protein degradation is reduced. The resulting
DFD meat which is found in pork and beef has a high WHC but spoils very quickly because the high pH
and dry surface favour bacterial growth.

SIMPLE STANDARDS OF DIFFERENT QUALITIES OF MEAT USED AS RAW

MATERIAL FOR DIFFERENT PRODUCT QUALITIES
Manufacturers must aim for uniform quality of their meat products. To attain this, raw materials must be
standardized for different qualities. Goodquality carcasses are usually divided into primal cuts (ham,
shoulder, loin, neck, etc.). The remainder of the carcass and trimmings from the primal cuts are
standardized into different qualities of meat. Poorer-quality carcasses are used entirely for processing
after being deboned and trimmed.

Basic parameters for simple quality standards are size and shape of meat pieces, amount of visible fatty
and connective tissues, and chemical composition. Meat must not contain skin, lymphatic glands,
particles of bones, bristles, large blood vessels or blood clots.

Different qualities of meat

First quality (Meat I). Meat pieces of relatively uniform size and shape, trimmed of connective tissue, with
about 8 percent visible fatty tissue obtained from larger primal cuts, mostly hindquarter. It is used to
make meat batter for sausages and high-quality canned products (Fig. 129).

Second quality (Meat II). Meat pieces of irregular size and shape, partially trimmed of connective tissue
with about 15 percent visible fatty tissue, obtained mostly from forequarters. It is used to manufacture
meat batter, or medium-quality meat products (Fig. 130).

Lean trimmings are small irregular pieces of meat, with pervading connective and fatty tissue (about 25
percent), obtained during deboning and trimming of primal cuts, Meats I and II, and meat parts of the
head and flank. They are used to make meat batter for all kinds of medium-and lowquality cooked
sausages (Fig. 131).

Fatty trimmings are meat pieces containing about 50 percent visible fatty tissue, derived from all
trimming operations. They are used as the fatty ingredient of meat batter of medium and low quality (Fig.
132).

Standards of fatty tissues

Ruminants

Firm (external) fatty tissues are trimmed from any part of the carcass and hump of zebu and are used as
the fatty component of the meat batter or sausage mixture (mutton, goat, etc.) or all-beef higher-quality
sausages.

128. Cross-section of pork loins: DFD

(1) and PSE (2) meat

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129. First-quality meat (Meat I) 131. Lean trimmings

130. Second-quality meat (Meat II) 132. Fatty trimmings

Soft (internal) fatty tissues are perirenal and sacral in origin and are not generally used in sausages.

Pork

Jowl (firm) contains much muscular (even up to 30 percent) and connective tissues. It is suitable for
manufacturing dry sausages, summer sausages, salamis and emulsion-type sausages of the highest
quality (Fig. 133).

Back fat (firm) is used for semi-dry and dry sausages, and in frankfurter sausages of the highest quality
(Fig. 134).

Side fat (firm) contains about 60 percent visible fatty tissue. It is used to manufacture medium-quality
cooked sausages made of uncooked or precooked materials (Fig. 135).

135. Uniformly sized and shaped

133. Pieces of pork jowl
pieces of pork side fat

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134. Pieces of pork back fat 136. “Soft” pork fatty tissues

Belly fat and leaf (soft) are used to make cooked sausages of low quality (Fig. 136).

Chemical parameters

Typical quality standards based on average chemical composition are shown in Table 4.

SALT, CURING AGENTS, COMMON SPICES, ADDITIVES AND NATURAL

SMOKE
Common salt

Common salt (sodium chloride, NaCl, salt) which may be extracted from sea water (sea salt) or mined
(rock salt), has three major effects upon meat.

Flavour enhancement of meat and meat products. The salty taste of a meat product depends on the
relative amounts of salt and water. Typical ranges of salt concentration for various products are shown in
Table 5. Products with less water require higher levels of salt concentration to achieve the same degree
of saltiness.

Functional properties of meat proteins. Depending upon its concentration salt can increase or decrease
the WHC of a meat product. The dehydrating effect of salt is used for meat drying (lowering WHC). The
opposite effect of increasing WHC is very important and results from the swelling and solubilizing of the
muscle proteins (actin and myosin).

137. Samples of different

nonmeat substances
used in manufacturing
sausages and other meat
products: 1 salt; 2 nitrite;
3 nitrate; 4 nitrite salt; 5
phosphate; 6 ascorbate;
7 GDL; 8 glutamate

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TABLE 4
Approximate chemical composition of different qualities of raw materials

Protein
Connective
Muscle Total
Raw materials Water Fat tissue
Meat I 71 10 16 3 19
Meat II 63 20 12 5 17
Lean trimmings 53 33 10 2 12
Fat trimmings 30 60 7 2 9
External beef fat 27 67 1 5 6
Internal beef fat 5 93 - 2 2
Jowl 17 78 3 3 6
Back fat 8 90 - 2 2
Side fat 32 60 7 1 8
Soft fat 5 93 - 3 3
Pork skin 55 15 0 30 30

138. Samples of different

common spices in
sausage seasoning: 1
black pepper; 2 white
pepper; 3 onion in
powder; 4 coriander; 5
anise; 6 paprika

TABLE 5
Typical concentration of salt in some meat products

Finished meat products Range of salt concentration (%)

Sausages
fresh and cooked 1.6–2.2

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dry, small-diameter 2.4–3.8

dry, large-diameter 3.0–5.0
Hams
cooked 2.6–3.2
dry 2.5–6.0

Preservation. Salt is one of the most important food additives in food preservation. The salt concentration
determines what types of microorganism, if any, can grow by dehydrating or by lowering the amount of
water available for growth.

Curing agents

Nitrates. Sodium (NaNO3) or potassium nitrate (saltpeter, KNO3) allow cured meat colour to develop in
products where drying is a long-term process (Fig. 137). Nowadays, they are used less frequently
because to be effective they have to be reduced to nitrites under the influence of bacterial enzymes, and
this is a time-consuming process.

Nitrites are indispensable for meat curing, and no substitute has yet been found. Sodium nitrite (NaNO2),
a toxic substance, can be fatal even in small doses (Fig. 139). For this reason they are often mixed with
common salt at a concentration of about 0.6 percent (so-called “nitrite salt”) when used for curing. If
excessive levels of nitrite are accidently reached the accompanying salty taste will be rejected by the
consumer, thereby preventing nitrite poisoning.

The maximum amount of nitrite permitted in finished meat products is usually 200 ppm (parts per million,
or mg per kg), or may be less subject to the type of meat product or country legislation. Saltpeter can be
added to the nitrite salt at a concentration of 1 percent and used for curing dry hams and dry sausages.
Typical levels of nitrite and nitrate in meat products are shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6
Typical amounts of nitrite and nitrate in cured products

Curing agents Amount of nitrite or nitrate in cured-meat products

Nitrite salt (99.4% NaCl + 0.6%
all-meat products, 100 ppm as nitrite dry hams, 150 ppm as nitrite
NaNO2)

Saltpeter (KNO3) dry sausages, 100 ppm as nitrate low-sodium products, 100 ppm
as nitrate
Nitrite salt + saltpeter dry hams, 600 ppm as nitrate

Three processes in meat curing are due to the effect of nitrites:

Cured-meat colour development is achieved when the muscle pigment (myoglobin) in an acid
environment combines with nitric oxide (NO) (formed from nitrite) to form NO myoglobin. This reaction is
affected by temperature, pH and oxygen-reducing agents. NO-myoglobin is relatively resistant to light
and oxygen and, most importantly, it is heat stable. Thus, cured cooked meat and meat products
maintain a bright red colour in contrast to uncured meat which turns grey after cooking.

Nowadays it is considered that 3–50 ppm is sufficient to achieve colour in cooked sausages.

Cured-meat flavour development is based on various reactions between nitrite and the meat component.
Typical flavour of cured-meat products is achieved with 20–40 ppm nitrite.

Preservative effect. Even in small doses (80–150 ppm), nitrite prevents the growth of numerous micro-
organisms, and food-poisoning bacteria (Clostridium botulinum, salmonella, staphylococci, etc.).
However, the effect of nitrite on shelf-life or prevention of food-poisoning bacterial growth must not be
overestimated and decreases with increasing storage temperature.

Common spices

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Spices act on the salivary and gastric glands to promote secretion, stimulating appetite and improving
digestibility of meat products (Fig. 138). Their use varies from country to country depending on the
climate, customs and eating habits. There are spices whose taste and smell remain unchanged even
after exposure to high temperatures (chilies and sage). Less resistant are cardamom, clove, pepper,
rosemary and thyme, and the least heatresistant are coriander, mace, marjoram, nutmeg, allspice and
ginger.

Useful additives

Phosphates are used to restore WHC to chilled meat, approximately to the same level as hot-boned
meat. Certain countries forbid phosphates, whereas some allow their use only where there is a proven
technological effect. Where permitted they should be restricted to 0.3–0.5 percent of the sausage mixture
weight. Phosphates break down actomyosin into actin and myosin, which can be solubilized by salt to
increase the WHC. This effect is retained even in cooked products, increasing the yield.

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and its salts (sodium ascorbate) contribute to the development of cured-meat
colour.

Sodium ascorbate is used in the manufacture of cooked sausages, made from uncooked or precooked
raw materials. Ascorbic acid used is at a concentration of 0.03–0.05 percent, whereas sodium ascorbate
is added at a concentration of 0.07 percent. Ascorbic acid is a strong reducing agent, enabling quicker
formation of the NO-myoglobin so that less nitrite is needed, and it inhibits the formation of an
undesirable colour in cured-meat products. It must not be added to, or mixed with nitrites, because they
will be broken down instantly and will become useless for curing. Thus, the nitrite salt must be added to
meat at the very beginning, whereas ascorbic acid is always added at the end of comminution.

Ascorbic acid decomposes rapidly especially in a humid warm environment. Its salt (sodium ascorbate),
being more stable, is often used in sausage production, as is erythorbic acid and its salt (sodium
erythorbate).

Glutamates. Monosodium glutamate and other salts of glutamic acid are substances which improve the
flavour of meat products, and are usually added in concentrations up to 0.2 percent.

TABLE 7
List of common spices used in sausage seasoning (g/kg sausage mixture)

Spice Dry Made of raw material

sausages Precooked Uncooked
Allspice 0.5–1.0 0.3–0.5 0.1–1.0
Anise - 0.1–0.3 -
Bay leaves 0.01 0.05–0.1 -
Caraway seed 0.2–1.5 0.2–0.7 -
Cardamon 0.1–0.5 0.2–0.5 0.3–0.5
Cinnamon - 0.05–0.2 -
Cloves 0.2–0.5 0.1–0.3 0.3–0.5
Coriander 0.3–0.5 0.3–1.0 0.2–1.0
Cumin seed 0.1–0.5 0.2–1.5 0.2–0.7
Ginger 0.1–0.3 0.3–1.0 0.3–0.5
Mace 0.1–1.1 0.3–1.0 0.3–2.0
Marjoram 0.2–0.3 0.5–2.0 0.2–1.0
Nutmeg 0.2–0.5 0.3–1.0 0.3–1.0
Paprika 0.1–1.0 0.4–1.0 0.5–2.0
Pepper 1.0–4.0 1.5–3.0 1.0–4.0
Sage 0.05–0.5 0.1–0.3 0.05–0.5
Tarragon - 0.1–0.3 0.05–0.5

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Thyme - 0.1–0.3 0.1–0.3

Garlic according to taste according to taste
Onion - according to taste
Mustard seed 0.5–2.0 0.1–0.2

Natural smoke

Natural smoke is a very complex mixture, consisting of a great number of compounds, and is obtained by
controlled combustion of moist sawdust at low temperature. Sawdust from hardwoods is most commonly
used to generate the smoke. Nowadays, it is considered that optimal smoke composition is obtained at
temperatures of 300–500°C.

Smoke consists of gases (phenols, organic acids, carboniles and other compounds) and particles (pitch,
tar, ash and soot). Gaseous components penetrate into a product through the casing to a certain level,
and react with other components of meat products. Other components are deposited on to the surface.
Smoke provides typical flavour and distinctive colour, and hardens the surface of the meat product.

General remarks

All substances which are added to meat products must have food grade purity. They should not contain
any food-poisoning bacteria, so must be treated according to the highest hygienic standards. It is
important to keep them in properly closed containers or intact packages, away from any dampness and
dust. They are usually kept in special, dry premises away from the workshop, in which they can be pre-
weighed, blended and packed into plastic bags in the proportions required for sausage formulations. The
nitrate must be kept under lock and key (Figs 139 and 140).

139. Nitrite and nitrate stored locked in 140. Storage of different nonmeat
metallic containers (access only for substances and spice mixtures
authorized personnel because of (dosage by scales for sausage
toxicity of substances in higher formulation in waterproof plastic
concentrations) bags)

Dosage by hand of any non-meat ingredient is not allowed (Fig. 141). The only correct way is with scales
which must be checked occasionally for accuracy (Fig. 142).

One of the most serious consequences of failure to protect all non-meat substances is contamination
with dirt, excreta from rodents, birds or other animals and infestation with insects (Fig. 143).

141. Improper handling: dosage by

143. Impurities of common salt
hand

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142. Correct handling: dosage with

scales

PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT FOR NON-STERILIZED PRODUCTS

During processing many meat products are subject to specific heat treatment. The first task of heat
treatment is to reach satisfactory shelf-life by reduction of micro-organisms. The second task is to obtain
desirable organoleptic characteristics, to preserve nutritive value and improve digestibility of the product.

Reduction of micro-organisms

Bacteria are destroyed if exposed to sufficiently high temperatures for long enough. There is a direct
relationship between bacteria survival and time of exposure to temperatures. As an example, if 10 000
000 bacteria (per ml) suspended in broth are exposed to heat (70°C), after the first five minutes 1 000
000 will survive (90 percent are destroyed), after the next five minutes the number of surviving will be
100 000 (again 90 percent are destroyed), and so forth.

This tenfold reduction in bacterial numbers between fixed time intervals is called decimal reduction. The
time interval for decimal reduction varies between different bacteria and depends on the temperature
applied. The number of bacteria present in a meat product just before the heat treatment (initial number)
should be as low as possible so that a shorter time or lower temperature is needed to achieve a
satisfactory shelf-life for the product.

As sausage fillings as well as most other meat products represent a very good medium for bacterial
growth, they should immediately be exposed to heat treatment in order to prevent bacterial growth. It is
also important to perform all operations as quickly as possible, and to maintain the highest hygienic

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standards so that the initial bacterial count remains as low as possible. The manufacturer must always
bear in mind that bacteria grow very fast. Their number may be doubled every 20 minutes.

Organoleptic changes

These are caused by heat treatment (doneness, flavour, firmness, consistency and cured-meat colour
development) are time-temperaturedependent processes. The basic effect of the heat treatment is
coagulation of meat proteins. Between 70° and 80°C the majority of meat proteins are completely
coagulated, forming a structural matrix which entraps fat and water droplets released during heat
treatment. With coagulation of meat proteins, WHC is decreased and the meat loses a certain amount of
water (thermal weight loss). Those structural changes of proteins are responsible for characteristic
firmness of heat-treated products. Frankfurters have an elastic firmness, and on reheating prior to
consumption become even more firm. Products containing connective tissue become more tender owing
to solubilization of the collagen (gelling). Products such as paste which are in a liquid state prior to
heating change for more viscous and spreadable consistency. Sausages made from larger meat pieces
also attain a characteristic consistency. The exudate released during massaging or tumbling coagulates
and binds the pieces of meat.

144. Temperature measurement in a 146. Simple cooking equipment with

cooking vat the movable vat

145. Temperature measurement with

thermometer in large-diameter cooked
sausage (centre), during chilling by
cold water (showering)

TABLE 8
Influence of temperature and time of heat treatment on cured-meat colour development in
bologna (diameter 90 mm)

Temperature of heating medium Time necessary to develop

Pinkish Red colour
(not stable) (stable)
(°C) (min)
70 90 110
75 75 90
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80 60 75
100 30 45
110 15 30

Such products (cooked hams, ham sausages) become sliceable. Heat treatment also makes products
chewable.

In addition to these physical changes resulting from heat treatment, some biochemical reactions also
take place which contribute to the typical flavour of heat-treated products. Many compounds present in
the raw material are broken down by heat to produce the characteristic flavour. Fatty components give
the meat product a distinctive flavour, specific to the animal species from which fat is obtained.

Cured-meat colour is not stable unless the raw product is heat-treated.

All these changes occurring during heat treatment give the product its typical overall sensation of
doneness.

Duration of heat treatment

The duration of the heat treatment primarily depends upon the size and shape of the meat product.
Treatment continues until the coldest point (innermost part) reaches the defined temperature. It is
essential to check temperatures of the heating medium and of the innermost part of the products and to
observe exact times (Figs 144 and 145).

TABLE 9
Heat treatment of different meat products

Temperature
Product
Heating medium In product
(°C)
Fresh sausages, hamburgers 150–350 65–110
Sausages made of uncooked raw material 75–85 70–75
Sausages made of precooked raw material 80–98 85–90
Canned cured hams, shoulders and loins 75–85 70–75

Types of heat treatment

Heat treatment by dry heat is performed in special ovens (roasting) or on a gridiron (grilling). Meat loaves
and similar products are roasted. Meat patties, hamburgers and fresh sausages are grilled.

Heat treatment by hotwater is the most common and is usually performed in large cooking vats. When
applied to canned hams or ham sausages, it is called pasteurization (Figs 144, 145 and 146).

Heat treatment by steam is one in special steam cabinets and is in particular applied in cases when
treatment in cooking vats is not desirable because of substantial losses of aroma and flavour of the
products into the cooking water.

Frequent faults committed during heat treatment

Undercooking may be due to the temperature being too low, the time of treatment being too short, or
both. The consequences are in a reduced shelflife due to spoilage and the possibility of food-poisoning.
Spoilage results in a bad smell, discoloration, softened consistency and souring.

Overcooking results from either too high a temperature or too long a duration or both. The consequences
are increased cooking losses, fat separation in some sausages, undesirable changes of flavour and a
softer consistency.

General remarks

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In order to keep the initial bacterial numbers as low as possible it is important to keep the temperature of
the raw materials as low as possible before heat treatment. After filling sausages and mixing other meat
products heat treatment must be applied immediately.

RAW OR COOKED MEAT PRODUCTS FABRICATED FROM ENTIRE MEAT

PIECES
Raw and dry meat pieces

These are prepared from primal cuts with or without bones. They are cured and dried without heat
treatment and must be produced from wellrefrigerated carcasses.

This process is based on two principles: the stabilization of the product by decreasing water activity and
adequate ripening. Decreasing water activity (= amount of water available for microbiological growth) is
achieved by penetration of salt into the meat pieces and consequent dehydration. With 3–5 percent salt
penetration, 5–9 percent of the water will migrate out of the meat. Dehydration continues during drying
and ripening and prevents bacterial growth. Nitrite, which is either added directly or formed from nitrate,
also contributes to this bacteriological effect. If these preservative conditions are completed, the finished
dry product will be bacteriologically stable and need not be cooked before consumption. At the same
time, these processes destroy possible live trichinae in pork. Repeated rearrangement during curing of
stocked meat cuts is important to eliminate pressed-out water.

Smoking, drying and ripening contribute to the development of very pleasant flavour, which is due to
biochemical changes taking place in muscle and fatty tissue. First lipolysis takes place in which complex
molecules of fat are broken down under the influence of enzymes, not only those normally present in
fatty tissue, but also those of bacterial origin (especially Micrococceae). Second, oxidation is initiated by
higher temperatures. Intensive oxidation of fat can cause undesirable rancidity.

All these reactions taking place during processing develop very slowly, because the useful enzymes are
enclosed in the cells. Drying and ripening must therefore be long-term processes for the enzymes to be
effective.

Raw dry hams

Dry hams are uncooked, cured, dried and usually smoked pork legs.

Raw material. The legs are cut from the pork sides (Fig. 99) and quickly chilled to an internal
temperature of 2°C within 18 hours. Legs having blood clots, PSE or DFD muscles are not suitable. The
minimum weight of a deboned leg is 5 kg.

Additives. A mixture of salt (10 kg), nitrate (400 g), sugar (500 g) and spices, usually black and white
pepper, sage and ginger, is used for dry curing. Instead of salt and nitrate, the so-called nitrite salt can
also be used. In some traditional methods only common salt is used.

147. Dry-curing of pork legs placed in a 148. Ripening of pork legs (skin on) in
cask dry ham production

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Manufacturing. In the cold season and at high altitudes hams may be dried under natural conditions,
according to the traditional method. Because of air purity and better circulation, nitrate is not usually
used, so a larger quantity of coarse salt must be added, giving the finished product a more salty taste.

After overnight chilling, legs are cut off between the aitch bone and femur. Feet are removed but the skin
is usually left on, but may be removed from the upper third of the leg to improve salt penetration. The
legs are rubbed with the curing mix, arranged in a wooden cask (Fig. 147) placed in a cool place (about
0°C) and hand sprinkled with the same mix. Salting lasts about three weeks. After a week they are salted
separately and rearranged in another properly washed cask. After salting the legs are rinsed and the
remaining salt is removed. They are tied and hung in a cool place for further drying and ripening for at
least five to six months (Fig. 148). The windows and doors should occasionally be opened and closed
and ventilation provided. Legs should be rearranged so that they are all uniformly dried.

Smoking can be applied in the processing of dry hams. Its purpose is to give the product a typical
flavour, distinctive colour and to harden it.

Smoking quality depends on many factors, but the most important are the smoke temperature at the
product surface and air humidity. It is most important that the surface is dry enough before smoking
starts. If smoking is a long-term process, drying occurs simultaneously but with a shorter process it must
be done first in a drying room. In raw dry ham production only cold-smoking is used (below 25°C).
Smoke density and duration depends on local preferences.

The industrial method uses special air-conditioned coolers, in which standardized conditions
(temperature, relative humidity (RH), air ventilation and circulation) can be maintained all year round.

Frequent faults committed during production. Faults may arise due to the use of poor-quality raw
material, inadequate manufacturing, unclean containers, and/or non-hygienic conditions. The most
common are:

Crust on the upperface (3–5 mm thick), of hard consistency and darker colour which arises during
smoking caused by low air humidity (below 65 percent) and/or very strong air circulation.
Cracks around the head of the leg bone of varying size and depth, due to careless deboning and
excessive drying.
Insufficient drying of certain parts can appear in large hams, seen as lighter areas with a softer
consistency. It is caused by improper processing (especially during drying and ripening), crust
formation (which prevents uniform drying of the inner parts), and/or insufficient air ventilation
(especially when dealing with legs weighing more than 9 kg).

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Mould (yellowish or greenish) is caused by drying at high RH, due to poor ventilation and air
circulation and/or mould contamination of equipment and workshop.
Oversalty taste is the consequence of improper desalting.
Rancidity arises from the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids and in severe cases results in a
yellow discoloration. High temperatures applied during smoking, drying and ripening, or poor-
quality feed may be the cause.
Spoilage within the product usually occurs around large blood vessels and is usually due to the
raw material being contaminated during deboning, trimming and/or curing in non-hygienic
containers. The characteristic brownish colour and unpleasant smell are caused by anaerobes.
Acarid findings show that products have not been properly protected against insects.

149. Finished meat product fabricated 150. Different dry meat products
from entire meat pieces: A whole dry (above, country pork shoulder, left
ham; B pieces; C slices of raw dry middle, dry smoked pork belly, right
ham; D rolled dry pork side below, cured dried beef)

Storage and shelf-life. If the process is carefully followed, the dry-cured ham is very tasty, nutritive and
bacteriologically stable. Stored at room temperature, but not more than 30°C, and RH between 55–65
percent, the shelf-life should be four to six months.

Raw dry hams are ready for sale immediately after production and final control (Fig. 149). They are sold
as they are, or may be packed (half or small pieces) into plastic bags. All deboned meat pieces may also
be sliced and packed under vacuum, in different consumer sizes, as trade demands.

The most common use of dry hams and all other uncooked meat products is in the form of very thin
slices (Fig. 149), for use in sandwiches or as starters. Bone-in products are used for preparing various
cooked dishes.

Other uncooked processed meat pieces

In addition to dry hams, many other uncooked dry processed meat pieces may be manufactured from
different primal cuts of pork carcasses and other species (Fig. 150). All parts of a pork carcass may be
used (ham, shoulder, loin, neck, back fat, jowl, head, tongue, ears, spare-rib, shank, feet, tail, bones
etc.). A long shelf-life is achieved by a combination of long drycuring (more than two weeks) and long
cold-smoking, with simultaneous drying and ripening.

Dry-curing is always followed by repeated salt rubbing during weekly rearranging of meat pieces.
Duration of salting or curing depends on size and on the coverage of skin or fatty and connective tissues.

All uncooked processed meat pieces must have: a regular shape without unnecessary cuts and rough
spots; dry, clean surfaces; moderate cured salty taste and agreeable bouquet; and a water content in
finished product not exceeding 30 percent. If the product has skin, it should be clean, light to dark gold-
brownish colour, without bristles.

“Country pork shoulder” is processed in a similar way to raw dry hams, though with a shorter production
time. The combined period for curing and salt equalization should be at least 25 days, and the total
production time at least 50 days.

Dry neck can be made with or without the bones. If bone-in it is cut along the neck bones and first three
vertebrae and the upper parts of the first three ribs (3 cm in length). Both types are dry-cured for a
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minimum of three weeks. Well-cured deboned necks can be filled firmly into fibrous casing or elastic
nets. The thicker part must be tied and hung on a stick, and left dripping for five to six hours. When the
surfaces are dry enough, coldsmoking can start and should last three to four weeks.

Dry loin can also be made with or without the bones. In both cases it must be cut between the third back
bone and last lumbar vertebrae, with the corresponding ribs to a width of 3 cm. The external layer of fatty
tissue must not exceed 0.5 mm. If all muscles except the long back muscle are trimmed off it is called
“dry real loin”.

Dry spare-ribs are the cured, smoked and dried lower half of the ribs, with muscles between them.

Dry head is the cured, smoked and dried half head of all kinds of small animal, totally deboned, without
salivary and lymphatic glands and tonsils.

Dry shanks and feet are well-cleaned, singed, cured, smoked and dried sheep, goat, deer and pig feet.

Dry tail, usually cut off together with the aitch bone, is a cured, smoked and dried product.

Sheep, goat or small venison pastrami are cured, smoked and dried carcasses or sides, without the
head and neck, either bone-in or partially deboned. In the first case, for better salt penetration, the
largest muscles must be incised, the joints opened in the interior part, and the long bones broken
longitudinally. In partially deboned products, all bones except the vertabrae are removed. In both cases,
dry-curing agents are rubbed in and the carcasses or sides are spread in wide vats, to prevent creasing.
Curing lasts from three to four weeks, depending on the thickness. During that time the product is
recured twice, with repeated rubbing. After curing it must be flushed, tied with many loops and hung on a
stick for stretching by placing two rods longitudinally in the shoulder and ham. Smoking lasts for at least
a month to give a desirable gold-brownish colour and an attractive flavour.

Beef pastrami is dry-cured and smoked beef navel part or well-trimmed brisket.

The raw material must be rubbed on both sides with a mix of nitrite salt and saltpeter and left in curing
vats for two weeks. After seven days, the product must be repacked and, if necessary, some parts
rubbed again. After curing residual salt is eliminated by washing and the product is hung for dripping.
Smoking starts when the surfaces are dry enough, at 54°C, with light smoke, for three hours. The
amount of smoke and the temperature are gradually raised until the inside temperature of 74°C is
reached. The product is then removed from the smokehouse and hung at room temperature for a
minimum of two hours before being placed in the cooler prior to sale.

Cooked hams and cured and cooked meat pieces

The majority of this type of processed meat is fabricated from pork, but there are also certain cured and
cooked beef products.

Cooked hams are made either from entire hams (pork leg muscles, with or without shank) or
reconstituted from leg muscles or parts of them. As a rule, hams are produced as boneless, skinless,
shankless and defatted products. Most often, they are packed in a can or plastic pouch sealed under
vacuum. In both cases, pasteurization (cooking at temperature lower than 100°C) is done in the final
container in which they remain until slicing (Fig. 156). Being perishable they must be kept under
refrigeration. The exception is with small packages (lighter than 1.4 kg) of hams which can be produced
as commercially sterile products.

Beef hams are made from meat from younger cattle and the same process is applied as for the
manufacture of cooked hams.

Additives. Water, salt, sugar, phosphate, nitrite and sometimes salts of ascorbic acid and soy isolates are
the basic ingredients of curing brine. The amount injected depends on product quality. Water used for
preparing curing brine must meet the standards of potable water. All ingredients should be well chilled.

Data presented in Tables 10 and 11 show that injecting 12, 31 or 36 percent curing brine of appropriate
composition will give the desirable amount of salt (2.6 percent) and nitrites (0.016 percent) in the finished
product. The amount of other additives may vary with local regulations.

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Manufacturing. The highest standards of hygiene must be maintained at all stages. The processing steps
are:

Brine injection. For small production one-needle brine injectors are sufficient (Fig. 151). The modern
method uses pickle injectors with a large number of needles, providing a more even distribution of the
curing brine (Fig. 152). Pressure during injection can be regulated, as well as the speed of the conveyor
providing the material. These multi-needle injectors allow more brine to be injected into products than the
traditional method. The pressure of injection varies from 1 to 2 atm, depending on the number of needles
used and the amount of brine to be injected. For high brine injection rates (20 percent or more) it is better
to inject twice under low pressure than once under high pressure, to avoid the formation of “lakes” of
brine in the muscles. The weight of meat must be checked before and after injecting. If the percentage of
injected brine is less than that required, it can be made up by adding it in the massaging vat.

TABLE 10
Ingredients necessary for preparing curing brine for manufacturing regular hams (I), soy- and
water-added hams (II) and ham imitations (III)

Quality of hams
Ingredients
I II III
(%)
Tap water 70.43 82.11 84.59
Nitrite salt 21.73 8.49 7.26
Dextrose 4.16 1.61 1.39
Phosphate 3.60 1.39 1.19
Soy isolate - 6.40 5.55

Mechanical treatment of meat after brine injection has become a recommended process for larger-scale
production, not only for cured entire meat pieces but also in the production of reconstituted smaller
pieces. During mechanical treatment, muscular cells are ruptured so that myofibrilar proteins quickly
come in contact with the brine and swell. Exudate which consists of cell juices, brine, meat particles and
salt-soluble proteins acts like a “glue” to bind meat pieces together. Processed ham can therefore be
easily sliced without falling apart.

The advantages of mechanical treatment are shorter curing time, better yield, less cooking loss,
improved tenderness and better sliceability. Duration of the mechanical treatment depends on the
machine and usually lasts from nine to 24 hours at 2–4° C.

There are two kinds of machine used for mechanical treatment:

Tumblers are containers in the form of a cylinder rotating around the axis.

The speed of rotation is 10–20 revolutions per minute (rpm) and the total number of revolutions should
be 4 000–8 000, depending on the size of meat pieces and machine size. As a rule, tumbling lasts for
about 18 hours, with five-to ten-minute tumbling intervals followed by 20- to 25-minute pauses.

152. Injection of curing brine by multi-

151. Injection of curing brine with the needle pickle injector into skinless
manual method pork legs

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153. Massaging of cured-meat pieces

(cooked ham production)

TABLE 11
Raw material composition of regular hams (I), soy-and water-added hams (II) and ham imitations
(III)

Quality of hams
Ingredients
III I II
(%)
Whole muscles 85.00 66.00 0.00
Chopped muscles 3.00 3.00 64.00
Total meat 88.00 69.00 64.00
Water 8.45 25.45 30.45
Nitrite salt 2.62 2.62 2.62
Dextrose 0.50 0.50 0.50
Phosphate 0.43 0.43 0.43
Soy isolate - 2.00 2.00
Total brine injected 12.00 31.00 36.00

Tumbling under vacuum is recommended to avoid foaming and to improve colour stability.

Massaging vats have handles placed horizontally on the vertical axis propelled by the electrical engine
which squeeze the larger pieces of meat (Fig. 153). The duration of massaging, time intervals and total
time are similar to tumbling. The use of a vacuum is not possible with these machines.

Heat treatment (pasteurization) of the product in plastic pouches, cans or ham boilers, is done either in
an autoclave or a cooking vat in water at 80-85°C (Fig. 154). Cooking lasts until the temperature at the
geometrical centre (the coldest point of the product) reaches 70–75°C. Containers are cooled under
running water until the temperature in the centre of the product falls to 35°C, when they are moved into
coolers at 2–4° C.

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Frequent faults committed during production

Improper trimming of connective tissue which contracts during thermal treatment resulting in an
uneven surface and holes in the cross-section.
Bad sliceability of hams (pieces fall apart) is the result of insufficient mechanical treatment and/or
insufficient exudate (Fig. 155).
Holes in the cross-section result from insufficient vacuum used during can stuffing.
Uneven colour of slices due to incomplete trimming of PSE muscles whose pale colour persists to
the finished product.
Excessive cooked-out juice results from incorrect brine composition (insufficient salt or phosphate)
or improper mechanical or heat treatment.
Overcooking beyond the temperature required for pasteurization increases the amount of cooked-
out juices, and gives the product surface a softer consistency.
Undercooking due to insufficient heat treatment is the greatest and most serious fault. The most
important consequences are shorter shelf-life and/or rapid spoilage. Less important are harder
consistency and uneven colour of slices.

156. View of whole skinless cooked

hams (left), crosssection (middle), and
slices (on the slicing machine); the
154. Cooking of cured canned hams in oval piece is a reconstituted cooked
cooking vat ham

155. Cross-section of lowerquality

cooked ham having poor sliceability
and excessive fatty tissues

Storage and shelf-life. Canned cooked hams should be kept at 5°C to give a shelf-life of six months.

Thin slices of ham are used for sandwiches or as starters. Smaller slices are used for ham and eggs
(Fig. 156).

Other products such as canned cured shoulders, loins, necks, etc. are manufactured in a similar way.

MEAT PRODUCTS FABRICATED FROM COMMINUTED MEAT, FAT AND

OFFAL
Comminuted meat products

Comminution is the mechanical process of reducing raw materials to small particles. The degree of
comminution differs among various processed products and is often a unique characteristic of a
particular product ranging from very coarsely comminuted, to finely comminuted, to form an emulsion.
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Machines for comminuting. The range and quality of finished products prepared from comminuted meat
depend on the skill of personnel and the equipment available. A minimum layout should include grinder,
cutter, emulsion mill and ice-maker. Machines must be designed for easy cleaning. All surfaces in contact
with products must be smooth, free from pits, crevices and scales. Machines must be constructed either
of stainless steel, or heat-resistent, non-toxic plastic material. All machines and tools must be carefully
cleaned several times during the working day and disinfected at the end of the day. Manufacturer's
instructions about the use and the maintenance of the machines must be strictly followed.

The grinder is usually the first machine used in the comminution of sausages. For non-emulsion-type
sausages, grinding is often the only form of comminution. It is used to cut the raw material and
thoroughly mix the ingredients. Meat is pushed along a worm-screw and then through perforated plates.
The holes of the grinder plates vary both in size (2–30 mm) and shape (Fig. 157). If the plates and knives
are not kept in good condition, and particularly if they are not sharp, meat will be overheated, become
greasy and lose its binding ability.

The cutter is the most important comminuting machine, for simultaneous comminution and mixing. Meat
revolves in a bowl and passes through a set of knives mounted on a high-speed rotating arbor in a fixed
position. The meat is guided toward the knives by a plough fixed inside the bowl. There are usually two
speeds each for the bowl and the knives. The knives can differ in size and shape from rectangular to
round. There can also be a special device for charging and discharging the bowl.

To eliminate heating of the batter caused by friction, ice water is added. This is better than ice flakes
alone. To avoid excessive heating, properly sharpened knives must be used and the clearance between
the knives and the bowl should not exceed 0.7 mm. A thermometer is mounted on the cover of the bowl
to monitor the temperature of the meat batter. Modern cutters can operate under vacuum, which
improves the colour and other properties of the finished meat products.

Depending on the meat-particle size desired, it is possible to produce a satisfactory comminuted meat
product using only the cutter. For very fine products, such as frankfurter or bologna, it is often preferable
to pass the emulsion obtained in the cutter through an emulsion mill.

The emulsion mill (Fig. 168) is operated by one or more rotating knives, revolving at extremely high
revolutions, pulling the sausage mixture through one or more plates. Emulsion temperature rises by up to
3°C on each pass through the emulsion mill.

157. Grinder (mincer) with a set

of different plates (with small,
medium and large holes) and two
three-armed knives

The ice-maker freezes water on the spot into ice flakes.

Tools. There are many tools used in meat comminution (Fig. 158).

Trays, metallic or plastic, are used to keep, transport and weigh small quantities of the various raw
materials and for washing dismantled parts of machines.

Vats, metallic or plastic, are used to hold larger quantities of raw materials (up to 200 1).

Container trolleys are movable containers used to keep and transport raw materials from the cooler to
the workshop, or between machines.

Filling tables are metallic tables upon which the filled sausages run from the filler. They are made with
raised rims, except under the filler.

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Sticks are wooden or preferably metallic equipment for hanging up linked sausages (individually or in
links), or meat pieces, for dripping, smoking, heat processing and storage.

Cages are metallic structures in which loaded sticks are transported for further processing (smoking and
heat processing).

158. Different tools used

in manufacturing of
comminuted meat
products. Above: trays
(left), vat (right); below:
container trolley (left),
cage (right)

Balance and scales (Fig. 142) are used for weighing various raw materials, salt, curing agents and all
additives. They are also used for checking product weight before and after each stage of processing to
control weight loss.

Thermometers are used to check product temperature during comminution.

Basic technology of meat comminution

Comminution is a procedure which modifies the properties of fresh meat, so that the finished product
consists of small meat and fatty pieces, or it can be finely subdivided to obtain a meat batter. This meat
batter is a viscous mass, with many properties of an emulsion. A major problem in manufacturing
emulsion-type sausages is the tendency of fat to be separated during heat treatment. The sausage
batter, at least in part, is formed of a “fat/water emulsion” (meat emulsion or, better to say, dispersion),
employing salt-soluble proteins of meat as emulsifying agents.

Comminution, the basic method for sausage making can be: coarse, to produce non-emulsified
sausages like salamis and summer sausages, or fine, to produce emulsified sausages like frankfurters,
bologna, etc. (Fig. 159).

Coarse comminution is used to manufacture sausages with a coarse texture with small pieces of meat
and fatty tissues visible. For Meat I and for Meat II a 15- to 25-mm grinder plate is used while trimmings
and fatty tissues are passed through a 2- to 6-mm plate so that the connective tissues are less visible
and more digestible. Meat I and Meat II are passed through the grinder first, followed by the trimmings
and finally the fatty tissues. This avoids fat separated from the fatty tissues greasing the surface of meat
pieces thereby decreasing their binding ability. The meat should be well refrigerated (2–3°C) and firm, so
that it will be cut cleanly by the grinder knives and not squeezed.

Correctly pre-ground meat is transferred into the mixer or mixed manually for formulation. Nitrite salt and
phosphate are added and the mixing starts. All other non-meat components are added during mixing,
finishing with ascorbic acid. When the mixture is uniform the sausage mixture is formed.

159. Processing in comminuting

machines in medium-sized industries:

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grinder (right), cutter (middle) and filler

(left)

160. Cutter with meat pieces put into the

cutter bowl, lid opened to show set of
knives

161. Comminution of meat in bowl cutter

of industrial type. Addition of ice flakes
to chopped meat

162. View of the finished sausage mixture

for frankfurter sausages

Fine comminution used to manufacture emulsion-type sausages is performed in a high-speed cutter

(Figs 160, 161, 162, 163 and 164). The knives must be kept thoroughly sharpened and properly adjusted
to the bowl. During comminution bundles of fibres, myofibrils and filaments are separated and disrupted
and the size of meat and fatty tissues is continuously reduced. The muscle tissue, having a stronger
structure than fatty tissue, determines the total comminution time required. Heat produced during
comminution helps the salt-soluble proteins to concentrate at the fatglobule surface and come in contact
with water from the protein matrix. Higher speeds produce a better distribution of fat due to the
temperature rise but excessive temperatures (more than 15°C in pork and 18°C in beef) can partially
destroy the protein membrane which surrounds fat particles, and cause a breakdown of the sausage
mixture. Unprotected melted fat migrates to the surface, forming easily visible fat pockets between the
sausage surface and the casings. The melting point of fat is the parameter for determining the maximum
temperature for the meat batter. Overcomminution can also provoke breakdown. As the fat particle size
continuously decreases, there is a proportional increase in the total surface of fat particles requiring
proteins. Generally, as particle size decreases more meat and meat-extender proteins are required to
form a heat-stable emulsion.

Frozen and chilled meat for different products. Frozen meat must be sliced in a frozen-meat slicer prior
to grinding. The block of meat (Fig. 165) is placed upon the carriage and passed under a large knife
which cuts the meat into large slices (Fig. 166) or smaller meat flakes.

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Frozen meat is not suitable for coarse comminuted sausages but may be used in manufacturing fine
comminuted meat products. So that the optimal temperature (3–5°C) for extraction of salt-soluble
proteins is reached, only water without ice is added in the cutter.

Some meat extender must be added to bind juices from the frozen meat which will be separated during
heat treatment.

Chilled meat is more suitable for both coarse and fine sausages as the meat batter can be more readily
maintained at the optimal temperature. Another advantage is that neither a frozen-meat storage facility
(minimum -18°C) nor a frozen-meat slicer is necessary.

Methods of addition of salt, additives and spices. The aim of using salt and/or nitrite salt in manufacturing
comminuted meat is to separate the maximum quantity of salt-soluble proteins from the muscle cells.
Optimum salt concentration for total extraction is 5–6 percent, and the optimum temperature is 3–5°C.
Salt must be sprinkled on the pre-ground meat in the bowl as soon as possible. By mixing meat and salt
at the slowest speed, salt starts to extract proteins from broken muscle cells. Half the ice water (1:1) is
added to speed this process and control the temperature rise.

Additives contribute to improving and intensifying some properties of meat proteins, especially water-
holding, water-binding and emulsifying capacities. In order to achieve this they are sprinkled on the meat
after the salt has completed its effects, but always before adding fatty tissues.

To achieve uniformly and well-flavoured comminuted meat products, spices must be properly sprinkled in
the meat batter and are added after additives, but always before fatty tissue to avoid them sticking to it
causing a non-uniform colour. All spices for sausage formulation should be weighed and mixed in a
plastic bag before adding to the meat batter.

164. Emptying cutter bowl manually

163. Preparing sausage mixture in and transferring batter in manual
small-scale production sausage stuffer (left)

Hygienic aspects of comminuted meat. Comminuted meat is more highly perishable owing to the large
surface area exposed to many sources of contamination, the availability of the meat juice, water and
nutrients, and the distribution of surface flora during comminution. The flora count varies greatly,
presumably reflecting the initial contamination. For example, the count in ground beef is usually less than
in minced pork. High counts will arise during comminution if the temperature of the sausage mixture is
not properly controlled. It may however be preserved in different ways: adding salt and nitrite, smoking,
heat treatment, and adequate storage. The preservative effect of salt is due to its capacity to lower water

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activity to a level that inhibits bacterial growth. For a longer shelf-life other preservative methods must be
used such as the addition of nitrite which has a marked bacteriostatic effect.

If the sausage mixture is kept at a relatively high temperature (above 20°C) before it is filled into casings,
vegetative bacteria will grow and cause deterioration. In order to kill most micro-organisms present,
emulsion-type sausages must be heat-treated to an internal temperature of 72–75°C. The product shelf-
life is thereby significantly extended.

The product must be quickly chilled after heat treatment, in order to prevent growth of any surviving flora.
After the final inspection it is ready for sale. Finished products must not come into contact with the floor
(Fig. 167) or any other contaminated materials, especially raw meat or natural casings.

Hygienic faults committed during meat comminution

The basic objective of meat comminution is to manufacture sausages of standard quality with a desirable
hygienic level, and an acceptable shelf-life. For this reason, during comminution all improper handling
which can promote growth of micro-organisms must be eliminated. The meat products are not only highly
perishable, but may also become the source of foodborne diseases.

Sources of contamination during comminution

Unclean machines. Meat batter and sausage mixture represent very good nutritive media for rapid
growth of micro-organisms, owing to the presence of the soluble nutrients. If any interruption in
production is greater than half an hour the machine must be emptied, the sausage mixture placed in the
cooler, and the machine immediately washed. Failure to do so will lead to heavy contamination of the
next batch. The contamination will be even more serious if residual material stays in unclean machines
overnight or even during the weekend. To eliminate these hazards the machine must be washed
immediately after use with hot water. The best method of washing for machines, containers and walls
and floors is with a special cleaning machine. When attached to the water supply the machine can
increase the water pressure tenfold to make cleaning very effective. Liquid disinfectant may also be
added. Hot water (minimum 83°C) gives the best results.

During dismantling of any machine, either for daily washing or routine control of cleanliness, dismantled
pieces must not be placed on the floor (Fig. 168). They should be put in a plastic (not metallic) tray or vat
and after washing hung on a rack, for draining overnight. The next day their cleanliness and sharpness
must be checked before use. Water remaining after cleaning must be eliminated before leaving the
workshop (Fig. 169).

165. Cross-section of frozenmeat

block

166. Slices of frozen meat cut by

frozen-meat slicers

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Unhygienic handling. There are many manual operations in a nonautomated production line for
comminuted sausages. Unhygienic handling can provoke rapid bacterial growth, which will persist even
after hightemperature heat treatment, resulting in a shorter shelf-life.

Meat trays, other tools, plastic aprons etc. must never be washed on the floor (Fig. 170). Any material
falling on the floor must not be reused in further processing (Fig. 171). All dirty and contaminated
material must be placed in a special watertight non-corrosive bucket, with a lid fastener, to prevent
access to unauthorized persons and clearly marked in large red letters “condemned”.

MEAT EXTENDERS
Meat extenders are usually protein additives, defined as non-meat proteins. A wide variety of meat
extenders are available for use in emulsion-type sausages to improve consistency and emulsifying and
water-binding capacities. They can also serve to enhance protein content, improve processing yields and
reduce formulation costs. The most important meat extenders are soy proteins, milk proteins, starch,
flours and yeast. The permitted maximum amount of meat extenders in sausage production is usually 3.5
percent and is strictly regulated by law in certain countries.

167. Pre-packed sausages in

contact with floor (hygienic fault)

Soy proteins

These are table proteins from soybeans in the form of flours, grits, concentrates and isolates, texturized,
untexturized and extruded.

Soy flour is a screened, graded product, obtained after extracting most of the oil from dehulled soybeans.

168. Emulsion mill, dismantled parts 170. Improper washing apron on the
lying on floor (hygienic fault) floor (hygienic fault)

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171. Meat fallen on the floor and

169. Water remaining in grinder
reused for processing in cutter
(hygienic fault)
(hygienic fault)

Soy grits are particles of larger size, described as coarse, medium and fine.

Soy flours and grits may be defatted, low-fat, or high-fat. Owing to their functional properties (emulsion
stabilization, and fat- and juice-binding), soybean flour and grits are used in the production of all
emulsion-type sausages, meat patties and canned-meat products. However, both flour and grits give a
slightly bitter taste to meat products, which limits their use (up to 2 percent).

Soy protein concentrates are high-protein products (not less than 70 percent). They possess good water-
absorption abilities and are used in emulsion-type sausages, luncheon loaves and meat patties (2.5–3
percent).

Soy protein isolates are the most refined form of soy proteins, without water-soluble sugars and other
insoluble components. Owing to their highprotein content (minimum 97 percent) they have excellent
dispersing, emulsifying, gelling and water-and fat-binding properties. They are used in production of
bologna, miscellaneous sausages, canned and dietary meat products.

Textured soy proteins are available in a variety of shapes, sizes, flavours (beef, pork, ham, chicken etc.),
textures and colours. They are used as extenders in comminuted sausages, meat patties and canned-
meat products. Some physical properties and typical chemical composition of different soy protein
products are given in Table 12.

Application of soy proteins

Soy proteins and meat proteins interact differently with salt. While salt aids the extraction of salt-soluble
proteins from meat, it has the opposite effect on soy proteins since it prevents their hydration. It is
important therefore to add meat, soy proteins and salt in the correct order. Salt should be added only
after hydration of soy proteins has been completed. For complete hydration sufficient water must be
available and enough time allowed. The soy product/water ratio should be 1:4 or 1:5, with a minimum of
three minutes' chopping with the knives and cutter at the highest speed. Soy proteins may be used in
sausage production in dry gel and emulsion forms.

Dry form. Meat is placed in the bowl at slow speed and soy product is added. The correct amount of
water is added at the highest speed to allow complete hydration of the soy proteins. When the mix is
homogenous, phosphate is added and finally nitrite salt.

TABLE 12
Typical chemical composition of different soy products

Soy flour Grits Soy Isolated

Chemical
protein soy
components
concentrate protein
(fine) (coarse) (coarse) (fine)
(%)
Water 6.5 8.0 9.1 4.8
Protein 53.0 52.0 65.3 92.0
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Sugar 31.0 31.0 16.9 -

Ash 6.0 6.0 4.8 4.0
Fibre 2.5 2.5 3.6 0.25

Gel. Using soy gel ensures that the soy proteins are completely hydrated. To 15 kg of dry soy product, 60
kg of water is added. Complete hydration can be seen by the appearance of the gel consistency. Such
gel, if used in sausage production, must be added to meat batter before fatty tissues and other additives.
The remaining gel is stored in a cooler and, if not required until the next day, 2 percent salt is added.

Emulsion. Soy products can be added to emulsion-type sausages in the form of a pre-processed soy
emulsion. These can be produced by processing with cold or hot water, depending on whether fatty
tissues are used. The ratio between soy product, fatty tissues and water is 1:5:5 for firm and 1:4:4 for
soft fatty tissues. In both cases, soy product is placed in a bowl, water is added, and the mix is
comminuted to complete hydration (minimum three minutes). Fatty tissue is added and chopping is
continued at the highest speed. For better bacterial stability 2 percent salt must be added.
Coldprocessed emulsion can be used the same day, but hot-processed emulsion must be chilled
overnight in flat trays in layers not more than 10 cm thick.

Milk proteins

These are casein, lactalbumin, lactoglobulin and other serum proteins. Casein is one of the most
important proteins, used as an emulsifying agent in sausage manufacturing as caseinate (dry milk-
protein isolate). It is a fine white powder with neutral taste and a protein content of approximately 94
percent. Unlike the coagulable soy proteins, egg albumen and blood plasma, milk protein does not
coagulate, shrink or form a gel while heating.

If caseinate is added to meat before salt addition, it will surround free fat particles during comminution.
Thus, the binding capacity of meat saltsoluble proteins may be enhanced to form a more stable
emulsion.

In sausage manufacture, caseinate may be used in three ways:

Prefabricated caseinate emulsion. When making this emulsion, the order of addition, the necessary
emulsifying time and temperature, and the protein:fat:water ratio are of major importance.

After the fatty tissue has been comminuted to a fine paste, dry caseinate must be added immediately,
followed by all the hot water. After four to six minutes of comminution the emulsion is ready. During the
last few rotations 1.5 percent salt is added. For high-emulsion stability it is necessary to reach a
minimum emulsifying temperature of 45°C for pork and 50°C for beef fatty tissues. The emulsion must be
chilled overnight in flat trays. Next day the emulsion may be added to the meat batter, together with fatty
tissues.

The usual caseinate:fat:water ratio for the lower-viscosity caseinate (EM-6) is 1:5:5 and for high viscosity
(HV) is 1:8:8. If cooked pork skin is used, the ratio of caseinate:fat:water and skin is 1:8:8:2 for
sausages.

Dry powder caseinate may be used when prefabricated emulsion or gel are unavailable. As this is
absorbed at the fat-water interface it is absolutely necessary to add caseinate before fatty tissues to
ensure that the emulsion is heat stable.

Prefabricated gel is a concentrated solution of caseinate in water. Optimum results can only be expected
when the caseinate is completely dissolved in water (1:8). It is recommended to moisten caseinate in the
cutter with an equal amount of ice (1:1). After a few minutes of comminution the remaining seven parts of
water are added. The gel is used in sausage formulations containing relatively small quantities of fat and
in coarse comminuted sausages.

Starch

This is a complex sugar of plant origin. The basic technological function of starch is to absorb released
water and juice during heat treatment. The most frequently used starches are wheat, maize, potato, rice

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and manioc. Starch is used in doses up to 4 percent. During heat treatment of sausages, added starch
binds part of the free water and swells, thus decreasing weight losses.

Flour

Wheat flour is the most commonly used binder following hydration. Approximate chemical composition is
starch 65–75 percent, gluten 8–14 percent, and water 12–16 percent. If flour is added in sausage
formulation, care must be taken to prevent quick decomposition of the sausage mixture. Owing to the
activity of flour enzymes, flour is commonly used in lowquality sausages (up to 4 percent).

Yeast

Brewer's inactivated yeast with the bitter taste removed is frequently used. It is a fine yellow-grey or grey-
pink powder, with distinctive taste and smell. Approximate chemical composition of yeast is: 53 percent
proteins, 36 percent sugars and 3 percent water.

In the meat industry the most important application of yeast is based on the ability of its proteins to
emulsify fat. A heat-stable emulsion is obtained if the yeast, water and fat ratio is not more than 1:5:5. In
comparison with soy isolate and caseinate, yeast proteins have a lower ability to emulsify tallow. A heat-
stable emulsion with tallow is only obtained with a ratio of 1:1.3:1.3.

Yeast can be used as an emulsifier in cooked and in canned chopped meat products and can easily
replace caseinate in paste production. Yeast used in these products may improve their flavour. The
content of free amino-acids improves the flavour of the meat product. Yeast also intensifies the flavour of
certain seasonings, especially those with hot components.

Yeast extract

This is obtained from special yeasts cultivated on cane-sugar nutrient media. It contains many proteins,
amino-acids and B-complex vitamins. It is used for improving the flavour of canned meat.

CASINGS
Casings are special cylindrical containers used to protect sausages and various meat products. Since
sausages are comminuted products they must be placed in some type of forming device to give them
shape, to hold them together during further processing and for protection. Casings may be natural or
artificial.

Natural casings

These are derived almost exclusively from the gastro-intestinal tracts of swine, cattle, sheep, goats and
horses. Hog casings are prepared from stomach, small intestine (smalls), large intestine (middles) and
terminal end (colon) of the large intestine (bung). Beef casings may be from the oesophagus
(weasands), small intestine (rounds), large intestine (middles), bung and bladder (Fig. 172). The
intestines of sheep and goats are used to produce casings primarily for fresh sausages, frankfurters, hot
dogs etc. Natural casings can be classified as narrow, medium and wide.

172. Natural casings: oesophagus (1),

small (2) and large (3) intestine, bung
(4), caecum (5), bladder (6) of pig; 173. Treatment of pork small intestines
small (7), and large (8) beef intestine (calibration)

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TABLE 13
Different diameters of small intestines

Diameter
Type of animal
Narrow Medium Wide
(mm)
Sheep 16–28 20–22 22–24
Hog 30–34 35–38 38–40
Beef 34–37 40–43 43–46

Treatment and storage. Intestines intended for use as casings for sausages must be immediately
processed after evisceration. First they are emptied and well flushed. Pig, sheep and goat small
intestines are scraped thoroughly without inversion to remove the exterior (serous) and interior parts
(mucous membrane), preserving the middle elastic muscle (Fig. 173). The same method is applied to the
large intestines of all animals.

Well-scraped, flushed and drained intestines are well sprinkled with common salt (dry salting) or
saturated salt solution (wet salting), spun and tied into intestine completes. They are arranged into
plastic casks. The top of the intestines is pressed down and salted again in order to eliminate air contact.
These casks must be firmly closed and stored in a dark cooler. If intestines are prepared for long storage
(more than three months), they must be salted with a mixture of salt and 0.2 percent antioxidant.

Large intestines and bladders can be preserved by means of air-drying. In this case, after scraping,
flushing and a short draining intestines are blown up in order to eliminate the remaining water and tied at
both ends in hanks, for quicker air-drying. They should be hung in a sunny, draughty place. When well
dried they are sorted according to diameter and packed. Such dry casings do not require storage in a
cooler.

Application. All salted natural casings should be thoroughly flushed inside with running water the morning
before use. They are then dipped into warm water to regenerate their elasticity (small intestines 10–20
minutes and large intestines 30–60 minutes) and drained for a short time before use.

Artificial casings

The advantages of these are uniform cylindrical shape, a range of specific diameters, suitable tensile
strength, resistance to damage, ease of use, variety of sizes and low microbial level. They can be filled
uniformly and linked either by hand or machine into regular lengths.

Four types of artificial casings are available (Fig. 174):

Cellulose casings are prepared from cotton linters in sizes ranging from 1.5 to 15 cm. They are easy to
handle and fill, possess a high degree of resistance and are permeable to smoke when moist. The
degree of permeability decreases as the casing dries during processing. Small cellulose casings are
used for skinless frankfurters or wieners, skinless smoked link sausages and many other small sausage
products (cocktail sausages). Small cellulose casings are also available in shirred form.

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Large cellulose casings are available in three types: regular, highstretched and large. They are used in
making all types of sausages and smoked meat. Cellulose casings are inedible and must be removed
before consumption.

Inedible and edible collagen casings are regenerated from collagen extracted from skins and hides. The
inedible collagen casings combine some of the advantages of both natural and artificial casings,
especially their strength, uniformity and shrink characteristics. They must be removed prior to
consumption. Edible collagen casings are mostly used for fresh pork sausages and frankfurters.

174. Different artificial casings

prepared in shirred (above) and
flat form (below) for sausage
manufacturing

Synthetic casings and bags are impermeable to smoke and moisture. They are used with unsmoked
products such as liver sausages or products which are heat-processed in water or a retort.

Tying of casings

Artificial casings are delivered either tied at one end with loops prepared in the factory or in hanks. As
casings in hanks can be easily stored and their length and the method of tying can be chosen at will,
they are well suited to small-scale production. One end of the casing is submerged in cold water (one to
two minutes), then tied either in a “doll” or “bow” knot (Figs 175 and 176). To make a “doll” knot, place a
string on the casing and twist around, slip the thumb and forefinger on the string 1 cm toward the end of
the casing, pass the string through the bight and set the knot, tighten the string, and prepare the loop
and tighten with a double knot.

When tying a “bow” knot, casings need not be submerged except the end of every dry casing. The
method is to place string on casing and tighten by means of a simple knot, fan-shape casing end with
knot in the middle, and tie knot underneath the wing (the tied casing has no loop). This method of tying
prevents slipping off.

175. Manually tied casings in strings 176. Manual tying of casings, with loop
(left); first step of manual tying (right) (left), and string of tied casings

HAMBURGER-TYPE PRODUCTS
Hamburger-type products are made form minced meat and fatty tissue to which salt and seasonings are
added. Soy is a common additive but curing agents need not be used.
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Raw material

Well-chilled Meat I and Meat II and fatty trimmings are the basic raw materials. All beef, all mutton, all
pork or combinations of different meat and fatty tissues in various proportions may be used.

Additives

Extruded soy proteins (ESP) are often used in manufacturing hamburgertype products. They should be
hydrated in water (70°C for 35–40 minutes) in the ratio of ESP to water of 1:1, 1:2 or 1:3. Salt,
seasonings and dry or fresh onions are the other basic ingredients. If these products are intended for
long-term storage some antioxidants may be added.

177. Frozen hamburgers

TABLE 14
Common composition of hamburger-type products

Products
Raw material All-beef Beef-pork All-pork
(%)
Beef I 53 25 -
Beef fatty trimmings 10 5 -
Pork I - 40 65
Pork fatty trimmings - 10 20
ESP: water (1:1) 30 15.5 10
Breadcrumbs 2.5 - 0.5
Salt 2 2 2
Onions 2 2 2
Seasonings (according to taste) 0.5 0.5 0.5

Manufacturing

Selected meat is minced through a 5-mm, fatty trimmings through a 3-mm, and hydrated ESP through a
3-mm plate. After mincing, the components are mixed with the additives and seasonings until all
components are evenly blended. The mixed batter is then ready for forming and shaping. Weight and
shape can vary but patties are usually round, weighing 80–120 g and 5–10 mm thick. After freezing, the
hamburgers are packed into suitable plastic bags or cardboard boxes, and immediately transported to a
storage room (Fig. 177).

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Beef II or Pork II are used with lower-quality products and ESP is hydrated with more water (1:2, 1:3).
Hamburger-type products should contain 10 to 25 percent fat but if hydrated ESP is used up to 30
percent may be added.

Storage and shelf-life

Hamburger-type products are stored at -20°C to give a shelf-life of 90 days. They may be cooked without
thawing by grilling, frying in deep fat or toasting on a hot plate.

DRY SAUSAGES
Dry sausages are specific coarse-comminuted meat products whose successful manufacture depends
upon bacterial fermentation. At some stages of processing, usually during smoking, these sausages are
deliberately held at temperatures which encourage bacterial growth and fermentation. Dried sausages
should never exceed 30°C at any stage as this would stop growth. The useful organisms responsible for
desirable fermentation (lactic acid-producing bacteria) originate from the natural flora of the meat,
processing equipment and the plant environment. Fermentation causes a characteristic tangy flavour to
develop, resulting from the accumulation of lactic acid and many other fermentation compounds. The pH
usually falls to 4.8–5.4. Another basic processing preservative step is dehydration achieved by keeping
the product under controlled temperature and air humidity (drying and ripening).

One of the distinctive features of dry sausages is that they are processed uncooked. The low pH (high
acidity), low-water content and high-salt content extend their shelf-life. Some but not all dry sausages are
smoked. The best known are dry pork sausages, dry beef sausages, mixed dry sausages, summer
sausages and salamis.

Raw material

In general, dry sausages are composed of two-thirds meat and one-third fatty tissues to which curing
agents and spices are added. Meat I and Meat II (Figs 129 and 130) of all species of slaughter animals
can be used, including camel, donkey and horse meat, but rarely mutton, goat or venison. Trimmings are
not used owing to their softness, neither are shanks or head or boar meat. Pork jowl and back fat (Figs
133 and 134), beef external fatty tissues and humps are used as fatty components.

Only well-chilled (-1° to 0°C) and/or frozen (-1° to -18°C) meat is used. Frozen meat is thawed for 48
hours on slanting racks to allow the drip to run off. The meat is chopped with sharp regular cuts, without
crunching. The temperature of meat and fatty tissues should be adjusted to stay in the range of -2° to
5°C during chopping (Fig. 178) so that temperatures in the filler will be between-1° and -3°C. If the
temperature in the filler is higher, drops of fat are deposited on the interior walls of the filler horn. During
further filling they are pressed into the casing and will grease the interior of the casings lowering their
porosity, making smoking, drying and ripening more difficult.

Main additives

Salt (28–37 g per kg) is used to prevent the growth of many undesirable aerobes, favouring the growth of
non-spoilage halophile and halotolerant bacteria. Salt also extracts the salt-soluble proteins to form a
protein gel which binds the pieces of meat and improves sliceability of the finished product.

Curing substances are used in the form of nitrite salt or a dry mix of common salt with 0.6 percent nitrite
salt and nitrate (0.3–0.5 g nitrate per kg).

Sugars speed acidification and are transformed into lactic acid by certain bacteria. Dextrose is the most
commonly used sugar (8–10 g per kg) but can be replaced by saccharose.

Spices. White and black pepper (0.5–3 g per kg), ground or crushed, are the most frequently used
spices. Fresh crushed garlic, paprika, cardamom, mustard etc. are also used. In some countries wine is
added to improve the flavour. Some antioxidative substances may also be added.

Starter cultures. To overcome the problems associated with bacterial fermentation, starter cultures of
selected lactic acid-producing flora have recently been used. The starter culture provides a predominant

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flora of the desired bacteria (Micrococcus, Pediococcus cerevisiae etc.) in the sausage mixture, and
fermentation is initiated within a minimum time.

178.
Manufacturing
dry sausage
mixture
consisting of
frozen particles
of lean meat and
fatty tissue, and
salt, spices and
additives

TABLE 15
Typical composition of some dry sausages and salami

Variation of dry All-pork All-beef Beef Salami

Components sausages dry dry soujouk
sausage sausage
1 2 3
(%)
Pork I and II - 29 30 69 - - 67
Beef I and II 61 47 37 - 74 86 -
Mutton I and
- - 7 - - - -
II
Pork back fat 14 19 10 10 - - 28
Pork jowl - - 5 5 - - -
Side pork fat 20 - - 10 - - -
Beef ext. fat - - - - 10.5 5 -
Hump (zebu) - - 4 - 10 5 -
Salt 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
Nitrate 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Sugar 0.6 0.6 1.0 0.45 0.4 - 0.5
Garlic 0.25 0.25 0.45 0.5 0.45 0.2 0.3
White
0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 - 0.3
pepper
Black pepper 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.25 0.1
Paprika - - 0.2 - 0.3 - 0.25
Anise - - 0.1 - 0.1 - -
Mustard - - 0.2 - 0.2 - -
Wine - - 1.0 1.0 - - -
Cognac 0.3 - - - - - -
Rum - 0.3 - - - - -

Casings

These may be natural or synthetic. Natural casings are usually small intestine of hog (for small-diameter
dry sausages), beef small intestine (for middle-diameter dry sausages), and large hog or beef intestine
(for largediameter dry sausages). As for salami (diameter more than 40 mm) and summer sausages the
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most convenient casings are small horse intestine. The best synthetic casings are the so-called “dry
sausage fibrous casings”, as they adhere very well to the product as it shrinks during drying.

TABLE 16
The most important parameters in manufacturing dry sausages

Technological operations Parameters

meat -1° to -30°C
pork pH 5.8 and lower
Choice of raw materials
beef pH 6.0 and lower
fatty tissues -10° to -30°C
Cutting cutting room not more than +15°C
-2°C to -5°C
finished sausage
Chopping pH 5.9 and lower
mixture
aw 0.97–0.96
Filling filling -1° to -3°C
curing room 21° to 24°C
Curing
(2–5 days) RH 75–80%
Smoking dry sausages maximum 30°C
drying room 18° to 25°C, RH 94–90;
Drying and ripening:
(2–4 days) air velocity 0.5–0.8 m/sec
pH 5.6–5.2
product
aw 0.96–0.94
first stage
drying room 18° to 22°C, RH 90–80%;
(5–10 days) air velocity 0.2–0.5 m/sec
pH 5.2–4.8
product
second stage aw 0.95–0.90
drying room 12° to 15°C, RH 80–65%;
(to 90 days) air velocity 0.05–0.1 m/sec
pH 5.3–5.8
third stage product
aw 0.92–0.85
10° to 15°C, RH 80–65%;
Storage store-room
air velocity 0.05–0.1 m/sec
Package packing room 10° to 15°C, RH 65–75%

Composition of some popular dry sausages

Like all other sausages there is much variation in the composition of dry sausages and salamis. A
common factor is that they do not contain any added cereal, ice or water.

Manufacture

In the successful manufacture of many varieties of dry sausages and salami, a great deal of technical
skill is indispensable. In manufacturing coarsely chopped sausages the grinder and mixer are used but
for less coarsely chopped sausages only the cutter is used (Fig. 178).

179. Different forms of tying dry 180. Ripening of dry sausages in a

sausages (singles and in strings) drying room

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In the first case, meat and fatty tissues pass through the grinder (beef 15-mm, pork 2–6-mm and fatty
tissues 8–10-mm plate) and the sausage mixture is made in the mixer. In the second case, chopping and
mixing are done in the cutter at slow speed. After adding the curing agents the meat is chopped to the
required size then fatty tissues and all other components are added. The mixture is firmer and without
residual air if a vacuum is applied. The sausage mixture must be firmly filled into casings. The casings
are punctured with small needles over the entire surface to allow entrapped air to escape. Tied sausages
are hung on sticks and transferred into a curing room (Fig. 179). Curing time depends on the sausage
diameter, three days for diameters up to 3 cm, and five days for larger. During this period, the cured meat
colour is developed and fermentation is initiated.

After curing, sausages are transferred to a drying room (Fig. 180). The rate of drying is controlled by
keeping the products between narrow limits of both temperature and RH. Too rapid drying will result in
the formation of an outer crust on the sausages, which will retard or stop internal drying. If the drying rate
is too slow and RH is too high, then surface mould, yeast and bacterial growth are excessive. During
drying and ripening, flavour develops, texture changes and the product hardens. Degree of drying can
vary according to local preferences. Ripening can either follow or precede cold-smoking, depending on
the particular product.

Dry sausages must be stored in an environment in which temperature and humidity do not provoke
overdrying. They are ready for sale immediately after production. All dry sausages may be sliced and
packed under vacuum in different consumer sizes. They are consumed sliced, as starters or in
sandwiches.

Only complete fulfilment of all technological parameters at all stages of production can guarantee the
desired quality of finished products. Dry sausages, like dry hams, are high-quality meat products. The
main characteristics of dry sausages are agreeable bouquet, i.e. flavour and taste of a well-matured
cured-meat product, attractive colour, good sliceability and long shelf-life. In order to achieve all these,
sufficient time must be allowed of at least a month for small-diameter sausages and three to six months
for large-diameter sausages and salami. Organoleptic tests and weight-loss control may confirm the end
of ripening. Water content of finished dry sausages (of any diameter) should be between 25 and 30
percent. Sausages should not be overdried or they are hard to chew and less acceptable to consumers.

Semi-dry sausages

They are produced by quick drying without ripening. Depending upon the diameter, this lasts from two to
three weeks. In order to shorten the process, reducing agents (such as Glucono-delta-Lactone) and a
starter culture must be added to the meat mixture. Weight loss is lower than in dry sausages, so the
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water content of the finished product is always greater than 40 percent, resulting in a shorter shelf-life, a
sour taste and a poor flavour. Sliceability is also owing to reduced binding of meat and fatty tissues.
Semi-dry sausages have a maximum shelf-life of one month at room temperature.

Frequent faults committed during production of dry sausages

Creases or detachment appear in sausages with synthetic casings if the filling dries at a faster rate than
the casing. Small creases become larger as drying continues, and overdrying causes detachment of the
casing. This can be prevented by using more elastic casings and by a slower drying rate (Fig. 181).

Crust formation results from rapid drying, especially at the initial stage, and can be detected by careful
palpation. If the crust is not firm a preventive measure is to increase the humidity in the drying room to
soften and rehydrate the sausage (Fig. 181).

Greasy casing results from using soft fatty tissues or from overheating the sausage mixture. Melted fat,
under pressure during filling, greases the interior walls of the casing reducing its porosity and preventing
normal water migration from inside the sausage. The consequence is a soft sour sausage. If the melted
fat penetrates the casing walls, then the product also becomes greasy.

Sausage mould, usually greenish in appearance, is the sign of contaminated equipment and workshop. It
is eliminated by using good antifungicidal agents in cleaning operations.

Sausage sliminess is the result of heavy micro-organism growth on the surface of the sausage casing,
encouraged by too high a temperature and air humidity. Partial sliminess can be removed by washing in
salty water, followed by dripping and more intensive and dense smoking. This fault may appear when the
product is stored in cardboard boxes for a long time.

Sour sausage, being invisible, is unfortunately usually detected only at the end of drying during the final
control. It has a sour taste, semi-rigid consistency and the periphery is darker than the centre. It is the
result of the intensive growth of lacto-acid bacteria, feeding on the added sugar. Preventive measures
are to decrease the added sugar and increase the added salt. Such products must be properly dried and
ripened.

Sausage porosity usually appears in large-diameter sausages. Air in pores causes decomposition of fat,
leading to changes in colour and taste (Fig. 182).

Poor sliceability is the result of insufficient curing and salting, uneven distribution of curing agents, and/or
short curing. The lack of salt-soluble proteins reduces binding between meat and fat particles.

Blown-up sausages due to gas produced by sudden micro-organism growth result from contamination of
raw materials, equipment, tools and unhygienic production.

Dry sausages are a very nutritive meat product which may be eaten immediately after production,
without any additional heat treatment. They are sold entire or packed in pieces in plastic bags. All dry
sausages can be sliced and packed under vacuum, in various consumer sizes. Dry sausages are usually
covered in very thin slices in sandwiches, or eaten as starters.

181. Unequal drying of sausages,

182. Decomposition of internal parts of
overdrying (left) and detachment of the
dry sausage
casing (right)

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COOKED SAUSAGES
Cooked sausages are fine-comminuted sausages representing an important group of meat products.
The basic technological aim is to increase the natural WHC of the meat batter to bind considerable
quantities of added water. Cooked sausages may be made of uncooked or cooked raw materials.

Cooked sausages made of uncooked raw materials

These are emulsion-type sausages. The finished products are heat-treated to between 75° and 80°C to
achieve desirable organoleptic properties and bacterial stability. They are juicy, tasty, easily chewable
and digestible. To achieve such juiciness, about 25 percent water is added to the meat during
manufacturing. Phosphate must be added to improve the WHC of the meat proteins. Specific amounts of
fatty tissues must also be added to achieve the characteristic consistency and flavour.

Raw material. Many different kinds and qualities of meat, organs and fatty tissues can be used. Beef,
veal and pork are more frequently used, but camel, mutton, goat and venison can also be incorporated.
Practical experience has shown that more desirable cooked sausages of the emulsion type are
manufactured when hot-boned meat is used. In this case phosphate is not necessary, because hot-
boned meat has a high WHC in the first three to four hours after slaughter and can emulsify 22 percent
more fat than chilled or frozen. If hot-boned meat is not available only well-chilled and/ or frozen meat
should be used. The chemical composition, water-binding and fat-emulsifying properties of the raw
materials must be known in order to make products of uniform quality. Suitable raw materials are listed in
Table 17.

Offals such as heart, tongue, spleen, lungs, stomach, tripe or non-lactating udder are not commonly
used in the manufacture of emulsion-type sausages. However, special products of this type may contain
smaller quantities of certain offals.

Fatty tissues are also important raw materials. They contribute to the palatability, tenderness and
juiciness of sausages. Variation in the ability to emulsify fat is due to the amount of soluble proteins
potentially available, and their emulsifying capacity.

TABLE 17
Raw materials suitable for manufacturing cooked sausages made of uncooked material

Cattle Pigs

Boneless primal cuts (Meat I) Boneless primal cuts (Meat I)

Boneless bull and cow meat (Meat I &
Trimmings from primal cuts (Meat II)
II)
Trimmings from blade and neck
Beef trimmings
bones
Head and cheek meat Head and cheek meat
Diaphragm meat Diaphragm meat
Blood plasma Skin
Suet and brisket fat Blood plasma
Jowl, backfat

Calves Sheep and goats

Boneless primal cuts Boneless primal cuts

Cheek meat and trimmings Cheek meat and trimmings

Ice water is used as a carrier for the curing agents, and improves the extraction of meat protein and the
hydration of meat-extender proteins. The amount of added ice water depends on the raw material used.
Water can be partly substituted by blood plasma which is an additional source of protein and improves
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the water-binding and emulsifying properties of the product. Regulations for emulsion-type sausages in
many countries limit fat content to a maximum of 30 percent and water content to 40–60 percent in
finished products.

Additives. A variety of additives can be used in addition to meat extenders. Phosphates and seasonings
(spices, sweetners, glutamates) may be used to create a range of products. If frozen and chilled meat is
used, 0.3–0.5 percent phosphate must be added. Salt and pepper form the basis for a cookedsausage
seasoning mixture. All other seasonings are only supplementary to them. Ascorbic acid, sodium
ascorbate or sodium erythorbate (about 0.4 g per kg) are used in a 10-percent water solution at the end
of the comminution.

Casings. Natural or synthetic casings can be used (Table 18) but in both instances they must be firmly
filled.

Manufacture. The basic aim in cooked-sausage manufacturing is to make a heat-stable meat batter, a
meat “emulsion”, consisting mainly of water and protein. Heat treatment transforms it from a viscous form
to a rigid and elastic solid structure which can be considered as a protein gel with entrapped fat particles.
If the protein gel is strong enough, the fat will not be separated during heat treatment.

Principles of mincing. Mincing completely destroys the meat structure. Meat proteins in the presence of
salt, phosphates and cold water are dissolved forming a system consisting of a solution of salt-soluble
proteins and muscle and connective tissue particles. When fatty tissue is added the fat particles will be
emulsified with the salt-soluble proteins during comminution. The proteins will therefore be able to cover
the total fat surface, surrounding each fat particle and so stabilize the emulsion.

During comminution the structured breakdown of meat and fatty tissues occurs and new systems are
formed: minced meat, suspension, after addition of salt, phosphate and ice water and emulsion, after
addition of fatty tissues and stable sausage mixture after addition of all other additives (Figs 161, 162,
163 and 164).

Principles of filling. Cellulose and collagen casings are ready for transferring directly to the filling horn.
Salted, natural casings should be flushed thoroughly prior to use, and filled firmly (Figs 183, 184 and
185).

Principles of heat treatment. Proteins show a great tendency to bind to and cross-link with each other
upon heating. The binding properties of comminuted sausages originate from the heat-induced gelation
of meat proteins. Gelation begins at about 43°C and produces a three-dimensional network structure
which stabilizes the fat and water in comminuted meat products and binds meat and fat pieces together
(Fig. 186).

183. Filling of frankfurter-type sausage

mixture using manual sausage stuffer

184. Filling horn of automatic 186. Cooking and smoking device for
(hydraulic) sausage stuffer cooked sausages (industrial size)

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187. High porosity of frankfurters (left),

185. Natural casings ready for filling and emulsion breakdown manifested
(left), and filled sausage (hog casing) as fat pockets between surface and
casing

TABLE 18
Casings used in manufacturing cooked sausages made of uncooked raw materials

Type of Length Diameter Casings

sausage (cm)
sheep, goat and hog casings, or collagen or
Frankfurter 12–14 small
cellulose casings of similar diameter
Vienna
12–14 small as above
sausage
Hot dog 16–18 small as above
Knackwurst 12–14 small as above
Bologna
• long 40– beef middles or weasands, or cellulose casings
medium
bologna 100 of similar diameters
• large beef bungs or cellulose casings of similar
20–50 large
bologna diameter
• ring beef rounds or cellulose casings of similar
40–50 large
bologna diameter
Veal
40–60 large beef bungs or cellulose casings of similar size
sausage

Frequent faults committed during production

Separation of fat in the form of fat caps or fat pockets (Fig. 187) develops during heat treatment,
due to emulsion breakdown, as a result of improper formulation (too much fatty tissue, especially
soft or insufficient emulsifier), incorrect order of addition of raw materials and additives, and
overcooking.
Holes in sausage mixture caused by improper filling (Figs 187 and 188).
Shrinkage of cooked sausages caused by improper smoking and/or heat treatment (temperature
too high and RH too low).
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Difficult peeling of casings, can be the result of too much connective tissue in the formulation.
Uneven colour of smoked sausage surface (unsmoked spots) occurs at places where links touch
each other.
High porosity of sausage mixture due to entrapped air.

TABLE 19
Typical composition of different types of cooked sausage made of uncooked raw materials

Beef Mixed Pork Vienna Bologna

Ingredients frankfurter frankfurter frankfurter
1 2 1 2
(%)
Meats
• Beef I and II 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 - 30.0 25.0
• Pork II - - 20.0 20.0 35.0 20.0
• Beef fatty trimmings 33.0 20.0 - 4.0 - - -
• Pork fatty trimmings - - 5.0 5.0 5.0 42 4
• Beef fatty tissues 6.0 10.0 - - - - -
• Other by-products - - 7.0 8.0 - - -

Other ingredients
• Ice water 21.0 16.0 23.0 22.0 25.0 28 24
• Meat extenders 2.0 3.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.5 3
• Phosphates 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5

Curing ingredients
• Nitrite salt 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.0
• Sugar 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.3
• Glutamate 0.15 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

Seasonings
• Pepper 0.12 0.13 0.3 .2 0.2 0.4 0.35
• Coriander 0.08 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.15
• Nutmeg - - 0.1 0.1 0.1 - -
• Sage 0.05 0.05 - 0.05 - - -
• Cinnamon 0.05 0.05 - 0.05 - - -
• Fresh garlic 0.05 0.02 0.1 - - - 0.35
• Clove - - 0.05 - 0.05 - -
• Mace 0.1 0.05 - 0.1 - 0.2 0.15
• Ginger - - 0.05 - 0.05 0.3 -

Different products. The best-known emulsion-type cooked sausages made of uncooked raw materials
are frankfurter, Vienna sausage, hot dog, knackwurst, safalada, bologna and veal sausage.

Frankfurter-type sausages are sold under many names: frankfurters, wieners (braided in groups of links),
Vienna-style sausage (twisted into a chain of links), hot dog, knacker, etc. All these types normally
contain more beef than pork (1.5:1). The choice of raw material largely depends on the availability of the
meat, the eating habits of the consumers and religious practices. In general, the lean-meat content
varies between 25 and 40 percent, the average fat content is 25-30 percent, and 10-30 percent water is

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added. In low-quality frankfurters, 10 percent of the lean meat can be replaced by pork skin or organs. To
maximize yield part of the fatty tissues and part of the water may be pre-emulsified (10–15 percent).

TABLE 20
The most important parameters in manufacturing emulsion-type cooked sausages made from
uncooked raw materials

Technological
Parameters
operations
warm meat (hot-boned), chilled
meat
Choice of raw material +2°C, or frozen minimum - 18°C
fatty tissues -1° to +2°C
finished 16° to 18°C (all pork)
Comminuting sausage 18° to 20°C (all beef)
mixture pH 5.7–6.2, aw 0.96–0.98
Filling filling mixture max. 20°C (pork); 22°C (beef)
54°C (30 minutes), and 60
Smoking + heat smokehouse minutes; raise gradually to 80°C
treatment and hold 20–30 minutes
product 70° to 75°C, pH 5.8–6.3, aw 0.96–0.98
cooling room -1° to +2°C
Cooling (12–14 hours) RH about 90%
product maximum temperature +5°C
8° to 10°C
Storage storage room
RH 80-85%
12° to 15°C
Package packing room
RH 70–75%
Sale sale rack t = 5°C

If a high-speed cutter is not available, the first manufacturing step is grinding. The meat and trimmings
must be ground through a 3-mm, and fatty tissue through a 5-mm plate.

The temperature of all raw material after grinding should not exceed 3°C. If a high-speed cutter is
available, then a grinder is not necessary as the sausage mixture can be made in the cutter. Attention
should be paid to the order in which raw materials are added (meat, curing agents, ice water, meat
extenders, fatty tissues and seasonings). Water must be added early enough to ensure protein
extraction. It is important to control the temperature during comminution, not only for the extraction of
salt-soluble proteins but also for the hydration of meat-extender proteins. The final temperature of the
sausage mixture should not exceed 18°C if pork fatty tissues are used, and 2°C if beef fatty tissues are
used.

After filling in natural, synthetic, edible or inedible casings and linking, products should be smoked
immediately. They are hung on sticks and placed on smokehouse racks (Fig. 186). Links should be
separated on the stick so as not to touch each other, otherwise smoking and colour development will not
be uniform. Surfaces in contact with the stick or with other links do not dry out sufficiently, favouring the
growth of micro-organisms forming slimes, especially in warm conditions. This can be eliminated by
shifting the links slightly at some time during smoking to expose the surfaces which have been in contact
with the stick. This can be minimized by using “T” profile metal sticks with apertures.

188. Holes in medium-size cooked

sausage due to improper filling of 190. Cross-section of bologna
casings

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189. Cross-section of
coarsecomminuted sausage and string
of safaladas

Smoking imparts an appetizing flavour and develops a desirable goldbrown smoked colour. It also
contributes to the development of a smooth surface or skin beneath the cellulose casing, that facilitates
peeling of the casing prior to packaging. Smoking lasts from one to three hours, depending on desirable
colour, temperature and humidity, and type of smokehouse employed. A high smoke concentration and a
rather high temperature are desirable during the final period of smoking. Smoking and heat processing
start at 54–57°C and the temperature is gradually increased (5.5°C every 15 minutes), until it reaches
82°C. Smoking continues until an internal temperature of 70–75°C is reached. The next step is cold
showering until an internal temperature of 32°C maximum is reached. The product is then placed in a
cooler.

Vienna sausages (Fig. 187) are manufactured using beef and pork trimmings with a maximum quantity of
water (28–30 percent) and meat extenders, tied in similar lengths to frankfurters (12–14 cm).

Hot dogs have the same formulation as Vienna sausages but are tied longer than any other emulsion-
type small-diameter cooked sausages (16–18 cm).

Safaladas/knackwursts (Fig. 189) have a frankfurter composition but the structure is finer than any other
cooked sausage. It is obtained by passing the sausage mixture twice through an emulsion mill, after
being manufactured in the cutter.

Bologna sausage (Fig. 190) is a typical emulsion-type cooked sausage filled into large casings. Curing is
as in frankfurters but less water is added. Long bologna is filled into beef middles or weasand, large
bologna into beef bungs, and ring bologna into beef rounds. Cellulose casings of corresponding size may
also be used. Large bologna must be supported either by wrapping it two or more times with twine and
hanging it on a loop in the twine or by supporting it in a stockinette bag. Bologna requires longer smoking
(three hours for long and five for large) and cooking than frankfurters.

All parts of the bologna must reach 71°C during cooking or the inside of the sausage may become
discoloured before it is sold to the consumer. After cooking the bologna is chilled in cold water, superface
dried, then placed in a cooler.

Shelf-life of cooked sausages is about four to five days, or up to ten days in retail packages (vacuum)
held at 10–15°C or as high as 12 to 14 months in cans or jars.
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Small and medium-diameter cooked sausages (Fig. 189) are reheated before eating in order to regain
their firmness and juiciness. Reheating is done in boiling water for about ten minutes (or by toasting or
grilling). Cooked sausages are eaten while hot with baked goods (rolls, buns), mustard, horseradish,
ketchup etc. Large-diameter sausages are cut into slices (Figs 189 and 190) as a cold starter or used in
sandwiches, Russian salads and similar light meals.

Cooked sausages made of precooked raw material

These are sausages made from edible offal and lower-quality meat and have a specific flavour. The raw
materials are precooked, minced, mixed, filled into casings and finally heat-treated. Fine-comminuted
sausages are processed in the cutter and coarse-comminuted in the grinder. There are also sausages
with a mixture of both fine- and coarse-comminuted pieces of meat, tongue, liver, fatty tissue (all these
components are most often cured). Uncooked cured blood (2 percent nitrite salt) is often added and
precooked pigskin is also very often used, except with all-beef products in which tendons and other
connective tissues are used instead.

Raw materials are all edible offals, head meat, lower-quality meat, fatty tissues and pigskin. All
components except pigskin are fully cooked. Pigskin is partially cooked until soft enough to be ground in
the grinder. Its function is to give the finished product its typical firmness.

Precooking is done in boiling water with sufficient water in the cooking vats to cover all the material (Fig.
191). Cooking time depends on the size of pieces. Fully cooked raw materials are comminuted without
delay. If comminution is done in the cutter then no blending is necessary (Fig. 192).

Additives used are nitrite salt, caseinate, blood-plasma powder, egg white, gelatine and seasonings. All
except the seasonings can be added at a rate of up to 2 percent.

Casings. Natural and synthetic casings can be used but in countries with a hot climate, if continuous
refrigerated storage during retail sale is not possible, priority should be given to synthetic casings (Fig.
193). Such casings are also more convenient because they can be exposed to higher temperatures (up
to 115°C retortable sausage) during heat treatment giving a longer shelf-life.

Composition. There are four types of precooked sausages which differ in composition and manufacturing
method:

liver paste;
liver sausage;
blood sausage; and
cooked sausage with high collagen content.

The typical composition of these are given in Table 21.

191. Pre-treatment of raw materials for

193. Filling of cooked sausages in
cooked sausages made of precooked
synthetic casings (largediameter)
material

192. Liver paste manufacturing in

cutter (mixing and comminuting)

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TABLE 21
Typical composition of cooked sausages made of precooked raw materials

Component Type
Liver Liver Cooked sausage Blood
paste sausage with highcollagen sausage
content
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
(%)
Liver 10 10 15 10 10 5 5 -
Fatty tissue 30 30 20 20 10 25 30 20
Head meat 20 30 20 30 40 33 15 5
Lean meat
5 - 5 - 5 - - 5
trimmings
Other organs 5 10 10 15 5 10 10 13
Pigskin/beef
- 10 5 13 15 20 30 -
tendons
Broth 14 15 15 15 15 10 - 15
Caseinate 3 3 2 3 - - - -
Seasonings 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Nitrite salt 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6
Fried onions 1 - ! - - - - -
Cured blood - - - - - - 20 10

In all formulations meat can be substituted with other edible offal. Liver paste (Fig. 195) is fine-
comminuted with high spreadability.

Liver sausage (Figs 194 and 195) contains 10–20 percent liver, usually coarse-ground, and other edible
offals.

Blood sausage (Fig. 194) contains 10–20 percent whole blood with nitrite salt (not precooked). Other
components are precooked meat, edible offals, fatty tissue and pigskin. Fatty tissue must be cooked
sufficiently in order to separate fat with a low melting point. Components can be coarse- or fine-
comminuted as in other precooked sausages. This type of sausage has a firm consistency due to
swollen connective tissue components and gelatinized collagen.

Cooked sausage with high-collagen content resembles coarse-textured liver sausage but has more
connective tissue (collagen and elastic of pigskin and beef tendons). Sometimes up to 10 percent
dissolved gelatine solution is used to produce a sausage described as aspic in casing.

Heat treatment. The mixture is filled into the casings while still hot and the sausages are immediately
heat-treated. Cooking time should be set according to the type (natural or synthetic) and diameter of
casing. Natural casings exposed to temperatures higher than 85°C will burst, therefore their shelf-life is
shorter (up to ten days at 5°C). Synthetic casings can be cooked in boiling water for about 90 minutes, or
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even in an autoclave at 110°C for 60 minutes. If they are kept at temperatures below 10°C they will have
a shelf-life of one month.

Frequent faults committed during production

Undercooking resulting in a shorter shelf-life

Overcooking may result in an oversoft consistency
Insufficient connective tissue will also result in a soft consistency, and the filling will fall apart
Fat separation may occur in the liver paste if insufficient emulsifier is added.

The most serious fault is not to fill the casings immediately and not to heat-treat them immediately. In this
case the product can spoil even before the heat treatment.

194. Sausages made of

precooked raw material in natural
casings (1 blood sausage, 2 liver
sausage)

Different products. There are many products of this type which differ in the raw materials, grade of
comminution and seasonings (Figs 194 and 195). Sometimes cooked rice is added to the sausage
mixture.

Eating method. Liver paste is spread on bread or is used to make sandwiches. Other types of sausage
are cut into slices and consumed cold.

SIMPLE CANNING
The canning process involves two essential operations: the product must be heated at a sufficiently high
temperature and for long enough to make it fully or commercially sterile, and it must be sealed in a
hermetic container which will prevent recontamination of the product.

Commercial sterility differs from total sterility in that some organisms may survive the heat treatment but
the conditions which prevail in the container during storage do not allow these to grow, produce toxins or
spoil the product. However, in regions having a tropical climate, canners strive for total sterility of their
canned products. The need to achieve at least commercial sterility determines the minimum heat
process to be applied to a product. There is sometimes a temptation for canners to use less than the
recommended minimum heat process. This may result in the product not being commercially sterile. It
may then become toxic and poison consumers, or the product may be spoilt and the cans may swell and
have to be destroyed. It is essential for people dealing with canning to know what heat processes are
required for their products, how these are to be applied, and the nature of the risk they take if less than
minimum processes are used. This is why in numerous countries only people having achieved the
required level of expertise in canning technology and heat process calculations are authorized to
approve heat processes.

195. Different sausages made of

precooked raw material in
synthetic casings (1 liver paste,
2, 3 liver sausage)

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Commercial sterility is obtained in meat products which belong to lowacid foods (pH higher than 4.6) if
the process applied is severe enough to inactivate the spores. Therefore, meat products are usually
processed in steam (or water) under pressure at 116–121°C and sometimes in steam at 140°C. The
organisms which are capable of spoiling meat products include those which form heat-resistant spores,
thus high-temperature processes are needed to make them commercially sterile.

Usually heat processes for canned products are designed to inactivate large numbers of spores of the
organism Clostridium botulinum. Although these spores are not as resistant as the spores of some other
Clostridium and Bacillus types, C. botulinum is capable of producing lethal toxins, sometimes without
swelling the container or obvious alteration of the appearance of the product. Since this organism
presents a public health risk, recommended heat treatments must have a large safety margin.

196. Various small-size aluminium (1– 198. Low quality of can (interior
5) and tin-plate cans (6–8) corrosion of can body and covers)

197. Various shaped and sized tinplate

cans (1–2 pear-shaped; 3–4 oblong
cans), and covers (5–6); can 2 is dirty
(hygienic fault)

The severity of heat processes for canned meat products is measured in terms of F0 -values which
means that the product received a heat treatment with the same inactivating effect as exposure for one
minute at 121°C. For example, one minute at 121°C gives the same amount of inactivation of spores as
four minutes at 115°C or 13 minutes at 110°C or 40 minutes at 105°C, so all those processes will have
the same F0 -value. F0 -value for the majority of canned meat products ranges between one and ten.
Larger canned products require higher F0 -values, even up to 20–25, owing to the longer period needed
for heat penetration.
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Meat products suited for canning

Meat products made from chopped cured meat that can be canned include corned beef (consisting of
large and small pieces of beef, blanched to give a lower water content); corned mutton (similar product
made from mutton); beef hash (similar product made from lower-quality meat to which some edible offal
is added); minced beef; luncheon meat (similar to emulsiontype sausage) made from beef, pork, or a
mixture of beef and pork, or from other kinds of meat; pressed beef (made from large cured high-quality
meat pieces; picnic ham (usually weighing 0.5 kg); canned cured ox tongues. Similar products made
from pork are: minced pork, chopped pork, lunch pork, pressed pork, pressed ham and many others.
Stewed beef, stewed mutton, stewed veal and stewed venison are frequently canned, as well as dishes
in jelly such as veal in jelly. Liver sausage, liver paste and some other pastes and frankfurters in brine
are also suited for canning.

Containers suited for sterilization of meat products and hermetical closure

Container. The container protects the canned product from spoilage by recontamination with micro-
organisms, therefore reliable containers and properly adjusted closing machines are essential to prevent
access of spoilage organisms during the cooling operation and during the shelf-life of the product. Before
filing, containers have to be rinsed or otherwise cleaned from dust or other impurities (Fig. 197).

Tin-plate cans are most commonly used, such as the soldered side-seam three-piece can, consisting of
can body, can end and lid. The cemented sideseam and welded side-seam cans constitute the majority
of cans produced, and remain one of the most reliable and acceptable packages ever conceived. The
benefits of using three-piece cans include no size limitations, a wide range of plate thicknesses and
tempers for body and ends, abuse resistance, strong end profiles and long shelf-life. Two-piece cans are
becoming popular for some applications. Can end and body is drawn in a single piece from flat sheet
stock. Only shallow cans (height less than half the diameter) can be fabricated this way. Enamelled cans
are more suitable for canned meat products because interior corrosion of cans can be avoided (Figs.
196, 197 and 198).

Increasingly more attention is being given to aluminium for manufacturing cans and other containers for
canned meat products, where special opening features are desired. Important advantages of aluminium
cans are that they are lead-free and do not rust. Most often two-piece aluminium cans are used in meat
canning (Fig. 196). Aluminium for can ends and bodies is, without exception, coated with enamel on both
sides. It is widely used in flexible and semi-rigid containers as a protective packaging for a large number
of meat products. As a result of extensive development, the use of flexible, laminated pouches and
formed aluminium containers for shelf-stable sterilized products is a commercial reality.

The retortable pouch, a thin rectangular package used for heat-sterilized meat products, offers potential
improvements in convenience and quality because of its shape and composition. During heat
processing, its shape and size allows rapid heat transfer to destroy micro-organisms at the innermost
part of the pouch without excessively overheating the product near the pouch wall. The contents are
likewise more rapidly cooled at the end of sterilization. A suitable laminate used to make retortable
pouches consists of three foils (polyester, aluminium and polypropylene film or resin). These containers
are heat-sealed.

Glass containers. Glass is an inert container, although damage to the meat product may result from
exposure to light. Glass jars are sealed with caps, twist-off lids and many other systems (crowns, side
seal closures, rolled-on closure, screw caps or lug caps) and are used for frankfurters in brine and similar
sausages and to some extent also for liver sausage mixtures or sausage mixtures with high-collagen
content.

Retortable synthetic casings. Recently a new kind of casing has been used for sausage filling, especially
if it is necessary to obtain a longer shelf-life for sausages, sterilized in a retort. This kind of container is
sealed with clips made of aluminium.

199. Manual closing machine 200. Principles of can-seaming

operation (a, b) and cross-section of
correct can closure by double seam
(c). (a) initial stage of curling; (b) fully
developed curling; (c) seam tightening.
1 seaming chuck, 2 seaming roll, 3 tin
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wall, 4 tin end, 5 seaming roll, 6 lining
compound

Smaller size containers are more suitable for meat canning because heat penetration of the meat is by
conduction, so if larger containers are used extremely severe heat treatments will be necessary for
sterilization. Such severe heat treatment will result in a much lower quality of canned product which will
be extremely overcooked. That is why larger pieces, such as hams, shoulders, etc. are pasteurized at
temperatures of about 80°C.

Hermetic closure. Tin-plate cans and aluminium cans are closed by machines which form a double seam
in three stages: pressing the cover (lid) to the can body, forming the first operation roll seam, and forming
the second-operation roll seam (Figs 199 and 200).

201. Autoclave (retort). 1 body, 2 lid, 3

counterbalance, 4 nuts, 5 heater, 6 202. Autoclave (retort) for small-scale
vent, 7 relief valve, 8 pressure gauge, 9 production; retort lid opened (above
water supply valve, 10 steam supply left), basket for loading cans (above
valve right)

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Good double seams are absolutely essential to prevent losses due to spoilage. The food processor is
responsible for the quality of seams produced in the plant and must provide adequately trained
personnel to perform seam evaluations and make closing machine adjustments. Making good seams
requires careful closing machine maintenance, frequent, regularly scheduled seam evaluations and
immediate correction of seam conditions which are outside established tolerances. Hermetic closure of
cans under vacuum is highly recommended, particularly for countries with a hot climate.

Autoclave (retort)

Batch retorts are heated with steam or water under pressure (Figs 201 and 202). Saturated air-free
steam is an excellent heating medium for processing canned meat products. Hot water under pressure
has many of the advantages of saturated steam as a heating medium but it must be circulated among
containers and continually reheated.

The canning operation must be performed only by fully trained personnel. Operation of batch retorts
heated with steam is performed in the following steps:

load the cans in trays or baskets and close and tighten the retort lid;
open the drain, vent condensate valves and the high-and low-pressure steam supplies;
remove the air by a flow of steam during venting;
close drain and vent valves;
bring retort to operating temperature and pressure;
regulate steam supply by temperature control;
time the process from when the retort reaches the specified temperature;
turn off the steam at the end of the process;
start cooling by flooding the retort with cold water for about ten minutes (smaller cans up to 500
grams capacity), or 20 minutes (larger cans up to 1 500 grams);
continue cooling until the average temperature of the product is 40°C when the process is
completed;
open the lid of the retort, remove baskets with canned products and let them dry.

Venting is one of the most important operations in processing canned meat products in steam, because
air remaining among cans in an inadequately vented retort forms an insulating layer and will reduce the
efficiency of the process.

In general, the same principles apply to processing in water. Some containers such as glass jars and
flexible synthetic pouches are usually retorted in hot water in vertical retorts under superimposed air
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pressure.

Chlorination of cooling water is recommended (0.5 ppm free chlorine should be the lowest amount at the
point of discharge).

Frequent faults committed during canning

Insufficient sterilization results in spoilage of canned product and is identified by can swell (hard, soft and
springer swell) or by flat sour spoilage.

203. Insufficient can closure (droop, lip

205. Products in opened cans, liver
and improper first roll seam caused by
paste (left) and luncheon meat (right)
damaged can are shown)

204. Can deformations (critical,

because double seam (1 and 3) or side
seam (2) is damaged)

Overprocessing results in too soft a consistency and a burnt taste.

Deformation of cans and semi-rigid containers, breakage of glass jars and bursting of casings are the
results of a careless, cooling operation, especially improper superimposed pressure (Fig. 204).

Leaking cans are the result of improper closing machine adjustment and deformation of cans prior to
closing or after being processed, especially near the double seam (Fig. 203).

Shelf-life

Fully preserved canned meat products keep up to four years, but in the tropics it is only about one year.

Canned pasteurized products should be clearly labelled as perishable product (keep under refrigeration
or store at/below 5°C) and must not be confused with fully sterilized products which do not require
refrigerated storage.

Most canned meat products are eaten after emptying the can (Fig. 205), without reheating, stews and
frankfurters being the exceptions.

FAO TECHNICAL PAPERS

FAO ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH PAPERS:

1. Animal breeding: selected articles from World Animal Review, 1977 (C* E* F* S*)
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2/3/2021 Guidelines for slaughtering, meat cutting and further processing

2. Eradication of hog cholera and African swine fever, 1976 (E* F* S*)
3. Insecticides and application equipment for tsetse control, 1977 (E* F*)
4. New feed resources, 1977 (E/F/S*)
5. Bibliography of the criollo cattle of the Americas, 1977 (E/S*)
6. Mediterranean cattle and sheep in crossbreeding, 1977 (E* F*)
7. Rev.Environmental impact of tsetse chemical control 1980 (E* F*)
7Rev. Environmental impact of tsetse chemical control, 1980 (E* F*)
8. Declining breeds of Mediterranean sheep, 1978 (E* F*)
9. Slaughterhouse and slaughterslab design and construction, 1978 (E* F* S*)
10. Treating straw for animal feeding, 1978 (C* E* F* S*)
11. Packaging, storage and distribution of processed milk, 1978 (E*)
12. Ruminant nutrition: selected articles from World Animal Review, 1978 (C* E* F* S*)
13. Buffalo reproduction and artificial insemination, 1979 (E**)
14. The African trypanosomiases, 1979 (E* F*)
15. Establishment of dairy training centres, 1979 (E*)
16. Open yard housing for young cattle, 1981 (E* F* S*)
17. Prolific tropical sheep, 1980 (E* F* S*)
18. Feed from animal wastes: state of knowledge, 1980 (E*)
19. East Coast fever and related tick-borne diseases, 1980 (E* S*)
20/1. Trypanotolerant livestock in West and Central Africa - Vol. 1 - General study, 1980 (E* F*)
20/2. Trypanotolerant livestock in West and Central Africa - Vol. 2 - Country studies, 1980 (E* F*)
Le bétail trypanotolérant en Afrique occidentale et centrale Vol. 3 - Bilan d'une décennie, 1988
20/3.
(F*)
21. Guideline for dairy accounting, 1980 (E*)
22. Recursos genéticos animales en América Latina, 1981 (S*)
23. Disease control in semen and embryos, 1982 (E* F* S*)
24. Animal genetic resources - conservation and management, 1981 (E*)
25. Reproductive efficiency in cattle, 1982 (E* F* S*)
26. Camels and camel milk, 1982 (E*)
27. Deer farming, 1982 (E*)
28. Feed from animal wastes: feeding manual, 1982 (E*)
Echinococcosis/hydatidosis surveillance, prevention and control: FAO/UNEP/WHO guidelines,
29.
1982 (E*)
30. Sheep and goat breeds of India, 1982 (E*)
31. Hormones in animal production, 1982 (E*)
32. Crop residues and agro-industrial by-products in animal feeding, 1982 (E/F*)
33. Haemorrhagic septicaemia, 1982 (E* F*)
34. Breeding plans for ruminant livestock in the tropics, 1982 (E* F* S*)
35. Off-tastes in raw and reconstituted milk, 1983 (E* F* S*)
36. Ticks and tick-borne diseases: selected articles from World Animal Review, 1983 (E* F * S *)
37. African animal trypanosomiasis: selected articles from World Animal Review, 1983 (E* F *)

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2/3/2021 Guidelines for slaughtering, meat cutting and further processing
38. Diagnosis and vaccination for the control of brucellosis in the Near East, 1983 (E* Ar *)
39. Solar energy in small-scale milk collection and processing, 1983 (E* F *)
40. Intensive sheep production in the Near East, 1983 (E* Ar *)
41. Integrating crops and livestock in West Africa, 1983 (E* F *)
42. Animal energy in agriculture in Africa and Asia, 1984 (E/F * S*)
43. Olive by-products for animal feed, 1985 (Ar * E* F * S *)
44/1. Animal genetic resources conservation by management, data banks and training, 1984 (E*)
Animal genetic resources: cryogenic storage of germplasm and molecular engineering, 1984
44/2.
(E*)
45. Maintenance systems for the dairy plant, 1984 (E*)
46. Livestock breeds of China, 1985 (E*)
47. Réfrigération du lait à la ferme et organisation des transports, 1985 (F *)
48. La fromagerie et les variétés de fromages du bassin méditerranéen, 1985 (F *)
49. Manual for the slaughter of small ruminants in developing countries, 1985 (E*)
Better utilization of crop residues and by-products in animal feeding: research guidelines - 1.
50.
State of knowledge, 1985 (E*)
Better utilization of crop residues and by-products in animal feeding: research guidelines - 2. A
50/2.
practical manual for research workers, 1986 (E*)
51. Dried salted meats: charque and carne-de-sol, 1985 (E*)
52. Small-scale sausage production, 1985 (E*)
53. Slaughterhouse, cleaning and sanitation, 1985 (E*)
Small ruminants in the Near East: Vol. 1 -
54.
Selected papers presented at Tunis Expert Consultation, 1986 (E*)
Small ruminants in the Near East: Vol. II -
55.
Selected papers from World Animal Review, 1986 (E* Ar *)
56. Sheep and goats in Pakistan, 1985 (E*)
57. Awassi sheep, 1985 (E*)
58. Small ruminant production in the developing countries, 1986 (E*)
Animal genetic resources data banks, 1986 (E*)
59/1.
1 - Computer systems study for regional data banks
Animal genetic resources data banks, 1986 (E*)
59/2.
2 - Descriptor lists for cattle, buffalo, pigs, sheep and goats
Animal genetic resources data banks, 1986 (E*)
59/3.
3 - Descriptor lists for poultry
60. Sheep and goats in Turkey, 1986 (E*)
61. The Przewalski horse and restoration to its natural habitat in Mongolia, 1986 (E*)
62. Milk and dairy products: production and processing costs, 1988 (E* F * S *)
Proceedings of the FAO expert consultation on the substitution of imported
63.
concentrate feeds in animal production systems in developing countries, 1987 (E*)
64. Poultry management and diseases in the Near East, 1987 (Ar *)
65. Animal genetic resources of the USSR, 1989 (E*)
66. Animal genetic resources - Strategies for improved use and conservation, 1987 (E*)
Trypanotolerant cattle and livestock development in West and Central Africa -
67/1.
Vol. I, 1987 (E*)

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2/3/2021 Guidelines for slaughtering, meat cutting and further processing
67/2. Trypanotolerant cattle and livestock development in West and Central Africa -
Vol. II, 1987 (E*)
68. Crossbreeding bos indicus and bos taurus for milk production in the tropics, 1987 (E*)
69. Village milk processing, 1988 (E* F*)
70. Sheep and goat meat production in the humid tropics of West Africa, 1988 (E/F*)
71. The development of village based sheep production in West Africa, 1988 (E* F* S*)
72. Sugarcane as feed, 1988 (E/S*)
73. Standard design for small-scale modular slaughterhouses, 1988 (E*)
74. Small ruminants in the Near East, Volume III: North Africa, 1988 (E*).
75. The eradication of ticks, 1989 (E/F *)
Ex situ cryoconservation of genomes and genes of endangered cattle breeds by means of
76.
modern biotechnological methods, 1989 (E*)
77. Training manual for embryo transfer in cattle, 1991 (E*)
78. Milking, milk production hygiene and udder health, 1989 (E*)
79. Manual of simple methods of meat preservation, 1989 (E*)
80. Animal genetic resources - A global programme for sustainable development, 1990 (E*)
Veterinary diagnostic bacteriology - A manual of laboratory procedures of selected diseases of
81.
livestock, 1990 (E*)
82. Reproduction in camels - a review, 1990 (E*)
83. Training manual on artificial insemination in sheep and goats, 1991 (E*)
84. Training manual for embryo transfer in water-buffaloes, 1991 (E*)
85. The technology of traditional milk products in developing countries, 1990 (E*)
86. Feeding dairy cows in the tropics, 1990 (E*)
87. Manual for the production of anthrax and blackleg vaccines, 1991 (E*)
88. Small ruminant production and the small ruminant genetic resource in tropical Africa, 1991 (E*)
Manual for the production of Marek's disease, Gumboro disease and inactivated Newcastle
89.
disease vaccines, 1991 (E*)
90. Application of biotechnology to nutrition of animals in developing countries, 1991 (E*)
91. Guidelines for slaughtering, meat cutting and further processing, 1991 (E*)
Availability: May 1991

Ar - Arabic
C - Chinese
E - English
F - French
S - Spanish

* Available
** Out of print
*** In preparation

The FAO Technical Papers are available through the authorized FAO Sales Agents or directly from
Distribution and Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.

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Meat cutting and utilization of meat cuts

VARIATIONS IN THE SENSORIC QUALITY OF MEAT
Large differences exist in the tenderness, juiciness and flavour of the various meat animal carcasses
because of breeding, age, feeding and management. Within each animal carcasses and associated with
the different muscles there are variations in tenderness that dictate how different cuts of meat should be
prepared to yield the most palatable foods. Because of these differences in tenderness, juiciness and
flavour, each meat cut should be merchandised according to its availability and palatability
characteristics. Consequently, different prices should be charged for different cuts from the various meat
animals so that consumers have choices. The tenderloin of beef is a relatively small cut and therefore of
limited quantity but it is extremely tender and requires a minimum of cooking. Generally it is high-priced
because of its high quality and consumer demand for a cut that is easy to prepare and serve. Roasts
from the chuck or shoulder of beef are less tender than the tenderloin; however, when properly prepared
by pot-roasting, they too will be tender, juicy, flavourful and will provide good nutritional value. Because
there are more kilograms of chuck roast on any one beef carcass and because they require more time
and effort to cook correctly, chuck roasts do not and should not demand the same high price per kilogram
as tenderloin.

Throughout the world, countries have varied natural resources and capabilities for producing livestock
and different methods must be used to utilize all meat products correctly and completely whether they
are cut from cattle, goats, sheep, swine, deer or other animals and whether they come from the tender or
less tender parts of those animals. In order to get the maximum eating satisfaction and also the
maximum nutritional value, each cut must be matched with the correct cooking procedure. Loin cuts
which are generally tender should be prepared by broiling or other dry-heat methods while cuts with
considerable bone and connective tissue from the shanks should be either braised or simmered for
stews and soups.

TABLE 3
Comparative differences in various compositional aspects of marketweight beef, pork and lamb

Beef Pork Lamb

Average live animal weight (kg) 454–544 95–104 45
Age (months) 36 6 8–12
Dressing percentage (carcass/live weight) 60 70 50
Carcass weight (kg) 272–318 68–73 23
Carcass composition (%)
Lean 52 50 55
Fat 32 32 28
Bone 16 18 17

Generally, meat animals should be maintained in an environment that permits optimum growth and
development. Animals gaining weight rapidly are usually in good condition and the meat derived from
their carcasses will be fatter, juicier and richer in flavour. Additionally, the amount of meat in proportion to
hide, bone and offal will be greater.

The age to slaughter animals varies depending on many things. The highest quality beef comes from
animals that are under 36 months of age. Old cows produce highly acceptable beef if properly fattened
and processed. Depending on the calf and the feeding regime, calves are best slaughtered between
three and 16 weeks of age. Hogs may be killed any time after they reach six weeks of age, but for the
most profitable pork production may need to be fed for five to ten months. Sheep and goats may be killed
anytime after six weeks, but the more desirable age is from six to 12 months.

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All meat animal carcasses are composed of muscle, fat, bone and connective tissue. The chief edible
and nutritive portion is the muscle or lean meat. The muscle is seldom consumed without some of the
attached fat and connective tissue. The carcass composition of animals slaughtered after usual fattening
periods is shown in Table 3. It can be noted that the carcass composition varies little between species
and is some what dependent on the fatness of the animal at slaughter.

The lean of each meat animal carcass consists of about 300 individual and different muscles of which
only about 25 can be separated out and utilized as single muscle or muscle combinations. The
separated muscles are not all the same. They vary widely in palatability (tenderness, juiciness, flavour)
depending on the maturity or age of the animal and the body location from which they were taken.

Generally, muscles of locomotion found in the extremities or legs are less tender and more flavourful
than muscles that simply support the animal such as those found along the back. The latter are usually
more tender and less flavourful. Other factors may influence palatability but maturity and body location
are probably the most important.

Colours of the lean and fat are important characteristics of a normal, wholesome products. Most
diseased or unnatural conditions will change the colour from what is considered normal for the species.
Generally the colour of the fat will be from pure white to a creamy yellow for all animals. Pink or reddish
fat probably means that the animal had a fever or was extremely excited prior to slaughter. The colour of
the muscle tissues for normal product should be:

Meat Colour
Beef Bright cherry red
Goat meat Light pink to red
Lamb Light pink to red
Pork Greyish pink
Veal Light pink to red
Venison Dark red

Almost always tissues from older animals are darker in colour. At times the fat on some carcasses from
young animals will be dark yellow because of the breed which lacks the ability to convert yellow carotene
to colourless vitamin A and/or because the animals have consumed large amounts of green forage. It is
not uncommon for aged ruminant animals to have carcasses with yellow fat.

At times animals will suffer from stress prior to slaughter and signs of their reaction will be evident in the
carcass. Stressed cattle often produce dark cutters in which the muscle is not the normal bright cherry
red but rather is dark red and sticky. Hogs suffering from porcine stress syndrome (PSS) prior to
slaughter may yield carcasses that are pale, soft and exudative (PSE) or dark, firm and dry (DFD).
Exudative carcasses are watery and rapidly lose water. None of these conditions produced by ante-
mortem stress renders the product inedible but both lower the palatability and eye appeal of the beef and
pork and can be confused with other more serious disease conditions.

EQUIPMENT FOR THE MEAT-CUTTING OPERATION

solid cutting table, preferably made of non-corrosive material (stainless steel, aluminium or
galvanized material) with hard plastic top. If wood has to be used instead of plastic only tight
wooden tops/cutters should be used.
oil or water sharpening stone
sharpening steel
knives
boning - 20 cm straight
steak - 30 cm curved
meat saw - hand or electric
totes, bins and meat trucks (plastic or other non-corrosive material)
wrapping table
paper or plastic foil/bags for meat wrapping
tool holder
metal mask/safety gloves
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boning aprons/safety aprons

hand wash-basin
knife sterilizer

BEEF CUTTING
Four essential points when cutting beef (or any other meat animal carcass) are:

Cut across the grain of meat when possible.

Use sharp knives and saws for speed and good workmanship.
Keep the cutting table orderly and have a place for everything.
Be clean and sanitary in all operations.

There are different ways to cut the fore- and hindquarters of beef depending on its use, the wishes of the
consumers, and the quality of the carcass (Figs 55 and 56). Poor-quality meat is normally used for
further processing, while higher-quality and thicker-fleshed carcasses are used as fresh meat in the form
of steaks and roasts.

55. The beef

carcass and its
bones

Halving

Halving is done immediately after the animal has been dressed and every effort should be made to saw
the carcass into equal sides through the centre of the backbone.

Quartering

Quartering or ribbing down is the division of a side of beef between the twelfth and thirteenth ribs into
fore-and hindquarters. One rib is usually left on the hindquarter to hold the shape of the loin and to make
it easier to cut steaks.

56. The beef

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carcass and its
cuts

Dividing between the twelfth and thirteenth ribs splits the carcass almost in quarters, usually with slightly
heavier forequarters. Make this cut straight and neat. Locate the exact place between the ribs on the
inside of the carcass and make the cut about 5 cm from the midline at the flank. The flank part should be
left attached until the quarter is ready to be carried to the cutting table. Then saw the backbone, making
the cut even with the incision that was made with the knife to produce a smooth and attractive
appearances to the small end of the loin. Make this cut from the inside. The large muscle exposed when
this cut is made is the “eye of beef” in which most of the quality characteristics of the meat can be seen
including colour, marbling, firmness and texture. High-quality beef will have a bright cherry-red colour,
some intramuscular fat or marbling, be firm to the touch and fine in texture.

When the person carrying the meat has a firm grip on the forequarter, the small strip of flesh holding the
quarters together should be cut. With some practice and experience, one can learn to carry a forequarter
easily by holding below the shank so that the full weight of the quarter is on the carrier's shoulder when it
is cut down. By taking a step forward as the cut is being made, it is easier to have the quarter drop with
the right proportion of weight on the shoulder. The right forequarter should be carried on the left shoulder
and the left forequarter on the right shoulder. When placing the forequarter on the cutting table, always
have the inside up.

Bone-in method

By far the easiest way to merchandise meat is to have some basic information relative to the bone and
muscle structure of the carcass and to utilize an electric saw to cut up the whole carcass. This is now
being done to a large extent by meat packers who cut out what is commonly referred to as a wholesale
or primal cut such as a whole chuck (shoulder), rib, loin or round of beef. The cut may or may not be
trimmed of some bone and fat and then vacuum-packaged and shipped to a retail store. The vacuum-
packaging provides an anaerobic atmosphere and the refrigerated shelf-life of the product may be
extended as much as two or three months. The store personnel need have only the slightest knowledge
of meat cutting. The primal is positioned correctly and run across the saw in a prescribed fashion, the
saw dust is scraped off, and the consumer-sized cut packaged for retail sale.

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Common wholesale or primal cuts of beef from the forequarter are the square-cut chuck, shank, brisket,
plate and rib, and from the hindquarter the flank, loin and round. The kidney knob consisting of kidney
and fat is removed from the loin. Since the hindquarter contains a higher proportion of tender cuts, it is
usually in greater demand and returns higher prices.

Forequarter. The first cut to make is between the fifth and sixth ribs counting from the neck back (Fig.
57). This cut is made parallel with the ribs and produces a cross-cut chuck consisting of a square-cut
chuck (also called chuck and blade), foreshank and brisket. Next the foreshank and brisket are removed
by cutting through the first sternal cartilage (the first soft segment of the breastbone), and making the cut
almost parallel with the backbone of the carcass (Figs 58 and 71).

Foreshank. The foreshank is separated from the brisket by following the natural connective tissue seam
between the muscles with a knife. The foreshank can then be sawn into small pieces to be used for soup
stock or the lean may be removed and used for ground meat (Fig. 59).

Brisket. The brisket, boned and made into a roll, can be used either as a pot roast or can be cured
(corned) (Fig. 73).

Square-cut chuck. This wholesale cut contains the first five ribs of the forequarter and may be sawn into
steaks or roasts. Several cuts are usually made across the bottom or shank end of the chuck resulting in
arm steaks or roasts (Fig. 60). The chuck is then turned and cuts are made parallel with the ribs,
resulting in blade steaks and roasts (Fig. 61). If the carcass is of high quality and thickly fleshed, steaks
cut from the rib end of the chuck or across the arm bone will be highly desirable. Blade cuts to be used
as roasts should contain two or three ribs and should be trimmed as for standing rib roasts, although for
convenience in carving all bones may be removed. The portions nearest the neck usually have more
connective tissue and are recommended for simmering rather than for steaks and roasts.

57. Dividing a forequarter (lower part

comprising square-cut chuck,
59. Foreshank cut into small pieces
foreshank and brisket and upper part
comprising rib and short plate)

58. Removing foreshank and brisket

60. Arm steaks
(left) from square-cut chuck

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61. Blade steaks

Only the neck remains to be processed. It is usually severed at a point where it enlarges to meet the
shoulder. The neck contains a large amount of bone and connective tissue and is generally used for
simmering, corning or grinding. All bloody portions should be trimmed off before other cutting is done.

Short plate. The cut to divide the short plate from the rib is made 18–25 cm from the inside edge of and
parallel with the chine or backbone (Fig. 62). This division varies according to the thickness of the
carcass. With a thick carcass, the cut may be made further down the ribs, and with a thin carcass nearer
the spinal column.

The plate may be used for different purposes, but it is commonly used for stews or further processing.
Short ribs, which are suited for broiling, are also cut from the upper portion of the plate, usually about 5–
8 cm in length (Fig. 63). If the plate is to be used for corning, all of the ribs should be removed. If used for
stews, the ribs can be left in and the plate sawn crosswise into small pieces. The plate can also be
boned and the meat used for ground meat or sausage products. Before cutting the plate in any way,
remove the tough membrane lining the inner portion below where the ribs join the breastbone.

Rib. The rib cut is made up of the rear seven ribs in the forequarter. This is the most valuable piece of
meat from the forequarter because it is the most tender and has the least amount of bone. It has a large
bundle of muscle fibre that runs parallel to the backbone.

There are several different ways to prepare the rib cut for cooking as a roast. It may also be used for
steaks (Fig. 64). It may be prepared as a bonein, folded or rolled roast. If prepared as a bone-in roast,
the superior spinous processes of the vertebrae or featherbones are loosened from the meat and then
cut off with a saw. In making this cut, keep the knife as close to the bone as possible to avoid removing
the thin lining that surrounds the bundle of muscle fibre next to the bone. With the saw, cut across the
ribs at intervals of about 8 cm, just deep enough to cut through the ribs. Also remove the yellow
connective tissue or ligament found between the outer covering and the layer of muscle.

The only difference between bone-in and a folded rib roast is that a small 5-cm piece of rib is removed so
that the thin end of the cut may be folded and skewered to the heavy portion. This simply makes a
neater, more compact package.

Hindquarter. Place the hindquarter on the cutting table with the inside of the carcass up because the
first cut made is to remove the kidney knob from the inside of the loin. (However, loosening of meat cuts
is also possible from the hanging beef side or beef quarter.)

62. Dividing the short plate (left) from the rib (right)

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63. Cutting short ribs from the blade

64. Cutting rib steaks

Kidney knob. Begin removing the kidney fat at the lower end and loosen it with a knife where it is
attached to the loin, leaving a thin covering on the inside of the loin and being careful not to cut into the
tenderloin muscle.

Flank. Remove the flank next by cutting into the scrotum or udder, following the round muscle and cutting
close enough so little of the lean meat is taken from in front of the stifle joint. Continue cutting along and
below the outer portion of the line of the kidney fat, or in a straight line to leave 10 cm of the thirteenth rib
in the flank. This cut may vary with the thickness of the carcass and is lowest in thick or heavy carcasses
(Figs 65 and 66).

The tough membrane covering the inside of the flank must be removed by cutting off a thin strip on the
lower side and then peeling off the membrane. A small piece of lean meat on the inside of the end
portion of the flank, weighing 1.2–1.4 kg, is known as the flank steak (Fig. 67). This heavy bundle of
muscle fibres is dry and if used for steak is often scored on both sides, marinated or sliced thin to make it
more tender and desirable as a steak. The entire defatted flank may be used for stew or ground beef or
rolled around stuffing and pot-roasted.

Round. The round and loin are divided at about the fourth sacral joint in the spinal column to almost
parallel with the back end of the round, or to about 5 cm in front of the stifle joint (Fig. 68). The aim is to
cut the tip of the ball-and-socket bone in the hip joint, cutting off a piece about 2.5 cm in diameter. The
round includes the rump, round cushion (consisting of knuckle piece and inside round muscle or
topside), outside round muscle (also called bottom round muscle or silverside) and hind shank.

Remove the rump by cutting just below the exposed pelvic or aitchbone. The rump usually has a large
amount of bone (Fig. 69). The most desirable piece of rump is cut from the upper portion and is
composed of eye and bottom round muscles. The removal of bone and tying the rump means that it
requires less oven space and is easier to carve.

Round steak is cut in comparatively thin slices from the full round after removal of the rump. The choicest
round steaks are cut from the centre section.

The remaining portion is made up of the hind shank and the piece called the heel of the round. The heel
of round is used as a pot roast and is removed by cutting close to the bone and tearing away as much
meat as possible from the backside. The shank can be sawn into pieces to be used for soup stock.

65. Removing the flank on the cutting 67. Cutting off the flank steak
table (sawing through 13th rib after

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cutting through soft parts)

66. Removing the flank (hanging

68. Separating the round and the loin
position)

69. Cutting off the rump (left)

Loin. The loin is usually completely sawn into steaks beginning at the large end. Sirloin steaks are cut
first and the first three or four are known as wedge or round bone sirloin steaks. These are the least
desirable pieces of the sirloin. The last sirloin is cut where the hip-bone is separated from the spinal
column and the steak cut there is known as the hip-or pin-bone sirloin steak.

The small portion of the loin known as the short loin is the source of Tbone steaks. This area contains
the two most tender muscles in the whole carcass, namely, the loin eye muscle above the bone and the
tenderloin muscle below the bone. T-bone steaks are cut to about 10 cm from the end of the short loin.
This tip portion can either be used as a roast or be cut into rib steaks. Rib steak from the short loin is
identified by the piece of the thirteenth rib remaining on it (Fig. 70).

When beef is to be cured and dried, pieces should be taken from either the chuck or the round. If the
round is used, remove the rump and follow the procedure for muscle boning. If taken from the chuck, use
the heavy muscle lying over the outside of the shoulder-blade commonly known as shoulder clod.

Muscle-boning method
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One excellent approach to the cutting up of meat animal carcasses which is becoming more popular and
utilized by large meat processors is the procedure commonly referred to as “muscle-boning”. While this
procedure is particularly adaptable to large carcasses such as beef, it can be successfully used on
carcasses or cuts of any size. Muscle-boning is also popular among hunters who do not have meat saws
but who want to cut up a whole carcass with a knife while removing the bone that would otherwise fill
valuable freezer space. Any animal carcass with a complete and thick layer of subcutaneous or cover fat
would have to have most of the fat removed in order to expose the muscles. Once the fat is removed, a
boning knife can be used to separate each large individual muscle or group of muscles. This is done
along the seams of connective tissue that encases each muscle. Once separated the muscle mass is
then cut from the bone, thus the term “muscle-boning”. The advantages of this procedure are numerous;
however, the principal reasons for using it are to obtain small-sized portions for sale or preparation; to
permit each muscle or muscle combination to be treated or prepared according to its individual
characteristics of size, tenderness, flavour or fibre orientation; and to remove much of the bone and fat
that would otherwise take up packaging and storage space.

70. Loin cut into steaks: left, sirloin

steaks; middle, T-bone steaks; right,
rib steaks

Directions for muscle-boning a side of beef are given here. Initially for muscle-boning, the side of beef is
divided into fore-and hindquarters as described for the bone-in method. Also, both the fore-and
hindquarters are placed on the cutting table with the inside up. One muscle-boning method is as follows:

Forequarter. The forequarter is sawn into square-cut chuck, foreshank, brisket, rib and plate as in the
bone-in method (Fig. 71, see also Figs 57, 58 and 62).

Foreshank. The foreshank has attached to it, behind the elbow joint, a relatively large, thick piece of
muscle. This is usually cut out by following the connective tissue seams and produces a fairly large
triangular-shaped cut correctly identified as boneless arm roast (Fig. 72). The remainder of the foreshank
can be sawn into soup bones or can be separated into bone and soft tissue with a knife. The soft tissue
is composed of muscle, fat and a large amount of connective tissue which is best utilized as ground
meat.

Brisket. The ribs and sternum are lifted from the inside of the brisket (Fig. 73) and the excess fat is
removed. The brisket can either be rolled and tied to be used as a pot roast or it can be cured.

Square-cut chuck. The neck is sawn from the chuck and trimmed of bone, fat and the large prescapular
lymph gland. The boneless neck can be utilized as a pot roast; however, it is more often cut into cubes
(Fig. 74) for stew or ground meat.

From the large remaining portion of the chuck, the ribs and feather bones (superior spinous processes)
are removed with a knife (Fig. 75) and the heavy, yellow connective tissue or elastin is removed from the
top of the cut. With a knife the thick portion is then separated into outside and inside portions by following
the inside or smooth side of the blade-bone (Fig. 76) which is then lifted from the outside piece along
with what remains of the arm bone. The inside portion which contains some of the rib eye muscle is often
rolled and tied to be used as a pot roast (Fig. 77). There is a part of the outside chuck, a muscle that
somewhat resembles the tenderloin muscle in size and shape but not in tenderness, which is often cut
into steaks known as chuck fillets (Fig. 78).

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71. Forequarter cut into five pieces 73. Removing ribs and sternum from
prior to boning brisket

72. Cutting boneless arm roast from 74. Cutting the boneless neck into
foreshank cubes

Rib. The rib is prepared by first sawing across the rib bones to facilitate the removal of both the
backbone and the ribs with the knife (Figs 79 and 80). Another procedure often used to bone out a rib is
carefully with a sharp knife to loosen the small strip of meat found between the ribs. The ribs are then
loosened by cutting close to the bone and removed by striking with a blunt instrument. After removing all
bones and the heavy yellow connective tissue, the meat may be rolled into a tight bundle with the thin
portion on the outside and tied tightly. Preparing ribs in this way makes for convenient carving and
requires less cooking and storage space. About 25 percent of the initial rib weight is lost when the bones
are removed. The boneless rib may also be sliced into boneless rib steaks (Fig. 81).

75. Removing the ribs and feather 77. Inside portion of the chuck rolled
bones from the square-cut chuck and tied

76. Subdividing the thick portion of the 78. Cutting outside chuck into fillets
chuck along the inside of the blade-
bone into inside and outside portion

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Plate. After the heavy connective tissue lining is peeled from the inside of the plate, the bones are
removed and the lean meat cubed for stew or prepared for grinding in a way similar to the trimming of
the brisket.

Hindquarter. As a first step, the kidney and accompanying fat are removed from the hindquarter
carefully with a knife so as not to cut into the tenderloin muscle. The hindquarter is then separated into
flank, round and loin as described in the bone-in method.

79. Sawing across the rib bones 81. Cutting boneless rib steaks

80. Removing backbone and rib bone

82. Removing the pelvic bone
from rib

Flank. Remove the flank by cutting into the scrotum or udder, following the round muscle and cutting
close enough so that little lean meat is taken from the front of the stifle joint. Continue cutting along and
below the outer portion of the line of the kidney fat in a straight line and saw through the thirteenth rib.
Again the flank steak is removed as described in the bone-in method (Figs 65 and 66).

Round. The round and loin are separated with a saw as described in the bone-in method (Fig. 68). The
pelvic bone is removed from the round and the muscle sections of the round are exposed (Fig. 82).

83. Tip or knuckle piece being 85. Silverside or bottom round muscle
separated from round being separated from round

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84. Topside or inside round muscle

86. Hind shank
being separated from round

Muscle-boning the round means that the large muscle masses of the round are separated from each
other by following the natural connective tissue seams. In front of the stifle joint, the tip or knuckle piece
is removed (Fig. 83), then the topside or inside round muscle (Fig. 84), and then the remaining silverside
or bottom round muscles (Fig. 85). The latter is often divided and the eye of the round removed
separately. All of the separated muscles may then be used as roasts or sliced into steaks. Muscle-boning
is particularly useful when beef is prepared for roasting for large groups such as pit barbecuing.

Hind shank. The hind shank, somewhat like the foreshank, has a large muscle group attached to it that
can be removed and utilized as a pot roast. This cut is sometimes referred to as the “duck” of beef (Fig.
86).

Loin. The tenderloin muscle is carefully cut from the inside of the loin (Fig. 87) and usually cut into
individual steaks (Fig. 88). The remainder of the loin is then sawn just in front of the hip-bone into the
short loin and sirloin sections. The bone is removed from the sirloin which is a somewhat complicated
procedure because the pelvic bone is fused with the backbone (Fig. 89). The short loin is boned and the
muscle that is known as boneless top loin (Fig. 90) is usually cut into boneless top loin steaks (Fig. 91).

On-the-rail boning

This is a modification of the muscle-boning method. Typical for on-the-rail boning is the hanging position
of the hindquarter or the entire beef side (Fig. 92) during the boning procedure. The removal of the
different meat cuts from the hanging carcass is considerably facilitated. Beef cuts can easily be pulled
downwards under their own weight after cutting them free along their natural connective tissue seams.
Special hooks with handles used by the operators are an additional aid for the correct fixation of the cuts
during boning (Fig. 92).

On-the-rail boning is the most hygienic way of meat cutting. Contamination by hands of operators, tools,
cutting-boards, etc. is less than with other methods.

The technique is also suitable for smaller operations. Final trimming of the meat cuts takes place on
cutting tables as usual.

87. Cutting the tenderloin from the

90. Boning the short loin
inside of the loin

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88. Tenderloin cut into individual

91. Cutting boneless top loin steaks
steaks

89. Removing the bone from the sirloin

When meat cuts are produced by muscle-boning it is often difficult to identify them, primarily because
traditionally the size and shape of the accompanying bone has been used as the major means of
identification. Also, the traditional shape of muscle in a cut of meat is often determined because of its
attachment to bone. Many conventional cuts of meat combine muscles because of their association, size
and proximity to bone or general location. The basic principle of merchandising meat is to separate the
tender from the less tender and to sell each according to its palatability characteristics and its possible
method of preparation. Muscle-boning facilitates this type of merchandising.

PORK CUTTING
Halving is done immediately after the animal has been dressed and every effort should be made to saw
the carcass into equal sides through the centre of the backbone. The side to be cut should be laid on the
cutting table with the inside up (Figs 93, 94 and 95).

92. On-the-rail boning of entire beef

side. Removing strip loin together
with rump

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The primal cuts of pork are: ham, fore-end or forequarter, loin and belly.

Hind foot. The hind foot is removed by sawing through the hock joint at a right angle to the long axis of
the leg (Fig. 96).

Ham. The ham may be removed in several ways to make either long-cut or short-cut hams. One
procedure (short-cut) is to locate the division between the second and third (or the third and fourth)
sacral vertebrae and saw perpendicularly to the long axis of the ham (Fig. 97). After the bone has been
severed with the saw, the knife is used to complete the removal of the ham. The ham is further trimmed
by removal of the tail bone on one side and the flank on the other side. Commonly a skinned ham is
produced by removal of three-fourths of the skin and fat from the rump end (Fig. 98). For the production
of special cured dried hams the skin is left on (Fig. 99).

93. The pork carcass and its bones

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In order to obtain a long-cut ham the division is made between the last two (fifth and sixth) lumbar
vertebrae. The long cut is composed of a rump or chump portion and a leg portion comprising centre
section and shank portion. Nowadays more processors are removing the bones thus fabricating a
boneless rump (chump) and a boneless ham. The ham is commonly merchandised in smaller portions
(topside, silverside, thick flank, shank).

94. The pork carcass and its cuts

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95. Pork carcass split into left and right

97. Short cut of ham
side

98. Removing skin and fat from the

rump end of the ham

96. Severing the hind foot

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99. Pork leg cut into ham, shank and

foot

The cutting procedure of the ham is as follows. Remove tail bone and aitch bone and cut the rump off.
Peel back the rind and associated fat to expose the topside muscle on the interior side of the leg.
Separate the topside by following the natural seam between it and the silverside (outside portion of leg)
and thick flank (front position of leg). The topside can then be sliced into steaks. This produces between
five and six lean steaks depending on the thickness and weight required by the customer. The next step
is to remove the leg bone (femur). The thick flank (knuckle) is cut from the silverside by following the
natural seam. Remove the kneecap (patella) and the internal fat deposits before further preparation of
the thick flank, e.g. for diced pork or steaks.

Forefoot. The forefoot is removed by sawing through the junction between the foreshank and the forefoot
bone at a right angle to the length of the foot. This foot contains some muscle and is therefore more
desirable than the hind foot for food.

Fore-end. Considerable variation exists as to where the fore-end is removed. Generally one to three ribs
are left on the pork fore-end. Locate the division between the third and fourth ribs from the head end and
saw perpendicularly to the length of the backbone. The fore-end is trimmed of the hock which is cut off
about halfway up the leg and about two-thirds of the skin and fat is removed from the butt or top end.
Additionally the neckbone (all cervical and three thoracic vertebrae) and the jowl or cheek meat are
removed (Fig. 100). The jowl is removed by a straight cut parallel to the cut that separates the fore-end
from the side just behind the site where the ear was removed (Fig. 101). The fore-end may be divided
into two cuts (spare-rib, also called blade Boston, and hand, also called arm picnic) by sawing just below
the exposed lower end of the blade-bone parallel to the top of the shoulder (Fig. 102). The spare-rib can
be sliced into steaks or used as a roast. It can easily be made into a boneless cut by removing the corner
of the blade-bone.

Besides this method some other ways of cutting and boning the pork foreend exist. In order to obtain
boneless cuts (shoulder and neck-end) from the fore-end the following technique is recommended.
Seam the shoulder carefully from the rest of the side, leaving the rind and associated fat behind. Release
the under-blade steak and remove the blade-bone (scapula) and the shoulder-bone (humerus). Separate
the main muscle block from the smaller group. The smaller group, after trimming the fat off, can be used
for dicing. The main shoulder block should be trimmed of excessive connective tissue. It can be
separated further into the blade and feather muscles and the main shoulder muscle. These can then be
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sliced into a number of boneless steaks. The group of muscles on either side of the spinous processes of
the neckbone and the two or three following segments of the backbone is called the neck-end. The neck-
end is loosened from the backbone and after trimming off excessive rind, fat and any adhering ragged
edges it can be cut into attractive steaks.

100. Pork shoulder (middle), jowl or 102. Dividing the shoulder into two
cheek meat (left), neck bone (right cuts (left, spare-rib; right, hand or arm
below) picnic)

101. Removing the jowl or cheek meat

Lion. The middle or centre section of the pork side is divided into loin and belly by a straight cut from the
edge of the tenderloin muscle on the ham end through a point on the front rib tight against the protruding
edge of the split backbone (Fig. 103). The fat back (skin and excess fat) is removed from the loin so that
a complete fat cover about 0.5 cm thick remains. Starting along the backbone side at the shoulder end,
cut and lift the fat over the curve of the loin muscles without cutting into the lean (Fig. 104). The loin can
be roasted whole, cut into smaller roasts or cut into chops. Shoulder, rib, loin and sirloin chops are made
from the loin. Chops for broiling or frying should be cut 1.3–1.9 cm thick. Thicker chops may be made
and a pocket cut into them for stuffing (Fig. 105).

Belly. Separate the spare-ribs from the belly by cutting closely underneath the ribs beginning at the flank
end (Fig. 106). Prepare the bacon side from the belly by removing any thin or ragged pieces of lean.
Turn the belly over and remove the lower edge with a straight cut just inside of the teat line. Trim the
flank edge of the belly to square the whole piece to prepare it for curing.

LAMB CUTTING
Method

This procedure as described may also be followed for the processing of deer, goats, sheep or other
animal carcasses of similar size.

Cooling

All lamb carcasses should be promptly chilled and kept at a low temperature (-2° to 2°C) until cut and
utilized. Do not permit lamb carcasses to freeze within a day after slaughter or the meat may toughen.
Lamb carcasses can be cut into retail cuts after they have been chilled for 24 to 48 hours.

Carcass

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Lamb carcasses are generally not split into halves after dressing because they are not thick enough in
any location to create cooling problems. Begin cutting the lamb carcass by removing the thin cuts, i.e.
flank, breast and foreleg. Lay the carcass on the cutting table and mark one side from the cod or udder
fat in front of the hind leg to the elbow joint (Figs 107, 108 and 109). After removing the thin cuts from
both sides, remove the kidneys, kidney fat and diaphragm (Fig. 110). Next the carcass is turned over and
the neck removed either in thin slices to be braised or in one piece to be added to stew or to be boned
and ground.

106. Separating spare-ribs from the belly

103. Dividing the centre section of the

pork side into loin and belly

104. Removing the fat cover of the loin

105. Smaller roasts and chops from the

loin

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The trimmed carcass can then be separated into four primal cuts, each with different characteristics. A
cut between the fifth and sixth rib removes the shoulder. Another cut between the twelfth and thirteenth
(last) rib separates the rib from the loin. The loin and legs are separated just in front of the hip bones by
cutting through the back where the curve of the leg muscles blends into the loin (Fig. 111).

107. The lamb carcass and its bones

Legs. Split the legs through the centre of the backbone (Fig. 112). Trim off the flank and cod or udder fat.
Utilize the saw and knife to remove the backbone from the leg. The leg may be further trimmed by cutting
through the knee-joint which is located about halfway between where the muscles of the shank end and
the muscles of the lower leg begin. Work the knife and cut through the joint (Fig. 113). Several sirloin
chops may be cut from the loin end of the leg. Legs may either be prepared with the bone in or the bones
completely removed and the leg rolled and tied.

108. The lamb carcass and its cuts

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Loin. The loin is usually split through the middle of the backbone and chops are cut perpendicularly to
the backbone (Fig. 114). Lamb chops are cut about 2.5 cm thick. Double or “English” chops are made
from a loin that has not been split. Remove the fell or connective tissue covering before cooking chops
(Fig. 115).

Rib. The rib of lamb is prepared by sawing through the ribs on both sides of the backbone (Fig. 116). The
main portion of the backbone is then removed with a knife. Rib chops are easily made by cutting
between the ribs. Remove the fell before cooking the chops. The breast portion may be barbecued in
one piece or made into riblets by cutting between the ribs (Fig. 117).

Shoulder. After splitting through the backbone, the shoulder may be roasted as is, made into chops, or
boned and rolled into a roast. Arm chops should be made first by cutting parallel to the surface where the
foreleg and breast were removed. Blade chops are made by cutting between ribs and sawing through the
blade- and backbones. To prepare a boneless shoulder, first remove the ribs and backbone by cutting
closely underneath the ribs, backbone and neck vertebrae. Next from the rear surface cut along the
inside of the blade-bone to expose it and the armbone. Cut along the edges of the bones and remove
them (Fig. 118). Roll the meat and tie it securely with clean twine. The boneless shoulder may also be
made into a pocket roast and stuffed with ground lamb or other dressing. The edges of the pocket roast
are stitched together.

109. Removing the thin flank cuts 110. Kidneys, kidney fat and diaphragm
removed from carcass

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Shanks. Both the fore- and hind shanks when removed can be barbecued, cut into pieces for stew or
boned and the meat ground.

111. Lamb carcass separated into four

113. Separating the shank from the leg
primal cuts (shoulder, rib, loin, legs)

112. Splitting the legs

Lean trimmings. Lean trimmings of lamb in chunks are suitable for stews or to be marinated and used for
special roasts. Other lean trimmings can be ground and used as one would prepare ground veal or beef.

HYGIENE RULES FOR MARKETING CHILLED MEAT CUTS

Chilled meat is usually kept for the sale in refrigerated display cabinets, either unwrapped or portioned
and packaged for self-service outlets. Refrigerated display cabinets may have fan-assisted convection
and/or natural convection. Fan-assisted types are better able to maintain a lower temperature as they

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are less affected by draughts. Cabinets should be stacked to maintain a good air flow around all meat
(Fig. 119).

116. Splitting the rib along the

114. Cutting chops from the loin
backbone

115. Removing the connective tissue

117. Rib chops and breast portion
covering the loin

Do not store or display unwrapped cooked and raw meat together. Use separate refrigerators, display
cabinets etc. to avoid cross-contamination. Raw-meat exudate on to cooked meat gives an explosive
bacterial growth.

Simple packaging of fresh meat with plastic foil has become very popular with the availability of suitable
and inexpensive film. The main objective of simple packaging is to provide hygienically protected
portioned meat for self-service retail outlets. But the meat portions must also satisfy the customers'
preference for bright red fresh meat. This colour is due to the pigment myoglobin loosely binding oxygen
to form oxymyoglobin. For this colour to develop and be maintained, the wrapping film must have a high-
oxygen permeability. To avoid desiccation of the cut surface, the film should have a low-moisture
permeability. After a time the cut surface becomes more brown as a result of myoglobin binding the
oxygen more tightly to form metmyoglobin. This may take up to three days depending on the
temperature, the number of bacteria and other conditions.

Simple packaging for retail sale in self-service outlets usually involves placing the meat portion in a
plastic tray and overwrapping with a clear plastic film (Fig. 120). Plastic trays are more hygienic than
cardboard. The portions cut should be based on local demand and only a day's sales should be cut at a
time.

119. Chill display cabinets should have a

clearly visible thermometer which is set to 0°±
118. Boneless shoulder (left) and ribs, 1°C. Meat trays should not be stacked on top
backbone, blade- and armbone (right) of each other

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The principal object of this type of simple packaging from a hygiene point of view is to reduce
contamination from airborne micro-organisms. High standards of hygiene are required in the cutting and
packaging operations. On large pieces of meat the bacteria mainly colonize the outer surfaces. When
meat is cut even with a clean knife they will be spread on to the freshly cut moist surface and multiply
rapidly. This is not an argument for relaxing hygiene standards, rather it underlines the need not to add to
the bacterial load by further contamination.

All surfaces and tools in the cutting and packaging room must be kept thoroughly clean. Packaging
materials should be stored in hygienic conditions protected from dust and attack from insects or vermin.
It is most important that personnel involved in cutting and packaging pay particular attention to personal
hygiene as they are the most likely source of food-poisoning pathogens which may survive better in the
package environment than on unpackaged meat. This is in part due to the packaging preventing surface
desiccation. The moist surface favours bacterial growth as does the high relative humidity that builds up
within the pack.

121. Minced meat has a short shelf-life

120. Overwrapping meat in a tray with as the surface microorganisms are
clear film is a simple form of packaging spread throughout the product and the
suitable for self-service retail outlets surface area is increased

It is important to retard bacterial growth by maintaining a low temperature during the display life of the
packs. Overwrapping actually increases the meat temperature as the layer of trapped air acts as an
insulator. Heat generated by light warms the upper surface. Meat should be thoroughly cooled before
packaging to help maintain a low temperature during its display life.

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Mincing meat spreads bacteria on the surface all through the meat which therefore has a shorter shelf-
life than cuts. Mince may be packaged and overwrapped but the mincer must be kept scrupulously clean
and the packs kept well chilled (Fig. 121). Only small quantities of mince should be prepared at a time.

Cooked meats, which typically have much lower bacteria counts than fresh, are more open to attack from
airborne micro-organisms as these will be faced with little competition. Packaging is therefore particularly
beneficial in preventing this type of contamination for cooked meats.

Bacteria introduced during cutting and packaging face little competition and may be of the food-poisoning
type if personal hygiene is poor. If very high standards of hygiene cannot be maintained then a
pasteurizing treatment after packaging will be necessary. Even this, however, will not guarantee
destroying Bacillus and Clostridium spp. if these have been introduced.

COOKING METHODS FOR DIFFERENT MEAT CUTS

Primarily because of natural tenderness or lack of tenderness, different cooking procedures are utilized
to prepare the various cuts of meat correctly. Tender cuts are best cooked with dry heat, as by broiling,
roasting or pan broiling. Less tender cuts are tenderized by cooking with moist heat. Connective tissue is
softened and made tender by cooking slowly in moisture.

Temperature control is important in meat cookery. Meat loses moisture, fat and other substances such as
soluble proteins during cooking. Cooking losses can be minimized by controlling the cooking temperature
and the final internal temperature of the meat. Higher oven and higher internal temperatures increases
shrinkage. Whenever possible a meat thermometer should be used to determine accurately the degree
of doneness of meat. Time and temperature guides can be used to ascertain doneness, but cooking time
is affected by fat, bone and moisture content and the shape and size of the cut. The basic types of meat
cookery follow.

Broiling

Broiling is recommended for all tender cuts and for best results:

Set the oven for broiling

Place thin cuts of meat on a rack at a distance from the heat equal to two times the thickness of
the cut plus 2.5 cm
Broil steaks, chops or patties for approximately one-half the desired cooking time before turning
Season and serve at once.

Pan-broiling

Pan-broiling is recommended for tender cuts suitable for broiling. For best results:

Place meat in a hot frying-pan or on a griddle

Do not add fat or water
Cook slowly over moderate heat, turning occasionally
Pour off or remove fat as it accumulates
Brown meat on both sides
Avoid overcooking.

Roasting

Roasting is recommended for large, tender cuts. Some beef cuts suitable for roasting are rib and top
sirloin roasts. For best results:

Season with salt and pepper as desired

Place the meat, fat side up, on a rack in an open shallow roasting-pan
Insert a meat thermometer so that the bulb is in the centre of the largest muscle without touching
bone.
Add no water and do not cover
Roast at oven temperature of 176°C to desired internal temperature.

Meats are usually cooked to degrees of doneness as follows:

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- Rare 60°C
- Medium 71°C
- Well done 77°C

Pan-frying

Pan-frying is usually recommended for tender cuts 2.5 cm thick or less. For best results:

Place meat in a hot frying-pan or on a griddle

Fat may be added
Cook slowly over moderate heat, turning occasionally
Allow fat to accumulate
Brown meat on both sides
Avoid overcooking.

Braising

This method is best used for less tender cuts such as beef round or chuck steak, pot roast, stew or short
ribs. For best results:

Use a heavy pan

If desired, brown meat slowly on all sides with sufficient fat to keep meat from sticking
Season with salt, pepper, herbs or spices
Add a small amount of liquid
Cover tightly
Cook slowly over low heat on a stove burner or in a moderate oven until meat is tender.

Braising with large cuts is often called pot-roasting and with thin cuts may be known as Swissing.

Simmering

This method consists of cooking a small amount of meat with a large amount of water. For best results
the container should be tightly covered and the meat cooked slowly below the boiling point until tender.
This method is used for the production of soups to which vegetables, grains or pasta products may be
added.

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Techniques and hygiene practices in slaughtering and meat

handling
EQUIPMENT
Slaughtering equipment, particularly for smaller-scale operations, need not be elaborate and expensive.
The amount of equipment will depend on the slaughtering procedures employed. If possible, all
equipment should be made of stainless steel or plastic, be rust resistant and easily cleaned and
sanitized. Equipment which does not get in contact with the meat (e.g. overhead rails, working platforms,
knocking pen) is usually made of galvanized steel.

Basic equipment needed for the slaughtering operation:

stunning gun, electrical head tongs or simple stunning equipment for direct blow
knives:
sticking - 15 cm sharpened on both sides
skinning - 15 cm curved
a sharpening steel
oil or water sharpening stone
scabbard and belt for holding knives
meat saw - hand or electric and cleaver
block and tackle or chain hoist strong enough to hold the weight of the animal to be slaughtered
pritch, chocks or skinning rack (dressing cradle)
a strong beam, tripod or track 2.4 to 3.4 m from floor
spreader - gambrel or metal pipe
several buckets
working platforms
scalding barrel or tank
pot, barrel or system for boiling water
bell scrapers
solid scraping table or platform
thermometer registering up to 70°C
hog or hay hook
torch or flame for singeing

The last seven items indicate additional equipment required when hogs are scalded and scraped rather
than skinned.

Useful additional equipment:

knocking pen
bleeding hooks (for vertical bleeding)
blood-catching trough
wash trough (tripe) Sanitation of hands and tools:
hand wash-basin
implement sterilizers

Means should be available to clean thoroughly all equipment coming into contact with carcasses or
meat. Implement sterilizers are stainless-steel boxes holding hot (82°C) water, shaped to suit particular
equipmentknives, cleavers, saws, etc. (Fig. 2). Knife sterilizers should be placed in positions where every
operator who uses a knife has immediate access. Handles as well as blades must be sterilized. Each
operator should have at least two knives etc., one to use while the other sterilizes (Figs 10 and 11).

Failure to sterilize all knives and equipment regularly will result in carcass contamination. Bacteria will be
transferred from the hide to the carcass and from carcass to carcass (Fig. 12).
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TREATMENT OF LIVESTOCK BEFORE SLAUGHTER AND ITS IMPACT ON

MEAT QUALITY
Stress in its many forms, e.g. deprivation of water or food, rough handling, exhaustion due to
transporting over long distances, mixing of animals reared separately resulting in fighting, is
unacceptable from an animal welfare viewpoint and should also be avoided because of its deleterious
effects on meat quality. The most serious consequence of stress is death which is not uncommon among
pigs transported in poorly ventilated, overcrowded trucks in hot weather. From loading on the farm to the
stunning pen animals must be treated kindly, and the lorries, lairages and equipment for livestock
handling must be designed to facilitate humane treatment. Stress immediately prior to slaughter, such as
fighting or rough handling in the lairage, causes stored glycogen (sugar) to be released into the
bloodstream. After slaughter this is broken down in the muscles producing lactic acid. This high level of
acidity causes a partial breakdown of the muscle structure causing the meat to be pale, soft and
exudative (PSE). This condition is mostly found in pigs.

10. Plastic (right) handles are 12. Poor hygiene during carcass dressing causes the spread
more hygienic than wooden (left) of bacteria from the skin of the carcass to knives and to
for knives and other equipment. operators' hands
Note the excessively worn knife
(third from left) which should be
discarded

11. Knives and other equipment

should be kept sharp and in
good repair

Long-term stress before slaughter such as a prolonged period of fighting during transport and/or lairage
leads to exhaustion. The sugars are used up so that less is available to be broken down and less lactic
acid is produced.

The reduced acidity leads to an abnormal muscle condition known as dark, firm and dry (DFD) in pigs or
dark cutting in beef. The condition is rarer in lamb. Such meat has a high pH (above 6.0) and spoils very
quickly as the low acidity favours rapid bacterial growth.
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Handling animals during transport and lairage

An electric goad (Fig. 13) should be used rather than a stick or tail-twisting not only to avoid stress but
also to prevent carcass bruising. Grabbing sheep by the fleece also causes bruising (Fig. 14).

To avoid fighting, animals not reared together must not be mixed during transport and lairage. Load and
unload using shallow stepped ramps to avoid stumbles. Trucks should be neither over- nor underloaded.
Overloading causes stress and bruising due to crushing. Underloading results in animals being thrown
around and falling more than necessary. Drivers should not corner at excessive speed and must
accelerate and decelerate gently.

The lairage should have small pens. Corridors must curve and not bend sharply so that stock can see a
way forward. Stock must not be slaughtered in sight of other stock. Plenty of clean water must be
available. The lairage must be well lit and ventilated. Do not hold stock in lairage for more than a day.
Only fit, healthy stock may be slaughtered for human consumption.

Fasting before slaughter reduces the volume of gut contents and hence bacteria and therefore reduces
the risk of contamination of the carcass during dressing. It is usually sufficient for the animals to receive
their last feed on the day before slaughter. Stock should have a rest period after arrival at the
slaughterhouse. However, long periods in the lairage can lead to DFD if the animals are restless and
fighting or mounting.

Animals should be as clean as possible at slaughter. Producers should wash their animals before leaving
the farm. Trucks used for transport must be washed after each load and the lairage at the
slaughterhouse should be kept clear of faecal matter and frequently washed (Figs 15 and 16).

STUNNING AND BLEEDING OF SLAUGHTER ANIMALS

Stunning prior to bleeding

Most countries have legislation requiring that animals are rendered unconscious (stunned) by a humane
method prior to bleeding. Exceptions are made for religions which require that ritual slaughter without
prior stunning is practised, provided the slaughter method is humane. Stunning also makes sticking
(throat-slitting) less hazardous for the operator. The animal must be unconscious long enough for
sticking to be carried out, and for brain death to result from the lack of blood supply.

13. An electric goad

delivers a small electric
current via two electrodes
to encourage animals to
move. It avoids stress and
carcass damage

15. Trucks must be thoroughly washed after

each load

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14. Unsightly bruising
caused by striking the
animal with a stick. This
not only causes loss of
product but is also
inhumane

16. Pens will need washing

after emptying

Methods of stunning

Direct blow to skull using a club or poleaxe. The blow must be dealt with precision and force, so that the
skull is immediately smashed, causing instantaneous unconsciousness. In cattle the aiming point is in
the middle of the forehead in line with the ears, where the skull is thinnest. Horses have thinner skulls
and are therefore easier to stun by this method. In sheep and goats the brain is more easily reached
from the back of the neck. Pigs have a well-developed frontal cavity so the blow should be aimed slightly
above the eyes.

Slaughtering mask. A bolt held in the correct position by the mask is driven into the animal's brain by a
hammer blow. The device is usually fitted with a spring which returns the bolt to its original position.

Free bullet fired from a pistol into the skull is effective but unsafe. This method has been used on horses
and cattle.

Captive-bolt pistols fitted with a blank cartridge are effective on cattle and sheep but not pigs whose
skulls are thicker (Figs 17 and 18). After firing, the bolt returns to its original position in the pistol. The
bolt may or may not be designed to penetrate the skull. With penetrating types the brain becomes
contaminated with hair, dirt and bone fragments. If brains are to be saved as edible tissue then the non-
penetrating type with a mushroom-shaped head should be used.

Electrical stunning. An electric current of high frequency but, in the case of manually operated
equipment, of relatively low voltage (60–80 V) is passed through the brain of an animal for a few seconds
to produce unconsciousness. If applied correctly a deep state of unconsciusness is invariably achieved.
Strict safety rules must be observed. Head tongs (Fig. 19) are suitable for pigs and sheep but not for
cattle. The electrodes carried on the ends of the tongs must be accurately placed (Figs 20 and 21).
Places where the skull is thick must be avoided. Electrical contact is impeded by hair and caked mud.
Water or brine will improve contact but the head must not be completely wet otherwise the current will
have a short-circuit path avoiding the brain. The electrodes must be applied with strong pressure.

19. Head tongs are used to stun pigs

and sheep electrically but are not
suitable for cattle. The electrode on the
end of each tong is ridged for better
contact

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17. Captive-bolt stunner suitable for 20. The electrodes must be applied
cattle firmly to either side of the head so that
the electrical current passes through
the brain causing unconsciousness in
a few seconds

21. Head tongs are also suitable for

stunning pigs

18. Aiming point for stunning cattle

Carbon dioxide stunning is used only in large pig abattoirs. Pigs are induced into a chamber and
exposed to a concentration of 85 percent CO2 for about 45 seconds. Although effective for
anaesthetizing sheep, it is impractical because of large amounts of CO2 collecting in the wool and
affecting operators on the killing line.

Bleeding after stunning

The objectives of bleeding are to kill the animal with minimal damage to the carcass and to remove
quickly as much blood as possible as blood is an ideal medium for the growth of bacteria.

Sticking, severing the major arteries of the neck, should immediately follow stunning. Care must be taken
not to puncture the chest cavity or it will fill with blood.

22. Immediately following stunning the animal 23. The sticking point for
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is hoisted by one leg and stuck. For sheep the pigs is in the centre of the
sticking point is in the side of the neck, the neck just in front of the
gash cut severing all the major blood vessels breastbone
in a single movement

Cattle. Insert the sticking knife carefully just above the breastbone at 45° pointed toward the head.
Ensure that the carotid arteries and jugular veins are severed in one movement.

Sheep. Draw the knife across the jugular furrow close to the head severing both carotid arteries.
Alternatively, the knife may be inserted through the side of the neck, though this requires more skill (Fig.
22).

Pigs. As for cattle but do not go in too far or a pocket of blood will collect at the shoulder (Fig.23). To
reduce contamination by the scalding tank water the cut should be as small as possible.

Bleeding on a rail

The most hygienic system of bleeding and dressing is to shackle the animal immediately after stunning,
then hoist it on to a moving rail. The animal is stuck while being hoisted to minimize the delay after
stunning. Bleeding continues until the blood flow is negligible when carcass dressing should begin
without further delay (Fig. 24)

Blood for human use must be collected with special equipment to avoid contamination from the wound,
the gullet of the knife. A hollow knife directs blood away from the wound into a covered stainless-steel
container without touching the skin or hide. The knife may be connected to a hose to reduce the risk of
contamination. The hose may even be connected to a pump to speed the blood flow. Between 40 and 60
percent of the total blood volume will be removed though this will be reduced if sticking is delayed. To
prevent coagulation, citric acid solution made up with one part citric acid to two parts water is added at a
rate up to 0.2 percent of the blood volume. The main sources of contamination during sticking and
bleeding include the knife, the wound and the food-pipe. The knief should be changed after each
operation and returned to a sterilizer. Cutting the hide of sheep and cattle and opening out to make a
clean entry for the sticking knife reduces contamination from the wound. If the food-pipe is pierced semi-
digested food may be regurgitated contaminating the blood and neck wound.

Horizontal bleeding

Horizontal bleeding is claimed to give faster bleeding rates and a greater recovery of blood. This may be
due to certain organs and blood vessels being put under pressure when animals are hoisted, thus
trapping blood and restricting the flow. Bleeding on the floor is very unhygienic. The operation should
take place on a specially designed, easily cleaned stainless-steel table which should be cleaned
frequently. If blood is to be saved it must not come in contact with the table before reaching the collecting
vessel.

24. After sticking, 25. Scalding/dehairing tank which

the animal should accommodates four pigs: one
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be left to bleed awaiting immersion, two immersed

until the blood and one just completing immersion.
flow becomes When the bars are rotated the pigs
negligible change position

26. After immersion any remaining

loose hairs are scraped from the
skin

27. Simple tank for combined

scalding/ dehairing. The tank is
filled with water at 60°C, a pig is
lowered in, the lid is closed and the
paddles rotate, the rubber tips
loosening the hairs

Bleeding without stunning

The Jewish and Muslim religions forbid the consumption of meat which was killed by any method other
than bleeding. Since it is difficult to guarantee that all animals will recover consciousness after being
stunned by any particular method, stunning is not generally allowed. There are exceptions, however.
Some communities do accept low-voltage electrical stunning.

Because animals are fully conscious at the time of sticking, ritual slaughter may be less humane than
sticking after stunning. To reduce the suffering operators must be highly skilled so that a successful gash
cut severing all the veins and arteries is made quickly at the first attempt. Different communities have
different regulations as to the orientation of the animal at sticking, some favouring a position lying on its
side, others insisting it lie on its back. The animal should not be hoisted until unconsciousness due to
lack of blood supply to the brain is complete.

SCALDING AND DEHAIRING OF PIGS (USING SIMPLE EQUIPMENT)

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Scalding in water at around 60°C for about six minutes loosens the hair in the follicle. Too low a
temperature and the hair will not be loosened and too high a temperature and the skin will be cooked
and the hair difficult to remove. The simplest equipment consists of a tank into which the pig is lowered
by a hoist. The water is heated by oil, gas, electricity or an open steam-pipe.

To check the effectiveness of the scald, rub the skin with the thumb to see if hair comes away easily.
Some machines have the thermostatic controls and timers. To reduce contamination, scalding water
should be changed frequently, pigs should be as clean as possible at sticking, and bleeding should be
fully completed before immersion.

In large factories pigs are transported through scalding tanks with rotating bars (Fig. 25) or through long
scalding tanks stretching from the sticking point to the dehairing point in the time required for an effective
scald.

Dehairing is done with a specially formed scraper (bell scraper or knife). If the scald is effective all the
hair can be removed by this manual method (Fig. 26). Another simple method is to dip the pig in a bath
containing a hot resin adhesive. The pig is removed from the bath and the resin allowed to set partially
when it is peeled off pulling the hair with it from the root. This is less labour-intensive than scraping and
produces a very clean skin. After use the adhesive is melted again, strained to remove the hair and
returned to the tank.

Another method of removing dirt and hair in one operation is to skin the carcass though this is only done
when the skin is required for leather goods.

With the simple scalding tank, dehairing and scalding may be combined in one operation. Inside the tank
are rotating rubber-tipped paddles which are started after closing the lid. As the hair is loosened by the
scalding water it is removed by the rubbing effect of the paddles against the skin (Fig. 27).

Singeing removes any remaining hairs, shrinks and sets the skin, decreases the number of adhering
micro-organisms and leaves an attractive clean appearance. It may be done with a hand-held gas torch
(Fig. 28). Automated systems transport the pig into a furnace and leave it long enough for an effective
singe.

After singeing, black deposits and singed hairs are scraped off (Fig. 29) and the carcass is thoroughly
cleaned before evisceration begins.

SKINNING OF CATTLE AND SMALL RUMINANTS

Cattle

The outer side of the hide must never touch the skinned surface of the carcass. Operators must not
touch the skinned surface with the hand that was in contact with the skin.

Combined horizontal/vertical methods

Head. After bleeding, while the animal is still hanging from the shackling chain, the horns are removed
and the head is skinned. The head is detached by cutting through the neck muscles and the occipital
joint. Hang the head on a hook (Fig. 30). Lower the carcass on its back into the dressing cradle.

Legs. Skin and remove the legs at the carpal (foreleg) and tarsal (hind leg) joints. The forelegs should
not be skinned or removed before the carcass is lowered on to the dressing cradle or the cut surfaces
will be contaminated. The hooves may be left attached to the hide.

28. After scraping away loose hairs

30. The head is completely skinned
any remaining hairs can be singed
and hung on a hook to await
and the skin set with a hand-held
inspection
gas torch

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29. A special knife, the black scrape,

is used to scrape off any singed
hairs and black deposits

32. In the combined horizontal/

vertical dressing method the
carcass is lowered on to a cradle,
the legs, brisket and flanks are
skinned, then the carcass is raised
to the half-hoist position. Note that
this is much less hygienic than
verticaldressing on a rail

33. Note the possible

contamination of the carcass by

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the intestines and the hide

dragging on the floor in the
combined horizontal/vertical
dressing method

31. Correct cutting lines for hide removal

Flaying. Cut the skin along the middle line from the sticking wound to the tail. Using long firm strokes and
keeping the knife up to prevent knife cuts on the carcass, skin the brisket and flanks, working backwards
toward the round (Fig. 31). Skin udders without puncturing the glandular tissue and remove, leaving the
supermammary glands intact and attached to the carcass. At this point raise the carcass to the half-hoist
position, the shoulders resting on the cradle and the rump at a good working height (Figs 32 and 33).

Clear the skin carefully from around the vent (anus) avoiding puncturing it and cut the abdominal wall
carefully around the rectum. Tie off with twine to seal it. Skin the tail avoiding contamination of the
skinned surface with the hide. Raise the carcass free of the floor and finish flaying.

Vertical methods

High-throughput plants have overhead rails which convey the carcass from the sticking point to the chills.
Hide removal is carried out on the hanging carcass (Figs 34, 35 and 36). The operations are as in the
combined horizontal/vertical method, but as it is not possible to reach the hide from ground level more
than one operator is needed. A single operator may work with a hydraulic platform which is raised and
lowered as required.

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Automatic hide pullers are used in high-throughput slaughterhouses. Some types pull the hide down from
the hind, others from the shoulders upwards toward the rump.

Automation of hide removal reduces contamination since there is less handling of the carcass and less
use of knives. Moving overhead rails also improve hygiene by reducing carcass contact with operators,
equipment such as dressing cradles and with each other since carcasses are evenly spaced.

Small ruminants

Sheep fleeces can carry large volumes of dirt and faeces into the slaughterhouse. It is impossible to
avoid contamination of sheep and lamb carcasses when the fleece is heavily soiled. The fleece or hair
must never touch the skinned surface, neither must the operator touch the skinned surface with the hand
that was in contact with the fleece.

34. The leg is freed from

the skin and the hock cut
off

35. Pneumatically operated rotating

36. Flaying knives are used for the
knives (flayers) speed the removal
more intricate parts of hide removal
of the hide from the flanks

Combined horizontal/vertical method

The animal is turned on its back and cuts are made from the knuckles down the forelegs. The neck,
cheeks and shoulders are skinned. The throat is opened up and the gullet (food-pipe) is tied off (see Fig.
41). The skin on the hind legs is cut from the knuckles down to the tail root. The legs are skinned and the
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sheep is hoisted by a gambrel inserted into the Achilles tendons. A rip is made down the midline and
skinning proceeds over the flanks using special knives or the fists (see Fig. 39). The pelt is then pulled
down over the backbone to the head. If the head is for human consumption it must be skinned or it will
be contaminated with blood, dirt and hairs.

Moving cratch and rail system. The hanging carcass is lowered on to a horizontal conveyor made up of a
series of horizontal steel plates, bowed slightly and divided into sets large enough to cradle a single
animal. Two operators usually work together on each lamb performing the legging operations and
opening the skin to the stage where it can be pulled off the back. When the gambrel is inserted into the
hind legs it is hoisted on to a dressing rail.

Vertical method

At sticking the animal is shackled by one hind-leg and left to bleed. Dressing commences with the free
leg which is skinned and the foot removed (Fig. 37). A gambrel is inserted into this leg and hung on a
runner on a dressing rail. The second leg is freed from the shackle, skinned and dressed, then hooked
on to the other end of the gambrel. The skin is opened down the midline and cleared from the rump.

A spreader frame (a bar U-shaped at each end) spreads the front legs to simplify work on the neck,
breast and flanks. The front toes are held in each end of the frame which is then slung up on to a
separate travelling hook. The animal is therefore suspended by all four legs belly uppermost (Figs 38
and 39). Skinning continues as in the combined horizontal/vertical method. To clear the shoulders and
flanks, the forelegs are freed from the spreader and the feet removed, the animal returning to a vertical
position. The skin can now be completely pulled off (Fig. 40), including the head if this is for
consumption, though this takes some work with the knife. In both methods, after fleece removal the vent
and food-pipe are cleaned and tied off (Fig.41).

37. Fleece removal starts with skinning

the free hind leg. Care must be taken to
avoid the hide touching the skinned
surface or the carcass will be
contaminated with faecal matter

40. After skinning the neck and breast,

38. With forelegs in a spreader frame
the front legs are freed and skinning
and hind legs in a gambrel, the sheep
continues in the vertical position with
is suspended in a horizontal position
the flanks and back

39. The fists can be used to clear the

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fleece from the breast

41. After skinning the neck, the food-

pipe is freed and tied off to prevent
regurgitation of stomach contents

EVISCERATION
With all species care must be taken in all operations not to puncture the viscera (Fig. 42). All viscera
must be identified with the carcass until the veterinary inspection has been passed. After inspection the
viscera should be chilled on racks etc. for better air circulation (Fig. 43).

Cattle

The brisket is sawn down the middle (Fig. 44). In the combined horizontal/ vertical system this is done
with the animal resting on the cradle. The carcass is then raised to the half-hoist position and when hide
removal is complete the abdominal cavity is cut carefully along the middle line. The carcass is then fully
hoisted to hang clear of the floor so that the viscera fall out under their own weight (Fig. 45). They are
separated into thoracic viscera, paunch and intestines for inspection and cleaning (Figs 46 and 47). If
any of the stomachs or intestines are to be saved for human consumption, ties are made at the
oesophagus/stomach, stomach/duodenum boundaries, the oesophagus and rectum having been tied off
during hide removal. This prevents cross-contamination between the paunch and the intestines.

Small ruminants

A small cut is made in the abdominal cavity wall just above the brisket, and the fingers of the other hand
are inserted to lift the body wall away from the viscera as the cut is continued to within about 5 cm of the
cod fat or udder.

The omentum is withdrawn, the rectum (tied off) loosened, and the viscera freed and taken out. The
food-pipe (tied off) is pulled up through the diaphragm. The breastbone is split down the middle taking
care not to puncture the thoracic organs which are then removed.

Pigs

Loosen and tie off the rectum. Cut along the middle line through the skin and body wall from the crotch to
the neck (Fig. 48). Cut through the pelvis and remove the bladder and sexual organs. In males the

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foreskin must not be punctured as the contents are a serious source of contamination. All these organs
are considered inedible.

42. When cutting through the abdomen

wall, if the viscera are punctured their 43. A portable rack suitable for
contents will severely contaminate the hanging offal for chilling
carcass

44. A mechanical
saw speeds the
splitting of the
brisket but care
must be taken
not to puncture
the viscera
45. After carefully cutting the 46. A suitable receptacle should catch
abdominal wall along the midline the the viscera so that they are not
viscera fall out under their own weight contaminated by contact with the floor

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47. A portable
cart suitable for
catching cattle
stomachs and
intestines with a
separate tray for
edible offal such
as liver, heart and
lungs

Remove the abdominal and thoracic viscera intact. Avoid contact with the floor or standing platform.

The kidneys are usually removed after the carcass has been split down the backbone. The head is
usually left on until after chilling.

SPLITTING, WASHING AND DRESSING OF CARCASSES

Hygienic carcass splitting with simple equipment

Cattle

Work facing the back of the carcass. Split the carcass down the backbone (chine) with a saw or cleaver
from the pelvis to the neck (Figs 49 and 50). Sawing gives a better result but bone dust must be removed
(Fig. 51). If a cleaver is used, it may be necessary to saw through the rump and loin in older animals.

The saw and cleaver should be sterilized in hot (82°C) water between carcasses. Power saws increase
productivity.

48. The body wall is split down

the midline taking care not to
puncture the viscera
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51. Carcasses should be spray-washed to remove

49. Mechanical saw for splitting the visible staining, paying particular attention to bone
backbone (chine) of beef carcasses dust and the internal surface, but without using
excessive amounts of water

50. Hand-saws are much slower than

mechanical saws though they are
preferable to cleavers which splinter
bones

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Pigs

These are suspended and are split down the backbone as for cattle, but the head is generally left intact
(Fig. 94).

Sheep

Sheep and lamb carcasses are generally sold entire. If necessary they can be split by saw or cleaver, but
a saw will probably be necessary for older animals.

Carcass washing

The primary object of carcass washing is to remove visible soiling and blood stains and to improve
appearance after chilling (Fig. 51). Washing is no substitute for good hygienic practices during slaughter
and dressing since it is likely to spread bacteria rather than reduce total numbers. Stains of gut contents
must be cut off. Wiping cloths must not be used.

Carcass spraying will remove visible dirt and blood stains. Water must be clean. Soiled carcasses should
be sprayed immediately after dressing before the soiling material dries, thus minimizing the time for
bacterial growth. Under factory conditions bacteria will double in number every 20 or 30 minutes.

In addition to removing stains from the skinned surface, particular attention should be paid to the internal
surface, the sticking wound and the pelvic region.

A wet surface favours bacterial growth so only the minimum amount of water should be used and chilling
should start immediately. If the cooler is well designed and operating efficiently the carcass surface will
quickly dry out, inhibiting bacterial growth.

Bubbling of the subcutaneous fat is caused by spraying with water at excessively high pressure, which
may be due to the pressure in the system or a result of holding the spray nozzle too close to the carcass.

Carcass dressing

The object of carcass dressing is to remove all damaged or contaminated parts and to standardize the
presentation of carcasses prior to weighing. Specifications will differ in detail for different authorities.
Veterinary inspection of carcasses and offal can only be carried out by qualified personnel. Where signs
of disease or damage are found the entire carcass and offal may be condemned and must not enter the
food chain, but more often the veterinarian will require that certain parts, for instance those where
abscesses are present, be removed and destroyed. Factory personnel must not remove any diseased
parts until they have been seen by the inspector otherwise they may mask a general condition which
should result in the whole carcass being condemned. Any instructions from the inspector to remove and
destroy certain parts must be obeyed.

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REFRIGERATION, HANDLING AND TRANSPORT OF CARCASSES AND

MEAT
Refrigeration of carcasses

Carcasses should go into the cooler as soon as possible and should be as dry as possible. The object of
refrigeration is to retard bacterial growth and extend the shelf-life. Chilling meat post-mortem from 40°C
down to 0°C and keeping it cold will give a shelf-life of up to three weeks, provided high standards of
hygiene were observed during slaughter and dressing.

Carcasses must be placed in the cooler immediately after weighing. They must hang on rails and never
touch the floor (Fig. 52). After several hours the outside of a carcass will feel cool to the touch, but the
important temperature is that deep inside the carcass. This must be measured with a probe thermometer
(not glass), and used as a guide to the efficiency of the cooling.

52. Sheep carcasses in the chill-room,

hung on rails clear of the floor and
spaced to allow air circulation to speed
drying

The rate of cooling at the deepest point will vary according to many factors including the efficiency of the
cooler, the load, carcass size and fatness. As a general guide a deep muscle temperature of 6–7° C
should be achieved in 28 to 36 hours for beef, 12 to 16 hours for pigs and 24 to 30 hours for sheep
carcasses. Failure to bring down the internal temperature quickly will result in rapid multiplication of
bacteria deep in the meat resulting in off-odours and bone-taint.

High air speeds are needed for rapid cooling but these will lead to increased weight losses due to
evaporation unless the relative humidity (RH) is also high. However, if the air is near to saturation point
(100 percent RH) then condensation will occur on the carcass surface, favouring mould and bacteria
growth. A compromise between the two problems seems to be an RH of about 90 percent with an air
speed of about 0.5 m/second. Condensation will also occur if warm carcasses are put in a cooler partially
filled with cold carcasses.

The cooler should not be overloaded beyond the maximum load specified by the manufacturers and
spaces should be left between carcasses for the cold air to circulate. Otherwise cooling will be inefficient
and the carcass surface will remain wet, favouring rapid bacterial growth forming slime (see below).

Once filled, a cooler should be closed and the door opened as little as possible to avoid sudden rises in
temperature. When emptied, it should be thoroughly washed before refilling. Personnel handling
carcasses during loading and unloading operations should follow the strictest rules regarding their
personal hygiene and clothing and should handle carcasses as little as possible.

Marketing of meat under refrigeration

Chilled meat must be kept cold until it is sold or cooked. If the cold chain is broken, condensation forms
and microbes grow rapidly. The same rules about not overloading, leaving space for air circulation,
opening doors as little as possible and observing the highest hygiene standards when handling the meat
apply. An ideal storage temperature for fresh meat is just above its freezing point, which is about - 1°C (-

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3°C for bacon because of the presence of salt). The expected storage life given by the International
Institute of Refrigeration of various types of meat held at these temperatures is as follows:

Type of meat Expected storage life at - 1°C

Beef up to 3 weeks (4–5 with strict hygiene)
Veal 1–3 weeks
Lamb 10–15 days
Pork 1–2 weeks
Edible offal 7 days
Rabbit 5 days
Bacon 4 weeks (at - 3°C)

Under commercial conditions, meat temperatures are rarely kept at - 1°C to 0°C, so actual storage times
are less than expected. The times would also be reduced if RH were greater than 90 percent.

Meat should be placed in the refrigerator immediately following receipt. Any parts which show signs of
mould growth or bacterial slime should be trimmed off and destroyed. Hands must be thoroughly washed
after handling such trimmings and knives must be sterilized in boiling water. The refrigerator should be
thoroughly cleaned after finding such meat and should also be cleaned on a regular basis.

Carcasses, quarters and large primals should not be cut into smaller portions before it is necessary as
this will expose a greater surface area for bacteria to grow. Freshly cut surfaces are moist and provide a
better medium for bacterial growth than the desiccated outer surfaces of cuts that have been stored for
some time.

An accurate thermometer should be placed in the refrigerator and checked regularly. The temperature
should remain within a narrow range (0° to + 1°C).

Transport of meat

Vehicles for transporting meat and carcasses should be considered as an extension of the refrigerated
storage. The object must be to maintain the meat temperature at or near 0°C. Meat should be chilled to
0°C before loading. Meat should hang on rails, not on the floor. If stockinettes are put on carcasses they
must be clean. Meat trucks should not carry anything other than meat.

The refrigeration is usually produced by injecting liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide (CO2) into the
compartment or by blowing air over CO2 chunks (dry ice). The temperature in these vans can be set and
controlled to minimize the temperature rise and to avoid condensation on the meat surface (Fig. 53).

Insulated vans without refrigeration may be refrigerated by adding dry ice. While this is a reasonably
good alternative to the refrigerated truck it does not allow the temperature to be controlled.

Uninsulated vans and open trucks should not be considered as suitable transport for meat, particularly in
hot climates. In addition to the temperature abuse, condensation will occur when the meat goes back into
refrigeration, and in open trucks the meat is exposed to attack from insects. Loading and unloading
should be done quickly. If there are any unavoidable delays then dry-ice blocks should be placed in the
partly filled van.

53. Insulated vans with refrigeration units should be

used for transporting meat

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Carcass and meat handling and marketing without refrigeration

Where refrigeration is unavailable either owing to financial or technical reasons (e.g. no power supply),
the shelf-life of meat is reduced to days or hours, not weeks. Slaughter and dressing must be near the
point of sale and it must be quick and clean. If carcasses and meat are kept in well-insulated rooms, the
temperature can be reduced with dry-ice blocks, if these are available. Since it is easier to chill boneless
cuts rather than whole carcasses, hot-boning should be considered.

Stock must be handled carefully to avoid producing high-pH meat which will spoil more quickly. Rooms
used for slaughter and handling meat must be clean and well ventilated, but out of direct sunlight, dust-
free and verminfree (rodents and insects). Hot water (82°C) must be available to clean all equipment and
surfaces and personnel must work very hygienically. Receive all blood into sealed containers and have
separate skips on wheels for hooves, skins, green offal and trimmings.

54. Processing and packing of offal

must be done in a room separated
from the slaughter hall or other meat-
handling facilities

Dressing on a vertical hoist will minimize contamination by floor or cradle contact. Let nothing drop on
the floor, only into skips. Personal hygiene must be scrupulous. Any spills of gut contents on to the meat
should be cut off, but careful work will avoid this. The dressed carcass should be hung on rails. If beef is
quartered to facilitate handling, the cut surface is at risk.

Red offal should be hung on hooks. Any offal processing must be in rooms away from meat-handling
facilities (Fig. 54). Intestines for human consumption must be thoroughly cleaned and washed.

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Storage and transport without refrigeration

Meat should be put on sale within a day of slaughter. If it has to be held it should be hung in a clean,
well-lit hall with good ventilation. Insects, rodents and birds must be kept out, dust must not blow in.
Trays of offal should be on shelves, not on the floor. Barrows for wheeling carcasses and quarters are
better than carrying on shoulders, as they can be cleaned frequently. All staff must wear clean clothing
and observe strict personal hygiene. Transport of non-refrigerated meat is very hazardous. If meat is to
be put in stockinettes and sacks these must be very clean. Meat should be on rails in the truck or wagon,
and it is not advisable to carry it more than a day's journey before sale.

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