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Harvard College Library
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LIBRARY OF THE
School of Forestry
 360 HF 4 . 2
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WOODWORKING MACHINERY
 WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
SAW theMILLS : their Arrangement and Management, and
Economical Conversiou of l'imber. ( A Companion Volume to
• Woodworking Machinery.') By M . POWIS BALE. With numerous
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d, cloth .
" The administration of a large sawing establishment is discussed , and
the subject examined frum a financial standpoint. Hence the size , shape,
order, and disposition of saw mills and the like are gone into in detail, and
the course state.
of the timber is traced from itsa reception to its delivery in its
converted We could not desire more complete or practical
treatise.' - BUILDER .
STONE-WORKING MACHINERY, and the Rapid and
Economical Conversion of Stone. With Hints on the Arrangement
and Management of Stone Works. By M . POWIS BALE, M .I. M . E .
With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 98.
work• The book should
.'- COLLIERY be in the
GUARDIAN . handsof every mason or student of stone
A capital handbook for all who manipulate stone for building or
ornamental purposes.'- MACHINERYMARKET.
PUMPS AND PUMPING : a Handbook for Pump Users.
Being Noles on Selection , Construction, and Management. By
M . 6dPows
28. . clothBALE,
. M .I.M .E . Second Euition, Revised. Crown 8vo.
The matter is set forth as concisely as possible . In fact, condensation
rather than diffuseness has been the author's aim throngbout; yet he does
not seem to have omitted anything likely to be of use.'-- JOURNAL OF G As
LIGHTING .
Thoroughly practical and simply and clearly written.'- GLASGOW
HERALD.
STEAM AND MACHINERY MANAGEMENT: aGuide
w the Arrangementand Economical Management of Marbiuery, with
Hints on Construction and Selection . By M . Powis BALE, M .I. M .E .
Fcp . 8vo. 35, cluth.
Of high practical value.' - COLLIERY GUARDIAN .
“Gives the results of wide experience.' - LLOYD'S NEWSPAPER.
London : CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON,
7 Stationers' Hall Court, E.C.
 Angles 900 & 470

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FLEAM OR LANCET.

HAND SAW TOOTH

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15

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MILL SAW TOOTH

680 & 53 78 * 4 10
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HARD OR SOFT WOOD HOG MANE TOOTH .
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WOODWORKING MACHINERY
ITS

RISE, PROGRESS, AND CONSTRUCTION

WITH

HINTS ON THE MANAGEMENT OF SAW MILLS AND

THE ECONOMICAL CONVERSION OF TIMBER
A COMPANION VOLUME TO ' SAW MILLS, THEIR ARRANGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Ellustrated with Eramples of Designs by leading English

French , and American Engineers
BY

M . POWIS BALE, A.M .I.C.E ., M .Inst.M .E .

• AUTHOR OP . SAW MILLS ' STONEWORKING MACHINERY '
A HANDBOOK FOR STEAM USERS ' ETC .

SECOND EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS

Lumen

LONDON
CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON
7 STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL
1894
 Angles 900 & 470

‫ م‬100TH
120 ‫وه‬

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ITIL

HAND "SAW‫ د ده د‬TOOTH .

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1
MILL SAW TOOTH

680 & 53 8° 4: : jo
) ‫ا ا ا ا ا ا را ارا‬
-

21 ‫ده‬
HARD OR SOFT WOOD HOG MANE TOOTH .
---
WOODWORKING MACHINERY
ITS

RISE , PROGRESS, AND CONSTRUCTION

WITH

HINTS ON THE MANAGEMENT OF SAW MILLS AND

THE ECONOMICAL CONVERSION OF TIMBER

A COMPANION VOLUME TO ' SAW MILLS, THEIR ARRANGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Ellustrated with Eramples of Designs by leading English

French , and American Engineers

BY

M . POWIS BALE , A .M .I.C.E ., M .Inst.M .E .

• AUTHOR OF ' SAW MILLS ' STONEWORKING MACHINERY '
A HANDBOOK FOR STEAM USERS ' ETC .

SECOND EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS

Capio Lumen
Umen

LONDON
CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON
7 STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL
1894
 009556667

850 School of Forestry

,5175
78.7

PRINTED BY
SPOTT:SWOODE AND CO ., NEW -STREET QUARE

LONDON
 PREFACE .

Content if hence th' unlearn 'd their wants may view ,

The learn 'd reflect on what before they knew . - POPE.

THE FOLLOWING PAGES, written in the spare hours of a

busy life , attempt to give an account of the rise and
progress of what is now in this country an important
branch of engineering. Although wood is employed in
the constructive arts more largely than any other sub
stance , its conversion by machinery is of comparatively
modern origin , and therefore very few booksor treatises
have been written on the subject. The aim of the
Author has been to combine, as far as possible , the his
torical with the practical. In the first portion of the
book , in addition to notes on design and construction ,
the names of the chief inventors and pioneers in wood
working machinery will be found ; the latter part of
the work is devoted entirely to practical and technical
details .
The illustrations are confined to the designs of
English , French , and American engineers, the ma
chines constructed by other nations being, as a rule ,
based on these models .
The adaptation of machinery to common uses is ,
without doubt, increasingly necessary to the commer
cial prosperity and progress of a nation , and has been
exemplified by the success of American competition in
some branches ofmanufacture. This can in a measure
be accounted for by the low patent fees and high rates
 PREFACE .

of wages in vogue in that country , thus encouraging

inventors to perfect the smallest details in their machine
construction which tend either to lessen the cost of pro
duction , improve the quality, or increase the range of
the work performed. The saving thus effected may, in
a day, be infinitesimal, but when multiplied by months
or years it assumes a gigantic total. This points,
the Author takes it, to the urgent necessity of assimi
lating our own patent rates — which bear heavily on the
brain power of the nation — to those of other countries.
From a somewhat extended practical experience of the
subject treated on , the Author trusts that what he has
written may afford some fresh information , and prove
of service to the engineer and student. In that case
his end will have been attained.

NOTE TO THE SECOND EDITION .

SINCE the first edition of this book was issued, no
startling invention in connection with wood-working ma
chinery has taken place ; the aim of engineers appears
to have been directed rather to the improvement and
simplification of machines already in existence than to
the production of novelties . Large progress — especially
in America - has been made, however , in the conversion
of logs by means of band-sawing machines, and an illus
tration of such a machine is embodied in the present
edition ,also one ofan improved double -action horizontal
saw frame. Chapters on the selection of an engine
and boiler for a saw -mill, and on the management of
circular and band saws, & c.,are also included .
APPOLD STREET, LONDON, E .C. :
March 1894.
 CONTENTS.
CHAPTER PAOR
I. INTRODUCTORY . . . . . . . . 1
JI. CIRCULAR Saw BENCHES . . . . . 4
III. CIRCULAR Saw Benches - continued . . . . 13
IV . CIRCULAR Saw BENCHES — continued . . . . 24
V . TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES, ETC. . . . . . 35
VI. TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES, ETC. - -continued . . 44
VII. TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES, ETC.— continued . . . 58
VIII. PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES . . . .
IX . PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES — continued . . 79
X. PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES -- continued . . 88
XI. PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES ---continued . . 96
XII. IRREGULAR MOULDING AND SHAPING MACHINES . 113
XIII, BAND AND FRET Saw MACHINES . . . . . 119
XIV . BAND AND FRET Saw MACHINES — continued . 128
XV. BAND AND FRET Saw MACHINES — continued . . . 1 :8
XVI. STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES . . . 118
XVII. STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES - continued 162
XVIII. TENONING MACHINES . . . . . . . 171
XIX . •GENERAL JOINERS ' AND COMBINATION MACHINES. . 181
XX . DOVE- TAILING MACHINES . . . . . . 186
XXI. VENEER-CUTTING MACHINES . . . . . . 192
XXII. WHEEL AND CARRIAGE MAKING MACHINERY .
XXIII. CASK -MAKING MACHINERY . . . . . . 207
XXIV. SAW AND CUTTER SHARPENING MACHINES . . . 220
XXV. HAND-POWER WOOD-WORKING MACHINES . . . 227
viji CONTENTS.
CHAPTER PAGE
XXVI. CORKWOOD-WORKING MACHINERY . . . . 237
XXVII. MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY FOR WORKING Wood 239
XXVIII. MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY FOR WORKING WOOD
— continued . . . . . . . 247
XXIX . MOTIVE POWER FOR DRIVING W00D-WORKING
MACHINERY . . . . . . . 256
XXX, ARRANGEMENT OF Saw MILLS AND ECONOMICAL
CONVERSION OF TIMBER . . . . . 267
XXXI. MACHINES FOR ESTATE PURPOSES . . . . 275
XXXII. FRAMINGS OF WOOD-WORKING MACHINES . . . 277
XXXIII. BEARINGS OF WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY . . 285
XXXIV . MACHINE FOUNDATIONS . . . . . . 300
XXXV . SHAFTING AND GEARING . . . . 305
XXXVI. BELT GEARING . . . . . . . . 313
XXXVII. WooD . . .
XXXVIII. CIRCULAR AND STRAIGHT Saws.
XXXIX . BAND OR RIBBON Saws . . . . . . 336
XL . CUTTERS . . . . . . . . . 343
XLI. BAND-SAWING MACHINES FOR HEAVY TIMBER 348
XLII. THE CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF BAND
SAWING MACHINES . . . . . . 363
XLIII. CIRCULAR SAWS: THEIR ADJUSTMENT AND MANAGE
MENT
MENT . . . . . . . . 372
XLIV . NOTES ON Saw SETTING . . . . . . 392
XLV . Notes on STICKING HIGH-CLASS MOULDINGS . 397
XLVI. THE BEST ENGINE FOR A Saw MILL . . . 407
XLVII. THE BEST BOILER FOR A Saw Mill . . . 414
XLVIII. RULES AND TABLES . . . . . . . 422
INDEX . . . . . . . .. . 427
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

VARIOUS FORMS OF Saw TEETH . . . . Frontispiece

FIG . PAGE

1. Plain CIRCULAR SAW BENCH . . . . . . 20

2 . Casson's PATENT CONTINUOUS-FEED CIRCULAR Saw BENCH 21
3. SELF-ACTING CIRCULAR Saw BENCH . . . . . 29
4. RACK-FEED CIRCULAR Saw Bencu . . . To face 30
5 . TIMBER AND DEAL FRAME COMBINED . . ,
6 . FRAZER'S PATENT EQUILIBRIUM DEAL FRAME : ,,
7 . HORIZONTAL DOUBLE-BLADED Saw FRAME . ,
8. PLANING MACHINE PATENTED BY Muir, A.D. 1827 . . 81
9 . LARGE ROLLER- FEED PLANING MACHINE . . To face 94
10. WHITNEY'S SURFACE-SCRAPING MACHINE . . . . 97
11 & 12. Fay's PATENT HAND AND POWER FEED PLANING
MACHINE . . . . . . . . To face 98
13. SHILL'S PATENT THIN Wood Planing Machine . . 104
14. ROLLER-FEED PLANING MACHINE . . . . To face 106
15 & 16 . Wilson's PATENT MOULDING AND PLANING MA
CHINE . . . . . . . . . To face 108
17. CHAPMAN 'S PATENT THIN Wood PlaninG MACHINE . . 110
18. PLANING AND TRYING-UP MACHINE . . . To face 110
19. WESTERN'S PATENT SINGLE-SPINDLE IRREGULAR MOULDING
MACHINE . . . . . . . . To face 114
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG . PAGR

20–3. NEWBEXRY'S BAND SAWING MACHINE, PATENTED 1808 . 120-1

24. Knowling's PATENT Band SAWING MACHINE . . . 130
25 . Fay's Patent Band Sawing MACHINE . . . . 134
26 . FRET-SAW MACHINE . . . . . . . . 140
27 & 28. RICHARDS'S PATENT STEAN MORTISING AND BORING
MACHINE . . . . . . . . 158
29. SINGLE AND DOUBLE Texon Cutting MACHINE , . . 178
30 & 31. WORSSAM 'S PATENT GENERAL JOINER . To face 182
32. ARMSTRONG'S PATENT DOVE-TAILING MACHINE . „ 186
33 & 34 . T. HAMILTON'S Patent DOVE-TAILING MACHINE , 188
35 . MULTIPLE Copying MACHINE FOR DRESSING SPOKES, GUN
Stocks, & c. . . . . . . . To fure 202
36 . SAW -SHARPENING MACHINE . . . . . . . 223
37. HANDYSIDE'S PATENT TOOL-GRINDER . . . . . 225
38. HAND -POWER MORTISING AND Boring MACHINE . . . 2.28
3 ). HAND OR STEAM POWER SAW BENCI AND BAND SAWING
MACHINE COMBINED . . . . . . . 232
40 & 41. DIMENSION Sawing MACHINE . . . . . 254
42. COPYING LATHE FOR CUTTING TWISTED OR Straight
FLUTINGS, &c. . . . . . . To face 254
43- 8. BAND-SAW TEETH . . . . . . . . 341-2
49.GUIDE AND ARM . . . . . . . . . 355
50. Saw Teeth for ORDINARY TIMBER . . . . . 357
51. BAND-SAWING MACHINE FOR CUTTING Logs . . . . 362
 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.

Wood in its various forms enters, perhaps,more largely

than any other substance into the industry of the
nation, and its economical and rapid conversion from
forest trees into articles of general utility cannot be
but one of paramount importance. I can scarcely help
thinking that sufficient interest has hardly been given
by scientific men to this very important branch of en
gineering, whilst , on the other hand, improvements in
the munitions of war, for instance, have been carried
to the highest degree of perfection . When we come
to consider the endless uses— in shipbuilding, railway
carriage works, coachbuilding, joinery works, builders'
establishments , & c . — that wood in its varied forms is
put to, the importance of the subject will, perhaps,
more readily strike us. Wood conversion by machinery
has doubtless during the last twenty years made gigan
tic strides, but still there remains ample scope for
further progress in this direction . The chief hard
woods used in this country are oak , ash , mahogany ,
 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
teak, and elm ; and of the resinous woods, red pine
from Norway, Sweden, and Russia ; Memel, Dantzig ,
and Riga fir, from Russia and Prussia ; yellow pine,
pitch pine, and cedar. Other ornamental woods are,
however, largely used for decorative purposes. Al
though one of the most important branches of en
gineering, wood -working machinery is one of themost
modern ; there is no doubt, however, that the conver
sion of wood by means of saws, axes, & c ., was known
some thousands of years back , and is spoken of in
ancient Egyptian , Grecian , and Hebrew history ; but
very few records are left us concerning their origin in
this country. Wemust turn to the eighteenth century
for any accurate information as to absolute machinery,
in the true sense of the word , although , doubtless , ap
paratuses of different kinds were in use to facilitate
hand labour before this date.
First and foremost among the pioneers of wood
working machinery must be placed Sir Samuel Bentham ,
whose patents in the years 1791 and 1793 are truly
remarkable examples of inventive genius, and fully
illustrate the old adage, There is nothing new under
the sun .' In these specifications the principles in
volved in many of the most important machines at
present in use are claimed , and set forth in the clearest
and tersest manner,affording a wonderful illustration of
how a patent could be drawn in those days. The fol
lowing may be named as some of the inventions included
in this remarkable specification : — Planing machines
with rotary cutters, to cut on several sides of the wood at
once ; veneer cutting machine, horizontal stone saws,
moulding and recessing machine, bevel sawing machine,
saw -sharpening machine, tenon -cutting by means of
 INTRODUCTORY.

circular saws, and many kinds of rotary and boring

tools. Many of the principles set forth in Bentham 's
specifications have been the subjects of a number of
patents during the present century, or, I may say,
during the last few years , but it is my opinion that
several of these patents differ very little indeed except
in matter of detail from Bentham 's ideas in 1793. I
do not intend here to enter further into the early
history of wood-working machinery, as the data atmy
disposal are both scant and somewhat unreliable, but I
purpose ,when considering the different classes of ma
chines, to add such notes of their origin as I may
consider instructive and interesting. It is my inten
tion to confine myself in these pages chiefly to my
experience of English practice, illustrating the same
with woodcuts of some of the latest examples of the
most eminent makers, and explaining them as concisely
and, I trust, as practically, as possible . I shall, how
ever, as occasion may arise, touch on American and
Continental makes when of interest.
Till within the last thirty years, wood-working
machinery in this country must be considered to have
been in a very crude state , but of late great impetus
has been given to it by the constant battles between
capital and labour. The great cost and, in some cases ,
the inferior quality of work turned out by hand, have
rendered the increasing introduction of labour- saving
machinery absolutely necessary, to keep pace with the
general progress of the times. The introduction of
this class of machinery has not, however, lessened ,
but rather raised, the wages of skilled artisans, as
it is found the cheaper production creates the greater
demand.
B 2
 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER II.
CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES.

With the exception, perhaps,of the wedge and the axe,

the saw can lay claim to being the most ancient instru
ment for the conversion of wood, and it is certainly
by far the most important. Its earliest history, how
ever, from the lapse of ages, is involved in obscurity.
Representations of saws are said to have been discovered
on some of the most ancient of Egyptian monuments.
This, taken in connection with the many times the saw
is mentioned in Holy Scripture and other ancient his
tories , seems to conclusively prove that the saw was
known many thousands of years ago. What it was
constructed of, however, there are no records to show .
Ancient Grecian historians variously ascribe its inven
tion to Dædalus, Perdix, and Talus,' and the inventor,
whoever he was,was inscribed in their mythology, with
a place in which , among their gods, they honoured the
greatest benefactors of the earliest ages. Talus is said
to have formed his first saw from the jaw -bone of a
snake. Perdix , we are told , used the backbone of a
fish for a like purpose . The saws of the Grecian car
penters had a similar form to ours in use at present, as
shown by a painting still preserved among the anti
See Beckmann's History of Inventions.
 CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES.
quities of Herculaneum . Two genii are represented
at the end of a bench ; the piece of wood which is to
be sawn through is secured by cramps. The saw with
which the genii are at work has a perfect reseinblance
to our frame saw . It consists of a square frame, having
in the middle a blade, the teeth of which stand perpen
dicular to the plane of the frame. The arms in which
the blade is fastened have a similiar form to those we
now use.
It is recorded that saw mills driven by water or
wind were erected in Germany as early as the fourteenth
century ; this is, however, very much open to doubt,
Stetten says in his work ! Kunst- und Handwerks
Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg ,' 1779) that saw mills
were erected near Augsburg in the year 1337 ; but
what the machinery consisted of, or by what means it
was driven , there is nothing to show . It is also re
corded that saw mills were in existence at the following
places at the dates named : - Breslau, 1427 ; Holstein ,
1545 ; Lyons, 1555 ; Ratisbon , 1575 ; and in Norway
in the year 1530. The first mill erected in Holland
was at Saardam in 1596, and in Sweden about 1653.
The first saw mill in England of which we have any
record was erected by a Dutchman near London about
the year 1663, but was the occasion of so much riot that
it had to be abandoned . This was also the case with a
nill erected by one James Stansfield in 1768, as it was
torn to pieces by the mob. Wind was themotive power
used by Stansfield , and it seems that he and others,
aided by the Government, erected mills in various parts
of the country about this time, which were allowed by
the populace to continue working . The straight saw
or mill web was doubtless in use many years in Holland
 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
and Germany before the circular saw was known. The
circular saw is said to have originated in Holland in
the sixteenth or seventeenth century, but there is
nothing to show who was the inventor. One of the
earliest records of its use in this country is contained
in the patent specification of Samuel Miller, of South
ampton , granted in the year 1777, in which he claims
an entirely new machine for more expeditiously sawing
all kinds of wood , stone, and ivory ; and the saws used
are of a circular figure.' The motive power employed
was a horizontal windmill. He also claimed an ar
rangement for bringing the timber up to the saws
when in motion ; in point of fact, it may be considered
our present rack saw -bench in embryo. Bentham , in
his specification of 1793, claims also various improve
ments in sawing machines, including crown saws,
taper gauge, grooving table , adjustment of saws in
benches, & c .
In the year 1805 , Brunel took out a patent for
improvements in machinery for sawing timber ,' with
arrangements for veneer cutting, & c. ; he also about
this time fitted up the Government dockyard at Ports
mouth with sawing machinery, including both recipro
cating and circular saws. It was considered at that
day the most complete machinery in the country. We
have before us an engraving of one of these machines,
especially adapted for preparing the rough timber for
block-making ; the elm trees of which the blocks were
formed were cut into proper lengths by two cross
cutting saws, one of which is a reciprocating and the
other a circular saw . This combination of straight and
circular saws for this special work would not do dis
credit to a designer even of the present day. Of course
 CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES.
some of its details appear to us somewhat crude ; but,
as showing early efforts in introducing wood-working
machinery into this country, I think it of sufficient
general interest to append herewith a short general
description :
“ The tree subjected to the action of the cross
cutting reciprocating saw is placed on a long frame or
bench , raised a little above the floor, on the end of
which is a frame composed of vertical posts and a cross
beam . Through this frame the end of the tree is
drawn, by a capstan working in the middle of the room
upon a vertical shaft, turned by a steam engine. The
end of the timber projects as much beyond the front of
the frame as the part intended to be cut off, and is
fastened from rolling sideways by a lever,which presses
upon it and holds it down. The saw is a straight blade,
fixed into a wooden handle at each end to lengthen it.
One of these handles is connected by a joint to the
upper end of a lever, bent at right angles and having
the centre beneath the floor. The horizontal arm of
the lever is connected by a spear rod with the crank on
the end of a spindle near the ceiling of the room , the
motion of which is regulated by a fly wheel. By this
means the saw has a reciprocating motion from right
to left nearly in a horizontal position , and exactly
across the log that is to be cut, resembling in its action
the carpenter 's hand saw . The teeth of the saw are, of
course, on the lower side of the blade, and it acts en
tirely by its own weight. The machine, being at rest ,
is prepared for work by fixing the log in the frame by
the lever, so that the surface of the frame intersects
the log at the place it is intended to be cross-cut. The
saw ,which was before lifted up by its handle to be
 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

clear of the log, is now suffered to rest upon it in the

place where the cut is to be made ; and to guide it in
first setting -in , the back of the saw is received in a
saw kerf, made in the end of a piece of board , which is
attached to the frame over the saw , but slides up and
down, to reach it at any height,according to the thick
ness of the log. The machinery is then put in gear,
which causes the saw to reciprocate horizontally across
the tree, and thus by its own weight cuts it through .
As the saw gets into the tree, it quits the guide above
mentioned , which becomes less necessary as the saw
goes deeper, a saw having no tendency to alter its
course when cutting across the grain .
" The circular cross -cutting saw , which is employed
for the same purpose, is more novel in its construction.
The spindle is so mounted as to move in any direction
parallel to itself, the saw continuing in the same plane.
By this means it can be applied to any part, so that it
will divide trees much larger than could otherwise be
done by it. It is more expeditious and accurate in its
performance than the one above described , for which
reason the preference is always given to it in all cases
where the size of the tree is not too great for its appli
cation .'
What is now known as the American rack bench
is really of English origin . In the year 1824 letters
patent were granted to Messrs. Sayner and Greenwood
for improvements in sawing machinery,' the chief of
which was the use of two circular saws of small dia
meter placed one above the other, but with their peri
pheries revolving in the same line, in lieu of one saw
of large diameter for breaking down heavy timber.
The timber rested upon horizontal rollers, and was
 CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES.
guided to the saw by vertical rollers. The feed was
given to the log by means of a grooved feed roller,
acted on by a pressure roller and weighted lever. They
also claimed the use of several circular saws on one
spindle, divided by suitable collars for converting
timber into planks, with other saws placed on vertica.
spindles,and working horizontally for cutting the planks
into scantlings at the same time. A third improvement
consisted in cramping a series of circular saws closely
together, and using them for reducing dye woods to
powder , instead of the usual method of rasping or
chipping. In the same year (1824 ) Mr. Robert East
man, of Brunswick , Maine, U .S . A ., patented some im
provements in the construction of circular saws. These
consisted chiefly in the introduction of a limited
number of sectional' or ' false ' teeth . Instead of a
series all round the periphery of the plate, as is usual
in ordinary circular saws, four cutting sections of two
teeth are placed at equal distances on the periphery of
the plate, and projecting from it. In addition to these
teeth , cutters were fixed on the saw plate nearer to the
centre, and were arranged for surfacing up the plank
after it was cut. One of the novelties of this patent
was the method employed for converting the log into
boards, as the plan pursued was to cut from the cir
cumference or exterior of the tree towards the centre,
and not right through the tree, as is usually the case.
In favour of this method it was urged that planks,
staves for casks, & c., cut in this manner possessed
more durability , strength , and elasticity than those cut
in the ordinary way. The log to be operated on was
made to revolve between iron centres, which it did
after each succeeding cut of the saw , thus bringing the
 Y
ING INER
10 WOOD -WORK MACH .
whole circumference of the log under its action. The
saw spindle or shaft was made of cast iron, and ran
upon friction rollers, supported by stands on the floor .
The whole of the movements of the machine were self
acting, and a series of feather-edged boards of uniform
thickness were cut all round the log, having their thin
edged sides attached to the centre piece ; the log being
big enough, a second series of boards could be cut in a
like manner. The teeth employed were in the form of
a hawk's bill, and the inventor claimed that the eight
teeth used were driven with one-quarter the power than
with an ordinary circular saw . This statement we can
not in any way agree to, and whatever was gained in
the shape of power was more than lost by the excessive
waste . The whole arrangement of the machine, how
ever, reflects the greatest credit on its designer. The
rate at which the saw was speeded to run was from ten
to twelve hundred revolutions per minute.
Small circular saws for cutting the teeth of watch
and clock wheels are reported to have been in
use in the time of Dr. Hook . Letters patent were
granted to Maudslay for ' improvements in mounting
and lubricating circular saws' early in this century ;
also to one Charles Hammond, of London, for “ im
provements in sawing and planing wood ;' but from ,
say, the year 1810 to 1835 this branch of engineering
appears to have reinained almost at a standstill in
England. Even America , with little or no iron and
less general resources, made far greater progress than
ourselves, a number of patents being taken out for
inventions and improvements in curvilinear sawing for
ships' timbers, mitre-cutting saws, barrel saws, & c., of
which little or nothing was known in this country.
 CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES. II

However, about the year 1836 Mr. John McDowall,

of the Walkinshaw Foundry, Johnstone, near Glasgow ,
came prominently forward with some most ingenious
novelties and improvements in sawing and planing
machinery ; previously , however , to 1836 he had erected
several planing and other machines, in Manchester and
elsewhere. These planing machines were made from
the designs of Mr. Malcolm Muir, of Glasgow , to whom
a patent was granted in the year 1827. We shall take
occasion to notice them elsewhere. Some years later
Mr. McDowall patented a high-speed tension sawing
machine, and he also invented and erected a number of
cross -cutting and other machines for the Government
at Woolwich Arsenal. One of these , a traversing
cross -cut circular saw bench , possesses such novel
driving and other arrangements that I think it fully
deserving of further notice, if space permitted . The
saw itself was about 7 feet in diameter, the largest yet
made from one solid piece of cast steel. The driving
gear was a great novelty, the saw spindle being totally
unconnected with the actuating power ; the motion was
communicated to the saw through two frictional cones
of buff leather embracing the saw on either side, and
running at a high speed . With this arrangement, the
whole of the saw up to the cones was available for
cutting, there being no pulleys in the way of the timber ,
as there are when saws for cross-cutting are driven in
the usual way. The saw ran at 300 revolutions per
minute, and by a very ingenious arrangement could be
made to travel the whole length of the mill, some 70
feet ; and being placed below the ground could also
be raised above or depressed below the floor line at
12 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
pleasure. In fact, the whole machine did infinite credit
to its designer .
In connection with improvements in circular saw
benches a patent was secured by Orlando Child , of
Granville, Ohio , U .S. A ., in the year 1850. He claimed
chiefly the introduction into heavy saw benches of a
spring attached to the frame, to prevent the end play
of the saw spindle at the same time yielding to any
great pressure from the springing of the log, and thus
preventing any undue friction , and doing away also
with the collars usually employed for preventing the
end play of the spindle. In addition to the ordinary
circular saw employed, he also mounted a second above
it in a swinging frame, which could be set at any point
forming part of a circle struck from the main saw
spindle , and could operate with the main saw in cut
ting through a log at any angle desired .
A few years previous to our International Exhibition
of 1851, Mr. Coulson, of York, England, introduced
into this country various American ideas. Mr.William
Furness, of Liverpool, also manufactured and patented
a number of machines, from American models. A few
years further on , Mr. Samuel Worssam , of London ,
brought out several machines, including a very com
plete deal frame, with improved silent feed, for which
a patent was secured by him . At the Exhibition of
1851 a number of American wooden - framed machines
were exhibited, which seems to have opened the eyes
of some of our engineers, as from this date the progress
and development of this branch of engineering has
been most rapid and complete .
 CHAPTER III.
CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES — continued .

In our International Exhibition of 1851 the exhibits of

wood-working machinery were chiefly confined to Fay
and Co ., of Cincinnati, U . S . A ., and Furness , of Liver
pool, with one or two other machines of Continental
origin ; but between this timeand our next Exhibition
1862 — a great number of machines, and improvements ,
and modifications on American designs more adapted
to English necessities were introduced by Slater and
Tall, Buchanan, Douglas, Barton, Bunten and Lamb,
Jordan, Molesworth, Wimshurst,Messer, Varrall, Wors
sam , Forrest and Barr, McDowall, Horn, Furness ,
Kinder, Rosenberg, Robinson , Powis and James, and
others. Under the head of circular saw benches, how
ever, we do not find anything especially worthy of
notice. In 1861 a patent was secured by Worssam ,
London , for improvements in machinery for cross
cutting timber. He claimed the arranging of two
circular saws, one above the other, in the same vertical
plane, the top saw being placed a little in the rear of
the other , but both meeting in the same kerf. Addi
tional guides were also used for assisting in supporting
or steadying the saws before entering the wood . One
or both saws could be used , according to the size of
14 WOOD -WORKING MACHINE .
RY
timber to be cut. They are, however, owing to the
small size of our timber, little used in this country ,
and are generally known as American or Canadian
rack benches, but were really the invention of Sayner
and Greenwood, whose patent we noticed in our last
chapter.
In our Exhibition of 1862 a considerable number
of English, American, and Continental machines were
shown. Messrs. Greenwood and Batley, Leeds, ex
hibited several very ingenious machines, including a
curvilinear band sawing machine with a variable and
self-acting radial motion , Kinder 's shaping machine,
& c. Messrs. Worssam and Co., London , exhibited a
portable deal frame, band sawing machine, & c . Messrs.
Powis, James, and Co., London , showed hollow -framed
band sawing machine, planing machine, mortising ma
chines, & c . ; Messrs. Robinson and Son , of Rochdale ,
planing and squaring-up machine, tenoning machine,
& c. ; and a number of other machines were also ex
hibited by Messrs. McDowall and Sons, Glasgow ;
Kennan and Sons, Dublin ; J. and T . Young, Ayr ;
Haigh ,Oldham ; Geeves, London ; Weston and Horner,
London , & c. A new tree-feller was shown by Mr. R .
Thompson , of Woolwich . These machines, taken as
a whole , were considered fair examples of design and
workmanship , but were far behind those of the ma
chine tool-makers in the massiveness of their framing
and general compactness and simplicity of their
details.
Amongst the Continental machines exhibited was a
band saw and traversing mortising machine, by M .
Périn , Paris, the former of which attracted a great deal
of attention , chiefly from the very able manner in which
 CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES. 15

it wasworked . Messrs. Bernier and Arbey,and Messrs.

Varrall, Elwell, and Poulot, of Paris, and M . Zimmer
mann, of Chemnitz , also showed a varied collection of
wood -working machines, but nothing calling for special
notice.
Immediately following the Exhibition , what must
be considered one of the greatest improvements ever
introduced in connection with wood-working machinery
was brought out by Mr. Henry Wilson (then manager
of the firm of Powis , James, and Co., London ). This
was what is known as the solid or 'box ' framing — that
is, instead of the frames of saw benches,moulding ma
chines, & c., being bolted together in pieces, they are
cast in one solid mass, thus securing greater rigidity,
enabling saws, cutter blocks, & c., to be driven at a very
high velocity without vibration . This was unattainable
in machines hitherto made with light iron or wooden
framings, although in former years it was argued that
wooden framings were preferable to iron, the vibration
of high-speeded cutters being absorbed by the elasticity
of the wood . The fallacy of this reasoning has been
amply disproved by the almost universal adoption of
solid iron framings in this country , and more or less in
America and on the Continent, America hitherto being
thegreatadvocate for the use of wood . Wooden framings
might have the advantage of lightness and portability
when used in unfrequented countries, and also be some
what less in first cost, but where machines are fixed for
permanent use there seems to be little doubt that solid
iron frames are in every way preferable , being stiffer
and steadier in their work , much more durable , and
costing less for repairs. A number of other improve
ments were about this time introduced by Mr. Wilson,
16 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY .
including a machine for sawing, adzing, and boring
railway sleepers, for which he obtained a patent in the
year 1864. The arrangement for sawing was briefly as
follows: - Endless belts carried the wood between up
rights, the width of the rough sleeper to be prepared ;
six circular saws were erected , under which the belts
carried the sleepers ; the two outer saws cut the sleepers
to the length required , while the other four saws were
set in pairs and the proper position for making cuts to
a certain depth in the sleeper, between which cuts, to
wards the ends of the sleepers, the wood is to be re
moved for the chairs to be seated. The belt then
carries the sleepers under the adzes or sets of cutters
revolving horizontally, whereby the wood between the
two cuts last mentioned is removed, and the seats for
the chairs are formed. The sleepers thus prepared are
carried by endless belts to the boring machine,which is
arranged to bore the four necessary holes in the sleepers
either vertically or at an angle ; after boring they were
shot from the machine by the belts.
Immediately following the Exhibition , Mr. W . B .
Haigh, of Olhham , introduced various improvements
into sawing machinery, including themode of operating
saw benches for cross- cutting purposes, in which, in
stead of making the bearings stationary which carry
the spindle of the saw , they are made movable , so that
the saw can be raised and lowered as desired. The
driving band passes from any driving pulley over a
carrier pulley, and around two other pulleys, and as one
of them is central with the axis of a swing lever, the
length between the two pulleys is the sameat any posi
tion of the saw , and the tension of the band is the
same in all positions. In large circular saw benches
 CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES. 17

the swing lever is moved up and down by a worm ,

gearing into a worm wheel or quadrant fixed to the
boss of the swing lever, so thatwhen the worm is turned
either by hand or steam power one way, it will cause
the worm wheel or quadrant to revolve and depress the
swing lever and bring the saw below the table, in order
to prevent accidents when the timber is being placed
on the table, and when the worm is turned the other
way it will bring up the saw and cut the timber as it
rises,and, after the timber has been cut, the saw can be
again lowered to be out of the way during the removal
of the cut timber. In smaller saw benches the swing
lever is moved up and down by a screw and nut or
other convenient means.
A patent was also obtained by W . Jeffery, Glasgow ,
for an improved saw bench for cross -cutting purposes.
In this machine the saw spindle was mounted in a
slide, to which was given a self-acting reciprocating
motion, by means of screw and bevel gear, arranged to
reverse automatically by means of a weighted lever and
stops. A slide plate could also be used for cross-cut
ting, the saw remaining in a fixed position. The wood
was held against a fence on this plate , and pushed
through the saw by hand, a weight attached to the
sliding plate bringing it back to its original position
after each cut.
Mr. Samuel Worssam , in 1865 , patented an im
proved self-acting saw bench . The improvements re
lated to the mechanical arrangements for moving the
timber on the saw bench , consisting chiefly in the use
of movable feed rollers and a pair of rotating rollers
for returning the timber to its original position on the
bench when a plank had been sawn therefrom .
18 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
Of the great variety of wood -working machines, the
circular saw bench , in its many forms, is the one, per
haps, in most general use in all parts of the world , as
before the wood can be submitted to any other process,
such as mortising, moulding, & c., it must first be pre
pared on the saw bench. It is, therefore,of the highest
importance that it should be well proportioned and
adapted to the special class of work it has to per
form ; but this is far from always being carried out.
We take it that true proportion denotes the just mag
nitude of the members of each part of a machine, and
the relation of the several parts to the whole. If this
was more generally borne in mind, we should not, I
think, see so many “ abortions ' turned out by so -called
engineers,' which has taken from English machinery
more or less the high character it once held , and has
in several classes of industry proved a boon to our
American rivals.
In wood -working, as well as other machinery, great
care should be taken in designing ; a certain weight of
iron, correctly apportioned to bear the wear and tear
and high speeds it is necessary to run at, is far better
and more economical than twice the amount of metal
used haphazard ; but how rarely does this matter re
ceive the attention it deserves. With some makers it
seems that so long as a machine may be made to work
after a fashion and sell at a certain price, their end is
attained . This may be satisfactory to their pockets ,
but it certainly cannot be considered as conducive to
true engineering progress. Of course there are some
notable exceptions, and I think I cannot do better than
refer to Sir Joseph Whitworth ’s machine tools as illus
trating great excellence of design and proportion, and
 CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES. 19
whose example in this respect itwould be well for many
to imitate .
As a wood-working tool, the saw bench has the
disadvantage of requiring large power to drive, and
wastes a considerable amount of wood. This draw
back is, however, more than counterbalanced by its
general handiness and adaptability for converting all
kindsof wood, and its little liability to disarrange
ment.
We illustrate herewith (fig. 1) a plain circular saw
bench , from the design of Messrs. Western and Co.,
Lambeth. It is a very good example of the box
framing,' and is well and substantially designed . The
introduction of the arm carrying the bearing outside the
driving pulleys is an improvement, as it equalises the
strain on the bearings ; it can be made either right, or
left-handed , or rising from the floor line, which should
be preferable , as it allows the bench to be driven from
any direction. The fence is adjustable by means of a
knuckle joint and set screws for cutting feather-edged
boards; and as the elbow to which the fence is fastened
swivels on a spindle at back of bench , it can be turned
over out of the way for cross-cutting purposes. The pe
destals for bearings are cast solid with the bench , but
somemakers are now fixing them in movable brackets,
which can be easily taken off for repairs or renewals .
The teeth of circular saws, to do the best and cleanest
work, should travel about 9,000 feet per minute, and
great care should be taken that the form of saw tooth
is selected that is most adapted for the class of timber
to be operated on , and that they should be accurately
and properly sharpened , and have the right amount of
set.' These points are oftentimes neglected , and the
C2
20 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
result is a considerable reduction in the quality and
quantity of the work turned out. The packing ' of
the saws is also a matter of importance, as, if well

CES

.CIRCULAR
BENCH
1-PLAIN
SAW
FIG
MAKE

packed, a saw of thinner gauge can be run, which is a

saving in power and also in wood ,which, when valuable
woods are being sawn, is a matter ofmuch moremoment
MANAM
AN

100H
CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES.

.2CASSON
-F'SPFIG
,CONTINUOUS
BENCH
SAW
CIRCULAR
EED
ATENT
21
12
 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
than would at first appear. I shall have something
further to say on these points.
Fig. 2 represents a circular saw bench with a self
acting continuous feed, patented by Mr. John Casson ,
of Sheffield , in 1868 (makers, J . M . McDowall and Sons,
Johnstone, near Glasgow ). The wood is fed to the
saw continuously, without stopping or reversing the
machinery, by means of a single continuously revolving
grooved roller, of slightly conical form , between which
roller and the fence the wood to be sawn is placed .
The roller is affixed to an axis which turns in bearings
carried by a horizontal arm , formed in two parts, one
of which slides telescopically within the other, so that
the arm can be extended when a small saw , or con
tracted when a large saw , is used. The adjustment of
the said arm is effected by means of a nut-and-screw
arrangement, which admits of the axial motion in its
socket of that part of the arm which carries the feed
roller, so that the roller can be set in an oblique posi
tion for bevel-sawing . The said socket is formed on a
vertical tubular shaft, which turns in a bearing fixed to
the frame of the bench, and passes through another
tubular shaft furnished with a weighted arm . A set
screw passing through the outer shaft engages in a
longitudinal slot or groove formed in the inner shaft,
so that the latter can slide but cannot turn in the
former .
By this arrangement the arm carrying the feed
roller can be raised or lowered. The weighted arm
referred to carries a toothed quadrant, which receives
motion from a worm on a shaft, which is turned as re
quired by a hand wheel, and can be thrown in and out
of gear by means of a rocking standard and weighted
 CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES. 23
lever. When the wood to be sawn is placed between
the fence and the feed roller, the worm and quadrant
are thrown into gear, and the hand wheel is turned till
the feed roller is brought to the requsite distance from
the fence. The wood is then introduced, and the
quadrant and worm being thrown out of gear, the
weight comes into action , and the feed roller is pressed
against the wood. The roller is driven by a strap or
chain passing over pulleys, one of which is fixed on
the axis of the said roller, the other being keyed to the
upper end of a shaft, which passes through the inner
tubular shaft before referred to , and also through a
worm wheel, to which the said central shaft is con
nected by means of a groove-and -feather arrangement.
The worm wheel is driven by a worm in a shaft, which
receives motion by means of band pulleys from the
saw spindle . The feed roller can be removed when
cross-cutting, & c., has to be done.
We have seen the above self-acting feed in motion
for cutting deals, & c., and ordinary light work, and it
answered its purpose well. The inventor claims that
this feed may be advantageously applied to band saws
and deal frames, but we have never seen the same in
operation .
24 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER IV .
CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES — continued.
THERE are a considerable number of circular saw
benches made with self-acting feed motions, to bring
the timber up to the saw when too heavy or laborious
to be pushed through by hand. These feeds vary
according to the class of work to be performed. Mr.
Samuel Worssam in 1873 received provisional protection
for a simple feed especially adapted for deals and bat
tens ; before this date, however, the writer had applied
the same plan to benches driven by hand. It consists
of a grooved or serrated roller, or rollers, mounted in
bearings underneath the table , whose periphery works
partly in an opening in the table, and extends a slight
distance above its surface , to ensure the wood to be cut
resting thereon. Rotary motion is communicated to
the roller by suitable gearing, capable of adjustment
to enable the speed of the feed roller to be regulated
as desired . Holding -down rollers, or means as here
tofore used , are dispensed with, and the pressure of the
saw when cutting is relied on solely to keep the wood
in contact with the feed roller. Included in this speci
fication is an improved method of ' packing ' the saw .
For this purpose loose blocks are employed on each side
of the saw , each block being fitted with adjustable
 CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES. 25

packing pieces. The loose blocks are fitted in guides,

fixed to the under side of the table and to the filling
in piece,' and two screws are fitted to each block , to
work in nuts carried by the table and the filling- in piece,
so that the ends of the screws extend to the outer
edges of the table. Thus by turning the screws the
loose blocks, with the packing pieces therein , can be
adjusted for different thicknesses of saws.
No very striking novelty in connection with circular
saw benches was shown in the recent International
Exhibition in Paris . Messrs. Bollinder, of Stockholm ,
exhibited a saw bench for edging purposes. It was
fitted with a horizontal plain roller -feed . Part of the
top of the bench and one saw were adjustable by means
of a hand lever to the widths of the wood . A neat
pendulum or vibrating cross-cut saw , especially de
signed for sawing barrel staves, was shown by F . Arbey,
Paris . The stave to be sawn is bent under a powerful
spring, placed on a swivelling frame,which can be set
to any angle. The pendulum with saw is brought over
by hand , and one side of the stave is sawn ; the
swivelling frame is then set over the width of the stave,
and the saw performs the same operation on the other
side.
A small machine for sawing out wooden cogs was
shown in the Swiss section. The wood is fixed in a vice
fitted on a circular revolving table, and is operated on
by two circular fine- toothed saws, running vertically
and horizontally ; when the tooth is cut on one side,
the circular table is made to revolve,and the other side
of the wood is served in the same manner .
Important though the subject is, our space will not
permit us to notice all the varied forms and modifica
26
WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY ,

tions of circular saw benches and their adaptation to

different classes of work ; we shall, however , briefly
notice some few of the most important. For cross
cutting heavy logs, where any considerable quantity
are done, the best plan is to arrange at the end of the
saw mill where timber enters, below the floor, a large
circular saw , which can be raised and depressed by
suitable gearing above and below the floor line, and cut
through the log as it lies on the ground ; this effects a
considerable economy in labour, especially when the
timber has to be converted by other machines and the
full length of the log is not required. For light cross
cutting purposes, a pendulum bench is a very useful
form ; in this case the saw is fixed to a frame or pen
dulum , which swings on a countershaft below the floor
line. The saw is made to oscillate by self-acting gear,
or can be brought to the wood by means of a treadle .
The number and length of the strokes can be varied to
suit the different widths of boards. A somewhat
novel feature has latterly been introduced in this class
of cross-cut bench - we believe by Messrs . A . Ran
some and Co., London . It consists of a self-acting stop ,
which can be set to gauge any required length of
board . This stop is brought into position when the
saw is retiring after making its cut, and moves out of
the way as it advances, so as to allow the boards sawn
at the last stroke to fall out of the way immediately
after they are cut. For cross-cutting heavy scantlings,
deals,& c., various modifications of ordinary saw benches
are introduced , the saw , by suitable gearing, being
made to advance through the wood and retire to its
first position ready for the next cut ; these modifica
tions vary according to the size and class of work to
 CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES. 27

be done.' As a rule, it must be considered preferable

for the saw to be made to pass through the wood, in
stead of the wood being pushed through the saw . For
sawing railway sleepers,benches are generally arranged
with an endless chain , working on rollers of corre
sponding pitch. This chain carries loose dogs,' which
grip the end of the timber . As each sleeper is sawn ,
the dog ' is removed, and placed at the end of another
log ; a continuous feed is thus obtained .
In small establishments, or when constant changes
are made in the work , a ripping and cross-cutting saw
can be combined in the same bench by mounting two
saw spindles in a revolving frace placed beneath the
bench, which can be moved round by a hand wheel
and worm gearing, thus bringing into operation above
the level of the bench either the cross- cutting or rip
ping saw , as required. Saws of small diameter can
be driven by friction discs. When much light wood
has to be cut to a certain length , as in box-making,
a convenient plan is to mount the saw in a slide which
can traverse backwards and forwards through the
wood by a hand lever, an uniform tension of the belt
being secured by passing it over pulleys fitted in a
vibrating or pendulum frame. For edging purposes
three or more circular saws can be mounted on the
same spindle, and a horizontal roller -feed attached .
Both the feed and saws should be made adjustable for
different thicknesses or widths of wood by worm or
rack and pinion gear. The feed rolls can be driven
direct from the saw spindle .
For grooving and rebating purposes the saw
spindle runs in bearings fixed on a slide working in a
bracket, bolted to the under side of the bench ; thick
28 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

saws of about 12 in . diameter, varying according to

the width of groove to be cut, are used in place of the
ordinary ripping saw . By means of a hand wheel and
screw , the slide can be raised or lowered for the saw to
project above the surface of the bench the exact depth
of the groove to be cut, and the wood is passed over it
in the usual manner . Benches are also fixed on wheels
for forest use, or where they have to be constantly
moved from place to place , and are often otherwise
varied in their constructive details to suit special con
ditions or circumstances.
Where many rough and irregular logs have to be
cut into boards or scantlings, the roller feeds are ill
adapted for the purpose. This, however, is accom
plished by rack ordrag-rope benches . Fig. 3 illustrates
a well-designed sample of the ordinary drag-rope bench ,
made by Messrs. Johnstone, Hewetson , and Wilson ,
London. These benches are adapted to carry saws up
to about 54 in . diameter ; after this size, the rack
bench is to be recommended. The illustration needs
very little description . The framing is of the now well
known ' box ' form ; the bearings are let in from the
top of the bench, and are so divided that by means of
set screws they can be set up ' and adjusted to equa
lise the wear of same. An arm cast with the bench
carries the bearings outside the driving pulleys ; the
rate of feed can be varied by means of the cone pulley
and belt underneath bench . For bringing heavy tim
ber up to the saw , carriages running on rails are used .
The fence is fitted with binding roller and weighted
lever for keeping the wood close up, and the width of
cut is easily adjusted by means of a transverse screw
placed within the framing. In circular saw benches
 TROL
TETT

THOM
RE 1:0

BENCH
SAWAFIGCIRCULAR
-.3SCTING
ELF
 RY
30 WOOD -WORKING MACHINE .

where heavy timber is sawn the friction of the wood ,

especially if green, causes considerable loss of power.
This is somewhat lessened by the sawyer opening out i
the timber by ineans of wedges as it passes the saw .
To obviate the chance of splitting the wood by this
method , Mr. G . L . Molesworth , C .E ., introduced in the
year 1856 a self-acting revolving wedge, in the shape
of a wheel, thick at its centre and sloping down to an
edge at its circumference ; it revolved on centres at the
end of a lever, which was free to traverse along the
feather of a rocking shaft. The rocking shaft had a
lever , which caused the wedge to be held with an even
pressure within the cut. The whole was arranged
close behind the saw , and the wedge revolved by the
friction of the wood as it advanced , and exerted an uni
form pressure in relieving the saw , and could also
adapt itself to irregular as well as straight sawing .
Fig . 4 represents a strong, well-designed rack bench
by Messrs. C . Powis and Co., of London, especially
adapted for the heaviest class of circular sawing. The
timber is brought up and carried through the saw by
means of a wrought-iron travelling bed, divided longi
tudinally by the saw , and made to travel over turned
rollers by means of a strong self-acting rack gear.
Other suitable rollers are fixed alongside the travelling
bed, both behind and in front of saw , on to which the
timber can be canted both before and after being sawn . .
The table can be arranged to travel at from 12 feet to
40 feet per minute , and after the cut is made the re
turn motion is from 70 feet to 80 feet per minute . It
is stopped or started by means of a treadle or lever
under the immediate command of the sawyer. For
breaking down heavy logs where few cuts are required ,
he was
of powa

LE
DIR RE
Bir
VITITITIT

SA

114

WWWW
 CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES. 31

or where the scantlings are afterwards to be cut into

thin boards in a deal frame, this class of bench is es
pecially well suited. The travelling bed is fixed very
little above the floor line, so that it is unnecessary to
lift the timber, and when once it is rolled on the table
its own weight will keep it in position . The counter
shafts, belts, & c., as will be seen from the illustration ,
are placed below the floor, and the bench being fixed
on a strong wooden framing , supported by brick or
other piers, a chamber is thus formed to receive the
sawdust, & c .
We have noticed recently an improvement in im
parting motion to rack-bench tables. It consists in
working the rack and pinion by which motion is im
parted in a horizontal plane, instead of a vertical, as
hitherto, the side of the rack being bolted to the under
side of the table instead of the back. The objection
to the vertical method is that sometimeswork has been
damaged by the rack riding on the driving pinion , and
thus raising the table .
Circular saws up to about 7 feet diameter, but not
above, can be worked with advantage, notwithstanding
the large power required to drive them . Timber re
quiring saws of greater diameter should be converted
by reciprocating or straight saws. In America circu
lar saws are used of much thicker gauge than in this
country , and without packing pieces. This practice ,
however , must be condemned, both on the score of
wastefulness of power and wood ; neither is the work
done so clean or true. Less skilled labour may perhaps
be used, but even this is a doubtful economy. Crown
and cylinder saws are used somewhat in the United
States, but rarely here. A dished circular saw for cut
 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
ting out curved forms was invented by a Mr. Trotter
in 1806 , but the band and fret saw has now entirely
taken its place.
It was the practice of some American engineers to
make the top of their saw benches of narrow strips of
different woods glued up together, but this has now
almost entirely been abandoned in favour of iron .
Many of their benches are fitted with spindles arranged
with an expanding end , to suit saws with holes of dif
ferent sizes ; this is worked by means of a screw at the
one end of the spindle, and obviates the necessity of
bushing the saw spindles .
In purchasing or making a saw bench , where
low first cost is not an object , and where a really
durable and efficient machine is desired, care should be
taken to have the saw spindle made of Bessemer or
other steel, of not too hard a texture ; or, if iron is used ,
it should be of the best, and free from seams, or the
bearings will rapidly be worn away, and soinetimes
‘ fired ' by the friction, besides requiring constant
lubrication. The bearings should be of best gun
metal, or, better still, of phosphor -bronze, to which
metal we hope to refer again , as its merit for bearings
is great, its increased cost only, we believe, preventing
its general adoption. We have seen bearings com
posed of an alloy of 100 parts of tin , 10 parts of anti
mony, and 2 parts of copper used, and they are reported
to wear longer than gun metal; but of this we cannot
speak personally . We should imagine for heavy ma
chines thisalloywould be much too soft. With spindles
carrying saws above 36 inches in diameter, there should
be three sets of bearings, which should be placed as
far apart as the width of the bench will permit ; one
 CIRCULAR SAW BENCHES.

set on the outside of the driving pulleys. The driving

pulleys on the saw spindle should not be of too small
diameter, and should be sufficiently wide to carry belts ;
a safe rule is , say, one-quarter of the diameter of the
saw used . Efficient lubrication of saw spindle should
be secured , and is of great importance , as should heat
from the spindle be communicated to the saw , it de
stroys the stiffness of the plate, and gives a tendency to
. buckling. Care also should be taken that it is worked
at its right speed, as it is found that, if run at too great
a rate, it becomes wavy and pliant, and runs untrue.
We have already spoken of the best form of framing ,
and , in concluding our remarks on these points, we
should recommend buyers not to be tempted by a very
low price, as they will find it impossible to purchase a
good and useful machine without paying a fair price
for the design, workmanship , and materials embodied
therein . We may mention that the smallest circular
saws in use in this country are, we believe, those em
ployed in the manufacture of pens, and they range
about half an inch in diameter.
For saw benches cutting above 12 inches deep, self
acting feed gear is to be recommended, as the labour of
pushing the timber through the saw is excessive. For
plain jobbing benches , at any rate the larger sizes,
turned revolving rollers should be placed at the front
end of the bench, as this lessens somewhat the labour
required in feeding by hand. For very light or orna
mental work a small saw -bench can conveniently
be driven by the foot. The top of the table outside the
saw should be arranged to angle for cutting mitres,
and the whole table -top made to cant endways for light
rabbeting, grooving, & c. When ' drunken ' saws— that
2
34 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY .
is, those fixed obliquely on their spindles — are used for
grooving in preference to saws of a gauge the same
thickness as the groove required , if the collars em
ployed to keep them in position are made to a consider
able bevel, they can be so arranged by turning them
round, that, with one set of collars, the saw can be set
to almost any angle to cut any width groove desired ,
or it can be fixed at right angles to the spindle for
ordinary sawing. This plan does away with several sets
of collars. The peripheries of circular saws should be
speeded to travel about 9 ,000 feet per minute . .
 CHAPTER V .
TIMBER AND DEAL FRAM TO

UNDER the above heading we purpose noticing the

varied forms of machines generally known as recipro
cating or mill saws. The straight or mill saw was
known and in use some hundreds of years probably
before the circular saw . The date of its introduction ,
and when it was first driven by other means than hand
power, is uncertain ; several writers, however, mention
the fourteenth century as probably the earliest period.
Montfaucon (‘ L’Antiquité Expliquée ,' vol. iii., pl. 189)
gives a representation of two ancient saws taken from
Gruter, one the blade of a saw without any frame, and
the other apparently a cross -cut saw . Some interesting
accounts of an early saw frame or mill, as it is called ,
are given in Hardwicke’s ‘Miscellaneous State Papers,!
from 1501 to 1726, p. 71. In the year 1555, the am
bassador from Mary, Queen of England, to the Court
of Rome, having noticed a saw mill in the neighbour
hood of Lyons, describes it as follows: - The saw mill
is driven with an upright wheel ; and the water that
maketh it go is gathered whole into a narrow trough,
which delivereth the samewater to the wheel. This
wheel hath a piece of timber put to the axle-tree end ,
like the handle of a broch , and fastened to the end of
D 2
36 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

a saw , which being turned by the force of the water,

hoisteth up and down the saw , that it continually
eateth in , and the handle of the same is kept in a
rigall of wood from swerving. Also the timber lieth
as it were upon a ladder, which is brought by little and
little to the saw with another vice. Before the intro
duction of saw frames driven by water or wind, timber
was generally converted by the aid of the wedge and
pit saw ; the latter had a reciprocating motion given
to it by two or more men. In isolated districts, or
where little timber is required, these saw -pits are
in considerable use even at the present time, and
men can be found willing to convert some classes
of timber at a cost not greatly in excess of that sawn
by machinery ; the process is, however, much slower,
and as a rule not so well done. The earliest saw
frames in use in this country were constructed almost
entirely of wood, and are described by an old writer as
follows : — “ The common saw -mill, which is generally
employed in cutting timber into planks, consists of a
square wooden frame, in which a number of saws are
stretched ; this frame rises and falls in another wooden
frame, secured to the foundation of the mill in the same
manner as a window sash rises and falls. The timber
to be cut is placed upon a horizontal bed or carriage,
sliding upon the floor of the mill, which being suffi
ciently narrow to pass through the inside of the vertical
or moving saw -frame, will carry the tree through and
subject it to the action of the saw . The carriage is
provided with a rack, which is engaged by the teeth of
a pinion , and thus gives the means of advancing the
carriage. The pinion is turned by means of a large
ratchet-wheel, with a click moved by levers connected
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES. 37
with the saw frame ; when the saw frame rises the
click slips over a certain number of teeth of the ratchet
wheel, and when it descends to make the cut, the click
turns the ratchet wheel round, and advances the wood
forward just as much as the saw cuts during its de
scent. The trees are generally dragged up an inclined
plane, through a door at one end of themill, and being
placed upon the carriage, they pass through, and are
divided by the saw into two or more pieces, which are
carried forward, and passed out at a door on the oppo
site side of the mill.'
Bentham , amongst other machines, supplied a num
ber of saw frames to the Government establishments at
the close of the last and the commencement of the
present century. We do not find, however , record of
any special invention made by him in relation to this
particular class of machine. In 1805 and 1807 Bru
nel took out patents for improvements in sawing
machinery, included in which was a method for fixing
and tightening mill saws, which was introduced by him
at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, and elsewhere. It
may be described as follows : — Each saw has pieces of
metal formed like hooks riveted on either end. The
hook at the lower end of the saw falls into a proper
recess made in the lower cross-bar of the frame, and
the upper hook is engaged with the hook of a shackle
or link which hangs upon the upper cross-bar, and has
wedges through it, by means of which it can be drawn
tight to strain the saw . As the tension of the saws is
in a measure uncertain when the wedges of the shackles
are merely driven by a hammer, Brunel employed a
very ingenious steelyard,which exhibited the degree
of tension given to the saw . A strong spindle ex
38 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
tended across the fixed uprights in which the saw frame
slides, and above the top of these uprights, from one side
of this spindle , a lever proceeds, which has a weight fixed
at the end, and from the opposite side of the spindle two
short levers are fixed . They were connected by links
to a cross -bar, situated just over the upper cross-bar of
the saw frame when it is at its greatest point of eleva
tion. This cross-bar of the steelyard has a shackle
upon it,which can be united by a key with any of the
shackles upon the cross -bar of the saw frame, which
shackles are, as before mentioned , united by the hooks
with the upper end of their respective saws, and by
this means the lever and its weight become a steel
yard, to draw up any one of the saws with a deter
minate force. In using this apparatus, the crank is
turned round to elevate the frame to the highest point.
Two wedges are then put in between the saw frame
and the uprights, and this holds the saw frame fast
whilst the steelyard is applied . The sharpened saws
are now put into the saw frame, by hocking them upon
the lower cross-bar, and uniting the hooks to the
shackles on the upper cross-bar. The link upon the
cross -bar of the steelyard is united with the shackle of
one of the saws, and by allowing the steelyard to
descend it stretches the saw , the wedge being thrust
in by hand as far as it will go, thus retaining the saw
at the tension to which the steelyard has stretched it.
This same operation is performed on all the saws, which
are thus strained equally. Brunel also erected several
reciprocating saws for the Government, including one
working a specially thin -gauge saw with fine teeth, for
cutting sheaves from lignum vitæ . The plan of holding
and feeding the timber to be operated on is ingenious.
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES.

The tree of lignum vitæ is placed horizontally in a

large vice, which is opened and shut by two screws,
both moved at the same time by cog wheels, connect
ing them so as to move the jaws of the vice parallel.
The machine being used for cutting the ends of the
trees into proper thicknesses for the sheaves, the vice
which held the tree was provided with a screw , which
advanced and gave the proper distance every time a
sheave was cut off. The vice was fitted on parallel slides,
80 that the pieces cut off should have parallel sides.
This machine was used for cutting up the largest-sized
trees, the smaller being converted by a circular saw
fixed in a horizontal swinging frame, similar to the
action of a gate or door. The timber was also made
to revolve, thus presenting every part of its circum
ference to the action of the saw ; the saw was therefore
enabled to cut through a tree nearly its own diameter.
The whole arrangement was decidedly clever, but our
space precludes more than a passing notice. Wemust
not, however, omit to add that Brunel was most ably
seconded by the late Henry Maudslay, who carried out
the inventor's ideaswith the greatest skill and accuracy,
and introduced many improvements of his own.
A patent was granted to Charles Hammond , Lon
don , 1811, for improvements in machinery for sawing
and planing wood, described in which are feed rollers
for bringing the timber up to frame and circular saws,
& c. This same plan of feeding timber has been
adapted to planing, moulding, and other machines ,
and has formed the subject of several patents, in
cluding that great American monopoly, the Woodworth
planer.
We have before us the drawing of a deal frame for
 Y
ING INER
40
WOOD -WORK MACH .
cutting two deals at once, constructed some fifty years
since by a Mr. Haigh, of Ratcliffe, for the Dutch
Government. The framework , saw frame, & c., are
made of iron , instead of wood , as generally hitherto
used . The saw frame has square, vertical, adjustable
guides, rack feed -motion , with ratchet wheel and paul,
adjustable friction rollers, fly wheel, fast and loose
pulleys, & c. In fact, it differs very little in essential
particulars from many deal frames now made, and,
considering the date at which it was built, must be
considered a first -rate specimen of engineering skill.
About this timealso a machine or apparatus for cutting
piles under water by means of a reciprocating saw was
introduced ; who its inventor was is uncertain, but it
was probably of Continental origin . The machine em
ployed for this purpose is required to give the saw three
motions— the first, by which it descends below the level
of the water , at the same time preserving the blade of
the saw in a horizontal position ; the second, a hori
zontal motion in the direction of the length of the saw ;
and the third, a horizontal movement in the direction
of the breadth of the saw , which enables it to follow its
work as it advances into the pile . This was effected in
the machine under notice by two platforms, one of
which was made movable by rollers on a framework
attached to the top of the piles, where the workmen
stand in working the saw ; the second platform was
placed below this, and attached to it by four rods, with
racks and pinions,by means ofwhich it could be raised
or depressed , according to the depth below the level
of the water the pile was required to be cut off. The
saw was fixed to a carriage, which was movable on the
lower platform , on rollers, in the direction of the
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES. 41
breadth of the saw . A rack was attached to the
carriage, which engaged a pinion working in the lower
platform ; by this means, the carriage and saw were
pressed forward against the pile .
Saws or blades for cutting stone,marble, & c., driven
by steam , were also now in use. The saws were
stretched in a strong frame, and received a horizontal
reciprocating motion from a steam engine. A . very
complete marble mill was made by a Mr. Colliss, and
erected in the neighbourhood of Kilkenny about the
year 1830 ; the machine was arranged to work twenty
saws and five polishers. The saws were of soft iron,
and lasted about a week, and were worked with sand
and water . The marble taken from the mill was first
polished with stone called cove stone, wbich is a brown
sandstone; it was afterwards polished by a hone stone,
which was a piece of smooth nodule of the argillaceous
iron ore found in the hills between Kilkenny and
Freshford ; it received its last polish in themills with
rags and putty .
In 1835 Messrs.Gibbs and Gatley took out a patent
for certain improvements in machinery for cutting
wood and other materials. The improvements chiefly
relate to combinations of machinery specially adapted
for cask -making, but included in the specification under
claim No. 5 is, “ in constructing an ordinary vertical
saw frame or machine in such manner that one set of
saws and their frame shall at all times balance another
set of saws and their frame. This improved counter
balanced saw -framewas fully illustrated and described ,
and from the illustration it is seen that the two cranks
are on the same plane in opposite directions, and that,
therefore, the resistance of the cut and the weight of
 G ERY
42 WOOD -WORKIN MACHIN .
the saws will be balanced at every point of a revolution .
This arrangement has been the subject of at least one
patent since the above date, but we are at a loss to see
wherein the originality of the later patent lies, except,
perhaps, in the matter of small details . This affords
one of themany instances of the haphazard manner in
which patents are granted , and also the need that
exists for reformation in this as well as other points in
our present system of patent administration .
Following 1835 we do not find for some years any
inventions or improvements of importance relating to
reciprocating saws. In 1848 T . H . Barber, of London ,
took out a patent, in which a great many contrivances
are described, including some improvements in saw
fraines ; but the specification relates chiefly to bevel
sawing, and means for facilitating the same. In 1850
Mr. Amos Jackson, an American, brought out a machine
which he proposed to drive by the weight of the log to
be sawn. Although unpractical, the originality of the
idea merits a short description . The rails on which
the timber carriage travelled were fixed on bearings
attached to a frame, the opposite ends of which were
fitted with large segments of a toothed wheel, working
into a series of toothed wheels and pinions. When the
log was pushed forward to the saw , its weight was to
act through the segments on a shaft having several
intermediate gearings, which would increase the speed
sufficiently to drive the crank shaft. The saws pro
posed to be used were to be made thick at the points of
the teeth , tapered to a thinner gauge at the back of
the saw , and to be run without setting. In 1852 Mr.
John McDowall, of Johnstone, brought out and pa
tented ' a high -speed tension sawing-machine.' It con
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES.
sisted of a single mill-saw , driven at a high speed ,with
an arrangement for giving increased tension to the saw
without using the ordinary heavy saw frame and
buckles ; also an adjustment for regulating the ' over
hang ' of the saw , according to the rate of feed given to
the timber.
 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER VI.
TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES, ETC. — continued .
In the year 1854 Mr. James Hamilton , of New York ,
patented an arrangement of vertical saws especially
adapted for cutting ships' timbers. A machine, made
under this patent, was erected at the shipbuilding yard
of Messrs. Wigram and Son , Blackwall. The machine
ran two saws, which cut both sides at once of any
timber ordinarily used in shipbuilding. Each saw was
hung in such a manner as to be free to turn on its
centres, and present its cutting edge in any required
direction ; they were also arranged to move laterally in
the saw frame. This movement was obtained by
stretching each saw in a separate frame, which frame
slided sideways within the principal frame. The saw
yer controlled the position of both the saws by holding
a lever or guide in either hand , and thus manipulated ,
each saw was made to follow the line on the timber to
any desired curve or taper. The bevel of the timber
was obtained by causing it to revolve somewhat as it
was fed up to the saw , and the exact bevel necessary at
every point was thus secured, and the timber left the
saw sufficiently true to require little or no trimming.
An adjustable crank or disc for varying the length
of stroke of saw frames, and some other improve
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES. 45
ments, were patented by S. B . and A . Sparkes in the
year 1857.
In 1859 the late Mr. Samuel Worssam , of London ,
brought out and patented several important improve
ments connected with timber and deal frames, foremost
amongst which was an improved feed for saw frames.
It consisted of an eccentric paul or pauls working in
a grooved wheel. The paul was connected to a lever,
which was keyed or otherwise fixed on the shaft or
roller which drives forward the wood to the saw . The
rate of feed could be varied from 1 foot to 4 feet per
minute, according to the nature of the work , the num
ber of saws carried, & c. This feed has the advantage
of being nearly silent in its operation, and is now
in very general use . Included in this specification
is an improved sling ' connecting-rod for driving saw
frames.
In the Exhibition of 1862 Messrs. Worgsam ex
hibited a very complete portable deal frame, designed
chiefly for builders' use, adapted to work about ten
saws. The whole of the working parts were fixed on a
cast- iron base -plate ; the connecting rod was worked
from a single crank , and was looped , to clear the rack
which passed through it. The feed was the patent
arrangement to which we have just referred. A vacuum
cylinder to balance the weight of the swing frame was
applied at the top of the fixed frame. This cylinder
was fitted with the usual piston and piston rod ; the
latter was connected with the swing frame. As the
swing frame descended, and the piston with it , a
vacuum was formed in the upper end of the cylinder,
and the resistance of the air in the lower end of the
cylinder balanced the weight of the moving frame; a
 G ERY
46 WOOD -WORKIN MACHIN .
valve at the upper end of the cylinder allowed any air
that might leak above the piston to escape. This idea
was, however, not novel, as a similar arrangement was
introduced, we believe, by Mr. James Neil, of Glasgow ,
about the year 1851. We may here describe a very
novel method of stretching saws by means of com
pressed air , introduced and patented in America by
Messrs. Rapp and Wright about this time; we have,
however, never seen it in use in this country, and
doubt its utility, but from its novelty, if nothing else ,
we think it deserving of notice. The saw was stretched
by the aid of two polished rods which pass through
stuffing boxes into cylinders, where they were attached
to pistons, which received the pressure of the com
pressed air. The contiguous extremities of these
cylinders were put in communication by means of a
pipe, so that whatever pressure was generated beneath
the top piston was equally felt above the bottom piston .
The air was provided by means of a small pump, which
made good losses by leakage. As the saw moved up or
down, the air changed its position, rushing through
the pipe from one cylinder to another. By means of
the compressed air , the inventors claimed that they
could stretch saws to a sufficient tension without the
usual saw frame, thus enabling sawsof a thinner gauge
to be used and a higher speed to be run, but we are
afraid anything gained in this particular would be
more than counterbalanced by the manifest disad
vantages of the plan . A number of saws stretched in
this manner were, however, we believe, made, and used
in Buffalo and other parts of America .
In our Exhibition of 1862 Messrs. Powis, James,
and Co., London , exhibited a machine with a com
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES.
bination to cut both timber and deals, which was
then somewhat of a novelty. The timber was fed by
means of fluted rollers , and was kept steady by uni
versal jointed pressure rollers at the sides and top,
acted on by springs to adapt themselves to inequalities
of surface. The cross -heads of the swing frame were
of steel, and, counterbalanced by fly wheels, the frame
was arranged to drive from above or below at 190
revolutions per minute, carrying saws adapted to cut
timber 26 inches deep. Messrs. J. and T . Young,
of Ayr, also exhibited a frame adapted for cutting
deals. With the exception of its being driven from
the top of the machine by an extra long connecting
rod , it did not possess any special feature.
In the year 1863 Mr. W . B . Haigh, of Oldham , pa
tented various improvements in connection with vertical
saw frames, and direct-acting engines for driving same.
The swing frames were arranged on the equilibrium or
balancing principle, and were joined by connecting rods
to cranks set at half- centres on the shaft of the steam
engine, in order that the swing frames may move in
opposite directions and balance each other , and also
enable the piston of the steam engine to have equal
work at all parts of its stroke. The saw frame is con
nected at the front to the piston rod, and at the back
to the connecting rod , so that the pressure of the cut
is divided between the piston rod and the said con
necting rod, and thereby gives equilibrium to the strain
upon the working parts; but, when desired, the piston
rods can be at the back , and the connecting rods at the
front . The shaft of the steam engine is central with
the half-stroke of the piston , and the connecting rods
are brought down from the piston rod to the cranks,
 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
which arrangement saves the length of tbe connecting
rod and shortens the framework to a corresponding
extent. The feed is given to the timber in the usual
manner by two separate eccentrics working on the
crank shaft, and connected by rods to pauls working
in two grooved wheels fixed to the shafts of the fluted
rollers on which the timber rests , and the fences
against which the side of the timber is in contact are
adjusted by set screws and fixed to the stationary
frame. The rollers for keeping the timber against the
fences are connected to two vertical shafts, working in
bearings at each side of the frame, and to each shaft is
fixed a lever , attached to a spring by a rod, having a
screw sufficiently long to shift the roller for taking in
various thicknesses of timber, there being on the screw
and against the lever a nut in a hand wheel, which is
turned to shift the lever and the roller and give the
necessary friction against the fence. The holding- down
rollers are connected to large nuts working on screws
in connection with springs in the usual manner, for the
purpose of adjusting the rollers to the various sizes of
timber to be sawn.
In the steam engines for working the saw frames
the slide box and valve are placed at right angles to
the length of the cylinder, and the steam passages are
arranged accordingly , in order to work the slide direct
from the eccentric by a straight rod .
Following the Exhibition of 1862, Mr. Charles
Frazer, of Norwich, introduced and patented several
improvements in deal frames , one of which was the
introduction of feed rollers on the fence side of the
deal, working in conjunction with a wide feed -roller
acting on its other side, thus securing a greatly in
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES.
creased feeding power. He also claimed the use of
counterbalanced saw frames; but this plan , we think,
can hardly be considered novel, as it is described in
Gibbs and Gatley's patent, dated 1835. Frames built on
this plan, however, can be driven at a greatly increased
speed . Whether this is an advantage or not has been
the subject of so much discussion amongst engineers,
that we shall not enter on the question here. Each
swing frame is fitted with a separate feed motion, so
that on one side of the frame a deal can be fed through
the saws at the rate of 5 feet or 6 feet per minute,
whilst on the other side of the frame a piece of hard
timber could be made to travel, say, 1 foot per minute.
In 1867 Mr. SamuelWorssam patented an improved
method of packing timber on saw frames and trying-up
machines, by which the supporting table is provided at
short intervals with several transverse rocking supports,
which, when wedged up from below , will fit against the
under side of the timber and will take the weight of the
timber at several points, whatever may be the uneven
ness of the under side.
Messrs. Robinson and Smith , of Rochdale , have re
cently patented several improvements connected with
timber and deal frames, including an arrangement for
rising and falling the rollers, carrying the tree whilst
being sawn, thus rendering them adjustable to any in
equalities of surface in the timber, and making breakage
less liable when sawing crooked and uneven logs. An
improved method of cutting scantlings is also intro
duced, by which means this class of work can be cut
at a greatly increased speed. The connecting rod is
arranged to take hold of the saw frame at the centre
of each side, instead of the bottom , as hitherto. By
E
50 WOOD -WORKI MACHI .
NG NERY
this plan increased strength of frame, ease in work
ing , and less depth of foundation are the advantages
claimed .
In the recent (1878) International Exhibition , held
at Paris, several timber and deal frames were shown, but
none containing any especially novel feature. Messrs.
Bollinder, of Stockholm , exhibited a strong roller -feed
timber frame. The bottom feed -rollerswere constructed
with sharp toothlike projections ; the top rollers were
plain . The teeth of the saws were spaced extremely
coarse, adapted , we presume, for sawing sappy timber.
In the Austrian section the Ateliers de Construction
of Budapest showed a powerful timber frame fitted with
roller feed , which was adjustable by a simple rack and
pinion arrangement. The feed rollers were all geared ,
and the swing frame was driven by double connecting
rods placed within the main framing. Several frames
were shown in the French section , notably by F . Arbey,
of Paris. In some of them the swing frame was fitted
on the face of the main framing, instead of in the
centre, as is usual in this country, and motion was
given by double wooden connecting rods and fly wheels
placed on either side of the uprights. Inferior and
flimsy castings marred in a great measure, however,
their general appearance.
Various other improvements have recently been in
troduced by Messrs. Meadows, of Heaton Norris ; Kirt
land and Anderson, of Dundee ; Worssam , Johnson, and
Hewetson, Haigh, and others, but our space prevents
more than a passing notice.
Our illustration (fig . 5 ) represents one of Messrs.
Samuel Worssam and Co.'s combined timber and deal
frames, specially adapted for timber of moderate di
ages

held
but
Esrs.
feed
sted
vere
nely
ber.
tion
rith
red ,
ing
mes

ted
the
vas

und
e

in
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES. 51

mensions, as in use amongst contractors, builders,

& c. ; and it must be considered a well-designed and
compact machine, the framing and general details
being correctly apportioned to the work to be per
formed. Its action is easily seen ; a reciprocating
motion is given to the frame carrying the saws by the
crank shaft at the base of the machine, which is con
nected with the frame by side rods and an ordinary
connecting rod and cross -head ; motion is given to this
crank shaft by a belt from the main shaft. The timber
is advanced to the saws by serrated rollers , actuated
by suitable gearing and the patent silent feed -wheel,
to which we have before referred. Corresponding
smooth - top pressure rollers, acted on by weighted
levers, serve to keep the timber well down on the
bottom or feed rollers. The machine is adapted to cut
either a log or two deals at one time. The timber is
supported and guided through the saws by carriages
fitted with wrought-iron adjustable dogs.' These car
riages run on rails fixed on the mill floor at back and
front of machine, as shown in engraving, from which
it will be seen the base of the machine, with driving
pulleys, fly wheel for counterbalancing the action of
sa w frame, & c., are placed beneath the floor line. The
saw or swing frame is lightly made with wrought- iron
sides, working in adjustable V -shaped gun -metal or
phosphor-bronze bearings. The heads against which
the saws are keyed are of Bessemer steel. The deal
cutting apparatus is of simple construction , and easily
fixed or removed .
There are a considerable number of modifications
of reciprocating saw frames designed and specially
adapted for particular classes of work . These ma
E 2
52 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

chines differ considerably in their feeding and other

details , but we shall be unable to give them more than a
passing notice. For generallog-sawing, where the timber
is tolerably straight, the ordinary vertical saw - frame,
fitted with a roller feed -motion, is the best type to be
employed. This roller feed is continuous, and allows
the logs to follow each other through the saws without
stoppage. Care must be taken that the timber has a
good bearing on the feed rollers, the straightest side of
the log being placed on them . Some makers, in addi
tion, so arrange that the rollers can be raised or lowered
by the sawyers in charge, and adapt themselves to any
inequalities in the log. For very irregular and crooked
timber, frames are made specially strong in their details ,
and what is known as the " rack feed ’ is usually em
ployed , a rack actuated by a pinion being the method
of bringing the wood up to the saws. The rack is
bolted to the under side of the travelling carriage on
which the timber is placed . This carriage is usually
made of cast iron , truly planed, and running over
turned rollers, which revolve in cast- iron brackets,
fixed to the floor of the mill at either end of the frame.
The log is supported in front and behind the saws by
adjustable friction rollers, arranged to rise and fall and
adapt themselves to any irregularities of the timber.
By these means a firm bearing is obtained as the saws
enter the wood , and thus the vibration and thrust of
the saw frame is overcome. The ends of the log are
held by cast- iron carriages, which have a lateralmotion .
They are also fitted with adjustable wrought-iron jaws,
which are opened or closed at pleasure by means of
screws. The log is kept firmly on the travelling table ,
usually by weighted pressure -levers, which can be easily
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES. 53
adjusted by the sawyer in charge. Saw frames for
forest use are made so as to be semi-portable or porta
ble, the latter being mounted on wheels ; they do not
as a rule, however, differ essentially from those just
described , except that the main standards of the ma
chine should bebolted to a massive bed -plate,which dis
penses in a great measure with other foundations. In
regions where the trees to be sawn are sometimes
covered with ice, and likely to slip , it is necessary
to have greater feeding power, to carry them safely
through the saws. This can be secured by employing
four serrated feed- rollers, instead of two, as is usually
done. These rollers all gripping the wood at one time,
immense extra feeding power is thus gained ; the top
pair of rollers are made to adjust themselves to the
varying thickness of the timber. Frames can be ar
ranged to cut two, four, or more logs at a time, if
necessary.
For cutting valuable woods into thin boards for use
as coach panels, pianoforte tops, & c., a single-bladed
frame, driven either vertically or horizontally , is usually
employed. In these frames, which require little power ,
very thin saws are used, to prevent unnecessary waste of
wood. They are usually fitted with a variable, self
acting rack -feed , to suit hard or soft woods, and the
saws are arranged to cut both ways of the traverse.
The advantage of these frames for this class of work is,
that as they only saw one board off at a time, an op
portunity is given to examine the soundness of the log
as cut, which , if not found suitable, can be put aside
and otherwise converted . In connection with single
bladed saw frames a patent was taken out a few years
since by Messrs. Robinson and Smith for an improved
54 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
swivelling and butting slide, which enables the frame
carrying the saw to be driven at a high rate of speed,
as, no matter what angle the connecting rod is at,
owing to the swivelling arrangement, there is no undue
strain on the saw frame or bearings. The saw em
ployed is arranged to cut both ways of the traverse .
In the United States, what is known as a ' Muley saw '
is in use for making single cuts. It consists of a single
reciprocating blade, tapered off somewhat from the
points of the teeth to the base of the saw . It is of
thicker gauge than those generally in use, and is
strung without the aid of a swing frame, and is run at
a much higher speed than the ordinary machines,
generally some four or six hundred strokes per minute.
In many of the American and French frames the swing
or saw frame and other reciprocating parts are made
of wood, to secure lightness as far as possible , and,
contrary to English practice, the fly wheels are occa
sionally used as driving pulleys. In American deal
frames the wood is usually fed by four plain rollers
driven vertically, one pair acting as a fence or guide,
the other pair being allowed to expand, or allow for
any inequalities in the timber, by means of a spring,
the variations in speed of feed being secured by a
grooved wheel and paul, a ratchet wheel, or cone pulley
and rack and toothed wheels. In addition to the roller
and rack -feed motions for saw frames which we have
noticed for cutting deals at a rapid rate, what is known
as the chain feed is sometimes employed . This con
sists of one or more endless square- linked chains,
according to the number of deals to be sawn. To
these chains are fitted movable 'dogs,' which grip the
ends of the deals. The continuous forward motion to
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES. 55
the chains is obtained by worm and worm -wheel gear
ing, actuating drums toothed to correspond with the
links of the chains and gearing into same. This, for
small-sized frames running at a high speed , we consider
a very useful form of feed . Through lack of power or
other causes, it is sometimes necessary to drive timber
frames independently of the othermachinery orshafting.
This is done either by attaching an engine directly to
the crank shaft of frame, or fixing a steam cylinder at
top or base of same, the piston rod in connection with
side rods being coupled directly to the swing frame.
By this method steam can be brought from a distance ,
or a small additional boiler provided. The cylinder is
constructed so as to regulate the amount of steam used
in proportion to thework in hand. The general details
of these frames are usually of the ordinary type, and
the whole is fixed on an extra large and heavy bed
plate.
When , owing to water or other causes, it is impos
sible to dig far beneath the surface of the ground to
secure the necessary firm foundation , frames are con
structed to drive by a belt from above, the crank shaft,
pulleys, & c., being placed at the top of the machine,
instead of at the base. In these cases, in addition to
a moderate foundation near the level of mill floor, it is
generally necessary that the frame should be firmly
fixed or stayed overhead to strong cross-beams, and, if
possible , the end of the crank shaft supported by a
strong sole-plate or bracket, built into the side wall.
Where saw mills are of light construction , the frames
are made self -contained — that is, the crank shaft is
fixed overhead on a strong entablature, bolted to top
of machine; this entablature is usually of box section ;
 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
the outer end of crank shaft is supported by two cast
iron columns, braced together,and stayed by additional
diagonal stays from the base of columns to the top of
main framing of the machine. Where it can be
avoided, we do not recommend frames driven from
above, as, amongst other drawbacks, as a rule, the
vibration is found to be excessive. A considerable
number are made counterbalanced with fly wheels at
either end of crank shaft and the driving pulleys in
the centre, motion being given to swing frame by two
side rods; in this arrangement, however, provision
should be made to fix diagonal stays, if found neces
sary. Our illustration (fig. 6) represents one of Fraser's
patent equilibrium deal frames, as manufactured by
Messrs . A . Ransome and Co., London , which we have
before referred to.
The makers claim that, running at full speed, these
frames will do double as much work in a given time,
and of equal quality, as any ordinary deal frame.
Even if we take this statement cum grano salis, they
doubtless possess several features of merit. Two addi
tional smooth feeding rollers acting on the side of the
deal, which is against the fence, are introduced ; with
this additional feeding power it is claimed that large
flitches of hard wood can be fed with ease, with both
swing frames full of saws. It will also be seen from
the illustration that the two swing frames will form a
double - throw crank , so arranged that when by the
revolution of the shaft the one frame is carried to the
end of its upward motion , the other frame is carried to
the end of its downward motion , thus counterbalancing
the thrusting action of each other . These two frames,
carrying vertical saws, are divided by a fixed partition
 TO
TH TERIT
EP
THE
ALL
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES. 57
between them ; a double fence, furnished with upper
and lower friction -rollers, extends a sufficient distance
on either side of the central partition for guiding the
deals through the saws. The upper friction - rollers are
arranged so as to act as guides to the upper parts of
deals of varying depths when being sawn, the other
side of the deals being acted on by the smooth feed
rollers ; thus the inconvenience arising from any un
evenness in the sides of the deals is obviated . A frame
adapted to cut deals up to 11" x 3 " is speeded to run at
the very high rate of 400 revolutions per minute. To
overcome in a measure this speed , in addition to coun
terbalancing the swing frames, they are made specially
light of wrought iron and steel, and care is taken in
the workmanship of the general details to ensure ac
curacy.
 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER VII.
TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES, ETC . — continued .
SEVERAL patents have recently been taken out for im
provements in reciprocating saws, amongst which may
be mentioned one by Mr. Edwin Chabot, of Sonth
Norwood , dated 1877, who claims as novel, on behalf
of Ferrando Morel, of Barcelona, an arrangement for
sawing timber in such a manner that four thick planks
may be simultaneously sawn up by four sets of saws
carried in one reciprocating frame. It is described as
follows :- ' I arrange the machine in such manner that
in place of the reciprocating frame carrying only one
set of saws on either side of the travelling carriage, I
arrange it to carry two sets of saws, and I provide
separate guides for each plank of timber, to be held up
to one plank on each side of the carriage, the one being
pressed towards the travelling carriage, and the other
away from it, up to their respective guides. The guides
can be set towards or away from their respective sets of
saws without stopping the machine. The machine, as
heretofore, is provided with a main driving - shaft, having
upon it a crank for giving motion to the reciprocating
saw - frame, and with rollers for supporting the planks,
and with a slowly moving carriage, actuated by a rack
and pinion, for traversing forward the planks of timber
up to the saws. Provision is also made for setting the
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES.
saws situated at one side of the traversing carriage to
cut up a single plank of considerable width , whilst at
the same time the saws on the opposite side are set to
cut up two planks. The saws, as heretofore, are set to
any desired distance apart , according to the number of
pieces into which it is desired to divide the planks. By
the above construction of machine, four different kinds
of work can be performed simultaneously , instead of
two, as heretofore.'
Mr. Samuel Worssam also in 1876 secured a patent
for improvements in equilibrium saw -frames. These
chiefly consisted in using two separate rack -feeds placed
side by side, intermediate of the two saw frames, and
placing the feed wheels both on the same side of the
machine, thereby enabling the feed of each deal or
plank to be regulated independently of the other , and
enabling a single attendant to attend to both feed
wheels from the side of the machine, thus doing away
with the expense of a second sawyer.
Improvements in the general arrangements of the
parts, and the mode of operating horizontal reciprocat
ing saws for cutting boards, have recently (1879) been
patented by Mr. Adam Knox, of Glasgow , by which he
claims a greatly increased production with less power.
His designs, although slightly complex, have consider
able merit in arrangement ; we therefore describe them
somewhat at length . The improvements claimed are
as follows :
The general construction or arrangement and com
bination of the parts of wood -sawing machines or
mechanism , of the horizontal reciprocating class with
blade or band saw or saws, reciprocated on the peri
phery of segmental levers or on pulleys.
 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
• The carrying and actuating of a horizontal recipro
cating blade or band saw or saws on the periphery of
reciprocated segmental levers or on pulleys, either
having an edge-rocking or curvilinear motion given to
them or not, as desired, for the cutting of wood in
horizontal sawing machines.
The carrying of the reciprocating segmental levers
or pulleys with their saw or saws on fixed centres
(either with or without antifriction pulleys) on vertical
slides or guide frames, to give the different thicknesses
of wood to be cut in horizontal sawing machines.
The giving of the edge-rocking action to the seg
mental levers or pulleys carrying and actuating hori
zontal reciprocating saws (in wood - sawing machines) by
radial links, cams, or angled centres.
According to one modification and arrangement, in
coupling the horizontal transverse reciprocating saw by
its two ends direct, by buckles or other suitable coup
lings, to two broad , thin blades of steel or other equi
valent elastic or flexible bands, so mounted on as to
reciprocate over the upper periphery of two large
strong but slight oscillating pulleys, or it might be
duplex segmental pulleys oscillating vertically on strong
studs projecting from the face of two slides mounted
and worked simultaneously by screw spindles on strong
vertical planed guide frames, with long bracketed sole
behind on each side of the ordinary longitudinal car
riage carrying the wood to be cut, and traversed on the
main stationary bed frame, which may rest in front on
the strong deep traverse frame, secured to the foundation
below , and carried or branched up so as to be secured
to the vertical slide guides or standards on each side, to
stay or make the whole securely steady and rigid .
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES. 61
An equivalent broad elastic or texible band is se
curely stretched on and between the under or lower
peripheries of the pulley or segmental levers, one or
both bands being fitted with tightening screws to adjust
and put the proper tension on the saw blade and band
below , to make the strains all equal and self-contained
within the rocking frame, the carrying centres and eyes
of the rocking pulley and segmental levers on which the
strains come beingmade very long to sustain the strains
with perfect steadiness and little tear or wear.
The two slide frames carrying the axle studs of the
oscillating pulleys or levers are bound together by a
strong bow frame above, with room for the log or wood
to be cut to traverse under it, and brackets project
down from it with slotted adjustable guides for em
bracing and steadying the saw on each side of the log
or wood being cut. Thus the whole frame so bound
together is carried and simultaneously raised or lowered
by the vertical screws in vertical side guide- standards
coupled by a transverse shaft and bevel wheels at the
ends, either carried in bearings on the frame below , or
it might be on a cross beam above, so as to set the saw
to the proper heightat which it is desired to make the
cut into the wood , to give the required thickness of
boards down from the top surface, which is usually first
dressed off or formed by one cut of the saw through the
log or wood from which the boards are to be cut, and
which is fixed on the traversing table below the level of
the saw drafts by the usual gripping side dogs and
tightening screws mounted on the table , which is tra
versed as usual by plain - running, edge - rimmed, and
flanged wheels or side guide- rollers on the planed
guides of the fixed bed frame.
62 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
The segmental pulleys and saw are oscillated or
reciprocated by a long connecting rod attached at one
end to a lateral or crank pin on one of the lower seg
ments , and carried across the machine below the frame,
with the other end connected to a shifting and fixing
crank pin in an overhung disc or crank on the belt
pulley driving shaft, carried longitudinally in bush
bearings either on the lower part of the stationary
guide slide- frame at the other side of the bed plate and
machine, or on the raising and lowering slides thereof,
so as to rise and fall with the saw when desired, and
fitted with compensating belt pulleys for taking up the
slack of the driving beltwhen that is used for actuating
the first -motion crank shaft .
The table carrying the log or wood is fed forward to
the saw much in the usual manner by a toothed rack
on the centre of its under side, actuated by a toothed
pinion on the inner end of the transverse reversible
driving shaft, actuated at a slow speed to traverse the
carriage forwards by a screw wheel on its outer end at
the driving-gear side of the machine,turned by a screw
on one end of a longitudinal cone pulley feed -shaft,
shifted up out of and into gear by the raising or lower
ing of the screw into gear with the screw wheel, but
this is also fitted with a bevel wheel, and pinion, and
hand wheel or hand crank-shaft for feeding the table
backward and forward by hand .
For running the table back at a high speed , for
making a fresh cut (or it might be forward when re
quired ), an extra belt pulley feed- shaftmay be employed,
with two loose bevel pinions and clutches on their inner
faces, and a shifting and reversing clutch box between
thein , the bevel wheels gearing into a bevel wheel on
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES. 63
the extreme end of the transverse feed-motion shaft be
fore mentioned, the clutch box being fitted with an
engaging and disengaging hand lever, so as to either
throw this high -speed feed motion out of gear or into
the back or forward gear, as desired .
The reciprocating motion given to the saw may
either be that of a straight line in the cut, or otherwise
it may have a curvilinear motion, preferably entering or
cutting into the wood deeper and deeper from the side
the saw is traversing for the time being, making the
face of the cut of a convex curve, and this motion may
be given to the saw either by radius bars or cams
attached to studs or centres on the deep eye of the
segmental pulleys and to the slide plate, so set as to
lengthen on the in stroke of the saw , and shorten on
the out stroke thereof, and thus slide the pulleys by
their eyes to and fro on their axles ; or otherwise fixed
or movable cams might be fitted on the fixed or movable
axes of the segmental pulleys for the said purpose of
giving this curvilineal motion to the saw .
When it is desired to give the saw a long recipro
cating stroke with a short crank or reciprocating motion
of the connecting rod , the lower segments of the saw
pulleys (to which the connecting rod is coupled ), instead
of being of equal radius, may be of less radius than
the upper to which the saw is connected ; and in addi
tion to (or instead of ) the flexible or other band con
nected to the lower segments on opposite sides of the
machine, a connecting rod may be attached to these by
lateral studs in them on the opposite side to that on
which the actuating connecting rod works.
Although only one saw has been described as fitted
on the upper segments or arms of the reciprocating
 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

pulleys, it will be understood that two, three, or more

may be so fitted, each stepped and coupled below the
other on segments or pulleys of a less radius than the
first, corresponding to the different thicknesses of the
boards to be cut.
The pulleys or segmental levers carrying the saws,
when made in the form of segments or sectors, might
be made of solid edge wood, or built, or of radial arms
and side stays or tie bars of light malleable iron , to
give great strength with lightness.
The connecting rod also might be made of wood or
light side wrought -iron bars for the like purpose , and
the crank disc would have a counterbalancing segmental
block , or a box formed on it for having lead filled into
it to balance the weight of the connecting rod .
In designing timber and deal frames, care should be
taken that the main framing of the machine should be
sufficiently strong to withstand the heavy strain neces
sarily put on it when running with a large number of
saws, especially when sawing hard or frozen wood . For
many years these main framings were constructed of
wood, the uprights being fastened to the cross -beams of
the saw mill itself. A considerable number of these
wooden - framed machines are now in use in the United
States and Canada, and do a large amount of work . In
small-sized frames for cutting deals, & c ., the standards
and top and foundation plates are now often made in
one casting. This certainly secures great strength and
compactness, but they are hardly so handy for repairs,
and are more difficult to manipulate, in the first instance,
when on the planing machine. In all reciprocating
machines, the working parts should be constructed to
combine strength with lightness in the greatest possible
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES. 65
degree. In the working or swing frame which carries
the saws, this is of the greatest importance. It is
found that steel of hollow section is the most suitable
material to employ, as it is capable of withstanding
with ease the immense strain that is put on the swing
frame when working a large number of saws in hard or
wet wood . This strain is very great, amounting to at
least five or six tons per saw . The total compressive
strain that the swing frame has to bear should there
fore be calculated by the maximum number of saws it
is proposed to work, allowing a considerable margin for
contingencies, as it is found when a large number of
saws are used , and the strain is thusmultiplied many
times over, that unless the steel is of ample section, the
cross rails will spring considerably.
As regards the crank shaft — which should be made
of good wrought iron , and free from seams— the best
form to use for general purposes is the double or bell
crank , with a bearing placed well up to the crank on
either side, and a third bearing on the outer side of the
driving pulleys. By this arrangement frames are found
to be much steadier in work. Cranks bent by hydraulic
pressure have lately come considerably into use, and
when manufactured in this manner they possess several
features which render them considerably stronger than
the ordinary “ block ' crank. The gradual pressure of
the hydraulic press as it forms the throw of the crank
forces the ends of the shaft inwards, and the fibre of
the iron is not strained or broken, and it runs com
pletely round the throw , thus rendering it equal in
strength to the other parts of the shaft. In the ordi
nary block crank the fibre of the iron runs across the
web , and is much weakened and damaged when the
F
 G ERY
66 WOOD -WORKIN MACHIN .
throw of the crank is cut out, and a fracture is very
generally found to take place in this web. The con
necting rod should be arranged to take hold of the
saw frames by means of rods on either side at about
the centre of same, as strength and ease in working
are gained , and less depth of foundation is requisite.
As regards the feeding arrangements , they must of
course be adapted to circumstances. Top pressure
rollers for deal or flitch cutting should work independ
ently of one another, so that two pieces of unequal
depth can be sawn at the same time. The bearings in
which the swing frame works should be adjustable,
and by preference made of phosphor bronze. A very
good plan is to have an opening in either side of the
uprights, and the bearings fixed nearly Aush with the
outside of the frame; they are thus easily got at for
repairs, lubrication , & c . When frames are run at high
speeds, the connecting- rod bearings should be of phos
phor bronze, and especial care should be taken as to
their lubrication, as the friction is very considerable .
The cross heads should be forged in the solid , of best
fagoted scrap-iron . We purpose noticing the buckling ,
sharpening, and setting the saws elsewhere.
The illustration , fig. 7, represents a double hori
zontal saw frame from the designs of Messrs. Thomas
Robinson & Sons. This form of frame is especially
adapted for converting valuable woods into boards,
panels , & c . In this machine two saws are employed
instead of one, and the saw frames work on separate
slides carried on an adjustable cross-rail, which can be
raised or lowered on the two main vertical pillar stan
dards of the machine. One of the saw frames is
arranged to rise and fall on the vertical slides on the
 Timm

TERN .
 TIMBER AND DEAL FRAMES.
cross -rail, so that the depth of cut of each saw can be
adjusted independently. The saw frames and working
parts are balanced in equilibrium , and can be driven at
a high speed without excessive vibration . The working
frames are driven by light steel tubular connecting -rods
from a double throw crank with opposite centres. The
machine is practically self-contained ,and requires little
foundation .

F 2
68 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER VIII.
PLANING AND
PLANING
AND MOULDING
MOULDING MACHINES
MACHINES..
AFTER the timber has been converted by means of cir
cular or straight saws from the forest tree into deals
or boards, the internal economy of a saw mill is, or
should be, so arranged that they naturally pass on to
the planing, moulding, and other machines, for rapid
conversion into articles of daily commerce. Planing
and moulding machines must , after saws, be con
sidered the most important of wood -working machines;
and as their action and manipulation are very similar,
and are oftentimes combined in one machine,we pur
pose taking them together. Before proceeding to
machines driven by steam , it may be of some interest
to notice briefly a few of the different kinds of plane
irons worked by hand , as it will enable us to judge
better of the principles involved and the work required
to be done by a planing machine. A plane may be
briefly described as a tool used by those who work in
wood to produce straight, flat, and even surfaces in that
material. Its construction and action are, however,
too well known to need description here. There are a
considerable number of planes, which are known by
different names, according to their size and the pur
poses to which they are applied . Those chiefly in use
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 69
are the jack plane, trying plane, shooting plane, long
plane, and smoothing plane. These are usually called
bench planes. There are also rebating planes for form
ing rebates, the straight block for straightening edges,
sash planes, grooving planes, & c . ; also many other
tools, usually called moulding planes or irons. These
are capable of producing at a slow rate a great variety
of ornamental mouldings ; beads, hollows, rounds,
ogees, and ovolos are those most generally worked by
hand, where small quantities and very simple orna
mentation is necessary ; but at the best hand mould
ing is a very tedious and costly process, especially when
we consider that a moulding that would take a com
petentworkman somehours to produce can be completed
on a good machine in less than one minute.
Planes are necessary for the manipulation of almost
all kinds of work in wood , and those intending using
them , either for business or pleasure, should first of all
understand their construction, and how they can be
best applied ; we cannot, however, here give them more
than a brief comment. The jack plane is used for
taking off the rough and prominent parts from the
surface of the wood in coarse shavings ; the plane iron
is fixed in the stock so as to make an angle of 45
degrees with the face of the plane. All other planes
are more or less similar to the jack plane, differing only
in dimensions and smaller details. The trying plane is
longer than the jack plane ; it is fitted with two
handles, and the iron is set ' finer,' thus cutting a
thinner shaving. The mouth of the plane is also much
narrower. The shooting plane is the longest and most
correct plane used, and is employed after all the others,
chiefly in shooting the edges of boards that have to be
70 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
joined together. The work of these and all other
planes, owing to their slow production and necessary
costliness, it has been found necessary to supersede as
much as possible, and the result is that numerous
machines driven by steam power, and adapted for all
classes of work , have almost entirely taken the place of
hand labour ; therefore, where considerable quantities of
one particular article or pattern are required, and even
when very small quantities are used , it is found much
cheaper to purchase from a manufacturer than to work
them by hand . This can be easily understood, when
we consider that the cutting action of a carpenter's
plane can be estimated to travel, say, at some 75 feet
per minute , whilst the cutting edge of the irons of a
planing machine travels some 4 ,000 feet in the same
time. The principles involved in the two operations,
however, differ essentially. In the case of the car
penter's plane, pushed forward by hand, a recipro
cating motion is obtained , whilst machine cutters, as
a rule, have a revolving or rotary motion ; some, how
ever, are constructed, for special purposes, with fixed
cutters, the action of which resembles the hand
plane reversed, the wood moving instead of the plane
iron .
The first reliable record we have of an attempt to
supersede hand planing by machinery is contained in
the patent of Hatton , dated 1776 ; but this seemsto
have been only a series of crude mechanical ideas,
which were never acted on or carried into any practical
effect. In fact, the idea or invention can hardly be
dignified by the term ‘ machinery. As Rees says in his
Encyclopædia , wetake it that machinery, or mechanical
means to dispense with or modify the use of hand
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 71

labour, must fulfil at least one of the following con

ditions : viz. that it increases the effect of a given
finite power, so as to overcome a resistance that is
greater, and would otherwise remain unchanged ; to
accommodate the direction of the moving force to that
of the resistance to be overcome ; and to regulate and
modify a variable force, so as to produce a constant
and uniform effect' — these are the principal ends to be
accomplished by machinery . If this was more fully
borne in mind by patentees of the present day, some
thousands of the so-called inventions would never have
been perpetrated.
Sir Samuel Bentham , in 1791, patented a planing
machine, but, notwithstanding the ingenuity of the
inventor, it did not come into general use ; it was, in
the first place, intended to be worked by hand power.
The principal object claimed by the patent was the
adjusting of the plane or cutting iron, so that it could
not but perform the operation intended , without re
quiring any skill of the workman , thereby rendering a
common labourer as serviceable as the best joiner for
this purpose. With this view , the plane iron was
made the full width of the board , and on each side of
it were fixed fillets,which projected below the face of
the plane just as much as it was intended to reduce
the board in thickness, serving also to guide the iron
sideways and to gauge the thickness.
The plane was kept down by its own or additional
weights ,when necessary, which latter were so contrived
as to be capable of having their position shifted during
the time the plane was making the stroke, the pressure
at first acting forwards, and lastly on the hinder part,
to prevent the fore end dipping down the instant it
 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
leaves the board. Byanother contrivance, the plane was
lifted up on its return, so as to clear the cutting edge
from the wood. This was effected by a piece of wood ,
which acted as a handle to the plane, and to which the
power was applied. It was placed, with this view ,
upon an axle extending across the width of the plane,
and carrying on each side a short lever, provided with
rollers at their extremities. The handle projected up
wards from the plane, which , being forced forward by
it, assumed an inclined position, as also did the short
levers, so that their rollers then rose above the cheeks
of the plane ; but when the latter was drawn back into
an erect position , the levers moving with it, their
rollers projected beneath the cheeks of the plane, and
raised it off the bench, the plane being supported by
them on its return .
In cases where the boards to be planed were winding
and irregular, ‘dogs ' furnished with teeth gripped the
board on either edge and held it firmly between them .
These dogs' were arranged to rise and fall, to suit
different thicknesses of boards. Where very thin
boards, which were liable to spring, had to be planed,
rollers loaded by levers and weights were used, as they
are even at the present day. Arrangements were also
made for planing feather-edged boards. The above
machine had a reciprocating motion , which was secured
by a crank and wheel, turned by manual labour ; the
plane iron moved over the wood, and the motion gene
rally was intended to be an imitation of the carpenter's
plane, as worked by hand. It was not, however, a
success. It might have been put in motion by water or
other power, but we believe it was never worked use
fully ; as an early attempt, however, to overcome the
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 73
labour of hand planing by mechanical means we think
it deserving of notice.
In the patent taken out by Sir Samuel Bentham in
1793, in addition to numerous other ideas, he claims
the invention and application of an improved rotary
planing and moulding machine.
The chief inventions relating to planing and mould
ing machines claimed by Sir Samuel Bentham in his
patent of 1793, before referred to , are as follows :
A cutter ' block ’ or roller, in which planing or mould
ing irons can be fixed , with arrangements to rise and
fall same to suit varying thicknesses of wood . He also
says to gain time cutters may be applied to different
sides of a piece at once, and such of them as make
parallel cuts may be mounted on the same spindle.
In the fifth section of the specification relating to
rotary tools for wood -cutting he claims “ The idea of
adapting the rotative motion of a tool with more or
less advantage, to give to all sorts of substances any
shape that may be required, is my own, and, as I believe,
entirely new .'
In reference to mouldings he says, ' If the circum
ference of a circular cutter be formed in the shape of
any moulding, and projected above the bench no more
than is necessary, the piece, being shoved over the
cutter, will thus be cut to a moulding corresponding to
the cutter that is the reverse of it, just as a plane iron
cuts the reverse.' In addition to numerous other in
ventions and improvements relating to all kinds of
operations for working wood, Bentham in this patent
describes the process of preparing dovetail joints with
conical cutters, a plan which is still in use . The more
you peruse this extraordinary specification, the more
74 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
wonderful it appears that the inventive genius of the
man could grasp and set forth so tersely so many
original ideas at the same time — enough , in fact , to
make twenty patents of the present day. Certainly
Bentham may be said to have originated a very large
share of the principles connected with wood-working
machinery now in operation .
The next great improvement in planing machines
was made by Mr. J . Bramah , of London , who took out
a patent in 1802 for machinery , for the purpose of pro
ducing straight, smooth , parallel surfaces and curvi
linear surfaces, on wood and other materials, in a
manner much more expeditious than can be performed
by the use of axes, saws, planes, and other cutting
instruments used by hand . This specification is very
voluminous. The chief points that seem to have been
claimed are that the wood to be planed is made to move
in contact with the plane iron , instead of the plane
iron being carried over the work by hand , in the usual
way ; that the cutting tool be made to travel across
the work in a square or oblique direction , except where
the use of a fixed iron is necessary . He claimed also
the application of roughing outand finishing irons fixed
in movable frames, with screw adjustments to suit
thickness of timber. These irons were arranged so as
to work at variable speeds, according to the material
being operated on .
Acting on and improving these ideas, Bramah
erected for the Government at the Royal Arsenal,
Woolwich , a heavy rotary planing machine, which
contained several very novel features, chief amongst
which was the arrangement of a hydraulic or hydro
static press, to work the movable carriages on which
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 75
the wood intended to be planed was supported. Its
operation may be described as follows : - The machine
was fixed on a solid bed of brick or stone work, rising
about one foot above the floor line. Iron slides the
whole length of the machine (some 40 feet) were fixed
on these foundations ; these slides were made to incline
some half -inch from the horizontal line towards the
one end of the machine ; at this end, beneath the
machine, was fixed the cylinder of an hydraulic or
hydrostatic press, having two entrance pipes, one at
each extremity. The piston rod of this press was
furnished with a rack , which worked a pinion under
and attached to a wheel. Round this and three smaller
wheels passed an endless chain , which was regulated
and kept to its work by means of an adjusting screw .
A chamber containing the condensed or compressed
water was fixed near, and the water was conveyed by
pipes to valves or cocks, which were so arranged that
the water entered one end of the cylinder, and urged
the piston forward, and the rack working on the pinion
under the wheel gave motion to the chain , and the
travelling carriages which supported the wood to be
planed attached to it. The water was then stopped ,
and permitted to enter the cylinder at the opposite end,
thus forcing the piston and carriage back to its original
position, the waste water in the meantime being allowed
to escape ; this gave a reciprocating motion, similar to
that of the piston of a steam engine. The travelling
carriages, being attached to the chain one at a time, were
thus hauled backwards and forwards under the rotary
planing disc. This planing disc was fixed at the end of
a strong vertical spindle, which in its circumference was
pierced with thirty holes, in which were fixed twenty - eight
 E RY
76 WOOD -WORKING MACHIN .
gouges or cutters and two plane irons. The disc was
kept in a horizontal position by diagonal braces, and
was made to rotate at the rate of about 90 revolutions
per minute, by means of bevel gearing, which was set
in motion by a steam engine. Thus the general action
of the machine is pretty clear , as while the carriages
holding thewood passed from one end of thetwo slides to
the other by the action of the hydraulic press , as ex
plained above, the planing disc was put in rotation ,
and so adjusted that the gouges and plane irons caught
the surface of the wood as it passed under it. These
gouges were arranged at different distances from the
centre of the disc, and took the rough surface from the
wood, and were followed by the two planing or finishing
irons, which rendered the surface plane and smooth .
The planing disc was sustained and adjusted to suit
different thicknesses of wood, by means of hydraulic
pressure immediately under the control of the work
man .
The action of the above machine would doubtless,
in the present day, be considered very cumbersome,
but as an early attempt to supersede hand labour by
mechanical means, and considering the resources at
the command of the engineer, it must be conceded
that the inventive genius of its designer was of the
highest order.
In 1803 a Mr. Bevans obtained a patent for a
machine for cutting or " sticking ' mouldings, making
rebates, grooves, and planing flat surfaces of small
width . This, like Bentham 's first patent, was an imi
tation of the action of hand labour in planing . A
number of moulding irons were fixed, either singly or
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. . 77
side by side, according to the work to be performed .
In a frame or box these irons were arranged so as to
form the mouldings required . The wood was fixed on
a bench , and the box of irons made to pass over it
lengthways by a connecting rod, communicating with
machinery capable of giving a reciprocating motion .
The crank which gave the reciprocating motion was
arranged to vary the length of its stroke according to
the work required to be done. This was done by making
the arm of the crank to pass through a mortise in a
strong box fixed on an axis, and allowing it to slide in
the said box. Set screws were used to fix the length of
the stroke as wished .
The irons were loaded to keep them in contact with
their work by a long beam of wood , set up on end upon
the sides of the box, and connected therewith by being
divided into two cheeks, which at the lower sides were
formed to an arc of a circle , and united to the box by
chains, in the same manner as the beams of beam
engines are connected with their piston rods. The
upper part of the beam was made to pass always
through one point by sliding between friction wheels ,
or otherwise in a tube hung on two pivots perpendicu
larly over the centre of the work , and at such height
as might be most convenient for the length of the
stroke required .
The connecting rod from the crank before men
tioned was jointed to the upright beam , near its lower
end, and by this means the motion was given to the
box of irons, the chains and arches at the bottom
allowing it in all positions to preserve the plane hori
zontal. To guide the box of plane irons in a recti
78 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

linear motion, and also to bear them off when they had
been reduced to the depth required , fences were used,
which were irons sliding perpendicularly in tubes or
sockets in the box or frame, and clipping a tongue or
guide fixed in the direction of the required stroke in
the frame supporting the bench.
 CHAPTEP IX .
PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES — continued .
FOLLOWING Bramah's patent, several improvements
were introduced by Burnett, Paxton , Poyer, and others ;
but it was not till the year 1827 that planing machines
were brought into extended practical use in this
country. In this year Mr. Malcolm Muir , of Glasgow ,
invented and patented a machine of most improved
construction . Its mechanism contained many of the
most essential points as in use in planing machines of
the present day ; in fact , succeeding makers, although
introducing modifications of their own, seem to have
entirely accepted it as their model. As its invention is
of great interest to engineers, and marks an era in
wood-working machinery, we give an illustration of
Muir 's first machine, with a description of it as given
by Hebert.
“ This machine, invented by Mr. Muir, of Glasgow ,
has for its object the preparation of complete flooring
boards with extraordinary despatch , and in the most
perfect manner ; the several operations of sawing,
planing, grooving, and tongueing being all carried on
at the same instant, by a series of saws, planes, and
revolving chisels.
* Fig . 8 represents a plan of the machine, slightly
80 WOOD -WORK
ING MACHINER .
Y
modified , to render the construction more easily un
derstood by the reader. The machinery is adapted
for the simple planing of boards, as well as the pre
paration of square-jointed or plain -jointed flooring.
We shall commence our description by an account
of those parts which constitute a simple planing
machine, and then proceed to describe the apparatus
by which it is adapted to the preparation of jointed
flooring. The planing machine consists of a perfectly
flat and straight bench d dd, which should be at least
twice as long as any board intended to be prepared
upon it. This bench is made fast to a block of stone
cc or other solid matter, which , together with a suitable
framing , serves to keep the machinery as firm and
steady as possible . Along one side of this bench is a
raised guide e e, which extends as far as the circular
saws i, i ; but only a part of it is shown in the figure,
in order to bring some other arrangements more into
view . About the middle of the bench a metallic .plate
a a is let in flush with its surface, which forms a
durable stock for the plane irons ; these plane irons are
of the usual form , but of greater breadth than the
boards to be planed . The projection of their cutting
edge is effected and regulated by screws, and the num
ber of plane irons employed at a time is determined by
thedegree of finish required for the surface of the boards ;
three plane irons are , however , generally used, as shown
at h, h ,h , the dark spaces being themouths of the planes ;
from this it will be seen that it is the lower side of the
board that is planed , and the shavings are delivered
under the machine. An endless pitched chain , having
catch hooks at convenient distances, takes hold of the
boards as they are put into the machine in succession ,
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 81
and dragsofeach
the sides thein along
board thepassingbenchunder
; thea edgerebateof inonetheof

W
V

0001
1000

Wil
OOO
NCAA
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DOO

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Oll
2
POLIGRE
10ODO
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PROTI

FIG. 8.— PLANING MACHINE PATENTED BY MUIR, A.D. 1827.

guide or fence (a s shown in the figure) prevents the
board from bending upwards bythe action of the chain,
 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
while it is pressed down to the plane irons by springs
or weighted levers, as seen at b , b , which are mounted
upon antifriction rollers, the axles of which are so in
clined as to cause the boards to be uniformly driven
against the fence and to pass in a straight line through
the machine. Motion is given by a band from a large
revolving drum , placed above the machine (not shown
in the figure ), which communicates with the drum u ,
upon the shaft of which is a pinion that drives the
toothed wheel j; the axis of the latter carries the
pitched rigger t, round which the endless chain is
passed, and stretched in a parallel direction with the
bench, by passing over the pulley z, at the opposite end
of the machine ; at this place only a small piece of the
chain is brought into view , as the introduction of the
whole of it would hide or tend to confuse some of the
other parts of the apparatus. The pulley z is mounted
upon a tightening frame y which moves upon a joint
at the lower end, the tension being increased or lessened
by the wedges 1, 1, or by regulating screws. The
parts we have thus described constitute a separate
machine for the planing only of boards. For the
preparation of plain or square -jointed flooring boards,
the following additional apparatus is brought into
operation . A part of the fence e is slightly hol
lowed from the direct line of the bench , to admit of
projecting inequalities in the edges of the boards;
these are removed by irons or cutters fixed on a hori
zontal revolving plate f, the periphery of which enters
an aperture in the fence e ; and it is on the edge of the
board presented to this side of the machine that a
tongue or feather is formed when required . To pro
duce this effect two circular saws, g and h , are used,
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 83
one of which , g, revolves under the board , and cuts it
upward ; the other, h , revolves above the board , and
cuts it downwards, to such a depth only on each side
as to leave a tongue or feather of the required thick
ness uncut. By the progressive motion of the board it
next passes under the operation of two circular saws i ,
one only of which can be seen, as the other is directly
underneath on the same spindle, and separated only by
a ring or washer, which is of the same thickness as the
tongue. These saws, acting horizontally , or at right
angles to those at g and h , cut off the superfluous wood ,
and leave the tongue projecting from the board com
pletely formed . The opposite edge of the board is cut
parallel to the other by a circular saw k revolving
vertically , which is called the “ breadthing ” saw ; a
guide fixed to the head of 0, which supports the spindle
of this saw (but which cannot be seen in the figure), is
so placed as to conduct the superfluous pieces, separated
from the boards by the saw k , underneath the circular
saw l ; the slips are thus removed out of the way of
the latter saw and preserved . The saw l revolves hori
zontally , and is called the “ grooving saw ; ” it is con
siderably thicker than ordinary circular saws, and has
long teeth to admit of their receiving a “ set ” to cut
out the whole of the required groove at one operation .
The spindle head which carries the grooving saw is
adjusted and fixed by screws to a bracket attached to
the head o, the latter being placed in slides, which
keep it steady, and conduct it in a parallel direction
when moved to or from the bench . All the parts that
operate on this edge of the board being thus connected ,
advance or recede together. This inovement is effected
by means of a screw fitted with collars to the fixed
a 2
84 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY .

puppet 3, and working in a nut in the back part of the

head o ; the screw is turned by the handle n , and an
index on the head o points out the relative position of
the circular saw k with respect to the other side of the
machine, and consequently indicates the various breadths
of the finished boards by pointing to a divided scale of
inches and parts fixed upon the block c. All the saws
are fixed on to the spindles in the ordinary way, by
screws, nuts, and washers ; but the spindles are con
siderably thicker than usual, to admit of their being
fitted with cutters or irons, which, by cutting hori
zontally , rebate the superfluous thickness of the board
to a sufficient extent from that part which is destined
to form the under side of the floor in all flooring boards.
The heads,which carry the vertical saws g, h , are placed
on slides fixed to the block ccc, their horizontal posi
tion being adjusted by regulating screws, worked by
the handles p and r, and their spindles elevated or
depressed by proper adjusting screws. Motion is com
municated by endless bands from a large drum wheel
above themachine, such bandsembracing all the vertical
saw pulleys, and also the rigger or pulley w of the in
termediate shaft vw ; and this intermediate shaft, by
means of half crossed or twisted bands 4 , 4 , gives
motion to the horizontal saws i and l. The circular
plate or plane f is also impelled by another half-twisted
band 5 , from a pulley 6 , on the axis of the saw g. The
power which impels the whole machine is derived from
a steam engine or other prime mover applied to the
shaft of the large drum wheel before mentioned.'
A number of these machines were made and erected
by Mr. Muir in Glasgow and other towns, and were
in operation for many years. Mr. John McDowall,
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 85
of Johnstone, near Glasgow , made a number of ma
chines on Muir's model, and afterwards introduced
several modifications and improvements of his own,
for which he obtained a patent in the year 1836. The
chief of these improvements consisted in the introduc
tion — in the place of the endless-chain feed , which ,
when planing thin stuff, had a tendency to tear the
wood - of two pairs of rollers at the front and back of
the machine, to feed the boards through the cutters,
by means of frictional pressure. The rollers were
turned and made to act like the rollers of a calendering
machine ; the upper ones were held down by weighted
levers, which gave them an increased grip on the wood
which passed between them . The rollers were found
to answer their purpose well, and the thinnest boards
were carried through the machine without difficulty.
Another improvement was the introduction of a new
method of cutting tongues and grooves on the edges
of the boards. Muir employed four saws for this pur
pose , one cutting up, another cutting down, and two
cutting in , so that two strips are cut off the sides,
leaving the tongue or feather in the centre ; this plan
did not act well when working on thin wood . Mr.
McDowall substituted a set of rotary cutters fixed on
vertical spindles ; these cutters were made the exact
size of the tongue or groove required, and being placed
on either side of the machine in brackets working on a
slide, could be adjusted by means of a screw and hand
wheel to suit varying widths of boards ; this plan is in
use at the present time. Mr. McDowall also , a few
years later, introduced several other modifications in
these machines, including a silent feed motion with
differential action, and an arrangement of combined
86 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
roughing and finishing cutters for thicknessing. The
feeding motion was a decided novelty. As the deal
entered the machine to be cut it passed beneath a set
of feed cams,which nipped the wood and carried it con
tinuously forward . This feed arrangement consisted
of horizontal traversing plates of metal, tongued at
opposite ends, to slide freely in corresponding grooves
in the top plates of the standards, and upon these plates
a pair of vertical parallel standards were attached ;
these standards were connected at their upper ends by
a light cross -bar. Each standard was slotted down its
centre, to receive and guide the traversing nut-bearings
of the cross cam -spindle. A screw was passed down
from above and through the nut-bearings, so as to allow
the cam spindles to be set up or down. Each cam
spindle had an eccentric cam loosely hung on it by an
eye, the cam eye being fixed against an adjustable
collar. Thus arranged, this nipper feed formed a com
plete traversing frame capable of free horizontal move
ment.
The primary movement was given to these nipping
feeders— of which there were six altogether, three at
each end of the machine - by a toothed pinion on the
first motion shaft. This pinion geared into a large
toothed wheel set on a cross shaft, and carrying a
second pinion in gear with a second spur wheel, fast on
the actuating cam -shaft. On this shaft three separate
cams or differential eccentric pieces were keyed . Over
the periphery of each cam was set an anti-friction
pulley, carried on the horizontal arm of a bell-crank
lever, the three bell cranks being carried loosely on a
stud shaft. The long vertical arms of these bell cranks
were connected by eyes at their lower ends to their
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHIVES. 87
respective rods, which were severally linked by end and
intermediate eyes to the bottom of each of the nipping
frames. The three cams were so set at starting that
they each acted at different periods of the revolution
of their shaft in such a manner that an uniform feed
motion was given to the board passing through the
machine. This method of feeding the timber, although
ingenious, had several objections, and has long been
disused, but it certainly deserves a passing notice .
About the year 1847 several improvements in the
method of operating planing and moulding machines
were introduced in America by John Cumberland and
others. A great number of the machines hitherto con
structed in America were built with cutters working on
a vertical axis, as first patented by Bramah in this
country in 1802. Numerous alterations and modifica
tions were, however, introduced, which rendered this
class of machines much less complicated and cumber
some; among these may be noticed an improved re
versing gear fitted to the travelling table which passed
beneath the rotating cutters. This consisted of two
spur wheels, one twice the diameter of the other ,
gearing into a worm wheel. The opposite ends of the
shafts upon which these wheels were keyed, rested on a
screw , so centred that when one is raised the other is
lowered ; small pinions upon them are then brought
into gear alternately with the rack fixed on travelling
table as required — the larger wheel giving the slow
forward motion , and the smaller the quick return mo
tion , to the travelling table carrying the wood to be
planed.
88 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY .

CHAPTER X .

PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES — continued .

Previous to our Exhibition of 1851 considerable pro
gress was made in the United States in planing and
moulding machinery. Its rapid development was, how
ever, much retarded by the tyrannical operation of the
holders of several patents, chief amongst which was
that known as the “Woodworth planer.' This patentee,
it seems, claimed in America the introduction of the
combination revolving cutter -blocks and roller-feed
motion for planing wood . The validity of this patent
was contested for many years. One part of the patent,
viz . the roller-feed arrangement, was known in this
country many years before. (See patents granted to
Charles Hammond, London , 1811, and Burnet, for im
provements in machinery for planing wood , 1839.)
Notwithstanding these difficulties, Messrs. C . Rogers
and Co., of Norwich , Sellers and Co., of Philadelphia ,
Fay and Co., of Cincinnati, Whitney, Woods, and
other American houses, added materially to the ad
vancement of this branch of manufacture, as exempli
fied in our Exhibitions.
American planing machines are chiefly constructed
after two models, known as the Woodworth and the
Daniels planing machines, though of course modified or
combined according to requirements or nature of work .
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 89
The Woodworth machine was patented some forty
years since, and its functions answer almost entirely
with our own roller -feed machines combined with re
volving cutter-blocks. The Daniels planing machine
answers in its action to the one invented in this
country by Bramah, which we have before described,
it having a horizontal arm fitted with a cutter at either
end, and is made to revolve over the timber as it passes
beneath fixed on a table which is driven by a rack and
pinion or other suitable gearing. The travelling bed
of the Daniels machine is sometimes combined with
the revolving cutter-block and feed rollers of the Wood
worth ; it then answers to our trying -up machine with
an additional roller feed . This combination has the
double advantage of being both a surface dresser and
being able to plane timber out of wind .'
The Daniels or traverse planing machine is chiefly
used in the heaviest class of railway or waggon work,
or where timber is twisted or warped , and where it is
necessary to take it out of 'winding.' In point of fact,
machines constructed with a travelling table are the
only true planing machines. The arm or disc in which
the cutters are placed revolves in a horizontal plane,
and the cutters attack the wood at right angles to the
grain . With this class of machineno difficulty is expe
rienced in working any kind, size, or condition of ma
terial. When very thin stuff has to be planed , weights
or pressure rollers are used. The main framings of
these machines are usually constructed in America of
wood ; the table, however, travels on a planed cast -iron
bed. The cutter arm has vertical adjustment to suit
varying thicknesses of wood, and the cutters are in
operation during either traverse of the table.
 RY
90 WOOD -WORKING MACHINE .
The Woodworth planing machine, with its various
modifications, possesses many features of interest, and
some of the machines constructed by the leading
American houses are extremely complete in their every
detail. A short description of one, with additional
improvements patented by J. A . Fay and Co., of Cin
cinnati, in 1862 and 1868, may not be out of place.
The machine under notice is of recent construction,and
one of the heaviest of its class.
The cutter blocks are made of wrought iron, and
arranged to carry two, three, or more planing irons,
and are fitted with steel lips, which form a back,to the
ordinary iron, similar to the hand plane. The journals
to carry the cutter blocks are of steel, proportioned in
diameter to the weight of the cutter block and power
of the machine. The bearings are made in length
about five times their diameter, and lined with anti
friction metal; they are fitted with self-oiling boxes.
Machines which are also arranged for moulding are
fitted with an adjustable swinging pressure bar. The
horizontal cutter -blocks have vertical screw adjust
ments. The vertical or side cutter -block spindles are
made with three wings and of gun metal, and are fitted
with a patent clip for matching, and constant lubri
cation is especially secured to both vertical and foot
step bearings. The vertical cutter- block spindles are
fitted to a frame arranged with vertical adjustment,
and can be lowered beneath the bed of the machine
when it is required to use it as a surface planer only .
The feed rollers , of which there are four or six , accord
ing to the size of the machine, are of large diameter,
and are all driven in pairs by expansion toothed gear
ing, which gives ' to uneven timber about three-fourths
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 91
of an inch in 24 inches, and they are adjustable to
different thicknesses. They are also arranged with a
dead-weighting attachment, acted on by levers placed
beneath the machine, and fitted in pivoted bearings,
thus securing an equal pressure when working irregular
timber. The upper cutter block is fitted with a spring
pressure roller before the cut, and a yielding pressure
bar after , which effectually resists excessive vibration
of the wood when under the action of the cutters. This
pressure bar is easily adjusted and is fitted with a
gauge. The bottom cutter block is so arranged that
the discharging roller carries the timber right through.
These rollers can be swung out of the way when the
bottom cutter block requires any alteration .
For gauging the depth when cutting beads a pa
tent attachment is fitted into the pressure bar over the
under cutter block , which gauges from the face of the
board being worked. A roller guide for keeping the
timber up to the fence is also fitted , together with
changes of feed for hard or soft wood, which is started
or stopped by a double pulley - feed belt - tightener. All
bearings are fitted with large oil chambers, and the
gearing with guards. Fast and loose pulleys of varying
diameters are fitted to the countershaft. It will be
gathered from this short description that the modern
American Woodworth planer, in the completeness and
easy adaptability of its many details, is a wood -working
machine of the most advanced type.
In connection with planing machines, in addition
to the ordinary method of feeding by geared rollers,
the endless revolving apron or flexible chain bed feed is
used considerably in America. This was invented by
James Farrar some five-and -twenty years ago. It con
 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
sists of a series of cast -iron slats or bars flexibly
connected together, and made to revolve over rollers
at either end of the machine by suitable gearing. It
passes under the top cutter -block , and the bearing
surfaces over which it slides are usually inade of chilled
iron ground smooth. The usual pressure rollers keep
the timber firmly on the apron . For surfacing purposes
it has some advantages, and is a rapid and powerful
feed , but requires considerable care in its manufacture
and manipulation, as the heavy friction to which it is
subject, unless carefully guarded against, would ne
cessarily cause its early deterioration .
Amongst the other American planing machinesmay
be mentioned those of C . B . Rogers and Co., and B . D .
Whitney, both of whose machines possess some inte
resting features. In one of Whitney's machines , espe
cially adapted for re-finishing or scraping hard woods,
the finishing cutters are fixed at rightangles to the
wood in movable drawers , and the wood is forced over
them by powerful feed rollers. (See illustration, fig . 10 ).
Following our Exhibition of 1851 Mr. Samuel
Worssam , of London, constructed a planing machine
with roller feed which embodied several novelties. In
the place of a larger number of small rollers he used
two pairs only, of extra large size — some 2 feet diameter ,
we believe - -and turned smooth on the surface ; these
rollers were driven by heavy spur gearing . The timber
was operated on all four sides, the under cutters were
placed between the first and second pair of feed rollers;
these cutters consisted of one pair of revolving cutters
for “ roughing out, and two fixed cutters, set at an
angle of 45 degrees; and, projecting slightly above the
bed of the machine, these cutters gave a finishing,
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 93
smooth surface to the wood . These fixed cutters were
fitted into cast - iron drawers, which could be pulled out
and replaced as required. The wood was held down on
them by means of weighted levers, and the whole
arrangement was very compact. Mr. Worssam also
brought out, a few years afterwards, a machine, on
Bramah' s principle, for surfacing and squaring up tim
ber ; it was, however,smaller and less complicated . In
place of the ordinary gouges or cutters, Wilson 's patent
cutters were used (patented 1857) . These consist of
cylinders of cast steel, turned cylindrically and bored
conically ; the lower edge of gouge is chamfered on the
outer side to form a cutting edge on the inner circum
ference . The gouges are fixed at an angle to the
revolving circular disc, and the chips escape through
the centre of the gouges , which are widened at their
upper end. When they become blunt or broken, they
can readily be turned in their socket, thus presenting a
fresh cutting edge.
In the year 1853 a Mr. William Hunter, of Glasgow ,
introduced a method of planing wood on the principle
of the action of a circular saw ; the planing tool con
sisted of a fine-toothed circular saw , having a dished '
centre — that is, a slight concavity in the centre, similar
to a very shallow plate or saucer. This saw was caused
to revolve at a very high speed , and the wood was
passed between it and a fence. The object in dishing '
the saw was to allow only a narrow circumferential
portion near the teeth to bear on the wood in cutting ;
the saw ran without set.' The inventor also claimed
a modification whereby a single saw may be made to
plane two contiguous sides of a piece of wood ; the saw
in this case was constructed with a double dish ,' or a
94 WOOD -WORKIN MACHIN .
G ERY
thick edge, with a centre sunk in or thinned off for
clearance. We have never seen a saw of this construc
tion in use for planing , so cannot speak as to its opera
tion . Discs, with cutters projecting slightly beyond
the surface of the disc, near the periphery, are now used
for rough planing with more or less success, and we
shall take an opportunity of noticing this method else
where. Some improvements in the feeding and general
arrangement of details of roller -feed planing machines
were patented by Nelson Barlow in 1855.
About the year 1856 Mr. Henry Wilson , then
manager for Messrs. Powis, James, and Co., London ,
brought out a simple planing and moulding machine.
For the feeding arrangement, in the place of all smooth
rollers, he made the upper ones fluted , to increase the
bite on the wood . The pressure on the wood was
effected by means of a single weighted lever,with beams
to distribute the pressure equally on the rollers.
Messrs. Robinson and Sons, of Rochdale, also about
this time brought out a new moulding and planing
machine, the chief novelty of which was that the spur
wheels which drove the feed motion were actuated by a
worm motion with four speeds. One of these machines,
in which , however, were embodied other improve
ments, was exhibited in our International Exhibition
in 1862. Messrs. Forrest and Barr, of Glasgow , also
exhibited a planing and moulding machine. The feed
consisted of a series of smooth friction rollers, geared
together by long -toothed wheels. The upper friction
rollers were adjusted by means of screws, and the pres
sure was applied to them by means of spiral springs.
Our illustration (fig . 9) represents a side elevation
of a wood -planing machine from the designs of Messrs.
 S
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 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 95
John McDowall and Son , of Johnstone. The timber is
fed by means of four pairs of turned rollers, and the
top ones are arranged to rise and fall to suit varying
thicknesses of wood. Plane irons, fixed in a movable
plane-box or drawer , operate on the under side of the
timber, which , when rough or dirty, is first prepared by
a set of revolving irons placed in front of them . A pair
of revolving plane - irons operate on the upper surface of
the wood, whilst two sets of plane irons, fixed on vertical
spindles, act, at the same time, on the edges ; thus the
whole four sides of a board are planed at once.
The blocks carrying the side spindle cutters are
inade removable, to facilitate the sharpening or setting of
the cutters. For driving the machinetwo countershafts
are used . One of them is placed at the delivery end of
the machine, and is fitted with fast and loose pulleys,
which are driven from themain mill shaft, and pulleys
are also fitted on this countershaft, to drive the top
and side cutters and feed motion. Another countershaft,
with pulley to drive the bottom cutters, is usually placed
underneath the machine. The bottom - feed rollers are
fitted with bushes, beneath which a “ liner ' can be
placed to raise them , should they, through wear, sink
below the surface of the table. The whole machine is
strongly made, and is arranged to work timber at speeds
varying upto60 ft. per minute ,according to the variety
or condition of wood being operated on .
96 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER XI
PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES — continued.
In the year 1864 Mr. Henry Wilson , of London , pa
tented some very valuable improvements in connection
with moulding and planing machines, the most im
portant of which was a variable feed arrangement,
which consisted of a disc wheel, from which, by toothed
gear, the grooved rollers for advancing the wood to
the cutters are driven ; motion was imparted to this disc
wheel by means of a clothed friction pulley, fitted on
a shaft with a feather, along which the pulley was free
to move, so as to act on the disc wheel at any desired
distance from the centre. By regulating the position of
the friction pulley, so will the feed be altered ; the nearer
the pulley is brought to the centre of the disc , the
greater will be the speed of the feed . Included in
this specification was an improved method of mounting
the vertical or side-cutter spindles ; these were fitted
in movable frames, with curved slots, which are
capable of being set by means of screws or otherwise,
so as to allow one or both of the spindles to work at
any required angle . This plan is found of great value
when elaborate under-cut mouldings, hand railings, & c.,
have to be turned out.
In the International Exhibition held in Paris in
1867 an advanced type of planing machine was exhi
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 97
bited by Whitney in the American section ; a machine
also for further finishing the planed boards by means of
scraping was also shown. This was done by forming a
burr on a fixed plane-iron which projected slightly above
the level of the table of the inachine, and over which
the wood was forced by means of geared rollers. This
machine, improved by Richards, we illustrate (fig. 10).

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FIG . 10. - WHITNEY'S SURFACE -SCRAPING MACHINE.

In 1868 Mr. Samuel Worssam , jun., obtained a

patent for improvements in planing machines, known
as ' trying-up ' and ' squaring-up ' machines, whereby,
in addition to their ordinary work, they were rendered
capable, when desired, of simultaneously working on
three sides of the timber under operation . This was
 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

secured by mounting in a suitable frame a pair of ver

tical spindles with cutters, with a pair of feed rollers.
These spindles and feed rollers had a rotary motion
given them , and were so arranged as to be easily moved
out of the way when the edges of the timber, being
worked, were not required to be operated on .
Messrs. Western and Co., London , have latterly
made several improvements relating to planing ma
chinery, for one of which they took out a patent in
1873. This invention related to apparatus for planing
wood true on the face, and at the same time tonguing
and grooving its edges, more particularly applicable in
the preparation of parquet flooring. The table of the
machine consists of an endless chain of plate links,
caused to travel between two guides, and provided with
edged dogs ' for holding the pieces of wood, which
are passed between revolving edge-cutters for grooving
and tonguing, and under a planing disc, mounted on a
vertical spindle , not over, but at the side of the wood.
The wood, after being operated on, is released from the
front dog ' by the bend of the chain over the chain
wheel, and from the back dog ' by the withdrawalof
the latter when it reaches a fixed stop. In the same
year Mr. Bernard Clark, of Birmingham , took out a
patent for some improvements in squaring- up and
surfacing machines. These improvements consist chiefly
of a series of small rotating discs or holders, which
carry cutters for removing superfluous wood, and
brushes or toothed cutters for producing a smooth sur
face on the wood operated upon, and are combined
with a circular frame to which rotary motion is given.
By the rotation of the frame and the discs or holders
the tools are made to describe a series of nearly circular
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 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 99
curves, which motion, combined with the rectilinear
motion of the wood under the cutters or tools, is cal
culated to produce a truth and smoothness of surface
unattainable by the ordinary surfacing machines.
Modifications can be attached to a frame having either
a rectilinear traverse motion or a vibratory or oscillat
ing motion about a centre . The tools and wood to be
operated upon may work in horizontal, vertical, or
inclined planes.
In the recent International Exhibition at Paris
several machines for planing and moulding were ex
hibited , some of which contained features of interest.
A patent combined hand and power feed surface plan
ing machine, exhibited by J. A . Fay and Co., of Cin
cinnati, U . S . A ., is a valuable tool and well worthy of
notice. (See figs. 11 and 12.) The main frame of the
machine is cast in one piece. The planing bed consists
of three separate tables ; the centre one has vertical
adjustment to suit different thicknesses of timber ;
the end tables have both lateral and vertical adjust
ment. The self-acting feed consists of powerfully
geared rollers, and when required to be in use the
tables are lowered below the cutter blocks, and the
wood fed under the cutters in the usual manner.
When it is desired to plane by hand feed, the bonnet
and pressure bar are removed and the end tables
are raised above the cutter block , and these tables
having lateral adjustment, the size of the opening
over the block can be regulated . The bearings of
the cutter block are stationary . The block is fitted
with three planing cutters, and is furnished with steel
lips. The tables are so arranged that the cutting
edges of the knives project slightly above their surface ,
1 2
100 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
and the wood is passed over them by hand, for the
guiding of which a fence is provided . The machine
will plane long or short stuff up to 24 inches wide
from inch in thickness , and will surface straight or
tapering work , make glue joints , and will bevel, cham
fer, & c . The timber can be fed from either end of the
machine, and the depth of cut is regulated by a gauge
and pointer . The cutter block is speeded to make
4 ,000 revolutions per minute .
Messrs. S .Worssam and Co., of London , exhibited a
trying -up machine, in which the pressure rollers for
holding the wood down on the travelling table, which
are usually placed before and behind the cutter-block
slide, are here both brought in front, thus securing a
greater and more uniform pressure at the point where
the cutter strikes the wood , which is an improvement.
The cutter-block spindle ran in centres, but this plan
can hardly be commended for the heavier class of ma
chines. The travelling table is fitted with double rack
gear, thus securing always an adequate bearing for the
teeth of the driving pinion . A compact little thin
stuff surface-planing machine was shown by Messrs.
Robinson and Son , of Rochdale ; it was adapted to
plane wood inch thick at 60 feet run per minute, but
the rate of feed could be varied according to the
nature of the wood . The wood is fed by means of six
plain rollers driven by toothed gearing, which force it
over a fixed iron fitted into a movable drawer.
The roller- feed planing machine exhibited by
Messrs . Gibson and Son , of Jonsered , in Sweden , al
though not possessing any great novelty in its general
design and construction , attracted some attention . It
appeared to be built more or less after American models.
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 101
The feed consisted of geared fluted rollers, adjusted by
spiral springs and a distributing lever. The wood is
first attacked by a revolving under-cutter, and then
passes over a fixed knife fitted in a drawer and between
two vertical side-cutters, and finally beneath the top
cutter. This arrangement of the cutters is somewhat
of an improvement, as a good bed is furnished for the
bottom of the wood, and the edges are well dressed up
before the final finish is put on the surface by the top
cutter. The cutter blocks are made movable , and an
additional cutter block is fitted for matching . The
cutters are made in sections and fitted in mortise slots.
The framing and general construction of the machine
is very light as compared with English models.
In the Norse section Messrs. Jensen and Dahl
showed a planing machine with spindle pulleys of extra
large diameter, but with what object we are at a loss
to see, as the friction to belts , & c., would thus be
much increased. In the French section F . Arbey, of
Paris, exhibited a trying -up machine, fitted with Mares
chal and Godeau's patent spiral or twisted cutters. The
advantage claimed for this form of knife is, that the pitch
of the knives is so arranged that the end of one comes
opposite to the beginning of the other, thus giving a
continuous cut during the whole revolution of the eutter
block. As part only of the whole length of the knives
strikes the wood at the same time, the vibration is
considerably lessened ; and as they always present the
same cutting angle to the wood, cross-grained and
knotty stuff can be worked. The knives used are very
light, being from one to two millimetres in thickness ;
they are, however , somewhat more difficult to manage
than the straight knives ; but an arrangement is fitted
102 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
to this machine where, by means of a revolving emery
wheel, they can be sharpened in their places on the
block. The machine was fitted with a chain feed - a
method which seems to be somewhat in favour for
many kinds of machines in France - and the wood was
secured on the travelling table by longitudinal ' dogs.'
A panel planing machine, with plain roller feed , to
work 80 centimetres wide, was shown by Messrs.
Gérard , of Paris . Instead of using two long planing
irons, extending the whole width, eight short ones were
arranged in succession, two on each side of the cutter
block ; this plan, although causing a little more trouble
in adjusting , simplifies very much the operation of
sharpening, as considerable difficulty is often expe
rienced in keeping irons of very great width in satisfac
tory condition . Amongst recent improvements in
planing machinery may be mentioned also those
patented in 1878 by Mr. Richard Shill, of London .
These improvements are more especially adapted for
those machines arranged for planing blind laths and
similar light work on all four sides at once, and the
novelty consists in so arranging a series of fixed or
hand plane cutters that the cutting action of the
machine is not dependent on a high rate of speed, as
is the case with revolving or rotary cutters, thus en
abling the machine to be driven either by hand power
or steam , as desired . The cutter for planing the under
surface of the wood is fixed in an adjustable drawer ,
fitted in the table of themachine in the usual manner ;
the top cutter used for planing the upper surface of
the wood , instead of revolving , as in most machines, is
also stationary , and is fixed in a block or frame arranged
in such a manner that it is capable of adjusting itself
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 103
whilst in operation to the varying thicknesses of wood
being planed . One of the cutters used for planing the
edges of the wood is fixed in the guide or fence, whilst
the other is made automatically adjustable to varying
widths of wood by means of a spring. The wood is
fed by means of pressure rollers in the usual manner ,
and the weight of the frame or block carrying the top
cutter is also utilised in keeping the wood in contact
with the bottom cutter whilst planing the under sur
face. If the machine is actuated by hand power , the
inventor proposes to give the necessary rotary motion
to the feed rollers by means of a handle or a fly wheel
and belt. For the lightest class of work , especially
where steam is not available , this machine should
possess several features of utility. An illustration of
it will be found (fig . 13).
Having thus briefly sketched the history of the in
vention and introduction of planing and moulding
machinery in this country, we shall now proceed to
discuss the chief features of this class of machines as
at present in use. Although a larger number of ma
chines are made, and specially arranged or modified to
suit varying circumstances or descriptions of work, the
principles involved in the cutting operation of planing
and moulding machines are but three, and may be
classed as follows :- - First , and most important, those
machines having their cutters fixed in revolving blocks
or spindles ; second, those machines baving their
cutters fixed in a rotating cross -head or disc (known
as Bramah 's principle ) ; third, those machines having
fixed irons only , and where the wood is forced over
their cutting edge.
The principle of fixing cutters to revolving blocks
106 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY .
answer very well for small machines, where the strain
is not great, but for large machines, owing to the heavy
and unequal strain on the spindle bearings nearest the
cutter blocks, it cannot be recommended , as when the
bearings wear, the vibration and the consequent jar on
the wood being planed are excessive, leaving its results
in a series of undulations. The cutter-block spindles
should be of steel, and not unduly heavy. A good plan
to pursue is to forge the spindles and blocks revolving
horizontally in one piece, and make the blocks on the
side-cutter spindles movable. The cost of a tough steel
for use in spindles is very little in excess of that of
iron , and has the advantages of presenting a better sur
face to the bearings, and the spindles can be made of
less weight.
In somemachines of recent construction a duplicate
set of top cutter-blocks and cutters have been intro
duced , with the object of allowing the first set of top
cutters, under which the wood passes, to do the rough
heavy work , and pass on to a second set of cutters,
which are made to revolve at a much higher speed for
the purpose of producing a fine surface or finish on the
board .
The cutter-block spindle bearings should be of
phosphor bronze, and made extra stout and long , and
the oil ways should extend nearly the whole length
of the bearings, and a constant supply of oil kept up.
It is of the utmost importance that these spindles
should be fitted to their bearings with the greatest
accuracy , as the friction and vibration caused by the
high rate of speed at which it is necessary they should
run is excessive, sometimes engendering enough heat
to cause the lubricating oil to take fire. When possible,
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 105
smaller- sized machines at least, the framing should be
on the 'box ' principle, and even in the largest sizes
the framing should be in as few pieces as possible.
To obtain compactness, however , the working parts
should never be crowded together, as it often neces
sitates running intermediate driving belts at short
centres, and other evils.
One of the most important elements necessary to
secure the successful working of these, as well as other
wood -working machines , is to obtain a reliable arrange
ment for feeding the timber through the machine,as, no
matter how well designed or accurately made a machine
may be, unless the timber passes through the machine
steadily and without slip, and at a speed that is best
suited to the class of wood being operated on, the
quality and quantity of the work turned out are un
satisfactory. Chain and other methods of feeding were
at one time in use, but the two arrangements now
almost universally used are the roller and rack feeds.
The latter, however, is confined to those classes of
planing machines known as ' trying -up ' and 'squaring
up ' machines. Whether the rollers employed are plain
on the surface or fluted , the grip on the wood and the
feed is improved by driving the whole of them . Some
makers drive only the upper series of rollers, leaving
the lower to be made to revolve by the pressure of the
wood being planed . In all large-sized planing or
moulding machines the table of the machine should be
a fixture, and the upper cutter- block arranged to rise
and fall to suit varying thicknesses of wood .
Wehave seen a plan of placing all the cutter blocks
on one side of the machine overhanging their bearings,
and arranging the table to rise and fall. This may
 RY
106 WOOD -WORKING MACHINE .
answer very well for small machines, where the strain
is not great, but for largemachines, owing to the heavy
and unequal strain on the spindle bearings nearest the
cutter blocks, it cannot be recommended , as when the
bearings wear, the vibration and the consequent jar on
the wood being planed are excessive, leaving its results
in a series of undulations. The cutter-block spindles
should be of steel, and not unduly heavy. A good plan
to pursue is to forge the spindles and blocks revolving
horizontally in one piece, and make the blocks on the
side-cutter spindles movable. The cost of a tough steel
for use in spindles is very little in excess of that of
iron , and has the advantages of presenting a better sur
face to the bearings, and the spindles can be made of
less weight.

T
In somemachines of recent construction a duplicate
set of top cutter-blocks and cutters have been intro
duced , with the object of allowing the first set of top
cutters, under which the wood passes, to do the rough
heavy work , and pass on to a second set of cutters ,
which are made to revolve at a much higher speed for
the purpose of producing a fine surface or finish on the
board .
The cutter -block spindle bearings should be of
phosphor bronze, and made extra stout and long, and
the oil ways should extend nearly the whole length
of the bearings, and a constant supply of oil kept up.
It is of the utmost importance that these spindles
should be fitted to their bearings with the greatest
accuracy, as the friction and vibration caused by the
high rate of speed at which it is necessary they should
run is excessive, sometimes engendering enough heat
to cause the lubricating oil to take fire . When possible ,
 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 107

these bearings should have guards or shields to protect

them from dust and grit. All large -sized cutter blocks
should have bearings at their either end, as it is found
that when operating on heavy work the cutter-block
spindles are apt to spring if they are supported by a
single bearing only . Special care should also be taken
in designing these machines, with the arrangement for
holding down the wood being planed or moulded , as
should it be allowed to vibrate even in a slight degree,
the finished work is unsatisfactory .
The cutter blocks with their irons on either face
should be made to accurately balance each other, or a
waviness or irregularity in the finished work is the re
sult. It is found a good plan to place the pressure
apparatus for holding down the wood as near as possible
to the cutter blocks, as it is thus enabled to make its
controlling action felt to greater advantage than if
placed a little distance from the point where the force
is in operation which causes the vibration or spring '
it is designed to counteract.
The cutter block operating on the under surface of
the wood should be placed in advance of the block
operating on the upper surface, as a smooth face is
thus secured for the wood to travel on whilst passing
beneath the upper or most important cutters . The
countershafts should be placed at one end of the
machine, to give a clear space to the workman . The
cutting edge of planing and moulding irons should be
speeded to travel about 6 ,000 feet per minute .
Our illustration (fig . 14 ) represents a well-designed
planing machine, from the works of Messrs. A . Ran
some and Co., London . It is a powerful machine, and
adapted for work of the heaviest class. The main
108 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

framing is cast in one piece, giving great stability .

The wood is fed by means of three pairs of large feed
rollers, all of which are driven . The top rollers, with
pressure apparatus, can be raised or lowered at will by
turning the handle fixed at the front of the machine.
The mode of equalising the pressure of the feed rollers
on the wood to prevent slipping is good. This is done,
as will be seen by the illustration, in a simple manner,
by levers and weights actuating other distributing beams
or levers, which act on the entire length and width of
the timber being planed .
A specialty of Messrs. Ransome's is that they speed
most of their machines to run at a very high velocity ;
themachine under notice is speeded to plane, groove,
tongue, or edge at the rate of 70 feet per minute . To
enable this to be accomplished without very serious de
triment to the wearing powers of themachine and to the
quality of the work turned out, it is necessary that the
working parts of themachine should combine strength
with lightness in the highest possible degree. They
therefore forge the cutter blocks and spindles in one
piece from a tough quality of steel, the bearings are
made of extra length, and especial care is taken in the
workmanship and lubrication . Whether this entirely
removes the objections urged against excessive speeds
we will not here offer an opinion. Extra vertical
spindles can , if wished , be fitted to these machines, for
striking beads.
Our illustrations (figs. 15 and 16 ) represent a mould
ing and planing machine with the improvements
patented in the year 1864 by Mr. Henry Wilson , of
London, as before referred to . Some considerable im
provements have, however, been latterly introduced by
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 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES. 109
Messrs. Western into this machine, which still includes
the compound angling side-cutters and frictional disc
feed of the original patent. One of these improve
ments is in arranging the upper cutter-block to rise
and fall, and placing an additional bearing at its outer
end, thus securing the advantages of what is known as
a centre- feed machine, with the additional advantage
of an outside cutter machine — that is , all the operating
cutters are placed on one side of the main framing,
this plan being much more convenient for the workmen
to fix or sharpen the irons. The top feed rollers,
which are fluted , overhang the main framing, and can
be removed and replaced by conical rollers, which are
advantageous to use when the machine is employed in
working architrave or other mouldings. By using
conical feed -rollers adapted to the shape of the wood , a
considerable saving is effected, which is of importance
where a large quantity of work is turned out, as by this
plan the wood can be cut on a saw bench to nearly the
size required in the moulding, instead of,as is now often
the case, the wood being cut square instead of bevelled ,
and a large quantity thus left to be cut away by the ma
chine to waste . These and other improvements make
this one of the most complete machines of its class.
Our illustration (fig . 17) represents Mr. Leonard
Chapman 's recently patented thin -stuff planing ina
chine (makers , Johnstone, Hewetson , Wilson , and Co.,
London) ; it is especially adapted for planing and
edging the thinnest class of wood , such as that
used for blind laths, cigar boxes , & c. This machine is
designed to plane and edge wood from to inch to
13 inch thick up to 34 inches broad ; it is speeded to
plane and edge at the rate of 100 feet run per minute,
110 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
and to plane only at the extraordinary speed of 250
feet per minute. For making blind laths the best

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 PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES.

forced over a fixed plane-iron, and between two sets of

vertical revolving irons, by means of a series of plain
rollers, which are all driven by toothed gearing, thus
securing immense feeding power. As the grain of the
wood runs in opposite directions, the laths are first
passed through themachine and planed on one side at
great speed ; the rate of feed is then lessened , and the
edging or vertical cutters set in motion, and the laths
reversed , and passed through the machine again , thus
planing them on the other side, and edging them , at
the same operation .
In addition to the large amount of work turned out
by this little machine , it is of a superior quality to
hand work. The main frame of the machine is cast in
one piece, and the main spindle bearings and small
pinions are of phosphor bronze. The side- cutter
spindles are of steel, and are speeded to run at 7 ,500
revolutions per minute in bearings of phosphor bronze,
52, diameters in length .
Our illustration (fig. 18) represents another class of
planing machine, known as the trying-up. The cutting
action is similar to that of the ordinary roller -feed
machines, but the method of feeding or bringing the
wood under the action of the planing irons differs es
sentially . In this class of machines, instead of the
wood being forced through the machine by means of
rollers, it is cramped on to a long planed cast-iron
travelling table, which is made to travel backwards and
forwards under the cutters by a rack and pinion gear.
These are the only class of planing machines that will
take the timber being operated on out of winding,'
making it perfectly true and ready for glueing up as it
leaves the machine.
II2 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
It will work either hard or soft wood with facility ,
at speeds varying from 5 feet to 25 feet per minute, and
is especially useful to railway carriage builders, trying
up scantling for joiners' work, & c . It also has the
advantage that a number of pieces may be planed at
one time.
The travelling table is fitted with screw cramps or
dogs, which securely fix the wood being operated on .
A graduated index is fitted to the slide on which the
cutter block works, so that the thickness of the cut
can easily be adjusted to gauge.
An improvement has latterly been introduced in the
machine under notice , which enables it to plane both
ways of the traverse ; consequently no time is lost in
running back the table for a fresh cut, as in other
machines of the same class. The cutters are fitted to
a steel cutter -block, and, in addition to planing, can be
arranged to cut large mouldings, trenches, rebates, & c.
Pressure rollers to keep the wood steady whilst under
the operation of the cutters are fixed immediately in
front and at the rear of the cutter block ; these rollers
are fitted with india -rubber washers, which give and
allow for any inequality on the surface of the timber
being planed. Vertical side -cutters can be fixed to
these machines when required for edging and matching,
& c., and in the largest sized machines the cutter block
can be raised or lowered by means of a simple self
acting motion worked from a countershaft.
 I13

CHAPTER XIJ
IRREGULAR MOULDING AND SHAPING MACHINES .
MACHINES for moulding and shaping circular or ir
regular forms in wood are of comparatively recent
introduction ; they, however , effect great economy, as
compared with hand labour, in the production of ir
regular ornamentalwork, as used in church architecture,
& c. They are specially well adapted for working in
hard woods, and will produce a large amount of work
sufficiently perfect to require little or no finishing by
hand . They can also beused to advantage for moulding
ships' timbers, straight or circular cornice mouldings,
table and side-board tops, chair and sofa frames, & c . ;
and when not in use for irregular work, they can be
used for straight, such as sticking architrave mouldings,
sash bars, stop-chamfering , grooving, rebating, thick
nessing , & c . In fact , from the range and variety of its
work , it must be considered a most valuable machine .
A patent for shaping irregular forms was taken out in
1820 by one Boyd , but the method of moulding or
shaping irregular forms in wood by means of a cutter
block fixed on a spindle revolving vertically was in
vented and patented by Mr. Andrew Gear, of Jamesville ,
Ohio, U .S . A., in the year 1853. The machine he then
constructed is similar in every respect to those now iv
 114 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
use. In the first machines made two steel spindles
were employed , arranged to revolve in opposite direc
tions ; these were fitted in bearings lined with anti
friction metal and protruded through the top of a
wooden table. The top of the spindles were screwed,
and the cutters, of which there were two to each
spindle , were kept in their places by collars and nuts.
Both flat and curved cutters were employed ; the shoul
ders of the cutter spindles and the under side of the
collars were bevel-grooved , and the edge of the cutters
made to correspond . They were thus held firmly in their
places. A fence for sticking straight mouldings and a
carriage fitted with chucks for ' pine-apple work ' were
added . For producing pine-apple work ’ the wood
was made to revolve by turning the chucks first in one
direction and then in another, and any degree of ex
panding pitch or twist on a screw - shaped table leg or
other ornament was obtained by leaving the chucks
free to revolve, and prolonging the extremity of one or
both , the extremity being squared and twisted into the
required shape and allowed to play endwise through an
eye in the fixed standard . The inventor, it seems, made
the discovery by accident, the first machine being con
structed for one kind of work, and the extent of its
range and easy adaptability to cut irregular and intri
cate mouldingswas for some time undiscovered . Unlike
many others, the inventor is said to have made large
sums of money by the sale of his patents.
Storer and Bicknell,of Boston, U . S. A ., patented some
additional improvements in 1856. These consisted
chiefly of an improved method of fastening the cutters
and a self-acting method of setting the cutter spindles
to angle for forming undercutmouldings. This was per
 TRIVE

FIG . 19.-WESTERN'S PATENT SI

 MOULDING AND SHAPING MACHINES. 115
formed by means of cone pulleys and worm and rack
gearing working in a slotted quadrant.
Messrs. Greenwood and Batley, of Leeds, exhibited
at the International Exhibition of 1862 a Kinder's
patent shaping machine, which did not differ very
essentially from those at present in use. It contained
two vertical spindles, revolving in opposite directions.
The cutter-heads or blocks were capable of separate
vertical adjustment, and could be fitted with a variety
of cutters, to suit the work being operated on . The
frame of the table was fitted on trunnions, and made
to cant either way. The top of the table was made to
travel longitudinally , and was fitted with transverse
grooves, which were used for fixing work . Since this
date various modifications and improvements in these
machines have been introduced by Messrs. Robinson and
Smith , of Rochdale, Wilson , of London , and others.
Amongst recent improvements in irregular moulding
or shaping machines may be mentioned that recently
patented by Messrs. Western and Co., of London (see
fig . 19). The improvement consists in the method of
driving and reversing the cutter spindle , enabling the
workman at all times to cut with the grain of the wood
whilst using one spindle only . This is secured by the
use of two friction discs,which drive the cutter spindle ,
each of which causes the spindle to rotate in opposite
directions. The action of these discs is instantly re
versed by means of a lever under the immediate control
of the operator. The top of the spindle carrying the
cutter block is turned slightly eccentric, allowing the
block a small amount of play, thus withdrawing from
the wood the cutter not in use. The main frame of
the machine is circular and cast in one piece. The
I 2
 WOOD -WORKIN
G NERY
116 MACHI .
table is fitted with fence , binding rollers, and springs
for sticking ' straight mouldings.
The method of driving and reversing single vertical
shaping machines by means of frictional discs is, how
ever, not new , but its mode of application may be. In
some American machines the friction pulleys for driving
and reversing are fitted to the countershaft. One
friction pulley is fixed on a vertical shaft on which is
the driving pulley, from which,horizontally ,the driving
strap passes through the back of the column of the
machine, the pull of the strap thus coming against the
whole body of the machine instead of against the
vertical spindle and bearings only , as would be the case
if the countershaft was put in the front of the machine.
The friction pulleys for reversing, which are placed on
the horizontal shaft , are brought into contact with the
friction pulley on the vertical shaft by means of a
treadle.
The tables of many of the American machines are
made of cherry and black walnut wood glued together
in strips and fastened with cross straps.
In the panelling and recessing machines, where the
cutter spindle works from above, motion is usually
given to it by friction pulleys placed inside the column,
and the table brought up to the cutter by a treadle or
hand wheel and screw .
In this country straight cutters are usually em
ployed in irregular moulding and shaping machines,
but on the Continent and in America curved or circular
cutters turned from the solid are much used .
Shaping machines are usually constructed with one
or more vertical spindles. Two spindles revolving in
opposite directions is perhaps the most general and
 MOULDING AND SHAPING MACHINES. 117
useful form , as by this plan one cutter spindle can cut
with the grain of the wood running in one direction ,
and the other spindle can operate on the wood with the
grain running in the other direction without stopping
or reversing the machine.
The spindle , with suitable cutters attached , projects
above the surface of an accurately planed table, and
the cutting edges of the irons should be speeded to
travel some 5 ,000 feet per minute. The wood to be
shaped is fixed upon a wooden template, which is
pressed by the operator against a collar on the cutter
spindle ; the cutters thus form in the wood the exact
form of the template . In single-spindle machines,
where the grain of the wood used is twisted and irre
gular, it is necessary to reverse themotion of the cutter
spindle, so that in curved patterns the cutters may be
enabled to work with the grain of the wood, or the
worked turned out is rough and unsatisfactory. The
cutter spindle should be of steel, revolving in extra
long bearings of phosphor bronze, and capable of being
raised and lowered to suit different classes of work by
a lever and hand wheel or other suitable means. The
top of the cutter spindle or head should be made
movable , so as to allow of heads with other cutters
fixed ready for work being put into operation without
delay.
For straight work, such as sash bars, & c., a self
acting feed motion can be fitted ; and for sticking under
cut mouldings the table or spindle can be arranged to
cant. We have recently seen an improved self-adjusting
guard , fitted to this class of machines, to prevent
accidents from the cutters. These guards cover the
cutters entirely, but are raised sufficiently above the
118 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
table to allow the wood being operated on to pass under
them ; they are fixed on turned upright pins, on which
they can be made to rise or fall, to suit varying thick
nesses of wood . These pins are fixed into turned rings,
let in flush with the table , and as the template comes
in contact with them they move and allow it to pass.
Various combinations of these machines are made,
with overhanging cutter spindles, for recessing,mould
ing purposes, & c., but our space precludes more than
a passing notice. The power required to drive is
small.
 119

CHAPTER XIII.
BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES .

The band-saw machine, although very generally be

lieved to be of French origin , was really the invention
of an Englishman. In the year 1808 a patent was
taken out in this country by one William Newberry for
a machine for sawing wood, in which an endless band
or ribbon saw , strung over two wheels, was used. The
inventor also claimed the use of it for splitting skins,
& c. ; in this case a plain steel or iron band, sharpened,
but without teeth , was probably used . This invention ,
although very complete and original, lay dormant for
many years, probably through the difficulty of obtain
ing blades of sufficient toughness to withstand the
strain put on them , and the difficulty then found of
re-joining the saws when broken . As will be seen from
our illustrations (figs. 20, 21, 22 , and 23 ), Newberry' s
machine possessed all the elements of practical utility,
and although, from the inferior quality of the saws
then obtainable, it failed to realise the inventor's an
ticipations, he is nevertheless entitled to the honour of
being the originator of one of themost valuable of all
wood -working machines.
It seems a band-saw machine was patented in
France by M . Touroude in the year 1815, and again
120 WOUD-WORKING MACHINERY.
in 1845 by M . Thouard ; but, owing to the constant
breakages of the saws, they were only used on a very
limited scale.
There is no record of many machines being con
structed on Newberry's plan till 1855, when M . Périn ,
of Paris, exhibited at the French International Exhi

LIMINAT
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FIG . 20 . - NEWBERRY'S BAND SAWING MACHINE, PATENTED 1808.

bition a much improved machine,on which he employed
saws of French manufacture. From themode of tem
pering these saws, they were enabled to stand the
tension and strain necessarily put on them , and to run
for a considerable period without breakage ; thus the
 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 121 121

one great obstacle to the general use of these machines

was removed, and after this date they came gradually
into use.
Following M . Périn's re- introduction of the band
saw ,it was again patented in this country by M . Parientè,
and oncemore by Exall and Barbour in the year 1856 ;
so on the whole it must be held to have been well

FIG . 21.

FIG . 22.

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Na

FIG . 23.
patented ,but the invention of the principle undoubtedly
belongs to Newberry.
The adoption was hardly general, however, till
within the last few years, as, from the introduction of
badly proportioned and badly constructed machines
with inferior saw blades, a strong prejudice,on account
of the loss arising from breakages, existed against
them ; this, however, is now entirely removed . Fol
122 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
lowing the Paris International Exhibition of 1855 ,
General Tulloch, late of the Carriage Department of
the Royal Arsenal, at Woolwich , purchased a number
of machines from M . Périn , and others of heavier
construction were ordered ; this example was soon
followed by others. These machines, serving as ex
amples to English engineers , led to heavier and more
substantial designs being made, with other modifica
tions and improvements, which rendered them more
suitable to the heavy class of work carried on in this
country .
Various patents for improvements of more or less
value have been taken out.
In 1856 Samuel Worssam and John Grist obtained
provisional protection for improvements in cutting and
shaping wood for felloes for wheels and such like curved
surfaces. They employed two band saws, set at certain
distancesapart, and mounted the blanks from which the
articles were to be formed on a revolving platform , to
which motion was communicated by other suitable
gearing. The band saws were carried over pulleys, and
worked in the same plane.
In the year 1858 Mr. Henry Wilson , of London ,
took out a patent for “ improvements in the mounting
of band saws,' which he describes as follows :
“ My invention is intended to prevent the breaking
or snapping of band saws from any sudden strain , or
otherwise, while at work , and from the liability to snap
on the cooling of the saws after ceasing to work ; also
to allow of ready adjustment of the bearings of the
pulleys over which the saws are stretched. I connect
to the bearing of the pulley over which the saw is
stretched an upright rod or spindle, threaded at top,
 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 123
pass over the thread or upper part one arm of a lever,
and adjust the spindle to the height required by a nut
curved at bottom to fit any change of position in the
lever , and to allow of the adjustment of the bearing of
the pulley.
* The lever is centred upon a pin supported upon a
pillar. The opposite arm of the lever is connected to
a second vertical shaft, or rod, the lower end of which
is connected to a vulcanised rubber or other spring,
is carried down on the outside of the pillar, and is pro
vided with a screw adjustment, or not, as deemed
necessary. The bearing of the pulley before named
being free to move up and down within certain limits ,
it follows that upon any strain upon or contraction of
the saw , the spring will allow of the bearing yielding,
and thus prevent the snapping of the saw.
" I do not limit myself to the precise arrangement of
compound lever with screw adjustinent and spring
compensation , or either , just described, although I
believe it the best suited to the purpose of my inven
tion ; but I desire also to secure the so connecting of
the movable bearing of a stretching pulley over which
the band saws are stretched to a spring or springs, as
will enable the saws to accommodate themselves to any
sudden strain, and to contract without snapping.'
Mr. A . Kinder, of Westminster , in 1860 patented
several improvements, consisting chiefly of a new form
of packing box, through which the saw ran , either
horizontally or vertically , and a variable feed arrange
ment for feeding the wood, consisting either of a re
verse cone motion or a friction disc and pulley.
In our International Exhibition of 1862 several
band sawing machines were exhibited , M . Périn show
124 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
ing one in operation which, from the dexterity of its
operator and from the large amount of intricate and
ornamental scroll-work it turned out, excited consider
able attention . The pulleys carrying the saw were
clothed with leather and indiarubber , in lieu of the
use of tension springs. A break for stopping the
machine suddenly was also attached. Another French
firm , Messrs. Varrall, Elwell, and Poulot, of Paris, ex
hibited a portable band sawing machine, with vertical
engine and boiler combined. This machine was fitted
with a feed arrangement, consisting of two pairs of
rollers on vertical spindles, between which the wood
passes. Only one pair of rollers was driven ; these
were fluted , adjustable according to thickness of cut.
The other pair of rollers were plain , and were held hori
zontally against the wood bymeans of a weighted chain
passing over a pulley.
M . Zimmermann , of Chemnitz , exhibited at our
Exhibition of 1862 a band- saw machine, with an
arrangement for circular cutting by swivelling the
work horizontally on the table round a pivot fixed in
it. Amongst the English manufacturers of band -saw
machines perhaps the greatest novelty exhibited was a
machine by Messrs. Greenwood and Batley, Leeds, es
pecially constructed for cutting curvilinear shapes, as
ribs for the frames of ships, and other heavy work of
varying bevel, straight or curved . The table was
stationary, and fixed in a horizontal position , to carry
the work securely , and the saw frame was hung on a
swivel, and could be set to any angle with the table.
When ships' timbers or ribs are being cut for the bows
of the vessel, they require to be cut to forms of double
curvature , to suit the bilge of the vessel, from the keel
 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 125
upwards; and , in conjunction with that, they must be
adapted to the tapering shape of the bow . The varia
tions of curvature are marked in degrees upon the
timbers at intervals along the curved line to be cut out
on one face, the degrees expressing the successive
angles of obliquity ; and the saw being swivelled on a
fulcrum , having its centre at or near the surface, is set,
by the aid of a graduated scale , successively to the
necessary angles. The laborious use of the adze was
thus dispensed with . Instead of canting the saw table
to obtain the necessary bevel in the wood cut, the main
standard of the machine was mounted on trunnions,
so constructed that the surface of the table was on a
line with the centre of the trunnion . The main stan
dard was also fitted with a variable and self-acting
radial motion. Thus when the main standard was
canted, the saw was permitted to oscillate freely , with
out changing its position with reference to the surface
of the table . Arrangements were also made for fitting ,
if desired , a feed motion for carrying the wood through
the saw . This motion could be driven from , and com
bined with , the radial motion , so as to produce in the
wood any peculiar bevel required. Messrs. Powis ,
James, and Co. exhibited a band -saw machine fitted
with Wilson's patent spring arrangement for preventing
breakage to saws. The main frame of the machine
was a hollow casting, and was the first example of the
introduction of the hollow - casting system in connection
with wood -working machinery. Messrs. Worssam also
exhibited a compact and useful machine, but without
any special feature of novelty.
In 1866 Mr. Henry Wilson , London, patented the
combining in one machine a band saw and a jigger, or
126 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
fret saw. Upon the brackets in which the spindle
of each 'wheel round which the band saw works, or
upon the spindles themselves, he attached an oscil
lating lever. One or both arms of each lever carried
at their ends a quadrant or curved plate, and the upper
and lower levers were connected to each other by a rod .
The jigger saw was fastened in the ordinary manner
between the quadrant of the upper and that of the
lower lever , and as these levers were caused to oscillate
the saw received an up-and -down motion , so as to act
on the wood or other material being sawn. The oscil
lating motion was imparted to the levers by means of
a link carried from the lower lever to an arm of a
wheel placed at the back of the machine , or in any
other convenient position .
Included in this specification is a modified spring
arrangement for allowing the saws to expand or con
tract in working. This consisted in using a spring like
a common carriage spring. This was supported on a
bracket, carried up from the centre of the head of the
main framing of themachine. One end of this spring
was connected by a link to the side bracket carrying
the upper saw wheel, and the other end was connected
to the upper end of an ordinary tension rod , which was
adjustable by means of a hand wheel and screw at the
back of the machine.
In 1869 Mr. George Finnegan , of Dublin , patented
an improved form of horizontal band sawing machine,
which could , for a heavy class of work, be used in the
place of the rack circular-saw bench or large timber
frame. He claimed as novel, in connection with sawing
machines, a method for converting a rotary motion into
a reciprocating motion, or vice versá and an arrange
 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 127
ment for relieving the sides and backs of saw frames
from undue friction . The machine consisted of an end
less band saw , strung and revolving on two wrought- iron
wheels of some 6 feet diameter, fixed at either side of a
travelling table which supported the timber being oper
ated on . The saw was arranged to cut horizontally ,
instead of vertically , as in most band -saw machines.
The travelling table was driven by rack-and -pinion gear,
and the rate of feed could be altered to suit the timber
being sawn. It is claimed for this machine that it will
cut a board from a hard -wood birch log , 6 feet long
by 23 inches wide, in 60 seconds, and from a pine log ,
12 feet long by 14 inches wide, in 27 seconds.
128 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER XIV .
BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES — continued .
In 1873 a patent for improvements in band sawing
machinery was taken out by Messrs. C . R . Western
and J. Hamilton. These improvements may briefly be
described as follows:- The pulleys carrying the band
saw are fixed upon a bar, which is mounted at one
end on a pivot in the axial line of the driving pulley,
and at the other end is fitted to a box, in which it is
free to swivel and to slide longitudinally . Both the
pivot and the box are arranged to slide on parallel bars,
and are each provided with gear by which they can be
moved along these. According as the one or other is
so moved, the saw is inclined more or less, so as to
make a more or less oblique cut. The bar carrying the
saw has two brackets, fitted with circular discs, having
guide slots for the saw blade, which discs can be turned
so as to twist the saw blade more or less at each side of
the timber. It will thus be seen that this machine,
when used for bevel-cutting, combines the advantage
of an ordinary machine with an improved method of
canting the top saw pulley, instead of the table on
which the wood to be cut is placed, thus securing a
perfectly level surface, on which the wood can bemoved
with facility in any required direction.
 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 129
Mr. Sansom , of London , in 1874 patented a band
knife machine, specially adapted for cutting cloth and
other materials. He drives an endless steel band in the
ordinary manner over three wheels ; but in the place of
teeth the band is sharpened like a knife , and an ar
rangement is fitted to the machine for this purpose .
The chief novelty consisted in the peculiar means
adopted for giving the required tension to the band
knife , and to allow for its expansion and contraction.
The inventor makes the main frame of this machine
to overhang considerably the table on which the work
to be operated on is placed ; this frame is lightly con
structed , and, although made of cast iron , will give '
or spring when the band knife is in operation , thus
lessening the chance of breakage to saws or knives,
which, in working these machines, is an item of great
importance . By thus constructing the frame of the
machine, considerable extra space is gained on the
table for manipulating the cloth or other material
being cut.
A patent was taken out in 1876 by W . B . Haigh ,
of Oldham , for improvements in band-saw machines,
whereby he claimed that the power required to drive
was considerably reduced. The plan he pursued was
to place one of the wheels carrying the saw on a stud,
at one end of a double lever , there being at the other
end a spiral spring, the double lever working on a
fulcrum or shaft running in bearings, placed in a slide
fitted to guides, and having below the ordinary saw
tightening or regulating screw and nut; and thus, by
placing the pulley on the arm of a lever , the tension
can be so adjusted that much less power is required to
drive the saw . In the same year M . Langlois, of
 130 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
Paris, patented the plan of mounting band-saw wheels
on pointed centres, with an improved grooved saw
guide,mounted on double points,to keep the saw to its
!T
T
W- A

TURUN
TITTATTI
THE
SH

FIG . 24.- KNOWLING'S PATENT BAND SAWING MACHINE.

work. In the same year Mr. McDowall, of Johnstone,
patented
the a multiple
combining of twobandor sawing machine.bandHeclaims
more endless saws in
 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 131
one machine, so as to operate on the same piece of
timber, making the standards of multiple band sawing
machines adjustable, and mounting the pulleys on ec
centric pins or studs, which can be adjusted for different
thicknesses of cut.
Our illustration (fig . 24 ) represents a machine em
bodying several improvements which have recently
been patented by Mr. Knowling, of Newton Abbott,
Devon .
The chief points claimed as novel are : - In so con
structing the machine that when the saw is canted for
cutting at an angle, the table of the machine shall
travel in a horizontal plane ; undue strain on the saw
is thus avoided,and the table carrying the wood is kept
at a dead level. In inost of the ordinary band sawing
machines, when it is required to cut at an angle, the
table carrying the wood is itself canted, and consider
able difficulty is found in keeping heavy timber in
position to be fed through the saw . The main frame
of this machine is fitted at its base with trunnions,
which work in the foundation plate . A screw is so
arranged underneath the table, that, by means of the
hand wheel shown in the engraving, the frame of the
machine is canted , and the table moved at the same
time. Another improvement consists in adjusting the
tension of the saw by means of a pivoted arm or
bracket, carrying the upper saw -wheel, which is actea
on by a screw bedded on a spring support placed on a
fixed rest. The patentee claims that the invention can
be carried out in canting the saw by means of a screw ,
worm , or other mechanical contrivance, working on , or
in , or against a movable metal frame carrying the
pulleys actuating the band saw ; the said movable
K 2
 132 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
framebeing journalled at its lower end, on the same
centre as the bottom saw pulley. The table is moved
by the same motion actuating the moving frame, which
for that purpose is connected with it. The tension ad
justment can be performed by constructing the brackets
ofmetal or other material, furnishing the brackets with
a spring or sliding bed, on one end of which a screw
works, the other end abutting against a pivoted arm or
bracket, carrying the upper saw pulley , so that the
turning of the screw separates the pulleys and tightens
the saw . In Western's and other patents several of the
points herein mentioned have before been carried out
separately, but the combined movement of saw and
table is novel, and must be mentioned as a decided
advance in this class of machines, and should be found
of service to cabinetmakers, chairmakers, and others
requiring to cutmuch bevelled work .
In the International Exhibition of 1878 held in
Paris , a large number of band-saw machines were
shown , most of them in operation . Although this
machine was chiefly developed by the French, they, of
most other nations exhibiting , seem to have made less
progress in rendering it efficient and complete in its
every detail. We will briefly notice such machines as
possess any special feature of improvement in their
design or arrangement.
In the English section perhaps the most original
form of band saw was that exhibited by Messrs. Western
and Co., of London , one of whose patents in connec
tion therewith we have just described. To allow for
the expansion and contraction of the saw blades, a
Wilson's patent spring arrangement was added ; this
we have also spoken of before. Messrs. Charles Powis
 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 133
and Co., of London ,exhibited in their band -saw machine
an improved method of canting the table for bevel- .
sawing ; it consists of a modified form of the ball-and
socket joint arrangement.
For general purposes perhaps themost complete ma
chine in the Exhibition was that shown by Messrs. J. A .
Fay and Co., of Cincinnati, Ohio , U . S . A . Its general
construction differs considerably from English practice ,
and is well worthy of description , and we therefore illus
trate it (fig . 25). As will be seen from the engraving,
the main frame of the machine is a flanged casting, and
is made in one piece. The rim of the upper saw -wheel
is made of steel, the spokes of wrought iron , and the
centre of cast, thus combining lightness and elasticity
in the greatest possible degree, and reducing the strain
on the saw . The saw -wheel spindles are of steel, and
run in self-oiling bearings ; these bearings are adjust
able for wear ; the saw is kept to its proper tension by
means of a screw and hand wheel, and the top -saw
spindle being fitted on a slide, the weighted lever shown
at the back of the inachine compensates for any ex
pansion or contraction in the saw when at work. Three
small metallic guide wheels receive the back thrust of
the saw , which is also fitted with wooden side guides,
and runs on indiarubber, let into the wheels , which are
made without flanges. The top saw -wheel is arranged
to angle. The vertical guide bar placed in the front of
the machine is fitted with a retracting spring, which
allows it to be readily adjusted to the thickness of the
timber. The table is arranged to cant for bevel-sawing
by means of a ball-and -socket arrangement. A com
bination of brake and striking gear allows the machine
to be stopped and started gradually. A small brush
134 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

MIDT

M
Ze INIU
M

FIG . 25. - FAY'S PATENT BAND SAWING MACHINE.

 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 135
is provided for keeping the wheels free from sawdust,
and should be of considerable use when sawing gummy
woods; splasher guards are also fitted. In fact, the
machine, from its general design and completeness of
detail, reflects great credit on the makers. The fast
and -loose pulleys are 14 in. diameter, and are speeded
to run at 375 revolutions per minute .
Messrs. C . B . Rogers and Co., of Norwich, Connec
ticut, U .S . A ., exhibited a band -saw machine carrying
36 - inch wheels ; the spindles are steel, and run in double
· bearings ; these are fixed on an adjustable column fitted
into the main framing of the machine, and rest on a
thick indiarubber roller or washer, which gives to the
saw when in work considerable elasticity, and allows for
its expansion and contraction . The table is made of
wood, glued together in strips, to prevent warping. A
small rotating disc of steel receives the back thrust of
the saw .
Messrs . Périn , Panhard , and Co., of Paris, to whom
the development of the band saw is largely due, exhibited
a number of machines, but they did not possess any
special features of novelty ; several of them are fitted
with chain and other motions for feeding the wood for
straight sawing. Another machine, running at a slow
speed , and carrying a saw blade with fine teeth tem
pered as hard as possible, is used for cutting cold iron
and steel.
Recently patented and fitted to a band -saw machine
exhibited by M . Quétel- Trémois, of Paris, is an im
proved saw guide. It is constructed of gun metal, and
consists of three small square oil boxes, one placed on
either side of the saw and one at the back . The side
136 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
of each of these boxes nearest the saw is made movable
and adjustable to the gauge of saw by set screws; these
nuovable plates are made of steel or other metal, and
a number of small holes are drilled through them ,
through which the oil percolates. In addition , at the
back of the saw is placed a small revolving steel wheel,
which receives the back thrust. Recording these small
matters may to some appear trivial, but, owing to the
keen competition of the day, anything, be it ever so
small, that either saves labour or adds to the productive
efficiency of a machine all practical men will admit is ·
of importance. And here we may add that it is our
opinion that much of the present success of American
competition is due to the attention paid to the smallest
details in their machine construction , which either in
creases the range of work performed , improves the
quality, or lessens the cost of production , which saving
in a day may be infinitesimal, but when multiplied by
months or years amounts to a gigantic total. In point
of fact, in comparing English and American machines
for performing the same class of work , many American
machines are carried further than our own .
M . J. Fau , of Bordeaux, exhibited a machine in
which the saw wheels are constructed solid , of wood .
By this plan he claims to drive with less power, as,
being without arms, the wheel has less air resistance
to overcome. Fixed directly to the bottom saw -wheel
spindle and driving this machine was one of P.Martin 's
rotative engines, which made some 450 revolutions per
minute.
M . Arbey, of Paris, shows a large number of ma
chines, including a band saw for cutting heavy timber ;
 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 137
it is fitted with a self-acting travelling table for feeding
the timber, and a lateral movement for bringing the
timber up to the saw . The travelling table was also
arranged with a hand -power chain reversing gear. We
noticed on one of the lighter machines a compact little
hand -rest for bevel-cutting.
138 WOOD - W 'ORKING MACHINERY .

CHAPTER XV .
BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES

The origin of the fret-cutting machine, which is also

called the scroll or jigger saw , is obscure, but it was
in general use long before the band saw , both in this
country and America . For tracery, fret work , and other
internal cutting, where the endless-band saw is not ap
plicable , the fret saw is of considerable value. Hand
power fret- cutting, by means of a bow saw , has been
practised for a great number of years. Of late several
improvements have been introduced, which render it
more generally serviceable, amongst which may bemen
tioned a flexible self-adjusting bow saw , patented by a
Mr. Cotter in 1872. In this bow -saw framethe stretcher
ismade of steam -bent beech wood,which formsa spring.
The stretcher ends are jointed to the side bars ; the top
of the side bars are connected with the stretcher by two
tension rods, fitted with thumb nuts at their outer ends ;
the other ends pass into female screws fitted in the
stretcher. By turning these thumb nuts the tension of
the saw blade can be varied at will. The end of each
spindle for holding the saw has a longitudinal and
transverse slot for receiving the blade and pin ; slots
to correspond are made in the sliding tube, so that
when the tubes are drawn forward and turned the saw
 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 139
blade is firmly locked . The saw , by this plan , can
easily be set or removed , and from the flexibility of the
frame it is more pliable for cutting very sharp curves,
and is also less liable to break from sudden strains put
on it. Before the band saw was introduced , and after
someyears in a measure took the place of the fret saw ,
almost all kinds of irregular or curved sawing was per
formed by the fret saw ; several other plans were, how
ever, tried , but with little success.
From its novelty, a plan for curved sawing, invented
and patented by E . B . Wells, of Uniontown, Pennsyl
vania , United States of America, in 1854, deserves
notice. An angular incision was made in a circular
saw , from the edge to the centre, or, in other words, a
sector was cut from the disc, which was then sprung,
by means,of washers and rings, to any required degree
of curvature. It was termed an adjustable, dished cir
cular saw, and was designed for cutting barrel staves ,
wheel felloes, and such like work . It was intended to
be run at a speed somewhat less than the ordinary cir
cular saw .
Some fourteen years since, Mr. Talpey, of New York ,
made a fret - saw machine, worked by the foot, which
embodied several improvements.
A very complete fret-saw machine is also made by
Beach , of Montrose ,United States of America. Motion
is given to the saw by an adjustable friction pulley on
the crank shaft, and the speed can be varied at will by
the operator depressing a treadle. The saw guides are
adjustable laterally and transversely to line, or to give
any desired rake to the saw ; the cross heads are also
adjustable for wear. Tension is given to the saw by
ratchet gear. The working parts are suspended to a
 1
WO
RD
BER

Well
.

FIG . 26 . - FRET-SAW MACHINE,

 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 141
wrought-iron tubular shaft, which is held in place by a
box and lever, and balanced by a spring. An adjust
able steel bearing supports the back of the saw , and it
can also be used to hold down the work . An air pump
for removing the sawdust is attached to the cross head .
Mr. James Kennan , engineer, of Dublin , has from
time to time introduced improvements into fret-saw
machines. In 1865 he brought out a simple machine.
In a vibrating or oscillating frame a fret saw was
strained ; the frame derived its motion direct from a
triple-action cam , having two or more actuating surfaces
on the first motion -shaft, which was worked by the foot.
On the inner and outer peripheries of this cam , which
was a flange screwed to the side arms of the fly wheel,
worked two pulleys covered with india-rubber , to prevent
noise when running . These pulleys were carried at the
lower end of a lever, the upper end of which was keyed
to a rocking shaft, which vibrated in bearings fitted to
the table of the machine. Two arms of a C form were
also keyed on to the rocking shaft, and the saw blade
strained between their two vibrating ends. By making
two or more acting surfaces on the cam , any number
of strokes of the saw can be secured. An india- rubber
ball or bellows, inflated by the upward stroke of the
saw , was attached for blowing away the sawdust from
the line of cut.
Mr. W . J. Cunningham , of London, patented about
1865 a combined fret saw and drilling machine, of very
simple construction . The drill was vertical, and worked
by leverage, and could be attached with advantage to
an ordinary lathe. We have recently seen a well
arranged machine especially adapted for dovetail work ,
designed by a Mr. McChesney. The saw is driven by
142 WOOD- IVORKING JIACHINERY.
a cord passing over three sheaves, two of which are
adjustable, and the tension of saw can be regulated
thereby. The main frame is of C shape, and of light
construction , but, to prevent oscillation , it is braced by
means of a wire rope passed round its exterior. The
table can be set to angle, to give the taper to the wood
necessary in the curred form of dovetail it is designed
to cut.
Messrs. J. A. Fay and Co., of Cincinnati, U. S. A.,
exhibited at the International Exhibition in Paris (1878)
a very complete fret saw , which we illustrate herewith
(fig . 26 ). As will be seen from the drawing, the body
of the machine is cast in one piece. The reciprocating
parts are made very light; the tension is flexible. The
upper end of the saw is attached to a strap, which , at
its upper end, is connected with a segment pulley and
eccentric roller. To this eccentric roller is attached
the straps, which are connected with two steel springs,
made of a series of thin plates of different lengths.
By this arrangement an almost equal tension through
out all parts of the stroke of the saw is secured. The
eccentric roller is so adjusted that in the downward
stroke of the saw the lessening flexibility of the steel
springs is compensated for by the shortened leverage of
the eccentric rolier . The sliding crogs-frame to which
the springs are fitted is adjustable for different lengths
of saws, and the small land wheel in front of the
machine sets the cross frame to any desired lead .'
A patent combined brake and striking gear, worked by
the foot, is attached , and is arranged to stop and start
the saw gradually . The fast -and -loose pulleys are six
inches in diameter, and are speeded to make 1,100
revolutions per minute .
 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 143
Messrs. C . B . Rogers and Co., of Norwich, U . S .A .,
also exhibited a handy fret saw . The saw straining
frame consists of a light iron frame, adjustable to dif
ferent lengths of saw , and has on either side a hard
wood spring, with adjustable tension ,and is connected by
straps to the saw . The saw is held by a hook and pin
at each end, which allows it to be easily detached. The
back of the saw is fitted with and steadied by a guide.
We have seen another method of holding the fret
saw introduced in machines made by J . Richards, of
Philadelphia . In this machine the saw is not strained
in the usual manner, but supported by steel anti
friction guides fixed at its top to prevent it turning and
give lateral and back support at the same time. The
saws are fastened to a tubular slide running in bearings,
and steel guides are fitted to the end of the sliding
tube. A small fan-blower is attached for clearing away
the sawdust. A very good plan for keeping the cutting
line clear in lieu of a fan -blower is, to construct a small
cylinder with a piston which can be arranged to blow
a volume of air at each downward stroke of the saw ,
and will perform its work very effectually . For light
ornamental sawing a simple and compact machine,
worked by the foot, has recently been patented by a
Mr. Barnes , an American . The reciprocating motion
is given to the saw by attaching the saw arms to a
continuously revolving wheel. This wheel is driven by
straps attached to the treadle, and the ordinary crank
is done away with .
If, in designing a band sawing machine, it was prac
ticable to embody some of the various improvements
we have noticed without infringing patent rights, the
result should be a comparatively perfect tool, combining
144 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

that great desideratum in machinery the maximum

amount of productive efficiency with the minimum
amount of complication and loss from excessive wear
and tear or breakage. As, however , this embodiment
is unfortunately not practicable, we must content our
selves with a few general hints, which may be found of
some service. The main framing should be rigid , and
cast in one piece. For the lighter class of machines
an ordinary flange casting is sufficient, but for the
heavier type a hollow or box frame is to be preferred.
Care should be taken that the frame is curved or bowed
sufficiently to allow of ample room between it and the
saw for the easy manipulation of the work . The saw
wheels should be made as light as possible, and the
upper wheel mounted in a slide, arranged to give ' to
the vibrations or any sudden impact of the saw . The
saw -wheel spindles should be of steel, and run in
double bearings of phosphor bronze. Sufficient care
should be taken as to their lubrication . The periphery
of the saw wheels should be covered with india -rubber
or two thicknesses of leather, and turned inside and
out, and accurately balanced. To lessen the breakage
of the saws from expansion , contraction , or other
causes, and to keep them at their proper tension , a
weighted lever or spring should be fitted to the slide
in which the top saw -wheel is mounted . Metallic
friction guide-wheels should be provided to receive the
back thrust of the saw , and adjustable wooden side
guides should also be added. On no account should
the back of the saw be run against a fixed bearing .
In the heavier class of sawing it is found that, no
matter how carefully it is operated, the saw is apt to
buckle and run from the line ; it is, therefore, neces
 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 145
sary , in addition to the ordinary guides, to provide
some plan to obviate this as far as possible ; this can
be accomplished by adding side friction rollers, placed
on a spindle vertically , and arranged to guide from the
teeth of the saw . The saw wheels should in all cases
be made of as large diameter as convenient, as the
friction ,and consequent buckling and breakage of saws,
is by this means lessened . For very heavy sawing
blades three or four inches wide are used ; the wheels
should be of not less than 5 feet diameter ; these are
sometimes constructed of wood, or of iron centres and
wooden rims. The upper saw -wheel should in all cases
be so arranged that it can be set to an angle with the
lower wheel, thus directing the saw to run on any part
of the periphery , and equalising the wear on the india
rubber or leather covering: The table on which the
work is placed should be arranged to set to an angle
for bevel-sawing . A ball-and -socket movement is a
convenient plan for this purpose ; the angle can be
determined by a gauge and pointer. For light bevel
sawing a small portable hand -rest should be provided,
and for regular sweep-cutting,such as wheel felloes, chair
backs, break blocks, & c., a radial arm is useful. The
upper saw -wheel should be arranged to rise and fall to
suit varying thicknesses of wood, as also the front saw
guide-arm . It is now the practice in this country and
America to construct the wheels carrying the saw with
out flanges; in lieu of this , at any rate in the larger
machines, a small loose roller should be fitted to guide
the saw blades on the upper wheel. These larger
machines are sometimes fitted with a self -acting feed
for straight sawing. A very good plan is to arrange
vertically on the table two or more rollers, geared
 Y
146 WOOD -WORKING MACHINER .

strongly together , and a fence adjustable by means of

a hand wheel and screw to thickness of cut. These
rollers are set in motion by suitable toothed or friction
gearing, and the wood is fed between them and the
fence plate . The feed rollers should be provided with
changes in the rate of feed, to suit varying kinds of
wood , and should be adjustable to and from the fence
plate.
This self-acting feed is very usefulwhere much panel
or box work is required in addition to the ordinary
curved sawing , for which a separate table should be
used . In sawing the heaviest class of logs into boards
by means of a band saw , which in the case of valuable
woods is oftentimes done, in lieu of the feed motion
above described ,a travelling carriage,actuated by a rack,
chain , or other suitable feed, is provided . Band saws
are sometimes used for cutting iron, steel, copper, & c .,
when cold. In this case the saw is driven at a slow
speed — some 250 feet per minute . The saw is tempered
specially hard , and is made somewhat taper from the
points of the teeth to the back of the blade. The iron
to be sawn is fixed in a suitable cramp or vice. Large
band- saw machines are also constructed to work hori
zontally , for breaking down heavy logs. For this pur
pose the saw wheels are made of large diameter, and
mounted on sliding brackets , working on two vertical
columns ; these brackets are raised and lowered simul
taneously by a hand wheel and screw . The timber to
be cut is carried underneath the saw , on an iron tra
velling table, fitted with rack or other feed, and a gauge
and pointer are provided to measure thickness of the
cut required. By certain modifications this form of
horizontal band -saw can be adapted for cutting ships'
 BAND AND FRET SAW MACHINES. 147
timbers to the peculiar taper and bevel required in
forming their keels. In New York band-saw blades
are worked up 60 ft. long by 6 in . or 8 in . wide ; but
this large size are rarely, if ever, used in this country .
The advantages gained in using a well-constructed
band sawing machine are many. In the first place,
even in cutting heavy timber the power required to
drive is small, and the cut is continuous. The wear
and tear is small. As the dust falls through the kerf
in sawing, the lines of the design can easily be followed
by the operator. The saws can be used of very thin
gauge, thus wasting little, which is a consideration when
sawing valuable woods. Architectural designs, furni
ture work , & c., of elaborated design can readily be
shaped out, thus effecting an immense saving over
hand labour. In addition to cutting wood, band saws
can be arranged to cut iron, bone, ivory, paper, cloth,
leather, and other materials. In working band -saw
machines care must be taken that the saw blades used
are of the best possible quality, as, no matter how well
a machine is constructed, if inferior blades are used
the loss from breakages, stoppages, & c., will be con
siderable . Saws should not be used of greater width
or gauge than is absolutely necessary. It is a mistake
to suppose that saws of a thick gauge or great width
stand better than thin ones. The reverse is the fact ;
they should be of exactly the same width and thickness
throughout, and of uniform temper and set. The teeth
of the saw should be set by blows on the inside of the
blade, as in this case they are less liable to run off the
wheel. They should be worked at a moderate tension .
The teeth of band saws for ordinary sawing should be
speeded to travel about 4 ,000 feet per minute.
12
 RY
148 WOOD -WORKING MACHINE .

CHAPTER XVI.
STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES .

AFTER the forest tree has been cut down, sawn, and
planed true, the next operation is joining it together ;
the most general form of joint is that produced by
themortise and tenon . Weshall in another place notice
the operation of mortising as performed by hand -power
machines ; we now purpose taking the larger class of
mortising machines worked by steam , and adapted to
the heavier work required by railway-waggon builders ,
shipbuilders, contractors, and others.
Mortising machines may be briefly divided into two
classes — those in which the chisel or cutter is worked
with a reciprocating motion and those in which it is
worked by a rotary motion. These two motions, how
ever, admit of many modifications, to suit the different
classes of work or materialoperated on . In this country
and America machines with a reciprocating motion are
most in favour, whilst France and other Continental
nations generally prefer a rotary motion .
The invention of the mortising machine is generally
attributed to Sir Samuel Bentham , in the year 1793 .
In 1807 Brunel, in connection with Henry Maudslay ,
made several machines for the Government, which were
in successful operation at Portsmouth Dockyard and
elsewhere for many years. These machines were chiefly
STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES. 149
used for mortising ships' blocks, which operation had
hitherto been performed by manual labour. Rees, in
his Cyclopædia ' (1819), says, “ The framing of all
these machines is made of cast iron, and many of those
parts which are exposed to violent and rapid motion
are made of hardened steel, to avoid wearing ; and
where this is impracticable such parts are formed so
that they can readily be renewed when worn out, the
trifling repairs to cutting tools, & c ., being made by the
workman on the spot. These circumstances we par
ticularly recommend to the attention of manufacturers
who have occasion to employ extensive sets of ma
chinery ; for this , when well constructed , though ex
pensive in the erection , is cheaper in the end than
imperfect works, which require constant repair, the
expense of which is the least evil, as it generally happens
that a machine will fail at that time when it is most
wanted , in consequence of being then most worked ; and
the loss occasioned by the stoppage of great works, par
ticularly where many people are employed , is too evi
dent to require our notice. In the same manner, an
attention to neatness in the appearance of machinery
has its advantages, by inducing the workmen to be
careful of the machines they work at, to preserve them
from the slightest injury, and to keep them clean from
dust, which , trifling as it may appear, is a very essential
part-preservation of those parts which are in rapid
motion with friction against other parts, for dust get
ting between such surfaces grinds them away very fast
and in their most essential points. We cominend the
above paragraph to the attentive perusal of manufac
turers and designers of any kind of machinery, as it
conveys several wholesome lessons.
150 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
The mortising machines designed by Brunel were
arranged to cut the mortises in several blocks at one
time. As many chisels as there were mortises to be
cut were fitted to a vertical frame or slide, working
between standards somewhat similar to the ordinary
saw -frame. This vertical frame received a reciprocat
ing motion from a crank and connecting rod. The
blocks to be mortised were fixed on an iron travelling
table, arranged to pass underneath the chisels ; motion
was communicated to the travelling table by means of
a ratchetwheel and screw , so constructed that the table
was moved forward the thickness of the chip it was
intended to cut at each stroke of the chisels. The table
also had a hand feed worked by toothed gearing, by
which the operator could bring it up to the proper point
for commencing the mortise. The chisels were pro
vided with small teeth , which were fitted into dovetailed
notches, formed in the blade of the chisel, and called
scribers. They had a sharp edge projecting a small
distance beyond the inside edge of the chisel, and there
fore in descending through the mortise the scribers cut
the sides of the mortise clear, and cut at the same time
two clefts, which separate the chip which is to be cut
out by the next stroke at its edges from the inside of
the mortise, so that the chip comes out clear, without
splitting at the edges, thus making the inside of the
mortise as clear and smooth as possible . Each chisel
had also a piece of steel fixed on it before the edge by
a screw which projects from the middle of it, and is
screwed into its blade,the upper end of the piece being
received in a notch or groove formed in the chisel. This
piece is for clearing the chips out of the mortise as fast
as they are cut, for though in general these fall down
 STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES. 151
the block, yet it may happen they will stick in, in which
case , without this precaution, they would clog up the
mortise with chips, so as to impede the proper action
of the chisel. There were three machines of different
sizes in operation , and the medium - sized machine was
speeded to make as many as 400 strokes per minute,
and the work turned out is reported to have been of
first- class quality .
For some years no especial improvements on
Brunel's mortising machinery seem to have been made
in this country. Some thirty years ago Mr. Buck , an
American, invented a machine with a somewhat in
genious action . The tool or chisel holder was arranged
to slide between guides, and was actuated by a link
similar to that used in the slide gear of a locomotive ;
this link was worked by a crank , or eccentric. The
link was shifted by a treadle , so that when the block of
the tool-holder is at the fulcrum end of the link the
chisel is at a standstill, and the further the tool-holder
block is from the fulcrum the longer is the stroke.
A mortising auger for making square holes, in
vented by Mr. A . Branch, of New York, was described
in the · Franklin Journal of Philadelphia in the year
1826. It was stated to consist of an auger, formed,
like the American screw auger ,with the twisted part
enclosed in a case or socket, extending from the upper
part of the twists to the cutting edge, allowing the
small entering screw to project beyond it. The ex
ternal form of the socket is either square or otherwise,
according to the intended shape of the hole to be bored ,
a large portion of its sides being cut away to allow the
chips to escape. The lower end of the socket is steel,
with a sharp cutting edge bevelled towards the inside.
152 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
The cutting edges are not allowed to terminate in right
lines, but are made concave, so as to admit the angular
points to enter the wood first, this causing it to cut
with greater ease and more smoothly than it otherwise
would . The upper part of the socket forms a collar,
which works freely on the shank of the auger just
above the twisted part, and is retained in its place by
a pin and other appendages . When a longitudinal
hole ormortise is wanted , two or more augers are placed
side by side, furnished with their appropriate sockets ,
and retained in their places by various contrivances.
This form of auger was invented about the same time in
England by a Mr. Thomas Hancock , of London , and for
some classes of mortising it is in use at the present day.
In 1853 Messrs . Slater and Tall brought out some
novel machinery, especially adapted for cutting the
wood work necessary in the manufacture of carpenters'
planes. A mortising machine for forming the sloping
sides of the cavity in the plane block necessary for the
iron was very ingeniously devised, and may be briefly
described . The cutting irons or chisels were bolted to
two slides, facing each other, and working in dovetail
grooves on the face of two inclined standards. The
upper end of each of these slides was joined to a con
necting rod, and the lower ends of both these rods to a
crank pin , fitted to the face of a cast -iron disc. This
disc was keyed on to the end of a driving shaft, run
ning in bearings, and fitted with fast-and -loose driving
pulleys. The plane block to be mortised is held by
screw clamps upon an inclined bed, set to an angle
corresponding to the different inclinations of the sides
of the cavity required in the plane block . When the
machine is in motion the two cutters descend simul
STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES. 153
taneously and commence their cut close together , on
the face of the plane block, and gradually widen as the
block is set up, until the angular cavity is cut out the
required depth . Another machine was designed for
cutting the grooves in the cheeks of the plane’s cavity .
This machine was fitted with expanding cutters, which
expanded gradually at each stroke, thus deepening the
grooves in the block. When the proper depth of the
groove was attained , the expanding mechanism was
thrown out of gear. Each of the expanding cutters
had three cutting edges ; the outside edges widened
the groove or slot in the plane block at each descent of
the cutters , and the bottom edge cleared the wood
away. The general arrangement and details of these
machines reflect the highest credit on their designers,
and may be studied with advantage by students and
others.
About this date also ( 1853) Messrs. Bunten and
Lamb, of Glasgow , made some machines for mortising
and tenoning. In their machine the mortising tool
was held in a spindle fitted in a small frame formed
with slides , and working in vertical guides. A recip
rocating motion was given to this frame by an eccentric
movement overhead . The eccentric shaft was carried
by a frame having a vertical traverse movement ; and
by means of a foot lever, which was connected to the
frame by a rod, the mortising tool could be brought
deeper into the wood , as required . The spindle carry
ing the mortising tool had upon it a pinion in gear
with a short rack working in a slot across the frame ; a
pin carrying a friction pulley was fitted to the back of
the rack, and projected through the slot. This friction
pulley acted on a transverse sliding piece, by which the
154 WOOD- IVORKING MACHINERY.

mortising tool was reversed when required, without

stopping the machine.
Mr. H . B . Smith , of Lowell, Massachusetts, U .S .A .,
in the sameyear patented a plan for reversing mortising
chisels by the foot. A grooved pulley was fitted to the
chisel bar ; round this pulley ran a gutband ; this band
was prevented from reversing the chisel by a stop
piece ; a motion of the foot, however, released the stop
piece , and allowed the chisel bar to make just one half
turn , thus reversing the chisel without stopping the
machine. A novel form of machine for mortising blind
slats was also invented by Mr. Smith , who arranged
the chisels to work by means of a series of cams on a
revolving wheel. Two pieces of iron, of triangular
section , were mounted in guides, and so arranged that
together they formed a prism of some 2 inches square,
each half having a separate movement. In the ends of
these sliding pieces were mounted chisels, the bevelled
sides towards each other ; these chisels enclosed the
mortise between them ; and they could be made to any
length or form desirable . The chisels were first driven
singly , which marked out and sunk the mortise, and
then simultaneously , which removed the core. The
machine was arranged to set to any angle and to any
distance desired between the slats, and to stop itself as
each operation was completed.
Another American, Mr. B . H . Otis, of Syracuse ,
New York , about this time also introduced several
improvements into mortising machines, including a
method of varying the stroke of the chisel by a kind
of link motion, which was derived from any point in a
slotted lever. By means of a suitable bend in the shaft
the link block may be placed exactly in a line with its
 TEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES. 155
axis, which position it assumes when released by the
workman, and the chisel is immediately stopped. A
novel device, applicable to treadle-made machines, for
relieving the foot of the operator from the unpleasant
jarring usually felt, was fitted to this machine. The
treadle movement was transmitted through a triangular
frame or wedge piece, the obliquity of which was about
equal to its angle of friction, so that little of the usual
jarring could be transmitted to the workman .
Prior to and following our Exhibition of 1851 con
siderable progress was made in mortising machinery
in this country as well as in America . In 1849 Mr.
W . R . Douglas, of Inveralmond , Mid -Calder, designed
a machine for mortising, tenoning , boring , and ripping
timber. The mortising was done by means of a fly
wheel and double crank , connected to a cross head ,
to which the chisel was fixed . The wood was passed
beneath the chisel between two guides, one fixed and
the other movable, to suit different thicknesses.
To cut tenons, the mortising chisel was removed,
and a frame containing two saws was fixed to the cross
head . On the driving shaft was fixed an eccentric ,
which communicated motion to a ratchet wheel, which
fed the wood beneath the saws. The ripping saw was
driven by a large fly wheel.
In the year 1852 Thomas Guild , an American,
introduced several very important improvements into
reciprocating mortising machines, notably an arrange
ment for graduating the stroke of the chisel by means
of a treadle , which set it in motion, and by the aid
of a rod and links controlled its stroke. By another ar
rangement this machine was enabled to cut a mortise
nearly equal in depth to the whole length of its stroke.
156 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
Although certain modifications have from time to time
been introduced into it, it has substantially held its
own to the present day as the most advanced machine
of its class.
In 1853 Varrall patented a form of mortise chisel
in which a small double -pointed tooth was centred in
a recess, and arranged so as to project only asthe chisel
rose , thus drawing the chips out with it ; this plan is,
however, calculated easily to get out of order, and has
never been much used . About this time also a chisel
having serrated edges and a bird 's-mouth point was
patented by a Mr. Meyer.
In 1854 Mr. Adancourt, an American engineer, de
signed for use in mortising and boring machines a some
what novel form of expanding boring bit, by means of
which conical holes could be bored any desired depth ,
and the chips removed without boring right through
the wood . In making it a bit or auger was formed in
the usualmanner, and then divided longitudinally into
two unequal parts, the thicker section being formed
with the entering centre of the bit , whilst the other
was sprung outwards, as far as was necessary for the
widest hole intended to be cut. An open collar was
then fitted over the shank of the bit, so as to press the
spring side section against the centre . The frame or
collar-piece consisted of a pair of solid disc collars, con
nected by two inclined side arms, the propelling points
of which extended down to the cutting points of the bit.
When the bit was in operation , these points rested
against the material being bored, and as the boring pro
ceeded the collar frame was gradually pushed upwards,
thus releasing the spring section of the bit and giving it
an expanding width for the formation of a conical hole .
STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES. 157
In our International Exhibition of 1862 a number
of mortising machines were shown. Messrs. Green
wood and Batley , of Leeds, exhibited a well-designed
machine, fitted with a graduated stroke, worked by a
treadle arrangement. The chisel was reversed by a
hand lever , and kept in position by a spring catch.
The table carrying the wood had lateral and transverse
movements, and was fitted with trunnions, which could
be set to angle for bevel mortising.
Messrs. Robinson and Sons, of Rochdale , exhibited
a machine fitted with a vertical and horizontal self
acting feed. The horizontaltransverse feed wasworked
by a cam and ratchet motion. The vertical or descend
ing feed was effected by means of a revolving screw ,
with a fixed bearing within the chisel bar, working
through a nut in the stud , by which the chisel bar was
driven. The screw was made to revolve by bevel gear
from the crank shaft , and descending through the nut,
carried the chisel bar with it, thus giving the descend
ing feed.
The machines shown by the French engineers con
trasted considerably with the English exhibits, being,
without exception, constructed on the rotary principle.
M . Périn , of Paris, exhibited a traversing mortising
machine. The mortise was formed by a traversing
rotary cutter , working from a horizontal spindle . The
cutter used for deep mortises was a kind of double
gouge, with cutting edges for penetration, and two
longitudinal cutting edges for traversing. For shallow
mortises a double cutter was used , fitted to a steel
spindle. On this spindle two helical threads were
cut, by which the chips were removed . The spindle
was fitted in a movable traversing frame, which car
 158
WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY .

27ICHARDS
MORTISING
P's28.-RFIGS
STEAM
BORING
,AND
MACHINE ATENT
STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES. 159
ried also a cutter for squaring out the ends of the
mortise.
MM . Bernier and Arbey, of Paris, showed a wooden
framed machine, in which the gouge or cutter, which
worked horizontally, was of somewhat peculiar form .
In appearance it was similar to an ordinary gouge,
with a web at its extremity, subtending the arc like a
segment of a circle ; it was found to penetrate well, and
readily cleaned itself. A double -ended square chisel,
squared at both edges, with two inclined surfaces meet
ing at the middle,was used for squaring the ends of the
mortises , which it did without reversing.
M . Zimmermann , of Chemnitz , exhibited a rotary
mortising machine, the cutter of which was traversed
by hand, but it possessed no special feature of novelty .
Following our Exhibition of 1862, improvements in
mortising machinery were made by Barton, McDowall,
Wilson, and others. In McDowall's machines a chisel
with a serrated back is used , by which plan the saving
of a considerable amount of time is claimed, and also
that the core is withdrawn at every stroke of the chisel,
and prevented from jamming itself into a compact mass,
which oftentimes bends or breaks the tool, and causes
considerable trouble in removal.
In 1872 Mr. J. Richards, of London, took out a
patent for an improved mortising and boring machine,
especially adapted for joiners' work. It is made by
Messrs. A . Ransome and Co., of London, and as it
contains some features of interest , and departs some
what from the beaten track, we illustrate it herewith
(figs. 27 and 28). The main framing is a hollow box
casting. The chisel bar or spindle is fitted in bearings
on the face of the main framing, and is driven by a
160 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

connecting rod from a crank, which , with its shaft , is

placed at the base of the machine, thus securing greater
freedom from vibration when running at high speeds.
The chisel bar reciprocates freely through the bearing
and grooved pulley, shown at the top of the machine,
but is prevented from revolving by means of a feather.
On the under side of the pulley are two stop pieces,
that come in contact with a rod. A gut band passes
round this pulley, over the idle pulley, and round the
crank or driving shaft at the base of the machine. This
band maintains a torsional strain on the chisel bar,
which , on the stop rod being drawn down, commences
to rotate ; but by releasing this rod the chisel bar is
allowed to make one half-rotation only , being brought
to a standstill by the two stop pieces before spoken of.
Thus the chisel is instantly reversed in either direc
tion . The table on which the wood to be mortised is
placed is raised or lowered by a foot lever, by which
method the chisel is enabled to enter the wood gradually
to the required depth , thus obviating the great jar
which occurs in machines in which the chisel is allowed
to have a positive stroke.. When the machine is work
ing in hard wood the boring spindle is used to form a
clearance before the mortising is commenced . This is
generally found unnecessary in soft wood. The table
carrying the wood can be set to angle for diagonal
mortises. The chisel is speeded to make 600 strokes
per minute — a rate very much in excess of that adopted
by most other makers. This machine has, on the
whole, much to comniend it, in generaldesign and handi
ness of details, and the work turned out is of superior
quality. This type of machine is, however, not new , as
a similar machine has been constructed for many years
STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES. 161
in America and elsewhere, differing only in minor
details. The workmanship exhibited in one of these
machines we have lately seen in operation was extremely
good .
In the Paris International Exhibition , 1878 , several
mortising machines were exhibited, but none possessing
any striking feature of novelty. Messrs. Robinson and
Son , of Rochdale, showed a compact little combined
rotary mortising and planing machine. The planing
table was arranged to rise and fall, and the wood was
passed over the cattling iron . For slot mortising the
wood was brought rapidly up to the cutter by a quick
threaded screw .
We noticed one English firm of some standing ex
hibited a mortising machine with a positive stroke
that is, the chisel is driven to the bottom of the
mortise at the first blow ,a plan in every way objection
able, but this may be cited as an example of the con
servatism that exists amongst some engineers even of
the present day. Messrs. Gibson , of Jonsered , Sweden ,
exhibited a machine constructed after the American, or
what is known as Guild 's patent.' In this class of
machine the chisel is stopped and started by a treadle
movement.

M
162 WOOD -WORKI MACHI .
NG NERY

CHAPTER XVII.
STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES

ALTHOUGH mortising machines may be classified under

two heads, reciprocating and rotary, these motions are
subjected to many modifications or arrangements
adapted to different or special classes of work. It was
the practice in this country for some years to construct
reciprocating machines with a positive blow - that is,
the chisel was allowed to plunge into the wood the full
depth of the mortise at the first stroke, thus, in hard
wood especially, causing an undue strain on the ma
chine, breakage to chisels, and other evils. This plan
has very generally been modified, or altogether aban
doned . For door sashes and such like lightwork,perhaps
the most simple and convenient form to construct a
machine is so to arrange the chisel bar that it has a
positive and continuous motion , and the wood that it
can , by the foot or other means, be raised gradually up
to receive the action of the chisel. By this plan the
chisel is allowed to enter the wood by degrees, working
deeper and deeper at each stroke, and the jar and
concussion before spoken of are done away with . It
also has the additional advantage of simplicity , and
can safely be driven at a higher rate of speed . The
table carrying the wood should be arranged to angle in
STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES. 163
either direction for bevel mortising, and to travel
laterally under the chisel - a rack and pinion is a con
venientmotion . For light mortising the wood is often
not clamped, but fed to the chisel by hand.
In some of the American mortising machines
which , on the whole, may be said to be in advance of
ours — we have seen a novel form of compound treadle
arranged to produce a varying throw of the table, as
the change of work or depth of mortise may render
necessary. An additional advantage in this treadle is
that, though the machine may be run at a high speed ,
little vibration is felt by the operator. In a large
number of the American machines the chisel bar is
arranged with a graduated stroke. This motion is
obtained by lengthening the connection from the
eccentric to the chisel bar, starting from a still point
above the extreme upper throw . This form , although
possessing several advantages for the heavier classes of
work , is considerably more complicated and less durable
than the machine in which the crank shaft has a fixed
position . In all machines a separate, vertical boring
spindle should be provided , of sufficient range to reach
the bottom of the deepest mortise. The centre of the
boring bit should be exactly in a line with the centre
of the chisel, so that after a clearance hole has been
bored in the wood, it has only to be moved laterally to
bring it directly under the chisel's action. In gradu
ated -stroke machines the table carrying the wood,
in addition to lateral and transverse adjustments ,
should be arranged to rise and fall to suit different
thicknesses.
For mortising wheel stocks a separate slide must be
provided , fitted with chucks or centres, to take the
2
164 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
place of the ordinary table , and the stock is held be
tween them . A dividing or index plate should be
attached to one of the centres, and so arranged that
any number of mortises can be cut in the stock without
the necessity of marking out. The length of the mor
tises can be regulated by stops or otherwise . As a
certain amount of angle, or dish ,' is required in these
mortises, the table carrying the centres must be
arranged to cant.
Another form of machine, of American origin , but
first made in this country some five-and-twenty years
ago, is arranged with the chisel bar, crank shaft and
its connections, fitted on a slide ; and they are all
brought down to the work by a connecting rod and
counter -weighted treadle, thus enabling the chisel to
enter the wood gradually . When the foot of the opera
tor is removed from the counter-weighted treadle , the
slide and chisel will rise from the work. This form of
machine can only be recommended for the lighter class
of mortising, as for the heaviest railway and other
work the vibration is found to be excessive.
Wehave seen somewell-arranged machines of this
class made by Messrs. C . B . Rogers and Co ., of Norwich ,
Conn ., U . S .A ., whose patent, we believe, it originally
was. Their method of reversing the chiseldeserves no
tice. When one end of a mortise is completed , the
operator removes his foot from the counter-weighted
treadle , the chisel slide rises, and the chisel is reversed
by a worm on the chisel bar ; it is then brought down
again into action, and the mortise is completed .
In mortising machines for the heaviest class of
work the boring spindle can with advantage, in addi
tion to its ordinary boring operations, be arranged for
STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES. 165
slot mortising. This can be secured by mounting the
spindle in a bracket sliding transversely on the face of
the main column of the machine, and motion can be
imparted to this bracket by an adjustable crank driven
from a countershaft.
Machines are sometimes constructed where the
stroke of the chisel is governed by a variable eccentric,
which increases or diminishes the throw in either direc
tion ; but, except for very special purposes, these, owing
to the increased vibration and consequent wear, cannot
be recommended.
Having discussed briefly the various fornis of mor
tising machines with a reciprocating motion , which , by
the way, must be considered by far the most important
class, we conclude our notice with a few remarks on
rotary machines. The principle of cutting mortises
with a rotary bit or cutter (invented and described by
Bentham , 1793) has the great advantage of simplicity,
but has the disadvantage of leaving the ends of the
mortise round and not square, as in the reciprocating
machines ; but when used for chair -maker's work ,
posts, & c., where a round -headed mortise is no detri
ment, it has many advantages. Amongst others it can
easily be applied and worked in conjunction with saw
benches,tenoning, and other machines possessing hori
zontal spindles running at a sufficiently high rate of
speed. For chair or other work where a large number
of duplicate pieces are required, it is much more expe
ditious than a machine with a reciprocating motion ,
and can readily be applied to either curved or straight
work. In saw benches and machines with spindles in
a fixed position the wood is usually cramped on a
slide, which receives a transverse motion from a hand
166 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

lever. It is fed forward to the mortising auger by a

hand wheel and screw , or other suitable means. This
slide or table is made to rise and fall, and is fitted with
adjustable stops, which accurately gauge the length
and depth of the mortise. This arrangement is found
very serviceable for many kinds of rough mortising,
such as posts for fencing, hurdles, & c.
Rotary or, as they are sometimes called , slot mor
tising machines are often used for mortising the heavier
class of railway-waggon and other work . The wood is
usually cramped firmly on a travelling carriage or bed
with a self-acting motion . The spindle carrying the
mortising auger is mounted in a slide having vertical
and transverse movements, and is brought to the work
by a lever. The depth of the mortise is regulated by
stops on the slide frame, and the length by stops on the
travelling carriage.
Some years back a Mr. Lemmans, an American,
designed and patented a very complete rotary mortising
and boring machine, especially adapted for chair work ,
either straight or curved . One end of the spindle car
rying the mortising auger moved in a ball-and - socket
joint, which allowed the spindle to revolve, and the
vibrating end to be moved in any desired direction . By
means of a curved bar upon which the movable end of
the boring spindle slides, either curved or straight
mortises could be produced. When the curved bar is
placed horizontally ,the mortises are straight, but when
inclined to the perpendicular they are curved. An ad
justable crank and connecting rod served to regulate
the traverse of the mortising auger. The table on
which the wood is cramped is moved by a lever and
rack and pinion , by which the depth of the mortise can
STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES. 167
be regulated ; and the table is also raised or lowered
by a hand wheel and screw , to suit the different positions
of the mortises. When a number of small mortises in
hard wood are required , mortising machines on the
rotary principle should be adopted, as being more ex
peditious and easier of management than the recipro
cating machines, as in these considerable inconvenience
is caused from the bending of narrow chisels, the diffi
culty of removing the core in deep mortises, & c .
A convenient form of machine for this class of work
is one in which the revolving auger is made to have a
traversing movement, by means of an adjustable crank,
the wood being stationary. By this plan no difficulty
is found in removing the core even from the deepest
mortises. Arrangements should be added to vary the
speed of the mortising auger , according to the nature
or quality of the wood being operated on .
For boring and mortising blind stiles, & c., Messrs.
J. A . Fay and Co., of Cincinnati, United States of Ame
rica , have introduced an ingenious machine. The stiles
are mortised or bored in pairs. The boring spindles
are worked by means of a cam , which , after each ope
ration is completed , returns to its original position ,
ready for the next pair of stiles. The depth of the
mortises is regulated by a vertical adjustment of the
spindles, and the distances between the mortises by a
rack to which the spindles are attached. They can be
cut at an angle, if desired. The stiles are held firmly
whilst being worked, but are released and fed forward
as required by a self-acting feed, which cramps them
again as before. In France the great majority of the
mortising machines are on the rotary principle ; a
simple hollow bit is used , and the round ends of the
168 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

mortise are afterwards squared by a double-faced chisel.

Machines adapted for boring only are constructed in
endless variety, according to the nature and quantity
of the work to be performed .
The operation of boring holes in wood by mechanical
means is doubtless very ancient, butwhen the first com
bination thatmay be dignified by the name of machine'
was first constructed we have no record to show . Sir
Samuel Bentham 's oft-quoted patent specification (1793)
contains a long description of tools and appliances for
boring wood , including most of the ordinary boring
tools now used. Before the introduction of iron pipes
for carrying water, wooden pipes were used, and these ,
it seems, were bored by machinery. Belidor speaks of
å machine for this purpose, where the tree to be bored
was securely fixed on a travelling carriage. A vertical
shaft, put in motion by a water wheel, is made to give
rotary motion to a horizontal shaft, carrying at its
extremity an auger. Motion was also given to a drag
wheel,the rope on which was attached to the travelling
carriage bearing the tree, so that as the borer cut its
way the travelling carriagewas gradually drawn towards
its work till the hole was cut through . The carriage
was now run back , and a larger auger introduced , till
the hole attained the requisite diameter. By another
plan the tree was made to revolve.
A Mr. Murdock, in 1810, took out a patent for an
improved machine for forming wooden or stone pipes.
For boring wood he employed a hollow cylinder , fitted
at its extremity with a circular trepanning saw . The
tree was placed vertically above the cylinder to admit
of the dust falling out of the saw kerf as the operation
proceeded . The boring cylinder was given a rotary
STEAM MORTISING AND BORING MACHINES. 169
motion by means of rope gear worked by manual labour,
and as the saw cut its way the core entered the hollow
of the cylinder whole, thus wasting little material.
The general form of machine at present in use is
too well known to need much description . For special
purposes, such as boring dowel holes in chair frames,
or where a large quantity of similar work has to be
performed, especial means must be adopted . For chair
work the writer can confidently recommend the follow
ing plan : - In a circular frame or pulley mount hori
zontally two or more boring spindles, in arms swinging
radially from a centre spindle . These arms must be
capable of being moved round , and fixed to any part of
the circumference of the circular frame, according to
the distance apart it is desired to bore the holes. A
sliding table, with vertical and transverse movements,
should be fitted horizontally beneath the boring bits,
to carry the wood . Stops to regulate the depths of the
holes can be fitted to the table, and the whole , with fast
and loose pulleys and countershaft, can be mounted on
à suitable column. Should it be required to bore the
holes at an upward or downward angle , the table can
be fitted with a radial adjustment. For general pur
poses what is known as the American screw auger is
the most expeditious and reliable form of boring bit to
use .
In designing mortising and boring machines with a
reciprocating movement it is important that the main
column should be of sufficient strength to overcome
the continuous vibration of the chisel. The hollow or
“ cored ' pattern column, with an extended base, is
undoubtedly the most satisfactory form . We need
hardly add that the workmanship must necessarily be
170 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
of the very best, this applying more especially to the
machines constructed with a graduated stroke, whose
reciprocating parts should combine, in the greatest
possible degree, lightness and strength . In the gra
duating movement each part should be bored, turned ,
and compensated , or this form of machine will be found
to deteriorate rapidly.
 171

CHAPTER XVIII.

TENONING MACHINES.
MORTISING and tenoning are so inseparably connected ,
as being together in fact the principal joint used in
wood -working, that, following mortising, we naturally
discuss tenoning machines. The invention of a system
or machine for cutting tenons otherwise than by hand
labour is generally attributed , and we believe correctly ,
to Sir Samuel Bentham , in 1793 ; at any rate , there is
no doubt that he was the inventor of the principle of
rotary cutters for working wood, and that about this
time machines for forming tenons were made and sup
plied to theGovernment of this country . There is not,
however, as far as we are aware, any record of the
system pursued , or whether the tenons were formed
with saws or cutters. Tenons were formerly cut by
hand , with what is known as a tenon saw ; a plan of
cutting them with an arrangement of reciprocating
chisels seems to have been tried also , and abandoned ,
as slow and uncertain . The machines at present in
use may be divided into three classes, as follows :
(1) Machines which form the tenons with cutters
running parallel or vertical, and working across orwith
the grain of the wood . (2) Machines which form the
tenons by an arrangement of saws. (3 ) Machines in
172 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

which the wood to be tenoned is held vertically, and

passed between circular cutter discs or saws. These
three principles are, however, often combined or modi
fied , to suit special requirements.
Class No. 1 , with cutters working parallel and
across the grain of the wood , is the most simple and
generally adopted system for all ordinary classes of
work . In these machines two or more cutter-block
spindles, revolving at a high speed , are mounted in
sliding brackets, having vertical screw adjustments,
which can be worked either independently or simulta
neously , upon the face of an upright column. Some
times the upper cutter -block spindle is furnished with
a lateral moveinent in addition, to enable it to cut one
shoulder of a tenon longer than the other , if wished .
The wood to be tenoned is cramped on a travelling
table having a transverse movement, but working
parallel to the centre of rotation of the cutter blocks.
This travelling table is usually mounted on friction
pulleys, running in V - shaped guides, and, except in the
heaviest machines, which are fitted with a self-acting
motion , is traversed to and fro by hard . The adze
irons or cutters are flat, and are arranged at an angle
on the blocks which gives a kind of shearing cut ; seg
ments of saws or lancets are fitted at right angles to
the block , for cutting the shoulders of the tenon. For
cutting double tenons a vertical spindle, fitted with a
* drunken ’ saw or cutter disc , is provided ; for scribing
the shoulders, in lieu of the saw , a suitable cutter
disc or block is substituted . The cutter-block spindles
are driven by an in -and -out' belt, which passes over
an idle tightening pulley, which can be adjusted to any
required degree of tension by means of a pulley and
 TENONING MACHINES. 173

weighted rope or hand wheel and screw , thus securing

a constant and uniform grip of the belt.
For the heaviest class of work , such as is used in
the construction of railway waggons, & c., which is
sometimes too heavy to be traversed readily past the
cutter blocks, a plan often pursued is to mount on a
vertical spindle three movable cutter blocks, which can
be adjusted to cut single or double.tenons of any size .
This cutter spindle is mounted on a travelling carriage,
and is made to traverse past the end of the timber
to be tenoned , which is carried on a suitable table ,
attached to the main frame of the machine. The
timber, when under the action of the cutters, is cramped
tightly against a fence, which is arranged to cant for
cutting diagonal tenons.
After hand labour the first mechanical method
adopted in forming tenons was by an arrangement of
circular saws, working at right angles to one another
(Class 2), those running parallel to the grain of the
wood cutting the sides, and those at right angles the
shoulders, of the tenon . The two saws cutting the
sides of the tenon are of the same diameter and
mounted on the same spindle, a collar being placed
between them to regulate the thickness of the tenon ;
the saws forming the shoulders aremounted on separate
spindles, running at right angles to the above. This
method of cutting tenons has, however, almost entirely
given way in favour of the rotary -cutter system , which
produces a higher class of work at a greater speed,
and is much easier of adjustment for special purposes.
For cutting simple tenons on a rising spindle saw -bench
it is, however, of value, and some French engineers
even now construct machines on this system ; but for
174 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY .

what reason this conservatism exists we are at a loss

to see. For cutting round or oval tenons, such as are
used for the spokes of wheels, blind slats, & c., the plan
adopted in America is to carry the cutter head round
the piece to be tenoned, or to make it rotate against a
revolving cutter-block. Tenoning machines, working
with rotary cutters, similar to those now in use, were
first made in America — at any rate, in any numbers
by the late Mr. J. A . Fay - originator of thewell-known
firm of that name now trading at Cincinnati, U .S .A .
in the year 1840, or thereabouts. The framings of
these machines were of wood ; they were well designed
and constructed, had most of the adjustments as now
in use, and are reported to have turned out a large
amount of excellent work ; in fact, it may be said that
of all the wood -working machines these, since their
first introduction , have received less alteration in their
general design and functions than any other. Ofcourse
various minor modifications and improvements have
been introduced from time to time, as experience or
necessity has dictated ; but the inventor or designer of
a machine for so important an operation in wood -work
ing as tenoning, that has stood the test of a long
series of years without any important alteration, must
have been a man of no mean talent, especially when we
consider the many thousands of machines that have
during these years been constructed on this principle .
One of these wooden -framed machines was shown
in London , at our International Exhibition of 1851 ;
it was copied by several English firms, and has been
manufactured extensively ever since.
In our International Exhibition of 1862 several
tenoning machines were exhibited, but none possessing
 TENONING MACHINES. 175

any special feature of novelty. A heavy tenoning ma

chine shown by Powis, James, and Co., London , was
fitted with a self-acting table, which , after the tenon
was formed, was, by means of a clutch coupling, re
versed at double speed . In the inachine exhibited by
Robinson and Son, of Rochdale , the cutters were twisted
obliquely, and so screwed to the block.
MM . Bernier and Arbey, Paris, showed a machine
in which the cutters revolved at right angles to the
wood , and with the grain — the reverse of the general
English method , which works across the grain .
About the year 1866 Powis, James , and Co.,
of London , introduced an improved tenoning and
cross-cutting machine, especially adapted for cutting
single or double tenons on the diagonals, sides, and
bearers of railway waggons, and similar work . The
table carrying the timber had a self-acting traverse
motion, and was constructed to carry four waggon sole
plates at once. It was also arranged with a circular
swivelling motion , so that when the one end of the
timber had passed through the cutters, the table was
swivelled round , and the other end subjected to the
same operation on its return motion . A circular cross
cutting saw wasmounted on a slide, fitted to a separate
column on the bed plate of themachine. This saw was
arranged to cross-cut the pieces of timber being te
noned, thus bringing them all to one uniform length .
A few years since C. B. Rogers and Co., of Nor
wich, U .S . A., patented some improvements in tenoning
machines , consisting chiefly of a novel form of adjust
ing screws for regulating the cutter blocks and the
thickness of the tenon. This screw is made hollow ,
and worked through a lock nut at the top of the main
176 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
column ; it is attached to the top cutter -block sliding
brackets , and is operated by a hand wheel. Inside the
hollow screw is fitted another small screw , which is
worked by a crank handle above the hand wheel before
spoken of; this smaller screw passes through a lock
nut in the bottom cutter -block bracket. By moving
the crank handle the lower cutter block is moved, and
the space between the blocks is adjusted to suit the
thickness of tenon ; the bottom lock -nut now fastens
it in position . By moving the hand wheel and hollow
screw , both cutter blocks are moved at once , and can be
adjusted to any desired height above the table carrying
the wood ; they are then fixed firmly in their position
by means of the top lock -nut. If the two lock nuts
are slackened , and the hand wheel turned , the upper
cutter-block alone moves. The vertical scribing- spindle
block, or “ cope head, as it is called in America , moves
with the horizontal cutter-blocks ; but it can be ad
justed separately , if desired. The upper cutter -block
slide has lateral adjustment for tenons with varying
shoulders, and a pulley and weight are arranged to
take up automatically the slack of the driving belt.
An apparatus for setting the knives is also provided ,
and altogether this machine is of an advanced type,
and has much to commend it in its general details and
convenience for working and adjusting.
Amongst the tenoning machines adapted for special
purposes may be mentioned the American blind slat
machine, patented by a Mr. Ellis. It is constructed to
cut the cylindrical tenons and shoulders on both ends
of a blind slat at the same time. Two sets of small
circular saws are mounted on spindles running in
brackets, each having lateral adjustment. Fitted to
 TENONING MACHINES. 177

these brackets are two revolving disc guides, slotted

through their sides to receive the blind slats and feed
them to the saws. The slat being made to revolve,
the periphery of the saw always cuts from the edge of
the slat to the centre, thus forming a cylindrical tenon .
It is adjustable to different lengths and widths of slats ,
and the size of the tenon can be also varied . The slats
are fed by hand . For the same purpose Messrs. J. A .
Fay and Co., of Cincinnati, make a very complete
machine, with a self-acting feed ; it is a combination
of the patents of Ellis and Bickford. By an arrange
ment of the saws, two tenons are cut and divided at
one operation . A pressure on a treadle causes the slat
which is fed end -ways through rotating discs or chucks
-- to revolve, and carries it to the saws ; by releasing
the treadle, the slat is stopped and fed to a gauge, and
the driving belt is slackened , so as to slip and not drive.
The plan of cutting tenons with circular saws or discs
is generally confined in this country to circular saw
benches, or the class of combination machines known
as general joiners.
In designing tenoning machines with rotary cutters,
care should be taken that the main column is of suffi
cient strength to overcome the vibration of the cutter
blocks; a hollow or cored pattern is the best form .
The table carrying the wood should also be cast in one
piece, and both column and table fixed securely to a
strong foundation -plate. The cutter blocks and bear
ings should have lateral and vertical adjustment; they
can be fixed in dovetail slides, and adjusted laterally by
a hand wheel and screw ; these slides should be scaled ,
so that shoulders of unequal length can be cut to any
desired gauge. The adze blocks should never be shifted
 178 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

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FIG . 29. — SINGLE AND DOUBLE TENON CUTTING MACHINE

 TENONING MACHINES. 179
on their spindles to effect this object, as the practice is
both dangerous and uncertain . The scribing spindles
for cutting double tenons, & c., should have both lateral
and vertical adjustment. The cutters used should be
of thin section , and fixed at an acute angle. We have
found cutters with a steel face and wrought- iron back
the most suitable, and less liable to accident. The
carriage carrying the wood,which is traversed by hand ,
should be very light, and run on grooved rollers work
ing on V -shaped guides. It should be fitted with a
straight fence bar, and a quadrant for bevelled shoulders,
both accurately scaled. A sliding stop for setting out
lengths should also be provided, with a suitable cramp,
fitted with a quick -threaded screw for holding down the
wood. As the cutter-block spindles and bearings are
mademovable , a complete and uniform grip of the inter
laced driving-belt must be secured ; a grooved pulley,
with rope and weight, as it works automatically , is per
haps the most convenient and simple arrangement, and
is generally to be found on themost advanced type of
American machines; on these machines, too, an appa
ratus is provided for setting the knives. The driving
pulleys and belt should be madewider than is the prac
tice on most machines, as the cut taken is considerable .
We have found the belts known as “ Helvetia leather '
are the best for this purpose, as they are tanned some
what rough on the surface, are very pliable, and grip
the face of the pulleys well. The spindles should be of
steel, the bearings adjustable , and made of a hard gun
metal or phosphor bronze, and care should be taken as
to their lubrication.
Our illustration (fig. 29) represents an improved
tenoning machine, especially adapted for the class of
N 2
180 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

work required by builders , joiners, pianoforte makers,

cabinetmakers, & c . It will, in addition to cutting
tenons up to 6 inches in thickness by 22 inches wide,
accomplish the most delicate work required by cabinet
and pianoforte makers. The top cutter-spindle and
bearings are adjustable laterally in a dovetail slide, by
means of a screw obviating the uncertain method of
shifting the adze block on its spindle , for cutting tenons
with shoulders of unequal length. The fence bar and
quadrant for bevelled shoulders are accurately scaled .
The machine and countershaft are self-contained, and
carried on a strong iron bed -plate, cast in one piece .
A ‘ drunken ' saw is fitted on a vertical spindle at the
back of the machine , for forming double tenons. The
cutter spindles are of steel, and the bearings of phos
phor bronze.
 181

CHAPTER XIX.
GENERAL JOINERS ' AND COMBINATION MACHINES.

The combining of the functions of several machines

into one, under the title of general or universal
joiners,' is of comparatively modern origin , and is more
or less confined to this country , as we find very few
machines of this class in use in America or on the
Continent, although it is doubtless preferable, where
the machines can be fully and constantly employed ,
that they should be separate and distinct ; but as a
large number of the building establishments in this
country are not of sufficient extent to so profitably
employ them , a well -designed combined machine, per
forming a considerable range of work , and produced in
the first instance at a moderate cost, cannot but be of
considerable value. On the first introduction of general
joiners ' they were very generally condemned, it being
held that it was impossible to combine satisfactorily in
one machine so great a rangeof work. This idea has now ,
however, been sufficiently disproved, although a large
number of engineering abortions tended for some time to
throw discredit on these very useful machines ; we re
member one production especially ,made some years back
by a firm of repute. In this combination no less than
five distinct machines were crowded together on one bed
182 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

plate. As these necessarily ran at short centres, were

inconvenient to work , and cost nearly as much as
separate machines,we can hardly see what can be urged
in their favour. Weneed hardly remark that very few ,
if any, were made after the first one. We believe the
first general joiner ' was designed by a Mr. Whines, in
the year 1858 , and was made by the firm of Samuel
Worssam and Co., of London, who exhibited one of
them in the International Exhibition of 1862; it has,
however, since then been much improved by various
makers, and the range of its work extended . About
this date also a Mr. Sketchley, of Weymouth , designed
a light machine of a similar class, but they were not
made in any great numbers. Mr. Thomas Ladyman ,
of Rochdale, a few years since patented a compact little
machine, fitted to a “ cored ' pattern framing. Two
tables are arranged to rise and fall independently, the
one being adapted for moulding and sawing, and the
other for boring and slot-mortising . The saw table is
arranged with a false top and stop piece for cross
cutting and for boring endways. A slide is also fitted
for turning circular mouldings , as in a lathe. The
machine has four speeds, ranging from 488 to 2 ,250
revolutions per minute, according to the work to be
performed. In the year 1867 Mr. S . Worssam , of
London, patented an improved general joiner. The
improvements consisted, firstly, in the application to
such machines of an apparatus whereby tenons may be
completely cut in one traverse of the wood, and also the
application to such machines of an arrangement for
producing larger and more perfect mouldings, and an
improved arrangement for squaring out the end of
mortises left of semicircular form . This machine, with
 "GENERAL JOINERS, ETC. 183

its various appliances, is capable of performing nearly

the whole of the operations required in a joiner's shop.
including sawing, planing, moulding, tenoning,mortis
ing, boring, mitring, chamfering, beading, rebating,
grooving, tonguing, & c . All these operations are per
formed independently of each other, or in conjunction .
The planing and moulding are performed by rotary
cutters, a self-acting roller feed carrying the wood
beneath the cutters. The speed of this feed can be
graduated to suit the nature of the wood being operated
on . Tenons are formed either with circular saws or
rotary cutters, as may be desired. The wood is held in
a vertical position by a suitable cramp. The mortising
is performed by a rotary auger, thewood being traversed
up to it by a hand lever ; the lengths and depths of the
mortise are regulated by stops. Curved mouldings are
worked on a separate vertical spindle . A traversing
plate for cross -cutting, squaring, mitring, & c., is fitted
to the saw table, and altogether this machine must be
pronounced one of the most efficient of its class. We
illustrate it (figs. 30 and 31) .
Messrs. A . Ransome and Co., of London, also intro
duced, a few years ago, an improved general joiner.
In this machine the saw and spindle are distinct from
those carrying the moulding and planing blocks. The
tenoning operation is performed by cutters, which has
the advantage of accuracy ; for cutting tenons with
shoulders of unequal length, it is necessary to alter the
position of one of the cutter blocks on its spindle ; this
plan can hardly be approved of, as it is both dangerous
and uncertain . Double tenons are formed , and the
shoulders scribed by means of cutter discs fitted to a
vertical spindle . The top and bottom cutter -block
184 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
spindles for planing and moulding are fitted with bear
ingsat either end of the block ,which ensures steadiness,
and is in favourable contrast to the overhanging blocks
sometimes introduced, which , except for small, light
work, must be condemned . The wood is fed by a pair
of revolving rollers, the top one of which is arranged to
' give ' to any unevenness in the timber; both rollers
are driven , which increases the feeding power. The
details of this machine are well apportioned , and the
framing and general arrangement is good .
Amongst combination machines, although differing
essentially from the Englislı general joiners, must be
mentioned the American machine known as Climer
and Riley's patent universal wood -worker. It par
takes chiefly of the character of an outside cutter,
moulding and planing machine, with extended spindles
and cutter blocks, with two tables arranged with vertical
and lateral adjustments on either side of the machine.
The frame of the machine is cast in one piece, and the
main cutter-block spindle is fitted with outside inovable
self-oiling bearings, and divided in the centre so that by
meansof a double friction pulleyon the countershaft which
carries two belts the ends of the spindlemay be started or
stopped separately orsimultaneously ,asmay be required .
The machine is arranged to operate on four sides of the
wood at once, and the vertical side-spindles have vertical
and lateral adjustments. The top cutter-block is ar
ranged to be set to different angles,and allcutter blocks
are made movable, and can be replaced by tenoning,
rebating , panel-raising , matching, grooving, or other
irons,according to the work to be performed. A ripping
or cross -cutting saw can also be substituted for the
cutter block , which, with the aid of an adjustable fence ,
converts the one side of the machine into a saw bench
 "GENERAL JOINERS, ETC. 185
It is also arranged for boring and slot-mortising, wave
and circular moulding. The whole of these operations
can be performed by one horizontal spindle, with
different arrangement of tables, cutter blocks, or fences,
according to the work to be carried out.
In designing a general joiner or other combination
machine, the great point to aim at is simplicity of the
mechanical arrangements, combined with ready adapta
bility to the various work to be performed , the whole
being under the easy control of the operator . Mistakes
have often been made in constructing the general details
of too complicated a character, so that even when
efficiency of production is attained it is more or less
neutralised by the first cost, cost of working, keeping
in repair , and the amount of skill required to operate .
Some designers also strive to give their productions too
wide a field of operation , losing sight of the fact that a
moderate range of work , rapidly and accurately per
formed, must be held to be in every way better, and
commercially more economical, than a greater variety
of work indifferently turned out. By some engineers
various appliances for joinery purposes have been added
to the ordinary rising-spindle circular-saw bench. The
planing is generally performed by means of a cast-iron
disc , fitted with suitable cutters, which project slightly
beyond the face of the disc. This disc takes the place
of the circular saw, and the wood is fed by hand between
its face and that of the fence plate . For squaring up
and rough planing, this plan may be of some value,
but for a finer class of work it cannot be recommended .
Considerable skill and care is also necessary in operat
ing,as the cutters require to be very finely sharpened and
adjusted, or the work turned out is of a very inferior
quality.
 RY
186 WOOD -WORKING MACHINE .

CHAPTER XX.
DOVE- TAILING MACHINES.

The important operation in joinery known as “ dove-tail

jointing ' has for many years afforded ample scope for
inventive genius. Numerous attempts to perform this
operation by mechanical means have been made, but,
with one or two exceptions, with scanty success. Dove
tailing with conical cutters was invented by Sir Samuel
Bentham in 1793. Since that time numbers of ma
chines have been introduced, but most of them have
failed, either from inequality of wear in the cutters pro
ducing misfits in the wooden joint, from complexity
of the details of the machine, difficulty of adjustment,
or roughness of the work turned out.
About the year 1856 a Mr. Wimshurst took out a
patent for dove-tailing with a series of cutters, the wood
being brought up to the cutters from below . About the
same time, too, a Mr. Burley took out a patent for a
machine for cutting dove-tails by means of a series of
reciprocating chisels, the wood being fixed on an ad
justable bed , which could be inclined in either direction .
The dove-tail ‘ pin 'was formed in two cuts, the adjust
able bed being inclined in the opposite direction after
each cut was made. The dove-tails ' were formed by
a series of saws of varying diameters, the smaller saws
KA
 DOVE-TAILING MACHINES. 187

being placed at either end and revolving on the same

axis ; two tables, set at an angle to each other and
below the saws, carried the wood . These tables were
arranged with a vertical motion , and the wood was
brought up to the saws, which made an oblique cut ; the
wood was then placed on the opposite table , and a
second oblique cut completed the dove- tail,' the depth
of which was regulated by stops.
One of the most complete machines at present in use,
and one that has stood the test of time, was invented
and patented by Mr. S . T . Armstrong, of New York ,
about the year 1866 . It is manufactured in this country
by Messrs. Robinson and Sons, of Rochdale, and we
illustrate it (fig . 32). The design and mode of action are
exceedingly novel, and differ essentially from anything
that has preceded or followed them . Its action may
briefly be described as follows, but cannot be fully ex
plained without lettered drawings : - -Two circular saws
or discs are mounted to run loosely on two short pins ;
they are inclined to one another, at the same angle as
the two sides of the dove- tail pins. These circular saws
are geared together by two bevel-toothed rings, fitted
upon their adjacent faces. Motion is given to them by
bevel gearing working into a bevel ring fitted to the
outer face of one of them .
By suitable gearing the inclination of these saw
discs can be changed from vertical to horizontal, and
arranged to cut the pins ' or 'dove-tails ' as required .
The table carrying the wood is made self-feeding, and
placed radially to the saws, and the cuts are made at
right angles to the wood. The action of themachine,
although extremely ingenious, is somewhat complex,
and I cannot do better than refer those of my readers
188 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
who wish thoroughly to understand its mechanism to
the original patent specification . .
Some fourteen years since Messrs. Greenwood and
Batley, of Leeds, introduced a dove-tailing machine of
American origin , which was arranged to work either by
hand or steam power. The dove-tails were formed by a
series of cutters or gouges, acting consecutively, each
taking a small cut ; these cutters were held in stocks,
and were mounted in a movable slide, and traversed to
the wood by a rack and pinion ; no less than fourteen
cutters were employed in this machine to make a perfect
dove- tail.
In the Paris International Exhibition in 1867 M .
Zimmermann, of Chemnitz, showed a dove-tailing ma
chine consisting of three horizontal adjustable spindles
mounted with cutters suitable to the dove-tail required .
The wood was fixed in a vertical slide, and the counter
part cut by means of plain revolving discs, the table
being arranged to angle in either direction to produce
on the wood the proper degree of bevel.
In the year 1872 Mr. Tighe Hamilton , of Dublin ,
patented a series of improvements in machinery for
cutting dove- tails . We illustrate in figs. 33 and 34
machines of recent construction .
These improvements, or we might more properly
say inventions, possess very considerable originality of
ideas. The dove-tails and pins are cut bymeans of the
peculiar motion imparted to an ordinary circular saw .
The saw is mounted on a spindle, part of which is bent
at a such a degree of obliquity to its central line as is
necessary to produce the angle of the dove -tails. This
spindle is free to reciprocate as it rotates, and the saw
swings to and fro in planes passing through a vertical
Will
MIN

HUML ULIMWI
GS
IULUI
 DOVE - TAILING MACHINES. 189

diameter for cutting the tails, or through a horizontal

diameter for cutting the pins. Any sized dove- tails can
be cut, this being effected by causing the planes of the
saw to intersect in other lines those that pass through
the centre of the spindle . Fig . 34 represents a front
view of a machine, in which the traverse of the head
which carries the saw is horizontal, whilst that of the
table which carries the boards is vertical. In fig . 33
these motions are reversed , that of the head being
vertical and the table horizontal. The plane of the
saw is kept in any desired position by means of an
adjustable guide plate. The machines under notice
are constructed on truly scientific principles, are easy
of management, and possess less of complication than
others of the same class , and , from their readiness of
adaptation to varying sizes, spaces, and thicknesses of
dove-tails, should be of especial value in cabinet work ,
in which the changes are often numerous.
Amongst numerous other machines designed to cut
* dove-tails ' by means of conical cutters may be men
tioned one designed by Mr. Ramsbottom , late of Crewe.
In this machine the cutter spindle is arranged to re
volve in a long cast- iron socket. This socket works in
a slide fitted to a circular plate, attached to the main
frame of the machine. The circular plate is arranged
so as to be at right angles to the table while cutting
the dove-tail, and can be set to any desired angle for
cutting the pins. The cutter slide is brought to its
work by a counterbalanced treadle , and by means of
change wheels dove- tails of various sizes can be cut.
Some years back a Mr. Evart patented in America a
conical cutter machine carrying a number of cutter
spindles driven by an interlaced belt. These spindles
190 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
were mounted in a frame having vertical and diagonal
movements, and were brought down to the work by a
hand lever. The great objection to this and other
conical cutter machines , especially when carrying a
number of spindles, is the extremedifficulty of keeping
the various cutters to one size ,which, in actual practice ,
is found to be almost an impossibility , the result being
that the pins and dove- tails produced are misfits. A
machine, however, exhibited by Messrs. J. A . Fay and
Co., of Cincinnati, U . S . A ., at the Paris Exhibition,
1878, claims to have got over this difficulty . It was
patented by a Mr. Stengel early in 1878 ; it is simple
in its construction , and will cut a dove-tail in any kind
of wood up to 14 inch by 14 inches wide, cutting both
side and front at the same time. The cutter-spindle
frames are stationary ; the spindles revolve at high
speeds, and can be adjusted laterally , to suit the depth
of cut. The cutters are simple, are turned in a lathe,
and always sharpened from the centre. Provision is
also made for adjusting them , to compensate for any
inequality of wear. A countershaft, fitted with cone
pulleys fixed underneath the machine, drives the cutter
spindles . The wood is fixed on a vertical and hori
zontal plate, and held fast by camb rollers. The ' pin '
is cut on thehorizontal table , and the ' dove- tail ' on the
vertical table. A hand lever moved up and down per
forms the operation , a slide moving forward at each
alternate motion of the lever. The guides are so con
structed that after being started it cannot be moved
backwards at all, nor forward more than the distance
arranged. If this machine proves itself capable of
standing constant and heavy work , it is a tool that is
much needed by cabinetmakers and others who require a
 DOVE-TAILING MACHINES. 191
machine that is moderate in first cost and easily ad
justable to cut dove-tails of varying sizes and pitches.
In 1873 Mr. Thomas Hall, of Northampton , U . S. A .,
patented an improved dove-tail joint, with machinery
for making the same. In 1867 a Mr. Ganz patented
an improved method of dove- tailing. The invention
consists in operating simultaneously upon the two
boards to be dove-tailed together, and in producing
the ' pin ' and ' dove-tail ' by the same action of one set
of cutters. In this machine two discs, fitted with plain
cutters, are mounted on separate spindles, but are
geared together by bevel wheels, so as to revolve in
two planes of the same angle as the dove- tails intended
to be cut. The wood is placed on a travelling slide.
working on a horizontal bed.
192 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER XXI.
VENEER -CUTTING MACHINES .

As the supply of valuable timber becomes more and

more exhausted so will the practice of covering the face
of common wood with an ornamental veneer of other
woods increase. The machines for cutting veneers may
be divided into two classes - sawingand slicing. Sawing
veneers has the advantage of preserving intact the
grain and colour of the wood, but it has the disad
vantage of cutting a considerable amount of timber to
waste. The slicing process, however, is perhaps more
generally in use. The wood to be cut is first steamed
and then cramped in a frame, and operated on by a
knife with a horizontal reciprocating motion , running
obliquely across the wood. Before the introduction of
a machine for the purpose, veneers were cut by hand,
the wood being secured in a screw press arranged for
that purpose.
Bentham , in his patent of 1793, claims the cutting
of thin veneers or scales by means of knives from blocks
of wood previously steamed , and fully describes the
process in his specification. In the commencement of
this century Brunel took out a patent (1805 ) for a
The steaming process, however, damages considerably the colour
of some woods, and allows the glue to penetrate.
 VENEER-CUTTING MACHINES. 193
circular saw for cutting veneers, and since that date
considerable attention has been given by engineers to
the subject.
For cutting veneers Brunel employed a large cir
cular saw , built up in segments and screwed on to a
turned disc or flange ; the holes through which the
screws passed weremade oblong,to admitof adjustment.
When the segments were fastened to the disc , a layer
of leather or paper was placed on the top of them , over
which another disc was fitted , and the whole screwed
up tight with bolts and nuts. These saws are so ar
ranged that the bottom of their periphery is below the
lower edge of the timber to be cut, which is fed forward
by a rack movement.
Veneers seem to have been sliced by machinery in
Russia some fifty years or more back , as Mr. Peter
Barlow ,in his treatise on ‘Manufactures and Machinery
in Great Britain ,' 1836 , mentions a process for cutting
veneers with a knife as follows :
The operation is begun by placing the timber from
which the leaf is to be cut upon a square axle , when it
is revolved and made circular by a turner 's gouge. The
blade of a plane of highly tempered steel, and rather
longer than the cylinder, is fixed at the extremity of a
frame of 6 or 7 feet in length, in such a manner as to
exert a constant pressure upon the cylinder, and pare
off a sheet of an equal thickness, which folds upon
another cylinder like a roll of linen . The frame to
which the blade is attached is movable at its lower ex
tremity, and as it is charged it depresses in proportion
as the mass diminishes in substance . That this de
pression may be progressive and perfectly regular, the
inventor has appended a regulator to the machine, con
O
194 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

sisting of a flat brass plate , preserved in an inclined

direction, upon which the frame descends as the regu
lator itself is advanced. The motion is communicated
to the cylinder by several cog wheels, which are turned
by a crank .
In the year 1831 Mr. Alexander Craig , of St. Ber
nards, Midlothian , took out a patent for certain im
provements in machinery for cutting timber into veneers
or other useful forms. In one of these improvements
Mr. Craig employed a circular saw , the operation of
which is described by Hebert as follows: — The saw is
made to traverse the whole length of the veneer to be
cut, while it revolves on its axis in the usual way. It
is made to traverse by means of a crank having a radius
equal to half the length of the intended veneer, and a
connecting rod of length sufficient to prevent too much
obliquity of motion by carrying the band round a pul
ley stationed at a small distance, beyond the greatest
distance of the saw from its driving drum . Though we
have mentioned but one saw , there are a series of them
attached to the saw frame, and put in motion by the
same band, which is pressed down by an adjusting pul
ley between each pair of saws, that it may turn them
with more certainty, by embracing a larger portion of
the circumference of the riggers fixed on their axes.
The log of wood from which the veneer is to be cut is
suspended between centres similar to those of a turning
lathe, so that it may be cut into one continuous veneer.
It is evident that to produce an uniform motion in that
part of the log in contact with the saws is necessary to
its perfect action ; and this the patentee has effected in
a very ingenious manner. He puts into slow motion,
by a species of gearing known by the name of the end
 VENEER-CUTTING MACHINES. 195
less screw , a shaft having on its extremity a metallic
cylinder, with a surface roughed in a manner similar to
the surface of a rasp ; and this cylinder, being pressed
against the circumference of the log , will cause it to
revolve at the same speed, whatever be its diameter.
The specification is concluded by a description of an
arrangement by which the saws are made to cut beyond
their centres in a stationary log.
This is effected by attaching them on axes which do
not project beyond the surfaces next, the log. To the
frame carrying these saws a descending as well as an
alternating motion is given ; and the veneer being, by
a guide plate , made to fold back under the saws, it is
clear that they will with facility cut to any required
depth, without reference to their diameters.
About the year 1847 very considerable improve
ments in the method of cutting and laying veneerswere
introduced in America by Belter , a German cabinet
maker, whereby the variety and beauty of the work was
much enhanced. Some years later a patent was ob
tained in this country by a Mr. Meadows for an im
proved method of bending veneers around sharp angles,
such as those in mouldings.
Some few years since Mr. L . R . Hawes, of the United
States, patented several improvements in machinery for
veneer-cutting . The knife which cuts the veneer, con
trary to the general practice, is made stationary, and
the wood cramped in a sliding frame, which is arranged
with a vertical reciprocating motion , oscillating slightly
longitudinally at the same time, which is found to give
a cleanness to the cut. A veneer is cut at each down
ward stroke of the knife , which is then drawn clear of
the wood during its upward stroke, when it resumes its
 G ERY
196 WOOD -WORKIN MACHIN .

original position for another cut. All these motions

are self-acting , and it is calculated to cut from 40 to
60 square feet per minute in almost any kind of wood
usually employed for veneering. Some users prefer
veneers cut round the annular -growth rings of the tim
ber instead of across. In this case the wood is steamed
in the usual way, and made to revolve between centres ;
an extremely sharp knife is brought to bear on its face,
thus obtaining wide and uniform veneers from small
timber. In practice, however, it is found that some
kinds of wood will not readily submit to this process
without splitting, but with those that can be thus
worked it possesses some advantages, as the figure of
the wood is more entirely retained .
Veneers, too, are sometimes cut by a horizontalsaw
with a reciprocating motion. A single straight saw
of very thin gauge and finely -set teeth is employed ; it
is tightly strung in a light swing frame, and sharpened
to cut in both directions of the traverse. The wood is
fixed in a slide which feeds vertically to the saw , and
has a lateral movement to suit different thicknesses of
cut.
In France veneers are very generally steamed and
sliced by a sliding block and knife.
Operating as they do on very valuable woods, espe
cial care should be taken in the design and exact con
struction of veneer-cutting machines, or considerable
loss will be the result from inferior production . If a
circular saw is employed, the disc should be balanced
to a nicety, or the saw will not cut true, and the veneers
will be of uneven thickness ; the bearings too will
rapidly deteriorate.
In slicing machines a back iron should always be
 VENEER-CUTTING MACHINES. 197
fitted to the knife, which in large blocks should ope
rate obliquely to the grain of the wood , and be so
arranged that the whole length of the knife does not
strike the wood at the samemoment, as the shock thus
occasioned is often considerable and the veneers cut
are more liable to split.
198 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY .

CHAPTER XXII.
WHEEL AND CARRIAGE MAKING MACHINERY.

In the manufacture of wheels and carriages on a large

scale several special machines are necessary, in addition
to modifications of some of those we have already
noticed . Amongst these may be mentioned the spoke
turning or dressing machine, spoke-driving machine,
felloe-shapingmachine, spoke-tanging and felloe-boring
machine, wheel-facing machine, & c.; our space, how
ever, will only permit us to give a brief résumé of some
of the principal machines.
The principle of most of the machines now in use
for turning or dressing irregular shapes, such as spokes ,
hammer handles, lasts, gun stocks, is contained in
Boyd 's patent, dated 1822. He claims in this patent
the use of a model or dummy in conjunction with a
blank of wood or other material, the outline of the
model guiding the cutting tool to produce a duplicate
from the blank. A shoe last is shown in the patent
specification as illustrating the principle claimed.
From this machine, or, more correctly speaking, from
this principle, numerous machines for analogous pur
poses have since that date been from time to time
brought out.
Some five -and -twenty years ago a machine for
WHEEL AND CARRIAGE MAKING MACHINERY. 199

dressing spokes, & c., with the grain of the wood was
patented by a Mr. Hughes ; the spoke was fixed on a
table , which was traversed beneath the cutter by means
of a rack and pinion. The cutter -block spindle was
made hollow , and arranged so as to allow the cutters
to traverse to or from one another as they were acted
on by a model spoke, and the frame carrying the
cutter block was pivoted on one side, which allowed it
to rise or fall as desired .
In the year 1845 a machine for carving and copy
ing irregular forms was introduced by Mr. Jordan , of
London . In his machine the wood to be shaped and the
model or 'dummy ' are fixed on a horizontal table,
running on wheels transversely on another table or
frame, which was arranged to move in a longitudinal
direction, so that by the straight-line movement in two
directions the table could be made to have a motion in
every part of its own plane. The model and wood to
be shaped were made to swivel on centres, and so ar
ranged that by means of a lever they could be turned
simultaneously on their axes. The cutters were carried
on a vertical slide,and made some 5 ,000 revolutions per
minute ; this vertical slide was raised or lowered to the
work , which was fixed on the travelling table beneath
by means of a treadle. A tracer guide acting on the
model produced by the aid of the cutters facsimiles in
the piece or pieces of wood .
Some of the greatest improvements in automatic
lathes for turning irregular shapes were made and
patented by Mr. Blanchard , an American , many years
back , whose machine was undoubtedly one of the most
remarkable inventions of the day ; these have again
been modified and re- patented by Gleason and others.
200 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

An improved form of Blanchard lathe, manufactured

by Messrs. J. A . Fay and Co., of Cincinnati, U .S. A .,
and especially adapted for turning spokes , is deserving
of notice, as it contains several features of interest.
The cutter block is fixed to a travelling bed, which
is worked by a worm feed ; the feed is adjustable for
tapering work, and can be stopped at any desired point
by a buffer which is attached to the frame. The cutter
block is fitted with eight knives, which are arranged
to give gradually “ finishing ' cuts, thus leaving the spoke
comparatively smooth when it is taken from the ma
chine, consequently requiring little extra finishing on
the buffing machine or sand belt, which is used to
remove the marks of the cutters from the wood and
give it a perfectly smooth surface to receive the var
nish or paint. The vibrating frame is fitted with cut
toothed gearing for rotating the model and wood to be
shaped, and the vibrating rests are faced with steel
and kept in position by a steel spring. The movable
centre is worked by an eccentric and lever, and kept in
any desired position by a ratchet. The cutter-block
belt travels over a long iron drum placed below the
machine, and, although shaping only one spoke at a
time, this lathe is speeded to turn out as many as 900
spokes per day, which , if the finish is satisfactory at
that speed , must be pronounced a very large number.
The cutters are arranged to work across the grain of
the wood.
In the improved Blanchard lathe for turning spokes
patented by J. Gleason, of Philadelphia , U . S .A ., some
thirteen years since , the points of novelty claimed are
the use of centres operated by an eccentric lever
instead of a mallet, and the introduction of a lever for
WHEEL AND CARRIAGE MAKING MACHINERY. 201
releasing the spring which keeps the vibrating frame
in contact with the model or dummy.'
In the year 1863 Mr. H . Wilson, of London, de
signed and patented a multiple copying machine. The
principle of using a model in conjunction with blanks
was still adhered to, but instead of one a number of
duplicates were produced at the same time. In this
machine a model spoke and four pieces of wood are
mounted in separate adjustable centres or poppet
heads, which are fixed to a sliding table, arranged to
travel by a screw feed beneath the cutters. The cutters
are fitted on separate blocks, but are mounted on the
same spindle, which revolves in a counterbalanced
swinging frame. The principle of working pursued in
this machine differs from the ordinary · Blanchard ' or
other lathes, as in this case the cutters revolve in a
fixed position , whilst the wood itself is made to revolve
and travel beneath them ; the reverse of this is usually
the case, the cutters themselves being made to travel
and the wood to revolve in a fixed position . The
cutters used are perfectly flat, and are arranged to cut
with the grain of the wood. From our experience we
cannot recommend the plan of cutting with the grain
of the wood , as, unless the grain is very straight and
considerable care is exercised , large splinters are apt to
be torn away, especially at the finishing of a spoke.
With machines arranged to work across the grain this
is not the case , but these spokes, however, take more
finishing after they have left the lathe.
A very simple and efficient hand -power machine for
centreing and boring wheel stocks or hubs was pa
tented in the year 1868 by Messrs , Silver and Denning,
of Ohio , U . S .A . It was arranged to adjust and hold
202 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

the hub in position whilst being bored ; this was secured

by a kind of chuck frame, consisting of three equi
distant radical arms furnished with dove- tail slots, in
which worked adjustable jaws with corrugated faces
for gripping the hub . These jaws were set in or out
simultaneously by means of bevel gear. The boring
spindle or mandrel was fitted with a feed nut, made in
halves and of somewhat peculiar construction ; the
upper part of boring spindle , which worked in the nut,
was cut with a feed screw of about two threads to an
inch. An adjustable gauge for regulating the depth of
the hole to be bored was fitted to the boring spindle.
When a hub is to be bored it is secured by the jaws,
the gauge is set at the right height on the boring
spindle above the feed nut, the boring spindle is
turned by a handle similar to that used with an ordi
nary auger, the boring tool being fed by the before
mentioned feed-nut till the gauge comes in contact
with the cap of the nut. A set screw is then loosened ,
which allows the feed nut to turn with the boring
spindle , forming with a suitable cutter a square shoulder
at the bottom of the hole .
Very few important improvements, that we are
aware of, have of late years been introduced into ma
chines for turning spokes. At the International Ex
hibition at Paris, 1878, severalmultiple copying lathes
were exhibited in the French section. In the machine
shown by Messrs. Gérard , of Paris, the cutters were
fastened directly on to the cutter spindle, without any
block or other provision being made. A very neat and
simple arrangement was also provided for centreing
the spokes or other work . A multiple copying lathe,
especially adapted for shaping wooden shoes, or sabots,
 AUN
D
MUNIST
Child

MUL
LER
WHEEL AND CARRIAGE MAKING MACHINERY. 203
as well as spokes, was also exhibited by M . F . Arbey,
of Paris. This we illustrate (fig . 35) . Its action will
be easily understood from the engraving . This machine
is arranged to shape six articles at one time, the model
which is required to be copied being mounted in centres
having rotary and horizontal movements, and three
blanks of wood being mounted in like manner on either
side of it. The cutters operating on the wood are
mounted in a swinging frame immediately over the
blanks, and when set in motion are guided in their
action by means of a tracer or feeler travelling over
the model, the swinging frame thus rising or falling as
required , and the cutters produce in the blanks the
exact shape of the model. The cutters operate with
the grain of the wood, and the spokes or sabots are
traversed horizontally beneath the cutters by means of
a slow screw feed .
After the spokes are shaped from the rough timber
they are passed on to a tenoning machine, which is
fitted in addition with a circular saw and gauge, which
reduces them to one uniform length . They are after
wards passed on to a spoke-buffing or glass -papering
machine. This machine consists of two endless belts,
covered with ground glass of different degrees of fine
ness, running over two adjustable pulleys. The spoke is
pressed on these belts by hand, the coarser grit re
moving the marks left by the cutters of the shaping
machine, and the finer grit giving it a smooth surface.
Where large numbers of spokes are “buffed ' a great
amount of dust is created, which floats about the
workshop, to the detriment of the health of the work
men and the machinery employed . To obviate this a
simple pneumatic apparatus for conducting awav the
204 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

dust can easily be secured by arranging a small fan

blower - say, with an impeller of about 16 in . diameter,
and running about 2,000 revolutions per minute
fitted with induction and delivery pipes. By these
means the dust can be conveyed to the stoke hole or
other part of the building. This system has also been
introduced into saw mills for the removal of the
shavings, sawdust, and chips made by trying-up, saw
ing , and the other heavier class of wood -working ma
chines.
Amongst the other wheel-making machines may be
mentioned a machine for driving the spokes into the
wheel stocks, patented in America by a Mr. Hosler
some eight years since . In this machine the blows
are given to the spokes by a swinging mallet,worked
by a cam motion , as if used by hand they are governed
by the pressure of the foot on a treadle . The blows
can be graduated from heavy to light, or from fast to
slow ; an adjustable guide is also fitted, which sets the
spoke perfectly true before being driven . Another
tool recently introduced in America is Corr's patent
automatic wheel machine, which is arranged to drive,
cut off, and tenon the spokes in the wheel, without
removal after being once adjusted . For driving the
spokes the wheel stock is fixed on a stud in the centre
of a vertical frame. This stud has a movable outside
bearing, worked by a lever. The spokes are driven by
a mallet, operated by a spring and eccentric which
forces the mallet down after it is raised by a cam .
Attached to the main frame of the machine is an appa
ratus with lateral and transverse movements, for saw
ing and tenoning the spokes. This can be adjusted in
its position to suit wheels of different sizes, and is so
WHEEL AND CARRIAGE MAKING MACHINERY. 205
arranged that as one spoke is being driven another
is being cut to gauge by a circular saw and tenoned.
A hollow auger fitted with cutting lips forms the tenon
on the end of the spoke. This auger is combined with
the saw , and by depressing a foot lever they are both
brought forward to the work, the saw operating first
and the spoke being held between horizontal guides in
line with the tenon tool; this is automatically moved by
a screw , and the tenon is completed to any desired depth.
The inventor claims that one man with this machine
can drive, saw off, and tenon thirty wheels and upwards
per hour.
Some manufacturers prefer the oval form of tenon
on the ends of the spokes where they enter the felloe, as
the risk of splitting in driving is lessened , and it is not
found necessary to wedge this form of spoke to keep it
in position . The felloes of the wheels are usually cut
from the rough timber by a band sawing machine fitted
with a radial arm . In America an arrangement of
circular saws is often employed. Two concave saws
are mounted on a spindle, one end of which revolves in
a pivoted bearing, capable of adjustment and movement
in a vertical plane on the axis of its bearing. The
wood is fixed on a vibrating carriage, and is adjustable
to or from the saws. A separate set of sawsmust be
used for each sized felloe, as the curvature required on
the saws is necessarily different.
The felloes are planed on an ordinary vertical
double-spindle shaping machine; they are fixed in a
radiating cramp, and the wood is first of all brought in
contact with one set of cutters, which planes one- half of
the inside and chamfers the edges ; it is then passed to
the other cutter block , which completes the operation .
206 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
By using two cutter blocks revolving in opposite direc
tions the wood need never be cut against the grain ;
consequently the work turned out is of better finish .
A cutter block revolving horizontally , for planing the
edges of the felloe, and , where a large amount of work
is turned out, a self-acting feed can be added to this
machine with advantage.
A very useful machine in connection with wheel
manufacture is Morris's patent wood-bending machine,
introduced some few years since. The principle on which
it is constructed is the bending by levers from the
centre outwards. After the wheel is put together it is
usually finished in a surfacing lathe, or in a planing
and finishing machine especially adapted for the pur
pose . An outside-cuttermoulding and planing machine
can readily be modified to perform this work, the wheel
being mounted on a separate vertical screw chuck fitted
to a stand, with vertical, transverse, and angling move
ments . In the construction of a wheel no less than
twenty different machines can be employed with more
or less advantage.
 207

CHAPTER XXIII.
OASK - MAKING MACHINERY.

MACHINERY for the manufacture of casks has of late

occupied considerably the attention of engineers, and
a number of labour- saving machines for the especial
class of work required in a cooperage have been intro
duced , with very satisfactory results, and so complete
are some of the plants erected that very little manual
labour except putting together is necessary . Some of
the earliest machinery erected in this country for the
conversion of wood was devoted to the manufacture
of casks and powder barrels. We believe the first
patent taken out in connection with machinery for the
manufacture of casks was that of Plasket and Brown ,
in 1811 ; but Mr. George Smart, of Westminster Bridge
Road, is stated to have had a set of cooperagemachinery
in use someyears previous to this date , but what its con
struction was there is no record, as far as we are aware,
to show . Being one of the earliest efforts in this
country in connection with the conversion of wood by
mechanical means, we think it of sufficient general
interest to append a short description of Plasket and
Brown's machinery as described in Dr. Gregory's
* Mechanics.
* First, the machinery for cutting the stave consists
208 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

of a stout bench , having a board or platform annexed

to it capable of being moved endways,to which another
board is connected , so arranged as to be moved across
steadily by racks and pinions or screws. The last
board has a hollow part made in it, in which the stave
board may be laid so that one edge of it may project
clear beyond the edge of the first-mentioned board. A
circular saw is placed either above or below the
bench , having its axis at right angles to the line of
motion of the first -mentioned board and opposed to
the direction of the course of the projecting part of
the stave board. This circular saw is made flat when
the straight-edged staves are to be cut, and is dished ,
or of a spherical shape, when staves with curved edges
are wanted . The board first mentioned is moved
either iu a right line or is made to assume a curved
course by being confined in its motion by curved grooves
or by curved rods moving against pins ; and by the
proper management of these sliding boards the
stave board is cut by the circular saw of the shape
desired. The machinery next used consists of a large
lathe, in which the cask is turned in a vertical position
when it is of a large size (after it is formed in the
usual manner from the staves prepared as above de
scribed), being either fixed in a great chuck placed
beneath it or in a cylindrical cage which surrounds it ,
fixed upon a strong upright arbor and revolving be
tween collars, where it serves the office of a mandrel.
In this lathe the chime and groove for receiving the
head are turned in the cask by the application of a
proper tool. When the cask is small, the cage is made
to turn in a horizontal position instead of revolving
vertically . The third operation is to form the head ,
 CASK -MAKING MACHINERY. 209

which is pinioned together as usual, after having the

pin holes made by piercers projecting from the man
drel of a lathe, the distances and depths of which
holes are correctly regulated by gauges ; it is then
turned on a flat revolving table , from which points
project to hold it fast, and against which it is held by
another revolving piece that is screwed towards the
first, where it is brought to the proper size of the cask
by fit tools. The fourth operation is to turn the whole
cask at the outside, for which purpose it is placed in a
large lathe between two chucks,made to fit into the
chimes, and attached to the head by points ; and then
the surface of the cask is turned smooth by a spoke
shave, or other fit instrument, held against it by a
rest properly placed for the purpose. The patentees
bend their wooden hoops for their casks in an expedi
tious manner by fastening one end of them to the
circumference of a wheel, and pressing them against
the wheel as it is turned round ; they also describe a
method of forming the projecting part in the bung
staves of the small casks called bottles by means of
flat or concave circular saws, which cut the face of the
stave on each side close up to the projection ; and,
lastly, in giving motion to this machinery the inventors
use any of the usual first movers and mill work , as may
be necessary.
Sir John Robinson , too, was one of the earliest in
ventors in connection with cask-makingmachinery. He
proposed the plan of bending the stave against a curved
bed , and jointing same by means of two circular saws.
In the year 1825 Mr. Samuel Brown patented a
series of machines. The staves were edged by means of
an ordinary circular saw , the wood being fixed and
210 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
pushed through the saw in a slide having a curved
motion and resting against a fence or guide consisting
of a flexible bar which could set to any curve desired
in the stave. He also used a system of expanding
cutters for chiming, & c .; they were fixed on a vertical
spindle and traversed round the inside of the cask .
Some of the most important improvements in cask
making machinery are those of Gibbs and Gatley,
engineers, London , whose patent specification , dated
1835, possesses several features of interest to engineers,
as more than one of the ideas therein contained has
been the subject of recent patent rights. They claim
briefly certain arrangements of machinery for cutting
two staves from one piece of wood , the part which is
flattened out between the two staves forming a portion
of the head of a cask ; the arrangement of machinery
for cutting the edges of staves to their proper curves,
and for cutting the grooves at the ends of a cask to
receive the head, and also the bevels at the ends of the
cask . They also claim the construction of an ordinary
vertical saw frame in such manner that one set of saws
with their frame shall at all times balance another set
of saws and their frame, and also the application of a
saw of the form of a segment of a circle for cutting
veneers. The plan pursued in cutting the cask staves
is decidedly ingenious. Two straight or mill saws, some
what narrower than those used for ordinary sawing,
are mounted in an ordinary sawing frame having a
vertical reciprocating movement. The saws, however ,
are not fixed to the cross -heads in the usual manner ,
but mounted in two small separate frames. Each of
these frames consists of two vertical guide-rods,attached
at their upper and lower ends by means of bolts and
 CASK -MAKING MACHINERY . 211

nuts to wrought-iron plates. In each of the cross-heads

is formed a vertical mortise, through which the pins
which carry the saw pass. These pins are fixed at one
of their ends to the plates, and at the other to the saws.
Therefore, if either of these pins be moved in the
mortises, the saw will move with it ; consequently the
two saws can be made to diverge from each other till
one-half of the staves are cut, and approach towards
each other till the other half are cut. This movement
is effected by means of two guiding pieces and four
guiding sockets, acting in conjunction with springs ;
these are so arranged that when the machine is set in
motion the guiding sockets will roll along the surface
of the guiding pieces and follow their curvature, being
forced apart by the springs till one -half of the staves
are cut ; they will then gradually approach each other
till they assume the position from which they started .
By changing the guide pieces staves of any desired
curve may be obtained .
Following Gibbs and Gatley's patent various im
provements were introduced into cask -making ma
chinery by Rosenberg, Green, Robertson , and others.
Green introduced a tolerably complete machine for
backing ' and 'hollowing ' the staves. In his machine
the stave was arranged to travel on a narrow roller by
means of a fluted feed -roller, fitted immediately over
it and pressing the stave upon it . The narrow roller
supporting the stave revolved freely on its own axis,
and was arranged between two revolving cutters,which
gave the desired shape to the stave.
In the year 1852 some important improvements in
cask -making machinery were patented by Robertson ,
of Glasgow . In making casks and other wooden
P 2
212 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
vessels according to this invention, the rough staves
were first steamed in the usual way,to cause pliability ,
and then , in order that the irregularities or bends in
the wood might be nullified , the stave was screwed
up by its flat side against a fixed bearing surface or
against rollers, so that,when passed into the sawing
machine, the wood might be accurately cut. A self
acting arrangement was employed in connection with
these retaining or flattening screws, for the purpose of
slackening off these holding details as each approached
the cutting edge. At the same time a series of cutters
was arranged to work on the exposed side of the stave ,
for the purpose of dressing that surface to the form re
quired. As the stave moved forward it was first sawn
on the edge by a circular saw , to take off the over
wood ' to the required curve ; it then came against a
set of rotatory cutters , which finished the surface. At
the same time a set of cutters worked over the top of the
stave on its flat surface. Then, when this flat side and
one edge had been so shaped , the stave was reversed
and the other edge and side similarly treated. Several
staves can be done at a time. When the staves are
piled together, or when the ' cask is raised ,' the upper
ends of a stave being surrounded by a hoop, the mass
of staves is put into a press, to compress the bilge of
the cask and bring together the bottom or opposite
loose ends of the staves.
Robertson 's machine for bending or “ trussing ' the
staves is also worthy of notice. The staves were first
steamed at a temperature of about 220° Fahr. The
trussing machine consisted of two iron cones ; the in
side periphery of each was made to fit the outside
curve of the cask when finished . The upper cone was
 CASK -MAKING MACHINERY. 213

widened at its lower extremity, so as to surround the

staves, which were fixed up into it by hydraulic pressure.
Truss hoops were let into recesses flush with the inner
periphery of the cones, which were arranged to open by
hinges .
Messrs. E. and B . Holmes of Buffalo, U .S. A ., also
designed a very complete set of barrel-making ma
chinery, some of which possessed considerable origin
ality. The staves were jointed and cut to the required
curve by means of a revolving concave wheel fitted
with a radial cutter.
The groove for the head and the bevel at the ends of
the cask are produced at one operation – viz . by the
slow revolution of the cask on an axis simultaneously
with the rapid revolution of cutters, which are held
in contact with the inside of the cask and guided by a
blank roller. The whole of the mechanical arrange
ments contained in the specification must be held to
reflect the highest credit on the inventors, more espe
cially when it is borne in mind that at that date wood
working machinery had scarcely any existence.
Owing to the development of the commerce in
petroleum a considerable impetus has been given to the
manufacture of barrels in the United States, and many
factories where they are manufactured in immense
numbers are now in existence. This greatly increased
demand naturally turned the attention of American
engineers to the further improvement and develop
ment of cooperage machinery, and a number of labour
saving tools of more or less novelty has been the
result.
In the year 1865 J. S . Thompson , of Glen 's Falls ,
New York , took out patents for a series of machines,
some of which possessed considerable ingenuity.
214 WOODWORKING MACHINERY.

One of these was arranged to saw the staves to an

uniform length , croze their inner ends for the recep
tion of the barrel head, and chamfer the end edges at
one operation . In the centre of the machine a spindle
was arranged with a circular saw , chamfering cutters ,
and V -shaped crozing cutters at either end . Two
spindles, one on each side of the saw spindle , carried
wheels, over which worked chains. Vertical lugs were
attached to the chains at equal distances, and the
staves were fed horizontally to the saws and cutters,
being held firmly in position by adjustable plates bear
ing on the back and front of the stave. One set of
these plates rested on springs, which were arranged to
yield to varying thickness of staves .
Another of these machines was designed for stave
jointing ; its arrangement was briefly as follows :
The top of the frame of the machine was made con
cave, corresponding with the bilge of a cask. On this
frame a carriage was arranged to travel longitudinally .
Fitted to this carriage by pivots at each end was a
frame which held the staves, which were placed on
edge by means of a cam lever operating on a spring.
In the centre of the machine was a horizontal cutter
head, driven by a vertical spindle, which jointed the
staves, the necessary bilge being given by the con
cavity of the slides, and the bevel by the position of
the carriage which held them . A strap attached to
this carriage winds on a roller , and draws the carriage
with its load of staves over the cutter head ; when the
jointing is performed the carriage is run back by a
weight, which is thrown into action by the release of
the winding roller, which is connected with its spindle
by a clutch .
 CASK -MAKING MACHINERY. 215
The third machine of this series is one which is
arranged to saw and chamfer the head at the same
time. The tools consist of a concave or dish saw and
a cutter block , both fitted on the same horizontal spin
dle. The boards intended to form the barrel head are
placed on a circular plate, which is geared underneath ;
directly over this plate is a circular cramp, worked by
a screw and hand wheel, and arranged to rotate with
the circular plate. The circular plate , gear, and sup
porting bracket are pivoted to the main frame of the
machine and are arranged to cant to any angle. When
the necessary boards are secured on the circular cramp
plate, the whole is canted towards the saw and cutter,
the concave saw chamfering one edge and the cutter
block the other, the circular plate being at the same
time rotated either by power or a pinion and handle ,
thus causing the whole of the periphery of the barrel
head to be operated on by the saws and cutters. A set
of cask -making machines was exhibited in the Paris
Exhibition , 1867, by Cool, Ferguson , and Co., Mass.,
U . S .A .
Following these inventions, nothing noteworthy was
produced for this especial class of work for some years.
When the band saw was reintroduced by M . Périn , of
Paris, in 1855, it was more or less adopted for cutting
out the staves and bottoms of casks. Another French
engineer, M . Arbey, of Paris, modified several existing
machines, including a planing machine for rounding
the staves and planing up the bottoms, a vertical
moulding machine for chamfering the bottoms, and a
tonguing and grooving machine for jointing them . He
also invented a machine acting with spiral knives for
chamfering and recessing the ends of the cask after it
has been put together.
 Y
216 WOOD -WORKING MACHINER .
During the last ten years, owing chiefly to the
rapid increase in operatives' wages, a number of patents
for improvements in this class of labour- saving ma
chinery have been taken out by Robinson and, Smith ,
Woodley and Anderson , Slater, Thorneley and Bux
ton, Lyle, Hewit and Hays, Gerard and Thulier,
Gedge, Ransome, and others.
Mr. Abram Lyle, in his patent, dated 1871, claims
improvements in a machine for dressing staves. In
his machine the stave is gripped between and fed
along by short massive rollers, arranged with their
axes vertical, whilst in the centre of the row of feed
rollers is a revolving spindle, having fixed on it the
cutters for dressing the stave. The cutter spindle is
carried in a bracket arranged to slide in guides below a
table , and is adjustable . The feed rollers on the same
side as the cutter spindle are fluted, and are driven by
means of worm wheels fixed on their spindles below
the table , gearing in with worms fitted on a horizontal
shaft, which is driven from the first-motion shaft. The
feed rollers on the other side of the stave are held in
forked blocks set in boxes containing strong springs,
which are adjustable by means of screws. The rollers
on both sides are made sufficiently strong, and the
pressure applied is sufficiently great, to straighten any
twist in the stave passing through.
Messrs. Robinson and Smith , of Rochdale, patented
in 1873 a method of making bungs or shives for casks
by means of a cylindrical saw and rotary cutter ; and
Messrs . Hewit and Hays in 1875 patented a machine
for cutting staves by means of two circular saws placed
side by side, and arranged with such a motion that
when a stave is passed between them the two sides are
 CASK -MAKING MACHINERY. 217

cut off at the sametime and the proper bulge given to

the stave .
Improvements in cask -making machinery of some
importance have been introduced by Messrs. Thorneley
and Buxton , of Burton -on - Trent. They patented in
1875 an improvement in machinery for jointing staves.
This consists in centreing wooden staves both in the
direction of their width and length by means of an
apparatus fixed on or to machinery used for jointing or
edging such staves. The former is attained by means of
a rotating cam , which opens the dressing knives or
cutters so as to receive the widest stave between them ,
and closing the said cutters on the edges of such stave,
of whatever width , by means of a weighted lever ; and
the latter is accomplished by lengthening out or
shortening the centreing gear, so as to bring the centre
of the stave to the centre of the said cutters. Thorne
ley and Buxton patented also in 1878 machinery by
which wooden staves for casks are 'hollowed ' and
backed ' at one and the same time. The cutters,
guides, and bed on which the staves are dressed are so
arranged that bent, twisted, or otherwise misshapen
staves are easily worked. The cutters in this machine
are raised or lowered by means of a cam or eccentric
for hollowing staves to a gradually varying thickness
from their centre towards each end.
In the year 1874 a series of improvements in cask
making machinery of some novelty was patented by
John Woodley and John Anderson. The first part of
the specification relates to apparatus for cutting the
edges of staves to the desired shape, or the process
commonly called jointing. For this purpose each stave
is successively placed on the table on or in a groove of
 Y
218 WOOD -WORKING MACHINER .
which an endless chain traverses, with projections, one
of which , by acting on one end of a stave, drives it for
ward between a pair of radial arms or shafts at angles
one to the other ,carrying cutters to produce the desired
angle to the edges. The relative position of the shafts
is variable by right and left hand screw motions, by
which these angles may be varied. These shafts are
supported in a frame capable of movement transversely
to that of the stave, to adapt the cutting to variations
in width of the stave. These motions are effected by
cams or tappets, and rotations to the cutter shafts by
straps or bands. A saddle piece held by the attendant
and a stationary roller aid in guiding the stave to the
cutters, whilst weighted lever -armswith rollers hold the
stave during the cutting. The invention also relates to
apparatus for hollowing the inside surface of the stave.
For this purpose each stave is,as in the last apparatus,
placed on the table , so as to be acted upon by one of a
series of projections from an endless train chain , by
which it is moved into position to be cut by rotary
cutters, driven by a band or strap, and is guided whilst
moving forward by a template or roller or rollers.
Weighted guides,and a weighted pressure roller guide
and aid in holding each stave in position during its
traverse.
The cutting of the outer surface or backing ' of
the staves is effected by each stave being moved forward
by a similar endless chain on a table, so that the outer
surface of such stave may be acted upon by other
rotary cutters, the motion of the staves being aided
by weighted pressure rollers and guides. The invention
also relates to means for effecting the desired bevelling
of the edges of the heads of the cask. Pieces of wood
 CASK -MAKING MACHINERY. 219

jointed together to form a head are placed between, and

so as to be held by, pins between two plates capable of
sliding sideways on other face plates. The axis of one
of these face plates is hollowed to receive through it
the axis or spindle of its sliding plate. Rotary motion
is given to this hollow shaft to cause the rotation of
the several plates and the 'head ' held between them ,
but during this motion other motion is given to the
axis of the sliding plate, carried by the plate affixed to
that hollow shaft, so as to cause the head to revolve in
an oval direction , so that its edge may be cut by the
bevelling cutters to an oval form , capable of adjust
ment as to extent. The invention also relates to means
for planing the edges of the separate breadths of wood
to form the heads. For this purpose a table and end
less chain , such as before referred to, are employed to
conduct the pieces between a pair of rotary cutters, and
the distance apart of the axes of these cutters is regu
lated to the width of wood under operation by a pair
of pins or projections carried by frames supported by
right and left hand screws, such frames also carrying
the axes of the cutters .
In the International Exhibition of Paris, 1878 ,
Messrs. A . Ransome and Co., of London , exhibited
specimens of their lately designed machinery for the
manufacture of powder barrels ; but, considering the
warlike and beer -drinking proclivities of the age, ma
chinery for the rapid construction of casks was cori
spicuous by its absence. During late years, however,
it must be admitted that this class of labour-saving
tools has made very great progress.
220 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER XXIV .
SAW AND CUTTER SHARPENING MACHINES.

The sharpening of saws other than by hand labour is

of modern origin . The fly press for punching and
gulleting saws has been in use for many years ; but a
machine for topping, bevelling, and gulleting without
the aid of a file was first introduced into this country
about the year 1865. This sharpening is performed by
means of a revolving emery disc (or, more properly
speaking, a disc containing a composition of emery,
india -rubber, sand, & c .), travelling at the speed of
some 5 ,000 feet per minute at its periphery . A ser
rated steel disc has also been tried , but with unsatis
factory results, except in the case of band -saw blades,
when , in the Paris International Exhibition, 1878,
Martinier 's patent machine for this purpose was toler
ably successful, and attracted someattention. Messrs.
Greenwood and Batley, of Leeds, first made Parnacott's
patent saw -sharpener about the year 1865, and a few
years later a Saunders ’s patent machine of French
origin was introduced.
A new form of vitrified wheel has lately been tried ,
with considerable success. In this wheel the material
by which the grains of emery are united in a solid
mass is somewhat softer than the emery, and allows
 SAW AND CUTTER SHARPENING MACHINES. 221

the worn -out particles of emery to break away and

new ones to present themselves. In the course of
manufacture these wheels are burnt and baked , and
can be made to present any degree of hardness required .
In 1874 Mr. James Harrison , of Tattenhall,
Cheshire, took out a patent for improrements in shar
pening and gulleting saws. He claims as novel the
arranging of the vice which holds the saw to be
sharpened in V slides in a similar manner to the slide
rest of a lathe ; so that by means of a rack and pinion
or screw adjustment the operator is enabled to traverse
the saw and bring it into contact with the revolving
emery wheel, which is mounted in a frame that remains
stationary , instead of being arranged to traverse, as
heretofore, for the purpose of adjustment, whereby a
much steadier cutting action is obtained . We pre
sume the novelty claimed in this patent is the applica
tion of a slide-rest vice to the special purpose of
sharpening saws; but it affords an apt illustration of
the very slender grounds of novelty on which patents
are often applied for and granted in this country.
In the most improved machines now in use the
emery wheel is mounted on a small steel spindle, run
ning in centres and fitted in a counterbalanced swing
ing carriage. This carriage can be brought down to
the saw by hand , and by means of a quadrant can be
set to an angle to give any desired lead to the tooth .
Where a boy is employed to work, an arrangement can
be fitted to regulate the depth of the gullet and the
pitch of the teeth . The saw to be sharpened is held in
a vice having both a lateral and transverse motion .
The countershaft is usually placed at the back of the
main framing of the machine, which should be cast in
222 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
one piece. The band giving motion to the emery disc
passes over an idle pulley, and then directly on to a
small pulley on the emery disc spindle . In a well- con
structed and well-worked saw -sharpener the use of the
fly press for gulleting should be entirely dispensed
with . If, however, a saw should be broken , it can be
used with advantage to cut it down and punch new
teeth . The economical advantages accruing from the
use of a saw -sharpener are considerable , it being
capable of turning out at least as much work as six
men sharpening by hand, and of better quality, and
the lead of tooth and depth of gullet can be exactly
proportioned . Its use also should effect a total saving
in files, although some operators persist in touching
up ' the saw with files after it has left the machine.
This practice should always be discouraged , as the
cutting action of the disc, in addition to engendering
heat in the points of the saw teeth — owing to the rapidity
of its motion through the air - -causes a cooling process
to go on at the same time, which, when the sharpening
is completed, leaves the teeth with a considerable
amount of hardness ; they consequently wear longer
than if left with their skin ' soft, as is the case in
hand- sharpening. The quality of the emery discs
should be undoubted, and of not too coarse a grit, ex
cept for heavy, rough work. On the early introduction
of this machine considerable disappointment and loss
was occasioned from the unreliable character of the
discs then supplied : this is now no longer the case.
Fig . 36 represents a compactly designed machine, ar
ranged to sharpen both circular and straight saws,
by Messrs. Thomson, Sterne, and Co., Limited, of
Glasgow .
 SAW AND CUTTER SHARPENING MACHINES. 223
For sharpening band-saw blades, up to the present
time the only machine that we are acquainted with is
Martinier's patent, the first of whose machines which

TAN

A.Aleg,

FIG . 36. - SAW -SHARPENING MACHINE.

was adapted for both sharpening and setting the blades
was exhibited in the Paris International Exhibition ,
1878. It is ingenious, but somewhat. complex in its
224 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
construction. Whether it will stand the test of time
remains to be proved. We believe it has not yet been
introduced into this country. The saw blade is placed
round two pulleys,and is sharpened by a smallrevolving
disc of steel, which is bevelled on one edge and serrated .
The saw is brought forward a tooth at a time by means
of an automatic feed , and held in position by a spring,
which is released as each tooth is sharpened , when
another is advanced. A stop -piece is fitted to the saw ,
which automatically throws the machine out of gear
when the sharpening is completed. A small apparatus
was attached for setting the teeth, but of no special
novelty.
Messrs. J. A . Fay and Co ., of Cincinnatı, U . S .A .,
exhibited a clever little saw - setting machine, which
gave to the teeth of the saw a blow similar to that
given by the workman's hammer, instead of a pressure,
as is usual in most machines for this purpose. It is
capable of vertical and lateral adjustment, according to
depths and widths of teeth and gauge of saw . The
amount of set is varied by means of an adjustable steel
pointer, which is bevelled at the bottom to the maxi
mum set. The saw is set two teeth at a time, and fed
forward by a paul and lever adjustable to the pitch of
the teeth .
For sharpening planing and moulding irons an
ordinary Yorkshire grindstone, with a water of Ayr or
similar class of stone attached, is still generally used.
Several attempts have been made to substitute emery
discs, and we illustrate (fig. 37) a little machine recently
patented by Mr. Handyside, of Glasgow . In the centre
of the machine is a wheel suitable for grinding straight
irons, and at one end of the spindle four emery wheels
SAW AND CUTTER SHARPENING MACHINES. 225
adapted for sharpening moulding irons are fitted ; at
the opposite end of the spindle is an emery hone for
finishing purposes. The water necessary is supplied
by means of a small pump, worked from the counter
shaft shown at the back of the machine. Several ma
chines were shown at the recent exhibition in Paris by

ULT
HAINBA

FIG . 37.- HANDYSIDE'S PATENT TOOL-GRINDER.

F. Arbey on which were fitted small revolving emery
discs, arranged to sharpen the plane irons without re
moving them from their blocks. In the use of emery
for this purpose very great care must be observed , or
the cutting edge of the iron will be made too hard,
and consequently chip in the working.
226 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
For sharpening long plane- irons a grinding -rest,
with lateral and transverse movement, should be at
tached to the grindstone ; the iron should be held in a
frame arranged to set to any desired bevel, by which
means the longest irons can without difficulty be ground
perfectly true.
It is very necessary that the grindstone itself should
be in good order, and true on the face. For many
years, when the stone became untrue, it was the custom
to turn it up with a pointed steel tool. This plan, how
ever, is very wasteful, and in many establishments has
given place to handy little apparatus for dressing up
grindstones, patented by a Mr. Brunton some five years
since. It consists of a steel disc bevelled to a cutting
edge on one side, and keyed to a spindle which revolves
in a socket attached to a plate. The cutting disc and
plate are made to traverse across the face of the stone
by a hand wheel and screw . The disc is fixed at an
angle to the stone, and is pressed against it , the stone
thus causing the disc to revolve at a speed on its cut
ing edge equal to that of the stone. Any degree of
feed can be put on the cutting disc, which quickly
removes inequalities, leaving the face of the stone per
fectly true, causing the smallest amount of waste to
the stone and effecting a considerable saving in time.
For grinding moulding irons some four Bilston or
other sandstone grindstones, of some 18 inches diameter,
should be mounted on a spindle revolving in a trough.
These should be turned up to fit the outlines of the
various moulding irons. In addition to these four
stones, two other fine grit stones are usually attached,
to give the irons a fine cutting edge after they have
been reduced on the shaping stones.
 227

CHAPTER XXV.
HAND - POWER MACHINES .

ONE of the most general operations in joinery is that

of mortising, and there are few but the very smallest
establishments that cannot employ a machine driven
either by steam or hand economically . It is a matter
of some doubt when a machine for mortising was first
made in this country. Probably rotary machines driven
by water power were in use at the end of the last
century. However that may be, Bentham in his speci
fications in 1793 distinctly claims both reciprocating
and rotary machines ; and it seems that he, in con
nection with his brother, Jeremy Bentham , was com
missioned some few years later by the Government to
fit up several of the dockyards with machinery, amongst
which mortising machines are mentioned . In the first
thirty years of this century little or no progress was
made, and very little appears to have been done in
manufacturing machines for sale. Even in the year
1848 the manufacture was confined to a very few firms
in this country , amongst which we may name the fol
lowing as the most important : — Worssam , London ;
Horn , London ; Powis, James, and Co., London ; Robin.
son , Rochdale ; Furness, Liverpool ; McDowall, John
stone ; Forrest and Barr, Glasgow ; and most of these
O2
228 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

EHTE

FIG . 38.- HAND-POWER MORTISING AND BORING MACHINE.

 HAND-POWER MACHINES. 229

made only on a very small scale. When we compare

the large establishments now in operation , and the
great range of machines turned out, we cannot but
admit that sawmill engineers have, to say the least,
kept pace with any other branch of engineering.
A mortising machine worked by the foot was in
vented by Mr. John Mortimer, of Aberdeen , in the
year 1847 ; and the hand-power lever mortising machine
was introduced into this country from America by Mr.
Coulson , of York, about the same time.
The mortising and boring machine we illustrate
herewith (fig . 38), although somewhat modernised, is
substantially the same as one brought out by Messrs .
Wilson and Lewis, for the firm of Powis, James, & Co.,
in the year 1852, and for the combination of the opera
tions of mortising, tenoning, and boring in one machine
letters patent were granted to them . The illustration
does not show the tenoning arrangement, which , how
ever, is easily added . As a strong, well-made machine
it compares favourably in the ratio of six to one against
hand labour with chisel and mallet; the wonder is, in
these high-pressure days of cheap production, that they
are not more universally used than they are, as they
would pay a handsome interest on the amount invested
if they were idle one-half of the year.
The action of the machine is easily understood .
Motion is given to the chisel by a counterbalanced
forked lever (worked by one or both hands), which is
connected with a gun -metal cross-head at the top of the
vertical spindle by two wrought-iron double eye-pieces.
The wood to be mortised is placed on a table imme
diately beneath the chisel. This table can be worked
by the large hand -wheel, which is perhaps the most
230 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
convenient for light work, but for heavy work a self
acting arrangement can be used with advantage. This
self-acting motion is gained by a side rod from the
forked lever , acting by means of a stop- piece on another
small weighted lever, at the end ofwhich is a wrought
iron paul, acting on a toothed wheel which is fixed to
a spindle . A pinion on this spindle works in a rack
beneath the table ; thus, when the forked lever is in
work , a lateral motion is given to the same. It is
easily thrown outofmotion when notwanted by moving
the stop-piece. The chisel used is of solid cast steel,
tapered somewhat on back and sides, which , after trial
of hollow and many other forms, is undoubtedly the
best for all practical purposes. It has a plain tapered
end fitting into a socket. Somemakers fit a ' feather
on to their chisels, with the idea of always keeping
them square to the work.
This I do not recommend , as after a time the
• feather ' is apt to get loose or twisted . Forked or
double-mortise chisels have also been tried , but with
outmuch success . This machine is adapted for doing
any kind of mortising in soft or hard woods ; in the
latter, however, it is necessary a hole should be bored
in the line of mortise to clear the chisel. It can be
worked by unskilled labour, hence its great practical
value in the Colonies as well as at home. In fixing
the chisel to commence work , press it up in its socket ;
making a light indentation in wood , reverse chisel, and
bring same down again , and note that it falls square
between gauge-lines. In wedging a mortise, it is only
necessary to raise one end of wood and make the wedge
cut before removing same. To take the jar off the
cross -head at the top of vertical spindle (which is con
 HAND-POWER MACHINES. 231
siderable in hard wood) an india - rubber washer about
an inch in thickness is fitted on spindle immediately
beneath it. The boring motion needs no explanation ,
it consisting merely of a pair of bevel wheels worked
by a handle which gives a rotary motion to the spindle ,
and an auger is inserted in the spindle socket in place
of a chisel. The tenoning arrangement consists of a
pair of adjustable bevelled knives, fixed to a forked
tool-holder, fitted into the chisel socket, and working
in a slide fixed to the table .
The operation is the same as for mortising ; the
wood , however, is cut away on the edges, and the tenon
is left in the centre. Tenons can be cut rapidly in this
manner, but great care is necessary to keep the knives
in order, as they are, even with careful management,
apt to spring, thus cutting an untrue tenon , thicker at
the bottom than at top. When mortises or tenons
have to be cut or holes bored at an angle, the table
which holds wood can be arranged to cant and fixed to
any angle desired ; by means of a quadrant and pointer
worked by a worm and worm wheel, it can also be made
to rise and fall when the work varies very much . Some
few machines worked by the foot are in use ; they may
auswer tolerably for very light work , but for the general
rough work of a builder 's establishment they are of
little value.
In 1861 Mr. Jackson , of Leeds, patented some
improvements in the method of operating hand - lever
mortising machines.
In the year 1876 Mr. John Phillips, of London,
patented some improvements in hand mortising ma
chines, the chief of which was the mounting of the
hand lever at the upper end of a rocking fulcrum bar.
232 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

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.
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SAW BENCH AND BAND SAWING

POWERCOMBINED,
TIG .39. - HAND OR STEAMMACHINE
 HAND-POWER MACHINES. 233
Recently also a machine has been patented with two
separate vertical slides (one holding the mortise chisel
and the other the core-driver ), fitted to the main
standard of the machine. These are worked by two
separate hand -levers, attached to which are the rock
ing side-rods, which allow the chisel to have a greatly
increased stroke, thus obviating the necessity of rising
and falling the table to suit different thicknesses of
stuff. The chisel has a stroke of 11 inches, and this
plan should be found advantageous when mortising
right through a piece of wood ; but when a mortise
is to be made only half-way through, the ordinary
form of machine is preferable. Various minor im
provements have been introduced into hand mortising
machines by Haigh , G . Wilson , Green , and others .
In the present year ( 1879) Mr. J . Phillips has patented
an improved revolving tool box, especially adapted
for mortising machines. The different tools employed ,
such as the mortise chisel, core-driver, tenoning tool,
and boring bit, are fitted to the tool box in a simi
lar manner to the nave of a wheel with four spokes.
These are arranged to turn round on an axle, and are
held in any desired position by means of a spring bolt.
Thus after a mortise is cut the box can be revolved ,
and the core-driver brought into position to finish the
mortise at once , obviating the constant alteration of
tools or moving of wood . This arrangement is now
being introduced by W . R . Reynolds and Co ., London .
Hand -power saw benches with and without combi
nations of band sawing machines, & c., have been of late
somewhat extensively introduced, and for light work
and where steam is not available they are doubtlessly
of considerable use. The machine herewith illustrated
234 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
( fig . 39) is from the designs of Messrs. C . Powis and Co.,
Millwall Pier, E .,who are , we believe, the original in
troducers of these combinations ; its working is simple ,
and is easily understood from the engraving. The cir
cular saw is driven by a belt from the fly-wheel shaft,
to which also is fitted fast and loose pulleys to drive by
steam if desired . This motion is easier and considered
far preferable to the method pursued by some makers,
of gearing a toothed wheel directly into a pinion on
the saw spindle . The spindle is fitted in a slide, and
arranged to rise and fall for the purposes of grooving ,
rebating, & c. One end of saw spindle is bored to re
ceive augers.
A very useful addition to the machine is the small
cross- cutting slide shown on the top of the bench . The
band saw is arranged to run over three pulleys instead
of two, which is an improvement, as it renders the
tension on the saw much less than it would be when
running over the small wheels, and the breakage of
saws is considerably lessened thereby. This machine
is worked directly from the spindle, and the necessary
tension is given to the band saw by a spiral spring ;
the table is also arranged to cant to 45° for bevel-cut
ting. This machine should be useful to chairmakers
and others who do much light irregular sawing, espe
cially if worked by steam . An improvement in working
hand -power benches has recently been introduced by
Messrs. Olley, of Southwark. In consists in making the
circular saw to cut up -hill against the wood instead of
down . By this means the drag on the saw is very much
reduced, the driving power, of course, being lessened
in proportion .
Several formsof hand mitreing machines for shoot
 HAND-POWER MACHINES. : 235
ing ' the mitres of picture frames , & c., have been con
structed, with more or less success. One of the first
machines made had a motion directly vertical to the
wood ; this was secured by a pair of right- and left -hand
knives fixed to a cast-iron block working in a vertical
guide, and operated on by a lever ; this gave an up-and
down or chopping ' motion . The knives were set to
an angle of 45°, but with a little alteration the angle
could be varied , if desired . The knives required con
siderable care to enable them to cut any length of time,
but some operators even now prefer this machine to
others of more recent date.
Some six years since a patent for an improved
mitreing machine was taken out by a Mr. Shute , of
London , and we believe considerable numbers of this
machine have been made. The improvement claimed
is that, instead of the ordinary vertical action across
the grain of the wood , the moulding to be operated on
is set on edge and the knives made to cut in a diagonal
direction, thus operating more or less with the grain of
the wood instead of across it.
A double mitre-cutting machine has also been re
cently patented by Mr. Bowman , of London. In this
machine two cutters are arranged in slides, working
diagonally at rightangles to each other; these cutter
slides are worked by means of a lever and two toothed
wheels, which gear into each other and into racks of
corresponding pitch , which are fitted to either cutter
slide. The knives are capable of cutting the moulding
to a required length , and at the same time mitreing it .
Several other machines have been made, the knives
being given a horizontalmotion, & c ., but we are afraid
the machine has yet to be invented that will cut true
236 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
for a continuance without splintering or leaving ragged
edges- say, bolection or gilt mouldings, for instance .
There are some few machines made for fret- cutting,
boring, & c ., by hand or foot power, but as they are
chiefly used for light ornamental work , they hardly
come within the scope of this work .
 237

CHAPTER XXVI.
CORKWOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

The writer has recently spent a considerable amount of

time in perfecting several machines for manipulating
cork wood. This, owing to its elasticity and yielding
properties when under the action of the cutters, is a
difficult material to operate on. For rounding cork
wood for bottle corks, bungs, & c., the best plan to
pursue is to mount in an adjustable slide with a hori
zontalmotion a plain steel knife some 18 inches long ,
which can be kept constantly sharpened by means of
small revolving emery wheels bearing directly on its
cutting edge. The cork wood to be rounded is secured
between spring chuck centres , and when horizontal
motion is given to the knife a rotary motion can be
imparted to the cork wood by means of a lever and belt .
The slide carrying the knife should be arranged to
swivel, and be adjustable to varying sizes of corks, and
also adjustable vertically at either end ; thusby lowering
the slide at one end and making the knife to traverse
diagonally taper as well as cylindrical corks can be
cut. Chucks fitted with several steel needle-points are
to be preferred for general purposes, as the cork wood
is very rapidly fixed in them and the slight indenta
tions made by the steel points disappear. The chucks
238 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
employed are of course made to suit the different-sized
corks or bungs required . Cork wood is often employed
in sheets as lining for helmets, hats, socks, & c., owing
to its lightness and protective powers. These sheets
have sometimes to be produced as thin as paper, an
operation of considerable delicacy. I have employed
with success for this purpose a circular revolving steel
knife ground sharp at its periphery, and the cork wood,
which is cut in the first instance to the shape the
sheets are required , is fixed in a movable chuck -plate ,
arranged to revolve by hand and fitted with an ex
tremely delicate feed-motion for bringing the cork wood
to the knife , or vice versa.
Cork wood is largely employed in the manufacture
of different kinds of floor coverings, such as corticine,
& c. For this purpose it is necessary to reduce it to
the very finest powder, such as would pass through a
70-mesh sieve. The production of this must be set
down as perhaps the most difficult of all operations in
wood conversion . If it is passed through a high
speed disintegrator, making some 3, 500 revolutions
per minute, the bulk of the product is far too coarse
for the purposes required . Ordinary edge-runners will,
with sifting, produce the required fineness of powder ;
but this is at the best a very slow , and therefore an
expensive , process. The writer has made a variety of
experiments in this direction , which have more or less
failed in their object ; but he is now engaged in con
structing a machine in which rubbing and cutting
actions are combined, and he has so far every reason to
believe this arrangement will have the desired result .
 239

CHAPTER XXVII .
MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY FOR WORKING WOOD .

A LARGE number of machines have been produced from

time to time for performing the many special operations
required in the conversion of timber. Many of these
machines are made for or by the users, and often em
body in their construction points of great ingenuity,
which the owners keep to themselves. Possibly in
these days , when the rule seems to be, ‘ Live on other
men's brains if you can , if you cannot use your own ,'
they may not be much to blame in not making known
an idea from which, owing to more rapid and econo
mical production, they derive an extra gain . These
inventions or improvements are usually made by small
masters, or men operating the machines, who, owing to
slender means, are unable to pay the high rate of
patent fees in vogue in this country to protect their
ideas,and have perhaps found to their cost, in conjunc
· tion with many others, that the recompense arising
from working for the public good may be represented
by the algebraic term % . America, on the contrary,
rejoices in a low patent rate, and doubtless this has its
objections ; but we think it may be cited as one of the
several reasons why America is enabled - although af
fording her producers a higher rate of pay — to compete
240 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

with us successfully at our very doors. In many of

the machines of American construction known to the
writer, although they are certainly not superior in
design or workmanship to English -made machines of
the same class, they seem to him to be carried further
and made more complete in their general details and
range of operation, small and effective notions ' being
introduced, increasing little the first cost of the ma
chine, but adding greatly to its economic production
when multiplied by a series of months or years .
Amongst miscellaneous machines for converting
wood those for finishing the surface by means of sand
paper are deserving of mention . These vary in con
struction according to the nature of the work required.
For finishing doors or other large surfaces usually a
number of flexible arms are attached to a column or
bolted by means of a bracket to a wall. By the use of
elbow joints these arms are arranged to move in any di
rection . The sand paper is fastened on a disc which is
mounted on a vertical spindle, and receives motion by
belt gear. A flat surface is thus presented by the sand
paper face of the disc to the wood . The article to be
finished is placed on a table immediately beneath the
revolving disc , which can be adjusted to different thick
nesses of work by a hand wheel and screw or other
suitable means. The pressure of the disc can be regu
lated by a spring, and an exhaust fan should be attached
for the removal of the dust, thus enabling the operator
to see at a glance when the right amount of finish is
attained. For straight, flat surfaces the sand paper is
sometimes mounted on a cylinder or drum placed im
mediately below a table, but part of its periphery
projecting slightly above its surface. The wood can
 MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY. 241
either be passed over the face of the drum by hand or
a self-acting roller feed can be fitted, similar to that on
a light planing machine. The face of the drum on
which the sand paper is fixed should be covered with
somemoderately flexible material, and the drum should
be adjustable vertically to vary the amount of the
cutting action of the sand paper.
For turning broom handles and such like cylindrical
rods several machines are in use, varying chiefly in
the arrangement and shape of their cutting tools . For
rounding purposes a hollow mandrel is usually employed ,
into which hollow chucks arranged with knives are
fitted ; these chucks vary in their bore according to the
sizes required. The wood to be rounded is either pushed
through the chuck and mandrel by hand or by the aid
of self-acting feeding gear. One patented by Messrs . C .
B. Rogers and Co., of Norwich , U . S.A ., and shown at
the International Exhibition in Paris, 1878, is some
what novel. It is self-feeding, but does away entirely
with feeding gear, the cutters being arranged in the
hollow mandrel through which the wood passes in such
a manner that a kind of screw feed is given , which ,
after the cutters first strike the wood , pulls it through
without extraneous aid . The mandrel is speeded to
make 3,000 revolutions per minute.
A very ingenious machine for turning oars was in
vented and patented by one Ezekiel Page, an American,
in the year 1842, by which he was enabled to shape
two oars out of a piece of wood where one only before
had been obtained , the remainder being cut to waste.
Our space, however, unfortunately forbids an extended
notice . About the year 1855 a machine for dressing
oars on Steele's patent was erected at the Royal
242 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
Dockyard at Chatham . The wood was first roughed
out by two sets of circular saws mounted upon swivel
ling cylinders, arranged to turn on their centres,whilst
a sliding bed allowed them to advance or retire froin
each other by the action of an adjustable “ feeler bar '
or tracer. After the wood passed through this machine
it had the general outline of an oar, but with rectangu
lar section ; it was then passed to a finishing machine,
when the loom and blade were finished simultaneously
by two sets of cutters.
Mr. G . L . Molesworth , in his paper read in 1857
before the Institute of Civil Engineers, mentions several
machines for sawing curved ship's timbers, including
one invented by a Mr. Hamilton , of the United States,
and another by M . Normand , of Havre. In Mr. Hamil
ton's machine two straight saw -blades were attached
to buckles arranged to turn on their centres whilst in
motion . These saws were mounted in swing frames
formed of hollow wrought-iron bars, to combine strength
with lightness. In one large or external swing frame
two internal swing frames were arranged , with a trans
verse sliding motion along the external swing frame.
Each of the saws which were mounted in the internal
swing frames were turned on their centres, and guided
by the workman to any line marked out on the timber
by a forked lever of wood applied to the back of the
saw . The timber was arranged to swivel on its axis by
means of gearing, thus enabling a variable bevel to be
cut as it was fed forward .
A method for ensuring accuracy in sawing ship’s
timbers of varying bevel, obviating the necessity of
trusting entirely to the eye of the workman, is
worthy of notice it was invented by a Mr. Green some
 MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY. 243
five -and -twenty years ago. The machine was fitted
with a small roller, worked by suitable gearing, and
the travel of its periphery was made proportional to
the feed of the timber through the saws. A tracer was
attached by gearing to the swivelling centre of the log,
and indicated any bevel given to the wood. A small
diagram of the required bevel was drawn to scale and
wound round the roller; the tracer was kept on the
lines of the diagram as it slowly revolved by means of
a screw , and the log was cut to a bevel corresponding
with the diagram .
The novelty in M . Normand's machine for cutting
ship’s timbers consisted in the method employed for
supporting and feeding the timber. The log rested on
four horizontal rollers , which were capable of moving
in the same plane, so that their axes may be either
parallel or in such a position that the imaginary lines
formed by the production of their axes shall meet at
the centre and be portions of radii of a circle of large
or small diameter, as required. By means of a handle
the positions of these rollers could be altered, and the
log caused to travel through any segment of a circle,
the centre of which was indicated by the roller axes ;
and as this centre could be altered whilst the machine
was in motion , the curve described to could be varied
to any extent. A frame, upon which the rollers were
supported , was arranged on a longitudinalaxis, so as to
be canted with the rollers and the log to any desired
angle. A ratchet movement was added, to make this
movement self-acting if required.
Amongst other machines mentioned in this in
teresting paper was a simple one for rounding wood
for broom handles, & c. This was the invention of a
R 2
244 WOOD -WORKING MACHINER .
Y
Mr. Wilson . In this machine a cylindrical gauge
cutter and a paring tool in the form of a disc were
employed. They were arranged to turn in their sockets
as required, thus presenting continually a new cutting
edge.
In 1868 Mr. J. Sanders, of New York, patented
a somewhat novel combination of circular saws and
cutters for mitreing the joints of rectangular frames,
such as are used in looking -glasses , pictures, and win
dow frames. At either end of a spindle, which revolved
in bearings fixed at the top of an iron frame or table,
was mounted an annular circular saw . These saws
were not mounted in the usual way, but secured to
turned wrought- iron flanges or washers . These flanges
were bolted to hollow circular cutter -blocks, which
were fitted with three or more plane irons, arranged to
project slightly beyond the surface of the saw plate and
plane the joint of the mitre smooth after it was cut by
the circular saw . These plane irons were fixed in
recesses in the circular cuttingblock at an angle of about
45 degrees to the face of the plate, and kept in their
places by means of wedges actuated by screws. This
plan leaves a clear space for the discharge of shavings,
& c. The wood to be jointed is placed on the frame,
sliding horizontally on the top of the table , and fitted
with fences at an angle of 90 degrees to the face of the
saw . This sliding frame is fitted with stop pieces and
index plate, by which the lengths of the frames to be
jointed can easily be regulated . The sliding plate
works longitudinally on V 's, and can either be pushed
past the saws and cutters by hand or self-acted by
means of a rack and pinion actuated by worm gearing
fixed on a countershaft at one end of the machine.
 MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY. 245
In 1853 Mr. W . Kendall, of Blawith , Lancashire,
took out a patent for improvements in machinery for
turning and hollowing wooden boxes , or cutting out
solid wood into boxes or other receptacles of a like
class. The apparatus consisted in general form of a
horizontal spindle, carrying a species of chuck, which
was fitted with a projecting circular gange of the size
of the outside of the box to be hollowed. In the
centre of the chuck and gauge was a cutter made up of
a small tool, fitted into a second revolving chuck in
such a way as to permit a small portion only of the
cutting edge to project. The wood blank is turned in
a separate lathe. This blank is placed with its axis co
incident with the axis of the cutter spindle ; it is urged
longitudinally forward by a runner, its end being in
serted in the gauge, whilst the revolving cutter scoops
out the wood. The cutter and its position as regards
the centre of revolution were so arranged as to cut the
hollow to the required gauge of box.
Amongst miscellaneous wood -working machines
must be mentioned Messrs . Greenwood and Batley 's
machines for manufacturing gun stocks and other war
like materials. Several series of these machines have
been erected by them for the Government at Woolwich ,
Enfield , and elsewhere, leaving little in the manufacture
of a gun stock to be performed by hand, the recess for
receiving the lock even being cut out by mechanical
means. This operation is novel and somewhat difficult
to perform . A series of five cutters are mounted on
five separate spindles, each fitted in a separate slide
arranged in a rotating circular frame. Each slide has
a vertical and horizontal movement. The gun stock
and a hardened steelmodel of the recess required to be
246 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

cut are fixed on a table sliding horizontally at right

angles to the horizontal motion of the cutter slides.
The cutter spindles run at a high speed,and are brought
into operation in succession , and by compounding the
motions any shaped recess can be accurately formed,
each cutter being governed by a ' tracer'which travels
over the surface of the required model.
 247

CHAPTER XXVIII.
MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY FOR WORKING WOOD
continued.
SEVERAL attempts have been made to supersede manual
labour in felling trees in the forest, but, owing to the
difficulties of situation or manipulation, hitherto with
only qualified success ; and although possibly under
special circumstances mechanical means may be em
ployed economically, we are of opinion that the day is
far distant when the sound of the woodman's axe will
be banished by steam machinery . Inventors in this
direction include Thompson , Fousèque and Cordes,
Ransome, and others. Thompson exhibited an appa
ratus for this purpose as far back as our International
Exhibition of 1862. This consisted of a couple of
saws let into an endless band reciprocating between
two pulleys. One pulley was fixed on either side of the
tree to be felled,and one of them was arranged to pivot
in a circular segmental slide concentric with the sta
tionary pulley . The saw was fed into the tree by
shifting the saw frame towards it radially upon the
fixed pulley as a centre ; after the tree was cut half-way
through the saw was moved to the other side and the
operation repeated .
A few years since Messrs. Ransome and Co., of
 Y
WOOD -WORKI
NG INER
248 MACH .
London, patented a machine for felling and cross-cut
ting trees . This machine briefly consists of a steam
cylinder of small diameter, but arranged with a long
stroke. This cylinder is mounted on a wrought- iron
frame, and arranged to pivot by means of a hand wheel
and worm , gearing into a toothed quadrant fitted to
the back of the cylinder. The saw is fixed directly on
to the end of the piston rod, and arranged to travel in
guides ; the teeth of the saw are formed to cut only
during the backward stroke. The cylinder is supplied
with steam from a portable boiler by means of flexible
tubing, and the machine, when used for felling, is at
tached by a screw to a trident- pointed bar driven into
the tree itself. After the saw has progressed some little
way in its cut wedges are driven into it, to prevent the
saw being pinched or buckled and to guide the fall of
the tree. Four men are required to manipulate.
Another method of felling trees by means of re- .
volving cutters has recently been tried, but without
much success . The plan pursued was to mount in a
frame a lever carrying two arms,which were adjustable
horizontally to the size of the tree. On these arms
were mounted revolving cutters , which made an incision
into either side of the tree ; to keep the machine taut
a chain actuated by a winch was attached to the frame
and encircled the tree.
A portable tree -feller and sawing machine was
patented by W . H . Smyth in 1878. It consisted of a
reciprocating saw , united by a connecting-rod with a
cross bead, working on guides. The guides are loosely
united at their rear end with the driving axle, so that
they move round it as a centre as the saw makes its
cut. The driving crank is formed in this axle between
 MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY. 249
the guides, and is connected with the connecting -rod .
A lug on the latter actuates a paul gearing with a
ratchet on the end of a spindle, to the other end of
which is fixed a pinion gearing with a rack formed on
the fraine at the upper end of the machine, so that at
each stroke the saw is fed forward into the cut.
In 1874 also Fousèque and Cordes, of Paris, pa
tented an apparatus for cutting down trees.
An antifriction or rolling cam -press for extracting
the stumps of trees, the invention of Mr. Dicks, an
American , should be mentioned ; although it has never
come into much use, it was of great strength , and
possessed several features of novelty and interest to
engineers.
During the erection of our International Exhibition
of 1851 a series of machines were designed by Paxton ,
Birch, Furness, and Cooper for cutting gutters, shaping
hand rails, sash bars, & c., and sawing, planing, and
moulding the various wood work used in the erection .
A considerable number of patents have been ob
tained in connection with carving machinery. Mr.
J. Gibbs obtained one in 1829 for a machine for
shaping and recessing in low relief, shaping busts, & c.
Irving's patent in 1843 consists chiefly of improvements
and modifications of Gibbs's, but he claims all com
binations for carving in which the swing frame carry
ing the cutters and table carrying the wood have both
circular motions.
Jordan 's well-known system of carving machinery
by means of revolving tools was patented in 1845. It
was extremely ingenious and novel in many of its
working details, but, being somewhat complex and
elaborate, has never come into extended use . Some
250 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
ten years after a carving machine was invented by M .
Mathieu , a French engineer. It was made up of four
motions, consisting of the direct rotary action of cutters,
a traverse motion , and a transverse motion of cutters
and a raising and lowering action of the wood or other
material under treatment.
A number of machines have been designed for the
manufacture of wood interiors of railway carriage
wheels. Complete sets of machines for this purpose
have been erected by Messrs. Greenwood and Batley,
Robinson, & c.
Messrs. Greenwood and Batley's series of machines
includes an upright circular-table planing machine for
planing the blocks of wood for the interior of the
wheels before being jointed into tabs. This machine
was arranged with a horizontal rotating table , fitted
with dogs for holding six blocks of wood. On each
side of this table is a standard carrying a slide with
headstock and vertical spindle ; the lower end of this
spindle is fitted with a rotating arm and cutters, similar
to a Bramah planing machine. The table is made to
rotate slowly, and each block of wood is brought in
succession under one of the cutter arms, which sur
faces it on the upper side ; the block is then reversed
and again passed under the cutters ; it is thus planed
to an accurate thickness. The cutter heads are made
adjustable to varying thicknesses of wood . In another
machine the operations of sawing, tenoning, and adzing
the blocks are combined. The blocks or tabs are sawn
to the outside diameter by means of a band saw . Ten
tabs are held in a horizontal rotating table, which ,
as it rotates, brings the outer edge of the tab in contact
with the saw . The saw is arranged with vertical,
 MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY. 251
lateral, and canting adjustments to cut the tab to the
required diameter and berel. In the interior of the
before-mentioned table a jigger or reciprocating fret
saw works and cuts the inner edge of the tab to the
required diameter of the nave boss of the wheel. The
table continuing to rotate slowly, the periphery of each
tab,after being sawn, is brought under the operation of
a pair of cutters mounted on two adjustable spindles
working horizontally , which rebate the tab on either
side, Following this, the periphery of the tab is operated
on by planing cutters mounted on a vertical spindle
which smoothes the sawn surface, and another cutter
mounted on a vertical spindle chamfers off the interior
edge of the tab to fit the corner piece left between the
flange and the boss of the nave. As each tab is finished
it is replaced by another.
' In Messrs. Robinson's machines for making · Man
sel's patent wheels ' the blocks of wood are edged and
divided on a circular saw bench with two adjustable
fences, which can be placed at any desired angle to each
other ; these are arranged on a dovetail slide, which is
carried through the saw by a screw and bevel gear with
quick return motion , and is so arranged that it is auto
matically thrown out of gear as each block has passed
the saw . Another machine of this series is arranged to
bore out the centre of the wheel to receive the boss.
The main boring spindle is fitted with a screw , which ,
in addition to bringing the spindle down to its work , is
used for forcing the boss of the wheel into the centre .
The circular table is made to revolve horizontally , and
fitted with a catch which divides accurately each revo
lution of the table into as many parts as there are holes
required for bolts to secure the boss of the wheel in
252 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
its place. These holes are bored by a supplementary
spindle. .
A number of machines for cutting match splints
have been made, including one patented by John Long,
of Glasgow , in 1865. The improvements herein con
tained relate to an arrangement and combination of
certain parts of mechanism , and have for their essential
object the cutting or dividing of timber with rapidity
into small pieces, such as those used in the manufacture
of lucifer matches, pencils, or other generally similar
purposes. The apparatus consists of a strong iron frame,
in the lower portion of which themain shaft revolves by
means of a belt actuating a pulley fixed thereon. At
one end of the shaft a fly wheel is fixed, at the other
end a crank or cam is attached, and a connecting rod
extended from this to the movable block or frame
carrying the knife or knives by which the vertical cut
in the wood to be divided is made. As the cam or
crank revolves, its eccentric or circular motion is
converted by means of the connecting rod into a
vertical reciprocating motion of the knife or knives. On
the top of the framework V or other shaped slides are
fixed , and on these travel the saddle or table carrying
the pieces or blocks of timber to be divided . The table
is furnished with two gutters above, into which the
blocks of timber previously cut to the required shape
are placed . The table is caused to travel horizontally
on the slides, and thus the faces of the two blocks being
cut are alternately brought in front of the knife or
knives. The horizontal movement is imparted to the
table by means of a cam fixed into the main shaft.
The cam is grooved , and into this groove enters an
antifrictional roller on a stud projecting from the side
 MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY. 253
of a strong lever. Therefore as the cam revolves the
lever is caused to vibrate ; and its upper end being
coupled to the saddle or table , the two blocks of wood
impart the necessary horizontal motion to it. Attached
to that portion of the framework in which the vertically
acting knife or knives are located is a projecting set or
sets of knives, which cut into the blocks of wood as
they alternately travel before them . By these means
the wood is first divided into a number of horizontal
strips, needing only the downward motion of the knife
to separate them in the form of rectangular bars from
the block or blocks of timber. The splints are thus at
once produced in a state fit to be used for any purpose
before described . As soon as one downward cut has
been made, the table travels back to its former position ,
and the other block is similarly treated. It should be
mentioned that the table is fitted with two sets of
forwarding gear, by means of which , as soon as one set
of splints have been cut off the block ofwood, it is forced
on à distance sufficient to allow an equivalent portion
to be divided or cut off for the next set of splints.
Our illustrations (figs. 40 and 41) represent a ma
chine designed by Messrs. Richards and Atkinson, of
Manchester, for sawing to exact finished dimensions.
For this purpose especial care has been taken to ensure
the utmost accuracy in the working details. Aswill be
seen from the drawing, two saws are mounted in a
swinging frame, either of which can readily be brought
into use by the worm gearing for ripping , cross-cutting,
or grooving , as may be desired. The driving band is
so arranged that it retains its proper driving tension at
any position of the saws. For cutting out printer's
reglets, accurate pattern , or other similar work this
machine should be of considerable service.
 254
WOOD- IVORKING MACHINERY.

MACHIN
SAWING
.41
DAND
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FIGS
 TREERIT
Ilmalinimo
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HE
UAB hinahan
T

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AR

Victor
Rose
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FLOTINGS
ORSTRAIGHT
TWISTED
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 MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY. 255

Our space precludes our noticing the various im

provements introduced into ordinary lathes for turning
wood, but we herewith illustrate one ( fig . 42) designed
for copying special and fixed work by F . Arbey , of
Paris. It is constructed for cutting twisted or straight
flutings, and other ornamental work usually found in
various kinds of furniture, such as the beads and flutes
in table legs and columns. Although the patterns it is
capable of copying appear somewhat complex, the
action of the machine is positive ; but it can be altered
and varied very considerably . The speed of the cutters
is adjustable to suit different kinds of work, and the
designs are readily altered . Altogether it must be
held to be a very fair example of its class.
 G ERY
256 WOOD -WORKIN MACHIN .

CHAPTER XXIX .
MOTIVE POWER FOR DRIVING WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

The earliest motive power used for driving wood-work

ing machinery was that produced by the water-wheel
and wind-mill. The latter has entirely fallen into disuse ;
but a great number of water-wheels are still in opera
tion , and, where sufficient water can be obtained, it is
undoubtedly the most economical power available .
Turbines and other forms of water engines have of late
years been introduced, with more or less success ; but,
as a sufficient fall or head of water is seldom to be had,
steam must of necessity be the power most generally
employed . The different types of engines are ó as thick
as leaves in Vallambrosa ;' and when a user is con
fronted with six -cylinder, three-cylinder, rotary , oscil
lating, & c. & c., all warranted to effect wonderful results,
no wonder he finds confusion worse confounded .'
From a somewhat extended experience the writer is
of opinion that for driving wood -working machinery ,
except under certain special conditions, the most eco
nomical and convenient form of engine is the horizontal
high-pressure , fitted with a condenser, as by this means
a vacuum is formed behind the piston , relieving it of
back pressure and giving an increase of power and a
consequent saving in fuel. We will not here dwell on
 MOTIVE POWER. 257

the extremely short-sighted policy of employing an

engine of a low class. This has been urged over and
over again ; but, tempted by a low first cost, numbers
of people may still be found to purchase these miser
able productions, which have already considerably
damaged the high character for design, materials, and
workmanship once held by English -made engines in all
parts of the world . So much having been done in that
direction , it would be out of our province to write at
length on the economy of the steam engine ; but we
take it that an engine for this class of work , to be
really economical, should combine in its construction
the following points: - (1 ) a stroke of at least twice the
diameter of the cylinder ; (2 ) an efficient condenser ;
(3) an automatic expansion slide, controlled by sensi
tive governor gear ; (4) a steam -jacketed and lagged
cylinder ; (5 ) short steam -ways ; (6 ) all bearing surfaces
well fitted and lubricated, and an efficient method of
packing ; (7) large cylinder area for nominal horse
power; (8 ) fly wheel of large diameter and extra
heavy section . In addition to these points , as the duty
of an engine for saw -mill purposes is often very severe,
great care should be taken that the materials and
workmanship employed are of the first class. The
crank shaft, connecting rods, & c., should be made of
the best fagoted scrap -iron ; the piston rod, keys,
pins, & c ., of steel ; the bolts , joints, & c., subject to any
special wear should be case-hardened . All glands
should be bushed with gun metal, and the guide blocks
and crank-shaft bearings made adjustable for wear.
If power has to be transmitted a considerable dis
tance by means of shafting, a large amount of force is
lost through the friction necessarily engendered ; and
258 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
it has become more or less the fashion to substitute
several smaller engines and boilers in lieu of one large
one. This plan has the additional advantage that,
should an accident occur, the whole establishment is
not necessarily laid idle. If small high- speed engines
are employed, the momentum of the reciprocating parts
should be balanced . This can be done by so counter
weighting the crank that the piston , when working ,
moves in an opposite direction to the counterweights.
The shaft is thus relieved from excessive shock .
In these engines, which should work expansively,
the bearing surfaces must be of longer area than in
slower running engines, and the workmanship must be
of the first order, or they will be found to deteriorate
rapidly.
In small establishments , where much power is not
required or where space is of great value , vertical com
bined engines and boilers are often employed . The
foregoing remarks apply with equal force to these as
well as any other form of engine that may be used .
In vertical combined engines and boilers all working
parts of the engine should be made totally independent
of the boiler , as the constant action of the engine pro
duces an injurious strain on the boiler, and, from the
expansion and contraction of the boiler, the proper
working of the valves of the engine is also interfered
with . As regards the construction of the boiler , we
recommend the dome description with cross tubes in
preference to the multitubular form , as being easier kept
in repair and free from deposit. The cross tubes should
be made of Lowmoor or equal brand of iron, and so
arranged that the flame should be distributed and as
much heat as possible extracted from it before being
allowed to pass into the chimney.
 MOTI ’ E POWER. 259

The types of steam boilers at present in use are

almost endless. Although the locomotive and other
forms doubtless possess advantages under certain con
ditions for saw -mill purposes, all things considered ,
the Galloway type of boiler, or the Cornish boiler with
cross tubes , is to be recommended for safety, durability ,
and economy; and they have also the additional advan
tage of being readily cleaned and repaired, and are
easily managed, which is important, as in saw mills,
especially in remote districts, skilled labour is not
always obtainable.
In recent types of Galloway boilers several improve
ments of some moment in their shape and mode of
manufacture have been introduced. The edges of the
plates are planed , by which means any flaws in the iron
are easily detected . The diagonal edges of the plates
are afterwards “ fullered ' with a flat fullering tool
which brings the plates close and tight together . The
plates are riveted by a dead pressure, and not a sudden
blow , the pressure being adjusted according to the
gauge of rivets and plates. If a Cornish boiler is em
ployed, it should undoubtedly be fitted with coned cross
tubes, the circulation of the water being much im
proved and the strain on the joints from unequal ex
pansion considerably lessened.
An advantage in the Galloway type of boiler over
the Cornish is that, without complicating the form of
the boiler for cleaning or repairs, the heating surface is
much greater, the tubes being in the direct passage of
the heatwhich strikes against them . The cone tubes
are usually constructed of plates of a thinner gauge
than the rest of the boiler , thus enabling the heat
to pass more readily into the water. The boiler
s 2
260 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

plates should be carefully selected, and the edges of

the plates planed ; the rivet holes should by preference
be drilled instead of punched, as the strength of the
boiler is thereby considerably increased. Should the
rivet holes be punched, they should be of an even
pitch , thus equalising the strain on the rivets. The
size and pitch of the rivets should be accurately pro
portioned to the thickness of the boiler plates used .
The resistance of the boiler shell to bursting pressure,
and the Aues to collapse, should also be carefully
studied.
As regards the prevention of incrustation , great
care should be exercised in using anti- incrustation
remedies, as many of them contain either acid , which
affects injuriously the boiler plates, or some greasy
or glutinous matter, which gives them a tendency to
burn . Grease especially should never be introduced
into a boiler. We have found that by blowing out
once a fortnight, and using a solution of common soda ,
we have had little difficulty in keeping a double-flued
Cornish boiler clean, although the water used was an
indifferent sample. In waters containing much sul
phate of lime or other deleterous substances a simple
form of feed-heater should be employed , as by its use
the water is considerably purified before entering the
boiler, and any deposit or incrustation can more easily
be removed . Many remedies for incrustation havebeen
introduced , including pieces of oak suspended in the
boiler , oak or mahogany sawdust, branches or sprays
of the trees, spent tanner' s bark , chloride of tin, mu
riate of ammonia , & c . ; but it may safely be concluded
that although a remedymay answer in one sample of
water, it by no means follows that it may be equally
 MOTIVE POWER. 261

successful in another, asmuch undoubtedly depends on

the nature of the calcareous salts contained in the
water employed. Hydrate of soda has been used with
considerable success in waters containing silicates and
some kinds of salts, and boracic acid is also used in the
prevention of deposits. Of late years so great has been
the desire to produce something new in the means em
ployed for generating steam , that what Fairbairn calls
the very essence of constructive science is often neg
lected, and the distribution of the material and form
best calculated to ensure the maximum strength with
theminimum amount of complication is almost entirely
lost sight of. Boilers used for driving wood-working
machinery should be constructed with one-third larger
fire -grate surface than is usual for burning sawdust
and waste wood as well as coal. The combustion of
wood and coal together produces a heat of considerable
intensity. Care should therefore be taken that the
flame of the fire should be equalised and distributed as
much as possible , that the flues should be of simple
construction and easily accessible. In some districts
also the water available is heavily charged with car
bonate of lime or other substances which very readily
cause incrustation , and , unless great care is exercised ,
the multitubular or other complicated form of boiler is
rapidly destroyed. The boiler employed should in all
cases be of ample power for the work to be performed.
An apparatus for heating the feed water by the exhaust
steam should also be fitted to the boiler, as by this
small additional outlay a saving in fuel of at least 10
per cent. is effected .
Much has been written on the corrosion of steam
boilers and the best means to employ for the prevention
 G ERY
262 WOOD -WORKIN MACHIN .

of the same. External corrosion or oxidation is due

to atmospheric influences or damp foundation of the
boiler , and is usually easily prevented by covering the
boiler with felt or a suitable material which prevents
also radiation of the heat. If the boiler is fixed in a
very wet situation , in addition to the felt it is some
times found necessary to case the boilers with sheet
lead . Some classes of paint also prevent oxidation in
a very considerable degree. As regards internal corro
sion, very great difficulty is often experienced, especially
with certain samples of water, and where tubular or
any complicated form of boilers are employed in keeping
the same in a satisfactory working condition. This is
most generally felt in marine boilers, sea water being
a very active corrosive agent. It is generally held that,
owing to the varying densities of the metal of the rivets
and the boiler plates, a mild galvanic action is produced ,
and corrosion usually commences round the rivet holes.
Corrosion thus especially attacking the rivet joints is
attributed by Mr. William Kirtley to a mechanical
action combined with a chemical action , and, from his
experience, in locomotive boilers constructed with lap
joints it attacked the smoke-box end of the boiler, but
sometimes extended slightly in an irregular manner
over the whole boiler surface.
The mechanical action referred to is attributed by
Mr. Kirtley to the continued expansion and contraction
of the boiler springing and bending the plates at the
joint lines, thus breaking off the scale deposited by the
water — which is found to be in a certain degree a pro
tection against corrosion — and leaving the boiler plates
1 Proceedings 1. M . E ., 1866.
 MOTIVE POWER. 263
exposed to the continual corroding action of the water .
Owing to the high pressure at which locomotive boilers
work as compared with stationary boilers, this spring
ing action would without doubt be more severely felt in
boilers of that type ; consequently the tendency to cor
rosion from this cause would be greater. It is also
found that this detrimental action is increased when
frame stays or brackets offering a special resistance to
the expansion of the boiler are used . To obviate as
far as possible the excessive corrosion at the rivet
joints, a plan often pursued is to roll the iron plates
with gradually thickened edges, which distributes the
springing action over a considerable area. Welded
joints seem also to exercise a tendency to prevent cor
rosion by removing the especial strains found in using
lap- welded joints.
Should more than 25 horse-power be required, it is
preferable to use a pair of boilers instead of one.
All Cornish boilers above 12 horse-power should be
constructed with double flues, and fitted with Cross or
Galloway tubes, and should in addition be thoroughly
stayed. It is a trite but not unnecessary remark in
these days of unfair trading and excessive competition
that when human life is at stake only a first -rate
quality of iron should be used in the construction of
steam boilers, and where the action of the fire comes
in direct contact with the plates, iron of the very
highest possible quality only should be used . For forest
use , or where machinery has to be moved from place to
place, the ordinary portable engine and boiler on wheels
is to be preferred . The different forms of three-cylinder
engines, such as the Brotherhood, Willans', & c., al
though using a considerable amount of steam , are
264 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

sometimes found useful in driving single machines.

Where the rate of speed is not too high they are often
fixed directly on to the main spindle . In the recent
( 1878) International Exhibition in Paris we saw at
tached directly to the bottom saw -wheel spindle of a
band sawing machine, exhibited by Mons. J . Fau , of
Bordeaux, a new form of rotative engine, patented by
P . Martin . It was capable of running at a very high
rate of speed, but as to its advantages or the reverse
we are not in a position to speak .
Great care should be exercised in setting the boiler ,
and the draught should in all cases be regulated by
an automatic steam -damper , which, as it requires no
attention and is regular in its action, effects a con
siderable saving over the old form of slide damper, the
working of which is oftentimes negiected by the fire
man . It may not here be out of place to remark on
the false economy of employing so -called ' cheap '
labour in the management of engines and boilers, as
it has been proved beyond doubt that an intelligent
trained man, who has some knowledge of the properties
of steam ,who knows the economy of keeping a bright
even fire and his boiler, safety valves, gauges, & c., clean
and in good condition, will, in the course of twelve
months, get extra duty out of his engine, and effect a
saving in fuel and repairs very much in excess of the
extra wages paid him . The explosions which almost
daily occur, occasioning great loss of life and destruc
tion of property, are generally attributed to either
the culpable ignorance of the attendant or to the
use of worn -out or badly constructed boilers . The
subject of granting certificates to engine-drivers and
placing steam boilers under Government inspection has
 MOTIVE POWER. 265
of late years been moved in the House of Commons on
several occasions, and although, doubtless, a moderate
Act would be for the general public good, the question
seems to have been, at any rate for the present, quietly
shelved.
The boiler and all steam pipes should be covered
with felt or other non -conducting composition, to pre
vent radiation of heat or freezing . The composition
known as Leroy's gives for this purpose satisfactory
results, but we hear highly spoken of a later introduc
tion , known as Toope's patent. This covering is com
posed of hair, felting, and paper, which is protected
from charring by an interior lining of asbestos. It is
said to be an admirable non -conductor, has absolute
freedom from cracking, is light and easily fixed or
removed, and is indestructible at any temperature at
which steam is used. If it is found to fulfil all these
conditions, it will, without doubt, be of great value to
steam -users, as it overcomes several objections to most
of the boiler coverings now in use, not the least of
which is that it is entirely free from the crumbling
action now so often found .
Before concluding our remarks under this heading
we should wish to draw our readers ' attention to the
great practical value of themineralasbestos for packing
steam piston and pump rods, stuffing boxes, & c ., and
when combined with felt it is an excellent covering for
steam boilers. Although its existence has been known
for many centuries, it is only during the last few years
that its valuable properties have been utilised. Asbestos
of the best quality is found in considerable quantities
in the Italian Alps ; it is fibrous in texture, and is
capable of being woven or combined with other mate
266 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
rial. It also possesses the peculiar property of being
unaffected by the action of fire, acids, friction , or
moisture. It can also be used in the form of paste or
millboard for steam and other joints . It is also very
well adapted for packing steam fittings, such as cocks
and water gauges, and we can, from our experience,
speak in favour of its valuable qualities. Compressed
wood pulp made up in the form of annular rings for
glands, and sheets and washers for steam joints, has
several features to recommend it, notably that the
joints are easily broken and renewed , that the pulp
readily retains the lubricating matter employed, and is
anti-corrosive and will stand superheated steam . For
glands the packing is usually made in segments of
the exact size of the stuffing box.
 267

CHAPTER XXX .
ARRANGEMENT OF SAW MILLS AND ECONOMICAL
CONVERSION OF TIMBER.

A SAW MILL being for the purpose of converting crude

material into articles of commerce and general utility ,
the great point to be aimed at is how to accomplish
this with the greatest economy and despatch combined
with quality of production. Saw mills being often
situated in crowded cities, where space is of great
value, and where any kind of building has to do duty ,
a set plan for laying out or designing a mill can hardly
be laid down, but must vary according to circumstances.
The following hints, however, may not be out of
place :
Where space is obtainable, buildings should be ar
ranged with large sliding doors at either end of the
mill, so that timber may be passed in at one end in the
rough, and, after being worked through the various
machines , passed out at the other as manufactured
goods. A tramway should run down the centre of the
inill, and where much heavy timber is worked an over
head traveller is necessary. In arranging a mill
advantage should always be taken of the site with
reference to land or water carriage of the timber. If
near a canal or river, the mill should be so arranged
268 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
that as the timber left the water it should pass directly
to the heavy machines, such as timber frames or rack
benches for breaking down ; its further manipulation is
thus at once made easier. As regards the best shape
for a mill, where all ordinary classes of work, such as
sawing, planing , moulding, & c., are performed we have
found a rectangular building of a length of abouttwo
and a half times its width the most suitable shape.
If an engine and boiler is used to give the motive
power, it should , if possible ,be placed outside the main
building. If placed inside the builing , it should be
divided off from the rest of the machines. The whole
of the main shafting should be arranged underground
and run transversely across the building ; it should be
easily get-at-able for lubrication , removal of belts , & c .
Underground chambers should also be provided for the
reception of sawdust and shavings.
If the building is more than 100 feet long, three
lines of shafting should be used , the last two shafts of
which can be arranged to run at higher speeds if re
quired . We have found a speed of about 250 revolu
tions per minute the most suitable for all ordinary
wood-working operations. The various machines
should never be crowded together, and if upper floors
are used light machines with , if possible , a rotary
motion should be fixed on them , as the constant vi
bration from some machines with a reciprocating
motion has a tendency to damage and displace the
joists and brick -work unless of very strong section .
The shafting for an upper floor should be fixed at the
roof of the ground floor. Adequate means for hoisting
timber to this floor must be taken . A first-rate and
rapid plan for carrying up deals is to arrangean endless
 SAW MILLS, ETC. 269
belt, some 9 inches wide and fitted with stop pieces,
to run at an angle of about 45 degrees from the base
ment through a trap door to the floor above ; by this
means deals, & c., can be carried up as fast as they can
be placed on the belt.
With the object of facilitating the conveyance of
timber from on board ships, barges, or railway trucks
directly to the various machines to be converted , or to
the yard to be stacked, without the aid of manual
labour, Mr. Samuel Boulton , of London , in the year
1868 took out letters patent. For this purpose the
inventor proposed to construct in the timber yard and
saw mill channels, conduits , shoots, troughs, or pipes
containing water, either open or closed, and either
sunk in the ground, laid upon or raised above it ;
these channels to lead from the water-side or other
locality ; the timber to be conveyed into such water
channels from the vessel by means of endless chains
or bands provided with dogs.
When the timber reaches the water channels, it
can either be pushed along or conveyed by an esta
blished water current. Mr. Boulton decribes an
elaborate arrangement of water channels, & c ., designed
to carry timber to any part of an establishment ; but
when we consider the numerous drawbacks to the
scheme— the discoloration, increased risk of cracking
in the drying, the extra power required in sawing wet
timber , & c. — we are afraid it cannot be held to be of
much practical value, at any rate in this country .
All saw -mill floors, whether ground or otherwise,
should be made of ample strength to withstand ma
chine vibration or any load that may be placed on
them . The ground floor should be built on piers, and
270 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
we have found joist floors the best form of flooring to
use, as from their construction they resist successfully
any excessive vibration. Where a single first floor is
used and the bearing exceeds 10 feet, herring-bone
strutting should be used.
As regards the most economical coal for the produc
tion of steam much has been written . Of course the
heat evolved from the combustion of different samples
of coal differs very considerably, the carbon varying
from 75° to 95°. We prefer, on the whole, some
samples of South Wales steam coal we have used to
any other.
Sawdust and wood refuse, if mixed with a little tar
or bituminous coal,makes a very fierce fire , but should be
used with care, or burnt boiler-plates will be the result.
Owing to the daily increasing competition in the
conversion of wood from Norway, Sweden , and even
America,who export largely to this country manufac
tured joinery of all kinds, English makers have at
present, and will in the future have greater, difficulty
in successfully holding their own. The success of this
competition in the case of Norway and Sweden must
be attributed to the abundance of the crude material
and the cheapness of labour. This is otherwise as
regards America , as, although timber is cheaper, wages
are considerably higher. This can in a measure be ex
plained by the much greater facilities offered in America
to inventors to protect even the smallest improvement
in the constructional details of labour-saving machinery.
In this country, on the contrary, owing to the high
cost of letters patent, a workman has no incentive to
improve the smaller details of a machine, which tend
so much to its productive efficiency, and , unless an idea
 SAW MILLS, ETC. 271

is strikingly original, invention does not pay. In fact,

in England brains often have to seek money to carry out
their ideas, whilst in America money seeks the brains.
This, however, by the way.
Supposing the mill to be ready for receiving the
machinery, and the particular branch of wood conver
sion or manufacture decided on, the next and very
important step is to obtain that machinery which is
best and more especially suited to execute with rapidity
and economy the work required. The selection of the
requisite machinery is a matter of the highest im
portance, and , unless very judiciously undertaken , an
investor may find himself saddled with a lot of costly
and elaborate machinery ill adapted to his wants .
Care should be taken that the machinery selected
should combine high -class workmanship and material,
the greatest amount of productive efficiency with the
least amount of complication . The so -called “ cheap '
machinery must be held to be dear at any price, the
difference in first cost being rapidly counterbalanced by
constant breakdowns and loss of time, often coupled
with inferior work . The price of a really high-class,
labour-saving machine should always be a secondary
consideration .
When the necessary machinery is arranged, the
very important question of how to employ it economi
cally and profitably presents itself. As regards the
labour employed in directing the conversion of wood
by machinery, the highly skilled and highly paid
workman is as a rule the cheapest, the first difference
in cost being soon counterbalanced by an increased
output from the machine and of better average quality.
Where a steady and uniform business of a certain class
272 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
is carried on, we are strongly in favour of piece work .
Much has been written for and against this system ,
but as far as our experience extends a man is rarely or
never found who will perform the same amount of
work whilst working by the day or hour as he will
whilst on piece work . Piece work ,which , by the way,
should never be carried to excess, also encourages dili
gence and energy, and the skilful workman thereby
reaps in wages his just value. Of course in some high
classes of work it is very difficult to introduce piece
work with advantage, but for the vast majority of
wood manufactures it is undoubtedly the true system .
Of course in piece work workmen have the greatest
interest in completing work with all possible speed.
Care must therefore be taken that it is not allowed to
be scamped ,' and on no account should the quality of
the finish and detail be sacrificed to quantity of out
put. Piece work has also the additional advantage of
offering a premium to the operator, of keeping his
machine and tools in constant use and in the higbest
state of efficiency .
Care should be taken that all machines are set at a
dead level both horizontally and transversely , and are
free from excessive vibration when in work, and ade
quate means taken for transporting rapidly and with
little manual labour therequired timber . Where many
saws, either circular or straight, are in use, a machine
for sharpening should invariably be employed.
The wood prepared on a saw bench for mouldings
should always be cut feather-edged or to a bevel, and
the pieces of wood sawn off worked up into small
mouldings. It is astonishing even now the number of
mill-owners who allow their machines to cut mouldings
 SAW MILLS, ETC. 273

from a square- sided piece of wood , a large percentage

therefore being entirely wasted. These bevelled pieces
are easily fed through a moulding machine by substitut
ing for the ordinary parallel feed-rollers narrow rollers,
with their periphery serrated and sharply bevelled .
Short driving belts are to be avoided in every way, as
they simply mean great increase of friction , and conse
quent deterioration to belt and bearings, with increased
difficulty of lubrication . The belting used should be
uniform in thickness, and kept as pliable as possible ,
and sufficiently wide to prevent over-straining. After
repeated experiments I can recommend that driving
belts should be run with their outside or smooth surface
to the pulley ,which is directly contrary to the plan now
usually pursued, the practice being to run the rough
or flesh side of the belt on the pulley . I have found
that if a belt is evenly made, and smooth on its face , it
bears equally over the whole face of the pulley , and not
at certain points , as in the rongh surface of the flesh
side of the leather. With a smooth belt the air is
almost entirely excluded, and the driving power con
siderably increased. To produce a smooth and perfect
surface on the wood when planing, much depends on
the accuracy with which the knives are sharpened and
adjusted on the cutter block . A straight-edge or
square should be used to try them at all points. The
usual plan of trying them on the wood is not, as a rule ,
sufficiently accurate . Bottom cutter -blocks are easily
adjusted by laying the straight-edge over the opening
through which the cutters project , and making each
knife touch exactly at every point the edge of the
straight- edge. Duplicate sets of tools should be kept
on hand in case of accidents. Automatic lubrication
274 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
should be employed wherever possible , and none but
the best lubricants employed for high -speed spindles.
All open oil-ways should be protected from dust ; the
bright parts of machines not in use should be coated
with a mixture of white lead and tallow . At least half
an hour should be spent at the end of each week in
thoroughly cleaning the whole of the working parts of
the machines, and the framework should occasionally be
painted. This not only preserves the iron, adding to
the appearance of the mill, but encourages the work
man to take a pride in the condition of his machine.
These points are, however, often neglected .
 275

CHAPTER XXXI.
MACHINES FOR ESTATE PURPOSES .

The use of wood -working machinery is gradually ex

tending to that class of work required on country
estates - viz . the conversion of timber grown on the
estate into boards, gates, posts and rails, fencing, & c .,
and other articles required in the farm buildings and
cottages. Even on estates ofmoderate size - say, above
one thousand acres - steam can doubtless be employed
profitably in wood conversion, as, should an engine be
used — as in these days of high farming is generally the
case— for preparing cattle food, it can be devoted at
least one day a week to wood -cutting, and even at this
rate will pay a fair interest on the very moderate
outlay necessary . Except on large estates, and where
skilled men are constantly employed , machines of the
plainest and simplest kind are to be preferred , as
joinery and mouldings, & c ., can usually be purchased
cheaper than they can be prepared, at any rate in
small quantities. The most convenient machine to use
is a plain circular-saw bench, or one fitted with self
acting feed where heavy timber is used . The frame of
this bench should be on the box ' principle, and especi
ally strong to withstand rough and unskilful usage. The
saw spindle should be arranged to rise and fall, so that
T 2
 NG NERY
276 WOOD -WORKI MACHI .
the driving pulleysmay be lowered below the level of
the table , so that the whole width of the bench may be
utilised for cross-cutting posts and rails, fire wood , & c.
A sliding plate , working in a dovetail groove on the top
of the bench, running parallel to the saw , and fitted
with a cramp for securely holding the wood , should be
employed where much accurate cross -cutting is re
quired, such as wood blocks for paving purposes, & c.
The saw fence or guide should be arranged to turn
over the end of the bench , out of the way, when not
required for straight sawing. The saw spindle should
be bored at one end to receive augers for boring or slot
mortising purposes. For estate purposes the addition
of a mortising table is of great value. This is best
added by arranging the frame of the bench on one side
immediately below the saw spindle, with planed strips
to receive a sliding table or bracket, which can be raised
or lowered vertically by a rack or screw . On this table
is fitted a slide, arranged with lateral and transverse
movements, and a cramp holds the wood firmly whilst
under the action of the mortising tool. The mortises
are produced by a revolving routing or slot- nortise tool,
the slide carrying the wood at the same time receiving
a traverse motion by means of a hand lever. The
lengths of the required mortises are governed by ad .
justable stop-pieces, and the transverse movement of
the slide, which is usually worked by a hand wheel and
screw , gives the required depths.
Should a further range of work be required, an ar
rangement for cutting tenons, striking mouldings, or
planing can be added . Except where a permanent saw
mill is established, the portable engine is the most
useful form to employ for estate purposes.
 277

CHAPTER XXXII.
FRAMINGS OF WOOD -WORKING MACHINES.

WHEN considering the different classes of machines,

we have from time to time given hints as to their
framing and general construction ; but as wood -work
ing, unlike most other machinery, is subject to ex
cessive and constant strains, it may not be out of
place to discuss the matter a little more fully . In
addition to the ordinary strains of tension, pressure, or
shearing stress, the framings of wood-working machines
are subject to an especially severe vibrating strain ,
arising from the high speeds, arduous duty , change
in velocity or direction of motion, which the spindles
or working parts are subject to . The ordinary rules
for calculating the elastic or breaking strain of the
materials employed when designing framing must be
considerably modified , allowance being made for ex
cessive vibration, and in some classes of machines for
the heavy load, in addition to the ordinary working
details the framings have to carry. As we have before
mentioned, for some years the framings of wood -work
ing machines were constructed almost entirely of wood ,
the theory being that wood, being elastic, would , more
readily than iron,absorb the excessive vibration. Prac
tical experience has,however, sufficiently disproved this
278 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY .

idea , that we will not further discuss it. For all the
heavier classes of machines, and some of those with a
reciprocating motion , which in their working have a
constant jar or vibration, such as steam mortising
machines,we prefer the cored or hollow -section framing.
This form of framing is doubtless higher in first cost ,
and somewhat more difficult to manipulate, but this is
more than counterbalanced by its increased strength
and resistance to stress, economy of material in ratio
to strength, and increased compactness and neatness
in design.
Much improvement in machine design has doubtless
recently been made ; but even now we frequently see
large quantities of waste material in the framing or
supporting brackets, which, if not absolutely injurious,
is of no advantage to the working of the machine,
whilst other parts, where strength is required and
where a “ fillet ' or flange in the casting would be of
value, is left unprotected ; the result is unequal strain ,
excessive vibration, and inferior work . The same re
marks apply with increased force where the metal is
' scamped,' as in the so -called cheap machinery, where
general efficiency is sacrificed to low first cost .
Although no absolute rules can be laid down, these
defects , with a little practical experience, can easily
be obviated , bearing in mind that the various propor
tions should be judiciously distributed , according to the
strains to be put on them ; that they should be con
venient for the founder, and easily manipulated and
renewable, in the first instance in the workshop, and
afterwards in the saw mill. As regards the allowance
to bemade in constructing framing, in consequence of
the constant additional vibrating strain it would vary
 FRAMINGS OF WOOD -WORKING MACHINES. 279
considerably in different classes ofmachines. In steam
mortising machines with a reciprocating motion it
would be as high as 25 per cent., whilst in band - sawing
machines, where the strain is chiefly torsional and the
speed or duty not especially severe, a considerably less
percentage would be sufficient. In any case the work
ing stress of framings should always be considerably
less than the elastic stress, as the tangential and other
strains produced by imperfectly balanced working parts,
unequal or excessive duty, lack of speed , undue friction ,
uneven foundations, or inferior workmanship must not
be lost sight of.
Great care should be exercised in the making and
finish of the wooden patterns used ; inferior woods
should never be employed. The best yellow pine is
suitable for the larger patterns, and mahogany for the
small. Whatever little extra trouble or expense is in
curred in making perfect patterns is amply repaid by
the casting being much improved in symmetry and re
quiring less finishing. In machine framings, owing to
the difficulty of retaining sharp outlines in cast iron,
the profiles should always be bold and simple in design,
the edges well rounded , and all hollows, where stability
and extra steadiness in working is required , should be
supported by suitable fillets or ribs.
Complex forms in machine design are in every way
to be avoided . This may appear a somewhat trite , but
it is certainly not an unnecessary, remark in these days
of fierce competition and straining after originality,
and young engineers may bear in mind with advantage
the saying of James Watt that the greatest of all
prerogatives is simplicity, but more especially when
applied to machinery.'
280 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
If iron patterns are used, which is advantageous
when a large number of castings are required, allow
ance must be made in the wooden pattern in the first
instance for the contraction in casting in the subse
quent cooling. It is somewhat difficult to determine
accurately the amount of this contraction ,which varies
according to the size and thickness of the casting, the
nature of the iron , and the rapidity of cooling; but for
framing castings of medium size - say, up to two tons in
weight - composed of iron of fair quality and cooled
slowly, a calculation for contraction of about one-eighth
of an inch per foot in either direction would , we think,
be safe . The thickness of the metal in machine framings
should always be as uniform or gradual as possible, so
that the contraction of the molten iron in cooling may
be tolerably equal. The sudden changes in a casting
from thin to thick metal should be avoided , as they
produce a degree of initial stress which lessens con
siderably its strength , strains and twists it out of shape,
and at times even fractures it. Each part of a machine
frame or details should , as far as possible , be calculated
to bear easily the highest amount of straining action of
whatever kind that is usually put on it whilst perform
ing the severest duty of which the machine is capable .
The exact calculation of these various and somewhat
complex strains is, however , difficult, and must, after a
certain point, be left almost entirely to practical ex
perience. If motion or load is suddenly applied, the
stress on both framing and wearing parts is much in
creased. This of course is especially noticeable in high
speeded machines ; care therefore should be taken that
the application of the belt or other power for producing
motion should be very gradual. This is a point, we are
 FRAMINGS OF WOOD-WORKING MACHINES. 281
afraid , that is often overlooked, but one that adds con
siderably to the longevity of a machine. We have
found the application of a quick-threaded screw for
starting or stopping belts a simple and effectualmethod
of gradually applying this power.
For machines where the speed is moderate and the
duty light, framings with ribbed sections have some
advantages, notably that of cheapness and easy mani
pulation ; but on the whole tubular or cored framing,
with its various modifications, is much to be preferred .
Care must be taken that the mixture of iron em
ployed is of good quality, and produces sound castings
free from air bubbles or honeycombs. When broken ,
the iron should appear close in the grain and of a
light bluish -grey colour. Unsound castings, or those
showing a mottled appearance, should never be em
ployed where they may be subject to any considerable
strain. The surface of the castings should be made as
clean as possible, any little extra expenditure in this
direction amply repaying itself in their appearance and
strength . But how often do we see a pound a ton
saved in the first cost more than spent in making the
castings presentable by chipping them over their surface,
reducing at the same time considerably their resistance
to stress by removing the outer skin of the iron. By
casting the iron under pressure much sounder castings
are produced, but the difficulties and cost of the process
preclude its use, except for plain and well-defined
articles and when expense is not of the greatest im
portance . Air bubbles or honeycombs may be detected ,
after a little experience, by ringing a hammer over the
surface of the casting
Especial care must be taken in designing the fram
282 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
ing of machines with a reciprocating motion , such as
timber frames, mortising machines, & c., with a view of
overcoming the excessive vibration. In America the
main uprights of timber frames of large size are often
constructed of wood , and attached to or combined with
the timber supports of the building itself. By these
means the jar and vibration is in a great degree ab
sorbed , and saw frames constructed on this plan are
found to work with a considerable amount of success.
They are, however, open to objections for English use,
and are on the whole somewhat cumbersome and in
convenient. Occasionally the heavier saw frames are
arranged with an air cylinder, or to drive directly from
a steam cylinder attached to the top of the frame.
These plans have some advantages, and the vibration in
working is considerably lessened, the air or steam
acting as a cushion at each stroke of the swing frame.
Latterly saw frames arranged with their crank shafts
to work on a level with the floor lines have been intro
duced . This is accomplished by making the vertical
standards of the frame of unusual solidity, and at
taching them and the working parts to a massive bed
plate, or, in the case of light bed -frames, casting
standards and bed plate in one piece. For light frames
this arrangement is sometimes advantageous, but for
heavy frames it is not to be recommended , and should
never be pursued unless, from water or other causes,
deep foundations cannot be obtained. Under all or
dinary circumstances we are much in favour of a frame
arranged with a pit crank - shaft, and whatever extra
cost may be incurred in the way of foundations is
repaid by decrease of vibration, which is absorbed by
the masonry foundations instead of the mill floor. The
work turned out is consequently cleaner.
 FRAMINGS OF WOOD -WORKING MACHINES. 283
In mortising machines with a reciprocating motion
the base of themain column should be of massive con
struction , and the bed plate extended, as the duty in
heavy machines is very severe.
With machines working on the rotary principle the
stress on the framing is less severe ; but very much
depends in balancing all cutter blocks to the greatest
nicety, as, should they be only slightly out of truth,
owing to the immense centrifugal force at work , the
adverse stress exercised on all parts of the machine is
very great. All cutter-block spindles too should be
of sufficient section to obviate all chance of springing
even under the severest duty, and the spindle bearings
should never be allowed much “ play,' or the vibration,
which is often attributed to weak framings, is much
increased .
As regards the design of the spindles and details
used in the construction of wood -working machinery,
if wrought iron is used, only that of the best quality
should be employed, combining strength and toughness .
This, when the bar is fractured , is shown by the fibres
of the iron being close and uniform in the grain , free
from whiteness or crystallisation, and of a brightblue
grey colour. The dimensions of spindles should be as
uniform as possible, avoiding abrupt angles and sudden
changes of diameter. Where spindles are subject to
much strain the alteration of diameter should be
graduated by a curve, or what is known as rounded off,
as any shock or vibration is thus more evenly dis
tributed. For all the smaller diameters of spindles we
prefer to use Bessemer or other mild steel, and the cost
is very little in excess of the best wrought iron . It is
of course rather more difficult to work , but this is
284 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

repaid by a finer surface being obtainable , as wrought

iron is often found seamy, or, by the fibres of the iron
not running parallel to the length of the bar, the
abrasion of the surface, and consequent friction on the
bearings, is much increased. In forging spindles, or
any parts on which there is great strain , as few ' heats '
as possible should be taken by the smith, as by
constant reheatings the strength of the bar is consider
ably reduced . Great care also should be taken that
collars or journals, or any forgings necessitating a
number of heats , are not burnt, as we have more than
once, especially in steel spindles, seen them from this
cause break short off at the angle on receiving only a
very moderate shock or blow .
 285

CHAPTER XXXIII.
BEARINGS FOR WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

In consequence of the high rate of speed at which it

is necessary to operate wood -working machinery, the
proper proportion , construction , and lubrication of the
bearings~ - whereby the friction necessarily engendered
can be reduced to its lowest limits — is a matter of vital
importance . Much time has been spent by scientific
men in investigating the theory of friction , and many
learned treatises written thereon . One of themost valu
able of the earlier ones with which we are acquainted
was written by George Rennie, F .R .S ., and published
in the Philosophical Transactions' for 1829. In this
paper he gives briefly some of the deductions made by
the earliest writers on this subject, including Amontons,
who wrote in the year 1669, giving as his opinion that
friction was not augmented by an increase of surface,
but only by an increase of pressure, and that the amount
was the same both with woods and metals when un
guents were interposed . He likewise concluded that
friction increased or diminished with the velocity, and
varied in the ratio of the weight and pressure of the
rubbing parts and the time and velocity of their mo
tions. Most of the scientific men following Amontons
agreed with his hypotheses, including De la Hire . Ex
286 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

periments as to the theory of friction were also made

by Vince and Coulomb in 1784 and 1799. Following
these, Euler concluded that it depended on the greater
or less approximation of the asperities of the surface
brought into contact by pressure, the resistance to
which he agreed was one-third of the pressure ; of the
effect of velocities he was uncertain . Muschenbroek
and others maintained that friction increased with the
surface. Bossut divided it into two kinds, the first
being generated by the gliding, and the second by the
rolling of the surface of one body over another ; he also
concluded that it was effected by time, but that it fol
lowed neither the ratio of the pressure nor of the
mass. A great number of other scientific men , in
cluding Lambert, Parent, Brisson, Camus, Schober,
Meister, Leibnitz , Varignon, Bernouilli, Ferguson ,
Gregory, Leslie , Bulfinger, Young, & c., early in this
century wrote on the theories of friction .
In the year 1784 De Vince made a number of ex
periments to determine the law of retardation, together
with the quantity and the effect of surface on friction .
Hewas of opinion that the friction of hard bodies in
motion was an uniformly retarding force, but not so
with soft bodies, such as cloth, which produced an in
crease of retardation with an increased velocity, and
also that the quantity of friction amounted to about
one- fourth the pressure, and that it increased in a less
ratio than the weight of the body ; that when the
surfaces varied from 1.61 : 1 to 10.06 : 1 the smallest
surface gave the least friction , and that friction was
greatly influenced by cohesion .
A very elaborate series of experiments on the laws
of friction were undertaken by Coulomb at the instance
 BEARINGS FOR WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY. 287

of the French Academy of Sciences in the year 1799.

He commences by examining the friction of plane sur
faces gliding over each other, and divides it into two
kinds, the first resulting from time and the second
from velocity. The first he considers to depend on five
different causes — (1 the nature of the bodies in con
tact ; (2) the extent of surface ; (3 ) the pressure on
the surface; (4) the time the surfaces have been in
contact ; and (5 ) the state of the atmosphere. He was
also of the opinion that the friction of wood on wood,
and metal on metal without unguents, was in propor
tion to the pressure, which attained its maximum in a
few minutes after repose , and that with heterogeneous
surfaces, such as those of woods and metals gliding over
each other, the intensity did not attain its limit some
times for days. He also concluded that velocities had
very little influence in augmenting friction except under
peculiar circumstances.
In 1801 Mr. Southern , of Soho, made experiments
on the surfaces of the spindles of grindstones running
at a high speed , when he decided that, with rubbing
surfaces moving at the rate of 4 feet per second over a
length of surface of 1 ,000 feet, the resistance arising
from the friction of 3,700 lbs. of load amounted to one
fortieth of the weight.
Mr. George Rennie 's experiments on the laws of
friction were on a very extended and complete scale ,
but our space prevents our giving as lengthened a de
scription as we should wish. His deductions, however,
were as follows: - (1) that the friction of metals varies
with their hardness ; (2 ) that the hard metals have less
friction than the soft ones; (3) that without unguents,
and within the limits of 32 lbs. 8 ounces per square
288 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
inch, the friction of hard metals against hard metals
may be estimated at about one-sixth of the pressure ;
(4 ) that within the limits of their abrasion the friction
of metals is nearly alike.
For determining the friction of axles Mr. Rennie
arranged an apparatus consisting of a roller with ac
curately turned, movable ends; these were made of
three different metals — viz. cast iron, gun metal, and
yellow brass . The axle ran in bearings, truly bored in
cast iron, leaving the axle full play. A cord was
attached to the roller, passed over a pulley carrying
a scale in which the moving weights were placed. The
axle projected beyond the bearings, and on this slings
were hung , and carried the scale which held the weights
with which the axle was loaded. The rope pulley was
made very sensitive, and thedescentof the body was only
41 inches. From experiments made with this apparatus,
it appeared when no unguents were employed, and when
the gun metal was loaded with variable weights from
1 to 10 cwt., the friction varied within the limits of
and of the pressure ; that the diminution of friction
by unguents depends upon theweight and the unguents
conjointly .
Rennie also made a series of experiments on the
amount of friction as depending on velocity. From these
experiments he concluded that friction did not increase
with an increase of velocity . Since Rennie 's a number
of excellent treatises on the laws and coefficients of
friction have been published, notably by Morin ,
Welkner, Bokelberg , and others, and most of Rennie's
deductions have been upheld ; and although his ex
periments were made some fifty years since, they are
of much practical value to engineers of the present
 BEARINGS FOR WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY. 289
day. Joule and Thompson divide friction briefly irto
two kinds — sliding and rolling and maintain that the
quantity of frictional heat evolved is exactly sufficient
to reproduce the effort caused in overcoming the friction .
As most of the more modern treatises on friction are
doubtless known to many readers , I shall pass them
with a casual reference only .
Bearings for wood-working machinery are usually
made of cylindrical form , but sometimes conical or
spherical, and to ensure coolness in working and durabi
lity, owing to the excessive friction engendered , they
should be of special proportions. No hard and fast
rule for calculating the length and diameters of bearings
of wood -working machinery can well be laid down,
owing to the difficulty of calculating exactly the amount
of friction . Bokelberg gives the coefficients of fric
tion as 0 .0028 for small loads and low velocities, and
0 ·013 for heavy loads and high velocities . Of course
these coefficients must differ according to the condition
of the bearings and the lubrication of the metal em
ployed. Morin gives 0 .05 to 0 .07 as the coefficient for
well-lubricated bearings, whilst, according to experi
ments made by Kirchweger on railway axles , the co
efficient of friction of wrought iron on gun metal is
found to be 0 .014, whilst wrought iron on white metal
is set down as 0 .009 to 0:01. Whichever calculations
are most correct, owing to the varying and special
conditions under which the bearings of high-speeded
machinery are employed , practical experience must of
necessity be the chief guide as to their correct propor
tions, of course bearing in mind also what pressure and
straining forces they are likely to be subject to. In
America as a rule engineers make their spindles much
290 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
smaller and their bearings longer than is the practice
in this country. We are not aware, bowever, on what
data their calculations as to proportions are based .
To ensure durability and small friction to bearings
which support spindles running at high speeds, a con
siderable amount of bearing surface is necessary. To
secure this it is better to extend the bearing in length
than increase its diameter. In calculating the correct
proportions of bearings, the kind of metal employed ,
the action to which it is subject, and the mode of
lubrication are points , in addition to the pressure and
straining forces, before alluded to , that must not be lost
sight of. As regards the length of bearings for high
speeded machinery, from three to four diameters may
be taken as a safe criterion for spindles that are con
stantly running at speeds, say, up to 5 ,000 revolutions
per minute ; above that speed the length of the bearing
can be increased , say, one or one and a half diameter
with advantage ; for spindles that only work occasionally
and at a slower speed they may be made shorter , and
the spindles of less diameter for a given duty, the
friction in consequence being reduced . Various me
chanical arrangements for reducing friction have been
tried, but, as a rule, with little success. In the year
1845 Mr. John Blyth , of London, patented a plan for
preventing the heating of bearings by means of cold
water. The bearings were constructed with a hollow
cavity in the shell, through which a stream of cold
water was passed, and in the case of bearings which
moved round an external axis, as in connecting rods,
flexible pipes were used to conduct the water. A Mr.
Coles, of London, soon after this invented a system of
anti-friction bearings, in which, in place of the rubbing
 BEARINGS FOR WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY. 291
action of the spindle , be substituted the rolling action
of detached pulleys. A Mr. Mallett, of Dublin , also
patented a scheme for reducing friction . In the place
of pulleys, however , he substituted a set of rollers of
small diameter, which were confined in a box directly
surrounding the bearings. None of these plans, how
ever, came into use.
The idea of reducing friction by rolling bearings is
not by any means new . On several American railways
some of the most recent rolling stock has been fitted
with steel axles revolving on some sixty hardened steel
rolls, so arranged that no two rolls are in line with
each other. These are enclosed in a box lined with
hardened steel, and receive the whole of the friction of
the axle ; they are worked without lubricants, and are
reported to reduce the friction in a very marked degree
even when heavily loaded . Elliptical or egg-shaped
rollers have also been tried . These are either mounted
on spindles or, where single sets of rollers only are used ,
the ends of the rollers are turned to act as such ; where
more than one roller in the same line is used a washer
is placed between each one. The whole set of rollers
are at liberty to revolve round the shaft and plummer
block, which is lined with hard metal.
In this country the materials used for the bearings
of high-speeded machinery are almost and entirely
confined to gun metal, occasionally white metal alloys,
and an alloy of later introduction known as phosphor
bronze. If gun metal is used it should contain sufficient
admixture of tin to produce a certain amount of hard
ness ; about 18 parts of tin to 82 of copper is a suitable
proportion . The bearings should be cast in chills, as
rapid cooling is found to give a kind of skin ' to the
02
292 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
surface , improve the metal in toughness, and its wearing
power is increased . The alloy phosphor bronze ' is
found to possess in a marked degree strength , tough
ness, and durability. It is a combination of copper,
tin , and phosphorus, which can be so regulated that
castings as hard as steel or as tough as wrought iron can
be produced, as circumstancesmay require. The fluidity
of this alloy is very great, producing castings of perfect
soundness and very fine in the grain . The writer some
few years back introduced it into the bearings of grind
ing and disintegrating mills with spindles making some
3 ,500 revolutions per minute , and, although the duty
was severe, after six months' use the wear was scarcely
perceptible. The lubricant used was lard oil. From
experiments it has been proved to have a tenacity of
22 tons per square inch in the softer alloys to 33 tons
in the hardest; the elastic limit of the former is about
5 tons, and the latter 25 tons. The soft alloy stretches
30 per cent. before fracture, and the hardest not more
than 4 per cent. Samples of unannealed wire of 16
B . W .G . broke at from 102 tons per square inch to
151 tons, and when annealed at 48 to 74 tons per
square inch . It is also stated that a bar of phosphor
bronze has resisted without rupture over 2 } million
twists at a strain of 12 tons.
In the International Exhibition, 1878, at Paris, a
number of bearings, slide valves, piston rings, pinions,
& c., made of phosphor bronze were exhibited. These
had been tried under varying conditions, and in some
cases in competition with gun metal, and the results
were vastly in favour of phosphor bronze. We espe
cially noticed a set of gun -metal and phosphor- bronze
bearings that were used side by side in crushing rolls,
 BEARINGS FOR WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY. 293
working at 120 revolutions per minute , each roll having
a pressure of 21 tons. These bearings were at work a
year and nine months night and day, and when re
moved the wear on the phosphor bronze was very
small indeed, whilst the gun metal was entirely worn
through . Notwithstanding that phosphor bronze is
more costly and somewhatmore difficult to manipulate,
it must be considered a most valuable alloy, not only
for bearings but for bolts, pins, & c., where great tensile
strength is required .
An alloy for bearings, composed of tin and phos
phorus, has recently been introduced on the Continent.
It is claimed for it that it is easily fusible , melts at
330° C . (626° F .), does not heat, and therefore requires
little lubrication . Its shrinkage is little and it is un
affected by acids. If it is found to fulfil all these
conditions it should be of considerable value for some
classes of moulded bearings.
In direct contrast to English practice , American
engineers almost invariably make or line the bearings
of their wood-working machinery with a soft alloy, such
as Babbitt metal or Parson 's white brass. These alloys
are melted and moulded or poured round the spindles
which have to run in them . Considerable care has to be
exercised in this operation , and the spindle set to a dead
level. The metal should not be over hot, and both sides
of the bearing should be poured at the same time. The
bearing should then be scraped and the spindle “bedded '
in the usual manner. A large number of white metal
alloys have been introduced during the last thirty
years by Grafton , Vaucher , Parsons, Jones, Lechesne,
and others. Lechesne patented an alloy in which he
used cadmium in combination with other metals. The
294 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
formulæ were as follows : — Copper, 650 parts ; nickel,
275 parts ; cadmium ,zinc, and tin , 25 parts. Cadmium
is malleable and fuses at a low heat, but volatilises
rapidly, and considerable difficulty is experienced in
combining it with other metals ; but, from its nature,
we should imagine it would produce a fine surface on
the bearing, and consequently reduce friction . The
alloy most popular in America is known as Babbitt
metal, which is a misnomer, as the invention of Mr.
Isaac Babbitt, which was patented in America some
forty years ago, consisted in constructing the bearing
with a lip around the edge of the soft metal, to prevent
it running out, and not in any mixture of metals. In
addition to Babbitt 's , different forms of bearings have
been introduced in America by Rice, Goodman, and
others. As Goodman 's invention , introduced in 1855,
is somewhat novel and departs from the beaten track , it
deserves more than a passing notice . The novelty in
this bearing consisted in the substitution of a bearing
surface of some vegetable substance, such as hemp,
saturated with a mixture of tallow , sulphur, and black
lead. The bearings were made of cast iron , and a
series of ribs extended longitudinally the whole length
of the bearing . The space between these ribs was fitted
tightly with either hemp, flax, wool, cotton, or shavings
of leather. The durability of the material employed
seems to have been established ; but, either from its
resistance to motion and the extra power therefore
required to drive, or from some other cause , it seems
never to have come much into use. As regards white
metal alloys for bearings of high- speeded machinery,
after considerable experience we cannot speak in their
favour ; there may be less friction in their use, and they
 BEARINGS FOR WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY. 295

may be somewhat cheaper in their first cost, but, as

they require constant renewals, anything gained in this
way is soon lost. For spindles running at moderate
speeds and without a heavy load or strain they doubt
less possess some advantages, either when used aslinings
or as solid bearings; but for high speeds and energetic
friction they cannot be recommended .
All the chief bearings of high -speeded machines
should be made adjustable for wear. This is especially
important where there is a great pull' on the spindle.
This compensation is easily secured by dividing the
bearing vertically and at unequal distances, and fitting
set screws through the sides of the journal. Arrange
ments should also bemade for taking up the end play of
the spindle . From the high speed and the dust and
grit floating about in saw mills, the bearings of wood
working machinery, unless well fitted and well looked
after , are especially liable to ' fire ' or ' seize.' If this
should be the case, they should be at once taken out
and the faces of the bearing let closer together, the
abrasions being removed by a " scraper ' and the bear
ings accurately rebedded on the spindle . Should this
not be done, considerable trouble will be found in keep
ing it running even with excessive lubrication . Very
great care should always be exercised in fitting bear
ings, the spindles being bedded with red lead and the
bearings scraped till the spindle runs easily at a dead
level ; they should not fit the spindle too tight nor yet
too loose . In the lightest class of high-speeded spindles
centre bearings with end adjustments have some ad
vantages, but for the general range of machines we
think the ordinary parallel cylindrical bearings, taking
everything into consideration, are to be preferred to
296 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
any other form . When cheapness of production is
essential we can strongly recommend the use of cast
iron for bearings, as a steel spindle revolving on sound
cast iron of not too hard a texture is found to produce
a fine surface.
For bearings such as those used in machines with a
reciprocating motion , that are difficult, from dust or
other causes, to keep lubricated , some kinds of wood,
although little used in this country, have many advan
tages. Lignum vitæ , box, and pear-tree woods are
suitable for this purpose ; but all resinous woods are
unsuitable. All bearings should be guarded from dust
as much as possible, and very efficient lubrication
secured . This in cornecting-rod and some other bear
ings subject to excessive friction is often a matter of
some little dfficulty . We have found a brass needle
lubricator, constructed on what is known as Lieuvain 's
patent, tolerably effective for ordinary purposes ; but
where the friction is great an additional tallow cup
should be provided , the tallow in which would melt in
case of the bearing heating. For metal rubbing on
wood, water is found to be an excellent lubricant. Sul
phur, blacklead, or plumbago reduced to a fine powder
and mixed with the oil or tallow applied to the bearing
is found to retain the lubricative qualities of the oil,and
reduces the friction considerably . We have recently
heard soap-stone very highly spoken of as a lubricant
for high -speeded spindles. It is first reduced to a very
fine powder, and washed to remove all gritty particles ;
it is then stirred in diluted muriatic acid , to dissolve any
traces of iron it may contain . The powder is then re
washed in water to remove the acid , dried, and mixed
with oils or fats in the proportion of about 25 per cent.
 BEARINGS FOR WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY. 297
for light machinery to about 40 per cent. for heavy
machinery running at a somewhat slower speed. It is
said to retain well the oleaginous properties of the
lubricant, and to produce a very fine surface on the
bearing. We have found pure sperm and olive oils
very fine lubricants, but their cost in a degree precludes
their use , except for light spindles . An antifriction
grease composed of hoy 's lard, guttapercha, and pow
dered blacklead is much used in the United States.
All fat oils should be stored in a moderate temperature.
If exposed to much heat they are found to decompose
and lose their oleaginous properties. We have also
used pure castor oil with very considerable success, as
it is free from acid , does not clog, and, owing to its
clinging properties, does not run out of the bearing .
Self-oiling bearings of various kinds have been pa
tented and introduced , with more or less success. One
of American origin , patented in 1865 and made by
J. A . Fay and Co. and other firms, is especially adapted
for circular-saw spindles. The two pedestals are cast at
either end of a bracket, which is furnished with oil
chambers, connected together by a recess extending
diagonally . The oil is conducted from the chamber to
the bearings by means of cotton wick or felt , which is
fitted in the before-mentioned recess,and, after passing
through the bearing, works its way back to the cham
bers. The oil is thus kept in constant circulation .
The spindles used in high-speeded machinery should
be made of the soundest material possible, as, no
matter how well constructed and lubricated bearings
may be,if the spindles are seamy the friction ismuch in
creased , and considerable difficulty is found in keeping
them running. All cutter blocks and pulleys should be
 298 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
accurately balanced . They should never be worked at
short centres ; and all driving belts should be of ample
width ; the transverse strain, which is so destructive
to bearings, is thus minimised , and the cost of belting
and lubrication reduced. Steel is to be recommended
for spindles in preference to iron, on account of its
homogeneity and rigidness. By its use the diameter
of the spindles can also be reduced considerably - say,
about one- fourth .
In machines whose cutter blocks have only one
bearing immediately supporting it, such as overhung
cutter moulding machines, vertical-spindle shaping
machines, & c., the superior rigidity ofsteel is especially
valuable , as, should the spindles spring from the exces
sive pressure which they are sometimes subject to, the
bearings are rapidly destroyed and the work turned
out is of an inferior description .
Footstep 'bearings, or those on which the lower ends
of a vertical spindle rest, are usually solid , a cup - or
obtuse V - shaped recess being turned in one end of
the bush in which the spindle revolves ; sometimes,
however, conical bearings are substituted . In either
case these bearings should have both lateral and verti
cal adjustments ; and, as the dust made in working
necessarily absorbs much of the lubricating matter, a
recess for oil having direct communication with the
bearing surface should be formed in the pedestal in
which the bearing is fitted. Should a bearing become
heated or seize,' pour cold water on it till thoroughly
cool. This heating often occurs with new bearings, and
may arise from several causes - viz. want of lubrication ,
the bearing or spindle being out of truth or badly
fitted, from a “ seamy ' spindle or the bearing being
 BEARINGS FOR WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY. 299

screwed down too tight. Should the bearing be much

abraded by the friction, it will be necessary to remove
the spindle and ‘ scrape ’ the bearing before restarting.
The level of the spindle should be tried, and the bear
ings well lubricated ; the cap screwed down lightly ,
and the spindle worked for a short time without per
forming any duty.
If conical bearings are used care must be taken
that the spindles are allowed no end play. This can
be secured by fitting a steel pin , screwed at its own
end and passed through the end of the bearing till it
touches the end of the revolving spindle. The steel
pin can be set up by a nut, and the end nearest the
spindle should be of somewhat smaller diameter, and
a flat filed on its side, which will forn an efficient oil
way .
In practice it is often found more difficult to keep
bearings well lubricated that are subject to constant
and great pressure than those which carry spindles re
volving at high speeds, as, from the weight of the load,
after running a short time their unguents are expelled
from the bearings unless especial provision is made.
For this class of bearings unguents with a metallic
base , such as plumbago, are found the most efficient.
A dry metallic composition has recently been intro
duced for lubricating purposes ; it is made in the form
of small cylindrical plugs and inserted in holes made
in the solid bearings or surfaces requiring lubricating.
It is reported to bear a temperature of 450° Fahr.
It is known as “ metaline,' but we cannot from our
own experience speak as to its value.
300 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER XXXIV.
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS .

The proper fixing on adequate foundations has much

to do with the satisfactory performance of wood -work
ing machinery. In the case of machines working on
the rotary principle little difficulty is experienced as
regards foundations, the stress being as a rule easily
absorbed by well-apportioned framing — that is, on the
assumption that the working parts are all truly balanced
and fitted . With machines with a reciprocating action ,
however, it is different; considerable difficulty is some
times found in arranging them to operate with a mini
mum of vibration .
Conditions sometimes arise in consequence of proxi
mity to tidal rivers, or on undrained land, where, before
a machine requiring a deep foundation can be fixed ,
especial means must be taken to get, in the first in
stance , a solid basis. Where the water is very trouble
someand difficult to get rid of, and where the weight to
be supported and vibration to be absorbed are consider
able, as in the heaviest class of log -sawing frames, we
have found a series of English elm piles to make the
most durable and satisfactory foundation . The distance
apart, and the depth they should be driven, must depend
on the action of the machine, the weight of the load ,
 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS. 301
and the nature of the soil. The tops of the piles
should be sawn off level, and sleepers or planks fixed
transversely on the top of them . This will make a safe
and lasting foundation . The piles and sleepers should
be creosoted . It is also advisable that the machine
should be fixed on an extended bed- plate of extra
massive section . When the ground is moist only, and
much concrete is unnecessary, a good plan is to ram
the substratum firm , and cover with a layer of broken
stone or slag to about 6 inches in depth . Into this
layer pour melted asphalt. This, when cold , binds
together in one solid mass, prevents damp, and gives
a strong foundation for the subsequent masonry
To reduce the depth and lessen the cost of exca
vations, saw frames should be connected to the crank
shaft by two rods, one on either side of the frame.
The vibration is also reduced considerably by counter
balancing the reciprocating parts, and by arranging the
crank shaft as near the base of the machine as possible ;
with saw frames a fly wheel or wheels is found to
add considerably to their steadiness in working. If
the saw frame is fixed on masonry, we have found the
vibration considerably lessened by the introduction of a
sheet of lead or a thin piece of hard wood between the
base of the machine and crank -shaft plummer-blocks
and themasonry . As regards the masonry enıployed ,
stone is of course stronger and more solid , and offers
a better resistance to vibration, than any other, but
its greatly increased cost is somewhat of a bar to its
general adoption for all classes of machinery. The
strength of a stone foundation depends in a great mea
sure on the quality of the stone employed , and also that
the size and shape of the blocks used are in proportion
302 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
to the strength of the stone. The mortar, too, used for
this purpose should be of the very first quality, and the
stones accurately dressed. If the dressing is badly
done, and the pressure is unequal and severe, they are
liable to fracture. Some classes of stone can safely be
employed for machine foundation in blocks of almost
any size, but in others the sizes of the blocks should
be proportional. A safe rule is to make the length of
the block , say , about three times the thickness, and the
width one and a half times ; blocks of long dimensions
in proportion to their thickness should never be used ,
as with heavy machines with a reciprocating motion,
with a positive stroke or dead blow , the risk of breakage
is considerable . Care must be taken that the masonry
is accurately levelled, and set as near perpendicular to
the direction of the stress or pressure as possible. The
top blocks of stone should be cramped together, and
the joints filled in with molten lead . The horizontal
mortar joints should be from 1 to 3 inch in thickness,
and the vertical joints about inch . These various
precautionsmay appear to some to be slightly unneces
sary, but, as excessive vibration and stress is in a great
measure overcome by the weight and solidity of the
foundation , the framing of the machine being as far
as possible combined with and, so to speak, made in
tegral with the foundation , this can hardly be so. The
quality of the work turned out and the longevity of
the machine depend also more on the stability of the
foundations than is generally imagined. The founda
tion bolts should be of strong section, and the plates of
ample area. The bolts should pass entirely through the
masonry, and we have found there is less liability to
fracture or work loose by any sudden strain by inter
 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS. 303
vening a piece of hard wood between the plates and the
masonry. Wood -working machines with a recipro
cating motion should never be placed on a wooden
floor, except those of the very lightest class, and even
these should be accurately balanced . In constructing
machines with a reciprocating motion it may be taken
as a safe rule that the machine framing and foundations
should be made as solid and stable as possible , whilst
the reciprocating parts should combine strength with
lightness. In machines with a rotary motion and the
straining forces acting horizontally to the axis of motion ,
brick -work or timber foundations are usually sufficient,
but for the heaviest class of machines, such as rack -saw
benches or planing machines, if the earth foundations
are at all unsound, concrete or rubble masonry are to
be preferred ; but for all kinds of foundation where
great strength and solidity are required ashlar masonry
is undoubtedly the best, and we are of opinion that any
reasonable extra cost incurred in the shape of perfect
foundations for high -speeded machines is more than
repaid by increased steadiness in working and conse
quent improved quality of output. As a rule of course
inferior production in machines with a rotary motion is
directly traceable to loose bearings, weak spindles or
insecure bearings, improperly sharpened cutters or un
balanced cutter blocks; but it cannot be denied that,
in the first instance, weak or insecure foundations con
tribute largely, through imperfectly absorbing the stress
or vibration, to bring about some of these results, espe
cially in machines with their framings put together in
sections. If brick -work foundations are used, care
should be taken that the bricks employed are nard
and well burnt, and Portland or Roman cement only
304 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
should be used. This is especially necessary in damp
situations, as some classes of bricks are found to absorb
a considerable amount of moisture, and this, combined
with unequal settling, destroys the rigidity and stability
of the masonry .
 305

CHAPTER XXXV .
SHAFTING AND GEARING .

In order to ensure the economic transmission of power

by means of line shafting from the motor to the
various machines, the whole of the shafting should be
accurately turned and fitted at a dead level, in bear
ings having both vertical and lateral adjustment, and
provided with efficientmeans of lubrication . All pulleys
should be turned , rounded somewhat on face, and per
fectly balanced . The shafting should be speeded to
make not less than 250 revolutions per minute , and all
pulleys therefore should be accurately proportioned and
all superfluous weight ofmetal avoided .
We are afraid many of these points do not receive
in this country the attention they deserve, which is
in striking contrast to American practice , which has
worked out and brought them to a considerable degree
of perfection .
Shafts for transmitting power to different parts of
a building were at one time constructed of wood or
cast iron ; these, however , have given way to wrought
iron , or in some cases to Bessemer steel, which in
shafts of small diameter has the advantage of addi
tional stiffness. Line shafting is subjected to con
siderable torsionaland bending strains, but more espe
 G ERY
306 WOOD -WORKIN MACHIN .

cially in saw mills, where the speed , number of pulleys,

and belt tension is excessive. This should be borne in
mind wben calculating the diameter of the shafting and
the centres of the bearings to be employed .
In arranging shafting for a mill, the first length,
which receives the power from the prime mover, should
be of greater diameter than the remainder , and the
bearings placed closer together - say, five or six feet
apart, whilst eight or nine feet apart on the ordinary
shafting will be sufficient. To prevent end play, a
collar should be fitted against the bearings at either
end of the shaft . The driving pulleys on which there
is the greatest strain should be placed as near the
bearings as possible, to avoid any chance of the shaft
springing, should any undue strain be put upon it.
In calculating the diameter of a shaft it will be
found much better to err on the side of strength , as,
should a shaft spring from insufficiency of size, the
money lost in stoppages, lining up, & c., would in a very
short period pay for the difference in first cost.
In coupling lengths of shafting the plan of using
a solid sleeve or box of metal keyed to the shaft is still
generally adhered to in this country, for what reason
we are at a loss to see, as it is both clumsy and incon
venient.
A very light and convenient form of coupling, much
used in the United States, is known as the double
cone vice coupling, originally introduced and pa
tented , we believe, by Messrs. William Sellers and Co.,
of Philadelphia . It consists of a cylindrical barrel,
which couples the shafts. The inside of this barrel is
turned to a double conical form ; between the barrel
and the shaft are fitted two sleeves, the outsides of
 SHAFTING AND GEARING . 307
which are conical and fit the box, and the insides are
bored to fit the shaft. These sleeves are cut completely
through on one side, and are made to close concentri
cally upon the shaft by means of three square bolts
fitted in slots cut into the sleeves and barrel, and
running parallel to the shaft. These couplings have
the additional advantage of being easily uncoupled in
the centre of a shaft for placing or removing pulleys,
without the great trouble of drifting keys, as in the
ordinary box coupling.
All bearings should have a perfectly rigid seat and
be well lubricated. Various plans of self-lubrication
have been tried, with more or less success . Where
belts have to be run at high speeds, especially when
over small pulleys and at short centres, a great loss of
power, increased friction , and consequent deterioration
of belts is occasioned by the belts slipping on the face
of the pulley. To obviate this powdered resin and
various other substances are used to increase the grip
of the belt, but these have the disadvantage of having
to be constantly applied and at the same time destroy
the belt. We have seen recently in use a peculiarly
prepared paper, which is cut into strips the width of
the face of the pulley and several layers cemented on
together. On the pulley of a dynamo-electric machine
on which we saw it tried, the belt ran truer than on
a plain pulley, and the contact of the belt was more
uniform ; a steadier light was consequently produced.
We think altogether the plan of covering pulley-faces
with paper, to prevent slipping of belts , is so far suc
cessful that it is deserving of further and more extended
experiments under varying conditions to determine fully
X 2
308 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
its merits, and the exact gain , if possible, in power,
motion , and in loss of friction , accruing from its use.
A flat endless band of indiarubber and canvas, the
face nearest the pulley being unvulcanised, can also be
used with advantage for increasing the gripping power
of the belt. It should be made of less radius than the
pulley — say, about one inch to the foot - stretched on
to it as tight as possible , and cemented.
With a view of reducing friction and economising
oil, Mr. A . Barclay, of Kilmarnock, in 1854 invented
and patented an improved journal and bearing for hori.
zontal shafts, in which the oil would be repeatedly re
used . This was carried out by forming the bearings to
extend considerably beyond the collars of the journal ;
the extended ends of the bearings were hollowed out
internally to form oil cups ; the oil, supplied from the
top in the usualway, passed over the frictional surfaces,
and was caught in the annular cups. The oil was
re-used by means of the bearing collars, which , as they
revolved, caught it up and carried it to the top bearing,
part of the inner faces of which were inclined upwards
towards the centre, leaving a way for the oil, which was
thus redistributed over the rubbing surfaces. Many
modifications of this plan of lubrication have been
tried. One journal, patented by Möhler, has a bottom
bearing only , which is divided into two parts by a collar
on the spindle ; the lower part of the journal is made
hollow , and forms a reservoir for the oil, into which
the collar dips, and as it revolves it re-distributes
the oil to the bearing on either side. There are objec
tions, however, to this plan of lubrication, as, after the
oil has been used some time, it is found to absorb an
excess of oxygen , which renders it comparatively use
less .
 SHAFTING AND GEARING . 309

A self-lubricating bearing of some novelty was

patented as recently as 1878 by Messrs. Chapman and
Sutton ,of London . In their invention the bearing block
is recessed to form an oil chamber. A narrow roller is
mounted in this recess, having its lower part immersed
in the oil and its upper part in contact with the shaft
through an opening cut in the bearing. When the
shaft revolves the smaller roller revolves also , thus con
stantly bringing the oil from the chamber to the shaft
as long as the motion continues ; when the shaft stops
the lubrication ceases. The oil, after being used on the
bearing, is received in a channel and conducted back
to the oil chamber for re -using.
Main driving pulleyswhich transmit a large amount
of power should be of extra strong section , and in some
cases should be constructed with double arms. All loose
pulleys should be bushed with gun metal and kept well
lubricated . The boss of the loose pulley should be at
least twice the length of the fast. As regards lubrica
tion , we have seen many plans, but nothing better than
the old -fashioned one of drilling a hole through the
rim of pulley and boss, and fitting into it a piece of gas
piping,which is tapped at its top end,and a flat-headed
screir let in flush with the periphery . Constant care
must be given to loose pulleys, or considerable trouble
will be found in keeping them in order. Pulleys made of
wrought iron have come somewhat extensively into use
of late years ; they possess the advantage of lightness
and strength and are easily fixed . To obviate the con
stant tension of the belt a Mr. Streit patented in 1877
an arrangement of making the fast and loose pulleys of
varying diameters, the loose pulley being made of less
diameter than the fast . The belt is relieved from all
310 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
strain whilst running on it, and the friction on the
shaft is reduced to a minimum , being that only engen
dered by the weight of the belt. The belt also has
time to recover its elasticity, and therefore wears
longer, as it is found in practice that when a belt once
reaches the limits of its elasticity it very rapidly de
teriorates. The plan of using fast and loose pulleys
of varying diameters cannot, however, be considered
altogether novel. In stopping and starting high -speeded
machines care should be taken that the belt is passed
from the loose to the tight pulley very gradually by
means of a screw or some similar method , as the shock
occasioned by starting a heavy machine suddenly is
very considerable, and is decidedly detrimental to the
working parts of themachine.
In place of the old - fashioned form of clutch coup
ling, which is open to many objections, we can confi
dently recommend the employment of a friction band ;
it can be applied to pulleys round the boss of the wheel,
the pulley in the first place being fitted on a flanged
bush or sleeve keyed to the shaft . The friction band
is split, and fitted with a bolt having a cam - shaped
head, which engages with another cam on the friction
band ; a curved lever is attached to this bolt, and is en
gaged by a cone on the shaft ; the cone is grooved and
worked by a shifting lever, and when moved towards
the pulley the friction band is contracted round the
boss of the wheel and carried round with the shaft, or
vice versa .
As regards toothed gearing for transmitting motion ,
we need hardly say it should be constructed on true
mathematical principles, and especial care should be
taken that the wheels are moulded very accurately and
 SHAFTING AND GEARING . 311
the right amount of taper given to the teeth. Froin bad
moulding, warping of pattern , or carelessness in ma
chinemoulding , a large number of the toothed wheels
turned out are very inferior . The teeth are often allowed
to bear on each other on one side, and being usually
made of cast iron , constant breakages are the result of
any sudden strain . In practice we have found machine
moulded wheels to be the most accurate. For inter
mediate pinions or wheels where great strength is
required the teeth are often cut from the solid by a
machine, but the great extra cost precludes their use
except for special purposes . Where the friction is
very great we have found wheels made of phosphor
bronze very advantageous, and in the end economical.
A mild cast-steel wheel also gives very good results ;
malleable cast iron, although found to vary considerably
in its quality and fibre, and consequent resistance to
stress, is much to be preferred to ordinary cast iron .
In small wheels and pinions where additional strength
is necessary the teeth should be shrouded ' -- that is ,
the teeth are all joined together by a rim of metal at
their outside periphery, which will add to their strength
some 40 per cent. or more. When large power has to
be conveyed directly from one shaft to another in close
proximity , mortise or cog wheels can be used with ad
vantage if the speed required is not too great. Wooden
cogs should be about one-third thicker than the iron
teeth of the wheel with which they are engaged ; they
should be made somewhat shorter and thicker at the
root of the tooth than ordinary wheels. Care should ,
however, be observed in shortening the teeth that the
arc of their contact is not too much reduced. In prac
tice involute teeth are found stronger than cycloidal.
 G MACHINERY.
312 WOOD -WORKIN
The shorter teeth are in moderation, and the thicker
they are at the root the more stress they will bear. In
cycloidal teeth it may be taken as a safe rule that the
flanks of the teeth should never be described with a
rolling circle the diameter of which is greater than
half the diameter of the pitch line inside which it is
rolled , and it is found that the smaller the diameter of
the describing circle used for the flanks the stronger
the teeth are. For high -speeded machinery, where the
stress and friction are excessive, toothed wheels should
be made about one-third wider on the face than for
slow -running machinery ; so that the contact of the
teeth may be spread over a considerable surface, ena
bling them to resist successfully the increased stress.
Care should be taken , however, that the teeth are not
allowed to slide one against the other. All toothed
wheels - say, under 18 inches diameter - where the
stress is very severe, such as the intermediate feed gear
of planing and moulding machines, we recommend to be
made solid . We ourselves have used phosphor bronze
for this purpose, and have found the vibration lessened
and consequent wear of the wheelmuch improved. In
America with machines of this class it is the practice
to make the intermediate gear to work expansively ,
thusallowing the upper feed rollers to adapt themselves
to the irregularity of the timber. This plan lessens the
strain considerably, and is a decided improvement on
fixed gearing. In comparing beltwith toothed gearing
for transmitting power, the balance , except under
especial circumstances, is in favour of the former, as
belt gear requires less motive power to transmit the
same effective force ; it is also conveyed more evenly
and with less noise and vibration, especially if the
gearing is at all worn or badly proportioned .
 313

CHAPTER XXXVI.
BELT GEARING .

The belts employed for driving wood-working ma

chinery should by preference be made of leather, except
when used out of doors or where likely to be wetted ,
when the use of vulcanised indiarubber or india
rubber cloth is advantageous. They are sometimes
made of other materials, such as cotton ; and recently ,
at the International Exhibition held in Paris ( 1878), a
belt made entirely of paper supplied motive power to
some twenty wood -working machines. This belt was
manufactured by an American firm , and was known as
Crane's patent Japanese paper belt, and after twelve
months' wear it appeared in capital order. It is claimed
for these belts that they are less in first cost and wear
longer than leather. This, however, we are not in a
position to verify.
In 1853 Mr. W . Paxton , of Johnstone, introduced
driving bands composed of a series of cylindrical cotton
bands or cords attached together , side by side and
rolled flat, giving to the finished band a transverse
section similar to that of leather. This form of band
should possess a large amount of driving power and be
suitable for moderate speeds.
Leather, from its strength ,pliability ,and durability ,
314 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

is up to the present the best known material to employ

for all ordinary machine bands, but for extra -wide
main driving belts vulcanised indiarubber is used and
preferred bymany. It has the advantage over leather
of lower first cost and greater driving power ; but it is
a moot question , considering the difficulty of repairing
by unskilled labour and other points , which in the long
run is most economical to use. For narrow belts, or
belts that are obliged to be run at short centres or high
velocities, engendering a considerable amount of heat,
our opinion is there is nothing like leather.'
We have seen in use some ofGandy's patent driving
belts, made of American cotton , which was folded and
sewn together longitudinally, and saturated with some
oily composition , which renders them proof against
water or change of temperature. In joining them
transversely the ordinary jump-joint, sewn with laces,
was used . They appeared to run true and grip the
pulleys well ; but as to their wearing capabilities we
are not in a position the speak. From tests made by
Kirkaldy, of London, their breaking strain ,as compared
with leather, is very high. Experiments were made
on belts of 6 inches in width , with the following
results : - Best ordinary leather, breaking strain 6 ,299
lbs. ; Helvetia leather, 7 ,522 lbs. ; eight-ply American
cotton , 11, 763 lbs. As these cotton belts are produced
at a considerably lower first cost than leather, we pur
pose taking an early opportunity of testing their suit
ability for driving high -speeded machinery.
In calculating the transmission of speed by means
of belts allowance must always be made for the " slip '
and deviation of the belt, but more especially in con
nection with wood -working machinery ; running, as it
 BELT GEARING . 315
does, at high speeds, oftentimes at short centres and
over small pulleys, in the midst of dust, which renders
the leather less pliable, the ' grip ’ or driving power of
the belt is considerably lessened .
The strength of the best ox-hide belts used for
belting has been calculated atabout 3,086 lbs. per square
inch of section . This is reduced at a riveted joint to
1,747 lbs., and to 960 lbs. at a laced point. One-third
of these figures maybe given as a safe-working tension .
As belts, however, varymuch in thickness, the following
table in lbs. per inch width of safe-working tensions
may be of use :
Thickness of Belt Working Tension Thickness of Belt Working Tension
tatoo

Lbs. Lbs.
60 160
ofmost

180
200
100 220
120 240
110

For transmitting power in high-speeded machinery

belts should be made about one-third wider than is found
necessary in machines running at a slow speed, and the
smooth side of the belt should run next the face of the
pulley. All belts should be made even in thickness
and neatly joined , and the driving pulleys accurately
turned and rounded on face, or some difficulty will be
found in making the belts run true. Twisted belts
should be avoided as much as possible ; but if it is
found necessary to connect by belts shafts that are not
parallel, care should be taken that the belt should
always be in the plane of rotation of the pulley to
which it is approaching , without regard to the retiring
 316 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
side,which may be deviated from that plane without
affecting the belt. If this rule is borne in mind, little
trouble by belts running off the pulleys will be expe
rienced.
When belts are required of a greater width than 9
inches, a double belt is preferable to a single one and is
found to run truer .
As regards joining belts, hooks, malleable toothed
plates, and numerous other plans have been introduced.
Many users, however, still prefer the ordinary plan of
lacing. We have found the double I belt- fasteners,
known as Green's patent, to be both expeditious and
economical, especially for narrow belts, where the tensile
strain is not great.
Wehave recently seen some endless driving bands
formed of crucible steel wire woven into a network or
chain . The wires are arranged to run parallel to the
width of the belt , and possess great flexibility and
driving power, and will run with ease round the
smallest pulley. As regards their economy in wear, we
cannot speak from experience . These bands are also
constructed with a leather or elastic lining, to prevent
stretching, which plan we should think would be an
advantage, at any rate for high -speeded machinery, as
the friction engendered by the steel wire on the cast
iron pulley would be considerable, and the consequent
breakage of the wire from expansion and contraction
must be looked for. The use of metals for driving
bands is not, hovever, new , as in 1856 the Earl of
Caithness took out a patent for constructing driving
bands out of sheet metal, such as iron, steel, brass , or
composition metals.
The following hints,' taken from the Textile
 BELT GEARING. 317
Manufacturer ,' may be found useful to users of machine
bands :
Belts stuffed with tanner's dubbin on the flesh side
will become as smooth all over as the hair side, and
will outlast six belts which are run on the hair side
exclusively.
. * Three times the adhesiveness is gained by softness
and pliableness of belting leathers over those which are
dry .
* Long belts are preferred to short ones, but care
must be taken that the length be not too great.
Horizontal, inclined , and long belts give a . much
better effect than verticaland short ones, and those that
have the driving side below than otherwise.
Belts of coarse loose leather will do better service
in dry, warm places. For wet or moist situations the
finest and firmest leather should be used .
• Experience says, the hair side of a belt put next
to the pulley will drive 34 per cent. more than the flesh
side.
“ The strongest part of belt leather is near the flesh
side, about one-third the way through from that side.
• Leather belts must be well protected against water ,
and even moisture.
‘ Short belts require to be tighter than long ones. A
long belt, working horizontally , increases the tension
by its own weight, acting in the curve formed between
the pulleys.
Sufficient care is seldom taken to let belts run free
and easy, and it has been one of the greatest errors,
more or less prevalent in all large factories, to run the
belts so tense as greatly to injure them and rapidly
increase the wear of the bearings.
318 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

' In many instances the tearing out of lace-holes is

often unjustly attributed to poor belting, when in
reality the fault lies in having a belt too short, and
trying to force it together by lacing ; and the more the
leather has been stretched while being manufactured ,
the more liable it is to be complained of.
“ To obtain the greatest amount of power from belts
the pulleys should be covered with leather : this will
allow the belts to be run very slack, and give 25 per
cent. more durability.
“ A careful attendant will make a belt last five years
which , if neglected , might not last one.
“ It has been found in practice that belts must not
run faster than 30 feet per second , nor have a tension
of above 300 pounds per square inch of section .
The friction of a belt is double on wood what it is
on cast iron .
Long belts are less liable to slip than short ones.
“ The softer woods are better for pulleys than the
narder kinds, but pear wood and nut tree are best for
cord -wheels. Grease must not be puton wooden wheels
on which belts run .
• Tightness by tightening pulleys must be applied to
the slack side of belts.
" The belts should be cut from the centre of the skin .
Thickness of belt does not always give strength .
' If too great a distance is attempted, the weight of
thebelt will produce a very heavy “ sag,” drawing so hard
on the shaft as to produce great friction in the bear
ings, while at the same time the belt will have an un
steady flapping motion , which will destroy both the
belt and the machinery.
“ The connected shafts should never, if it can be
 BELT GEARING . 319
avoided , be placed one directly over the other, as in such
case the belt must be kept very tight to do the work .
• It is also desirable to locate the shafting and ma
chinery so that belts shall run off from each other in
opposite directions, as this arrangement will relieve the
bearings from the friction that would result were the
belts all to pull one way on the shaft.
“ If possible , the machinery should be so planned
that the direction of the belt motion shall be from the
top of the driving to the top of the driven pulley .
In punching a belt for lacing, it is desirable to use
an oval punch, the longer diameter of the punch being
parallel with the belt, so as to cut out as little of the
effective section of the leather as possible .
• Begin to lace in the centre of the belt, and take
much care to keep the ends exactly in line, and to lace
both sides with equal tightness. The lacing should not
be crossed on the side of the belt that runs next to the
pulley .
" Never add to the work of the belt so much as to
overload it.
" A good leather belt, 1 inch wide, has sufficient
strength to lift 1,000 pounds.
Waterproof Glue. - Fine shreds of indiarubber dis
solved in a warm copal varnish make a waterproof
cement for wood and leather.
• To Preserve Leather from Mould . - Pyroligneous acid
may be used with success in preserving leather from
the attacks of mould , and is serviceable in recovering
it after it has received that species of danger, by pass
ing it over the surface of the hide or skin , first taking
due care to remove the mouldy spots by the application
of a dry cloth.
 G MACHINERY .
320 WOOD -WORKIN
Castor Oil as a Dressing for Leather.- -Castor oil,
besides being an excellent dressing for leather , renders
it vermin - proof. It should be mixed - say, half and
half — with tallow or other oil. Neither rats, roaches,
nor other vermin will attack leather so prepared .
How Glue should bemade to Fasten Leather to Iron , in
order to cover Iron Pulleys. — 1 part of crushed nut-galls
is digested 6 hours with 8 parts of distilled water and
strained . Glue is macerated in its own weight of water
for 24 hours and then dissolved . The warm infusion
of galls is spread upon the leather, the glue solution
upon the roughened surface of the warm metal; the
moist leather is pressed upon it and then dried . Use
wider belts or larger pulleys if the adhesion is insuffi
cient. It is a good plan to wash the worn surface of
rubber belts with soap and water .'
 321

CHAPTER XXXVII.
WOOD .

In a work of this class it may not be out of place to

notice briefly the woods which are chiefly converted by
machinery into articles of daily commerce .
Resinous woods are those most chiefly used , fore
most amongst which is the red or yellow pine, the best
of which comes from the north of Europe, notably the
Riga, Norway, and Memel. These trees are felled with
out discrimination , the best timber being selected for
deals, and the remainder being converted into battens,
mining timber, poles, fire wood, & c. When used as
beams, fir should be sawn longitudinally to test its
soundness. For mouldings and joiners' work seasoned
American white or yellow pine is well adapted. The
best is shipped from Quebec. A large quantity of pine
of good quality , generally known as Board and Waney
pine, is shipped from various Canadian ports.
Norway spruce or white deal is chiefly used for
poles, ladders, and masts. Russian red wood is used
for lath wood in large quantities . Canadian pitch pine
is chiefly used for deck planking or conveying water .
The whole of the varieties of the Pinus family are easily
converted by machinery . When sawn, saws with large
teeth and coarse pitch should be used. The ordinary
322 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
gullet or briar tooth is as suitable as any. In sawing
pitch pine a coarser set must be put on the saw , owing
to the increased friction arising from the tenacious,
clinging properties of the resin . The saw blade should
also be well greased .
Amongst the other resinous woods must be men
tioned cedar. This wood is largely used for cabinet
work . It is grown chiefly in Spain and the Levant.
Red cedar is a native of the West Indian islands and
North America . This wood is even in the grain and
readily worked , but is apt to split unless care is taken ;
for cutting cedar, a saw with a moderately fine gauge,
pitch, and space should be used . We have found a
peg-toothed saw very suitable.
Amongst the hard woods generally used oak , ma
hogany, ash , elm , teak, and walnut take first rank.
Oak is the inost durable of all woods, and one of the
hardest. English -grown oak is unequalled for strength
and durability, but fine oak timber is also imported
from Russia and America.
Mahogany is much used for all kinds of furniture
work . It is obtained chiefly from Domingo, Honduras,
and Cuba . English ash is chiefly used in wheelwrights '
and agricultural implement works. It is long in the
grain and very tough and elastic. English elm is hard
and tough, and difficult to work. It stands well in
water, and is used considerably in ship -building, pump
work , wheelwrights'work , & c. In sawing these woods
the gullet or mill-saw teeth,arranged with a diminished
space and nearly upright pitch, should be used . Beech
should not be used for work exposed to air and moisture,
as it will rapidly deteriorate. For tropical climates
fustic is found to stand well. Various processes of
 WOOD. 323
seasoning wood by desiccation and other means have
been tried , but nothing is found equal to the exposure
of the wood to the atmosphere . When used for in
terior work, it should be kept for at least three years.
Wood suffers decomposition from excessive heat, or if
exposed to a humid atmosphere ; but if buried , and the
air entirely excluded , its decomposition is slow . Dry
air does not seem to affect it.
The proper time and manner of felling trees, when
they are at their prime for conversion, is a special
business , and requires a special knowledge, that can
only be gained by experience. In most timber-pro
ducing countries trees of all sizes are at present felled
indiscriminately , but this pernicious system will doubt
less in the course of years have its effect. We need
hardly say that any tree showing incipient signs of
decay should be immediately felled, as its commercial
value will then rapidly decrease. The proper time for
felling trees depends in a great measure on their genus ;
winter or summer is generally to be preferred, the
timber being then less full of sap. Resinous trees are
best felled in summer, other trees in winter, except oak
or those from which the bark has to be stripped , in
which case early spring is found the most suitable , as
the bark will then peel most easily . The bole of the
tree should always be severed as near the ground as
possible. Although several attempts, with more or less
success, have been made to fell trees by mechanical
means, the difficulties of situation , transport, and eco
nomical manipulation have hitherto prevented much
progress being made in thus superseding the art of the
woodman . From experiments it has been found that
the wood immediately surrounding the heart of the
Y 2
324 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
tree is the weakest, and this weakness increases with
the age of the tree. The woody fibres next the bark
are also weaker than the rest, the strength of the
timber gradually increasing from the heart outwards.
Moisture in timber weakens it considerably, and its
crushing resistance is found to be little more than one
half of what it is when dry.
Experience, of course, can be the only sure guide as
to the condition , strength , or value of timber ; ill
conditioned timber can , however, generally be distin
guished by a looseness and woolliness of the fibre and
a clogging of the teeth of the saw ; when cut it also
presents a white, floury appearance . The timber used
for joinery purposes and conversion into mouldings, & c.,
should be as sound and dry as possible. If it is neces
sary to season the timber artificially , what is known as
the hot-air method is generally considered the best .
This consists in confining the timber in a chamber,and
subjecting it to a current of hot air forced through the
chamber bymeans of a fan . It is necessary to vary the
temperature of the hot air according to the kind and
size of timber. The following have been found the
most suitable drying heats :
Oak, the temperature should not exceed 105° Fahr.
Leaf woods . . . . 90° to 100°
Pine woods, in deals and upwards . 120° „
, in thin boards . 180° to 2000 ,
Mahogany do. . . 280° to 3000 ,
 325

CHAPTER XXXVIII.
CIRCULAR AND STRAIGHT SAWS.

In connection with the productive efficiency of wood

working machinery the proper selection, sharpening,
and manipulation of the cutting tools employed is a
point of the utmost possible importance , as, no matter
how well designed or constructed a machine may be,
unless the tools employed are exactly suitable to the
work to be performed , are made of material of the
highest quality, and are tempered and sharpened to
the most correct cutting angle , the production of the
machine is in every way unsatisfactory, the work
turned out being less in amount and the quality in
ferior, whilst the force expended to produce it is
greater.
As being the most general and important cutting
instrument employed in the conversion ofwood, we will
first consider the saw . Sawsmay be divided into three
classes - viz . (1) reciprocating or mill saws, ( 2) rotary
or circular saws, (3) endless band or ribbon saws.
Another form of saw is known as the cylinder saw , but
this form is rarely used . On the gauge, shape of tooth ,
and ' set ' of the saw best adapted to perform certain
work a great diversity of opinion exists, English, Conti
nental, and American practice on these points differing
326 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
considerably. No fixed rule can , however, be laid down,
as all these points must depend on the nature , quality,
and condition of the material operated on . An immense
variety exists in the shape of the teeth employed ; the
best known are the peg, gullet, fleam , mill saw , hand
saw , hog mane, dog, parrot bill, bird tail, hook, and
American tooth . The first four mentioned are those
chiefly employed in this country. In cutting or ripping
with a circular saw soft woods, such as pine, with the
grain of the wood, the teeth of the saw should be set
farther apart,and the pitch or rake and set of the teeth
should be considerably coarser than for hard wood. If
a line is drawn through the points of the teeth the
angle formed by the face of the tooth with this line
should be , for cutting soft woods, about 65° to 70°, and
for cutting hard woods about 80° to 85°. The angle
formed by the face and top of the tooth should be
about 45° to 50° for soft wood, and 65° to 70° for hard .
It will thus be seen that the angle of the tooth found
best for cutting soft wood is much more acute than for
hard ; these figures are, however, given approximately,
and should be modified according to circumstances.
The action of the saw when operating with the
fibre of the wood may be regarded as chiefly a splitting
one, the revolving saw -teeth acting like a series of small
wedges driven into and separating the longitudinal
fibres of the wood .
Some saw teeth of American origin are very extra
ordinary in form , and the advantages gained by thus
shaping them are not always obvious.
Mr. Peter Cook , an American, took out a patent
some twelve years since for improvements in the shape
of saw teeth . According to this invention the teeth
 CIRCULAR AND STRAIGHT SAWS. 327

are made of a rectangular, or nearly a rectangular,

form , the tops of the said teeth being bevelled to form
a cutting edge throughout their entire length . The
cutting edge of each tooth coincided with the line of
motion of the saw , and such cutting edge may be of
equal length to its base. The bevel of each tooth was
on the opposite side to the next one, and the teeth may
be set in the ordinary way, the set or deflection being
on the opposite side to the bevel of the tooth. If
desired the ordinary clearing tooth may be employed
at suitable intervals along the saw . The principal ad
vantages claimed to be derived from this construction
of saws are smoothness left on the cut surfaces of
the wood , the freedom with which they pass through
the material operated upon , and the capability of
cutting equally well in both directions.
Wemay here remark it is of the greatest import
ance that the steel used for the manufacture of saws
and cutters should be of the highest possible quality ;
any advantage that may be obtained in lower first cost
in purchasing a second quality is immediately thrown
away in extra loss of time in sharpening, inferior
work, & c.
In sawing resinous woods, such as pitch pine, the
teeth of the saw should have a considerably coarser
set’ and space than for hard woods. For sappy woods
saws with longer and sharper teeth should be used.
Before sharpening a circular saw it should be made
perfectly round ; this can best be done by placing the
saw on the spindle and running down the points of the
teeth by means of a hard piece of stone. It is im
portant that the cutting angles and the tops and faces
of the teeth should be bevelled exactly alike; the gullets,
 NG NERY
328 WOOD -WORKI MACHI .
too, should be of even depth, as the saw will work more
freely and with less power than if the teeth are allowed
to get short and stumpy. The use of a revolving emery
disc for saw -sharpening and gulleting has the addi
tional advantage of doing away with the old -fashioned
plan of punching out the teeth, which generally springs
the saw plate and necessitates the re - hammering of the
saw . In themanufacture of saws the steel plates used
are hammered true, which is an operation requiring
a considerable amount of skill to perform properly ,
and afterwards ground on a face plate. We have
recently seen working some circular saws of American
nianufacture, which, we were informed, instead of being
hammered were pressed true by machines of immense
power. They certainly performed their work very cleanly
and with a minimum amount of friction . If the process
of hammering can be dispensed with in favour of some
mechanical method , the result should be in every way
advantageous, as the saw would run truer and with less
power, the indentations necessarily left in the saw from
hand hammering, notwithstanding the grinding process ,
being entirely done away with . In working circular
saws successfully, in addition to the shape of teeth most
suitable to the work, the gauge of the saw , and the
speed , much depends on the efficient 'packing ' of the
saw blade. In America, where timber is plentiful,
little is done in this direction ; the consequence is saws
of much stouter gauge have to be used, resulting in a
consequent loss of power and material. Considering the
great progress in wood -working machinery , we cannot
conceive how American engineers still adhere to this
very wasteful conservatism . The plan for guiding the
saw generally pursued in this country is to screw
 CIRCULAR AND STRAIGHT SAWS. 329
pieces of wood - mahogany is suitable, as it retains
well in its fibres any lubricants employed — to the
' finger plate ' and below the saw table on either side,
and running immediately parallel and close to the saw ;
the wood is rebated to allow hemp, gasket, or other
fibrous material charged with lubricating matter to be
packed in tightly to lubricate the saw , which is espe
cially necessary when sawing hard or resinous wood .
This method of packing was introduced by Holland about
the year 1842, and has been in use ever since. Some
makers construct especial packing boxes for holding
the oily material, so arranged that it can be replenished
with oil as required . To ensure steadiness in running
and prevent buckling,' saws should be packed at both
the back and front. A plan of ' packing ' pursued by M .
Arbey, of Paris, and shown by him in the International
Exhibition of 1878, is deserving of notice. On either
side of the saw , and let into the top of the bench ,
were fitted transversely four set screws, which were
adjustable to the gauge of the saw . Into the centre of
each of these screws was fitted a piece of hard wood,
which, when the screwsare tightened up, presses against
and guides the blade. Exhibited also in the French
section by Messrs.Gérard , of Paris, was Ganne's patent
saw guard and guide. This consists of a narrow cast
iron box made in the form of a half- circle , inside which
the periphery of the saw runs. This box or chamber
is suspended over the saw from an arm fitted to one
side of the saw -bench framing, and is made adjustable
to saws of varying diameters. Set screws fitted through
the box on either side of the saw act as guides.
In packing circular saws care should be taken ,
when oiled gasket is used , that it is fitted evenly on
330 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
either side of the front half of the saw , so that the
friction and consequent expansion and contraction of
the saw blade may be perfectly uniform . These small
pointsare, however,often neglected,theresult being that
the saw, especially if of thin gauge, runs out of truth
without any apparent cause. Other reasons there are,
however, which cause saws to run out of truth , amongst
which may be named sawsof too thin a gauge for the
work, irregular setting or improper form of tooth em
ployed, insufficiency of clearance for sawdust, too rapid
a feed, or a saw blade of too mild a temper.
For all ordinary purposes of sawing the gauges
given herewith will be found suitable; but for special
purposes, or special kinds of wood, they can be in
creased or decreased, as experience directs.
Diameter of Circular B .W . Gauge Diameter of Circular B .W . Gauge
Saw in Inches Saw in Inches
12 17 50
14 17 t . 52
16 16 54
18 15 56
14
3

14 t .
13
26 13 64
wi

12 66
12 68
32 12
34 12 t.
36 11
38 11
11 t. 8
10 e . 80 5 f.
10 5 f.
9 e. 5 f.

t. signifies tight, e. easy, f. full.

The straight or mill-saw webs used in machines
 CIRCULAR AND STRAIGHT SAWS. 331
with a reciprocating motion can be worked of a much
thinner gauge than circular saws. For ordinary use
the following are suitable :
Saws up to 3 feet 6 inches long, 15 gauge.
Saws 4 feet long , 15 gauge full.
Saws from 4 feet to 5 feet 6 inches long, 14 gauge.
Saws 6 feet long, 14 gauge full.
Saws from 6 feet 6 inches to 7 feet long, 13 gauge.

Asregards sharpening and setting the teeth of saws,

much has been written ; the usual practice is to bend
by means of a saw -set the teeth alternately to the right
and left. Many practical men prefer to set their saws
by means of a blow given by a hammer or punch , as
the teeth stand to their work better and require less
frequent setting, it being found, especially with thin
gauge saws, that the teeth have a constant tendency to
assume their original position . In setting saws of a
stout gauge and hard temper with a hammer, consider
able care must be exercised to prevent fracture ; the
best plan we are acquainted with for setting circular
saws is to fit the saw horizontally on a stud fitted in a
wooden frame having a transverse movement. A small
steel anvil with a bevelled face should be placed at one
end of the frame, and the saw traversed backwards or
forwards for the teeth to overlap the anvil centre the dis
tance of the set required. For setting a series of smart
light blows in preference to one heavy one should be
given, and the teeth set a little coarser than is abso
lutely required in work. Some users file and set the
teeth of their circular saws in triplets, the first tooth
with a bevel to the right- the second remains straight
and the third with a bevel to the left. We are at a
loss to see, however, any especial advantage in this
332 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

plan . Occasionally also saws are used with the body

of the blade deflected from the plane of its cutting
edge. This plan is said to give greater stiffness and in
creased cutting power to the saw . In America many
saws are constructed with false teeth , dove -tailed into
the periphery. The advantages claimed for this plan
is that the teeth are easily renewable when worn out,
and that the centre of the saw may be made with a
steel of inferior quality. A somewhat novel method of
inserting false saw teeth has recently been patented by
Mr. Frederick Schley, of New York . It consists of a
circular holder made in two parts, hinged together ,
grooved around its edge, and fitted to a circular notch
at the root of the saw tooth. The saw plate is made
with a V - shaped edge, which fits the periphery of the
holder. A space is left between the hinged portions of
the holder to receive the tooth, and there is a notch for
receiving the small projection at the root of the tooth .
This prevents the tooth from drawing out, and it is
prevented from lateral motion by a groove in the tooth
and a V -shaped edge on the holder and saw plate.
Much ingenuity has been expended in this direction ,
but we are at a loss to see any particular advantage
when we consider that with false teeth it is necessary
to use saws of stouter gauge, the friction in using is
greater, consequently the power required to drive is
more. They are seldom , if ever, used in this country ,
their use being almost entirely confined to the United
States. To lessen the labour in gulleting, circular
saws are sometimes made with a series of round holes
punched through the plate from the root of the gullet
towards the centre of the saw ; this certainly lessens
considerably the labour required in sharpening, espe
 CIRCULAR AND STRAIGHT SAWS. 333
cially if done by hand, and should prevent expansion ,
but we should imagine the friction must be somewhat
increased. Where many thin boards of valuable woods.
have to be sawn on a saw bench , ' ground-off ' saws— that
is, those which are bevelled on the one side, i.e . the
gauge reduced from near the centre to the periphery
should be used .
Cross-cutting saws, or those used for severing the
fibres of the wood transversely , differ essentially in
the forms of the teeth employed and the method of
sharpening. The fibre of the wood,when severed across
the grain , is comparatively unyielding, and the teeth
of the saw meet with much more resistance , and it is
found necessary to make the teeth considerably more
upright, and more acute or lancet- shaped in their form ,
than for cutting with the grain . The faces of the teeth
should be sharpened to a keen edge, and for hard wood
filed well back , so that in work they may have a direct
cutting action , similar to a number of knives. Care
should also be taken that the teeth are made of suffi
cient depth to afford a free clearance for the sawdust.
Most of the points to be borne in mind as regards
the shape , pitch , and set of the teeth of circular saws
apply equally well to straight saws with a reciprocating
motion. In these machines, owing to the slower rate
of feed and the number of blades employed, saws of a
considerably thinner gauge can be used. A considerable
saving in power and material is thus effected . Recip
rocating saws with a double cut - that is, one-half of
the saw teeth were included in one direction from the
centre of the blade, and the other half in the opposite
direction — were invented some years since by a Mr. J.
Davis.
334 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

Mill-web saws are in America occasionally made in

sections, and a patent for improvements in this direc
tion has recently been taken out by Mr. C . H . Hubbard ,
of Pittsburg. His improvements consist in forming
the saw in sections arranged longitudinally , edge to
edge, the front section being the cutting edge of the
saw and the back section a plain blank . By this ar
rangement it is claimed that a much narrower cutting
section is used, thus reducing the friction and the first
cost of the blade, and also allowing it to be more easily
tempered or removed from the framewithout disturbing
the strain of the blank sections, which can be used with
other sets of cutting sections.
All mill-web or straight saws, either long or short,
should be ground thinner towards the back of the saw .
Care should be taken that they are made perfectly true,
and flat and uniform in toothing and temper.
Saws formed in this fashion require less set, and
work with considerably less friction ; their first cost,
however, is slightly increased . In fixing straight saws
in their swing frame, care should be taken that they
are arranged with the amount of lead ' or ' rake ' best
suited to the wood they are intended to cut. In sawing
some classes of green timber, in which the fibres are
long, considerable trouble is sometimes experienced in
preventing them clinging to and so increasing the
friction of the saw that it becomes more or less choked
and' the blade “ buckled.' To obviate this Mr. Thomas
Greenwood , of Leeds, proposed some years back so to
construct the frame that the saw blades were drawn
back after the completion of each stroke, so that the
saw teeth might clear the wood during the ascent of the
swing frame. This could possibly be put into operation
 CIRCULAR AND STRAIGHT SAWS. 335

with large frames running at a slow speed, but would

be practically impossible with the light high- speed
frames of the present day . If a large number of saws
are employed we can recommend the use of a series of
circular revolving opening wedges and saw teeth of
extra - coarse space and pitch .
We give as a Frontispiece a plate of various forms of
saw teeth taken from Worssam on ·Mechanical Saws.'
A considerable number of these teeth , however, are
rarely used , and we are at a loss to see the advantages
of some of the more complex forms sometimes used on
the Continent and in America , as the extra expense of
keeping them in a satisfactory working condition would
more than counterbalance any supposed advantage.
The faces, backs, or tops of the teeth shown in the
plate are expressed in angular degrees, measured from
a line running through the points of the teeth. The
angle of the point itself is found by subtracting the
angle of the back from that of the face of the tooth ,
or the less from the greater of the first two numbers .
The diagrams are not drawn to any definite scale ,being
given to illustrate the forms of teeth and not the
dimensions or gauges, which it is necessary to vary
considerably according to the nature or condition of
the wood being operated upon .
 E RY
336 WOOD -WORKING MACHIN .

CHAPTER XXXIX .
BAND OR RIBBON SAWS.

Much advance has been made of late years in the

manufacture of band or ribbon saws, but chiefly by
France, which supplies almost entirely the rest of the
world . This arises not so much from the quality of
the steel employed — which, webelieve, comes from Eng
land — but from the peculiar method employed in tem
pering, which ensures to the blade a considerable
amount of hardness combined with toughness. The
manufacture of these saws on an extensive scale has
never been carried out in this country , the method of
tempering successfully being kept more or less a secret.
Band -saw blades, when in operation , are subjected to
several strains, the chief of which is a bending or tor
sional strain , which in heavy work with sharp curves is
very severe. In addition to this the expansion and con
traction in the blade engendered by the friction whilst
in use, seems in a great measure to alter the fibre or
granular structure of the steel, and the consequent
breakages have militated much against the universal
adoption of this method of sawing . The writer some
time since tried a plan of making half of the saw
blade carrying the teeth of a hard temper, whilst the
back of the blade was left soft. This, however , owing
 BAND OR RIBBON SAWS. 337

to the difficulties of tempering and the unequal expan

sion and contraction , was a failure .
To M . Périn , of Paris, much of the improvement in
the manufacture of band-saw blades is due. Plenty of
scope for improvement still exists, especially in saws
of stout gauge and considerable width - say, above 3
inches. Wide band saws are valuable for certain
classes of heavy bevel sawing, such as the curved
forms required for ships' timbers or the backing for
armour-plated vessels. Their use for these purposes,
however , is much retarded , owing to the heavy loss sus
tained even by the breakage of a single saw , as when
once broken it is a matter of considerable difficulty to
braze efficiently wide saws of stout gauge.
In 1856 Mr. W . Exall took out a patent for im
provements in the manufacture of band - saw blades.
These improvements consisted chiefly in heating the
blade by means of blow -pipes or lamps whilst it was
being passed through the rollers or dies used for the
purpose of reducing the blade to its proper thinness,
and in giving the blade its proper temperby continually
rolling it between hard rollers or by repeated drawing
through dies , as in drawing wire. He also claimed
another plan of tempering the blade when joined ready
for work by heating it in a suitable oven and then
plunging it into oil or other fluid .
A patent for an improved machine for setting the
teeth of band saws was taken out by Mr. L . Orton in
1876 .
In this invention two pulleys hold the saw taut,
and the two limbs of a forked frame suspended on a
short shaft carry each a punch, that operates, as the
frame is oscillated by the handle, to set the teeth from
 G ERY
338 WOOD -WORKIN MACHIN .

opposite sides, the saw being fed along by a paul on a

bell-crank lever , that is actuated by a cam fixed upon
the frame.
For sawing very hard wood or iron the teeth should
be made shorter, and with at least one-third more
points to the inch , than in blades for sawing soft wood ,
as they will stand little or no setting ; for a clearance
for the saw they are made to taper from the points of
the teeth to the back of the saw. The teeth of band
saws should be set by blows in preference to bending,
which , unless very carefully performed , is more liable
to buckle the blades and prevent them running true.
Saw blades of too hard a temper, where the steel
has crystallised , or where the blades have been sub
jected to imperfect or sudden tension , break readily ,
the fractures usually commencing from the roots of
the teeth . A good saw -blade should be elastic in its
temper, without hardness; the gauge, width , and
toothing should be uniform throughout. Care should
be taken in jointing the saws that they are not made
thicker at the braze, as when in work , if this is the
case, they will be found to jump and not run true on
the saw wheel, breakages being the result . The opera
tion of brazing or jointing band -saw blades with a
little practice is easily performed . The modus operandi
is as follows: — Take each end of the blade and file
down a taper on the opposite sides of the saw of about
three teeth points, so that when the two ends of the
saw are made to overlap each other the joint, when
cleaned off, will be the same thickness as the rest of
the blade. Secure the overlapping ends of the saw
well together by small hand vices, and tie them with fine
iron wire. Over this bind tightly with brass wire the
 BAND OR RIBBON SAWS. 339

full length of the overlap. Moisten the joint with water

and cover it with powdered borax. Either take a large
tongs and make it red hot, or place the saw in a small
forge fire made of charcoal and keep it there till the
brass is well melted . Let the saw cool gradually, and
file the joint to the same gauge as the rest of the
blade and finish it with emery cloth . If this operation
is well performed the joint will scarcely be distinguish
able. Some prefer to moisten the saw with diluted
muriatic acid , we presume to remove any grease ; but
we have always found plain water answer very well.
Care must be taken that when brazed the overlapping
ends of the saw press well together.
It is difficult to distinguish by inspection the
quality or temper of a saw blade. A blade either too
soft or too hard is comparatively useless. By bending
the blade you can in a degree judge by its elasticity as
to its temper, but users must, however, necessarily be
more or less in the hands of themanufacturer.
The expansion and contraction of the saw blade is
a fruitful cause of breakages . This can be somewhat
lessened by lubricating the blade well, keeping the
leathers on the saw wheels true, and slackening the
tension of the saw immediately after finishing work .
The bed plate and column of the machine should be of
sufficient section and area , and fixed on a foundation of
sufficient firmness to prevent any jar or vibration even
when sawing the heaviest timber ofwhich the machine
is capable . We have found saw blades of a thin gauge
to stand better than stout ones. They should always
bend easily over the pulleys, as if the angle is too
sharp for the gauge or temper of the saw they will
invariably break .
z 2
340 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
Although we are aware they are thinner than those
usually employed , after considerable experience we can
recommend the following thicknesses of saws as the
gauges most suitable for sawing pine and the softer
kinds of wood of the Pinus family . The lengths of the
blades are given in feet ,and the thicknesses by Birming
hain wire gauge :
Saws up to 14 feet long, of any width , 22 ga.
17 21 ga.
20
20 ga.
24 „ „ 19 ga .
30 , 19 ga. t., or 18 ga. e.
These figures must not, however , be considered as
arbitrary, but can be modified according to circum
stances. The smaller the diameter of the saw wheel, so
should in ratio the gauge of the saw be reduced . This,
however , does not apply to those machines of the
smaller class in which the saw blade runs over three
wheels instead of two, as in this case the blade does
not impinge on the periphery of the saw wheel at
so sharp an angle as when two wheels only are em
ployed .
For cutting the harder and closer-grained woods,
such as oak, beech , & c.,the thickness of the saw should
be increased about one gauge, the teeth should be
more upright and spaced finer, and the set also should
be reduced . For woods of a woolly fibre, such as English
poplar, the teeth of the saw should be of coarse space
and set, to effect a clearance and overcome its clinging
properties . For cutting metal the thicknesses given
may be increased about three gauges, the teeth of the
saw being very finely spaced - say, twenty points to the
inch - and set slightly with a hammer . These saws
 BAND OR RIBBON SAWS. 341
are made to taper towards the back of the blade for
clearance.
We give herewith illustrations of the saw teeth we
have found most suitable for band -saw blades for cut
ting all ordinary classes of wood. Figs. 43 and 44 are
well suited to most of the woods of the Pinus family,
except pitch pine ; for working this wood we can re

FIG . 43. FIG . 44.

commend fig. 45, the teeth ofwhich should be coarsely

spaced and set. In addition to this, owing to the
clinging properties of the resin , a small brush should
be attached to the machine, so arranged that the saw
blade is constantly swept by it ; an occasional appli
cation of grease to the blade is also an advantage, as
the resin is more readily removed. Wecan recommend

FIG . 45 . FIG . 46.

for durability sawswith gullet teeth -- i.e. teeth rounded

out at the root, similar to figs. 44 and 47 — as they are
much less likely to fracture in working than saws with
the roots running to an angle , as the fracture in the
blade is found almost invariably to commence at the
point of this angle . Owing, however , to small gullet
342 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
teeth being more troublesome and expensive to sharpen
the angle teeth are stillmore generally employed.
After several experiments we have found the teeth
shown by fig. 46 very suitable for sawing oak , ash , elm ,
and other hard woods, and by setting the face of the
teeth farther back - i.e. slightly out of the perpen
dicular — the cutting action is improved .
AMWWWWW

ar
FIG . 47. FIG . 48 .

For heavy curved sawing , such as the timbers used

in ship -building, the backing of armour-plated vessels,
& c., for all saws above 24 inches wide we can strongly
recommend the gullet tooth , as shown in fig. 47. In
fig . 48 are teeth adapted for cutting iron and metals ;
they should , however, be somewhat stouter at the root
than those shown in sketch .
The figures are not drawn to scale,but are intended
to illustrate the shape or form of the teeth.
 343

CHAPTER XL.
CUTTERS .

THE action of revolving cutters , such as those used in

planing and moulding machines, is similar to that of
circular saws. For planing soft wood the bevel of the
cutting edge of the iron should be more extended than
when used for hard wood. About 25° to the face of
the iron is the best angle, whilst for hard woods about
40° is foundmost suitable. They are occasionally worked
at a more acute angle than this, but in working very
hard woods the edges of the cutters are more liable to
break. Cross-cutting cutters,such as those used in tenon
ing machines, should be arranged to work diagonally
to the grain of thewood. An angle of about 15 degrees to
the axis is usually found suitable for soft wood, as, it is
found the nearer they act with the fibre of thewood the
smoother the work. Cutters for tenoning machines are
made by someengineers slightly helical. Wethink , how
ever, that anything gained in this manner is more than
lost in the extra trouble involved in keeping them in
order, as well as increased first cost. For planing wide
surfaces M . Arbey, of Paris, has for some years used the
spiralor twisted irons patented by MareschalandGodeau .
The advantage claimed for this form of knife is, that the
pitch of the knives is so arranged that the end of one
344 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

comes opposite to the beginning of the other , thus

giving a continuous cut during the whole revolution of
the cutter block . As part only of the whole length of
the knives strikes the wood at the same time, the jar
or vibration is thus considerably lessened ; and, as they
always present the same cutting angle to the wood ,
cross-grained and knotty stuff can be worked . The
knives used are very light, being from one to two
millimetres in thickness. They are, however, more
difficult to manage than straight knives, and require
considerable skill and care in keeping them in order ;
hence their very partial adoption. Where this form of
knife is adopted an arrangement is generally made to
sharpen them in their places on the cutter blocks by
means of a revolving emery wheel. Whatever form of
knife is used, the steel employed in its manufacture
should be of the highest obtainable quality. We prefer
cutters made of wrought iron faced with steel to those
of solid steel, as being easier to work and less liable to
fracture . In establishments where a large variety of
woods are worked it is advisable to have several sets
of knives ground to the various bevels found best suited
to the work. Much has been written as regards
tempering cutting tools. No absolute rules, we think ,
can be laid down, at any rate as regards wood-cutting
tools ; it simply resolves itself into a matter of practical
experience. For working soft woods with knives of an
acute bevel a light straw - colour temper is suitable,
whilst for harder woods,where the bevel of the knives
used is made more obtuse, the temper should be made
slightly harder in proportion. Cutters should always
be ground with a double bevel, leaving at the cutting
edge, say, about } in . to be whetted with a stone to a keen
 CUTTERS. 345
edge by hand. Several varieties of stone are suited to
this purpose, but we have found nothing better than a
good Turkey stone. All plane irons above 12 inches
long should be ground in a sliding frame, fitted with
adjustments for any desired bevel, as it is impossible to
keep long irons, such as those used in panel-planing or
trying-up machines, true with hand grinding against
an ordinary fixed rest. In panel-planing or other
machines for working wood of considerable width,
instead of using two long planing irons extending the
whole width of the machine, eight short ones should be
arranged in succession, two on each of the four sides of
the cutter blocks ; this plan , although causing a little
more trouble in adjusting the irons, does away with
the difficulties often experienced in keeping irons of
very great width in a satisfactory condition .
In constructing moulding irons, a plan often pur
. sued , but still essentially wrong, is to cut the shape of
the required moulding on the edge of the steel and
grind a bevel backwards from it. The result is the
exact profile of the moulding is constantly liable to be
altered when sharpening. In place of this the form of
moulding should be always milled into the face of
the cutter itself, as it thus, if sharpened to the
proper bevel, retains its true form . A few years since a
somewhat novel system of steel cutters for working
wood was patented by M . Guilliet Perreau, of Auxerre,
France. He claimed that in his cutters, when the profile
of the moulding was once formed , it was unalterable ,
no matter how badly the sharpening might be done ;
that they made a cleaner cut and were less liable to
accident. Wehave seen this form of cutter in opera
346 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
tion in various machines and giving very satisfactory
results. They are made from one piece of steel, in
form something like a deep saucer ; the periphery is
shaped to the profile of the desired moulding, and has
several openings, which are sharpened towards the
centre and present asmany cutting edges to the wood.
These cutters can be modified in shape for tenoning
and other operations ; they possess several features of
value, but, unless manufactured on a considerable scale
and with special appliances, their first cost would be
considerably in excess of the ordinary form .
Fixed cutters for planing machines should be fitted
with back irons, and the cutting edge arranged at a
slightly oblique angle to the wood , as the shock on the
knife is thus received gradually. This also applies to
veneer- slicing machines when a sliding cutter-block is
used, except in some kinds of wood where it is found
necessary to cut the fibres of the wood thewhole width
of the board or block at the same moment.
In establishments where a considerable number of
moulding irons are in use, some half-dozen stones of
fine grit should be mounted and turned up to fit the
rounds and hollows of the most usual form of irons,
which can thus be sharpened without the aid of hand
filing, which is an expensive method and deteriorates
considerably the cutting power of the steel, from the
constant softening and hardening processes through
which it has to go.
In surfacing and squaring -upmachines, where cylin
drical gouges are used , especial care must be taken
that they are set at the most suitable angle required
by the nature of the wood, and that the temper of the
 CUTTERS. 347
gouge is not made too high, or fracture and consequent
loss will be the result. We have found the palest of pale
straw colour the best suited , except for the hardest class
of wood ; a considerable increase in the strength of the
steel is produced by hardening in oil.
 NG NERY
348 WOOD -WORKI MACHI .

CHAPTER XLI.
BAND -SAWING MACHINES FOR HEAVY TIMBER .

DURING recent years the introduction of band -sawing

machines for converting heavy timber has made very
considerable progress, more particularly in America,
where a great number of machines of the largest size
are in operation. When we consider that a well-con
structed band -sawing machinewill convert logs of the
heaviest class with considerable rapidity, and at the
same time effect a great saving in power and wood, it is
somewhat remarkable that their development for log
sawing has not been more rapid . This may be to a
certain degree attributed to the difficulty there used to
be in obtaining band -saw blades of the necessary width
and temper to withstand the very considerable strain
to which they are subjected,and to the want of provision
of adequate means of keeping the saw in a true vertical
line. These difficulties have now been entirely over
come, and the machine made commercially successful.
The object of the present chapter is to consider briefly
someof the points to be desired in the construction and
working of a machine of this class.
MAIN FRAME . — In designing the main frame or
column of themachine, strength with rigidity in work
ing must be secured. In the best practice a hollow
cored or box casting made in one piece and arranged
BAND-SAWING MACHINES FOR HEAVY TIMBER. 349
with an extended base is usually employed , although
some American manufacturers prefer a wrought-iron
girder column bolted on to a heavy base plate. Which
ever is used it is important that the base plate and
foundations generally are sufficiently massive to absorb
the vibration of the machine when working at its full
speed . The base of the machine is fixed below the mill
floor, and the foundation bolts pass entirely through
the masonry. As regards the foundations, dressed
stone is best, as it offers a better resistance than brick
work . It should be accurately levelled , laid on a bed
of concrete, and set as nearly perpendicular to the
direction of the stress as possible. The quality of the
work turned out and the longevity of high-speeded
machines depend more on the stability of the founda
tions than is generally imagined , and any reasonable
outlay in this connection is usuallymoney well invested.
With the object of securing increased steadiness in
operation we have seen machines working with success
in which the upper saw spindle runs in bearings fixed
on the top of the column and the lower spindle in a
vertical line beneath the base of the machine. An
additional pair of bearings placed outside the driving
pulleys of the bottom spindle to withstand the pull of
the belt are an advantage.
BAND SAW WHEELS. — Perhaps the most important
features in the construction of a band -sawing machine
are the saw wheels . These should combine in the
highest possible degree strength with lightness ; this is
more particularly the case with tbe upper saw wheel,
as should it be too heavy it may overrun the bottom or
driving wheel, and be a fruitful cause of the breakage
of saws.
350 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
The wheels should be made of wrought iron or steel,
covered with wood at the periphery , and this again
covered with a band of vulcanised india -rubber or
leather . The wheels should be turned all over, the top
wheel mounted elastically, and both be perfectly in
balance. Should they be the least out of balance the
consequent centrifugal force causes a constant jumping
motion on the wheels, which will ultimately break the
finest saw blades . For log sawing the saw wheels must
of necessity be of large diameter — in fact , within
moderation , the larger the better — as, should the arc
of contact of the saw with the wheel be too acute , the
blades are rapidly cracked and fractured . Thediameter
of the wheels should be in proportion to the thickness
of the log sawn, varying from 6 ft. to 12 ft.diameter, by
about 8 in . on the face. It is difficult to forinulate a
rule on the subject, but a wheel of, say, three times the
diameter of the thickness of the wood to be sawn will
generally be found to be suitable. The top saw wheel
must be arranged to cant, so as to direct the saw blade
to any desired point on the face of the wheel, and so
equalise its wear ; care must be taken, however, that
the teeth are not allowed to run so far in as to tear the
covering. The outside india -rubber covering should be
a flat ring about 1 in . thick, sprung on and carefully
cemenied in its place . If leather is used, two thick
nesses, one of sole and one of buff leather , can be
recommended ; these will require rivetting in their
places.
The saw wheel spindles should be of steel supported
by two pairs of bearings to each spindle ; these can be
mounted in an adjustable slide for the top wheel and
in standards or pedestals for the bottom wheel. We
BAND -SAWING MACHINES FOR HEAVY TIMBER. 351
have found this arrangement much preferable for heavy
machines to the plan ofmounting the wheels to run on
studs, or using single bearings or bushes . The top
wheel spindle and slide must be capable of being
adjusted vertically to suit saws of various lengths ; this
can be secured by means of a hand wheel and screw
working into a gun-metal nut fitted in the slide casting.
For covering the wheels with wood — which should be
hard and well seasoned — ash or walnut, about 2 in .
thick , is suitable ; it should be accurately sawn in seg
ments, lap -jointed, and glued together, fastened to the
wheel with counter-sunk coach screws, and turned up
in its place. Strong steel or wrought-iron tubes make
excellent spokes for the wheels, combining as they do
strength with lightness . With the object of preventing
the upper saw wheel overrunning the lower, some
engineers make the latter about one- third heavier than
the former, so that the increased momentum may
prevent its speed being materially reduced when an
increase of work is put upon it. For machines where
the duty is very severe, the spokes of the wheels may
be ' staggered ' with advantage ; in this case the centres
should be made heavier, and the rim of the wheel
strengthened with wrought-iron plates or pads where
the spokes are attached . The top wheel can be set to
an angle with the lower wheel by means of a set screw ,
cam , or worm gearing , whichever the arrangement of
the wheel or slide may render most convenient. Wheels
without flanges are to be preferred , as the flanges do
little to support the back of the saw blade, and have a
tendency to twist and buckle it, and heat and crystallise
the steel. Some American makers construct the lower
saw wheel of greater diameter than the top, but the
352 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

writer fails to see the advantage of having the arc of

contact of the saw different on the two wheels. By
thus lightening the top wheel the tendency to overrun
the bottom wheel would of course be reduced . With
the same object in view — viz . to equalise the speed of
both wheels - centrifugal governor gear has also been
fitted to the top wheel, but the writer is unable to
speak from experience as to its success or otherwise .
TENSION APPARATUS. — To secure effective working,
and prevent as far as possible the fracture of the saw
blade arising from a rigid tension, the slide or bracket
carrying the top wheel is always mounted elastically .
This is effected through the medium of a strong spiral
or coach spring, or by means of a counterbalanced
compound lever, the amount of tension in the latter
case being regulated by moving the weight nearer to or
farther from the fulcrum . No absolute rules can be
made as to the amount of tension necessary on the
blade, as this depends largely on the size and nature of
the wood, the gauge, width, and condition of saw , and
rate of feed of the wood . If the rate of feed is fast, the
tension of the saw must be increased to enable it to
face the wood without buckling. Great tension is bad,
and often leads to fractures, especially if there should
be any small cracks in the blade, a condition often
found in saws of hard or crystalline steel. More
tension on the saw should not be given than is required
to keep it to the line. The slide should be so evenly
elastic that, should the saw meet an obstruction and
give a jump, the spring or lever compensating arrange
ment would give with it, and so save a fracture.
Saw GUIDES. — One of the chief troubles found in
the early band- sawing machine for logs was the diffi
BAND -SAWING MACHINES FOR HEAVY TIMBER. 353

culty of keeping the saw blade in a true vertical

line when sawing heavy timber. This has now , how
ever, been in a large degree surmounted by means
which we will briefly discuss. In the first place it is
important that the saw be guided and supported as it
enters and leaves the wood . This has been done in a
variety of ways. The best with which we are acquainted
is to fit in the table an adjustable metallic friction
revolving guide wheel to receive the back thrust of the
saw , and an adjustable guide fitted immediately be
neath the table, with a similar guide arranged in an
adjustable counterbalanced slide, fixed immediately
above the surface of the wood . If the work is very
difficult two pairs of movable steel rollers placed
immediately above the cut and below the table can be
used . With these revolving rollers the friction is very
small, and the saw is supported considerably . The
ordinary flat adjustable guides are usually of wood .
Apple or pear wood soaked in oil is suitable, but some
makers use plates of steel. In sawing resinous woods,
where it is necessary to keep the blade clean by lubri
cating it, the writer has used with advantage an oil-box
guide. This is made in gun -metal, and consists chiefly
of two flat oil-boxes, placed one on each side of the saw .
The sides of the boxes nearest the saw blade are made
adjustable, and drilled with a number of small holes,
through which the oil can percolate. Hard brushes
can also be fixed to sweep the blade clean at the back
of the machine with advantage. The packing pieces,
whether of wood or metal, should be adjusted so as to
just touch the blade on either side, and so prevent its
undue vibration in working. Another plan to keep the
saw to the line is to deflect the blade as it enters and
A A
354 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY. .
leaves the cut by means of side friction rollers placed
on a spindle vertically and made to bear against it.
The revolving steel roller receiving the back thrust of
the blade must be capable of adjustment, as the duty
is very severe , and the blade must not be allowed to
cut too deeply into it, or it will have a tendency to heat
and twist the blade. The roller need not be more than
} in . thick ; it should be about 4 in . diameter, made of
hardened steel, fitted on a steel spindle carefully
mounted in phosphor-bronze bearings. These, together
with the lower side guides, can be mounted with
advantage on a bracket arranged to swivel so that the
guide may be readily adjusted to the plane of the saw
blade.
We illustrate in fig. 49 an improved form of guide
and guide arm , of American origin , in which the pivot
is in line with the teeth of the saw , but slightly to
one side, and it is stated that the amount of move
ment which this position entails upon the cutting
edge of the saw is so slight as to be immaterial. The
hardened steel roller is fitted between steel plates ; the
outside plate is 3 in . thick , with a slot cut in it to make
room for the nut on the roller. This outside plate is
bolted to the guide casting by three stud bolts, which
pass through adjusting steel plugs, thus enabling the
distance between the plates to be altered at will. The
upper and lower edges of the plates are bevelled as
shown, and the side guides, which are gibs of brass or
steel, are slipped on and screwed fast. The whole
guide is then pivoted close to the cutting edge of the
saw , and by loosening one nutthe guidemay be adjusted
by the handle shown at the back whilst the saw is in
motion .
BAND -SAWING MACHINES FOR HEAVY TIMBER. 355
We have seen another very good guide, consisting
of a hard steel disc arranged to rotate on its axis,
so as to present fresh wearing surfaces to the back of
the saw . The side guides are two half discs , which
are made to embrace the sides of the saw , and can be
readily adjusted by a screw when the saw is in motion .
TIMBER CARRIAGE. — This is usually a table of
wrought iron running on friction rollers or rails, and
operated by steam , rack and pinion , or friction gearing.

FIG . 49. — GUIDE AND ARM .

It should be fitted with adjustable sliding heads and

dogs for holding the timber firmly in position , and be
speeded to travel from , say, 5 ft . to 100 ft. per minute,
according to the size and nature of the wood to be
sawn. By means of a hand lever and suitable friction
gear the traverse of the table may be readily started,
stopped , or reversed, as may be required. By the
employment of a friction disc the rate of feed may be
regulated to a nicety. Rope feeds and feeds similar to
those used in rack saw benches are also used, but care
A A 2
 G ERY
356 WOOD -WORKIN MACHIN .

must be taken that the speed of the feed is not excessive,

or the saw blade may be buckled and broken , as, being
of much thinner gauge and usually running at a slower
speed than a circular saw , it will not stand so much
crowding. The levers and hand wheels controlling
the stopping, starting, feeding, and adjusting of the
logs should be placed so as to be readily under the
control of the operator,and as near together as may be.
In the most advanced machines the head blocks can be
simultaneously moved by a lever, and the thickness of
the cut regulated to the greatest exactness by means of
an indexed gauge plate .
BAND SAW BLADES. — It need hardly be said that
no matter how well a machine be designed and made,
unless the cutting tool is of the finest quality the
result is always unsatisfactory. What is required in a
band saw is toughness combined with a certain degree
of hardness. If the blade be too soft it will not stand
to its work , and will require constant sharpening . If
it be too hard it will crystallise and break ; it must,
however, be sufficiently hard to keep well its cutting
edge. French bandsaws have long been held in the
best repute , but some English firms are now making
very good ones . It is not easy to distinguish by in
spection the quality or temper of a saw blade, and a
user must necessarily rely to a great extent on the
repute of the saw maker. Not a bad test is to
“ hammer set ' a few of the teeth coarsely, and if the
temper is too hard a tooth will probably crack . The
gauge of the saw should be in proportion to the
diameter of the saw wheels and the nature of the work .
A thin gauge saw will stand better than a thick one,
therefore a saw of a greater gauge than is required to
BAND -SAWING MACHINES FOR HEAVY TIMBER. 357
stand up to the work should not be selected ; but for
cutting hard, close-grained woods, such as oak , beech ,
& c ., a thicker saw will be required than for medium
and soft woods. Long blades will stand better than
short ones. To do thoroughly satisfactory work a band
saw should have teeth correct in shape, and the blade
be uniformn in gauge, width, toothing, sharpening,
setting, and temper. The question as to the shape of
the teeth is a matter not easily dealt with, as it should
be regulated by the nature of the wood they have to
cut. Teeth with square or angular gullets should be
avoided , as they are more likely to crack at the roots
of the teeth than those with rounded gullets. For con

FIG . 50 . - SAW TEETH FOR ORDINARY TIMBER .

verting ordinary timber a saw with teeth similar to

fig. 50 is suitable For sawing oak , ash, elm , and hard
woods generally ' more teeth should be used than for
soft wood, and these filed farther back. For woods of
woolly fibre, such as poplar, saws with deep teeth and
coarse space and set should be employed, to allow an
easy clearance for the sawdust, and overcome its cling
ing properties. Coarse teeth and set should also be
used for cutting pitch pine. For soft woods ordinary
hand-saw teeth are often used. It is important thatall
the saw teeth be sharpened and set alike. With this
object in view , automatic sharpening and setting
machines have been introduced with satisfactory
See Saw Mills, Their Arrangement and Management,by M . Powis
Bale.
 RY
358 WOOD -WORK ’ING MACHINE .

results. A suitable gauge for saws 8 in . wide for

cutting soft and medium woods is 17 S .W .G . with a
pitch of about 14 in . The amount of set should vary
according to the density of the wood, the harder the
wood the less the amount of set necessary and the
greater the number of teeth . For converting very
hard woods, such as iron wood , the author prefers fine
toothed and set mill saws to either circular or band
saws. For sawing deals, band -sawing machines carry
ing two blades have been introduced into this country
with 'success, a cutting speed of about 6 ft. per minute
being maintained, with a kerf loss of about 1 in . for
each cut. It is very important, in order to secure an
even motion on the saw blade, that the brazing be
very completely done, and that the joint be of exactly
the same thickness as the rest of the blade.
SPEED OF SAW BLADE. — The question of the speed
of the blade is a factor of considerable importance in
securing efficient working. A short saw running over
medium -sized wheels cannot, with safety, be run so
fast as a long saw running over large ones, by several
thousand feet per minute . A speed of from 5 ,000 ft. to
10,000 ft. per minute - according to the nature of the
work and construction of the machine- may be con
sidered a fair margin .
NOTES ON WORKING.– Keep the saw to a moderate
tension and see that the wheel coverings are not al
lowed to get rough or worn . When sawing resinous
woods, keep the blade as clean as possible by lubri
cating and brushing it. After taking a cut the log
should be set back very slightly, so as to clear the
teeth of the saw , as the table runs back, preparatory
to taking another cut. The saw should never be
 BAND-SAWING MACHINES FOR HEAVY TIMBER. 359
crowded with too quick a feed, or it will twist and
buckle and not cut true and regular. Emerson, an
American manufacturer of saws, gives the following
instructions for straightening band saws. If band saws
contain lumps or twists, put them on the wheels, and
at the tension they are to be run . Use a light, oval
faced hand-hammer for thin , narrow saws, a heavier
hammer for wider and thicker ones, and a short
straight-edge, say 6 in . long, for narrow saws, and a
longer one for wide saws. The tongue of a carpenter's
or machinist's try square , if straight, will answer . Go
over the saw carefully with the straight-edge, and
mark the lumps and high places on both sides of the
saw . Now hold the oval face (end) of a carpenter 's or
millwright's mallet against the side of the saw , exactly
on the opposite side from the marked places, which
should bemarked with chalk . You will find that a few
light blows against the saw opposite the smooth face of
the mallet will knock out the lumps. Work on both
marked sides as you go along, watching very carefully
with your straight-edge as you proceed , and you will at
once see that the lumps or high places begin to dis
appear. If your saw has been sprung edgewise by
gumming or cutting out the teeth with a press gummer,
takemost of the weight off the saw , so as only to have
barely tension enough to hold the saw straight on its
sides ; use a long straight-edge, say 18 in . to 20 in .
long, and be sure that it is straight. If the back of
the saw is found to be hollowing, hold the face of a
heavy hand-hammer against one side of the saw , and,
with a lighter hand-hammer, hammer the blade against
the face of the large hand -hammer, commencing at the
edge of the saw near the back , working towards the
360 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
roots of the teeth , thus stretching the saw at the back .
Striking light blows on a thin , narrow saw , and heavier
ones on a wide,thick saw , will soon bring them straight
on the back . The principle of this operation is that
you stretch the steel at the back of the saw . A band
saw will work badly if the cutting edge becomes
stretched so that it is hollow -backed . It will work
much better if the back is stretched a little longer than
the cutting-edge, so that it will be a trifle rounding on
the back (but not too much ). Then , when the saw is
strained up, the cutting -edge will be a little tighter
than the back. With a little practice, care, and per
severance , any ordinary mechanic can make a good
job , with tools that he can pick up in almost any shop
or mill using band saws, and will be surprised to learn
how quickly he can go over a saw , and how much he
can improve the working of it. Unless you want to
stretch the saw , use wood and not iron or steel to
hammer against.
CIRCULAR AND BAND Saws COMPARED. — Circular
saws for breaking down heavy timber,when compared
with band saws used for the same purpose, possess the
advantage of greater output, and are perhaps a little
more easily managed . On the other hand, the band
saw uses much less power and wastes inuch less wood .
The first costof a good rack -feed saw bench and a band
saw for logs is slightly in favour of the former. In
America, where circular saws are used of much thicker
gauge than they are here, the saving in power and
wood through using a band saw is correspondingly
greater. In sawing pine the average output on a first
rate circular saw in America may be set down at about
40,000 ft. per day of ten hours, whilst a band saw in
 BAND-SAWING MACHINES FOR HEAVY TIMBER. 361
the same time would produce about 30,000 ft. We
believe these figures have been exceeded, but think
they may be taken as a fair average. An American
authority , in comparing circular and band saws, says
that “the kerf of circular saws average De in ., and in
sawing 1 ,000 ft. of inch boards 312 ft. is turned into
sawdust. The average kerf of the band saw is about
\ in ., and in sawing the same amount of boards it
turns 83 ft. into sawdust. This shows a clear saving
of 229 ft. in favour of the band saw on every 1,000 ft.,
and on 1,000,000 ft. of 229,000 ft.,' an enormous saving
to say the least . The figures here given must, how
ever, be very considerably discounted when applied to
this country , as the circular. saws in use here are of
very much thinner gauge ; but supposing a reduction
of 50 per cent., and the saving is still very great. This
is, of course , particularly the case when valuable woods
are converted . Again , if the band-sawing machine is
carefully made and handled, the work produced is
superior to that of the circular saw . This may be
chiefly accounted for through the greater freedom
from vibration of the band saw when cutting. As the
advantages arising from the employment of band saws
become better known and appreciated , there is little
doubt that they will, on their merits, rapidly supersede
large circular saws for converting heavy logs.
The illustration fig. 51 represents a log band -sawing
machine from the designs of Messrs. A . Ransome & Co.
The main frame of the machine is of massive construc
tion , to overcome the vibration of working. The saw
wheels are of large diameter, and made of wrought iron
or steel cased with wood, to combine, as far as may be,
strength with lightness. The lower wheel is made
 362 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
heavier than the top one, to prevent the saw over
running when entering the cut. The saw -wheel
spindles are of steel running in bearings placed close
up on each side the saw wheels, so as to take up
immediately the strain of the saw when working. The
bearings are made of extra length , so that the pressure
is distributed over an increased area, and excessive
friction is avoided . The top saw pulley is made adjust
able, and a proper working tension is given to the saw
blade by means of a compound weighted lever. Adjust
able packing boxes are placed immediately above and
below the cut, to guide and support the saw when at
work and prevent it running from the line. The
machine is fitted with a variable feed motion , actuated
by a frictional disc arrangement, and speeded at from
5 ft. to 50 ft. per minute feed , with a return motion
of 250 ft. per minute. Speed of saw 7 ,000 ft. per
minute .
 ir
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 363

CHAPTER XLII.
THE CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF BAND
SAWING MACHINES .

Many of our remarks on log band- sawing machines will

apply also to those of ordinary construction , but wemay
say that, to make a really efficient machine, the main
framing should be rigid and cast in one piece , and of a
height not greater than is absolutely required for
working. Hollow or ' box ' framing is to be preferred ,
but for light machines a stout flange casting may be
sufficient; the base of the machine should be extended ,
and, given these, freedom from excessive vibration in
working may be secured.
To insure easy manipulation of the wood , it will be
necessary to bow the main frame sufficiently to allow
of ample space between it and the saw . The next
most important point is the construction of the saw
wheels . These should be of as large a diameter as may
be convenient, and combine strength with lightness in
the highest possible degree, and be perfectly in balance .
An elastic rubber band or cushion must also be provided
for the saw to ride on . .
In the best practice the old cast-iron flanged wheels
have given place to light steel or wrought-iron ones ,
made somewhat after the fashion of bicycle wheels and
364 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
without flanges. The top wheel is arranged to cant,
thus directing the saw to run on any part of the peri
pbery and equalising the wear on the elastic covering.
The top saw wheel must be mounted elastically, and
the author has found for heavy machines two pairs of
bearings — mounted in a slide for the top wheel, and in
standards or pedestals for the bottom wheel— to be
preferable to single bearings or the plan of mounting
the wheel to run on studs. To keep the saw to its
proper tension , and lessen the breakage of the blades, a
weighted counterbalance lever ,or a spring arrangement,
must in all cases be fitted to the top slide. An ex
tremely important matter is the guidingand supporting
of the saw blade as it enters and leaves the wood ; this
may be done by fitting in the table metallic friction
guide wheels to receive the back thrust of the saw , an
adjustable wooden guide immediately beneath the table
and a similar guide fitted in an adjustable counter
balanced slide fixed immediately above the surface of
the wood .
The table must, of course , be arranged to set to
angle : this is usually done by means ofa slotted quad
rant and stud, but the trouble of unslacking the nut
and uncertainty of fixing the table may be obviated by
forming a worm on the quadrant, and working it by a
worm and hand wheel. The table can thus be set to
any desired angle with the greatest nicety .
Before commencing work, the machine should be
carefully fixed to a dead level, and it would be well to
place beneath the base -plate a sheet of felt, as this
has a tendency to absorb and lessen the vibration in
working, especially if the machine be placed on an
upper floor.
 BREAKAGE OF BAND-SAW BLADES. 365

THE BREAKAGE OF BAND-SAWS.

Why do band saws break ? that is the question .
Many people would probably say because they are
not strong enough ; butwhen we consider that the limit
of endurance of a jointed and strained band saw blade is
not less than 180 lbs. for every to of its width , some
thing beyond fair usage must account for their constant
breakage. I take it the chief causes of breakage may
be set down as follows:
1. Improperly or badly constructed machines.
2 . Bad saws.
3. Saws of too thick a gauge for the diameter of
the wheels.
4. Saw wheels too small, too heavy, or out of
balance.
5. Want of elastic tension in mounting the saw
wheels.
6. Too great or sudden a tension , or wheel covering
worn , or out of order.
7 . In overcoming the inertia of starting the top
wheel, and from the top wheel overrunning the bottom
wheel and saw .
8 . From the expansion of working and the omis
sion to loosen the saw blade as it contracts after finish
ing work .
9. Improper method of receiving the back thrust of
the saw .
10 . From imperfect brazing and the joint being
thicker than the other part of the blade.
11. From chips dropping between the bladeand the
bottom saw wheel.
12. Insufficient guides for the saw as it enters or
leaves the cut.
 RY
366 WOOD -WORKING MACHINE .

13 . Improper teeth or width of blade for the wood

or work to be done.
14. Improper and uneven sharpening and setting .
15. Improper speed .
16 . Improper working, such as forcing the saw ,
using dull saws, & c .
There may be other reasons for breakage than
above, but these are the chief ones the writer can call
to mind at the moment ; practical readers can add to
the list.
Referring to cause of breakage No. 1 on the list,
we have already given some notes on the points to be
desired in a well- constructed machine which will suffi
ciently answer this.
With reference to band saws (No. 2 ), the user has
to a great extent to place himself in the hands of the
saw -maker, as it is difficult to distinguish by inspection
the quality or temper of a saw blade. By bending the
blade or by setting some of the teeth coarsely you can
in a degree judge its elasticity as to its temper , as,
should it be too hard, it would probably crack. A
blade either too hard or too soft is useless ; what is re
quired in a band saw is toughness, and a certain degree
of hardness combined. (3 ) A fruitful cause of breakage
of the blades is the use of band saws of too thick a
gauge for the size of the saw wheels on which they run .
The blades when in work are subjected to several severe
strains, the chief of which are bending and torsional ;
this is particularly the case when thick saws are run on
wheels of small diameter, as the arc of contact of the
saw and wheel is too sharp. It is a mistake to use
thick saws ; a thin gauge saw will stand better than a
thick one.
 MANAGEMENT OF BAND-SAWS 367
4 . As we have elsewhere remarked , saw wheels of
small diameter are to be avoided. We prefer to run
wheels without flanges on them . 5 . A very important
point in working band saws is to secure a constant and
even tension on the saw blade ; at the same time the ten
sion should be elastic, and not rigid , to allow for the ex
pansion and contraction of the saw , as the friction of
working sets up heat, which causes the blade to ex
pand , and when the machine is at rest, and the blade
becomes cool, it contracts again . Should the saw catch
in a knot or nail and give a jump, if the top saw wheel
is mounted rigidly it will almost invariably snap, but
should it be elastically mounted it will give with the
saw, and so save its fracture.
6 . Some operators run their sawsat too great a ten
sion , and should this be suddenly increased by the saw
striking somehard substance, fracture is the result ; or if
the elastic saw wheel covering is allowed to get worn the
saw becomes twisted in running and breakage often
ensues. This latter can be avoided by arranging the
top saw wheel to cant, and so leading the saw to any
part ofthe periphery , and thus equalising thewear of the
rubber covering. Should sawsbe run attoo greattension,
the excessive friction rapidly alters the granular struc
ture of the steel, which becomes crystallised and soon
cracks and fractures.
7 . In working band- sawing machines it is im
portant that they should be set in motion gradually,
more particularly where the wheels are of the old
fashioned type and heavy, as it takes a little time to
overcome the inertia of the top saw wheel, and if the
power is applied all at once there is a considerable ten
dency to snap the blade from the sudden strain put
 WOOD -WORKIN
G NERY
368 MACHI .

upon it . To overcome this, striking or belt gear can

be worked by means of a very coarse screw . This can
also be applied to thestarting of heavy planing machines
with decided advantage.
A fruitful cause of breakage of the blades is the
overrunning by the top wheel of the bottom or driving
wheel of the saw , and also of the saw itself. When the
top saw wheel is running at full speed it necessarily
acquires a considerable momentum , and acts somewhat
after the fashion of a fly wheel; consequently , when
the speed of the saw blade is suddenly checked by its
entry into the wood as it commences to saw , the
acquired momentum of thetop wheel not being checked
in a like proportion overruns the saw and the driving
wheel, and creeps , so to speak, up the back of the saw ,
and consequently buckles or breaks it at the point of
resistance, viz. where the saw enters the wood . The
remedy for this is to construct the top saw wheel as
light as possible, make it in perfect balance, mount it
elastically, and cover it with a thick band — say fin .
of vulcanised indiarubber. These arrangements will
neutralise to a considerable degree the sudden strain put
on the saw at starting , and largely obviate the over
running above alluded to.
8 . Saw blades should in all casesbe slackened out after
finishing work . Notwithstanding the small area of the
blade in frictional contact with the wood, and the con
stant cooling action of the air through which the
saw passes , a considerable amount of heat is often
engendered in the blade, especially in sawing resinous
or difficult woods. Consequently , the blade expands
considerably, and the slack is taken up by the ope
rator. When the work is over, and the friction on the
 MANAGEMENT OF BAND SAWS. 369
blade removed, it immediately commences to contract .
Should it not be at liberty to do this, from the tension
not being removed , cracks at the roots of the teeth are
the result ; consequently, when the saw is started again
it flies . When rubbers are put on the wheels new they
may give sufficiently to allow of the necessary contrac
tion , but when they become worn and hard or where
leather coverings are used, the above is usually the
result .
9 . Another cause of the breakage of theblades is an
improper method of receiving their back thrust. The
best way to do this has been the subject of consider
able discussion . We prefer to fit revolving steel discs
for this purpose, as the back of the saw blade does
not so readily cut into them as with fixed ones. If a
disc is allowed to get deeply grooved , the blade gets
buckled and twisted , and often breaks.
10. Imperfectbrazing is another cause of breakage.
To secure a steady and even motion on the saw blade,
it is important that the brazing be carefully and neatly
done (see p . 338).
11. Chips may be prevented dropping between the
saw blade and the bottom wheel by attaching an angular
guard to the frame of the machine.
12. No comment is needed with respect to in
sufficient guides.
13. The proper shape and pitch of the teeth is a
matter of great moment in the successful working of
band saws. Should teeth be used unsuited to the wood
being cut, a largely increased friction on the blade is
set up, the teeth are rapidly dulled or broken , and the
work turned out is inferior. For sawing all ordinary
woods of the Pinus family ordinary hand saw teeth are
BB
370 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY .
suitable, except for pitch pine ; for working this wood
coarsely spaced and set teeth are suitable. We can
recommend for durability saws with gullet teeth, that
is, rounded at the root, as they are less liable to fracture
than saws with the roots running to an angle , as
the fracture in the blade is found almost invariably
to commence at the point of this angle. Owing,
however, to small gullet teeth being more troublesome
to sharpen, the hand saw teeth are now largely em
ployed . For sawing oak, ash , elm , and hard woods
generally, more teeth or points, say five or six to the
inch , should be used, and these filed farther back . For
heavy sawing, peg teeth with round gullets are to be
preferred . For woods of woolly fibre, such as English
poplar, saws with deep teeth should be used , with
coarse space, and set to allow an easy clearance for the
sawdust and overcome its clinging properties. Saws of
a width suited to the work should be used , and wide
saws should never be twisted round sharp curves, or
they will buckle and run out of truth. For straight
work a wider saw may be used with advantage.
14 . Care must be taken that the saw teeth are
uniformly set and sharpened . Uneven and improper
setting causes a considerable amount of tension to the
saw blade, increased friction crystallising the steel, and
consequent breakage. The teeth of band saws should
by preference be set by light, carefully given blows,
instead of bending, which , unless very carefully per
formed , is more liable to buckle the blades and prevent
them running true. Several little machines are now
made, by which saws can be accurately set to any
desired coarseness by a blow similar to that given by a
hammer instead of by a bending pressure. A band saw
sharpening machine has also been constructed , which
 MANAGEMENT OF BAND SAWS. 371
automatically sharpens all the teeth alike. By im .
proving the quality of the work and reducing the fric
tion on , and consequent breakage of, the saw blades,
these machines should very rapidly earn their first cost.
15. The speed at which the saw blade travels has
much to do with its cutting efficiency. Saws running
on small wheels , say, below 3 ft. diameter, cannot be
run with safety so fast as on larger wheels. Speaking
generally , saw blades working on wheels up to 3 ft.
diameter can be run up to 4 ,500 ft. per minute for soft
and medium woods, that is, presupposing a well-con
structed machine to be used . For sawing hard woods
up to 3 ,500 ft. per minute , with saw wheels above 3 ft.
diameter, these speeds may be increased .
16. We need hardly say a bad workman may break
any amount of saws by forcing them , bending them
edgeways, using dull saws, or saws too wide or stout
for the work, & c. If in working a properly sharpened
and set blade should have a tendency to bind, it pro
bably arises from insufficiency of throat room in the
teeth. It would be well, therefore, to try a saw with the
teeth set a little further apart : this will not cut quite
so fast, but the sawdust will have time to escape, and
the binding should be done away with .
In concluding our remarks on working band saws,
there is little doubt that - given in the first instance a
well-constructed machine, a careful operator, and a saw
blade uniform in gauge, width , toothing , sbarpening,
setting, and temper — a band sawing machine is one of
the mostmoney -earning and valuable of allwood -work
ing machines, not only for the ordinary curved work ,
for which it is generally used, but for breaking down
heavy logs. .
· BB 2
372 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER XLIII.
CIRCULAR SAWS : THEIR ADJUSTMENT AND
MANAGEMENT.

As good saws cannot run properly in a bad machine, it

may be as well to consider briefly, in the first place,
what points of construction are to be desired in a really
efficient saw bench. In the most advanced practice the
main frame is invariably made on the box ' system ,
and cast in one piece, and there is little doubt that
the strains and vibrations of working are thus more
readily absorbed than is the case where the frame is
put together in sections. The face and edges of the
table must be truly planed.
We now come to a very important matter in all
wood -working machines, viz . the bearings ; and we
cannot help thinking that, having in mind the constant
and severe strains to which they are subjected , the
majority of them in this country are made much too
short: the bearing surface is thus limited, and con
sequently the pressure on it is very great. In America
long bearings have been the rule for years , and some
few English firms are at length introducing the system ,
with the result that, owing to the pressure being dis
tributed , the friction and consequent heating and wear
are reduced and their longevity largely increased .
In preference to white metal alloys as used in the
 CIRCULAR SAWS. 373

States, gun -metaland phosphor-bronze are the materials

usually employed here, and a bearing of from three to
four diameters in length can be recommended. For all
saws above 30 in . in diameter, three sets of bearings
should be fitted , one of these being placed outside the
driving pulleys to overcome the pull of the belt. The
author recommended that this latter bearing be made
adjustable for wear ; this can readily be done by
dividing the bearing vertically and unevenly, and by
passing set screws through the side of the pedestal. In
large benches, at any rate , it will be found convenient
to let the bearings in from the top of the bench and fit
in false plates in preference to fitting them in plummer
blocks bolted to the under surface of the frame. To
insure the saw spindle running true, all bearings
should be bored out in their places instead of in a lathe
as is occasionally done. The saw spindle should be of
steel and free from seams or hard places, and fitted
with an adjustable lock -nut to take up the end wear.
The saw collars and steady pin should be very care
fully made, and the latter be an easy fit, or it may
throw the saw slightly out of centre. The hole in
which the pin is fitted should be countersunk . The
fence should be very accurately planed , arranged to
bevel, and fitted with strips and fine adjustment screw
for accurately gauging the thickness of the cut. In
heavy machines, a lever pressure roller and weight for
holding the wood up to the fence will be necessary ;
and the drag- rope, roller , chain , rack , or other feed for
taking the wood through the saw is usually fitted . We
take it a very important factor in the effective working
of circular saw benches is found in the diameter and
width of the driving pulleys employed . Many of these
374 WOOD - IVORKING MACHINERY.

are undoubtedly made of too small a diameter and too

narrow on the face for the work they have to perform ;
on this point we shall have something to say further
on. These pulleys should be crowned on the face, and
the pulley driving them flat, and of a width equal to
both of them . With reference to the loose pulleys on
saw benches, there is little doubt that they are amongst
the most troublesome things in a saw -mill to keep in
order, and it may not be out of place to say a few words
thereon. In the first place , they are not always properly
designed for the work they have to perform , the
same pattern being used for all kinds of duty
For use on saw benches, where the speeds are high
and the belts often heavy , the pulleys should in all
cases be bored and rhymered perfectly true. If an
ordinary loose pulley be used , the boss should be
extended so as to project, say, an inch beyond the rim
of the pulley ; the inside of the boss should be recessed
and an oilway cut. The pulley should fit the shaft
easily but not loosely , so as to admit of a thin film of
oil penetrating between the pulley and the shaft , the
object being for the pulley to ride on the oil and not on
the shaft. For use in saw benches, the loose pulley can,
with advantage, be made of less diameter than the fast,
so that the driving belt is relieved from strain when
not at work , and has time to recover its elasticity ;
it is usual in this case to make the loose pulley with
an inclined flange leading up to the fast pulley to
facilitate the shafting of the belt." The oil-holes
should in all cases be of ample size , and either a
lubricator or pipe fitted. The lubrication should be
San -mills : Their Arrangement and Management. By M . Powis
Bale .
 CIRCULAR SAWS. 375
carefully attended to , especially when the pulley is
new ; should it once be allowed to seize , it will require
re-rhymering , or it will be constantly giving trouble .
If properly fitted and lubricated , cast iron makes an
excellent wearing surface ; a little fine plumbago intro
duced into the oil will keep it longer in the bearing,
and by filling up the little pores in the iron, produce a
fine, smooth surface. Should the loose pulley be made
of less diameter than the tight, the difference should
not be great, say not more than 1 in ., or, in shifting
the belt from the loose on to the tight, it will become
unevenly stretched on the one side, and be apt to run
out of truth . In many cases it will be found an
excellent plan to arrange the loose pulley to run on a
sleeve of cast iron . A patent in this direction has been
taken out, of which we hear satisfactory results. In
this plan the boss of the loose pulley is somewhat en
larged , and made to revolve on a sleeve instead of on
the shaft itself. The pulley boss is recessed to form an
oil chamber, and the oil is supplied in the usual way
through a pipe, and is prevented from leaving the bear
ing by means of a flange fitted to the end of the boss,
and by the centrifugal force engendered when thepulley
is set in motion , which causes the oil to fly immediately
to the largest diameter, which is the working or rubbing
face of the sleeve. Tight belts , often too narrow for
the work, are a fruitful cause of loose pulleys grinding
on the shaft and getting out of order. The author has
recently patented a system of bushing loose pulleys
with glass, which has every appearance ofbeing highly
successful. In this case the bush is crenated in such a
manner that a supply of lubricating material - of which
very little is required — is retained in it.
376 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
Circular saws may run out of truth from a great
variety of causes, amongst which the following are
perhaps the chief, but practical operators will be able
to add to the list :
1. Saws of too thin a gauge for the work .
2 . Irregular setting.
3. Improper form of teeth for the work .
4 . Too rapid a feed of the timber.
5 . Improper sharpening of the teeth.
6 . Teeth of an improper pitch , or with insufficient
gulley space to allow sawdust to escape freely .
7. Saw plate unevenly • balanced ,' or improperly
hung.
8 . Saw becoming 'buckled ’ through overheating
from the friction of the wood or heat from bear
ings & c .
9. Collar or steady pin of saw spindle out of truth .
10. Saw plate of too mild a temper or untruly
ground .
11. Saw not compensated, hammered, or distorted
enough when cold — by the maker — to run true when
warm and at its full speed .
12. Too much lead ' or rake on the saw teeth .
13. Saw teeth allowed to get out of space or shape .
14. Too long a saw guide or fence, causing binding
of the wood .
15 . Improper packing of the saw .
16 . Binding of the timber through not being
• opened out' as it leaves the saw , or other causes.
17. Chips getting between saw and packing pieces.
18. Through end play on the spindle .
19. Driving pulley on the saw spindle being of too
small diameter, or too narrow on face, causing slipping
 CIRCULAR SAWS. 377

of belt and consequent marking on the wood, or run

ning driving belts at too short centres.
20. Using a “ frozen ' saw .
21. Saws running at too high or too low a speed .
1. The thinness of the gauge at which a saw may
be safely run depends in a large measure on the nature
of the wood being cut and the skill of the operator in
selecting the rightshaped tooth, sharpening and pack
ing ’ the saw properly , and keeping it in what may be
termed scientific order . In America thick gauge
. distorted ' saws, run with guide pegs, but without
packing, have been the fashion , but, as this means
loss of power and wood , they will, as wood becomes
dearer, doubtless give way in favour of thinner ones.
In selecting a saw , what is required is one of a gauge
not so thick as to waste unnecessarily power or
wood , or so thin as to give constant trouble to keep
in order. It must also be borne in mind that the
thinner the gauge of the saw , the more teeth will
be required to allow of the same amount of feed ; the
power required will, however, be increased in ratio . A
thick saw can be run at a higher speed than a thin one,
as it expands less rapidly from the centrifugal force set
up , and is less likely to become rim ' or ' centre '
bound.
2 . Irregular setting is a frightful cause of saws
running from the line and turning out bad work. Set
ting by rule of thumb is a stupid and wasteful plan ; in
all cases a gauge should be used , whether spring,
hammer, or spread setting be employed . In working,
it is found that the teeth of a saw wear at the side of
the points, and if some teeth have more set than others,
these are strained unduly, and rapidly worn away, and
378 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
from the severe and uneven friction are often heated ,
and are inclined to buckle and run from the line. The
operator must exercise his judgment as to the amount
of set required to suit different kinds or conditions of
wood , as it is both useless and wasteful to give a saw
more set than is absolutely necessary. Care must be
taken that both sides of the saw are set alike ; should
one be setmore than the other the teeth will, of course,
lead or run from the line.
3. If teeth of an improper form or unsuited to the
nature of the wood being cut are used , we need hardly
say that a great amount of friction is set up ; in some
cases the teeth are broken , and the result is in every
way unsatisfactory . Teeth of almost any shape and in
any condition can be driven through the wood by sheer
force, but this is mangling, not sawing. What is re
quired are teeth of the correct shape for the nature of
the wood sawn, and equal in pitch, space , bevel, gullet,
length , and set. This list may appear a long one, but
users will find that any reasonable amount of time
spent in keeping saws in fine condition, and working
them in a scientificmanner, is a very paying investment,
the result being more work of better quality, less wear
and tear and expenditure of power . The question of
the shape and cutting action of saw teeth is a scien
tific matter of much importance to timber converters,
but it would require many drawings and much space to
discuss the subject fully . We may say, speaking
generally, that for cutting soft wood the angles of the
teeth should be more or less acute, according to its
softness, and those for medium and hard wood more
obtuse in ratio to the varying densities of the wood .
It may be some little guide to know that when a saw is
 CIRCULAR SAWS. 379
cutting sweetly ' it should produce extremely minute
chips like those from a mortise chisel, and not very fine
sawdust; if the latter is made the saw is scraping, not
cutting. Whatever teeth are selected , should they
spring or tremble in work , it may safely be concluded
that they are unsuited to the work in some way,
possibly either too long or too hooked , or of too thin a
gauge.
4 . Too rapid a feed of the timber is a matter that
can only be judged by the sawyer, and depends entirely
on the nature and condition of the wood being cut, the
kind of feed gear, and the condition of the saw . Of
course no one would attempt to feed hard , frozen, or
difficult wood much more than half as fast as soft, and
some woods, such as cocus, rosewood, & c ., at less than
this. If the feed is too fast, the timber will often rise
up the back of the saw , and in some cases the sawyer
will get a gentle reminder by having it thrown at him ,
or the saw will become jammed and buckled, or the
driving belt thrown off. “ Swaged ’ or spread set teeth
will stand a quicker feed than spring set.
5 . An immense variety of opinions exist as to what
is the proper way to sharpen a saw , almost every
operator having ideas of his own, good, bad, and in
different, chiefly the last two; consequently we find an
immense quantity of badly and improperly sharpened
saws. We ourselves thoroughly believe in sharpening
with a machine with which there is no difficulty
in getting each tooth of the saw alike in its cutting
angle, pitch and depth of gullet. The great point to
aim at, whether emery wheels or files are used , is to
sharpen each tooth so that it will take its allotted share
of work ; to effect this, the cutting angles of the teeth
380 WOOD.WORKING MACHINERY.
must, together with the set , be exactly uniform . It is
impossible , however, to properly describe the operation
of sharpening in writing without an elaborate system
of drawings. To keep all the teeth uniform we can
strongly recommend the use of sheet steel standard
templates of several teeth ; by mounting these in a
light, adjustable , radial arm , fixed on the sharpening
stud, and made to bear flat against the saw plate at the
periphery, the exact shape and depth of the teeth can
be obtained from the template by traversing the saw
round by hand.
6 . A fruitful cause of saws buckling and running
from the line is the insufficiency of throat space in the
teeth ; consequently the sawdust cannot escape fast
enough, and becomes clogged . The teeth should also
be all of equal length ; if not the longest teeth get the
most work, and the cutting power of the saw much
lessened. The length of the teeth should be regulated
by the nature of the wood being sawn ; for instance,
for sawing sappy or fibrous woods, long, sharp teeth are
necessary, but these must not be too long or they spring ,
aud perhaps break in work. The author is of opinion
that many of the saws in use in Europe carry too many
teeth , and he is in favour of the American system of
using fewer teeth - if not carried to excess — as more
throat space is given to the clearance of the sawdust,
and less power is required to drive. The throat space
of saw teeth should be varied according to the depth of
the wood being cut, as it will be seen at a glance that
teeth with a sufficient throat space to allow sawdust to
escape freely in sawing 18 in . deep would probably be
come jammed in sawing double that depth .
For gulleting, an emery wheel is much to be pre
 CIRCULAR SAWS. 381
ferred to a fly press ; the latter is wasteful and apt to
spring the plate when punching out deep gullets. If a
saw is kept in good order ,and the teeth are not allowed
to get short and stumpy, very little gulleting should be
required at one time; in fact, the gulleting press should
be conspicuous by its absence, and only be used for
retoothing broken saws.
7. In hanging a saw care should be taken that it
does not fit too tightly on the saw spindle or bind the
steady pin . A saw ,when properly hung, should , in the
horizontal line, incline very slightly towards the timber,
so that the teeth at the back of the saw may rise
without scoring the wood. The saw should be perfectly
in balance, that is , perfectly round ; if it has teeth of
unequal length , size, or shape, it is not properly or
scientifically balanced .
8. A very common cause for saws rnnning untrue
is the heat conveyed from the bearings through the
saw spindle to the eye of the saw, and many plans to
get rid of this have been tried . It arises, of course, in
the first place from the bearings being out of order,
screwed up too tight, or from driving with too narrow
a belt, which has to be strained too tightly, or from
running at too short centres, which also necessitates a
tight belt ; thus undue strain and friction are put on
the bearings and heat engendered . These defects can
usually be remedied without much trouble . Many
schemes for keeping the saw spindle cool have been
tried , including one in which it is made hollow , and a
stream of water allowed to pass through it and escape
at the collar on both sides of the saw , the centrifugal
force distributing it over the surface of the plate . To
this spindle is fitted a contrivance for relieving the saw
382 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERI.

and allowing a little end play when necessary, and

when the saw is through the cut the end play is taken
up automatically by means of a weighted lever and
knuckle-joint arrangement. For sawing pitch pine
and gummy woods which clog the saw plate , this plan
of lubricating with water should be decidedly useful, as
it keeps the saw clean and cool, and it may consequently
be run with less set. With the same ebject in view
the author has recently constructed a new form of
ventilating bearing , through which a steady current of
air passes ; this has been tried, with very satisfactory
results. A saw spindle has also been patented , in
which the collars are arranged with a circular groove,
and several rows of curved grooves extending to the
periphery ; when the spindle is in motion a current of
air enters into the circular grooves and escapes at the
holes at the sides of each collar, thus acting somewhat
after the fashion of a fan, and keeping the saw spindle
cool. It is needless to say especial care should be
given to the matter of lubrication. Get an oil with
plenty of grease in it, and add one part of finely
powdered plumbago to three parts of oil, and, with
properly constructed bearings, little trouble should be
experienced in keeping them from heating.
9. Bear in mind if the collar of a saw spindle is only
slightly out of truth , this is multiplied considerably in
a saw of large diameter. Again , a seamy saw spindle
with a bit of metal torn up is enough to throw a saw
out, or if packing is used between the collars, and it
is rucked up or uneven , it will have the same result .
Saws are often blamed for cutting untrue, when the
fault lies with the collars or pins. The side of the saw
nearest the wood should be constantly tried with a
 CIRCULAR SAWS. 383
straight-edge, and should it be found to bulge in the
centre, it will probably arise from the saw collars being
out of truth , or improperly concaved. The collars
should be carefully tried with a straight-edge, and any
inequalities or lumps removed . If the collar attached
to the saw spindle — that is, the one nearest the wood
- is perfectly flat, have it removed and slightly con
caved, when the bulge in the saw plate will probably
disappear. Inequalities in the saw collars may be tem
porarily remedied by introducing one or more paper
or thin leather washers between them and the saw
plate . If a saw should permanently buckle or bulge
even slightly , from any cause, it should be at once,
hammered , as by use the trouble will be increased , and
be more difficult to remedy. A skilful sawyer can tell
by trying a saw with his fingers when running
whether it is buckled or out of truth , even if it be only
slight.
10 . This rests with the saw -maker . All circular
saws should be made of the finest quality of steel, com
bining, as far as possible , toughness with hardness, be
uniform in temper and gauge, and be ground on a face
plate . It is important also that the saw be scientifically
hammered, so thatthe tension or strain is properly dis
tributed. Cheap ' (? ) common saws - in fact, all kinds
of woodcutting tools — are dear at any price . No pro
fessional workman will be troubled with them , and no
opportunity should be lost of warning the amateur
against purchasing inferior articles, which will only be
a source of trouble and vexation to him as long as he
continues to use them .
11. No. 11 also rests with the saw -maker to a con
siderable extent, but not entirely, as the speed at which
384 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
the saw is run should determine the amount of distor
tion necessary. Thus a saw may be hammered to run
perfectly true at a slow rate of speed, say 6 ,000 ft. per
minute, but if this is quickened up to the standard
speed, say 9,000 ft. or 10,000 ft. per minute, it may
become wavy and pliant, and run out of truth. It
therefore follows that, if saws are to be run at any
unusual speed, the saw -maker should be so informed ,
that they may be distorted or hammered to a suitable
tension , and the tension uniformly distributed. If a
saw is distorted too much , either at the teeth or centre,
it will, when subject to improper usage and the friction
of sawing, become “ rim -bound ' or dished ; ' hence the
importance of a perfectly adjusted saw to commence
with , and the absurdity of expecting fine work from
a cheap saw . It is, of course, apparent that the rim
of a circular saw runs faster than the eye, and conse
quently heats and expands faster . To overcome this
unequal expansion, and allow the saw to expand equally
and run true when in work , additional heat is created
in the centre by means of ' packing ' in this country,
whilst in America the same end is attained by distort
ing the saw to a greater extent when hammered by
the maker.
12 . In sharpening saw teeth with a hook to them ,
such as is found in the different forms of gullet and
briar teeth, care must be taken that too much ‘ rake ' is
not given to the teeth , or they will be found to tremble
in work , dig into and draw the wood , and run from the
line ; of course, some woods will stand more rake on
the saw than others.
13. Allowing teeth to get out of space will, in some
cases, make a saw run untrue ; say, alternate spaces
 CIRCULAR SAWS. 385
set wider than the others; the teeth following those
spaces have more work put upon them , and being set
all one way - say, to the right - they naturally pull
hardest into the wood in that direction, consequently
the saw runs to the right. Hence the necessity of
keeping all the teeth uniform in space. This can
readily be done by using an adjustable sheet steel
template shaped to the teeth in sharpening.
14. The author is of opinion that a not by any
means unusual cause of a saw jamming and buckling is
the use of too long a saw guide or fence, so that the
timber becomes crowded against it and has not room
to open out. A fence for rip saw should not, as a rule,
project above three or four inches beyond the roots of
the saw teeth unless very thin stuff is being sawn .
For sawing deals & c. some makers now fit friction
rollers in the fences, arranged to project slightly beyond
the face of the plate .
15. The proper packing ' of a saw , unless of very
thick gauge, is a matter of paramount importance in its
effective working . The object of packing, in addition
to supporting and lubricating the saw , is to allow it to
expand equally from the friction or heat created by the
packing rubbing against it. To insure this it is very
necessary that the saw is packed evenly and equally .
The plan generally pursued in this country is to screw
pieces of wood to the finger-plate, and below the saw
table on either side of the saw , the wood being rebated
to allow the hemp gasket, or other fibrous material,
charged with grease, to be packed in tightly on either
side. There are a right way and a wrong way of doing
even this simple operation, and care should be taken
that the packing is put in evenly, and bears uniformly
CC
 G ERY
386 WOOD -WORKIN MACHIN .

and without undue pressure on both sides of the front

half of the saw . However, in preference to the above,
we can strongly recommend the following simple plan :
Take either two pieces of hoop iron or strips of hard
wood of the length of the saw from the teeth to the
eye, and of a width that will reach not quite flush with
the top of the table ; then take some flax or rope yarn
and lap it evenly round the strips from end to end till
they are made thick enough to fill the packing space
and bear evenly and not tightly against the whole front
half of the saw plate up to the spindle .
Instead of packing the back half of the saw , as
somedo, take two small discs of leather and attach them
to the wooden packing pieces which are fitted to the
frame of the bench, so that they bear on either side of
the saw at the back and near the rim or roots of the
teeth , and so steady and guide it. It is a mistake to
use much oil in the packing, as this is wasteful and
unnecessary . The above will, we think , be found a
decided improvement over the plan generally pursued
of ramming down packing on either side of the saw ,
as this is, at the best, uncertain , as should the packing
be tighter at one point than another, or should it be
lumpy, the friction on the saw plate is uneven, and it
will often cause it to run wavy and out of truth .
16 . In sawing woolly- fibred and difficult timber
special means should be taken to open them out as they
leave the saw . This is usually done by the sawyer with
wedges driven into the kerf by hand : this is often
neglected , thereby causing many a saw to jamb and
buckle. To obviate this, the use of a revolving opening
wedge can be recommended ; this should be fixed im
mediately behind and in the same line as the saw .
 CIRCULAR SAWS. 387
The wedge should be made preferably of steel, circular
in form , and say halfan inch thick at its centre, tapered
down to a blunt edge at its circumference, its diameter
being regulated by the size of the saw . It can either
be arranged to project through the face of the bench,
or be mounted on centres at the end of a lever, and
suspended behind the saw . The wedge as it enters the
cut is revolved by the friction of the wood , and thus
relieves the saw from a considerable amount of side
friction . Instead of a revolving wedge a fixed steel
spreading -knife or wedge can be employed ; in any case
something of the kind is certainly to be recommended ,
as it tends to relieve the saw considerably, and is always
there when wanted.
18 . End play on the saw spindle should be pre
vented ; this can be done by means of an adjustable
lock -nut.
19. The use of driving pulleys too small in
diameter and too narrow on the face is a fruitful cause
of saws buckling, on account of the heat set up in the
bearings through the use of narrow belts , which have
to be strained excessively tight to drive ; consequently ,
the undue pressure and friction on the bearings cause
excessive heat, which is conveyed through the spindle
to the saw plate . At the same time the belts themselves
very much more rapidly deteriorate. Wide single belts
are to be preferred to narrow double ones. In Ame
rican practice the pulleys for driving circular saws
are made somewhat larger in diameter and much wider
on the face than they are here ; consequently , the arc
of contract, grip of the belt, and driving power are in
creased and the slip largely reduced.
Although we are aware that they are considerably
CC 2
388 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY
wider than most of those in use here, it may be taken
as a good and safe rule that pulleys on saw benches
carrying saws up to say 4 ft. diameter should have
driving pulleys wide enough to carry belts of a width of
one-fourth the diameter of the saw , and for saws above
4 ft. in diameter a belt of one-third the diameter of the
saw may be used with advantage. Anything extra in
the cost of pulleys or belts is rapidly repaid by an in
crease of work of better quality than can possibly be
obtained with narrow belts; at the same time the
bearings and belts themselves last longer. With wide
belts the necessity of using "quack ' remedies for in
creasing the grip, which often damages the belt, is
done away with ; it is necessary, however, to keep the
belts pliant, and this can be done by an occasional
dressing of mutton fat and beeswax in equal parts.
Castor oil is not by any means a bad dressing for
leather, and it renders it vermin -proof. In driving
saw benches, in fact all wood -working machines, run
ning belts at short centres must be avoided, as it is bad
in every respect, and greatly increases the troubles of
hot bearings, torn belts & c. above alluded to .
20 . English users of circular saws may possibly
smile at the idea of a “ frozen ’ saw , as we are not as a
rule blessed with very cold weather in this country , but
even a moderate amount of frost has a very distinct
effect in many cases on the working of circular saws,
especially should they be of thin gauge. In cold cuan
tries , or in very cold weather , the effect is so great
from the contraction of the plate at its smallest part,
i.e . the eye, that the saw will become ' rim bound ,' and
not turn true till the frost has been taken out of it by
friction , or by a dose ofhot water.
 CIRCULAR SAWS. 389
21. The question of speed is a factor of immense
importance in the proper working of circular saws ;
should they be run either too fast or too slow the result
is equally unsatisfactory. In the first case the saw
becomes pliant and wavy, and in the latter the work
turned out is of bad quality and less of it. For ripping
all ordinary kinds of wood a speed of 9,000 ft. per
minute at the points of the teeth is now generally
recognised as a standard speed in this country. This
can, however , in the case of cross cutting, be increased
with advantage another 1 ,000 ft. per minute. In saw
ing very hard woods the speed of the saw should be
somewhat reduced, say about one-fourth . By using
thick gauge saws, and therefore wasting wood and
power, higher speeds than these may be attained .
Wewill conclude our remarkson working saw benches
with a few gentle hints (some of these may not be new ,
but we take it they will bear repetition in some establish
ments we wot of) . If a saw bench is used for small and
large saws, occasionally the latter will run untrue, from
going at too high a speed. For quick rough sawing a
swaged set tooth has much to commend it, especially
with tough and difficult woods and large saws, as they
are much less liable to be strained than if set with a
blow or spring set. In sawing difficult woods they are
liable to spring away from the saw considerably in the
centre of the log ; consequently the boards sawn are
thicker at each end. To obviate this,instead of sawing
in the usual way all from one side, a cut should be
taken alternately from each side of the log ; this will
keep the boards uniform . Should a saw crack in work
ing, to prevent a short crack from extending, drill a
small hole at the end of it.
390 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
For ripping purposes most of the filing or saw
sharpening should be done on the face or front of the
teeth ; the backs or tops should be scarcely touched at
all. The face of the tooth should never be filed to a
fine edge , but a very slight bevel should be left. A
round gulleted tooth is less liable to crack than one filed
to an angle . In gulleting with emery wheels work with
a light pressure, and if necessary go over the teeth
several times ; if the wheel is forced and the saw plate
burnt it is much more liable to fracture. In filing
teeth for swage setting make them sufficiently hooked
at the points that the swage will readily spread them ,
also be sure that the points of all the teeth are wider
than the rest of the blade ; the tops and backs of swage
set teeth should be filed square across . In bending or
spring setting always use a gauge ; in setting saws with
a blow or spring set, care should be taken that the teeth
only are set say about one-third of their depth, and that
the plate itself is not strained , or it will be found to
beat rapidly when in work and run out of truth .
In filing saws, file every alternate tooth from one
side of the saw , then reverse it, and file from the other
side ; never file all the teeth from one side of the saw ,
and , if it is spring set, set after the same fashion. If
in working the saw heats at the rim , and the teeth are
of the right shape for the wood and properly sharpened
and set, hang or line the saw to lead very slightly out
of the wood . If the saw should heat at the centre and
the spindle and bearings are cool and in proper order,
reverse the above and let the saw lead into the wood a
little.
For thin sawing, such as light box work , frame
backings, & c., a " ground-off ' saw can be recommended
 CIRCULAR SAWS 391
to effect a very considerable saving in wood , and, if
carefully sharpened and handled , will do very excellent
work .
For very accurate dimension sawing, such as
pattern -work , & c., a saw ' ground hollow ' on both sides
and run without set can be used with advantage, as it
will cut extremely true and leave a fine surface .
If timber carriages and rails are used for bringing
the wood up to and taking it from the saw , it is im
portant that they be fixed to run exactly true with it.
Should the wood be presented to the saw even at a very
slight angle, this is multiplied to a considerable extent
in a long log, and , if the cutbe once commenced, a very
considerable leverage must be putupon the saw to keep
ït anything near the line.
When having saws hammered, be sure they are
placed in competent hands ; we have seen saws that have
been hammered by so - called experts that might have
been better done by a blacksmith 's striker .
For guarding circular saws and preventing accidents
we can recommend the following arrangement : Make a
shield of sheet steel formed as an arc of a circle , and
against the saw ; the shield rises before it and rests on
the top of it till the cut is completed , when the counter
poise brings it back to its original position. It is im
portant that the driving power be uniform in its speed ;
if there is much variation , the quality of the work will
vary accordingly.
392 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER XLIV .
NOTES ON SAW SETTING .

In very few things is there more difference of opinion

than in sharpening and setting saws. On the present
occasion we propose to discuss briefly the different
methods of setting, noticing some of the advantages
and disadvantages of each method.
Swage Setting. – Swage setting - called also “ upset
ting,' 'jumping,’and spreading ' — ismore largely prac
tised in America than in this country. In this case clear
ance is obtained for the saw by widening the points of
the teeth , usually by means of a crotch punch arranged
with two V notches, which are driven on to the points
of the teeth by a hammer or weight. The second
notch in the punch is rounded, and spreads the teeth
points out. We think this plan , especially for circular
saws of stout gauge, has much to commend it, more
especially if the wood is cross-grained and knotty, as
swaged teeth will stand up to the work , while spring
set teeth are apt to dodge the knots . Swaged -set teeth
will also stand a quicker feed than spring -set , all things
being equal ; they, however, take more power to drive
- probably about 20 per cent. — and unless the setting
is carefully done ridge marks are left on the log . We
think swage setting is , on the whole , more adapted for
soft than hard wood .
 NOTES ON SAW SETTING . 393

It is claimed by the users of swage-set teeth that

swaging condenses and hardens the steel at the points
of the teeth ; but if this is so, with saws correctly tem
pered it would , we take it, be likely to be detrimental,
and cause the points to crumble . Another trouble
found in swage setting is the difficulty of getting per
fect uniformity of set, without which no saw can be
pronounced to be in first - rate cutting condition . Swage
setting does not sharpen the teeth of the saw , as some
may suppose.
When a saw is set or spread by means of a punch
and a blow from a hammer, care should be taken that
the points of the teeth only are spread, and that the
tooth itself is not bent or strained , and that the blow
given and the hammer used are not too heavy. The
teeth should be carefully tried with a straight-edge on
both sides and points, and be exactly in line. In swage
setting, should a tooth point be broken by striking a
nail, it can be lengthened slightly by raising the punch
or swage when in the act of setting the tooth, and the
point of the tooth will be upraised, and, if not too much
broken, will take its share of duty with the rest."
To spread ' set all the teeth as nearly as possible
alike with a crotch punch , it is necessary to regulate
to a nicety the weight or strength ofthe blow given by
the hammer. In America a tool has been introduced
to do this mechanically . It consists,briefly , in mount
ing the crotch punch on the end of a tube or rod, and
arranging a series of movable weights, with holes
through them to slide up and down the rod . These
weights are allowed to drop on the punch , the strength
See Saw Mills : their Arrangement and Management. By M . Powis
Bale .
394 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
of the blow being regulated according to the gauge of
the saw and the amount of set required. For saws of
large diameter and thick gauge spread set can be re
commended , as it is very difficult to spring set or bend
the teeth of a thick saw with regularity .
Spring Setting. This is perhaps the most general
kind of setting, and if regularly and carefully done,
answers very well ; the teeth, however, have a constant
tendency to assume their original position . Saw teeth
should not, under any circumstances, be set without a
gauge, as it is a wasteful and stupid plan, producing
rough work , and more rapidly wearing out the teeth
which happen to be overset. In practice it will be found
that a saw perfectly set will work much freer, cut
smoother, and , at the same time, will waste less wood
than an imperfectly set one ; less set is also required
on a truly and equally set saw to effect the desired
clearance.
Several good mechanical saw sets, combined with
gauges, are now made,and so arranged that when they
are fixed to any desired set it is impossible to overset a
tooth ; consequently , the teeth are all set exactly alike,
and if they are equal in length, each tooth gets its fair
share of work, the friction of working and waste of
wood being reduced to a minimum . In working , it is
found that the teeth of a saw wear at the side of the
points, and if some teeth have niore set than others,
these are unduly strained, and, from the severe and
uneven friction , are often heated , and are inclined to
buckle and run from the line. In using spring set, it
is necessary to somewhat overset the saw , to compensate
for the tendency of the teeth , especially when worn or
dull, to spring back to their original position.
 NOTES ON SAW SETTING . 395

We have recently seen a very neat form of Ameri

can tool for spring setting by means of a cam -lever, by
which a very even set may be obtained without unduly
straining the saw teeth . The operator stands behind
the saw , and the set is attached to the teeth by placing
a bed die on the point of the tooth to be set so that the
point will project beyond the die about one-sixteenth
of an inch ; the cam -lever is then brought down to a stop
on the cam ,at the sametimebending the teeth towards
the latter. A four-point gauge is fitted to the lever,
and it can be adjusted to any amount of set desired by
meansof a thumbscrew . It is claimed as an advantage
of this arrangement that the bending power is exercised
on the tooth between two bed bearings, so that the
operator has only to bear down on the cam -lever, and
the more power he applies the tighter he fastens the
set to the saw , and at the same time the bend is a curve
and not an angle , and that, therefore, the saw teeth are
less liable to fracture.
If a saw is allowed to get dull it will spring from
the work, and increased power will be required to force
it through the wood.
Hammer Setting.-- The third system of setting we
have to notice is hammer setting. The old -fashioned
way of doing this was with a punch and a block of
wood, and a very brutal way it was, as it strained the
saw plate, and sometimes broke the teeth ; at the same
time it was impossible to get the teeth to one uniform
set, consequently the timber was scored and much
power consumed unnecessarily. If carefully and
judiciously done, hammer-set saws will stand up well
to their work. The best plan with which we are
acquainted is to mount the saw horizontally on a coni
396 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

cal centre and allow the teeth to rest on an adjustable

steel die made with a bevelled edge turned eccentric, so
as to allow of the right proportion of set for teeth of
various sizes. With this arrangement any desired
amount of uniform set can be given to the teeth without
unduly straining them or the saw plate . Hammer
setting is a fair test as to the quality of the saw , as
the teeth may crack or fracture if the steel is burnt
or of too hard a temper, or bend readily if too soft.
In conclusion, it must be borne in mind that,
whatever kind of setting is employed , for successful and
economicalworking absolute uniformity is imperatively
necessary . If this is not secured, the work turned out
is of inferior quality , and wood and power are wasted .
It should also be remembered that setting does not
increase the cutting power of a saw , as a saw will
cut faster with little or no set provided the nature
of the wood will allow it to pass through without
binding. The amount of set required , therefore,
should be carefully judged by the sawyer, and no
more set employed than is absolutely necessary . For
instance , in sawing wet wood a sharp saw and a fair
amount of set are required , whilst for hard, knotty
wood very little set should be used.
 397

CHAPTER XLV .
NOTES ONN STICKING
STICKING HIGH
HIGH-CLASS MOULDINGS.
- OLASS MOULDINGS.

WE THINK it will be generally admitted that the produc

tion of really high- class mouldings — that require little
or no hand -finishing — is the exception and not the rule .
This arises from a variety of circumstances, such as
(1) bad wood , (2) poorly constructed machines, (3 ) bad
adjustment of cutters, (4 ) improper speed , (5) in
sufficient foundations, & c.
(1) It goes without saying that high -class mouldings
cannot be produced without good material ; we need
only remark , therefore, that the wood should be tho
roughly sound and well-seasoned.
(2) The construction of the machine is also a very
important factor, and it may not be out of place to
extend our remarks thereon to some length . The two
classes of machines generally used — not including
vertical spindle or shaping machines — are : (1) centre
feed machines, (2 ) overhanging -spindle machines. For
light purposes, overhanging -spindle machines are ex
tremely handy and useful, but for large and high
class work , centre- feed machines are to be preferred ,
and our remarks on construction will therefore refer
chiefly to this class.
398 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

Construction of Centre-feed Moulding and Planing

Machine.
After a lengthened experience, it has been found
that the box or solid framing is the best form to
adopt for the main frame of the machine. The reason
for this is not far to seek , as in moulding and planing
wood very high speeds are necessary, and various
strains are set up, and to absorb these and their con
sequent vibrations a considerable weight of metal
is necessary, and this metal is much more effective
when in the form of a single casting than when put
together in sections. Box- framing is slightly higher in
first cost, but this is more than counterbalanced by its
increased strength and resistance to stress, by economy
of material in ratio to strength , and by its greater
neatness of design. The cutter spindles should be sup
ported by bearings of ample area, and these should , as
far as possible , be made adjustable for wearand end play,
more especially the bearings, which are subject to
considerable belt tension . The question of lubrication
must be carefully attended to, and the bearings guarded
from dust.
To secure a constant and even feed, and prevent the
slipping of the wood, it is important that all the feed
gearing be expansively geared up together. If the
feed rollers are geared separately, the wood is apt to
slip , particularly if difficult to work . In the best class
ofmachines, the intermediate pinions are made of steel
or gun -metal. As a sufficiently long belt may be
obtained , and as, at the same time, it economises space,
it has been found convenient to place the countershaft
working the feed gear within the framing of the
NOTES ON STICKING HIGH -CLASS MOULDINGS. 399
machine. This should be fitted with four-speeded
cones, so as to give varying speeds of feed of, say, from
10 ft. to 60 ft . per minute. The countershaft working
the cutter spindle should be placed, say, 15 ft. away at
least, as running belts at short centres is to be con
demned from every point of view . The cutter -block
and spindle should be made of steel, as they are thus
stiffer in work and can be made of somewhat smaller
section than with wrought iron. The cutters should be
fastened to the blocks by dove-tail-headed bolts, sliding
in suitable grooves. These should be made of best
Swedish iron, and be very carefully fitted . Irons
should never be fastened by means of studs tapped into
the blocks, as the method is both dangerous and un
certain .
A very considerable difference of opinion seems to
exist amongst makers as to the best position in the
machine in which to place the vertical spindles or side
cutters ; some fit them at the end of the machine, to
act on the wood after it has passed the top and bottom
cutters ; others put them in the centre of the machine,
between these cutters . The writer is in favour of the
latter plan, as the wood is then directly under the
action of the holding -down apparatus, and there is less
liability of its jarring when under the operation of the
cutters. The plan of placing the vertical spindles at
the end of the machine renders them rather more ac
cessible for adjustment ; but, in all cases, holding-down
or pressure apparatus should be fitted close up to all
the blocks.
It is of the utmost importance that the cutters
should bed evenly well on the block , and, to secure
this, knives are made sometimes very slightly concave
400 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

from the cutting to the back edge, so that when the

nuts are tightened they spring slightly ,and bear on the
whole surface of the block alike. Cuttersmade slightly
thicker at the back than at the cutting edge are pre
ferred, as they are less likely to slip forward from the
high speed and centrifugal force set up. It is impor
tant that the iron round the slot holes be true,and that
all the hollows and smithing marks be ground out, so
that the nuts and washers have a perfectly true bed to
rest on .
But, given all this, and a good and true block, we
sometimes find irons flying, and shifting on their seats.
This may arise from the bolts not being tightened
enough, or from being tightened too much , this latter
being a very fruitful cause. In order to secure the
bolts, as he thinks properly , an inexperienced or care
less workman is apt to use a powerful wrench , with
sometimes a pipe at the end of it, to tighten them up
- the thread of the bolt consequently becomes damaged ,
the pitch being stretched and bulged and made
coarser. One of the reasons why there is sometimes a
difficulty in bedding the nuts, is that the threads are
often allowed to get dry and filled with grit. Irons
may be prevented from slipping by bedding them on
several thicknesses of brown paper or thin leather.
In machines where movable blocks are employed, it
is of the utmost importance that the spindle holes are
perfectly true and fit the spindle tight, and are exactly
parallel with the cutter face : this is not altogether an
easy matter with long blocks, as they are apt to get
slightly oval. When the cutter-block is revolving at a
high speed, this will allow it to spring sufficiently to
damage the output, and is one of the causes of
NOTES ON STICKING HIGH-CLASS MOULDINGS. 401
inefficient working very difficult to detect Light
blocks require balancing asmuch asheavy. If movable
blocks are used , they should in all cases be planed by
the makers after being fixed on their spindles .

Making and Tempering Moulding Irons.

It need hardly be said the steel used for cutters
should be of the very highest possible quality , com
bining in its nature, as far as may be, toughness with
hardness. It must be admitted that there is a consider
able amount of art in forging and tempering cutters
successfully, as, owing to the varying amount of carbon
contained in different samples of steel, the amount of
tempering varies accordingly , and the exact temper
necessary can only be ascertained by one or more trials ;
the folly, therefore, of treating all kinds of steel alike,
which is sometimes done by the workman , is at once
apparent. It may be taken as a rule that if it is
necessary to heat the steel so hot that when it is
annealed it appears coarser in the grain than the piece
from which it was cut, it may safely be concluded that
it is of too low a temper for the required work, and a
steel of a higher temper should be selected . A steel
cutter, when properly tempered and suited to the work
in hand , should always be of a•finer grain than the
piece from which it was cut.
Moulding irons may be roughed out and ground
down to something near the size by means of small
profile grindstones or emery wheels, and when filed to
the exact profile and tempered before using, a cutting
edge should be put on them by means of a slip of Tur
key or other good oil-stone. When the irons are of
D D
402 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
simple form , to avoid softening and rehardening, the
steel may be ground to the shape by the series of small
grindstones spoken of, the peripheries of which are
turned up to suit the rounds and hollowsof the mould
ings. We have found Bilston grindstones answer very
well.
With the object of preventing the constant change
of profile when sharpening moulding irons of the
ordinary construction , in which the profile of the
moulding is formed on the edge of the steel, and a
bevel ground backwards from it, somemakers mill the
form of themoulding into the face of the cutter itself,
as if sharpened to the proper bevel ; it thus always
retains its true form . This form of profile may be
secured for vertical spindles, no matter how badly the
cutters are sharpened , by using solid circular cutters.
These are made from one piece of steel, in form
something like a deep saucer. The periphery of the
steel is shaped to the profile of the desired moulding,
and has several openings which are sharpened towards
the centre, and present as many cutting edges to the
wood .
In forging or tempering moulding irons it is impor
tant that they should be heated as evenly as possible .
If one part of the cutter is thinner than the other, care
must be taken that the thin part does not heat more
rapidly than the rest, or it may be “burnt,' and break
off at the cutting edge whilst in work . In heating
cutters for tempering, they should be repeatedly turned
over in the fire, and withdrawn from it now and then .
If the cutting edge is heating too rapidly , it should be
pushed through the fire into cooler coals. If there are
a number of members in the same moulding, great
NOTES ON STICKING HIGH -CLASS MOULDINGS. 403
care should be exercised in tempering them as nearly
alike as possible, or they will vary in wear, and the
profile of the moulding be altered accordingly . It is
important in tempering that there should be a gradual
shading of colour. If there is a distinct line between
the colours towards the edge of the cutter it will pro
bably chip at this line. The point to aim at is to have
the edge of the cutter tolerably hard ,and this hardness
to be gradually reduced the farther you go from the
cutting -edge, and the softer metal at the back will be
found to strengthen and support it.
The process of tempering should be gradual, as the
steel becomes toughened and less liable to fracture by
slow heating and gradual softening than if the process
be performed abruptly. When the proper heat has
been reached , the tool should be removed from the fire
and not allowed to soak ’ with the blast-off, as is some
times done. Bear in mind, in forging, welding, or
tempering steel tools , that an excess of heat over what
is absolutely necessary is detrimental, as it opens and
makes the grain of the steel coarse. If a tough temper
is required , the cooling, or letting down, should be as
slow as possible. The right temper colour raries with
the steel and the hardness required. Templeton gives
the following degrees of heat: Chipping chisels,
planing irons, hatchets, and other percussive tools, 500
deg. to 520 deg., light straw colour, a brown yellow ,
or yellow slightly tinged with purple ; 530 deg., light
purple. As the colours appear and change slowly,
ample time is afforded to see when the cutter should be
at once dipped and withdrawn several times ; as this
has a greater tendency to toughen the steel than if it
is plunged into the water and allowed to remain until
DD 2
404 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.

quite cold . A number ofmore or less reliable mixtures

are used for tempering. Wehave found the following
answer very well : Take 4 parts of powdered yellow
rosin , and 2 parts of train oil, and carefully mix them ,
and add one part of heated tallow . The object to be
hardened is dipped in this hot, and allowed to remain
in it till quite cold . Without having previously cleaned
it, the steel is again put into the fire, and then cooled
in boiled water in the usual way.

Speed of Cutters.
In turning out high-class mouldings, the question
of the speed of cutters is of great moment ; exigencies
of space prevent us here going into the question at
length . In a thoroughly well constructed and equipped
machine, a speed of 4,000 revolutions per minute may
be taken as a standard .
Balancing the Cutters.
Another matter of the extremest importance in
securing highly finished mouldings is the exact balanc
ing of the cutters. These should not only be of the
same exact weight and overhang, but all cutters must
be made to agree in their corresponding members to
the greatest possible nicety. The importance of this
will be readily recognised when we consider the high
velocity at which they have to run ; consequently any
inequality is enormously multiplied by the centrifugal
force set up , the result being transferred to the wood
in the shape of jars and markings. When new cutters
are put on , they should be put exactly in balance and
kept so . In working elaborate mouldings, it is difficult
NOTES ON STICKING HIGH -CLASS MOULDINGS. 405
to keep both irons alike, and one plan often pursued by
the operator is to use an iron for each member of the
moulding, and to balance the irons with beams and
scales ;and when the iron projects ,say 1} in ., to put on
a rectangular washer. In working vertical spindle
machines, some operators will use one iron only, with
a blank on the other side of the block to balance.
As already mentioned , in accurately balancing
cutters, not only should their specific weights agree
which is a matter of little difficulty, as it can be deter
mined with a common pair of scales — but the weights
of the cutters should agree in their corresponding parts.
This cannot be ascertained accurately without the aid
of a proportional cutter balancing machine, and several
of these have now been introduced with very satisfac
tory results. In the best of these machines the cutters
can be tried one against another in every position, and
if any excess of weight appears in any of them at any
point in the backs, fronts, or edges, it can be detected
and remedied .

Driving-belts.
All driving - pulleys should be of ample width for
the power they have to transmit, without straining the
belt, and, therefore, cutting out the bearings. Wide
single belts are preferable to double, and the best
leather to other material. It is important that the
driving-belts are kept as pliable as possible. This is
not a very easy matter in a sawmill, owing to the very
fine dust constantly floating about and filling up the
pores of the leather. A mixture of mutton fat and
beeswax in equal parts will be found a capital dress
ing, and will not injure the belt. An application of
 NG MACHINERY.
406 WOOD -WORKI
tanner's dubbin for leather, and of linseed-oil varnish
for cotton belts, can also be recommended . Castor oil
is also an excellent dressing for leather, and, at the
sanie time, it renders it vermin -proof. It should be
mixed, say, half and half,with tallow or oil. For pre
serving or recovering leather belts from mould , pyro
ligneous acid may be used . The belts should be
thoroughly stretched and carefully made. Cemented
joints are to be preferred to others ,as they run smoother
over the pulleys.
 407

CHAPTER XLVI.
THE BEST ENGINE FOR A SAW MILL.
ALMOST every type of engine is made to do duty in a
saw mill, and as many of them are utterly unsuited to
the work the result is often anything but satisfactory
both on the score of economy and effective working.
Owing to the severe and variable duty required
of a saw -mill engine, it should be of especially
strong and substantial construction, and able to com
mand a uniform speed under suddenly applied loads.
After a lengthened experience the author is of
opinion that the best form of engine for driving wood
working machinery , except under special circun
stances — is a long stroke horizontal high pressure ,
either compounded or with a condenser, or both .
Some years ago, in the present volume, the author, in
writing on some points to be desired in a saw -mill
engine, mentioned the following, and as his views in
this respect have not altered, it may not be out of
place to repeat them .
1. A stroke of twice the diameter of the cylinder ;
2 . either compounded or with a condenser, or both ;
3 . or an automatic expansion slide, controlled by
powerful and sensitive governor gear ; 4 . a steam
jacketed and lagged cylinder ; 5 . short steam ways ;
408 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
6 . ample bearing surfaces, well fitted and lubricated ,
and an efficient method of packing ; 7. large cylinder
area per h .p. ; 8. a fly -wheel of large diameter and
extra heavy section ; 9 . a moderate piston speed .
Speaking generally , in selecting an engine the
chief points to be borne in mind are : 1 . the nature of
the work it has to do ; 2. the speed and power required ;
3 . the cost of fuel ; and 4 . if under skilled management.
In a saw -mill if the fuel be plentiful, and the manage
ment unskilled, as is often the case in isolated countries,
a plain slide-valve engine would possibly suit better
than a first-class one with expansion gear, condenser,
& c., the loss of fuel being partly compensated for by the
greater freedom from breakdowns. In this case , the
engine should be arranged to cut off steam tolerably
early and expand it for the rest of the stroke, and
powerful governor gear should be employed. On the
other hand, in establishments where large power is re
quired and skilled management is attainable , the most
advanced form of engine is in the end by far the cheap
est . In cases where fuel is dear, a good compound
condensing engine can be used with advantage : but it
cannot be too often repeated that, where extreme
economy is required, a skilled engine driver is an abso
lute necessity. If the steam pressure by which an
engine is worked would be likely to vary considerably ,
and the load likewise vary , to secure steady and even
running the engine should be fitted with valve gear
having a considerable range of cut- off, combined with a
powerful and sensitive governor.
In selecting an engine a full detailed specification,
giving sizes and materials, should be obtained from the
maker, with his guarantee as to horse -power - brake
 THE BEST ENGINE FOR A SAW MILL. 409
horse-power, if possible — the engine will give out at a
certain steam pressure , and that it will work at its full
speed and power without excessive vibration .
See that the bed- plate and frame and working de
tails of the engine are of ample strength, also that the
cylinder has sufficientmetal to allow of its being rebored
several times, that the steam passages are short, that
the sliding and bearing surfaces are ample, and that
they are adjustable for wear. The author prefers a
medium piston speed — say 500 ft. per minute — to higher
speeds, as he has found the cylinders of large horizon
tal engines run at high speeds rapidly wear hollow .
An engine of ample, but not excessive, power for
the work to be done should be selected, as too large an
engine is as wasteful of steam as too small a one.
For saw -mill work , the author prefers the bed -plate
of the engine to be on the double girder box plan , and
to extend beyond the cylinder,which should be mounted
on it, as this is undoubtedly the best form to resist
heavy working strains. If a pair of engines are used ,
it will be found well to have one large fly-wheel for the
two engines, placing it between them , with an extra
pulley for driving the main shafting. Crankshaft to be
fitted with an outside bearing . Connecting- rod ends
to be made adjustable forwear, and fitted with straps
and keys. Engine to be fitted with wide doublemotion
bars and blocks, and made adjustable for wear. The
bars should have oil recesses and grit cavities. Stop
and starting valve to be provided , and so arranged that
access can be had to the throttle valve without disturb
ing the steam pipe. The steam passages should be large,
short, and direct, and the clearance in cylinder as small
as possible .
 Y
410 WOOD -WORKING MACHINER .
For driving wood -working machinery, after repeated
trials, the author is distinctly in favour ofan engine with
a long stroke, as it permits a higher piston speed without
excessive vibration and wear and tear, and the steam
can be expanded with greater facility. The steam ports
should be as short as possible . This can be secured by
dividing the slide valves, and placing them at each end
of the steam chest ; and a high speed sensitive governor
should be arranged to act on an equilibrium double
beat throttle valve, or on expansion gear. The exhaust
should be ofample size, to admit of the instant escape
of the steam and avoid back pressure. In crowded
spaces it is sometimes necessary to use a verticalengine ;
these can be compounded with advantage, and although
necessarily of shorter stroke, they can be worked with
less wear to the piston, cylinder, glands & c . than a
horizontal engine, the wear being distributed, whilst in
a horizontal engine the cylinder wears oval.
Arrangements should be made for the continuous
drainage of the eylinder, and it should be fitted with a
good sight- feed lubricator, which is a distinct improve
ment over ordinary grease cups,as with these latter the
piston may be running perfectly dry , and the cylinder
may be scored and the rings cut out before the atten
dant is aware of it. A very considerable economy in
oil is also effected by the use of a sight-feed lubricator,
as it can be adjusted to supply the minimum amountof
oil to keep the cylinder properly lubricated . On the
other hand, the old -fashioned grease cup floods the
cylinder with oil for a short time, and this being
rapidly cleared away by the strokes of the piston ,
the cylinder is left comparatively dry in a little
time.
 THE BEST ENGINE FOR A SAW MILL. 411
Compound engines have of late years come con
siderably into use , and are more economical than single
cylinder engines. This arises chiefly from the fact that
much higher pressures of steam can be expanded with
greater advantage in two cylinders than in one, and
without the considerable loss from condensation which
arises in a single cylinder when the steam is cut off
very early in the stroke. Again , if a considerable range
of expansion be attempted in a single cylinder, and the
cut-off is very early , the strain on the working parts is
great, necessitating excessive weight and strength in
the engine. In the case of compound cylinders, how
ever, this strain is distributed .
In single cylinders, if large expansion be attempted,
the steam condensation is excessive and becomes a
serious matter. Compound engines will work more
steadily and with less friction and vibration, conse
quently the general details of the engines may be made
lighter. Where a sufficiency of water is obtainable, a
condenser can be fitted to an engine with considerable
advantage, as in this case, instead of being exhausted
into the open air or water tank after each stroke of the
piston, the steam passes through the exhaust port into
the condenser, and coming in contact with the water,
which is in constant circulation therein , is itself inn
mediately condensed or reduced to water . In working
the condenser an air pump is employed , which keeps
up a vacuum and relieves thepiston from back pressure,
thus increasing the effective power of the engine. The
water made hot by the condensation of the steam is
again used to feed the boiler, hence a second saving
arises.
A simple and convenient arrangement for working
412 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
the air-pump for a condenser is to prolong the engine
piston-rod through the back cylinder cover. The air
pump should be double acting, and the valves arranged
so as to give ready access for adjustment and repairs.
The engine-bed should be prolonged and the condenser
mounted on it, so as to secure perfect alignment . The
author has found pump valves of india rubber, with
gun -metal seats , guards, and bolts, work very well. If
there is no overhead tank for the injection water, sluice
valves will be found most useful for starting the
engine.
Automatic expansion gear is especially useful in a
saw mill, and with varying loads effects a considerable
savirg , as the admission of the steam is regulated ac
cording to the speed or load on the engine. The gears
of Corliss & Proel have proved themselves very
effective.
Another very satisfactory arrangement of automatic
expansion gear is the Ruston . In this the cut- off valve
is made multiple-ported to give free admission of the
steam , and is driven by a radius rod , the free end of
which is moved up or down in an oscillating slot-link ,
which is driven by a separate eccentric, the precise
position of the rod being determined by the governor.
As the speed of the engine increases and the governor
balls rise, the travel of the expansion valve is reduced ,
and the steam is cut off earlier ; should the engine run
more slowly , the contrary occurs. The range of cut-off
is from a fraction up to half stroke.
A further advantage arising from the use of auto
matic expansion gear is that the steam is always
delivered to the cylinder at the highest available pres
sure , whilst in the case of an ordinary slide-valve
 THE BEST ENGINE FOR A SAW MILL. 413
engine where the cut-off of the valve is always positive,
the admission of the steam is governed by means of a
throttle valve, the action of which wire draws, and
reduces the pressure of the steam . With efficient ex
pansion gear the amount of steam required to do the
work on hand at the moment is practically measured at
every stroke of the engine, and no more is used than is
required, and this in turn is fully exhausted of its energy
by expansion .
Owing to the constant and great variation of the
load in a saw mill, it is important that a governor be
fitted sufficiently powerful to keep the engine perfectly
under control, and the speed uniform . Various forms
of high-speed governors have come into use , and several
of these have proved themselves both sensitive. and
quiet in action , and are to be preferred to the older
fashioned type.
For the guidance of readers weappend a short speci
fication of a high - class engine, well adapted for saw -mill
work : One improved horizontal compound tandem con
densing engine to indicate 340 horse-power mounted on
double girder box plate , planed on face ; high -pressure
cylinder , 18 in . diameter ; low -pressure cylinder , 34 in .
diameter ; stroke of pistons, 36 in . ; number of revolu
tions per minute, 90 ; diameter of vertical air pump,
20 in . ; stroke of vertical air pump, 18 in . ; diameter
of horizontal air pump, 14 in . ; diameter of crank shaft,
10 in ., made of best fagotted scrap iron ; diameter of
fly -wheel, 18 ft. ; width of face of fly -wheel, 28 in . ;
diameter of stop valve on high -pressure cylinder , 5 in .
414 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER XLVII.
THE BEST BOILER FOR A SAW MILL .

EVERY possible type of boiler has been made to do duty

in a saw mill, and it need hardly be said that many of
these are quite unsuited for the work they have to do ,
consequently the economical result is unsatisfactory,
and, taking the whole world over, boiler explosions are
more frequent in saw mills than in any other class
of manufactory. Most types of boiler possess some
advantages and disadvantages ; in selecting one, how
ever, the chief points to be borne in mind are : 1. the
quality of the feed water ; 2. the quality and nature of
the fuel; 3. if for temporary or permanent duty. It
may be as well also to mention a few of the points to
be desired in a steam boiler. 1. A boiler of a design
that can be readily inspected , cleaned, or repaired . 2 .
A thorough circulation of the water through the boiler.
3. A large furnace or combustion chamber. 4. A suffi
ciency ofwater and steam space to avoid sudden fluctua
tions in the water level or steam pressure . 5 . A large
margin of strength over working pressure. 6. Stays,
ends, strengthening rings & c. arranged with an allow
ance for expansion . 7. Ample heating surface, with
no joints or rivet heads exposed to the direct action
1 A Handbook for Steam tsers. By M . Powis Bale. (Longmans & Co.)
 THE BEST BOILER FOR A SAW MILL. 415
of the fire. 8 . Boiler to be properly fixed and equipped
with a full supply of fittings of the best type. 9.
Chimney stack to be correctly proportioned to the boiler
and to the fuel to be burnt. 10 . Boiler to be of a type
suitable to the feed-water and fuel used , and to be
made of first-class materials, and with good work
manship.
In saw mills the fuel used is usually smallcoal mixed
with wood waste ,which gives out a fierce fire,and should
have a boiler with considerable grate surface to con
sume it economically . The locomotive type of boiler
has the advantage of raising steam quickly ; it can be
safely worked at a high pressure , and requires little
foundation ; on the other hand it is unsuited for burn
ing inferior fuel without a forced draught, and a
specially large fire- box is necessary . With the fuel
usually used in a saw mill the plates and tube ends are
more easily burnt than in a plainer boiler, more parti
cularly if incrustation is allowed to accumulate ; in
point of fact, should the feed water be bad , a locomotive
boiler should never be used, unless special means be
taken to purify the water before it enters the boiler.
When burning small bituminous coal under ordinary
conditions, locomotiveboilers have a tendency to produce
smoke ; this can, however, be modified considerably by
the employment of a sufficient height of chimney to
induce a quick draught, a fire -brick arch ,and careful
and even firing .
Water-tube boilers have been introduced into saw
mills in this country to a limited extent, and it is
claimed for them that they are both safe and economical ;
there appears to be little doubt, however, that some of
them generate wetter steam than a good Lancashire
416 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
boiler, and with inferior fuel,they producemuch smoke.
Moreover, having many caps and joints, they are not so
readily kept in order.
On the other hand, it is claimed by the makers of
water-tube boilers that they possess various advantages
over other boilers , such as occupying less space , greater
heating surface, less fuel used, perfect water circulation ,
sectional divisions,preventing disastrous explosions, & c.
It must be admitted that many of these boilers are in
use in America , and are spoken well of, and the smoke
not complained about ; but this can be explained to a
great extent by the fact that the fuel used consists
largely of anthracite coal, which is practically smoke
less. Itmust also be conceded that where accidents or
explosions occur with locomotive or tubular boilers
they are usually not so disastrous as those with Lanca
shire and Cornish boilers, and higher pressures can
be worked with safety.
A combination of the double -flued or Lancashire
boiler and tubular boiler has lately come into extended
use fordriving electric lighting plant, & c., and where
the feed water is fairly pure can undoubtedly be re
commended , as they are found to be rapid steam
raisers, and economical in the consumption of fuel.
The boiler consists of an ordinary internally fired
Lancashire boiler, with cross tubes, but, in addition ,
a series of horizontal tubes run the full length of
the shell. It is claimed for this boiler that it has
a considerably larger heating surface than a Lanca
shire boiler, a medium water capacity, occupies a
minimum of space, small area of brickwork , and has
a fair amount of steam space .
In countries or districts where wood waste is the
 THE BEST BOILER FOR A SAW MILL. 417
only fuel, externally fired tubular boilers are largely
used ; in this case the boiler is mounted over a brick
furnace, in which the wood is burnt, the heat pass
ing under the boiler and back through brick flues on
each side, and up the chimney. In using these
boilers especial care should be taken to keep them
entirely free from incrustation . In America, an
under -fired cylindrical boiler, with return tubes of 3
in . or 4 in . diameter, is used considerably. These
are low in first cost, and when arranged with a wide
under-furnace and brick flues are said to be fairly
economical.
Under- fired boilers are not popular in this coun
try , and there is little doubt under- firing considerably
strains the seams & c. of a boiler, especially if a long
one.
Except for small power and in crowded situations,
vertical boilers cannot be recommended for saw -mill
work , as they are apt to prime and produce wet
steam . This arises from the water and steam space
being small, consequently wet steam is drawn into the
steam pipe to a greater or less extentat each stroke of
the engine. High-epeed engines mitigate this evil
somewhat, but they themselves are unsuitable for saw
mills .
Taking the advantages and disadvantages of the
different types of boilers into consideration , the author,
after a lengthened experience, is of opinion that for a
permanent saw mill of any magnitude no boiler is
superior to a well-designed and equipped Lancashire
boiler, or, if the feed water be good , a Lancashire boiler
fitted with cross-tubes and a series of horizontal tubes
above the internal fues.
Ε Ε
 Y
418 WOOD -WORKING MACHINER .

Amongst the disadvantages of Lancashire and

Cornish boilers may be mentioned their cost — when the
expensive nature of their fixing is borne in mind — for a
given horse -power and the increased length of time
necessary to get up steam as compared with a locomo
tive or tubular boiler. On the other hand they possess
several important advantages in that they can be readily
cleaned and repaired — a matter of great moment in
cases where the feed water is bad - and inferior fuel,
wood , waste & c . can be burnt in them without much
trouble. If carefully fixed and fired , a Lancashire
boiler can also be worked with comparatively little
smoke. A well-designed Lancashire boiler has a much
larger water and steam space than is usually found in
locomotive or water- tube boilers, consequently when
any special or sudden demand is made for steam it can
usually be supplied without much inconvenience or fall
in pressure. As already mentioned, the smoke nuisance
may - in a Lancashire or Cornish boiler - be reduced to
a minimum , as the grate surface is of considerable
length , and by coking ' the fresh fuel at the furnace
front the air admitted has time to rise in temperature
and mix with the gases evolved before it reaches the
bridge, and combustion is completed here and in the
fue beyond . It may be as well to remark here that
the employment of a fire -clay bridge or arch can be
recommended both in Lancashire and locomotive
boilers .
Supposing for the time being that a Lancashire
boiler be selected , it may not be out of place to briefly
discuss some of the points to be desired in its construc
tion , as,although great improvements have taken place
of late years in the manufacture of steam boilers ,
 THE BEST BOILER FOR A SAW MILL. 419
boilers of inferior construction and equipment are still
made .
In selecting a boiler, a full detailed specification of
sizes, materials, workmanship, and fittings should in all
cases be obtained from the manufacturer, with the
brands of the boiler -plates stated, and should these not
be of well- established repute , a guarantee as to the
tensile strength , ductility, and elasticity of the plates
employed should be requested .
As regards materials, mild steel plates (Siemens
Martin open -hearth process) are generally admitted to
be the best and most reliable that can be used at
present. In the best boilers the plates are specified
to have a tensile strength of not less than 26 tons per
square inch . The edges of the plates should in all
cases be planed , and the seamsare best made with butt
joints and double butt -straps, which are the strongest
and most reliable form . All rivet-holes should be drilled
in position when possible , and the rivets closed by
machine ; in point of fact, materials, workmanship , and
fittings should all be of the highest class. The difference
in price between a good and a bad boiler is notgreat, and
a user should never be tempted to purchase a low -priced
one, as he will probably find it a very costly economy.
For the guidance of our readers we append a short
specification of a 30 horse-power Lancashire boiler
suitable for saw -mill work :
Material. — The boiler to be made throughout of the
best selected mild steel plates adapted for boiler work,
the tensile strength of which shall not be less than 26
tons per inch . Brands to be marked thereon .
Shell. - Length of boiler, 28 ft .; diameter, 6 ft .
6 in . ; diameter of flues, 2 ft. 3 in . ; thickness of circu
EE 2
420 WOOD - IVORKING MACHINERY.
lar plates, } in . : thickness of end plates , & in . ; thick
ness of flue plates, ; in . The longitudinal seams to be
double riveted, and to break joint not less than 12 in .
All rivets to be subjected to a pressure of 25 tons,
and all rivet-holes to be drilled in position where
possible.
All rivets to be closed as far as possible by
machine.
Ends of boiler to be flanged to shell, and supported
by gusset staps riveted to double -angle rings at each
end. All plate edges to be planed and carefully caulked
inside and outside. The edges of end plates and angle
rings to be turned, and the holes for fues to be cut by
machine.
Flues. — The plates to be welded longitudinally and
joined by Adamson's flanged seams or other approved
method for resisting collapse .
Each fue to be fitted with four Galloway cross-tubes,
the first to be placed vertically in the fourth belt of
plates.
Fittings. — One steel double- flanged manhole double
riveted to top of boiler outside, and strengthened
with stiffening piece and ring inside fitted with strong
manhole cover, bolts, & c. All bronches for receiving
mountings to be faced. Fire-doors to be fitted with
air -slides. Fire-box and bars to be arranged for burn
ing sawdust, shavings & c. as well as coke and coal.
Two sets fire-bars with bearers, dead plates, damper,
damper frame chains and weights. Suitable fue doors
and frames and floor-plates, and frame for blow -off pit.
Mountings. - One steam stop valve, valve of gun
metal ; two dead weight safety valves of ample area ;
one low -water alarm ; one combined feed-regulating and
 THE BEST BOILER FOR A SAW MILL 421
back -pressure valve ; one gun -metal asbestos-packed
blow - off cock ; two sets of asbestos-packed water-gauge
fittings ; one 7 in . steam -pressure gauge, graduated to
180 lbs., fitted with siphon and tap ; two fusible plugs
to be placed in crown of furnaces ; one perforated anti
priming pipe ; two asbestos-packed water-gauge cocks.
The boiler to be tested by hydraulic pressure to
double the average working pressure for which the
boiler is intended , and whole completed to the satisfac
tion of Mr. — The author in all cases recommends
the use of a good feed -water heater in conjunction with
the boiler , as there is little doubt a distinct economy is
effected by raising the water to a high temperature be
fore it enters the boiler ; at the same time it precipitates
many of the impurities contained in it, and prevents
them entering the boiler. Feed-water heaters have not
been hitherto as largely used as they should be, but as
skilled boiler management becomes more and more
necessary on account of economy they should be rapidly
introduced .
Complicated forms of heaters should be avoided ;
they should be capable of being readily cleaned and
examined, and any tubes employed should be so
arranged that they have freedom to expand and
contract, and the water should have a rapid circu
lation .
Whatever form of feed-water is employed, it is im
portant that provision be made to prevent any back
pressure on the engine. This can be done by fitting a
relief valve so arranged that whenever the pressure of
the exhaust exceeds that of the atmosphere to any ap
preciable extent, the valve opens a communication be
tween the inlet and outlet.
422 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.

CHAPTER XLVIII.
RULES AND TABLES .
Rules for Calculating Speeds of Shafts and Diameters
of Pulleys.
The speed of the driver and the diameter and speed
of the driven being given , to find the diameter of the
driver.
PROBLEM 1.
Rule. - Multiply the diameter of the driven by its
speed, and divide the product by the speed of the
driver ; the quotient will be the diameter of the driver.
PROBLEM

The speed of the driven and the diameter and

speed of the driver being given, to find the diameter of
the driver.
Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driver by its
speed, and divide the product by the speed of the
driven ; the quotientwill be the diameter of the driven .
PROBLEM 3 .
The diameter of the driven being given , to find its
number of revolutions.
Rule.— Multiply the diameter of the driven by its
revolutions, and divide the product by the diameter of
the driven ; the quotient will be the number of revolu
tions of the driven.
 RULES AND TABLES. 423
We give herewith tables of the specific cohesion
and strength and the resistance of wood to pressure as
calculated by Professor Wallace.
Specific Cohesion and Strength of Wood .
Alder . . . . . . 1.506
Ash . . . . from 1.804 to 1.274
, red , seasoned . . . . . 1.899
» white . . . 1:509
Bay . . . . . . from 1.547 to 1.085
Beech . . . . 1.880
100V
Cedar . 0 .528
Chestnut, a century in use . . 1.291
Citron . . . . from 1.357 to 0.868
Cypress . . 0.732 , 0.542
Elder . . . . 1.086
Elm . ., . . . . . . 1.432
Fir . . . from 1.380 to 0.879
» pitch pine . . 1.398 „ 0.380
» strong red . . 1 .172
, Memel, seasoned . . . 1.154
„ Russian . . • . from 1.062 to 0.963
„ American . . • · · 00.942
,, yellow deal . .900
» white ,» .. .. . . . . 0-455
„ Scotch . . 0 .711
„ Scotch, seasoned . . from 0.837 to 0.745
Lance wood . . . . . . 2-621
Larch . . . . . . . 1.177
Lemon . . . . . . . 1:004
. . . . .

Mahogany, Spanish . 1 .283

Maple,Norway
Mulberry . . . .
• 1 : 123
. 1.492
Oak . . .· .· from 1.891 to 0.955
» English . 1.085 , 0.936
„ „ seasoned . . . 1.509
, French . . . from 1.060 to 0 .960
„ seasoned • „ 1.559 , 1.363
„ Baltic , . . . . . 1.211
„ American white . . . 1.009
, Dantzic . . . . . . 0 ·818
Plum . . from 1.357 to 1.205
Pomegranate . . . . 1.221 , 0:882
 424 WOOD -WORKING MACHINERY.
Specific Cohesion and Strength of Wood - continued .
Poplar . . . . . from 0.705 to 0:488
Teak , Java, seasoned . . . . 1.509
» Pegu „ , . . . 1.400
„ Malabar . . . . 1.395
..from . 1.375
Willow . . . . . to 0.809
Resistance of Wood to Pressure.
In this table the experiments are with cubes of 1 inch onLbs.
the edge.)
American . pine.
Elm . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . 1,606
. . . 1,284
English oak . . . . 3,860
White deal · · 1,928
Table of Specific Gravities of Seasoned Timber, by W . Templeton .
Gravity

Gravity
Specific
Pounds
Cubic
Cubic
Specific

Pounds
Cubic
Cubic
Feet
Feet

Feet
Feet
=1Ton

cl
Ton
Alder 736 483 Larch . . 530 /
Apple
Ash .
tree 792 Lemon tree . 701 44
845 52 43 Lignum vitæ . . 1 ,336 831
Beech Lime tree 760 47 1
Birch, English . 792 491 45 Lo gwood . 913 5739
, black , Ameri- ) 648 404 55 Mahogany,Spain . 720 45
can . . .
ani » Honduras 560
752 3547
Blackwood , Austra
lian . . 662 417 54 MOak, English : 934 58
„ American . 672 42
* ** *

Blue gum . : 1,100 687

Box, French 1,328 83 , African . 944 59
, Dutch . 912 57 39 Orange tree . 705 44
Cedar, American 561 35 64 Pear tree . 660 41
» Sydney . 560 34 } 64 Pine, pitch 736 46
, Canadian . 910 57 39 » red . 672 42
Cherry tree .
Chestnut
. 715 45 white 456 281 784
Cork
610 38 » yellow :
| 240 15 (149 || Poona 640 40
448 28
Cowrie pine, ew } 512 32 70 Poplar . . 384 24
Zealand Plum tree. . 785 49
Crab tree . . . 768 | 46 ! Red gum , Australia . 901) 56
Ebony, Indian .. . 1,208/ 751 | 29 Sycamor
Rosewoode , black 1,280 80
, American 1,331 | 27 || . .
Elm . . . | 673 42 | | 53 Teak . .
Hawthorn 61038 Walnut . | 671 42 53
Holly and hornbeam 760 47} | 471|| Willow . . . 585 36611
Iron bark ,Australian 1,233 77 29°|| Yew, Spanish . . | 807 50 441
Laburnum . | 920 57} , Dutch . . | 788) 491 | 45
Lance wood . 1,023 64
 RULES AND TABLES. 425
Composition of Woods.
Woods Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen | Ash
Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
Beech 49:36 6 :01 42.69 0 .91 1 .00
Birch 50 -20 6 .20 41.62 1 : 15 0 .81
Oak 49.64 5 .92 41. 16 1.29 1 .97
Poplar 49. 37 6 .21 41.60 0 . 96 1.86
Willow . 49. 96 5 .96 39 .65 0.96 3.37

Measurement of Timber.
In measuring standing timber the length is taken
as high as the tree will measure 24 inches in circum
ference. Athalf this height the measurement for the
mean girth of the timber in the stem of the tree is
taken . One-fourth this girth is assumed to be the side
of the equivalent square area. The buyer has generally
the option of choosing any spot between the butt end
and the half-height of the stem as the girding place.
All branches,as far as they measure 24 inches in girth,
are measured in with the tree as timber.
Proportions of Metals for the Production of Useful Alloys
(W . Templeton ).
Copper Tin
Tin Zino

Babbitt's .
Bearings for machinery
. . . . . . . . ..

Bell metal for large bells

» , small ,
Brass, hard . .
-OOON

, sheet . .
00

yellow
, deep yellow
0

Bronze . . . .
|Gun metal . .. 11
Muntz's metal
Spelter copper for brass
copper and iron
»
ooO

Glazier's
Plumber's
solder . .
,
Tinman's „ . . .
426 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
Table of Mechanical Properties of the Materials of Construction .
Weight of a theofS. Coefficient Value of a
Value of Resistance
Cubic Foot Absolute to Crushing Tenacity per
Square Inch
in Lbs. Transverse per Square in Lbs.
Strength Inch in Lbs.
Ash or beech 47-53 12,156 9,000 14,700
Box, dry . 60 10,300 19,800
Brass, cast . 525 18,000 10,300 18,000
Bricks 130 560 - 800 280
Brickwork . 112 280 - 300
Chestnut . 41 10 ,660 11,900
Clay . . 119
Coal . . 1 - 100
Copper, cast 549 19,000 19,000
Deals, spruce
red . 36 -43 9,372 6 ,586
„
Earth , rammed .
21 9,900 6 ,293
Elm . . .
99
36 6 ,690 10,300 14,200
Fir, Riga . . 47 6 ,648 6 ,000 12,000
Glass, plate . 153 9 ,400 9,400
Gold . 1,203
Granite . . 165
Gravel . . 120
Iron, wrought . 481 42,000 40,000 51,000
, cast solid . 39,000 115 ,000 20,000
Ivory . . 114
Lance wood 63
17,350 23,000
Larch . .. 32 5 ,118 5,570 9 ,500
Lead . . . . 712 3, 300 3,300
Mahogany, S . . 50 11,500 8, 200 19,000
Marble , 164 6 ,060
Marl 118
Mercury . 848
Mortar , 107 50
Oak, E . . 58 10 ,032 10,000 13,300
Dantzic · 47 8,742 7,700
,, Canadian 10 ,596
Pine, pitch 9,792 6 ,790 7,800
„ red . . 8,016 7 ,800
,, American yell 28 6 ,612 5 ,400
Poplar . 23 6 ,016
Sand, river 117
Silver 644
Slate . 180 9,600 12,000
Steel . 486 100,000 100 ,000
Stone . 120 - 170 1,100 -2,360 6 .000
Teak . 41 14,772 12,000 12,460
Tin , cast . 455 4 ,600 4 ,600
Walnut 41 7,227 8 ,460
| Water 62
Zinc . . . 439 7 ,000 7,000
 INDEX.
ABR BEA
A BRUPT angles or changes ofdiameter 1 Band friction in lieu of clutch coupling,
A in spindles to be avoided , 283 310
Absorption of vibration by wooden Bandknife machine for cutting cloth , 129
framings, supposed , 15 Band-saw blades, speed of, 147
Air282cylinder for cushioning saw frame, Band -saw blades, sharpening, 223
Adjustable packing pieces for circular Band-saw blades,settingteeth of, 147,224
Band-saw blades for cutting iron , 338
saws, 24 Band-saw setting machine, 338
Adjusting cutters, 273 Band-saw blades, brazing of, 339
Adjusting screws for regulating tenon Band-saw
cutter slides, 175 339
blades, quality and temper of,
Advantages
chines, 147
in using band sawing ma Band-saw
age, 340
blades, prevention of break..
gs
Alloy for bearin , 293 Band-saw blades, gauges of, 341
Alloys, production of, 425 Band -saw blades, expansion and con
American circularsaws,thick gaugeof31 traction of, 336
American planing machines, 88 Band-saw blades, teeth of, 341
American rack bench , origin of, 8 Band sawing machines, management
Amontons, 285 of, 363
Ancient saw framedescribed, 35 Band sawing machine, the first, 119
Angle of cutting edge of cross-cutting Band sawing machines, self-acting gear
cutters, 342 for, 145
Anglesofcutting edgeof planeirops, 312 Band or ribbon saws, strains on , 336
Angles of saw teeth forcutting hard and Band-saw guide, 135, 145
soft wood , 326 Band-saw wheels, wrought iron, 133
Antifriction metal, Babbitt's, 352 Band-saw wheels, wooden , 136
Arrangement of saw mills, 267 Band-saw wheels, to angle, 145
Arranging shafting for a saw mill, 306 Band saws for cutting timber, 348
Artiticial seasoning of timber, 324 Band saws of thin gauge preferable,
Asbestosfor packing piston rods, & c., 265
Ashlar masonry for reciprocating ma Band saws for cutting ships' timbers, 124
chine foundations, 301 Bearings, adjustable for wear, 295
Auger for circular tenoning, 205 – alloy for, 32
Automatically adjustable side cutter - cadmium as an alloy for, 294
for planing machines, 103 - cast in chills, 291
Automatic belt-tightener, 179 - cast iron for, 296
Automatic damper for steam boilers, 264 – conical, 299
Automatic self-oiling bearings, 297 - firing or seizing, 295
– fitting, 295
RABBITT, J., 294, 352
D Backing and hollowing cask -- footstep, extended298in length, 290
staves, 211, 218 - kept cool by water, 290
428 INDEX .
BEA COU
Bearings, metals used for, 291 Cask staves, dressing, 216
- phosphor bronze for, 292 - - hollowing and backing, 211, 218
– self-lubricating, 309
- subject to great pressure, 399
- - jointing, 214, 217
- - mill-web saws for cutting, 210
- white metal alloys for, 294 Castings, contraction in , 280
Bearings
285
for wood -working machinery, -- quality of iron for, 281
Cast iron for bearings, 296
Belt gearing, 313 Cast steel,method of hardening, 352
Belts and toothed gearing compared , 312 Castor oil as a dressing for leather, 320
– at short centres, 273 Chamfering cask staves, 214
- cotton do., 313, 314 Chain feed for deal frames, 54
- driving of woven crucible steel, 316 Chisels, mortising, reversing motion of,
- driving slip of, 314 153, 154, 160, 164
– for high-speed machinery, 307 Chisels,mortising,worked by cams, 154
- hints on, 316
- leather, strength of, 315 Chisels,mortising,
159
with serrated back ,
- leather, working tension table of,315 Chisels, reciprocating, for cutting dove
- paper for driving, 313 tails, 186
- should run smooth surface to pulley, Circular saws above 36 in .diameter. 32
273 - - adjustable packing pieces for, 24
- tightener, automatic, 179 - - American thick gauge of, 31
- to increase driving power of, 307 - - and straight, 325
- twisted , 315 - - arranged for cutting upwards, 234
Bending wooden hoops for casks, 209 - - bench , the first, 6
Bentham ,Sir Samuel, 2,71, 73, 149, 165, - - benches, designing, 32
- - for cutting veneers, 194
Be171,
vans,18676, 192, 227 - - for surfacing, 9
Bevel, double, for cutters, 343 - - for cutting dove-tails, 188
Bevel sawing, diagram for guiding, 243
Blanchard , 199
- - management of, 372
- - ' packing' of, 328
Blind slat tenoning machine, 176 - - prevention of undue friction in, 12
Block , cutter, speed of, for planing, 107 - - idished,' 31, 93, 139
Blyth , 290 - - sharpening and setting, 331, 392
Boilers, 259, 414 - - speed of teeth , 19
- corrosion of, 261 - - suitable gauges for, 330
- steam , incrustation in , 260 - - trepanning, 168
- steam , setting, 264 Classes of saws, 325
Boring and mortising machines, de Clutch coupling, friction band in lieu
signing, 169 of, 320
Boring auger, expanding, 156 Cog or mortise wheels , 311
Bow saw , hand, 138 Collars for "drunken ' saws, 34
Box framing, introduction of, 15 Colour of veneers damaged by steaming,
Bovd, 198 192
Bramah , J., his first planingmachine,74 Compressed air utilised for stretching
Breakage of band -saw blades, preven saws, 46
tion of, 122 Compressive strain ,65
Brown and Plasket, 207 Composition of woods, 425
Brown, S., 209 Compo und treadle for mortising ma
Brunel, Sir I. K ., 6, 149, 192 chine, 163
Bungs, cylindrical saw for cutting, 215 Cone
306
vice coupling for line shafting,
Contraction in castings, 280
CADMIUM asan alloy forbearings,294 Cork wood , difficulty of working , 237
U Calculating speeds of shafts and Corrosion of steam boilers, 261
diameter of pulleys, 347 Cotton driving belts, 313 , 314
Camsfor workingmortising chisels, 154 Coulomb on friction, 286
Cam , triple action , 141 Couplings for mill shafting , 306
 INDEX 429
COU FIR
Counterbalanced or equilibrium saw | Diagram for guiding bevel sawing, 243
frame, 41 of pulleysand speeds of shafts,
Covering , paper, for pulleys to increase Diameter
calculating, 347
driving, 307 Difficulty of working cork wood , 237
Crank shafts , 65 * Dished circular saw , 31, 93, 139, 208
Cross-cutting saws, 333 Disc feed for moulding machine, 96
Cross-cutting cutters, angle of, 342 Disc, steel, for dressing faces of grind
Croziug cask staves, 214 stones, 226
Cumberland, I., 87 emery, for sharpening saws, speed
Cushioning cylinder for saw frames, 280 Disc, of, 220
Cutter block , speed of, for planing , 107
Cutter blocks, necessity of balancing,283 Doublefrictional,
Discs, 116
bevel for cutting tools, 343
Cutter blocks, 73 vice coupling, 306
Cutter blocks, tenoning screws for ad Double-cone
Double rack feed for saw frames, 59
justing, 175 Dove-tailing, conical cutters for, 186 ,
Cutter blocks, balancing , 107 189, 190
for
189, 190conical, dove-tailing,
Cutters, 186, Dove-tailing,
186
reciprocating chisels for,
Cutters, adjusting,
Cutters, 342
273 Dressing staves for casks, 216
Cutters, tempering, 343 Dressing face of grindstones, 226
Cutters for tenoning machine, 179-342 Driving belts, 313
Cutters, planing, improved method of - - cotton for, 313, 314
arranging, 101, 102
- - paper for, 313
Cutters, fixed , for planing, 102 Driving pulleys, width of, 33
Cutters, expanding , 153
Drunken ' saws, collars for, 31
Cutter tenoning machine working TASTMAN , R ., 9
across the grain of the wood , 172
Cutting cork wood into sheets, 238 Eccentric, variable, for altering
Cutting edge of plane irons, angle of throw ofmortise chisels, 165
bevel, 342 Edging staves for casks, 217
Cutting iron, band saws for, 338 Emery220disc, for sharpening saws, speed
Cutting ovaltenons, 174 of,
Cutting piles under water, 40 - - vitrified , for sharpening saws, 220
Cutter*, spiral, for chamfering and re - hone for finishing cutters , 225
cessing, 215 Engin
407
es, high-pressure condensing , 256 ,
Cutting timber from the circumference - small high -speed , 258
inwards,'9 - vertical combined with boiler, 258
Cutting with the grain of the wood not Expanding boring auger, 156
recommended for dressing spokes, 201 Expanding cutters, 153
Cylindrical gouges, 93, 315 Expansion and contraction of band-saw
Cylindrical saw for cutting bungs, 216
Cycloidalteeth for wheels, 311 blades, 336
- - of saws, uniform , 330
Equilibrium or counterbalanced saw
AMPER automatic, for steam frame,41
D
boilers,, 264 machine, 88
DDaniels' planing TARRAR, James, 91
Deal frame, feed motions for, 54 T Fast and loose pulleys, 509
Decomposition of wood , 323 Fay, J. A ., 174
Designing a band sawing machine, 143 Feed,gradual, formortising chisels, 162,
- a circular saw bench , 32 164
- a general joiner, 185 Feed ,vertical,formortisingmachines,157
- mortising and boring machines, 169 Felling trees, time for, 323
- moulding and planing machines, 104 First band sawing machine, 119
- tenoning machine, 177 Firsthand-powermortisingmachine,229
- timber and deal frames, 64 First planing machine, 70
 430 INDEX
FIR LIN
First tenoning machine, 174 Guard and guide for circular saws, 329
Fitting bearings, 295 Guide for band saws, 135, 145
Fitting feather on mortising chisels, 230 || Gun stocks, recessing method of, 245
Fixed cutters for planing, 102
Fixing machines on unsound founda
tions, 300 LAIGH, 40
Fixing mortising chisels, 230 I Hammond, Charles, 10, 39
Fly press for gulleting saws dispensed Hand planes,67, 68
with , 222 Hard woods,castsawssteel,
Hardening for 352
cutting,322, 326
Footstep bearings,284298 Hatton, 70 deal frames, feed for, 55
Forging spindles,
Foundations, machine, 300 High -speeded
Framing, box, introduction of, 15 High-speed machinery
engines, small, 258
Framing of machines with a recipro High -speed , belts for, 307
cating motion, 282 - - - starting, 310
Framings, vibrating strains on, 277 Hints on belts, 316
Framings ofwood -workingmachines,277 Holland, 329
Fret saws,method of holding, 143 Hollow
Hollow auger for tenoning, 205
cutter-block and spindle for
Frictional discs, 116
Friction
310
band in lieu of clutch coupling, Hollowin
dressing spokes, 199
g and backing cask staves,
Friction on band or ribbon saws, 336
Friction , on , 285
211, 217
Hone for finishing cutters, 225
Friction on lineshafting, method of re
ducing, 308
lloops, wooden,bending, 209
Hunter, William , 93
Friction on saws, 330 Hydraulic
ble, 74
or hydrostatic travelling ta
VALGE,
u 147
thin ,preferable for band saws, TLL -CONDITIONED timber, 324
Gauges suitable do, do., 340 11 Increased feeding power fur wet
Gauges suitable for circular saws, 330 timber, 53
Gauges suitable for straight saws, 331 i Incrustation in steam boilers, 260
Gear, Andrew , 113 Intermediate
Involute teeth pinions, 311
for wheels, 31
Gearing and shafting, 305
Gearing,belt,for transmittingmotion,313 Irons, fixed , for planing, 345
Gearing, toothed , do. do., 310
General joiner, designing a, 185
Irons, moulding, 344
Gibbs and Gatley, 41, 210
Gibbs, TOISER, general, designing a, 185
Glue forJ.,fastening
249
leather to iron , 320 J Jointing cask stavex, 214, 217
Glue, waterproof, 319 Jointing or brazing band saws, method
Gouges, cylindrical, 93, 345 of, 339
Gouges, double, 157 Joints, compressed wood pulp for, 266
Gouges, tempering, 346 Jordan , 199, 249
Government
264
inspection of steam boilers,
Gradual feed for mortising chisels, 162, KNIFE
196
for cutting veneers, 193, 195 ,
164
Graduated stroke for mortising ma
chines, 163
Gravities,specific, of seasoned timber,149 T EATHER belting, hints on, 316
Green , 211 U Leather, dressing for, 320
Green timber, sawing, 334 Leather, to preserve, from mould , 319
Greenwood and Sayner, 8 Length and diameter of bearings, 290
Grindstones, dressing the face of, 226 Line shafting, speed of, 305
Guard , self-adjusting, 117 - - strains on , 305
 INDEX. 431
LIN PLA
Line306 shafting,arranging, for saw mills, ļ Motion , gearing, toothed, for trans
mitting, 310
Link motion on mortising machines, Motion, swivelling, for table of tenon
invention of, 151 ing machine, 175
Load , suddenly applied, 280 Motive power for
machinery, drivingwood-working
Loose pulleys, 309
Lubricants for bearings, 296 Moulding
250344,
irons, 397
Lubricants for bearings subjectto heavy Mouldings, preparing wood for, 272
pressure , 299 Muir , Malcolm , 79
Lubricating bearing, self, 309 Murdock, 168
MACHINE foundations, 300 NECESSITY of balancing cutter
NI Machinery, high-speed , starting, N blocks, 283
310 Newberry , William , 119
Masonry for reciprocating machine | Novelmethod
foundations, 301
ofdriving a saw frame, 42
Novel self-acting feed, 241
Maudsley, H ., 10, 39
Measurement of timber, 425
Metals used for bearings, 291
Method , improved, of arranging cutters
OBJECTIONS
328
to punching saw teeth,
for planing machines, 101 Oil, castor, as a dressing for leather, 320
Method of brazing band saws, 339
Method of hardening cast steel, 352
Outside cuttermoulding machine, 109
Method of holding fret saws, 143 Oval tenons, cutting, 174
Method
Method ofof packing
pressing circular saws, 328
ing circular saws in PACKING for piston rods, 265
stead of hammering, 328 1 Packing pieces, adjustable, for cir
Method of sharpening and setting saw cular saws, 24
teeth , 331 Page, E ., 241
Mill saws, method of stretching, 37 Paper covering for pulleys, to increase
Mill shafting, speed of, 305 driving power ofbelts, 307
- - couplings for, 306
Mills, saw , arrangement of, 267
Paper for driving belts, 313
Parquet flooring, preparing , 98
Mill-web saws in section , 334 Patterns for castings, 272
Mill-web saws forcutting cask staves,210 Peculiar motion given to circular saws
- - - should be ground thinner to for cutting dove-tails, 177
wards back, 334 Périn , M ., 120
Mortising and boring machines, de Phosphor bronze for bearings, 292
signing, 169 Piles, cutting, under water, 40
- - auger for forming square holes, 151 Pipes, steam , covering of, 265
- chisels, gradual feed for, 162, 164 Pinions, intermediate, 311
- chisel with serrated back, 159 Pinus family, 321, 326
- chisel, fittinr feather to, 230 Planing irons, tixed , 345
- -- fixing, 230 - machine, American, 88
Vortise or cog wheels, 311 - - automatically adjustable side cut
Mortising machines, Brunel's, 148 ter for, 103
-- - chisels, reversing motion for, 153, - - balancing cutter block of, 107
154, 160, 164 - - bearings of, 106
- - classes of, 148 - - cutters, spiral or twistea , 101
- - double gouge for, 157 - - Daniels', 88
-- -- for forming carpenters'planes, 152 - - designing, 104
- - graduated stroke for, 163 - - duplicate set of top cutters, 106
- - link motion , on invention of, 151 - - flexible chain -feed bed for, 91
- - triangular wedge piece for ob - - importantelement in working , 105
viating jar on , 155 - -- improved method of arranging
- - vertical feed for, 157 cutters, 101, 102
432 INDEX.
PLA SEL
Planing machine, outside cutter, 109 Ribbon or band saws, setting of, 338
- - roller-feed , 89 - - - - shape of teeth , 341
-- -- spindles of, for finishing, 106
the first, 70
- - - -- strains on, 336
Robertson , 211
- - thin-wovd, 109
- - traverse, 89
Rods, piston, packing for, 265
Roller-feed planing machine, 89
- - Woodworth, 88 Rolling action for reducing friction, 291
Plasket and Brown, 207 Rotativemotion , 73
Positive stroke in mortising machines Rules and tables,422
objectionable, 161
Power
Power,gradually applied,
transmitting, for 280high-speeded CAND -PAPERING flat surfaces, 210
machinery , 315 Saw frame, ancient, described , 35
Press, fly, for gulleting saws, dispensed
with, 222
- - counterbalanced orequilibrium , 41
- - novel method of driving, 12
Prevention
blades, 346
of breakage of band -saw Sawing
Saw frames, reducing vibration in , 301
green timber, 554
Prevention of end play in mill shafting, Saw mills, arrangement of, 267
of slipping of belts, 307 lar Sawpuncteeth,
h , 328objections to gulleting with
306
Prevention pened ormly
Prevention of undue friction to circu - - shar unif , 327
saws, 12 - - tendency to assume originalposi
Production ofuseful alloys, 350 tion, 331
Pulleys, diameter and speeds of shafts, Saw -sharpening machine, speed of, 220
calculating, 347 Saws, band, for cutting hard woods, 311
Pulleys, fast and loose, of varying dia - - - - iron, 338
meters, 369 - - of thin gauge preferable, 147
Pulleys, loose, 309 - - or ribbon, 336
- - setting, 338
QUALITY of iron for castings, 281 - - shape of teeth, 541
V Quality and temper of band-saw -- - strains on, 336
blades, 339 Saws,
254
circular, arranged to cut upwards,
DACK BENCH ,American,origin of, 8 --- -- shape
class of,of 325
teeth of, 335
frames,59
W Rack feed,double, for saw - - guard and guide, 329
- - improvement in , 31 -- - for cutting soft woods, 322, 326
Reasons
330
for saws running out of truth , -
-
-
-
- - cedar, 322
- - hard woods, 322, 326
Recessinersg and5 chamfering with spiral. -- -- method of packing, 328
table of gauges, suitable, 330
tt stocks,method
- gun , 21 of, 245 Saws, cross-cutting, 353
Reciprocating motion for mortising - mill-web , for cutting cask staves, 210
chisels, 153, 154, 160, 164 - running out of truth , reason for, 330
Reciprocating chisels for cutting dove - sharpening and setting teeth of, 331
- straight, in section, 334
tails, 186
- saws for cutting cask staves, 210 - -- and circular, 324
Reducing friction on line shafting, me Sayner and Greenwood , 8
thod of, 308 Screws for adjusting tenoning machine
Rennie, G ., 285 , 287 cutter-blocks, 175
Reversing cutter
Revolving spindles,
tool box 115 ma
for mortising Seasoning
for, 324
timber, artificial apparatus
chines, 233 Sectionalor false teeth of circular saws, 9
- wedge, 30 Self-acting feed year for band saws, 145
Ribbon or band saws, 336 Self-acting feeds, 66
- - - - for cutting
- - - - -
hard woods, 311
iron , 338
- -- vertical feed for mortising ina
obines
chilles , lo
 INDEX 433
SEI. TIM
Self-acting feed , novel, 241 | Steel, cast, method of hardening, 352
- adjusting guard , 117 - hardening, for cutte
- oiling bearings, 297 Stocks, gun, method of recessing , 245
- lubricating bearings, 309 Strains, compressive, 65
Setting teeth of band-saw blades, 147 Strains on line shafting, 30.5
– veneer slicing knives, 197 Strength of leather belts, 315
Shafting and gearing, 305 Stretching mill-web saws,method of, 37
Shafts, crank, 65 Stretching mill-web saws by means of
Sharpening band-saw blades, 2.23 compressed air, 46
- and setting teeth of saws, 331 Stroke, graduated, for mortising ma
Shell bearings kept cool bv water, 290 chines, 163
Ships' block mortising machines (Bru
nel's), 150, 224
Suddenly applied load,280
Surfacing, circular saw for, 9
Short driving belts, 273 Swing frame, on ,65
Single -bladed saw frames, 66 Swivelling motion for table of tenoning
Slender grounds of novelty on which 175
machiles,
patents are granted, 221
Slicing veneers, 192
Slip of driving belts, 314 TABLE of suitable gauges for band
Southern , 287 I saw blades, 3 -10
Specific cohesion and strength , and the Table of do, circular saws, 330
resistance of wood to pressure,424 - - -andstraight saws, 331
Specific gravities of seasoned timber, 3 19 Tables rules,422
Speed of band-saw blades, 147 Teeth, cycloidal, for wheels, 311
- - - - - for cutting iron , 146 Teeth , involute, for wheels , 311
Teeth of band-saw blades, setting
- - cutter block for planing, 107 of,
- irregular moulding and shaping
- machines, 147, 224
117 of, 341
-- - - -- shapecutting
- - mill shafting, 305 - - - - for iron , 336
- - teeth of circular saws, 19 - - saws, sharpening and setting, 331
-- - shafts
saw -sharpening machine, 220 Temperature necessary to effect colour
- and diameter of pulleys, in hardening steel, 353
calculatiny, 317
Sphericalcircular saw for stave-cutting, Temperature
timber, 324
for artiticial seasoning of
208
Spindles, reversing cutter. 115 Tempering cutting tools,343
Tempering gouges, 346
Spindles, abrupt angles or changes of
diameter in , to be avoided , 283
Temper of band-saw blades, 347
Spindles, forging, 284 Tendency of saw531teeth to assume origi
nal position,
Spiral cutters, for chamfering and re
Versing, 215
Tenon- cutting, auger for, 205
Tenoning machines, classes of, 171
Spiralortwisted cutters forplaning,101, - -- cutter blocks, screws for adjust
342 ing, 175
Starting high -speed machinery, 310 - the-- cuttersworking across the grain of
Staves, cask ,chamfering and crozing,214 wood, 172, 342
Staves, cask , dressing, 216 - - designing, 177
Staves, cask , holiowing and backing,211 - - swivellingmotion for table of, 175
Staves, cask , jointing, 214, 217 Tension, working, of leather beltins. 315
Steam boilers, 259 Thin -gaugeband sawsare preferable, 147
- - corrosion in , 261 Thin -wood planing machine, 109
- - Government inspection of, 264 Thouard , M ., 120
- -- incrustation in , 260 Timber and deal frames, designing,64
- - setting, 260 Timber, artiticial, seasoning of, 324.
- - springing action in , 262 Timber-cutting from exteriorto centre, 9
Steam joints, compressed wood pulp green , sawing, 334
Timber, ill-conditioned,
for, 266 Timber, 324
Steam pipes,covering for, 265 | Timber,measurement of, 550
FF
434 INDEX.
TIM WRO
Timber, specific gravities of, 349
Toolbox, revolving, for mortising ma
Veneer-cutting machines, classes of, 192
- steaming process, 192
chines, 233 - knife for, 193, 195, 196
Toothed and belt gearing compared ,312 Vibrating strain on framings, 277
Toothed gearing for transmitting mo Vibration , supposed absorption of, 15
tion, 310 Vibration, reducing, in saw frames, 301
Touroude, M ., 119 Vince, De, 286
Transmitting
chinery, 315
power in high-speed ma Vitritied emery disc for sharpening
saws, 220
Travelling
static, 74 table, hydraulic or hydro
Traverse planing machine, 89 WATERPROOF glue, 319
W Wedge, revolving, 30
Treadle, compound, for mortising ma
chines, 163 Wet or frozen timber, increased feeding
Trepanning saw , 168 power for, 53
Trees, timefor felling, 323 Whitemetal alloys for bearings, 294
Triangular wedge
vibration , 155
piece for obviating Wheels,mortise
Wood, 321
or cog , 311
Triple-action cam , 141 Wood, decomposition of, 323
Trotter, 32
Turner's cement, 352
Wooden band-saw wheels, 136
Wooden hoops, bending, 209
Turning belts,
Twisted up face315of grindstone, 226 Wood
266
pulp, compressed ,för steam joints,
Wood, preparing, formouldings, 272
UNGUENTS for bearings, 296 Word , its resistance to pressure and
specific cohesion and strength , 348
299 - - - subject to heavy pressure, Woods,
Wood, scraping surface of, 97
composition of, 350
Wood-workingmachines,framingsof 277
VACUUM cylinder
V lancing saw frame, 45 for counterba Woodworth's planing machine, 88
Variable eccentric for altering throw of table of, 315 of leather belting;
Working tension
wortising chisels, 165 Woven cruciblesteelfordriving belts 316
Various forms of saw teeth , 335 Wrought-iron band-saw wheels. 133
Vegetable substances for bearing sur. Wrought iron faced with steel for cat
face, 294 ters, 343

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SPOTTISWOODE AND CO ., NEW -STREET SQUARE
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 M . POWIS BALE & Co .
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ESTABLISHED 1847,

ENGINEERS .
Offices: APPOLD STREET, LONDON , E .C .

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 LIST OF WORKS
ON

ARCHITECTURE , BUILDING,
DECORATIVE ARTS, CARPENTRY,
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ACOUSTICS OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS : The Laws of Sound

as applied to the Arrangement of Buildings. By Professor T. ROGER
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 CROSBY LOCKWOOD S SON 'S CATALOGUE .

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 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING , DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 3

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 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON 'S CATALOGUE.
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CARPENTRY, PRINCIPLES OF. A Treatise on the Pressure
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gether with Practical Rules on Drawing, by GEORGE PYNE. With 74
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 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING , DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 5
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. The Elementary Principles of
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Eighth Edition . Crown 8vo, cloth ... ... ... ... 38. 00 .
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mes form a rcomplete treasreury of carpentry and joinery and should be in the
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COLOURING , GRAMMAR OF. Applied to Decorative Paint
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CONCRETE : ITS NATURE AND USES. A Book for
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CONCRETE , REINFORCED . See page 11.
DECORATION (ELEMENTARY). As applied to Dwelling
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28.
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DECORATION (PRACTICAL ). A Guide to the Art of Orna
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 CROSBY LOCK’WOOD E SON 'S CATALOGLE.
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PREFATORY REMARKS OBJECTS OF PLANTING - CHOICE OF A FORESTER - CHOICE OF SOIL
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PLANTING - DRAIN EST OF RE ES IN PLA NTATION
PRU NINGAND
TREES FOR AGE - GAME-
OF GROUND
PLANTING
TRE ES - BE-NT
DISTANCES
ATTENTION AFTAND
ION AFTER ER DISTRIBUTION TREES
PLANTINGT--- THINKING
PLANTING
PLANTITIONS
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 iRCHITECTURE, BUILDING, DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 7
HOUSE WRITING
PAINTING , a GRAINING , MARBLING , AND
Course of Elementary Drawing and a Col
SIGN . With
lection of Useful Receipts. By E . A . DAVIDSON. Ninth Edition .
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HOUSE PLANNING - HOW TO PLAN A HOUSE . A
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GENERAL REMARKS ON THE PLANNING AND ARRANGEMENT OF HOUSES - PLANS IN DETAIL
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HOUSES , VILLAS, COTTAGES, AND BUNGALOWS.
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ILLUMINATING AND MISSAL PAINTING ON PAPER
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JOINTS MADE AND USED BY BUILDERS. By W . J.
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LAW FOR ARCHITE CTS, BUILDER S, & c. See EVERY MAN'S
OWN LAWYER. A Handybook of the Principles of Law and Equity.
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Including Abstracts of the Legislation of 1910 of especial interest to
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also references to the Housing and Town Planning Act, the Development
and Road Improvement Act, and many other recent Acts. Large
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 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON ’S CATALOGUE.
LETTER PAINTING MADE EASY. By J. G . BADENOCH.
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LIGHT: An Introduction to the Science ofOptics. Designed for the
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LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS, MODERN . An Illustrated
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also the Phænix Fire Office 1910 Rules, with Notes as to the Methods of
Protection, and Specifications. By KILLINGWORTH HEDGES, M .Inst.C . E ..
M . I.E .E ., Honorary Secretary to the Lightning Research Committee.
Second Edition , with additions. Medium 8vo , cloth . .
[ Just published . Net 6s. 6d .
“ The work now appears with some additionsthat noticeably enhance its value."'- Scotsman.
" The new edition embodies the rules for lightning rods which have been issued by the Phoenix
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upward discharges of lightning, lightning on the high Alps, and an historical summary of the subject
matter from the year 1717. There are several new illustrations, including a remarkable picture of
on February 8 , 1906. " - Ironmonger .
the interior of Barham Church , which was struck with lightning
“ Some 77 illustrations are included , many of which are of a particularly interesting nature ,
especially those showing the effect of lightning strokes on protected and unprotected buildings."
Hardware Trade Journal.
“ The information given in the volume is most valuable." - Electrical Engineer, .
LIMES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, CONCRETES, MAS
TICS, PLASTERING , etc. By G . R . BURNELL, C . E . Fifteenth
Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth ... ... 15. 6d .
LOCKWOOD 'S BUILDER 'S PRICE BOOK for 1911. A
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Greatly Enlarged . By FRANCIS T. W . MILLER . Crown 8vo, cloth .
[Just Published. 48.
LATEST PRICES OF EVERY KIND OF MATERIAL AND LATEST RATES OF LABOUR IN TRADES
CONNECTED WITH BUILDING - TABLES FOR VALUATION OF LEASES, ESTATES, ETC . - WAGES
TABLES - LEGAL NOTES AND MEMORANDA - THE FORM OF BUILDING CONTRACT ISSUED BY THE
R . I. B . A . - FULL SECTION ON ELECTRIC LIGHTING, BY A . P . HASLAM , M . I. E . E . - SUPPLEMENT
CONTAINING THE LONDON BUILDING ACTS, 1894 TO 1908, Wiru CAREFUL ANNOTATIONS O
ACTS NOW IN FORCE - NOTES OF IMPORTANT DECISIONS IN THE SUPERIOR COURTS, BY A . J. DAVID).
B . A ., LL . M ., OF THE INNER TEMPLE , PARRISTER -AT-LAW - BY-LAWS AND OTHER REGULATIONS
NOW IN FORCE - AN INDEX TO THE ACTS AND REGULATIONS.
“ An excellent book of reference." - Architect.
“ Comprehensive, reliable, well arranged, legible and well bound.” — British Architect.
MASONRY. A PracticalGuide to the Art of Stone Cutting. Com
prising the Construction , Setting-Out, and Working of Stairs, Circular
Work , Arches, Niches, Domes, Pendentives, Vaults, Tracery Windows,
& c. ; to which are added Supplements relating to Masonry Estimating
and Quantity Surveying, and to Building Stones and Marbles, and a
glossary of terms. For the Use of Students, Masons and Craftsmen .
By W . R . PURCHASE, Building Inspector to the Borough of Hove. Fifth
Edition , Enlarged . Royal 8vo, 226 pp., with 52 Plates, comprising over
400 Diagrams, cloth ... ..
" The book is a practical treatise.
... ... ... Net 78. 6d.
Most of the examples given are from actualwork carried
out. It should be found of general utility to architectural students and others, as well as to those to
whom it is specially addressed.” — Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects.
MASONR
Masonic Y AND, and
Projection STONECU TTINGto. Construction.
their Application The PrinciplesBy Eof.
DOBSON , M . R . I. B .A . Crown 8vo, cloth 28. od .
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 9
MARBLE AND MARBLE WORKING . A Handbook for
Architects, Sculptors, Marble Quarry Owners and Workers, and all
engaged in the Building and Decorative Industries. Containing
numerous Illustrations and 13 Coloured Plates. By W . G . RENWICK ,
Author of “ The Marble Industry ,” “ The Working of Marble for
Decorative Purposes," & c. 240 pp. Medium 8vo, cloth ... 155.
THE CHEMISTRY OF MARBLE - ITS GEOLOGICAL FORMATION - - A SHORT CLASSIFICATION OF
MARBLES- ANTIQUITY OF THE MARBLE INDUSTRY ANCIENT QUARRIES AND METHODS OF
WORKING - MODERN QUARRIES AND QUARRYING METHODS -- MACHINERY USED IN QUARRYING
EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN SYSTEMSCOMPARED - MARBLE AS BUILDING MATERIAL- - USES OFMARBLE
OTHER THAN FOR BUILDING PURPOSES - SOURCES OF PRODUCTION : ITALIAN, FRENCH , BELGIAN
AND GREEK MARBLES, & c . ; MARBLES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM AND BRITISH COLONIES
CONTINENTAL MARBLE WORKING - MARBLE WORKING MACHINERY - MARBLE WORKING IN THE
UNITED STATES - AMERICAN MACHINERY DESCRIBED AND COMPARED - MARBLE WORKING : A
BRITISH INDUSTRY -- MARBLE SUBSTITUTES AND IMITATIONS -- PRACTICAL POINTS FOR THE
CONSIDERATION OF ARCHITECTS - HINTS ON THE SELECTION OF MARBLE - LIST OF MARBLES IN
ORDINARY USE , WITH DESCRIPTIVE NOTES AND INSTANCES OF THEIR APPLICATION
" The book is admirably produced, the illustrations being exceptionally good , and we have much
pleasure in commending it to our readers." - Builder.
MARBLE DECORATION . And the Terminology of British
and Foreign Marbles. A Handbook for Students. By GEORGE H .
BLAGROVE, Author of “ Shoring and its Application," etc. With 28
Illustrations. Crown 8vo , cloth ... 33. 6d .
“ Should be in the hands of every architect and builder." - Building World.
MEASURED DRAWINGS. Issued by theSchoolof Architecture
of the University of Liverpool, under the direction of Professor C . H .
REILLY. Containing measured drawings (including detailed drawings
and contours of mouldings) of notable buildings in Great Britain and
Ireland, and on the Continent. With full-page plates and descriptive
letterpress.
Either loose in a cloth Portfolio or bound in cloth.Per volume, net 215.
Vol. I. contains a complete External Survey of the following buildings with detail drawings to a
large scale : THE TOWN HALL , LIVERPOOL , 7 PLATES. -- THE PALACE OF THE PETIT TRIANOS ,
VERSAILLES, 5 PLATES. - The PALACE OF THE GRAND TRIANON , VERSAILLES, 4 PLATES. - THE
CUSTOM HOUSE, DUBLIN , 4 PLATES. - THE ORANGERY, KENSINGTON PALACE, 3 PLATES. - THE
SENATE HOUSE , CAMBRIDGE, 3 PLATES. -- THE HOUSE OF PROVIDENCE, DINGLE LANE , LIVERPOOL ,
1 PLATE. - LODGE TO THE HOUSE OF PROVIDENCE, 1 PLATE . - MAIN DOORWAY UNDER COLONNADE,
ST. GEORGESHALL , LIVERPOOL, I PLATE. - JACOBEAN OAK CHIMNEY PIECE, HALLITH -Wood
MUSEUM , BOLTON , 1 PLATE.
Vol. II. contains a complete External Survey of the following buildings with detail drawings to
a large scale : THE BANK OF ENGLAND, CASTLE STREET, LIVERPOOL, 3 PLATES - BRONZE
INTERNAL Doors, ST. GEORGE'S HALL , LIVERPOOL, I PLATE. - ST. PAUL'S CHURCH , LIVERPOOL,
5 PLATES. — THE QUEEN ANNE BLOCK , GREENWICH PALACE, 8 PLATES. - MORDEN COLLEGE ,
BLACKHEATH , 7 PLATES.-- THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY, CAMBRIDGE, 3 PLATES -- THE SCREEN IN
THE CHAPEL , LINCOLN COLLEGE, OXFORD, 2 PLATES. — THE PALACE OF THE PETIT TRIANON ,
VERSAILLES, COURTYARD DETAILS, 1 PLATE, - PALAZZO BEVILACQUA, VERONA . 1 PLATE.
PORTA NUOVA , VERONA, 3 PLATES. --SPEKE HALL , LANCASHIRE, 6 PLATES. - PORTA Palio ,
VERONA, 5 PLATES.
MEASURING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORK .
A Students' Guide containing Directions for taking Dimensions, Ab
stracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of
Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the Calculation of Areas and
Solidities. Originally edited by E . DOBSON , Architect. With Additions
by E . W . TARN, M .A . Seventh Edition , Revised . Crown 8vo, cloth .
75. 60 .
“ The most complete treatise on the principles of measuring and valuing artificers' work.”
- Building News.
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON 'S CATALOGUE .
PACKING -CASE TABLES. Showing the number of Superficial
Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from 6 ins. square and upwards. By
W . RICHARDSON, Timber Broker. Fourth Edition . Oblong 4to , cloth .
35. 60 .
PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS AND
MARBLES. As Taught and Practised by A . R . VAN DER BURG and
P . VAN DER BURG , Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution .
Royal folio , cloth , 18 } by 125 in . Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured
Plates ; also 12 plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Fifth Edition.
Net £i 55.
List of PLATES. - 1. Various Tools Required for Wood Painting. – 2, 3. Walnut: Prelimina
Stages of Graining and Finished Specimen . - 4. Tools Used for Marble Painting and Method ry of
Manipulation. - 5 , 6 . St. RemiMarble : Earlier Operations and Finished Specimen . - 7 . Methods of
Sketching Different Grains, Knots, etc. - 8, 9. Ash : Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen . --
10 . Methods of Sketching Marble Grains. - U1, 12. Breche Marbles : Preliminary Stages of Working
and Finished Specimen . - 13. Maple : Method of Producing the Different Grains. -- 14, 15. Bird 's -eye
Maple : Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen. - 16 . Methods of Sketching the Different Species
of White Marble . - 17 . 18 . White Marble : Preliminary Stages of Process and Finished Specimen .
19. Mahogany : Specimens of Various Grains and Methods of Manipulation . - 20, 21. Mahogany :
Earlier Stages and Finished Specimen . - 22, 23 , 24 . Sienna Marble : Varieties of Grain , Preliminary
Stages and finished Specimen . - 25 . 26 , 27. Juniper Wood : Methods of Producing Grain , etc. ;
Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen. - 28 , 29, 30 . Vert de Mer Marble : Varieties ofGrain and
Methods of Working, Unfinished and Finished Specimens. - 31, 32, 33. Oak : Varieties of Grain ,
Tools Employed and Methods of Manipulation , Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimer . - 34, 35 ,
36. Waulsort Marble : Varieties of Grain, Unfinished and finished Specimen.
PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED . By THOMAS JOHN
GULLICK, Painter, and JOHN TIMBS, F . S .A . Including Fresco , Oil,
Mosaic, Water -Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera , Encaustic, Miniature,
Painting on Ivory, Vellum , Pottery, Enamel, Glass, etc. Sixth Edition.
Crown 8vo, cloth ... . .. . .. ... ... ... 5S.
PLANNING OF HOUSES. See House PLANNING .
PLASTERING . A Practical Compendium of Plain and Orna
mental Plaster Work . By W . KEMP. Crown 8vo, cloth 2s .
PLUMBING , STEAM AND theHOT WATER HEATING
Heating Engineer, the Architect,
.
A Modern Work for the Plumber,
and the Builder. By J. J. LAWLER . With 284 Illustrations. 4to ,
cloth ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. . Net 21s .
PLUMBING : A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of
the Plumber. With Chapters upon House Drainage and Ventilation.
By WM. PATON BUCHAN. Ninth Edition ,with 512 Illustrations. Crown
8vo , cloth ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35. 6d .
PORTLAN D CEMENT FOR USERS. By the late HENRY
FAIJA, M .Inst.C .E . Fifth Edition. Revised and Enlarged by D . B .
cloth ....
BUTLER, A . M .Inst.C . E . Crowno8vo,, cloth " 38.
QUANTITIES AND- vym MEASUREM.EN TS. In -Brick layers ,
Masons?, Plasterers', Plumbers', Painters', Paperhangers’, Gilders',
Smiths', Carpenters' and Joiners' Work. By A. C . BEATON,
Crown 8vo , cloth ... ...
Surveyor.
is. 6d .
RATING AND ASSESSMENT, THE LAW AND
PRACTICE OF. A Handbook for Overseers, Members ofAssessment
Committees, Surveyors, and others interested in Rating and Valuation .
By CLARENCE A . WEBB, P .A . S. I., Valuer and Rating Surveyor. Author
of “ The Valuation of Real Property," etc. 250 pages. Demy 8vo, cloth .
[ Just Published . Net 7s . 6d .
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING , DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 10

REINFORCED CONCRETE. A Handbook for Architects,

Engineers and Contractors. By F . D .WARREN ,Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, with Illustrations, 271 pages. Crown 8vo , cloth . Net nos . 60.
EXTRACT FROM PREFACE .
The book is divided into four parts. Part I. gives a general but concise résumé of the subject
from a practical standpoint, bringing out some of the difficulties met with in practice and suggesting
remedies. Under Part II is compiled a series of tests justifying the use of various constants and
co -efficients in preparing the tables under Part III. Part 111. contains a series of Tables from which
it is hoped the designer may obtain all necessary information to meet the more common cases in
practice. Part IV . treats ofthe design of trussed roofs from a practical standpoint.
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN . A Graphical Hand
book by JOHN HAWKESWORTH , C . E ., consisting of a series of Plates
showing graphically, by means of plotted curves, the required design for
Slabs, Beams and Columns,under various conditions of external loading,
together with practical examples explaining the method of using each
Plate. · With an Appendix containing the requirements of the Building
Code of New York City in regard to Reinforced Concrete. 64 Pages.
15 full-page Plates. 4to , cloth ... ... . ... Net 12s.
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN SIMPLIFIED .
Diagrams, Tables, and other data for designing and checking accurately
and speedily. By JOHN C . GAMMON, B .Sc. Eng. (London), Assoc. City
Guilds Institute, Member of the Concrete Institute, Assistant Engineer,
Public Works Department, India . With an Introduction by H . KEMPTON
Dyson, Secretary of the Concrete Institute, Lecturer on Reinforced
Concrete, London County Council School of Building, Consulting
Engineer and Architect. Demy 4to. ... .. ... [ Nearly ready.
REINFORCED CONCRETE DIAGRAMS. For the Calcu
lation of Beams, Slabs, and Columns in Reinforced Concrete. By
G . S . COLEMAN , A . M .Inst.C .E . Royal4to, cloth . Net. 38. od .
ROOF CARPENTRY. Practical Lessons in the Framing of
Wood Roofs. For the use of Working Carpenters. By Geo . COLLINGS.
Crown Svo, cloth
SANITARY" "WORK IN " SMALL “ TOWNS" AND
VILLAGES. BY CHARLES SLAGG , A . M . Inst. C . E . Third Edition ,
Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . ... 35.
SANITATION , WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DIS
POSAL OF COUNTRY HOUSES. By WM. PAUL GERHARD), C .E .
350 pages with 113 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. Net 8s. 6d.
SAW -MILLERS' (AUSTRALIAN )COMPLETE LOG AND
TIMBER READY RECKONER . Compiled especially to meet the
Requirements of Australian Bush Saw -Millers and Employés engaged in
Felling and Hauling Logs, etc. By D . MATHESON. 124 pages, with
10 full-page Plates. Crown 8vo , leather. [ Just published . Met 3s. 6d .
SAW MILLS. Their Arrangement and Management, and the
Economical Conversion of Timber. By M . Powis BALE, M .Inst.C . E .
Third Edition , Revised . Crown 8vo , cloth ... ... 10s. 6d .
SEWAGE, PURIFICATION OF : being a Brief Account of
the Scientific Principles of Sewage Purification , and their Practical
Application . By SIDNEY BARWISE , M . D . (Lond.), B .Sc., M .R . C . S .,
D .P .H . (Camb.), Fellow of the Sanitary Institute, Medical Officer of
Health to the Derbyshire County Council. Second Edition , Revised
and Enlarged , with an Appendix on the Analysis of Sewage and Sewage
Effluents. With numerous Illustrations and Diagrams. Demy 8vo ,
cloth ... ... ... Net nos. 6d .
 I 2 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SO.V 'S CATALOGUE.
SEWAGE, PURIFICATION OF - continued.
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS : - SEWAGE : ITS NATURE AND COMPOSITION — THE CHEMISTRY *
SEWAGE - VARIETIES OF SEWAGE AND THE CHANGES IT UNDERGOES - RIVER POLLL TION AND
ITS EFFECTS - THE LAND TREATMENT OF SEWAGE - PRECIPITATION , PRECIPITANTS, AND TASKS
- - THE LIQUEFACTION OF SEWAGE - PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN THE OXIDATION OF SEWAGE
ARTIFICIAL PROCESSES OF PURIFICATION - AUTOMATIC DISTRIBUTORS AND SPECIAL FILTERS
PARTICULARS OF SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL SCHEMES REQUIRED BY LOCAL. GOVES .
MENT BOARD - USEFUL DATA - Appendir : THE APPARATUS REQUIRED FOR SEWAGE ANALYSIS
STANDARD SOLUTIONS USED IN THE METHOD OF SEWAGE ANALYSIS. - Tables : ESTIMATION OF
AMMOXIA - NITROGEN AS NITRATES - INCUBATOR TEST, OXYGEN ABSORBED -- IO CONVERT
GRAINS PER GALLON TO PARTS PER 100,000 .
SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. Their Design and Construction . A
Practical Treatise upon the principles of the Design , Construction , and
Maintenance of Town Sewerage Systems, with examples of existing
works. By Hugh S. WATSON, A .M . Inst. C .E ., with Legal Notes by
ELIDGE B . HERBERT, Barrister-at-law . Demy 8vo. Illustrated by 150
Diagramsand Working Drawings.
[Nearly Ready. Price about Net nos. 6d.
SEWAGE. See also SANITATION, WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE
DISPOSAL OF COUNTRY HOUSES.
SHORING , and its Application. By G . H . BLAGROVE. Crown 8vo,
cloth ... ... ... ... ... Is. 6d.
SPECIFICATIONS (SHORT ). OfMaterials, Labour,and Goods,
for Works connected with Building. By JAMES CUBITT, Architect.
114 pages. Oblong demy 4to. ... ... [ Just Published . Net 55.
SPECIFICATIONS IN DETAIL . By FRANK W . MACEY,
Architect,Author of “ Conditions of Contract.” Second Edition,Revised
and Enlarged, containing 644 pp., and 2,000 illustrations. Royal 8vo,
cloth ... ... .. . . .. ... .. . ... . .. Ver 21S .
GENERAL NOTES -- SPECIFICATION OF WORKS AND LIST OF GENERAL CONDITIONS - PRE
LIMINARY ITEMS HOUSE BREAKER ) - DRAINAGE
(INCLUDING SHORING AND (INCLUDING (INCLUDING RAIN
WATER WELL AND REPORTS) EXCAVATOR CONCRETE FLOORS, ROOFS, STAIRS AND
WALLS)-- PAVIOR - BRICKLAYER (INCLUDING FLINTWORK , RIVER AND OTHER WALLING, SPRING
WATER WELLS, STORAGE TANKS, FOUNTAINS, FILTERS, TERRA COTTA AND FAIENCE ) -MASON
CARPENTER, JOINER AND IRONMONGER (INCLUDING FENCING AND PILING ) -SMITH AND FOUNDER
(INCLUDING HEATING , FIRE HYDRANTS, STABLE AND Cow -HOUSE FITTINGS) - SLATER (INCLUD.
ING SLATE MASON - TILER - STONE TILER - - SHINGLER - THATCHER - - PLUMBER ( INCLUDING HOT
WATER WORK ) ZINCWORKER - COPPERSMITH - PLASTERER - GASFITTER-- BELLHANGER - GLAZIER
- PAINTER - PAPERHANGER - GENERAL REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS - VENTILATION - ROAD.
MAKING - ELECTRIC LIGHT- INDEX .
SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE.
A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. Upon the
Basis of the Work by A . BARTHOLOMEW , Revised by F . ROGERS.
8vo cloth se 155 .
STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING AND
LATION . A Modern Work on Steam and Hot Water Heating and
VENTI.
Ventilation,with Descriptions and Data of all Materials and Appliances
used in the Construction of such Apparatus, Rules, Tables, & c. By
A . G . KING . 400 pp., over 300 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth .
Net 12s. 6d .
INTRODUCTION - HEAT - EVOLUTION OF ARTIFICIAL HEATING APPARATUS - BOILER SURFACES
AND SETTINGS- THE CHIMNEY FLUE- PIPE AND FITTINGS- VALVES -- FORMS OF RADIATING
SURFACES - LOCATING OF RADIATING SURFACES – ESTIMATING RADIATION -- STEAM -HEATING
APPARATUS - EXHAUST-STEAM HEATING - HOT-WATER HEATING - PRESSURE SYSTEMS OF Hor.
WATER WORK - HOT-WATER APPLIANCES - GREENHOUSE HEATING - VACUUM CONNECTIONS
VAPOUR AYD
-
VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING MISCELLANEOUS HEATING - RADIATOR AND PIPE
VENTILATION - MECHANICAL VENTILATION AND HOT-BLAST HEATING - - STEAM APPLIANCES
DISTRICT HEATINGPIPE AND BOILER COVERING - - TEMPERATURE REGULATION AND HEAT
CONTROL BUSINESS METHODS - MISCELLANEOUS - RULES, TABLES, AND USEFUL INFORMATION .
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 13

SUPERFICIAL MEASUREMENT. Tables calculated from

I to 200 inches in length ,by i to 108 inches in breadth . A Guide for
the use ofArchitects, Surveyors, Engineers, TimberMerchants, Builders,
etc. By J. HAWKINGS. Fifth Edition . Crown, 8vo, cloth ... 35. 60.
TECHNICAL GUIDE,MEASURER , AND ESTIMATOR .
For Builders and Surveyors. Containing Technical Directions for
Measuring Work in all the Building Trades, Complete Specifications for
Houses, Roads, and Drains, and an Easy Method of Estimating the
parts of a Building collectively. By A . C . BEATON. Tenth Edition.
Waistcoat-pocket size ... Is. 60.
TIMBER IMPORTER 'S , TIMBER MERCHANT'S, AND
BUILDER
cloth
'S STANDARD GUIDE. By R . E .GRANDY. Crown
... ...
8vo,
28.
TIMBER MERCHANT'S and BUILDER 'S COMPANION .
Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and
Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, and other Useful Tables
for the use of Timber Merchants and Builders. By WILLIAM DOWSING .
Fifth Edition . Revised and Corrected . Crown 8vo, cloth ... 35.
TIMBER MERCHANT, Being a PracticalGuide for the Use of
Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, etc., comprising useful Tables
for allpurposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of Wood, Essay
on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on theGrowth of Timber, etc . By
W . RICHARDSON. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, cloth 35. 6d .
TIMBER READY RECKONER . See Saw -MILLERS' Com
PLETE LOG AND TIMBER READY RECKONER.
VALUATION OF REAL PROPERTY : A GuidePurposes,
to the
Buildings,
Principles of Valuation of Land and & c., for various
including the taxation of Land Values. With numerous examples. By
CLARENCE A .WEBB, Valuer and Rating Surveyor, Professional Associate
of the Surveyors Institution ; Author of “ The Law and Practice of
Rating and Assessment” and “ Rates and Taxes." 2nd Edition . Revised
and Enlarged . 334 pp. Demy8vo , cloth . [ Just Published . Net 78. 6d .
+

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF VALUATION - VALUATION OF LAND AND BUILDINGS SEPARATELY

VALUATION FOR MORTGAGE - TIMBER MEASURING AND VALUING - ARBITRATION - COMPENSATION
FOR COMPULSORY PURCHASE - VALUATION FOR RATING - VALUATION FOR TAXATION - LAND Tas
INHABITED HOUSE Duty - INCOME TAX - LAND VALUES TAXATION - DUTIES ON LIQLOR
LICENCES - ESFRANCHISEMENT OF COPYHOLDS - COMPENSATION UNDER LICENSING ACT, 1904
VALUATION FOR FIRE INSURANCE CLAIMS - CoxsTRUCTION OF VALUATION TABLES - THE
PRINCIPAL VALUATION TABLES ; Part I. OF THE FINANCE (1909-10) Act, 1910.
VENTILATION . A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art of
Ventilating Buildings. By W . P. BUCHAN. With 170 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, cloth ... . .. ... 38 . 6d.
VENTILATION . See also STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING
AND VENTILATION .
VILLA ARCHITECTURE. A handy book, containing a Series
of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles, with Outline Specifica
tions and Estimates. By C . WICKES, Architect, Author of “ Spires and
Towers of England,” & c. 61 Plates. 4to, half-morocco, gilt edges,
fi us. 6d .
WATER AND ITS PURIFICATION . A Handbook for the
Use of Local Authorities, Sanitary Officers, and others interested in
Water Supply. By S . RIDEAL, D .Sc.Lond., F . I.C . Second Edition ,
Revised , with Additions, including numerous Illustrations and Tables
Large Crown Svo, cloth ...
 1 CROSB LOCKW & SON ’S CATAL .
Y OOD OGUE
WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. By: WILLIAN
HUMBER, A . M .Inst.C .E . and M .Inst. M .E ., Author of “ Cast and
Wrought Iron Bridge Construction,” etc., etc. Illustrated with 50
Double Plates, i Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwards of
250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pp . of Text. Imperial 4to, elegantly
and substantially half-bound in morocco ... ... ... Net £6 6s.
I. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF SOME OF THE MEANS THAT HAVE BEEN ADOPTED FOR THE
SUPPLY OF WATER TO CITIES AND TOWNS. - II. WATER AND THE FOREIGN MATTER USUALLY
ASSOCIATED WITH IT . III. RAINFALL AND EVAPORATION . - IV . SPRINGS AND THE WATER
BEARING FORMATIONS OF VARIOUS DISTRICTS. - V . MEASUREMENT AND ESTIMATION OF THE
FLOW OF WATER . VI. ON THE SELECTION OF THE SOURCE OF SUPPLY. - VII. WELLS. - VIII.
RESERVOIRS. IX . THE PURIFICATION OF WATER . - X . PUMPS. XI. PUMPING MACHINERY. XII.
CONDUITS. XIII. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER. - XIV . METERS, SERVICE PIPES, AND HOLE FIT
TINGS.- XV. THE LAW AND ECONOMY OF WATER WORKS.-- XVI. CONSTANT AND INTERMITIENT
SUPPLY - XVII. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES - APPENDICES, GIVING TABLES OF RATES OF SUPPLY,
VELOCITIES, ETC ., ETC., TOGETHER WITH SPECIFICATIONS OF SEVERAL WORKS ILLUSTRATED
AMONG WHICH WILL BE FOUND : ABERDEEN, BIDEFORD , CANTERBURY, DUNDEE , HALIFAX, LAN
BETH , ROTHERHAM , AND OTHERS.
WATER SUPPLY
TION OF WATER OF TOWNS
-WORKS. AND THE
A Practical TreatiseCONSTR
for the UseUCof
Engineers and Students of Engineering. By W . K . BURTON , A . M .Inst.
C .E ., Consulting Engineer to the Tokyo Waterworks. Third Edition,
Revised. Edited by ALLAN GREENWELL, F .G .S ., A . M .Inst.C .E . With
numerous Plates and Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, buckran £1 58.
I . INTRODUCTORY. - II. DIFFERENT QUALITIES OF WATER . - III. QUANTITY OF WATER TO FE
PROVIDED .- IV . ON ASCERTAINING WHETHER A PROPOSED SOURCE OF SUPPLY IS SUFFICIENTLY.
ON ESTIMATING THE STORAGE CAPACITY REQUIRED TO BE PROVIDED . VI. CLASSIFICATION OF
WATERWORKS. – VII. IMPOUNDING RESERVIORS. - VIII. EARTHWORK DAMS.- IX . MASONRY DAs.
- X . THE PURIFICATION OF WATER . - XI. SETTLING RESERVOIRS. - XII . SAND FILTRATION,
XIII. PURIFICATION OF WATER BY ACTION OF IRON . SOFTENING OF WATER BY ACTION OF LINE.
NATURAL FUTRATION . -- XIV . SERVICE OR CLEAN WATER RESERVOIRS - WATER TOWERS - STAND
PIPES.- XV. THE CONNECTION OF SETTLING RESERVOIRS, FILTER BEDS AND SERVICE RESERTOIRS
- XVI. PUMPING MACHINERY.- - XVII. FLOW OF WATER IN CONDUITS - PIPES AND OPEN CHAN
NELS. XVIII. DISTRIBUTING SYSTEMS. -- XIX . SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR THE EXTINCTION OF
FIRES. - XX . PIPES FOR WATERWORKS. - XXI. PREVENTION OF WASTE OF WATER. - XXII .
VARIOUS APPLIANCES USED IN CONNECTION WITH WATERWORKS.
APPENDIX I. BY PROF. JOHN MILNE, F .R . S . - CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THE PRORABLE
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES ON WATERWORKS AND THE SPECIAL. PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN
EARTHQUAKE COUNTRIES.
APPENDIX II, By John DE RIJKE, C. E. ON SAND Dunes AND Dune SANDS AS A SOURCE OF
WATER SUPPLY.
WATER SUPPLY, RURAL. A Practical Handbook on the
Supply of Water and Construction of Water-works for small Country
Districts. By ALLAN GREENWELL, A .M .I.C . E ., and W . T . CURRY,
A .M . I.C .E . Revised Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth ... ... ... 55.
WATER SUPPLY. See also SANITATION, WATER SUPPLY AND
SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF COUNTRY HOUSES.
WATER ENGINEERING . A Practical Treatise on the Measure
ment, Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisation of Water for the Supply of
Towns. By C . SLAGG , A .M .Inst.C . E .... ... ... ... 78. 6d.
WOOD -CARVING FOR AMATEURS. With Hints on Design,
By A LADY. With 1o Plates. New and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo,
in emblematic wrapper... ... ... ... ... ... ... 25.
WOODWORKING MACHINERY. Its Rise, Progress, and
Construction. With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and the
Economical Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples of Recent
Designs by leading English , French , and American Engineers. By
M . Powis BALE , M .Inst.C .E ., M .I.Mech . E . Second Edition, Revised,
with large Additions, large crown 8vo,440 pp., cloth Os.
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING , DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 15
PUBLICATIONS OF THE
ENGINEERING STANDARDS COMMITTEE .
TESSRS. CROSBY LOCKWOOD and SON , having been appointed
IVI OFFICIAL PUBLISHERS to the ENGINEERING STANDARDS
COMMITTEE, beg to invite attention to the List given below
of the Publications already issued by the Committee, and will be prepared
to supply copies thereof and of all subsequent Publications as issued .
The ENGINEERING STANDARDS COMMITTEE is the outcome of a
Committee appointed by the Institution of Civil Engineers at the instance
of Sir John Wolfe Barry, K .C . B ., to inquire into the advisability of
Standardising Rolled Iron and Steel Sections.
The Committee as now constituted is supported by the Institution of Civil
Engineers,the Institution ofMechanical Engineers,the Institution of Naval
Architects, the Iron and Steel Institute , and the Institution of Electrical
Engineers ; and the value and importance of its labours - -not only to the
Engineering profession , but to the country at large-- has been emphatically
recognised by His Majesty's Government, who have made a liberal grant
from the Public Funds by way of contribution to the financial resources of
the Committee.
The Reports are Foolscap Folio , Sewed,except where otherwise stated .
Reports already published :
1. BRITISH STANDARD SECTIONS (9 lists). ( Included in No. 6 ).
ANGLES, EQUAL AND UNEQUAL - BULB ANGLES, TEES AND PLATES - 2.
AND T BARS - CHANNELS - -BEAMS ... ... 18. Net.
2. TRAMWAY RAILS AND FISH -PLATES ... 218 . Net.
3. REPORT ON THE INFLUENCE OF GAUGE LENGTH 58.
.
Net.
Professor W . C . UNWIN , F. R . S . ...
PROPERTIES OF STANDARD BEAMS. (Included in No. 6.)
Demy, 8vo, sewed ... 18. Net .
STANDARD LOCOMOTIVES FOR INDIAN RAILWAYS .
int

Superseded.
PROPERTIES OF BRITISH STANDARD SECTIONS. Diagrams
sioéř

and Definitions, Tables, and Formulæ . Demy 8vo cloth 25. 6d . Net.
TABLES OF BRITISH STANDARD COPPER CON
DUCTORS 58. Net.
TUBULAR TRAMWAYY POLES POLES . ...
.. ... ... ... 218.58. Nei.
Q. BULL -HEADED RAILWAY RAILS ... ... ... Net.
TABLES OF PIPE FLANGES ... 28. 6d. Net.
11. FLAT-BOTTOMED RAILWAY RAILS .... 213. Net.
12. SPECIFICATION FOR PORTLAND CEMENT ... 55. Net.
STRUCTURAL STEEL FOR SHIPBUILDING 55. Net.
STRUCTURAL STEEL FOR MARINE BOILERS ... 58. Net.
15. STR UCTURAL STEEL FOR BRIDGES AND GENERAL BUILD
ING CONSTRUCTION 58. Net.
16. SPECIFICATIONS AND TABLES FOR TELEGRAPH
MATERIALS 215 Net.
17. INTERIM REPORT ON ELECTRICAL MACHINERY
Superseded
19. REPORT ON TEMPERATURE EXPERIMENTS ON FIELD
COILS OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES vos. 60 . Net.
(P. T.O .
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON 'S CATALOGUE.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE ENGINEERING STANDARDS COMMITTEE - contd.)
20. BRITISH STANDARD SCREW THREADS ... 28. od. Net.
BRITISH STANDARD PIPE THREADS ... 28. 6d . Na.
REPORT ON EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON INSULATING
MATERIALS ... 58. Net.
VE AND WIRE
23. STANDARDS FOR TROLLEY GROORUCTI 1S. Net.
MATERIAL USED IN THE CONST ON OF RAILWAY
ROLLING STOCK ... ... ... 218. Net.
ERRORS IN WORKMANSHIP . Based on Measurements carried out
for the Committee by the National Physical Laboratory ros. 6d. Nei.
26. SECOND REPORT ON STANDARD LOCOMOTIVES FOR
INDIAN RAILWAYS ... ... Superseded.
STANDARD SYSTEMS OF LIMIT GAUGES FOR RUNNING
FITS ... ... 55. Net. .
NUTS, BOLT-HEADS, AN D SPANNERS ... 25. 6d . Net.
INGOT STEEL FORGINGS FOR MARINE PURPOSES . 58. Nat.
INGOT STEEL CASTINGS FOR MARINE PURPOSES. 55. Net.
31. STEEL CONDUITS FOR ELECTRICAL WIRING ... 55. Net.
STEEL BARS (for use in Automatic Machines) ... 28, 6d . Net.
CARBON FILAMENT GLOW LAMPS ... ... 58. Na
COPPER ALLOY BARS (for use in Automatic Machines) 28. 6dY. Nd .
BRITISH STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MACHINER
2s. 6d , Na .
CONSUMERS ELECTRIC SUPPLY METERS (Motor Type for
Continuous and Single- Phase Circuits) 58. Nat.
BRITISH STANĎARD SYSTEMS FOR LIMIT AUGES FOR
SCREW THREADS
COMBINED REPORTS ON SCREW " THREADS78.(containing
Reports Nos. 20 , 28, 38 ) 6d. Net.
CAST IRON SPIGOT AND SOCKET LOW PRESSURE HEAT
ING PIPES .. 28. 60. Net.
CAST
PIPES
IRON SPIGOT “ AND SOCKET" FLUE OR28, SMOKE
6d . Net.
RECIPROCATING STEAM ENGINES FOR ELECTRICAL
PURPOSES
CHARCOAL IRON LAPWELDED BOILER TUBES 28. 6d . Net.
CAST-IRON PIPES FOR HYDRAULIC POWER ... 58. Net.
STANDARD DIMENSIONS FOR THE THREADS OF SPARK
ING PLUGS (FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES)
28 . 6d. Net.
KEYS AND KEYWAYS . _ 28. 60. Net.
STEEL FISHPLATES FOR BULL -HEAD AND FLAT-BOTTO M
RAILWAY RAILS 10S. 6d. Net.
WROUGHT IRON OF SMITHING QUALITY FOR SHIP
BUILDING (Grade D ) ... 28. od. Net.
49. AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS ... S58. Net.
THIRD REPORT ON STANDARD LOCOMOTIVE FOR
INDIAN RAILWAYS. Incorporating Reports Nos. 5 and 26 . 213. Net.
51. WROUGHT IRON FOR USE IN RAILWAY ROLLING STOCK .
“ Best Yorkshire " and Grades A ., B . and C . 10s, 6d. Vet.
52. BAYONET SOCKET LAMP-HOLDERS AND CAPS ... 5s. Net.
London : Crosby Lockwood & Son ,
7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL , E .C .
and 121a, Victoria Street, Westminster, S . W .
HRADBURY, AGNEW & co., LD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE. (38. 28.12. 10
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