Lecture Notes on ELC520S 3/11/2020

Kirchhoff’s laws
1. Along a closed loop the algebraic sum of the voltages is zero. That is
the sum of raise in voltages in a closed loop is equal to sum of voltage
drops along the same loop.
2. The algebraic sum of all the currents entering to a node is zero. That is
the sum of currents entering to a node is equal to the sum of currents
leaving from the node.

Source voltage = 100 volts

R for top lamp = 20 Ω
R for bottom lamp = 20 Ω
So net R as seen by the source = 20 +20 = 40 Ω
𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
So current I through the lamps = = = 2.5 Amperes
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑹 𝟒𝟎 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔

• 2.5 amps x 20 Ω = 50 volts

𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔, 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟕𝟎 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔, 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔, V = 100 Volts

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 +𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟏𝑹𝟐
= + + = ;
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
R=𝑹 ; = + + = 0.1 + 0.014286 + 0.05 = 0.164286
𝟐 𝑹𝟑 +𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹 𝟏𝟎 𝟕𝟎 𝟐𝟎

𝟏
So, R = = 6.087 Ω
𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟒𝟐𝟖𝟔

100 Vots
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
R = 20 Ω I = = 5 Amperes
𝟐𝟎 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔

P = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 = 𝟓𝟐 × 𝟐𝟎 = 500 Watts

In figure 3.2, I = 2.5 Amperes

For each valve: P = (𝟐. 𝟓)𝟐 × 𝟐𝟎 = 125 Watts
 I1
I A A + R1 - I
V
+ I2 B
R
E - R2

B
I
A

+
+ I2 I1
V
R2 R1
E -

I
B I

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟏
= + =
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

𝑹 𝑹
So, R = 𝑹 𝟏+𝑹𝟐 ;
𝟐 𝟏

𝑬
I = 𝑹;
𝑽 (𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟏 )
V = E; I=𝑹=VX 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

𝑽𝑨𝑩 = V = IR = 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 = 𝑰𝑹 = 𝐈 ×
𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟏

𝑹𝟐
𝑰𝟏 = 𝐈 × 𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟏
 I1

I2 I3
n I7
I5
I4
I6

−𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 − 𝐼6 − 𝐼7 = 0

𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼5 + 𝐼6 + 𝐼7

𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐴 =0

𝑽𝑨𝑩 = − 𝑉𝐵𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐴 = − 𝑉𝐵𝐶 + 𝑉𝐴𝐶 = -4 +7.5 = 3.5 Volts

− 𝑽𝑨𝑪 = 𝑽𝑪𝑨
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 7.5 Volts; 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 4 Volts
 IBD

20Ω

IBC
I3 ICD
C
B D
30Ω 40Ω IDA
IAB IAC

60Ω I1 50Ω I2 10Ω

+
20V
-
- A
-
+

100V + 50V

140 𝐼1 – 50𝐼2 - 30𝐼3 = 80

-50𝐼1 + 100 𝐼2 - 40𝐼3 = 70
-30𝐼1 - 40𝐼2 + 90 𝐼3 = 0

140 −50 −30 𝐼1 80

[−50 ]
100 −40 2[𝐼 ] = [70]
−30 −40 90 𝐼3 0

140 −50 −30 −1 140 −50 −30 𝐼1 140 −50 −30 −1 80

[−50 100 −40] [−50 100 −40] [𝐼2 ] = [−50 100 −40] [70]
−30 −40 90 −30 −40 90 𝐼3 −30 −40 90 0
𝐼1 140 −50 −30 −1 80 1.65
[𝐼2 ] = [−50 100 −40] [70] = [2.16]
𝐼3 −30 −40 90 0 1.5
80 −50 −30
|70 100 −40|
0 −40 90
𝐼1 = 140 −50 −30 = = 1.65 Amperes
|−50 100 −40|
−30 −40 90
140 80 −30
|−50 70 −40|
−30 0 90
𝐼2 = 140 −50 −30 = = 2.16 Amperes
|−50 100 −40|
−30 −40 90
 140 −50 80
|−50 100 70|
−30 −40 0
𝐼3 = 140 −50 −30 = = 1.5 Amperes
|−50 100 −40|
−30 −40 90

𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 1.65 𝐴 ; 𝐼𝐷𝐴 = 2.16 𝐴; 𝐼𝐵𝐷 = 1.5 𝐴

𝐼𝐵𝐶 = 1.65 − 1.5 = 0.15 𝐴; 𝐼𝐶𝐷 = 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ; 𝐼𝐴𝐶 = 𝐼2 − 𝐼1
217000657 SHITUMBULENI, JOHANNES N – Attending quizzes but not a valid student

100 – 20 = (60+30+50) 𝐼1 – 50𝐼2 - 30𝐼3

50 + 20 = -50𝐼1 + (50+40+10) 𝐼2 - 40𝐼3
0 = -30𝐼1 - 40𝐼2 + (20+30+40) 𝐼3
140 −50 −30
100 −40 −50 −40 −50 100
|−50 100 −40| = 140 | | - (-50) | | +(-30) | |
−40 90 −30 90 −30 −40
−30 −40 90
= 140(9000 -1600) +50(-4500-1200)-30(2000+3000) = 1036000 – 285000 – 150000 = 601000
115 0 −50 115 0 −50
115 −50
|−50 100 −40| = |−50 100 −40|= 100 | | = 100(115X74 – 2500) = 601000
−50 74
−30 −40 90 −50 0 74

𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼1 ; 𝐼𝐷𝐴 = 𝐼2 ; 𝐼𝐵𝐷 = 𝐼3

𝐼𝐵𝐶 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 ; 𝐼𝐶𝐷 = 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ; 𝐼𝐴𝐶 = 𝐼2 − 𝐼1
 B

I1 - I3
I1 I3
A
40Ω
C
I2
I2 + I3
D
E=2V

I1 - I3
I1
A
C
I2
I2 + I3
D
E=2V

𝑽𝑩𝑫 + 𝑽𝑫𝑨 + 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎, 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 0.5 V, 𝑽𝑨𝑫 = 1.143 V

𝑽𝑩𝑫 – 1.143 +0.5 = 0, 𝑽𝑩𝑫 = 0.643 V Thevenin’s voltage
 B

B D
RBD

I1 - I3
I1
A
C
I2
I2 + I3
D

𝟏𝟎×𝟑𝟎 𝟐𝟎×𝟏𝟓
𝑹𝑩𝑫 = 10//30 +20//15 = 𝟏𝟎+𝟑𝟎 + = 7.5 + 8.57 = 16.07 Ω –
𝟐𝟎+𝟏𝟓
Thevenin’s equivalent resistance

RBD I3
40Ω

E=VBD

𝐸 0.643
E = 0.643 Volts, Rbd = 16.07 Ω, 𝐼3 = = = 0.01147 Amps = 11.47 mAmps
𝑅𝐵𝐷 +40 16.07+40

IL
RS
RL
E
 𝐸
𝐸 𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑆 𝐸 𝑅𝑆
𝐼𝐿 = = 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 = × = × 𝐼𝑆
𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑆

IS IL

RS RL
IS

4V 6V
 A
A

C B
R1
C B

(R1+R2)//R3 = Ra + Rb
(𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 )𝑹𝟑
= 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒃 --------(i)
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑
(𝑹𝟑 +𝑹𝟐 )𝑹𝟏
= 𝑹𝒄 + 𝑹𝒃 --------- (ii)
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑

(i) – (ii)
(𝑹𝟑 −𝑹𝟏 )𝑹𝟐
= 𝑹𝒂 − 𝑹𝒄 ….. (iii)
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑
(𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟑 )𝑹𝟐
= 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒄 ------(iv)
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑

(iii) + (iv)
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
= 𝑹𝒂
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
= 𝑹𝒃
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
= 𝑹𝒄
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒂
= ; 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹
𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝒃 𝟏
𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝒂
= ; 𝑹𝟑 = 𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝒄 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝒄
 𝑹𝒂 𝑹
𝑹 × 𝒂𝑹
𝑹𝒃 𝟏 𝑹𝒄 𝟏
𝑹𝒂 = 𝑹 𝑹
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝟏
𝒃 𝒄

𝟏 𝑹𝒂
𝑹𝒃 × 𝑹𝒄 𝑹𝟏
𝟏=
𝑹 𝑹
𝟏+ 𝒂+ 𝒂
𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝒄
𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝒂 𝟏 𝑹𝒂
𝟏+ + = × 𝑹
𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝒄 𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝒄 𝟏
𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝒄 + 𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝒄 + 𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝒂
= ×
𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝒄 𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝒄
𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝒄 + 𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝒄 + 𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝒃 = 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝒂
𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝒄
𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝒃 + 𝑹𝒄 +
𝑹𝒂
Capacitor
Expressed by C, unit is Farad (F)
It deals with Charge Q, and Voltage V

𝑸 (𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔)
C= Farads
𝑽 (𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔)

C1 C2 C3 C4
Ceq

𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑 + 𝑪𝟒

C1

C2

Ceq
C3

C4

𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝟒
𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝟒 +𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝟒 +𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟒 +𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝟒 +𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝟒 +𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟒 +𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
= +𝑪 +𝑪 +𝑪 =
𝑪𝒆𝒒 𝑪𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝟒
Inductor
Expressed by L, Unit is Henry (H)
It deals with Flux linkage 𝝋, and Current I

If flux and current has linear relationship then

𝝋 (𝒘𝒆𝒃𝒆𝒓−𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏)
L= Henry
𝑰 (𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔)

L1

L2
Leq

L3

𝑳𝒆𝒒 = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 + 𝑳𝟑

L1 L2 L3
Leq

𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟑
𝑳𝒆𝒒 = 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟑 +𝑳𝟑 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟑 +𝑳𝟑 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐
= +𝑳 +𝑳 =
𝑳𝒆𝒒 𝑳𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟑
𝑬𝒎 = Maximum voltage
e = Instantaneous voltage
e = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 volts = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 volts
𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = E = Root Mean Squared voltage of e
𝑬𝒎
= = 0.707𝑬𝒎
√𝟐

𝑬𝒂𝒗 = Average voltage of e during the half cycle

= 0.637 𝑬𝒎
𝟏 𝝅
𝑬𝒂𝒗 = ∫𝟎 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 𝒅𝝋
𝝅
𝑬𝒎 𝑬𝒎 𝑬𝒎 𝟐𝑬𝒎
= [−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋]𝝅𝟎 = [-cos 𝝅 + cos0]= [1+1] =
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅

𝑬𝒂𝒗 = 0.637 𝑬𝒎

𝟏 𝝅
E = 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √𝝅 ∫𝟎 (𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 )𝟐 𝒅𝝋

𝑬𝒎 𝟐 𝝅
= √ 𝟐𝝅 ∫𝟎 𝟐(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 )𝟐 𝒅𝝋
 𝟐
𝑬𝒎 𝝅
= √ 𝟐𝝅 ∫𝟎 𝟐(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 )𝟐 𝒅𝝋

𝝅 𝟐
𝑬𝒎
= √ 𝟐𝝅 ∫𝟎 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝋) 𝒅𝝋

𝑬𝒎 𝟏 𝝅
= √[𝝋 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝋]
√𝟐𝝅 𝟐 𝟎

𝑬𝒎 𝟏
= √𝝅 − 𝟐 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟎)
√𝟐𝝅
𝑬𝒎
= x √𝝅
√𝟐𝝅
𝑬𝒎
= = 0.707𝑬𝒎
√𝟐

𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 radians/second
𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝝅 𝑻
𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅 𝑻 ; 𝑻= ; =
𝝎 𝝎 𝟐

P = number of poles
N = speed of the rotor in rev/minute
f = frequency in Hz
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇 𝟐×𝟔𝟎×𝒇
N= 𝑷
= 𝑷
𝑵 𝒇
= 𝑷
𝟔𝟎
𝟐

f = np
f = frequency in Hz
n = speed of the rotor in revolutions/second
p = number of pairs of poles of the generator
 𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑬𝒎
form factor = = = 1.11
𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝟎.𝟔𝟑𝟕 𝑬𝒎
𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝑬𝒎
peak or crest factor = = = 1.414
𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑬𝒎

v = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕, V∠𝟎𝟎 = |V|

v = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝋); V=|V|∠𝝋 = |V|(cos 𝝋 + j sin 𝝋)
v = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − 𝝋); V = |V|∠−𝝋 = |V|(cos 𝝋 - j sin 𝝋)
j = √−𝟏
𝑽𝒎
V = rms voltage of v = effective voltage of v =
√𝟐

v = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎 ) volts

𝟐𝟎𝟎
V= ∠−𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎 volts = 141.42 ∠-𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎 volts – polar form
√𝟐

= 141.42 (cos𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎 - jsin𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎 )

= 141.42(0.866 - j 0.5)
= 122.47 - j70.71 volts – Cartesian (rectangular) form

5 ∠𝟐𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝟎
= 5 (cos𝟐𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝟎 + j sin𝟐𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝟎 )
= 5 (-0.6 + j (-0.8))
= -3 - j4
e1
a

e2 eab

e3
b
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒆𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 ------------ 𝑬𝟏 = ∠𝟎𝟎 volts
√𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒆𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟑𝟎𝟎 ) ----- 𝑬𝟐 = ∠𝟑𝟎𝟎 volts
√𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒆𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 ) ---- 𝑬𝟑 = ∠−𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 volts
√𝟐

……… 𝑬𝒂𝒃 = 100 ∠−𝟏𝟓𝟎 volts

𝒆𝒂𝒃 = 𝒆𝟏 + 𝒆𝟐 + 𝒆𝟑
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟑𝟎𝟎 ) + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 )
=100[𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟑𝟎𝟎 ) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 )]
=100[𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 cos𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 sin𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 cos𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
- 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 sin𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 ]
=100[𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕]
=100[1.366𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 – 0.366𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕]
𝟏.𝟑𝟔𝟔 𝟎.𝟑𝟔𝟔
= 100x√(𝟏. 𝟑𝟔𝟔)𝟐 + (. 𝟑𝟔𝟔)𝟐 [√(𝟏.𝟑𝟔𝟔) 𝟐 +(.𝟑𝟔𝟔)𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 −
√(𝟏.𝟑𝟔𝟔)𝟐 +(.𝟑𝟔𝟔)𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕]

= 141.42 [𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 cos𝟏𝟓𝟎 - 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 sin𝟏𝟓𝟎 ]

= 141.42 sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟓𝟎 )
i = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕

𝒅𝒊 𝒅
v=L =𝑳 (𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕) = 𝑰𝒎 L𝝎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 L𝝎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟗𝟎𝟎 )
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

ELI IS AN ICE MAN

E – stands for voltage

I – stands for current
L – stands for inductance
C – stands for capacitance

If I do bad in the exam, I will get cos𝟗𝟎𝟎

|𝑰𝟏 | ∠𝜽 + |𝑰𝟐 | ∠𝜽 + |𝑰𝟑 | ∠𝜽 + |𝑰𝟒 | ∠𝜽

= (|𝑰𝟏 | + |𝑰𝟐 | + |𝑰𝟑 | + |𝑰𝟒 | ) ∠𝜽

|𝑰𝟏 | ∠𝜽𝟏 + |𝑰𝟐 | ∠𝜽𝟐 + |𝑰𝟑 | ∠𝜽𝟑 + |𝑰𝟒 | ∠𝜽𝟒

=|𝑰𝟏 |(cos𝜽𝟏 +jsin𝜽𝟏 )+ |𝑰𝟐 |(cos𝜽𝟐 +jsin𝜽𝟐 )
+|𝑰𝟑 |(cos𝜽𝟑 +jsin𝜽𝟑 )+|𝑰𝟒 |(cos𝜽𝟒 +jsin𝜽𝟒 )
= |I|(cos𝜽 + jsin𝜽) = |I| ∠𝜽
a𝒙𝟐 + bx + c = 0
𝟏
x = (−𝒃 ± √𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 )
𝟐𝒂

√−𝟒 = √𝟒(−𝟏) = √𝟒 × √−𝟏 = 𝟐 × √−𝟏 = j2

10∠𝟔𝟎𝟎 / 5∠𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 2∠𝟒𝟎𝟎

√𝟐𝟓∠𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 5∠𝟑𝟎𝟎

Z = 10 ∠𝟑𝟎𝟎 Ω
= 10(cos𝟑𝟎𝟎 +j sin𝟑𝟎𝟎 )
= 10 (0.866 +j0.5)
= 8.666 + j 5 Ω

𝟏 𝟏
Y = 𝒛 = 𝟏𝟎 ∠𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 0.1 ∠-𝟑𝟎𝟎 S
= 0.1 (cos(-𝟑𝟎𝟎 ) + 𝒋 𝒔𝒊𝒏(−𝟑𝟎𝟎 ))
= 0.1 ( 0.866 – j0.5)
=0.0866 – j0.05 S

v = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽, 𝜽 = 𝝎𝒕

The current i flowing through

Pure resistance ------ i=𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
Pure inductance ------ i=𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽 − 𝟗𝟎𝟎 ) =
−𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟗𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽) = −𝑰𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
Pure capacitance ---- i=𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽 + 𝟗𝟎𝟎 )= 𝑰𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
i=𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽 − 𝝋)
Combination of R and L ---
Combination of R and C------- i=𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽 + 𝝋 )
p = vi = (𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)( 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽) --- instantaneous
power in a purly resistive load.

𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
p= 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽 = (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽)
𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P = 𝟐𝝅 ∫𝟎 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽) 𝒅𝜽
𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝟐𝝅
P= ∫ (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽) 𝒅𝜽
𝟒𝝅 𝟎
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝟏 𝟐𝝅
P= [𝜽 − 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽]
𝟒𝝅 𝟎
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝟏 𝟏
P= [𝟐𝝅 − 𝟎 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒𝝅 + 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟎]
𝟒𝝅 𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= × 𝟐𝝅
𝟒𝝅
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= = × = VI = (RI)I = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
𝟐 √𝟐 √𝟐

p = vi = (𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)( −𝑰𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽) --- instantaneous

power in a purly inductive load.

𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
p=− 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = − (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽)
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐𝝅 −𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P = ∫𝟎 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽) 𝒅𝜽
𝟐𝝅 𝟐
−𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝟐𝝅
P = 𝟒𝝅 ∫𝟎 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽) 𝒅𝜽
−𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝟏 𝟐𝝅
P = 𝟒𝝅 [− 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽]
𝟎
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P = 𝟖𝝅 [𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒𝝅 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎]
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P = 𝟖𝝅 [1-1] = 0, the average power consumed in a
pure inductance.
p = vi = (𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)( 𝑰𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽) --- instantaneous
power in a purly capacitive load.

𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
p= 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽)
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P = 𝟐𝝅 ∫𝟎 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽) 𝒅𝜽
𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝟐𝝅
P= ∫ (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽) 𝒅𝜽
𝟒𝝅 𝟎
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝟏 𝟐𝝅
P= [− 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽]
𝟒𝝅 𝟎
𝑽 𝑰𝒎
P = 𝒎 [−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒𝝅 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎]
𝟖𝝅
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= [-1+1] = 0, the average power consumed in
𝟖𝝅
a pure capacitance.

p = vi = (𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)( 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽 − 𝝋)) --- instantaneous

power in a R-L circuit.
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
p= 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽 − 𝝋)
𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
= [cos(𝜽 − (𝜽 − 𝝋)) - cos(𝜽 + (𝜽 − 𝝋))]
𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
=
𝟐
[cos 𝝋 – cos+(𝟐𝜽 − 𝝋)]
𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= ∫ [𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 – 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝜽 − 𝝋)] 𝒅𝜽
𝟐𝝅 𝟎 𝟐

𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝟏 𝟐𝝅
P= [𝜽𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝜽 − 𝝋)]
𝟒𝝅 𝟐 𝟎
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= 𝟒𝝅
[ 𝟐𝝅𝒄𝐨𝐬 𝝋 – 0 - 𝟏𝟐 Sin(4𝝅 − 𝟏
𝝋) + 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏(− 𝝋)]
 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= [ 𝟐𝝅𝒄𝐨𝐬 𝝋 + 𝟏𝟐 sin 𝝋 - 𝟏𝟐 sin 𝝋]
𝟒𝝅
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= x 𝟐𝝅𝒄𝐨𝐬 𝝋
𝟒𝝅
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= 𝒄𝐨𝐬 𝝋
𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P=
√𝟐
×
√𝟐
𝒄𝐨𝐬 𝝋
P = VI 𝒄𝐨𝐬 𝝋

p = vi = (𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)( 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽 + 𝝋)) --- instantaneous

power in a R-C circuit.
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
p= 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽 + 𝝋)
𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
= [cos(𝜽 − (𝜽 + 𝝋)) - cos(𝜽 + (𝜽 + 𝝋))]
𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
= [cos 𝝋 – cos(𝟐𝜽 + 𝝋)]
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= ∫ [𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 – 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝜽 + 𝝋)] 𝒅𝜽
𝟐𝝅 𝟎 𝟐

𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝟏 𝟐𝝅
P= [𝜽𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝜽 + 𝝋)]
𝟒𝝅 𝟐 𝟎
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝟏 𝟏
P= [ 𝟐𝝅𝒄𝐨𝐬 𝝋 – 0 - 𝟐 Sin(4𝝅 + 𝝋) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝝋)]
𝟒𝝅 𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P=
𝟒𝝅
[ 𝟐𝝅𝒄𝐨𝐬 𝝋 - 𝟏𝟐 sin 𝝋 - 𝟏𝟐 sin 𝝋]
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= x 𝟐𝝅𝒄𝐨𝐬 𝝋
𝟒𝝅
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= 𝒄𝐨𝐬 𝝋
𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P=
√𝟐
×
√𝟐
𝒄𝐨𝐬 𝝋
P = VI 𝒄𝐨𝐬 𝝋, the averager real power consumed in a RC circuit.
cos(A+B) = cosAcosB – sinAsinB
cos(A-B) = cosAcosB + sinAsinB
sin(A+B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB
sin(A-B) = sinAcosB – cosAsinB
sin2A = 2sinAcosA
cos2A = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝑨 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝑨
cos2A = 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝑨 − 𝟏
cos2A = 𝟏 − 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝑨
𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝑨 = 𝟐(1+cos2A)
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝑨 = 𝟐 (1-cos2A)

Sin𝟓𝟏𝟎𝟎 = sin (𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 )=sin𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎

= sin(𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 ) = sin𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 0.5

Cos𝟖𝟕𝟎𝟎 =cos(2x𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 ) = cos 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎

=cos(𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 ) = -cos 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = -0.8666

A Table for your life to remember

𝜽 𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟗𝟎𝟎

sin𝜽 0 1/2 1/√𝟐 √𝟑/2 1
cos𝜽 1 √𝟑/2 1/√𝟐 1/2 0
tan𝜽 0 1/√𝟑 1 √𝟑 Infinite
 𝟒
3+j4 = √𝟑𝟐 + 𝟒𝟐 ∠(𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ) = 5 ∠𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝟎
𝟑
25∠𝟗𝟎 =25(cos𝟗𝟎 + jsin𝟗𝟎𝟎 ) =25(0 + j)=j25
𝟎 𝟎

Y
Y

P P
Psinθ Psinθ
θ
θ
X X
Pcosθ Pcosθ

P2 Y
R

P3 P1
θ2
θ3 θ1
θ
θ4
X

θ5
P4
P5

The resultant vector = R ∠θ

H = 𝑷𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟑 + 𝑷𝟒 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟒 + 𝑷𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟓
H = Rcos𝜽
V =𝑷𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟑 + 𝑷𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟒 + 𝑷𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟓
V = Rsin𝜽
R = √𝑯𝟐 + 𝑽𝟐
|𝑽|
𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
|𝑯|
Now we have to determine 𝜽

R = |R| ∠θ = |R|cos θ +j|R|sin θ

H V 𝝋
+ + 𝜽=𝝋
+ - 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 − 𝝋
- + 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 − 𝝋
- - 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 + 𝝋

Z
X
θ

𝒁𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐
𝑹𝟐 = 𝒁𝟐 − 𝑿𝟐
Z = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐
X = √𝒁𝟐 − 𝑹𝟐

A = a∠𝜶
B = b∠𝜷
What is the resultant vector for A and B?
H=Horizontal component = acos 𝜶 + bcos 𝜷
V=Vertical component = asin 𝜶 + bsin 𝜷
𝑽
R = √𝑯𝟐 + 𝑽𝟐 ∠𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑯

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 − 𝟏 = 𝟏 − 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽

I, S
+
VR R
V Z
-
+
VL
- L

I, S
+
VR R
V Z
-
+
Vc
- C

Inductance absorbs or consumes reactive power from the network

Capacitance generates or delivers reactive power to the network
Real Power, P = VIcosθ and is consumed by R
Reactive Power, Q = VIsinθ and it is associated with L and/or C
𝑸
S = VI ∠θ = √𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸𝟐 ∠𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝑷)

S has unit of volt-ampere

P has unit of watt
Q has unit of var
𝑽𝟐
VIsinθ = Q = 𝑿 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝝎𝑪𝑽𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒄

𝑸
C = 𝝎𝑽𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

Z V S
X Vx Sx
θ θ θ

R Vr Sr

I
P, Q

IM
+

V
-
𝑸
pf = cos(𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝑷))
 I
P, Q1

IM
+

Ic, Qc

V C1

-
𝑸−𝑸𝑪
pf = cos (𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( ))
𝑷

The j operator:
j = √−𝟏 = 1∠𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝒋𝟐 = −𝟏 = 1∠𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝒋𝟑 = −𝒋 = 1∠𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟎
𝒋𝟒 = 𝟏 = 1∠𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 1∠𝟎𝟎

Imaginary axis

j5
Quadrant #1
Quadrant #2

Real axis
jxj5 = -5 5
Quadrant #3 Quadrant #4
jxjxj5 = -j5

𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
20 ∠𝟑𝟎 = 20 cos𝟑𝟎 + j20sin𝟑𝟎

= 20 * 0.866 + j 20*0.5

= 17.32 + j10
 𝟎 𝟎
(20 ∠𝟑𝟎 ) (60 ∠𝟔𝟎 ) =(17.32+j10)(30+j51.96)
𝟎
= 1200 ∠𝟑𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝟎
= 1200 ∠𝟗𝟎

=j1200
𝟎 𝟎
(20 ∠𝟑𝟎 ) (60 ∠𝟔𝟎 ) =(17.32+j10)(30+j51.96)

= 17.32*30 + j17.32*51.96+j10*30 +j10*j51.96

= 519.6 + j900 + j300 – 519.6

=j1200

−𝟏 𝟒 𝟎
3+j4 = 5 ∠ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 5 ∠𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑
𝟑
𝟎 𝟒
-3+j4 = 5 ∠𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝟑 = 5 ∠𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 − 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝟎
𝟎 𝟒
-3-j4 = 5 ∠𝟏𝟖𝟎 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 = 5 ∠𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝟎 + 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝟎
𝟑
 I
A
+

I1 I2 I3 I4
Z
V Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4
Y=1/Z

-
B

I = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰 𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 + 𝑰𝟒
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
= + + +
𝒁 𝒁 𝒁𝟏 𝒁 𝒁 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +
𝒁 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑 𝒁𝟒
Y = 𝒀𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐 + 𝒀 𝟑 + 𝒀𝟒
Y = G ± jB

R
V Y
XL

Z = R + j𝑿𝑳
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 (𝐑− 𝐣𝑿 ) 𝐑− 𝐣𝑿
Y = 𝒁 = 𝐑 + 𝐣𝑿 = × (𝐑− 𝐣𝑿𝑳) = 𝑹𝟐+𝑿𝟐𝑳
𝑳 (𝐑 + 𝐣𝑿𝑳 ) 𝑳 𝑳
As, (𝐑 + 𝐣𝑿𝑳 )(𝐑 − 𝐣𝑿𝑳 ) = 𝑹𝟐 − (𝐣𝑿𝑳 )𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐𝑳

𝑳𝐑 𝑿
So, Y = 𝑹𝟐 +𝑿𝟐 − 𝒋 𝑹𝟐 +𝑿 𝟐 = G – j𝑩𝑳
𝑳 𝑳
 I

R
V Y
Xc

Z = R - j𝑿𝒄
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 (𝐑+ 𝐣𝑿 )
𝒄 𝐑+ 𝐣𝑿 𝑳
Y = 𝒁 = 𝐑− 𝐣𝑿 = × =
𝒄 (𝐑− 𝐣𝑿𝒄 ) (𝐑+ 𝐣𝑿 )
𝒄 𝑹𝟐 +𝑿𝟐
𝒄
𝐑 𝑿𝒄
Y= 𝑹𝟐 +𝑿𝟐𝒄
+ 𝒋 𝑹𝟐+𝑿 𝟐 = G + j𝑩𝑪
𝒄

R
V
Y XL

Xc

Z = R + j(𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝒄 ) = R ± X
Y = G ± j𝑩𝑳𝑪

The Complex Power

I, S

R
V
XL
S = Real power + j Reactive power
V = |V| ∠α
I = |I| ∠-β
S = V𝑰∗ = (|V| ∠α)( |𝐈| ∠ − 𝛃) ∗ =|V||I|∠α-(- β)
S = |V||I| ∠(α+ β)
S = |V||I| cos(α+ β) + j|V||I| sin(α+ β) = P + jQ
For capacitive plus resistive circuit
V = |V| ∠𝟎𝟎
I = |I| ∠β
S = V𝑰∗ = (|V| ∠𝟎𝟎 )( |𝐈| ∠𝛃) ∗=|V||I|∠- β
S = |V||I|cos(- β) + j |V||I|sin(- β)
S = |V||I|cosβ - j |V||I|sinβ = P – jQ

S is called the aparent power and its unit is volt

amperes
P is called the real power (consumed in the
resistance) and its unit is watts
Q is called the reactive power ( absobed by the
inductance or delivered by the capacitance) and its
unit is var.
v = 141.42 sin(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟑𝟎𝟎 ) volts
i = 14.142sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟒𝟓𝟎 ) amps
𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝝅
𝟎 ( )
V=100∠𝟑𝟎 volts= 86.66 + j50 volts= 100𝒆 𝟔 volts
𝝅
(− )
I= 10∠−𝟒𝟓𝟎 amps = 8.66 – j5 amps = 10 𝒆 𝟒 amps
S=V𝑰∗ = (100∠𝟑𝟎𝟎 )( 10∠𝟒𝟓𝟎 )=1000∠𝟕𝟓𝟎 voltamps
S = 1000 (cos𝟕𝟓𝟎 + j sin𝟕𝟓𝟎 ) = 258.82 + j 965.93
S = 1000 VA, P = 258.82 Watts, Q = 965.93 var

If V = a + jb
and I = c + jd
The apparent power
S = V𝑰∗ = (a+j b)(c-j d) = ac –j ad + j bc + bd
i.e. S = (ac + bd) + j(bc - ad) = P + j Q
active power, P = ac + bd
and Reactive power, Q = bc – ad

𝟏
𝝎𝑳 = 𝝎𝑪
𝟏
𝝎𝟐 = 𝑳𝑪
𝟏
𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 =
√𝑳𝑪
𝟏
f = 𝟐𝝅
√𝑳𝑪
 𝟒
3+j4 = √32 + 42 ∠𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 = 5 ∠𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝟎
𝟑
3+j4 (3+j4) (𝟐+𝒋𝟑) 𝟔+𝒋𝟗+𝒋𝟖−𝟏𝟐 −𝟔+𝒋𝟏𝟕
= (𝟐−𝒋𝟑) × (𝟐+𝒋𝟑) = = = 1.39 ∠109.440
𝟐−𝒋𝟑 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟑

3+j4 𝟓 ∠𝟓𝟑.𝟏𝟑𝟎
= 𝟎 = 1.39 ∠109.440
𝟐−𝒋𝟑 𝟑.𝟔𝟏 ∠−𝟓𝟔.𝟑𝟏

Z = 6 + j8 Ω
Y=𝑍1 = 𝟔+𝒋𝟖
𝟏 𝟏
= (𝟔+𝒋𝟖) × (𝟔−𝒋𝟖) =
(𝟔−𝒋𝟖) (𝟔−𝒋𝟖)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
= (𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 − 𝒋𝟎. 𝟎𝟖) S (moh)
+

+
+

Ea Eb Ec
- - -

Can be connected either in Y or in ∆

Balanced 3 phase circuit

Ia
a
+

Ea
- Za
In n
n

b Ib
c
Ic

𝒊𝒂 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕
𝒊𝒃 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 )
𝒊𝒄 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 )
𝒊𝒏 = 𝒊𝒂 + 𝒊𝒃 + 𝒊𝒄
=𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 ) + 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 )
=𝑰𝒎 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 ) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 ))
=𝑰𝒎 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 +
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 )
=𝑰𝒎 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 +
𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕)
=0
To prove |𝑽𝒂𝒃 | = √𝟑|𝑽𝒂𝒏 |
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝒂𝒏 + 𝑽𝒏𝒃 = 𝑽𝒂𝒏 − 𝑽𝒃𝒏
Vcn

120
Van
120

Vbn

Vnb
Vcn Vnb
Vab
0
120
30 0 x 60 0
Y
Van

Vbn
In abc sequence for Y connected load
a b c
𝑽𝒂𝒏 𝑽𝒃𝒏 𝑽𝒄𝒏
𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝑽𝒃𝒄 𝑽𝒄𝒂
𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝑽𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒃𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝑽𝒃𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒄𝒂 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝑽𝒄𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝟑𝟎𝟎
Vca Vcn Vab

30 0 0
120
30 0
Van
30 0

Vbn

Vbc

|𝑽𝒂𝒃 |𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝟎𝟎 = |𝑽𝒂𝒏 | + 𝑿𝒀 = |𝑽𝒂𝒏 | + |𝑽𝒏𝒃 |𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟔𝟎𝟎

But |𝑽𝒏𝒃 | = |𝑽𝒂𝒏 |, so
√𝟑 𝟏 𝟑
|𝑽𝒂𝒃 | × = |𝑽𝒂𝒏 | + |𝑽𝒂𝒏 | = 𝟐 |𝑽𝒂𝒏 |; |𝑽𝒂𝒃 | = √𝟑 |𝑽𝒂𝒏 |
𝟐 𝟐

Line to line voltage leads the phase voltage by 𝟑𝟎𝟎 .

On the other hand phase voltage lags the line to line
voltage by 𝟑𝟎𝟎 .

Problem:
In a balanced three phase circuit the voltage 𝑽𝒂𝒃 =
𝟏𝟕𝟑. 𝟐∠𝟎𝟎 volts. Determine all the voltages and
currents in a Y-connected load having Z=10∠𝟐𝟎𝟎 Ω.
Assume that the phase sequence is abc. What are
the real and reactive powers as consumed by the
load?

Ia
a
+

Ea
- Z
In n
n

b Ib
c
Ic

We have to determine:
𝑽𝒃𝒄 , 𝑽𝒄𝒂 , 𝑽𝒂𝒏 , 𝑽𝒃𝒏 , 𝑽𝒄𝒏 , 𝑰𝒂𝒏 , 𝑰𝒃𝒏 , 𝑰𝒄𝒏 and
P and Q of the load
Sequnce is abc

Ia
a
+

Ea
- Z
n
n

𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝟏𝟕𝟑. 𝟐∠𝟎𝟎 volts, Z=10∠𝟐𝟎𝟎 Ω

𝑽𝒃𝒄 = 𝟏𝟕𝟑. 𝟐∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 volts
𝑽𝒄𝒂 = 𝟏𝟕𝟑. 𝟐∠𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 volts
|𝑽𝒂𝒃 | 𝟏𝟕𝟑.𝟐
𝑽𝒂𝒏 = ∠ − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = ∠ − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎∠ − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 volts
√𝟑 √𝟑

𝑽𝒃𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 volts = 𝟏𝟎𝟎∠ − 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 volts

𝑽𝒄𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎∠𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 volts = 𝟏𝟎𝟎∠𝟗𝟎𝟎 volts
𝑬𝒂𝒏 𝑽𝒂𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟎∠−𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝒂 = = = = 10∠ − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 amperes = 𝑰𝒂𝒏
𝒁 𝒁 𝟏𝟎∠𝟐𝟎𝟎

𝑰𝒃 = 𝟏𝟎∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎∠ − 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐬 = = 𝑰𝒃𝒏

𝑰𝒄 = 𝟏𝟎∠𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎∠𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐬 = 𝑰𝒄𝒏
For phase a
∗ = (𝟏𝟎𝟎∠ − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 )(𝟏𝟎∠𝟓𝟎𝟎 )
S = 𝑽𝒂𝒏 × 𝑰𝒂𝒏
= 1000(cos𝟐𝟎𝟎 + j sin𝟐𝟎𝟎 ) = 939.69 + j342.02 VA
Total load real power = 3x939.69 = 2819.07 watts
Total load reactive power = 3x342.02 = 1026.02 vars

Problem: The terminal voltage of a Y-connected load

consisting to three equal impedances of 20 ∠𝟑𝟎𝟎 Ω is
4.4 kV line to line. The impedance of each of the three lines
connecting the load to the generator bus is 𝒁𝑳 = 𝟏. 𝟒∠𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝛀.
Find the line to line voltage at the generator terminal.
 a
ZL Ian
Ea +
- Z
n
n

ZL c
b

ZL

Line to line voltage at load, |𝑽𝒂𝒃 | = 4400 volts

a
ZL Ian
+

Ea Z
-
n
n

Let us consider 𝑽𝒂𝒏 as the reference voltage then

|𝑽𝒂𝒃 | 𝟒𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒂𝒏 = ∠𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑 ∠𝟎𝟎 = 2540 ∠𝟎𝟎 volts
√𝟑 √

𝑽𝒂𝒏 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟎 ∠𝟎𝟎

𝑰𝒂𝒏 = = 𝟎 Amps = 127 ∠−𝟑𝟎𝟎 Amps
𝒁 𝟐𝟎 ∠𝟑𝟎
Line to neutal voltage at the generator terminal is
𝑬𝒂 = 𝑽𝒂𝒏 + 𝒁𝑳 𝑰𝒂𝒏
𝟎
𝑬𝒂 = 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟎 ∠𝟎𝟎 + (𝟏. 𝟒∠𝟕𝟓 )(𝟏𝟐𝟕 ∠ − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 )

= 2540 + 177.8 ∠𝟒𝟓𝟎 = 2540 + 125.72 + j125.72

= 2665.72 +j125.72
= 2668.69 ∠𝟐. 𝟕𝟎 Volts
So magnitude of the line to line voltage at the generator terminal
= √𝟑 × |𝑬𝒂 | = √𝟑 × 𝟐𝟔𝟔𝟖. 𝟔𝟗 = 4622.3 volts
Three Phase Power Using line to line voltage
and line current:
Phase voltage = 𝑽𝒑 = |𝑽𝒂𝒏 | = |𝑽𝒃𝒏 | = |𝑽𝒄𝒏 |
Phase current = 𝑰𝒑 = |𝑰𝒂𝒏 | = |𝑰𝒃𝒏 | = |𝑰𝒄𝒏 |
Total 3 phase real power
𝑽𝑳
P = 𝟑𝑽𝒑 𝑰𝒑 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝒑 = 3× 𝑰 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽= √𝟑 𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 watts
√𝟑 𝑳

Total 3 phase reactive power

𝑽𝑳
Q = 𝟑𝑽𝒑 𝑰𝒑 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒑 = 3× 𝑰 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽= √𝟑 𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 vars
√𝟑 𝑳

Total 3 phase aparent power

S = √𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸𝟐 = √𝟑 𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 voltamperes
In abc sequence for Y connected load
Vca Vcn Vab

30 0 0
120
30 0
Van
30 0

Vbn

Vbc

a b c
𝑽𝒂𝒏 𝑽𝒃𝒏 𝑽𝒄𝒏
𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝑽𝒃𝒄 𝑽𝒄𝒂
𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝑽𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒃𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝑽𝒃𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒄𝒂 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝑽𝒄𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝟑𝟎𝟎
For ∆ connected load
Ia a
Ica

Ibc Iab
Ib b

Z Ic c

𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝒂𝒃 − 𝑰𝒄𝒂 a b c sequence

𝑰𝒃 = 𝑰𝒃𝒄 − 𝑰𝒂𝒃
𝑰𝒄 = 𝑰𝒄𝒂 − 𝑰𝒃𝒄
After adding all three equations we get 𝑰𝒂 + 𝑰𝒃 + 𝑰𝒄 = 𝟎
Ica

0
120

300 Iab 60 0

Ibc - Ica
Ia

The line current 𝑰𝒂 lags the phase current 𝑰𝒂𝒃 by 𝟑𝟎𝟎

Moreover, |𝑰𝒂 | = √𝟑 |𝑰𝒂𝒃 |

So, 𝑰𝒂 = √𝟑 |𝑰𝒂𝒃 | ∠−𝟑𝟎𝟎
i.e. in ∆ line current lags the phase current by 𝟑𝟎𝟎
and the magnitude of line current is √𝟑 times the
magnitude of the phase current.
For a balanced three phase circuit in abc sequence if line current in phase a
is:

𝑰𝒂 = 𝟐𝟖 ∠-𝟔𝟎𝟎 amps
𝑰𝒃 = 𝟐𝟖 ∠-𝟔𝟎𝟎 -𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 amps = 𝟐𝟖 ∠-𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 amps
𝑰𝒄 = 𝟐𝟖 ∠-𝟔𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 amps = 𝟐𝟖 ∠6𝟎𝟎 amps
𝑰𝒂 + 𝑰𝒃 + 𝑰𝒄 = 𝟐𝟖 ∠-𝟔𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟖 ∠-𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟖 ∠6𝟎𝟎
= 28(𝟏∠-𝟔𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏 ∠-𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏 ∠6𝟎𝟎 )
= 28( cos𝟔𝟎𝟎 - jsin𝟔𝟎𝟎 +cos𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 - jsin𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 +cos𝟔𝟎𝟎 +jsin𝟔𝟎𝟎 )
=28 (0.5 –j0.866 – 1 –j0 + 0.5 + j0.866)
= 28(1 – 1 –j0.866 + j0.866) = 0
RL Transients in DC Circuits

R i
i, VL
I
+ +
E VL
- L
- VL
Time (t)

𝒅𝒊
L 𝒅𝒕 + Ri= E, at t=0, i = 0.
i = 𝒊𝒄 + 𝒊𝒑
𝑹 𝒕
𝑬 − 𝑳𝒕 𝑬 −𝑳/𝑹 𝑳
i = 𝑹 (1 - 𝒆 ) = 𝑹 (1 - 𝒆 ), The time constant = 𝑹
Complementary function
𝒅𝒊𝒄
L + R𝒊𝒄 = 0
𝒅𝒕

𝒊𝒄 = 𝑪 𝒆𝒎𝒕
LCm𝒆𝒎𝒕 + R 𝑪 𝒆𝒎𝒕 = 0
𝑪 𝒆𝒎𝒕 (Lm +R) = 0
(Lm +R) = 0
𝑹
m=-𝑳
𝑹
− 𝑳𝒕
𝒊𝒄 = 𝑪 𝒆
Particular Integral
𝒊𝒑 = k
𝒅𝒊𝒑
L + R𝒊𝒑 = E
𝒅𝒕
0 + RK = E
𝑬
So, K = = 𝒊𝒑
𝑹
𝑹
− 𝑳𝒕 𝑬
i = 𝒊𝒄 + 𝒊𝒑 = 𝑪 𝒆 +𝑹
as at t=0, i=0,
𝑬 𝑬
so, 0 = C + 𝑹, i.e. C = - 𝑹
Therefore,
𝑬 − 𝑹𝒕 𝑬
i= -𝑹𝒆 𝑳 +𝑹
𝑹
𝑬 − 𝑳𝒕
i = (1 - 𝒆 ) amps.
𝑹

Example: 75 V DC is switched on in a circuit comprising a

resistance of 25 Ω in series with an inductance of 10 H.
Calculate: (i) the initial rate of current rise, (ii) the rate of
current rise when current is 1A, (iii) the rate of current
rise when current is 3A, (iv) the time constant of the
circuit, (v) current in the circuit when time is 0.25 sec.
𝒅𝒊
E=L + Ri,
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒊 𝟏
so 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑳 (E – Ri)

(i) At t=0, i=0, So initial rate of current rise is

𝒅𝒊 𝟏
= 𝟏𝟎(75 – 0) = 7.5 A/S
𝒅𝒕
(ii) When current is 1 A
𝒅𝒊 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑳 (E – Ri) = 𝟏𝟎(75 – 25*1) = 5 A/S
𝒅𝒕
(iii) When current is 3A
 𝒅𝒊 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑳 (E – Ri) = 𝟏𝟎(75 – 25*3) = 0 A/S
𝒅𝒕
𝑳 𝟏𝟎
(iv) 𝑻𝒉𝒆 time constant = 𝑹 = = 0.4 sec
𝟐𝟓
(v) 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 in the circuit at t=0.25 sec
𝑹
𝑬 − 𝑳𝒕 𝟕𝟓
i = (1 - 𝒆 ) = 𝟐𝟓 (1 - 𝒆− (𝟐.𝟓)(𝟎.𝟐𝟓)) = 1.394 A
𝑹

Example: 50 V DC switched on a circuit comprising of a

resistance of 5 Ω in series with an inductance of 10 H.
Calculate (i) the circuit time constant, (ii) final value of
current, (iii) the magnitude of current after one time
constant, (iv) the time it takes to reach 9.9 A.
𝑳 𝟏𝟎
(i) The time constant = = = 2.0 sec
𝑹 𝟓
𝑬 𝟓𝟎
(ii) Final value of the current = 𝑹 = = 10 A
𝟓
(iii) The mag of current after 2 sec
𝑹
𝑬 − 𝑳𝒕
i = 𝑹 (1 - 𝒆 ) = 10(1 - 𝒆− (.𝟓)(𝟐) ) = 6.321 A
(iv) Time it takes to reach 9.9A
9.9 = 10(1 - 𝒆− (.𝟓)𝒕 )
Or, -0.1 = - 𝟏𝟎𝒆− (.𝟓)𝒕
Or, 0.01 = 𝒆− (.𝟓)𝒕
Or, ln(0.01) = ln(𝒆− (.𝟓)𝒕 )
Or, -4.605 = -0.5t
So, t = 9.21 seconds
RC Transients in DC Circuits

R VC
i, VC
I
+ +
VC
- C
E -
i
Time (t)

𝟏 𝒅 𝑽𝑪
Current through a capacitor C is given by 𝑽𝑪 = ∫ 𝒊 𝒅𝒕, so i = c
𝑪 𝒅𝒕
E = Ri + 𝑽𝑪
Or, Ri + 𝑽𝑪 = E
𝒅 𝑽𝑪
Or, RC + 𝑽𝑪 = E, Initial condition: at t = 0, 𝑽𝑪 = 0
𝒅𝒕
𝒕
−(𝑹𝑪)
Solution will be, 𝑽𝑪 = 𝑬(𝟏 − 𝒆 )
The complementary function:
𝒅 𝑽𝑪𝒄
RC + 𝑽𝑪𝒄 = 0
𝒅𝒕
Let 𝑽𝑪𝒄 = 𝑨𝒆𝒎𝒕
RCAm𝒆𝒎𝒕 + 𝑨𝒆𝒎𝒕 = 0
(RCm +1) 𝑨𝒆𝒎𝒕 = 0
(RCm +1) = 0
𝟏
m=-
𝑹𝑪
𝒕
𝑽𝑪𝒄 = 𝑨𝒆𝒎𝒕 = 𝑨𝒆−(𝑹𝑪)

The particular integral:

Let, 𝑽𝑪𝒑 = B, where B is a constant
 𝒅 𝑽𝑪𝒑
RC + 𝑽𝑪𝒑 = E
𝒅𝒕
0+B=E
So, B = E
So, 𝑽𝑪𝒑 = E
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽𝑪𝒄 + 𝑽𝑪𝒑
𝒕
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑨𝒆−(𝑹𝑪) + 𝑬, to find out A, implement the initial condition which
is at t = 0, 𝑽𝑪 = 𝟎.
0 = A + E, So A = -E
𝒕
𝑽𝑪 = −𝑬𝒆−(𝑹𝑪) + 𝑬
𝒕
−(𝑹𝑪)
So, 𝑽𝑪 = 𝑬(𝟏 − 𝒆 )
𝒕
𝒅 𝑽𝑪 𝒅 −( ) 𝟏 𝒕
−( ) 𝑬 −( ) 𝒕
i=C =C (𝑬 (𝟏 − 𝒆 𝑹𝑪 )) = C(-E)(- 𝑹𝑪 )𝒆 𝑹𝑪 = 𝑹 𝒆 𝑹𝑪
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Example
A 110 V battery is suddently applied across a 500 µF capacitor in
series with a 10 kΩ resistor. Calculate: (i) The time constant of the
circuit, (ii) The voltage across the capacitor after 3 sec, (iii) The
time it takes for the voltage to rise to 108.9V?
Solution
E = 110 V
R = 𝟏𝟎𝟒 Ω
C = 500 µF = 500x𝟏𝟎−𝟔 F = 5x𝟏𝟎−𝟒 F

(i) The time constant = RC = (𝟏𝟎𝟒 Ω)( 5x𝟏𝟎−𝟒 F) = 5 seconds

(ii) The voltage across the capacitor after 3 seconds
𝒕 𝟑
−( ) −( )
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑬(𝟏 − 𝒆 𝑹𝑪 ) = 110(1- 𝒆 𝟓 ) = 49.63 volts
(iii) The time it takes for the voltage to rise 108.9 V?
𝒕
−(𝑹𝑪)
Substituting the values in 𝑽𝑪 = 𝑬(𝟏 − 𝒆 ) we get
𝒕
−( )
108.9 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎(𝟏 − 𝒆 𝟓 )
𝒕
−(𝟓)
Or, 0.99 = 𝟏 − 𝒆
 𝒕
−(𝟓)
Or, - 0.01 = − 𝒆
𝒕
Or ln(0.01) = - 𝟓
𝒕
Or. -4.605 = - 𝟓
So, t = 23.03 seconds

In a Y connected load with abc sequence

𝟎
𝑽𝒄𝒂 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 ∠𝟏𝟎𝟎 volts
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 ∠ − 𝟐𝟎𝟎 volts
𝑽𝒃𝒄 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 ∠ − 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 volts
𝟓𝟎𝟎
= 288.675
√𝟑
𝑽𝒂 = 𝑽𝒂𝒏 = 𝟐𝟖𝟖. 𝟔𝟕𝟓 ∠ − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 volts
𝑽𝒃 = 𝑽𝒃𝒏 = 𝟐𝟖𝟖. 𝟔𝟕𝟓 ∠ − 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 volts
𝑽𝒄 = 𝑽𝒄𝒏 = 𝟐𝟖𝟖. 𝟔𝟕𝟓 ∠𝟕𝟎𝟎 volts
Z = 10 ∠ − 𝟐𝟎𝟎 ohms
𝟎
𝟐𝟖𝟖.𝟔𝟕𝟓 ∠−𝟓𝟎
= 28.8675 ∠ − 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒂
𝑰𝒂 = 𝒁
= 𝟎 amps.
𝟏𝟎 ∠−𝟐𝟎

𝑰𝒃 = 28.8675 ∠ − 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎amps.
𝑰𝒄 = 28.8675 ∠𝟗𝟎𝟎 amps.