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An overview of food adulteration: Concept, sources, impact, challenges and

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 International Journal of Chemical Studies 2020; 8(1): 2564-2573

P-ISSN: 2349–8528
E-ISSN: 2321–4902
IJCS 2020; 8(1): 2564-2573 An overview of food adulteration: Concept,
© 2020 IJCS
Received: 13-11-2019 sources, impact, challenges and detection
Accepted: 15-12-2019

Ankita Choudhary Ankita Choudhary, Neeraj Gupta, Fozia Hameed and Skarma Choton
Division of Food Science and
Technology, SKUAST-J,
DOI: https://doi.org/10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i1am.8655
Chatha, Jammu and Kashmir,
India
Abstract
Neeraj Gupta Food is any substance composed of carbohydrates, water, fats and proteins, which can be eaten or drunk
Division of Food Science and by humans or animals for nutrition or very important aspect for life. Food products are often a target of
Technology, SKUAST-J, adulteration while supply chains usually deal with perishable products that could be harmful to
Chatha, Jammu and Kashmir, consumers if they are not managed properly. Economic adulteration is a long term problem affecting the
India food industry. Adulteration in food has been a concern since the beginning of civilization, as it not only
decreases the quality of food products but also results in a number of ill effects on health. Food
Fozia Hameed adulteration involves the infusion of useless, harmful, unnecessary substances to food which decreases
Division of Food Science and the quality of food. The problems of adulteration makes the food items used in our daily life unsafe and
Technology, SKUAST-J,
unhygienic for use due to poor handling. Adulteration in food items can cause tremendous affect on
Chatha, Jammu and Kashmir,
India
health without our knowledge. If we tend to actively participate in these changes then we can bring about
a healthy and non venturous future for the upcoming generations.
Skarma Choton
Division of Food Science and Keywords: Food adulteration, concept, sources, impact, challenges, detection
Technology, SKUAST-J,
Chatha, Jammu and Kashmir, Introduction
India Food is one of the basic needs for every living being and is composed of carbohydrates, water,
fats and proteins, which can be eaten or drunk by animals, including humans, for nutrition or
pleasure (FAO/WHO, 2007) [22]. Food commodities have always been vulnerable to fraudulent
admixture or adulteration with cheaper inferior materials. In India, food safety is a growing
problem with rampant instances of adulteration and contamination of essential foods that can
be a potential source of disease infection or toxic poisoning. Food spoilage occurs mostly
during handling from the primary producers to the consumers (Gahukar, 2014) [26]. The
awareness of consumers plays important role in preventing food adulteration. Unawareness
and unfair market behaviour might endanger consumer health and misleading can lead to
poisoning. Therefore basic screening tests should be known to common people
(Vasanthakalaam, 1996) [67]. In September 1998, the Canadian government warned its citizens
not to consume any foodstuff cooked or processed in oil from India as it could be adulterated
with argemone. Scores had died or were crippled in north India as unscrupulous traders mixed
the fatal argemone oil to mustard oil to raise their profits. Human lives have such low value in
India that it just passed off as another tragedy.
Milk is being adulterated with synthetic chemicals and detergent powder that could cause
irreparable damage. It is another flourishing business. In the trade, it is known as synthetic
milk. The Delhi police in May 2000 seized 76,000 litres of adulterated milk packed in pouches
similar to the ones of Mother Dairy run by the prestigious National Dairy Development Board.
Elsewhere, in places like Bangalore, fat is being removed from milk and then sold after mixing
it with harmful chemicals to whiten and thicken the thin liquid. When you move about in the
market and see the attractively decorated sweets and other edible items your appetite becomes
almost insatiable. And that’s what it is meant to do to you. Attract you to buy and eat. But
wait! In the process you may be eating “Metanil yellow” a non-permitted coal tar dye
Corresponding Author: commonly known as ‘Kishori Rang’, “Rhodamin-B”, “Lead Chromate” or perhaps “Ultra
Ankita Choudhary Marine Blue”. These are all non-permissible and banned colours and they cause serious health
Division of Food Science and
Technology, SKUAST-J,
hazards and may also cause cancer in the long run. They are carcinogenic. We may be eating a
Chatha, Jammu and Kashmir, dangerous dye, sawdust, soap stone, industrial starch, Aluminum foil and believe it, even cow-
India dung! Invite disease rather than good health (Ghosh, 2012).
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Food adulteration is a process in which the quality of food is to the 1860 food Adulteration Act and rather legislation
lowered or reduced by replacing food ingredient or addition (Ghimire, 2016).
of non authenticated substances or removal of a vital
component from food for the sake of earning profit or due to Why food adulteration?
other incidental reasons. Food adulteration ultimately Adulteration is present in society from a long time but it was
deceives consumers and leads various health risks. Nowadays, not noticed due to its small scale use and its low impact. But
it is very difficult to find a sector of food industry which is at the present era, economic adulteration is a long term
free of adulteration. Because of that it is important for the problem affecting the food industry at its most drastic level.
consumer to know the common adulterants and their effect on According to one survey conducted, adulteration were
health since the increasing number of food producers and the detected in milk to the tune of 70% with water, turmeric
outstanding amount of foodstuffs import enables the powder-43% with chalk powder, red chilli powder-100% with
producers to mislead and cheat consumers.An adulterants are artificial colour, sugar 37% with chalk powder etc. (Kumar,
chemical substances which should not be contained within our 2011). As Afzal et al. (2011) [2] the main reason that attracts
food or beverage, and may be intentionally added to more adulteration is for boosting their cash income by increasing its
expensive substances to increase visible quantities and reduce volume. Even though increasing their profit margins initiated
manufacturing costs, or for some other deceptive or malicious adulteration done by some selfish producers, processors and
purpose (Anita and Neetu, 2013) [4]. As the usage of retailers, the main cause for adulteration is dishonesty and
adulterants has increased tremendously in recent years, there lack of accidental quality assessment on products suspected
has been a growing interest among consumers in the safety (Asrat and Zelalem, 2014) [5]. As world population is growing
and traceability of food products. at alarming rate, food is often adulterated to meet the needs of
Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954, an Act that this growing population and to feed the large scale population.
defined food safety norms in the country, defined that a food Another motive for faking and adulteration of goods and
article is considered adulterated, if services is outsourcing to offshore producers (Hamburg,
a. The article sold by a vendor is not of the nature, 2010) [29]. Outsourcing became possible because
substance or quality demanded by the purchaser or which comparatively labour is cheap in some countries and this is
it purports to be; also what makes product faking easy since the cost of
b. The article contains any substance affecting its quality or producing is far less compared to the super normal profits
of it is so processed as to injuriously affect its nature, being made (Sicpa, 2012) [62]. That is why Cofie (2012) [11]
substance or quality; argues that counterfeiting thrives on the whole process of
c. Any inferior or cheaper substance has been substituted globalization because spread of capital and know-how to new
wholly or partly for the article, or any constituent of the markets is usually achieved through globalization. Ehsan et
article has been wholly or partly abstracted from it, so as al. (2010) [18] reported that people were enthused by the high
to affecting its quality or of it is so processed as to price of fuel to adulterate fuel in Bangladesh in order to gain
injuriously affect its nature, substance or quality; undue financial benefits. According to Narayan (2014) [49]
d. The article had been prepared, packed or kept under generally foods and drinks are adulterated for the following
insanitary conditions whereby it has become six reasons. These are:-
contaminated or injurious to health; 1. When the demand is more than the supply in the market,
e. The article consists wholly or in part of any filthy, putrid, 2. To come at par with the market competitors by lowering
disgusting, rotten, decomposed or diseased animal or the cost of production,
vegetable substance or being insect infested, or is 3. The greed for increased profit margins,
otherwise unfit for human consumption; 4. The common man cannot afford food items with their
f. The article is obtained from a diseased animal; original constituents,
g. The article contains any poisonous or other ingredient, 5. Lack of trained manpower with outdated food processing
which is injurious to health; techniques and
h. The container of the article is composed of any poisonous 6. No idea about the disease outbreaks caused due to
or deleterious substance, which renders its contents adulterated food products.
injurious to health;
i. The article contains any prohibited colouring matter or Types of adulteration
preservative, or any permitted colouring matter or Adulteration of foods is done by many means but broadly
preservative in excess of the prescribed limits; there are two types of adulterantions. According to El-loly et
j. The quality or purity of the article falls below the al. (2013) [19] there are intentional/deliberately/knowingly and
prescribed standard, or its constituents are present in unintentional/unknowingly/incidental adulterations.
proportions other standard, or its constituents are present
in proportions other than those prescribed, whether or not Intentional adulteration
rendering it injurious to health. Intentional adulteration is an adulteration in which food item
is deliberately adulterated. It is inclusion of inferior
History substances having properties similar to the foods in which
Adulteration use was first investigated in 1820 by the German they are added. They are thus difficult to detect. The
chemist Frederick Accum, who identified many toxic metal adulterant could be physical or biological in nature. It is done
colonings in ford and drink. His work antagonized food in order to promote the level of their essential nutrients after
suppliers and he was ultimately discredited by a scandal over reduction of a given amount in order to increase their profit
his alleged mutilation of book "The royal institution library. margin by several chemicals like urea, melamine, and
The physician author Hill Hossal conducted extensive studies increase its volume by adding substances such as starch, flour,
in the early 1850 which were published in the lancet and led cane sugar, vegetable oils, water, skim milk, sand, chalk
powder, molasses, stone, brick powder, ergot, chicory, roasted
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barley powder, grinded papaya seeds, etc. into various food such as rodents and insects that trespasses the food at high
items (El-loly et al., 2013) [19]. It is the most dangerous form degree and produces impurity in the form of excreta, bodily
of adulteration because of amounts of nutrients deducted and secretions and spoilage through micro-organisms. Most
extraneous substances added into food items that is done by common accidental adulterants are pesticides, D.D.T. and
business oriented people just forgot the humanity in behind of residues present on the plant product (Pandit et al., 2002) [53].
money making mentality (Awasthi et al., 2014) [8]. Maximum permissible limit for D.D.T. is 3 ppm which
According to Lakshmi et al. (2012) [38], Olive oil, milk, honey, sometimes is over crossed (Kannan et al., 1997) [33].
saffron, orange juice, coffee and apple juice are the seven
most likely food ingredients to be targets for intentional or Various food items and their adulterants
economically motivated adulteration of food, or food fraud, Almost every food-item from milk to fruits, from vegetables
according to analysis of the first U.S. public database created to grains is adulterated at some level. Some adulterants enter
to compile information on risk factors for food fraud via agricultural steps, as they are not cleaned well. These are
published in the Journal of Food Science. visible adulterants like stones, leaves, soil, sand and dust to
name a few. The consumer can clean them and this makes it
Incidental adulteration less harmful. Other adulterants that are intentionally added are
Adulteration which is due to lack of proper hygienic invisible or they are made invisible by astutely camouflaging
conditions of food products and drinks throughout production with the color or texture. They are generally harmful for the
site to consumption table. Accidental adulterants are health and most of them lead to serious health problems like
pesticides residues, dropping of rodents, larvae in foods, etc. cancer. Even animal feed like cake as protein supplement for
Metallic contamination with arsenic lead, mercury can also lactating animals is adulterated accounts about 90 percent of
occur accidentally. Accidental adulterants also involve pests un-branded loose forms (Alauddin, 2012) [3].

Table 1: Different food items and their adulterants

Food & drink items Adulterant/extraneous substances Purpose Type of adulteration
Ghee Vanaspati, anatta, & oleomargarine To make more yellow Deliberate
Milk Water, skim milk To increase volume Deliberate
Condensed milk Paneer, khoya To give rich textur Deliberate
Butter Vegetable oil, anatta, banana, oleomargarine To increase volume & make yellowish Deliberate
Ice cream Starch, rice powder or wheat flour To thicken cream Deliberate
Tea leaves Black/Bengal gram dal husk with color To add color Deliberate
To attract/produce deep blue precipitate
Red wine Juice of bilberries Deliberate
with lead acetate
Mustard oil Papaya seed To add bulk and weight Deliberate
Black pepper Papaya seed To add bulk Deliberate
Green chillies& peas Malachite green To give bright glowing green color Deliberate
Chillies powder Brick powder To increase weight Deliberate
Sugar Chalk powder To increase amount Deliberate
Oils Rancid oil To increase volume Deliberate
Coriander powder Cow dung powder To increase amount Deliberate
Pulses Lathyrus sativus To increase weight Deliberate
Common salt White powdered stone,chalk To increase amount Deliberate
Chicory, roasted barley powder, tamarind
Coffee To add bulk and color Deliberate
seeds
Honey Molasses, cane sugar To increase volume Deliberate
Wheat Ergot (poisonous fungus) To increase weight Deliberate
Jaggery powder Chalk powder To increase amount Deliberate
Others like preservatives, etc. Formalin, etc. To increases shelf life Unintentional

Depending on the types of foods and drinks adulterated it is Milk adulteration involves adding water to milk and removing
possible to see adulteration in four major categories like milk the beneficial fats from milk. Often soya milk (ESA, 2012)
[20]
and milk products, fats and oils, food grains and others , starch, groundnut milk, and wheat flour are added to milk
(animal and plant originated foods) adulteration respectively. and girl ghee added into butter. The producers deliberately
adulterate milk and its products in order to promote the level
Milk & milk products adulteration of these essential nutrients after reduction of a given amount
In developing countries, the industrialization brought a series and/or to mislead the consumers to increase their profit
of problems along with the much appreciated progress, with margin by several chemicals like urea, starch, flour, cane
the mass collection and distribution of milk from various sugar, vegetable oils, detergents etc (table 1) (Faraz et al.,
sources playing the role of potential vehicle for disease 2013) [23]. Various preservatives like formalin and some
transmission. In olden days, milk was collected from small antibiotics are also added in milk to increase its shelf life
groups of animals in farms and it was supplied to a small (Awan et al., 2014) [7]. This addition decreases the nutritive
number of people living nearby (Chanda et al., 2012) [10]. But value of milk (El-loly et al., 2013) [19] and its incidences are at
with the advent of industrialization, population growth and increase over the years according to Alauddin (2012) [3].
urbanization, the demand increased drastically. Milk supply Although milk is produced throughout the year yet the supply
through the small farms no longer met the increasing demand and demand of milk are related to the seasonal fluctuations
(Dehinenet et al., 2013) [13]. Hence commercialization of the (Afzal et al., 2011) [2] due to this milk used by the people for
milk industry ultimately took place (Revathi et al., 2012) [59]. consumption is adulterated to such an extent that there is very
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less nutritive value in it and may also be toxic for public (Pilizota and Nedic, 2009) [56]. Because of its high nutritional
health their profit margin by three ways dilution, extraction of value and unique flavor, the price of natural bee honey is
valuable components like milk fat which is removed as cream, relatively much higher than that of other sweeteners. Honey is
addition of cheap substances like starch to increase the value susceptible to adulteration with cheaper sweeteners; those that
of total solids up to a level which is acceptable by the have been detected in adulterated honeys include sugar syrups
consumers (El-loly et al., 2013) [19]. And all dairy foods are and molasses inverted by acids or enzymes from corn, sugar
made from milk, and their components are the same as those cane, sugar beet and syrups of natural origin such as maple.
of milk, except butter being comprised mainly of milk fat, but Adulteration of pure honey with synthetic honey (based on C4
in varying amounts (Faraz et al., 2013) [23] are also adulterated plant sugars) has become much more prevalent in recent
in one or another forms (Khan et al., 2008) [34]. Milk and its years. In addition, there has been a recent major adulteration
products can be exposed for adulteration at different points problem in honey from the Far East (Pilizota and Nedic,
such as at farm and procurement level, while transporting and 2009) [56].
processing, in view of the fact that fresh milk is pure when it
comes out of the udder and free of adulterants and microbes Impacts of adulteration
but can be contaminated by bacteria, yeast, fungi and dust, The problems of adulteration makes the food items used in
water, different chemicals or adulterants and animal hair due our daily life unsafe and unhygienic for use due to poor
to livestock keepers’ unhygienic milking, handling and handling (Asrat et al., 2012). In the past few decades,
storage practices, some dishonest producers retailers and adulteration of food has become one of the serious problems
manufacturers (Singuluri and Sukumaran, 2014) [63]. and consumption of adulterated food causes serious diseases
like cancer, diarrhoea, asthma, ulcers. In general, adulteration
Adulteration of Fats and Oils of food items has a very serious impact on producers/farmers,
It is easy to adulterate oils and fats. Majority of fats, oils and processors or manufacturers/enterprises, consumers and
butter are paraffin wax, castor oil and hydrocarbons. But it is government.
difficult to detect such adulteration. Ghee is often mixed with
hydrogenated oils and animal fats. Synthetic colors and Impacts on enterprises
flavors are added to other fats to make them appear like ghee. Enterprises are impacted by a loss of consumer confidence in
their products, recalls and destruction of contaminated
Food Grain Adulteration products, complaint expenses and increases of insurance
Food grain adulteration involves mixing sand or crushed premiums and costs related to equipment replacement or
stones to increase the weight of food grains. Cereal grains and cleaning. A supplier’s fault is inevitably reported in the mass
pulses are mixed with plastic beads that resemble grains in media, casting doubt on that company’s reputation (Pandpal
color and size. Very often, water is also sprayed on grains to et al., 2012) [54]. This affects not only the sales of that
increase the weight. particular product, but also the sales of many other products
supplied by the company’s warehouse or retailers and even
Other Adulterations the products can be banned/discarded automatically. The
Others (animal and plant originated foods) adulteration is effects of such bans on the food production industry are
common, for example, red chilli powder is often mixed with multiple, profound, and far-reaching. A producer that depends
brick powder, while tea leaves are often mixed with used tea on a banned imported foodstuff not only suffers economic
leaves. Pepper is mixed with dried papaya seeds. These loss to the impacted product but also faces lost sales caused
adulterations are very harmful to the consumer and they by loss of public confidence. The resulting brand damage can
should be addressed by consumer organizations and be devastating, and recovery can require significant time and
consumers seriously. Another harmful adulteration is honey expense when consumers have moved on to other suppliers’
adulteration which appeared on the world market in the 1970s products (Ibens, 2014) [32]. People have lost their trust in the
when high-fructose corn syrup was introduced by the products. For example, about 40 to 60% of consumers either
industry. As the sugars (60.7 to 77.8%) are the major ceased or were unwilling to purchase domestic milk products,
components of honey and the most dominant are the whereas those who purchased imported milk powder
monosaccharides fructose and glucose (accounting for 85 to increased from 34% to 47% in China due to milk adulterating
95%), the actual proportion of glucose to fructose in any by melamine as Qian et al. (2011) [57].
particular honey depends largely on the source of the nectar.
The average ratio of fructose to glucose is 1.2:1. The amount Impacts on farmers/producers
of glucose in honey is usually at a supersaturated level at Adulteration not only has an effect on big enterprises but also
normal temperatures. With reduction in temperature or water farmers or producers (like dairy, honey, coffee, wheat, etc)
content, the glucose can crystallize out. Saccharose (sucrose) can be affected by the weakest link in the industry chain.
is present in honey at approximately 1% of its dry weight. Many farmers suffered massive losses, cost increases due to
Normally, honey contains 12.4 to 24.5% moisture. Unless the feed costs, milk cow shortage caused by mass sales or
moisture content is below 17%, no fermentation takes place. slaughter during the crisis, for example in the case of China
Consumption of honey and honey products has grown dairy Scandal and lack of acceptance of the products (Qian et
considerably during the last few decades. al., 2011 and Nie, 2008) [57, 51].
However, at the present time, the traceability of this food is
limited to the quality of each processor’s documentation. In Impacts on consumers
case of doubt or fraud, there is no standardized analysis Human health is highly sensitive to food adulteration.
available that can discriminate or determine the botanical Hazardous effects of food adulteration is associate with
(floral or vegetable) and geographical (regional or territorial) diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, eyesight problem,
origin of the honey. Counterfeiting and product adulteration headache, cancer, anemia, insomnia, muscular paralysis and
are now commonly practiced in the global food marketplace brain damage, stomach disorder giddiness, joint pain, liver
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disorder, dropsy, gastrointestinal problems, respiratory common challenges to the control of substandard and
distress, edema, cardiac arrest, glaucoma carcinogenic effects, counterfeited goods and services. There is also inability to
kidney failure, digestive system disorders, etc as reported by prosecute offenders in developing countries as well as threats
Anita and Neetu (2013) [4], Faraz et al. (2013) [23] and Lakshmi to lives of enforcement officers where gratification has not
et al. (2012) [38]. It is found that there are various chemicals worked. In addition, there is inadequate information and
and colors used in fruits and vegetables which are very technology to detect fake and adulterated products. Often
poisonous for health. Calcium carbide used in mangoes, times, the exact number of foreign sources of the products is
bananas, copper sulphate used to ripen fruits faster, oxytocin a not known while in terms of physical site inspection, only a
hormone used for faster growth of pumpkin, watermelon, negligible percentage of the facilities are covered (Dogarawa,
brinjal, gourds, cucumber. Wax adds shine on apples and 2013) [17]. The main challenge of food adulteration is lack of
pears. Cheap green colors containing chemicals such as acceptance in the market due to distrusting its originality as
metallic lead applied to bitter gourd and leafy vegetables to reported by Asrat and Yilma (2014) [5] or discouraging market
give fresh color. Pesticides & herbicides used excessively for (Asrat et al., 2013) for example, dairy products of Wolaita
growing fruits and vegetables. Consumption of chemical- and Kucha area were recognized for its high quality thus fetch
laden fruits and vegetables can prove disastrous for digestive high price. Because of this, it was noted that Wolaita butter
system, eyes and liver (Lanzhou, 2008) [39]. It can also results was adulterated with vegetable oil and marketed with reduced
in vomiting and diarrhea in children, kidney failure. Oxytocin prices in Dilla and Shashemene towns (Yigrem et al., 2008)
can lead to damage of the brain (Anita and Neetu, 2013) [4]. [69]
. Such a practice should be avoided as it can affect among
The individuals are unfortunate victims of this adulteration others the reputation of the butter of the area for its high
trade running in full swing and uncurbed. quality. Therefore, there should be regulations that penalize
In 1988, 600 persons in Kolkata (West Bengal) suffered from such a criminal traders (Li, 2008a) and dishonest producers
paralysis in hands after having consumed the rapeseed oil that infect different food products in various places and a
adulterated with tricresyl phosphate which is generally used in more selective sample preparation and testing technology is
varnishes and hydraulic fluid. Adulteration of mustard oil needed to enable rapid screening of food adulteration since
with Mexican prickly poppy/argemone (Argemone mexicana) effective analytical techniques to detect frauds are also other
oil caused dropsy in Delhi in 1998, Gwalior (Madhya challenges (Ibens, 2014) [32].
Pradesh) in 2000, and Kannauj and Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh)
in 2002 and 2005 respectively. Various clinical symptoms Safety measures
were obvious and in severe cases, death occurred due to Producers and manufacturers
cardiac and respiratory failure (FSSA, 2011) [24]. Lately, the At field level, for avoiding food contamination of agricultural
Food and Safety Standards Authority of India published the produce, before and after harvest, there is need for a shift by
report of the national survey of adulterated foods in 33 states, adopting Good agricultural practices (GAP) including
viz. 8.79% incidence (n= 94,000) in 2008; 11.14% integrated pest management. Over and indiscriminate doses of
(n=113,000) in 2009; 12.65% (n=117,000) in 2010. When synthetic fertilizers and pesticides should be replaced by
milk samples (n=1791) collected in New Delhi were tested, need-based applications of safe and recommended pesticides.
32% of them were found diluted with water, or mixed with These practices would help in reducing chemical use in
glucose/skim milk powder (30.6%) or harmful detergent general and in controlling aflatoxin in particular (Kumar and
(5.7%). Around 44% samples of peanut oil were found Popat, 2010) [37]. Contamination of Aspergillus flavus in
adulterated with 5-20% of cotton seed oil, palm oil or castor peanut can be controlled by Trichoderma spp. which are
oil consumption of which resulted in food-borne diseases and potent antagonists producing volatile and diffusible antibiotics
70% of children died with diarrhea (Sudershan et al., 2009) (Srilakshmi et al., 2011) [64]. Other effective ecofriendly
[65]
. This type of contamination comes mainly from supply measures include spraying with a mixture of water extract
chain and poor sanitary conditions in the markets where food (5%) of pongam (Pongamia pinnata) bark or tamarind
stocks and storage structures remain unchecked and (Tamarindus indica) fruit (Chandra et al., 2007). Severity of
unregulated. On an average, 13% of both packaged and loose fungal infection can also be lowered by spraying water extract
food items sold across the country have been found (5%) of leaves of neem, henna (Lawsonia inermis), or
contaminated; and the range varied considerably from one turmeric (Curcuma longa) powder (Bansal and Sobti, 1990).
state to another, i.e., Chandigarh (40%), Uttarakhand (34%), In manufacturing industries, wearing of personal protective
Uttar Pradesh (29%), Rajasthan (23%), West Bengal & clothes, gloves and washing of whole body after working
Himachal Pradesh (20%), Bihar (17%), Nagaland (16%), hours is the best practical remedy to avoid contact with
Madhya Pradesh, Odisha & Punjab (15%), Tamil Nadu chemicals. Moreover, safe period recommended before crop
(14%), Maharashtra (10%), Karnataka (5%) and Delhi (4%). harvest is to be respected rigorously and the prescribed norms
In another survey, 70% of milk samples did not confirm to including antidotes and preventive measures have to be
prescribed standards; i.e., 46% were with low solid not fat due followed (Gahukar, 2011). In industrial areas, dumping of
to dilution with water, and 8% were with detergents (Mishra, poisonous effluents needs to be avoided. Other preventive
2011) [44]. measures include strict control on various sources of
contamination, regular follow up by authorities for
Challenges of adulterations recommended food standards and labelling. In case of doubt,
It is no secret that there have been significant media simple chemical tests can confirm the content of contaminants
exposure, public health impact and decrease in consumer (FAO, 2011) [21]. To safeguard consumers, locally and
confidence in recent years due to some significant food safety globally, from residues of chemicals, the MRL has been fixed
incidents. This has increased focus on food safety by for each crop or food product by Codex Alimentarius
consumers, the industry, lawmakers and regulatory agencies Commission (CAC) which is an apex body of FAO and
(Ades et al., 2012) [1]. In both developed and developing WHO.
countries, inadequate laws, funding and staffing appear to be
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Consumers penetration of heat. Boiling milk at high temperature or

Prevention of admixture is possible while purchasing food, by heating oil up to a particular flash point can degrade/detoxify
adopting simple means at household level and by reporting to the persistent pesticide residues (Gahukar, 2009) [25].
concerned authorities. It is better to check the quality of food Consumers and social organizations should send samples of
grains at the time of purchase and only branded and ISI vegetables, fruits; food grains etc. to local testing laboratories
marked products should be preferred. One should reject and lodge the complaint with local municipality or civil
artificially colored rice, pulses, sweets, spices, junk food, authorities. The action taken against defaulters would provoke
adulterated milk or oil. The fruits which are just slightly others to fight against adulteration and contamination. In
under-ripe and not over-ripe should be purchased to stagger tribal areas, food provided in school and college canteens by
the ripeness. At home, whole grains (cereals and pulses), the All India Food Processors Association and other agencies
spices and condiments can be sorted out manually from was not up to standard and was often rejected by children. In
admixture. Otherwise, grains can be sieved and foreign such cases, the consumer education programs play an
materials including sand, pebbles or dirt particles can be important role in imparting knowledge on the purchase and
easily discarded. In fact, this is an age-old household practice use of safe foods. Likewise, strong enforcement mechanisms,
followed by rural people in India. In case of fruits, peeling effectiveness of civil society groups and close liaison between
can remove wax coating containing toxic material. Moldy local and state bodies can facilitate the follow-up of the
grains may contain fumonisin toxin-B1 produced by Fusarium uniform implementation of the food laws. For this, vibrant
moniliforme or F. verticilliodes. These grains should not only consumer movement at national level particularly by senior
be separated and discarded but also properly destroyed. citizens, ladies clubs and NGOs can result in some progress.
Parboiling of grass pea grains and washing with fresh water is
helpful in removing >90% of toxin (Beta-noxalyl amino Role of government agencies
alanine, BOAA) (Gahukar, 2009) [27]. Food grains and nuts Market surveys
should be dried immediately after crop harvest and stored in Market surveys of the dangerous build-up of toxins in food
clean, dry and cool place to prevent mold development. The help prevent incidental poisoning. The health authorities can
grains showing caking during storage may be dried again. keep watch on illegal activity pertaining to ethylene or
Irrespective of this measure, whenever the mold growth is oxytocin in vegetables and fruits, and dyes or acids in edible
noticed, never scrape it off and eat the remaining grains. oil. It is mandatory to declare the colour on the label of
Instead, these grains must be burnt or buried and not simply container. Therefore, admixtures of various colors should be
discarded. Cleaning for extraneous matter, insect damaged checked regularly by market surveys and sampling by the
and visible moldy grains can reduce the level of Public health inspectors. For the animal feeds with additives
contamination during handling of raw material. Washing of (diethyl silbestrol, nitrites, nitrates, antibiotics) sold,
grains four times with gentle rubbing of grains and drawing competent authorities can execute current regulations.
water after each wash followed by cooking can remove >95% However, metal detection is certainly difficult by illiterate
of residues of malathion, methyl parathion, fenvalerate, consumers. Therefore, sampling and verification of content
cypermethrin or chlorpyriphos (Nair and Mathew, 2013) [48]. should only be done by competent authority and samples sent
Thus, processing (washing, drying and milling) and cooking to the recommended laboratory.
can help to prevent incidental poisoning.
Consumers should purchase canned foods after verifying Inspection and testing
expiry date and never purchase exposed foods, ice and juice The existing food chain is complex, adaptive and efficient but
sold in open market that are often suspected to be the infrastructure connecting various stakeholders is rather
contaminated. Containers should be washed with soap and hot weak and scattered. As such, there are only a few real channel
water before pouring juice or transferring food. In case of masters who can manage the supply-demand situation,
doubt, infection of coliform bacteria on fruits and vegetables coordinate whole supply chain and supervise logistic
can effectively be controlled with plant extracts in water activities. Regular food sampling and testing at the retail level
(Negi, 2012) [50] or petroleum ether (2 ug ml-1) of moringa can ensure that shops store only safe foods and remove from
(Moringa oleifera) leaves (Rahman et al., 2010) [58]. Similarly, the shop-selves other foods seemed unfit for consumption.
fruits and vegetables should be washed properly or peeled The reality is that the demand forecasting is nearly non-
them off to remove the chemical contaminants deposited on existing and farmers try to push into market what they
them. Pesticide residues are adsorbed or deposited in waxy produce. Recently, cold chain has been introduced in the food
layer of the soft fruits and vegetables, those with high fat supply system to maintain ideal storage conditions for
content should therefore be avoided. Washing vegetables and perishables from the point of origin to the point of human
fruits in 2% salt solution for 10 minutes followed by rinsing consumption. A well-organized cold chain can therefore
2-3 times in cold water can get rid of much of toxins. It has reduce spoilage, can retain the quality of the harvested
been ascertained that the cooked food is safer than the raw produce and can guarantee a cost- efficient delivery to the
food as cooking process reduces the residual amount of consumer with adequate attention to the customer services.
contaminants by degradation and detoxification (Gahukar, Along with cold chain, the supply chain is required to be
1999) [28]. However, cooked food stored for several hours in designed and built in an integrated manner using the
the open space or refrigerated for a long time can favour processes of product development, and efficient procurement
bacterial growth because depending upon type of food, supported with adequate information technology and software
refrigeration generally inhibits mold growth but does not deter packages.
it completely. It is therefore wise to reheat the stuff before Food safety measures are of utmost importance to food
serving. For this purpose, improved cooking methods would producers, retailers, public authorities and health inspectors.
prove advantageous; for example, cooking for a long time or Nowadays, food safety programs are focusing on a “farm to
at high temperature destroys bacteria and reduces aflatoxin table/farm to fork” approach as an effective means of
content; cutting meat into small pieces ensures thorough reducing food-borne diseases. Thus, the data on integration,
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financial flow management, supply-demand matching, availability of safe food for human consumption. Recently,
collaborative forecasting, information-sharing and food formation of the National Food Quality Control Board has
movement synchronization in supply chain are needed to also been suggested by the government. Also, Ministry of
facilitate current food control. Recently, Lala Lajpat Rai Health and Family Welfare has constituted a National Codex
University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar Committee, and has established the National Food Science
(Haryana) developed a kit for rapid spot testing to detect urea and Risk Assessment Centre for carrying out analysis of food
in milk. The irradiation of foods and food products as post- surveillance data recorded from laboratories in order to
harvest treatment can be combined with regulatory measures generate data on food hazards and outbreaks of food borne
at both national and international levels to prevent diseases and to implement the codex-adopted general
contamination and make the food safe. The National principles of food hygiene and recent guidelines for hazard
Monitoring Agency vested with powers decides policy issues analysis. These data would be helpful in prevention,
on food irradiation and has the responsibility of regular intervention and control of at least major cases. For detecting
surveillance and monitoring for food safety. The Hazard contamination of the food-borne diseases caused by
analysis critical control point (HACCP) system has now been microorganisms, modern laboratory facilities with pollution
introduced to identify, evaluate and control hazards arising control measures, food quality inspection, and monitoring and
from crop harvest until the point of consumption. Recently, management (including treatment, packaging and
Luo et al. (2012) [42] recommended application of a loop- preservation) are needed. For facilitating this program, the
mediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid central government recently planned to set-up cluster
identification of aflatoxin-producing molds. Likewise, two laboratories of accredited standards for every 4-5 districts to
multiplex polymerase chain reaction assays has been effective carry out basic tests and zonal food laboratories (1 for 10
to detect genes of five types of E. coli (Hegde et al., 2012) [30]. districts) to perform tests for residues and heavy metals and
On the contrary, the traditional quality control system was 10 referral laboratories for reference (Gahukar, 2014) [26].
relying mostly on end-food hygiene-HACCP system with The export of Indian foods to the Middle-East, Europe,
guidelines for application as ISO-15000 in 1998. In addition Australia and the USA is on increase. In some consignments,
to four central laboratories, state governments and municipal foods are rejected due to sub-standard supply. Thus, there is
councils/corporations in cities have their own laboratories to need to revamp food supply chain and regulatory agencies
handle the food adulteration and contamination. In future, such as, Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export
checking for quality marks such as ISI, Food Products Order Development Authority. On legal front, Indian government
(FPO/AGMARK), and follow up of labeling directions should established certain laws and rules for prevention of food
be a regular practice. In reality, it is difficult to monitor adulteration and contamination in food service establishments
quality of the processed foods in small cottages or household and the amendments are regularly published in gazettes by the
manufacturing/processing units in rural areas where strict Food and Drug Administration concerning Prevention of
adherence to the rules and regulations is always needed. Food Adulteration Act 1954 (8th amendment in 2008);
Therefore, the Food Inspectors and Public Food Analysts are Prevention of Food Adulteration Rules 1955 (1st amendment
authorized for launching prosecution. in 2011); Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act 1963;
Indian Consumers Protection Act 1968; The Insecticides Act
Regulation and certification 1968; Meat Food Products Order 1973; Hazardous Chemicals
Food adulteration is often linked with impurities in the food Rules 1989; Milk and Milk Products Order 1992; Fruit
grains sold through the Public distribution system (PDS), the Products Order 1995; Food Safety and Standards Act 2006;
only food supply agency under central government. Proper Food Safety and Standards Authority of India 2008; Food
enforcement of the regulations is lacking and most state Safety and Standards rules 2011. Further, the Consumer
governments do not have the machinery to conduct checks Protection Act makes the public aware of food contamination
from time to time. Likewise, spoilage, sanitation and and prevention of fatal incidents. Also, Consumers
contamination of food have not been given requisite attention Association of India and Consumers Education and
by health authorities. Therefore, concept of the Food safety Consumers Guidance Society of India collaborate actively
objective developed by FAO and WHO should be introduced with government and voluntary organizations. In addition to
and form an integral part of food chain management (Barro et this national network, international support is sought through
al., 2007) [9]. WHO/FAO International Food Safety Authorities Network,
The inspection and certification are done by the Bureau of Codex Committee on Food Additives and Codex Committee
Indian Standards (BIS) under the Directorate of Marketing on Contaminants in Food.
and Inspection (DMI). The BIS operates the ISI (Certification It is generally expected that the guidelines of the management
marks) Act of 1952 which had laid down the quality standards systems are in the compliance with HACCP. In future,
for processed foods supported by testing methods for almost international co-operation, information-sharing mechanism,
all consumer goods. The ISI certification though voluntary, dialogue between stakeholders, involvement of private sector,
becomes mandatory under certain acts. The AGMARK labeling and tracking systems for traceability, all can
standard has been revised by the DMI and the Agriculture strengthen the existing rules and regulations. India being a
Produce Act has been introduced under which the government signatory to the World Trade Organization, it becomes a party
fixes the quality specifications. The Central Committee for to the related agreements which lay emphasis on the CAC
Food Standards is the primary policy making body which decisions. The CAC adopted general principles of food
advises government on application of specifications, quality hygiene as an international code of practice. Likewise, the
control inspection and testing whereas the Food Safety and WHO’s Food Contamination Monitoring and Assessment
Standards Authority of India is an autonomous statutory Program has encouraged developing countries to undertake
authority under administrative control of the Ministry of total diet studies as a matter of public health significance. For
Health and Family Welfare. It regulates the manufacturing, example, the enterprise resource planning is designed to track
storage, distribution, sale and import, and thereby, insures products in lots during food processing for admixture of
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additional ingredients, portioning and transformation. Recently, Lin. (2011) [41] examined regulatory systems and
Imparting training to food handlers including kitchen staff in described difficulties that international organizations
basic hygienic practices will facilitate garbage disposal and encounter and has advocated reforms to improve the
strengthen official control over the quality and safety of foods international governance strategy of food safety.
served on streets and in open-air food stalls (De, 2010) [12].

Table 2: Different food articles and adulterant detection techniques for them
Food Methods of adulterant detection
Adulterant References
Article Physical Biochemical Molecular
Papaya seeds can be separated out from pepper Near infrared hyper spectral
Black Dhanya et al.,
Papaya seeds as they are shrunken, oval in shape and greenish imaging (NIR HSI) Mid- SCAR
pepper 2009 [14]
brown or brownish black in colour infrared spectroscopy(MIR)
Mustard seeds have a smooth surface. The
Argemone Shelar et al.,
argemone seed have grainy and rough surface
Mustard seeds/ oil
and are black and hence can be separated out by Real time- 2011 [61]
seed and (Argemone TLC, HP-TLC
close examination. When Mustard seed is PCR Mustorp et al.,
oil mexicana), rape
seed, ragi
pressed inside it is yellow while for argemone 2008 [47]
seed it is white
When few drops of concentrated hydrochloric
Coloured acid are added in a spoonful of turmeric powder
Sasikumar et al.,
Turmeric saw dust, in test tube, instant appearance of pink colour
TLC, HPLC RAPD 2005 [60]
powder metanil which disappears on dilution with water shows
yellow the presence of turmeric. If the colour persists,
metanil yellow is present
Cassia ; aromatized and
powdered beechnut Sequencin Kojoma, et al.,
- -
husk; hazel nut;almond g; SSCP 2002 [35]
Cinnamon
shell dust
Gently sprinkle the coffee powder sample on the
surface of water in a glass. The coffee floats
over the water but chicory begins to sink down
MIR Real-time Patrizia et al.,
Coffee Chicory within a few seconds.
spectroscopy PCR 2010 [55]
The falling chicory powder particles leave
behind them a trail of colour, due to large
amount of caramel.
Spread a small quantity of sample on a piece of
Species
paper, draw a magnet over it. Iron flakes cling to Dhiman and
Iron flakes, Cashew Specific
the magnet. Singh, 2003 [16]
Tea husk, Leather GC-MS PCR
Prepare a paper ball. Fire the ball and drop a Bandana and
flakes ITS of 5S
little amount of sample on it. The presence of Mahipal, 2003
rRNA
leather flakes emits an odour of burnt leather.
Species
Wheat Koppel et al.,
Oats - - specific
contamination 1998 [36]
PCR
Detection of origin SCAR
Less expensive MIR Pafundo et al.,
Olive oil and authenticity AFLP/
oils spectroscopy 2007 [52]
verification of virgin olive oil RAPD
ELISA, Fourier
transform PCR based
Water, The milk can easily be tested by urease strips,
infrared spectroscopy method,
Urea, also milk does not contain glucose or invert Hurley et al., 2004
Milk and multivariate ribotyping, [31]
Iron and sugar, if test for glucose with urease strip found
analysis, Pulsed field gel Real time
zinc positive, it means milk is adulterated
electrophoresis, MIR and PCR
NIR
Metal, glass stones, Mahajan et al.,
Meat - ELISA PCR-RFLP
bones 2011 [43]
Cheaper Proton NMR
The Brix test accurately determines the ratio of
solid spectroscopy Vogels et al.,
Juices solids to water in fruit juice. The observed ratio -
ingredients LC-MS 1996 [68]
is then compared with predetermined standards.
(particularly sugars) FT-IR

Conclusion participate in these changes then we can bring about a healthy

Adulteration in food items can cause tremendous affect on and non venturous future for the upcoming generations.
health without our knowledge. It can be prevented by few
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