Chapter One

Propositional Logic and Set Theory

Propositional Logic
 A proposition (or statement) is a sentence which has a truth value (either true or false but
not both). Every proposition has a truth value, namely true (denoted by T) or false
(denoted by F).
 Propositions are usually denoted by small letters such as p , q , r , s etc.
 An open statement (also called a predicate) is a sentence that contains one or more
variables and whose truth value depends on the values assigned for the variables.
Example: Identify each of the following as a proposition, an open proposition or neither.
a. 123 is a prime number.
b. 0 is an even number
c. x 2−4=0
d. Multiply 5 x+ 2 by 3
e. What an impossible question!
f. 2 is an even number.
g. A triangle has four sides.
h. Emperor Menelik ate chicken soup the night after the battle of Adwa.
i. May God bless you!
j. Give me that book.
k. What is your name?
l. X is less than 8.
 Logical connectives
There are five logical connectives; these are
Connective Name of the Symbol How to How to read
connective write
Not Negation ℸ ℸp The negation of
p
And ⋀ p⋀q P and q
Conjunction
Or ⋁ p⋁q P or q
Disjunction
If …, then … ⟹ p⟹q P implies q
Implication
If and only if ⟺ p⟺q P if and only if
Bi-implication
q

Rules for ' ' ℸ ' ', ' ' ⋀ ' ', ' ' ⋁ ' ', '' ⟹'' and ''⟺''

p q ℸp p ∧q p⋁q p⟹q p⟺q

T T F T T T T
T F F F T F F
F T T F T T F
F F T F F T T

Example 1: Consider the following propositions: State each of the following in words, and
determine the truth value of each.
p: 3 is an odd number. (True)
q: 27 is a prime number. (False)
r: Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
s: Man is mortal. (True)
a. p : 3 is an not odd number. (False)
b. r : Nairobi is not the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
c. p ∧q: 3 is an odd number and 27 is a prime number. (False)
d. p ∧(r): 3 is an odd number and Nairobi is not the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
e. p ∨q: 3 is an odd number or 27 is a prime number. (True)

f. p ∨r p ∨ s: 27 is a prime number or Man is mortal. (True)

g. p ⟹ q: If 3 is an odd number, then 27 is prime. (False)
h. p ⟹r: If 3 is an odd number, then Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
i. q ⟹ r : If 27 is a prime number, then Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
There are various ways of expressing the proposition p ⟹ q, namely:
If p, then q.
q if p.
p implies q.
p only if q.
p is sufficient for q.
q is necessary for p
j. p ⟺ q : 3 is an odd number if and only if 27 is a prime number.(False)
k. q ⟺ r : 27 is a prime number if and only if Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
l. r ⟺ s : Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia if and only if Man is mortal. (False)
There are various ways of stating the proposition p ⟺ q.
p if and only if q (also written as p iff q),
p implies q and q implies p,
p is necessary and sufficient for q
q is necessary and sufficient for p
p is equivalent to q

Compound (or complex) propositions

  The proposition formed by joining two or more proposition by connective(s) is called a
compound statement.
Example:( p ∧q)⟹ r, ( p ∨q) ⟺ r, ( q ) ⟹ ( p )∧((q)⟹ p) ⟺ r are compound
statements.
 The possible truth values of a proposition are often listed in a table, called a truth table.
If p and q are propositions, then there are four possible combinations of truth values for
p and q. That is, TT , TF, FT and FF. If a third proposition r is involved, then there are
eight possible combinations of truth values for p,q and r. In general, a truth table
involving “n” propositions p1, p2,…, pn contains 2n possible combinations of truth values
for these propositions and a truth table showing these combinations would have n
columns and 2n rows. So, we use truth tables to determine the truth value of a compound
proposition based on the truth value of its constituent component propositions.
 Two compound propositions P and Q are said to be equivalent if they have the same truth value
for all possible combinations of truth values for the component propositions occurring in both P
and Q . In this case we write P ≡Q .

Example 1 Let P : p ⟹ q . and Q :( p ∧q) . Q :q ⟹ p Then

p q p q p⟹q q⟹ p
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

Then, P is equivalent to Q, since columns 5 and 6 of the above table are identical.
Example 2 Let P : p ⟹ q. and Q : p ⟹ q. Then
p q p q p⟹q p⟹q
T T F F T T
T F F T F T
F T T F T F
F F T T T T

Then, P is not equivalent to Q, since columns 5 and 6 of the above table are not identical.
Converse and cotrapositive
Converse: The hypothesis of a converse statement is the conclusion of the conditional statement
and the conclusion of the converse statement is the hypothesis of the conditional statement.

Contrapositive: The hypothesis of a contrapositive statement is the negation of conclusion of

the conditional statement and the conclusion of the contrapositive statement is the negation of
hypothesis of the conditional statement.

Given a conditional statement p ⟹ q

a. q ⟹ p is called the converse of p ⟹ q .

b. q ⟹ p is called the contrapositive of p ⟹ q .
c. p ⟹ q is called the inverse of p ⟹ q .
d. In p ⟹ q, p is said to be a hypothesis or sufficient condition for q; q is said to be the
conclusion or necessary condition for p.

Example
a. If Kidist lives in Addis Ababa, then she lives in Ethiopia.
Converse: If Kidist lives in Ethiopia, then she lives in Addis Ababa.
Contrapositive: If Kidist does not live in Ethiopia, then she does not live in Addis
Ababa.
Inverse: If Kidist does not live in Addis Ababa, then she does not live in Ethiopia.
b. If it is morning, then the sun is in the east.
Converse: If the sun is in the east, then it is morning.
Contrapositive: If the sun is not in the east, then it is not morning.
Inverse: If it is not morning, then the sun is not the east.

Properties and Laws of Logical Connectives

1. Idempotent Laws
 a. p ≡ p ∨ p.
b. p ≡ p ∧ p.
2. Commutative Laws
a. p ∧q ≡ q ∧ p p ∧q ≡ q ∧ p.
b. p ∨q ≡ q ∨ p p ∨q ≡ q ∨ p.
3. Associative Laws
a. p ∧( q ∧r )≡( p ∧q)∧r.
b. p ∨( q ∨r )≡( p ∨q)∨r.
4. Distributive Laws
a. p ∨( q ∧r )≡( p ∨q) ∧( p ∨ r ).
b. p ∧( q ∨r )≡( p ∧q) ∨( p ∧ r ).
5. De Morgan’s Laws
a. ( p ∧q) ≡ p ∨q.
b. ( p ∨q) ≡ p ∧q
6. Law of Contrapositive
p ⟹ q ≡q ⟹ p
7. Complement Law
( p)≡ p.

Tautology and contradiction

  A compound proposition is a tautology if it is always true regardless of the truth values of its
component propositions. If, on the other hand, a compound proposition is always false regardless
of its component propositions, we say that such a proposition is a contradiction.

Examples 1: Determine whether each of the following compound proposition is a tautology, a

contradiction or neither.
a. p∨ p

p p p∨ p
T F T
F T T

The compound proposition p ∨ pis always true. Thus, p ∨ p is a tautology.

b. p ∧ p
p p p∧ p
T F F
F T F

The compound proposition p ∧ p is always false. Thus, p ∧ p is a contradiction

c. p ⟹(q ⟹ p).

p q q⟹ p p ⟹(q ⟹ p)
T T T T
T F T T
F T F T
F F T T

The compound proposition p ⟹(q ⟹ p) is always true. Thus, p ⟹(q ⟹ p) is a tautology.

d. ( p ⟹ q ) ⟺( p ∧q).

p q q p ∧q p⟹q ( p ⟹ q ) ⟺( p ∧q)
T T F F T F
 T F T T F F
F T F F T F
F F T F T F
The compound proposition ( p ⟹ q ) ⟺( p ∧q) is always false.
Thus, ( p ⟹ q ) ⟺( p ∧q) is a contradiction.

Quantifiers

There are two types of quantifiers. These are:

 Universal quantifier symbolized by and has the same meaning with the following

phrase
"for every"
"for all" and
"for each"
If P( x ) is an open proposition with universe U , then ( ∀ x ) P( x ) is a quantified
proposition and is read as “every x ∈ U has the property P.”

 Existential quantifier symbolized by and has the same meaning with the following

phrase
"there exists"
"for some " and
"for at least "
If P( x ) is an open proposition with universe U , then (∃ x ) P( x ) is a quantified
proposition and is read as “there exists x ∈ U with the property P.”
Remarks:
i. To show that ( ∀ x ) P( x ) is F, it is sufficient to find at least one a ∈U such that P(a) is
F. Such an element a ∈U is called a counter example.
ii. ( ∃ x ) P (x) is F if we cannot find any a ∈U having the property P.

Example :
a. Write the following statements using quantifiers.
i. For each real number x >0 , x2 + x−6=0 .
Solution: ( ∀ x> 0 ) (x 2+ x −6=0).
ii. There is a real number x >0 such that x 2+ x−6=0.
Solution: ( ∃ x >0 ) (x 2 + x−6=0).
iii. The square of any real number is nonnegative.
Solution: ( ∀ x ∈ R ) (x2 ≥ 0).
b. Let U =R.
i. Let P ( x ) : x 2+1 ≥ 0.
The truth value for ( ∀ x ) P( x ) [i.e ( ∀ x )( x 2 +1 ≥0)] is T .
ii. Let P ( x ) : x < x2 .
1 1
The truth value for ( ∀ x )(x < x 2 ) is F. x= is a counterexample since ∈ R but
2 2

1 1
< . On the other hand, ( ∃ x ) P (x) is true, since −1 ∈ R such that −1<1.
2 4
iii. Let P ( x ) :|x|=−1. The truth value for ( ∃ x ) P (x) is F since there is no real number
whose absolute value is −1.

Relationship between the existential and universal quantifiers

Let P ( x ) be an open proposition. If ( ∀ x ) P ( x ) is false, then ( ∃ x ) P (x) is true. Therefore the

negation of ( ∀ x ) P ( x ) is ( ∃ x ) P (x). Hence we conclude that
( ∀ x ) P ( x ) ≡ ( ∃ x ) P(x).
Similarly, we can easily verified that
( ∃ x ) P ( x ) ≡ ( ∀ x ) P(x).

Example
Let U =¿ The set of integers.
Let P ( x ) : x is a prime number.
Q ( x ) : x is an even number.
R ( x ): x is an odd number.
Then
a. ( ∃ x ) [ P( x)⟹Q (x)] is T ; since there is an x, say 2, such that P(2)⟹ Q(2) is T .
 b. ( ∀ x ) [P(x )⟹ Q( x)] is F. As a counterexample take 7. Then P(7) is T and Q(7) is F.
Hence P(7)⟹Q(7).
c. ( ∀ x ) [R( x )∧ P( x)] is F.
d. ( ∀ x ) [(R ( x ) ∧ P ( x ) )⟹ Q( x )] is F.

Quantifiers Occurring in Combinations

So far, we have only considered cases in which universal and existential quantifiers appear
simply. However, if we consider cases in which universal and existential quantifiers occur in
combination, we are lead to essentially new logical structures. The following are the simplest
forms of combinations:
1. ( ∀ x )( ∀ y ) P( x , y)
“for all x and for all y the relation P( x , y ) holds”;
2. ( ∃ x ) ( ∃ y ) P( x , y)
“there is an x and there is a y for which P(x , y ) holds”;
3. ( ∀ x )( ∃ y ) P( x , y )
“for every x there is a y such that P( x , y ) holds”;
4. ( ∃ x ) ( ∀ y ) P ( x , y )
“there is an x which stands to every y in the relation P( x , y ).”

Example :
Let U =¿ The set of integers.
Let P( x , y ): x+ y =5.
a. (∃ x )(∃ y ) P( x , y) is True. Example x=1 and y= 4
b. (∃ x )(∀ y) P(x , y ) is False
c. ( ∀ x)(∃ y) P(x , y ) means that for every integer x, there is an integer y such that
x + y=5. Let x=a, then y=5−a will always be an integer, so this is a true statement.
d. ( ∀ x)(∀ y )P( x , y) means that for every integer x and for every integer y, x + y=5. This
is false, for if x=2 and y=7, we get 2+7=9 ≠5.
 Exercise
1. Determine the truth value of the following statements.
a. ( ∃ x ∈ R ) (x 2−x=0).
b. ( ∀ x ∈ N ) (x+1 ≥ 2).
c. ( ∀ x ∈ R ) ( √ x 2=x ).
d. ( ∃ x ∈Q ) (3 x 2−27=0).
e. ( ∃ x ∈ R ) ( ∃ y ∈ R ) (x + y +3=8).
f. ( ∃ x ∈ R ) ( ∃ y ∈ R ) ( x 2 + y 2=9).
g. ( ∀ x ∈ R )( ∃ y ∈ R ) ( x+ y =12).
h. ( ∃ x ∈ R ) ( ∀ y ∈ R ) (x+ y =10)
 Argument and Validity
An argument (logical deduction) is an assertion that a given set of statements p1 , p2 , p 3 , … , pn, called
hypotheses or premises, yield another statement Q , called the conclusion. Such a logical deduction is
denoted by:

p1 , p2 , p 3 , … , pn ├ Q or
p1
p2
⟨G , ∘ ⟩
pn
Q
An argument form p1 , p2 , p 3 , … , pn ├ Q is said to be valid if Q is true whenever all the premises
p1 , p2 , p 3 , … , pn are true; otherwise it is invalid.

Rules of inferences
Below we list certain valid deductions called rules of inferences.
1. Modes Ponens
p
p⟹q
q
2. Modes Tollens
q
p⟹q
p
3. Principle of Syllogism
p⟹q
q⟹r
p ⟹r

4. Principle of Adjunction
a. p
q
p ∧q
 b. q
p ∨q
5. Principle of Detachment
p ∧q
p,q
6. Modes Tollendo Ponens
p
p ∨q
q
7. Modes Ponendo Tollens
( p ∧q)
p
q
8. Constructive Dilemma
( p ⟹ q ) ∧(r ⟹ s )
p ∨r
q∨s
9. Principle of Equivalence
p⟺q
p
q
10. Principle of Conditionalization
p
q⟹ p

Example: Investigate the validity of the following argument:

a. p⇒ q,¬q|−¬ p
b. If you study hard, then you will pass the exam.
You did not pass the exam.
Therefore, you did not study hard.
Let p: You study hard.
 q: You will pass the exam.
The argument form can be written as:

pq
q
p
c. If it rains, crops will be good. It did not rain. Therefore, crops were not good.
d. p ⟹ q , q ├ p.
e. p ⟹ p , p ,r ⟹ q ├ r.
f. p ⟹ q , r ⟹ q ├ r ⟹ p.
g. p ⟹ q , p ⟹ r , r ⟹ s ├ q ⟹ s.
h. If he studies medicine, he will get a good job. If he gets a good job, he will get a good
wage. He did not get a good wage. Therefore, he did not study medicine.
i. If the team is late, then it cannot play the game. If the referee is here, then the team is can
play the game. The team is late. Therefore, the referee is not here.

Set theory
The concept of a set

The term set refers to a well-defined collection of objects. The term “well-defined” here means
that the set is described in such a way that one can decide whether or not a given object belongs
in the set. If A is a set, then the objects of the collection A are called the elements or members of
 the set A. If x is an element of the set A, we write x ∈ A. If x is not an element of the set A, we
write x ∉ A.
We use capital letters to denote the names of sets and lowercase letters for elements of a set.

Description of sets

Sets are described or characterized by one of the following four different ways.

1. Verbal Method
In this method, an ordinary English statement with minimum mathematical symbolization of
the property of the elements is used to describe a set. Actually, the statement could be in any
language.
Example:
a. The set of counting numbers less than ten.
b. The set of letters in the word “Addis Ababa.”
c. The set of all countries in Africa.

2. Roster/Complete Listing Method

If the elements of a set can all be listed, we list them all between a pair of braces without
repetition separating by commas, and without concern about the order of their appearance. Such
a method of describing a set is called the roster/complete listing method.

Example:
a. The set of vowels in English alphabet may also be described as {a , e , i, o , u }.
b. The set of positive factors of 24 is also described as {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 6 , 8 ,12 , 24 }.

Remark:
i. We agree on the convention that the order of writing the elements in the list is
immaterial. As a result the sets {a ,b , c },{b , c , a } and {c , a , b } contain the same
elements, namely a , b and c .
ii. The set {a , a ,b ,b ,b } contains just two distinct elements; namely a and b, hence it is the
same set as { a , b } . We list distinct elements without repetition.
Example:
a. Let A={a , b , {c }}. Elements of A are a , b and {c }.
Notice that c and { c } are different objects. Here { c } ∈ A but c ∉ A.
b. Let B= { { a } }. The only element of B is {a }. But a ∉ B.
c. Let C={a ,b ,{a , b }, {a ,{a }}}. Then C has four elements.
The readers are invited to write down all the elements of C.
3.Partial Listing Method
In many occasions, the number of elements of a set may be too large to list them all; and in
other occasions there may not be an end to the list. In such cases we look for a common
property of the elements and describe the set by partially listing the elements. More precisely,
if the common property is simple that it can easily be identified from a list of the first few
elements, then with in a pair of braces, we list these few elements followed (or preceded) by
exactly three dotes and possibly by one last element. The following are such instances of
describing sets by partial listing method.

Example:
a. The set of all counting numbers is N={1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , … }.
b. The set of non-positive integers is {… ,−4 ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 }.
c. The set of multiples of 5 is {… ,−15 ,−10 ,−5 , 05 ,10 , 15 , …}.
d. The set of odd integers less than 100 is {… ,−3 ,−1, 1 ,3 , 5 , … 99 }.
4.Set-builder Method
When all the elements satisfy a common property P, we express the situation as an open
proposition P( x ) and describe the set using a method called the Set-builder Method as
follows:
A={x∨P( x )}∨ A={x : P(x) }
We read it as “ A is equal to the set of all x’s such that P( x ) is true.” Here the bar “∨‟ and the

colon “ ” mean “such that.” Notice that the letter x is only a place holder and can be replaced
throughout by other letters. So, for a property P, the set {x∨P(x )},{t∨P(t) } and { y ∨P( y )} are
all the same set.
Example: The following sets are described using the set-builder method.
a. A={x∨x is a vowel∈the Englishalphabet }.
 b. B={t∨t is an even integer }.
c. C={n∨n is a natural number∧2 n – 15 is negative }.
d. D={ y∨ y 2 – y – 6=0 }.
e. E={x∨x is an integer ∧x – 1<0 ⟹ x 2 – 4> 0 }.
The set which has no element is called the empty (or null) set and is denoted by ϕ or {}.

Example: The set of x ∈ R such that x 2+ 1=0 is an empty set.

Relationships between two sets

Set B is said to be a subset of set A (or is contained in A ), denoted by B⊆ A , if every element of B is an

element of A , i.e.,
( ∀ x )( x ∈ B ⟹ x ∈ A).
It follows from the definition that set B is not a subset of set A if at least one element of B is not an
element of A . i.e., B ⊈ A ⟺ ( ∃ x )( x ∈ B ⟹ x ∉ A ). In such cases we write B ⊈ A or A ⊉ B .
Example:
a. If A={a , b }, B={a , b , c } and C={a ,b , d }, then A ⊆ B and A ⊆ C . On the other hand, it
is clear that: B ⊈ A, B ⊈ C and C ⊈ B.
b. If S={x∨x is a multiple of 6 } andT ={x∨x is even integer }, then S ⊆T since every
multiple of 6 is even. However, 2 ∈T while 2 ∉ S. Thus T ⊈ S.
c. If A={a , {b}}, then {a }⊆ A and { {b } } ⊆ A. On the other hand, since b ∉ A, {b }⊈ A , and
{a ,b }⊈ A .

Sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain exactly the same elements.

In this case, we write A=B . That is,

( ∀ x )(x ∈ B ⟺ x ∈ A).

Set A is said to be a proper subset of set B if every element of A is also an element of B, but B
has at least one element that is not in A. In this case, we write A ⊂B. We also say B is a proper
super set of A, and write B⊃ A. It is clear that
A ⊂ B ⟺ [ ( ∀ x ) ( x ∈ A ⟹ x ∈ B)∧(A ≠ B)].
Let A be a set. The power set of A, dented by P( A), is the set whose elements are all subsets

of A. That is, P ( A )={B : B ⊆ A }.

Example: Let A={x , y , z }. As noted before, ϕ and A are subset of A.

Moreover, { x } , { y } , { z } , { x , y } , { x , z } and { y , z } are also subsets of A. Therefore,

P ( A )={ϕ , { x } , { y } , { z } , { x , y } , { x , z } , { y , z } , A }.

Set Operations and Venn diagrams

The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B , is the set of all elements that are either in A or in B
(or in both sets). That is,
A ∪ B={x :( x ∈ A)∨( x ∈ B)}.

The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all elements that are in A and B.
That is,
A ∩ B={ x :(x ∈ A) ∧(x ∈ B)}.
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint sets if A ∩ B=ϕ.
Example:
a. Let A={0 , 1 ,3 , 5 , 6 } and B={1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 }. Then,
A ∪ B={0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 } and A ∩ B={1, 3 , 6 }.
b. Let A = The set of positive even integers, and
B = The set of positive multiples of 3. Then,
A ∪ B={x : x is a positiveintger that is either even∨a multiple of 3 }
¿ {2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 ,12 , 14 , 15 ,16 , … }
A ∩ B={ x∨x is a positive integer that is both even∧multiple of 3 }
¿ {6 ,12 , 18 ,24 , …}

The difference between two sets A and B, denoted by A−B, is the of all elements in A and not
in B; this set is also called the relative complement of B with respect to A. Symbolically,
A−B={x : x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B }.

Example: If ¿ {1,3,5 }, B={1,2}, then A−B={3,5 } and B− A={2 }.

Let A be a subset of a universal set U . The absolute complement (or simply complement) of A,
denoted by A ' (or Ac or Á ¿, is defined to be the set of all elements of U that are not in A. That
is,
'
A' ={ x : x ∈ U ∧ x ∉ A } or x ∈ A ⟺ x ∉ A ⟺(x ∈ A).

The relative complement of A with respect to the universal set U is given by,
A' =U − A .
Example:
a. If U ={0,1,2,3,4 }, and if A={3,4 }, then A' ={0 , 1, 2 }.
b. Let U ={1 ,2 , 3 , … ,12 }
A={x∨x is a positive factor of 12}
and B={ x∨x is an odd integer ∈U }.
Then, A={5 , 7 , 8 , 9 ,10 , 11}, B={2 , 4 , 6 , 8 ,10 , 12 },
( A ∪ B)=¿, A ∪ B={2 , 4 ,5 , 6 , … , 12} ,
A ∩ B={8 ,10 }, and ( A ¿)={1, 3 , 5 ,7 ,8 , 9 , 10 ,11}.
c. Let U ={ a , b , c , d , e , f , g , h } ,
A={a , e , g , h } and B={b , c , e , f , h }. Then
A={b , c , d , f }, B={a , d , g },
B – A={b , c , f },

A – B={a , g }, and ( A ∪ B )' ={d }.

For any two sets A and B, each of the following holds.

1. ( A)= A.
2. A=U – A.
3. A – B=A ∩ B A – B=A B ' A – B=A B '.
4. ( A B)=A B '.
5. ( A B)=A B '.
6. A ⊆ B ⟺ B ' ⊆ A '.

The symmetric difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A Δ B, is the set

A Δ B= ( A−B ) ∪(B− A).
Example: Let U ={1,2,3 , … ,10 } be the universal set,

A={2,4,6,8,9,10 } and B={3,5,7,9}. Then

B− A={3,5,7 } and A−B={2,4,6,8,10 }.

Thus A ΔB={2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10}.

Chapter Two
Functions
The real number systems

Rational Numbers
 a
Any number that can be expressed in the form , where a and b are integers and b ≠ 0, is
b
called a rational number. The set of rational numbers, denoted by Q, is the set described
by

Q= {ab : a∧b areintegers∧b≠ 0}.

Irrational Numbers
 A decimal number that is neither terminating nor repeating is an irrational number.
a
 An irrational number is a number that cannot be expressed as , such that a and b are
b
integers and b ≠ 0.

Real Numbers
 The set of real numbers, denoted by R , can be described as the union of the sets of
rational and irrational numbers.
R={ x : x is a rational number∨an irrational number . }

The four arithmetic operations

Give two real numbers a and b, we may add or multiply them to obtain two new real numbers
x+ y and x⋅y (also written simply as xy ). The real numbers along with the operations
of addition (+) and multiplication ( × ), obey the properties listed below.
 The commutative Properties
 For addition: a+b=b+ a

 For multiplication: ab=ba

The associative properties
 For addition: a+(b+c )=(a+b )+ c

 For multiplication: a(bc )=(ab )c

The distributive property
 a(b+ c )=ab+ac or (b+c )a=ba+ ca
Identities
 For addition: There is a unique number called the additive identity, represented by 0,

which has the property that a+0=a=0+ a for all real numbers a .
 For multiplication: There is a unique real number called the multiplicative identity,

represented by 1, which has the property that a⋅1=a=1⋅a for all real numbers a .
Inverses
 For addition: Each real number a has a unique additive inverse, represented by −a

, which has the property that a+(−a)=0=(−a)+a

 For multiplication: Each real number a , except 0, has a unique multiplicative inverse,
1 1 1
represented by a , which has the property that a⋅( a )=1=( a ) a .
Closure properties
 For addition: The sum of two real numbers is a real number.
 For multiplication: The product of two real numbers is a real number.

Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic

Linear Equations and inequalities
 A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can be put in the form ax +b=0 ,

where a and b are constants, and a≠0 .

Example 1: 11 x+ 8=0 ,3 x−1=5 , x +15=0∧5 x−1=4 are linear equations.
Example 2:
1. Solve for x

a) 820 x=10 x+30 (50−x )

b) 3(2 x  1)  2(1  5 x )  6 x  11

Solution:

a) 820 x=10 x+30 (50−x ) Simplify the right hand side

820 x=10 x+1500−30 x
820 x=1500−20 x Applying the addition property (add 20 x to both sides)
840 x=1500
1500 25
x= =
Thus, 840 14 .

Therefore, the solution set (S.S) is {2514 }.

b) 3(2 x  1)  2(1  5 x)  6 x  11 (The given equation)
6 x  3  2  10 x  6 x  11 (Removing parentheses by distribution)
6 x  10 x  6 x  2  11  3 (Collecting like terms: ‘variables to the left and
numbers to the right’ )
10 x  10
x 1 (Dividing both sides by 10)

Therefore, the solution set (S.S) is {1}.

8x  3 5
 5( x  2)  3( x  )
2. Find the solution set of 2 6

8x  3 5
 5( x  2)  3( x  )
Solution: 2 6 (The given equation)
This gives us:
3 5
4x   5 x  10  3 x 
2 2
 5 3
4 x  5 x  3x     10
2 2 Using addition property
2x  6
Hence, x  3 . That is, the solution set is {3}.

3. Find the solution set of 5 x  2( x  1)  4  3( x  2)

Solution: 5 x  2( x  1)  4  3( x  2) (The given equation)

5 x  2 x  2  4  3x  6 (Removing parentheses by distribution)

3x  6  3x  6 (Combining like terms)

6=6

Thus, S.S = ℜ .

4. Find the solution set of 6  3(1  x)  2(1  5 x )  7 x

Solution: 6  3(1  x)  2(1  5 x )  7 x (The given equation)

6  3  3 x  2  10 x  7 x (Removing parentheses by distribution)
9  3x  2  3 x (Combining like terms)
9  3x  3 x  2  3 x  3x (Adding 3x to both sides)
9 = 2, which is false.
This means the solution set of the given equation is empty, .

 A linear inequality is an inequality that can be put in the form ax +b<0 , where a

and b are constants with a≠0 . (The ¿ symbol can be replaced with ¿, ≤ or
¿ )

 For a,b,c∈ ℜ , if a<b , then

1. a+ c<b +c

2. ac <bc , when c >0

3. ac >bc , when c <0
Example: Solve each of the following linear inequality

a. 5 x+8 (20−x )≥2( x−5) .

Solution: 5 x+8 (20−x )≥2( x−5) Simplify each side

5 x+160−8 x≥2 x−10
160−3 x≥2 x−10 Now apply the inequality property
−5 x≥−170 Divide both sides by – 5
x≤34 Note that the inequality symbol is reversed

Thus, the solution set is {x ∈ ℜ: x≤34 }=(−∞ , 34 ] .

b. 3x 5(x+2)  0.
Solution: 3x 5(x 2)  0 (The given inequality)
3x 5x + 10  0 (Removing the parentheses by distribution)
2x + 10  0 (Combining like terms)
2x  10 (Subtracting 10 from both sides)
10
x  2 (Dividing both sides by 2 reverse the inequality)
x  5.
Therefore, S.S = {x: x  5}, the set of all real numbers less 5.

c. x  4( x  1)  13  ( x  2) in the set of natural numbers, ℕ.

Solution: x  4( x  1)  13  ( x  2) (The given inequality)

x  4 x  4  13  x  2 (Removing parentheses by distribution)

3x  4  11  x (Combining like terms; i.e., x  4 x  3x and 13+2= 11)
3x  x  11  4 (Collecting like terms)
2 x   7 (Next, division of both sides of this by 2 reverses the
inequality)
7
x
2; i.e. x  3.5
Thus, the solution of the given inequality in ℕ is {1, 2, 3}.

d. 7 x  6  3 x  2 in the set of whole numbers, W.

Solution: 7 x  6  3x  2 (The given inequality)

7 x  3 x  6  2 (Collecting like terms)
4 x  4

4 x 4

4 4 or x  1
However, there is no negative whole number.
Therefore, the solution set of the given inequality in W is , empty set.

Quadratic Equations and Inequalities

 A quadratic equation is a polynomial equation in which the highest degree of the variable
is 2. We define the standard form of a quadratic equation as
2
Ax + Bx+ c=0 , where A≠0 .
2
 If Ax + Bx+C=0 and A≠0 , then the quadratic equation can be solved by the

−B±√ B 2−4 AC
x=
quadratic formula 2A
Example: Solve each of the following
2
a) 4 x +10 x=6
2
b) 5 x −6=8
2
c) ( x−2) =6

Solution:
2
a.
4 x +10 x=6 Put into standard form
2
4 x + 10 x−6=0 Factor the left hand side
2(2 x−1)( x+3)=0 Hence we have
 2 x −1=0 or x+ 3=0 Solving each linear equation, we get
1
x= 2 or x=−3
2 2
b.
5 x −6=8 Isolate x on the left-hand side before applying

the
square root theorem
2
5 x =14
14
x 2= 5 Applying the square root theorem we get
14
x=± √ 5

x=2± √6 .
c.

2
 A quadratic inequality is in standard form if it is in the form Ax + Bx+C <0 . (We

can replace ¿ with ¿, ≤, or ¿ .)

Example: Solve the quadratic inequalities

2
a) x +2 x−24> 0

Solution: x 2+ 2 x−24 >0

⟹ x2 +6 x−4 x−24=0

⟹ x ( x +6 )−4 ( x +6 ) =0

⟹ ( x+6 )( x−4 )=0

⟹ x+ 6=0∨x−4=0

⟹ x=−6∨x=4
-6 4

- 0 + +

- - 0 +

+ - +
Therefore S . S=(−∞ ,−6 ) ∪ ( 4 , ∞ )
2
b) x −5 x≤24

Solution: x 2−5 x−24 ≤ 0

⟹ x2 +3 x−8 x−24=0

⟹ x ( x +3 )−8 ( x +3 ) =0
⟹ ( x+3 )( x−8 )=0
⟹ x+3=0∨x−8=0
⟹ x=−3∨x=8

-3 8

- 0 + +

- - 0 +

+ - +

Therefore S . S=[ −3 , 8 ]