Design of Fast Charging Technique for Electrical

Vehicle Charging Stations with Grid-Tied Cascaded

H-Bridge Multilevel Converters
Amirhossein Moeini, and Shuo Wang
Power Electronics and Electric Power Research Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida, USA
[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract— To compete with gas stations, electrical vehicle In order to further improve the charging speed, the effects
charging stations should be able to charge batteries as fast as of battery’s internal resistance and polarization parameters also
possible. In this paper, a fast charging technique for a grid-tied, need to be considered [7]. However, the polarization and
cascaded H-bridge (CHB) converter based charging station is internal resistance parameters are functions of temperature,
developed. A controller is designed to achieve constant current- age, of the batteries [7]. So, an accurate online battery
constant voltage (CC-CV) charging for all of the cells of the CHB parameter estimation is necessary to further increase the speed
converter. As proven in this paper, to achieve fast charging, the of battery charging.
effects of internal resistance and polarization parameters of
battery should be compensated. To reach this goal, the internal In order to have fast charging in all of the cells of CHB
resistance and polarization parameters of battery are estimated converters, first, the SOCs of the cells of converters should be
based on the initial fast measurements before formal battery balanced as fast as possible. [8-9] introduced SOC balancing
charging. The estimated parameters can increase the constant techniques for grid-tied cascaded H-bridge (CHB) converters.
current charging duration for Li-Ion batteries so the charging Even though the proposed techniques in [8-9] can balance the
speed is improved. Experiments are conducted on a charging SOCs of batteries, fast charging cannot be achieved with these
station which is based on a 7-level grid-tied CHB converter to techniques.
validate the proposed fast charging technique.
Index Terms—Fast charging, cascaded H-bridge, electrical In this paper, a controller which can achieve the constant
vehicle charging station, polarization parameters, internal current-constant voltage (CC-CV) is developed for the grid-
resistance. tied CHB converters. The proposed controller can equally
I. INTRODUCTION increase the charge of batteries when the SOCs of batteries are
Nowadays, fast chargers for Li-Ion batteries (LIBs) are balanced. Also, a technique to estimate battery internal
required for many applications such as electrical vehicles resistance and polarization parameters is investigated. The
(EVs), cellphones, laptops, and tablets. In electrical vehicle proposed estimation technique only needs to measure the
charging stations (EVCSs), fast charging needs high power terminal voltages and currents of batteries in three time instants
converters to inject high currents during constant current mode within one time constant of the polarization parameters.
[1]. This leads to high voltage drop on the internal resistance Because, the proposed estimation technique does not depend
and polarization parameters at the end of the constant current on the open circuit voltage/SOC characteristics of batteries, the
charging process [2]. Also, high charging current may reduce extracted parameters can be used for different ambient
the lifetime of batteries [3], so the charging process must be temperatures, and ages of the batteries. Finally, the effects of
precisely controlled. internal resistance and polarization parameters of LIBs are
compensated for fast battery charging. Lithium Polymer (Lipo)
Many EVs use LIBs. So it is necessary to investigate the battery, which belongs to LIBs that are used in state-of-the-art
charging technique for LIBs. Different charging techniques are EVs, is used in this paper. More than 1C charging speed can be
proposed in literature to charge the LIB [1][2][3][4][5]. achieved as shown in the experimental results with the Lipo
Researchers in [5] claimed that negative pulse charging can batteries. A very fast charging can be achieved by
increase the charging performance of batteries. [2] and [6] compensating the internal resistance and polarization
proved that if the internal resistance of LIBs is estimated and parameters of batteries in the experiments.
compensated, the CC-CV technique can charge the LIBs faster.
To improve the cycling performance of batteries and reduce the Section II will discuss about the proposed CC-CV charging
temperature of batteries during charging, [3] introduced a technique in this paper. Also, the proposed online estimation
multistage charging technique. However, this technique does technique for the internal resistance and polarization
not significantly reduce the charging time. parameters of batteries will be presented in Section III. Finally,
the experimental results of the proposed fast charging
This work was supported by National Science Foundation under Award technique will be illustrated in Section IV.
Number 1540118.

978-1-5386-1180-7/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE 3583

 respectively. In Fig. 2, the vdc-oc is the open circuit voltage of
the LIB which is a function of SOC of the battery.
The controller block which is proposed in this paper has
fast charging for the grid-tied CHB converters. To have fast
charging average currents which are applied to the LIBs
should be increased as much as possible. The total average
current that flows through all of the cells of the CHB
converter in Fig. 1 can be obtained by the following equation,
when the low frequency modulation technique such as SHE-
PWM [8], [9] is used.
i
2 I in
i
k =1
b − avg − k
π
= (cos(θ1 + θ 0 ) − cos(θ 2 + θ 0 ) + ...)
(1)
= f ( I in , M a ,θ 0 )
Fig. 1, Configuration of a two-stage grid-tied converter for EVCS. where θ1, θ2,… are the switching angles of the CHB converter.
Also, θ0 is the initial phase of the iin(t). From (1), it is obvious
that the maximum average current is functions of current
magnitude Iin, modulation index Ma, and the initial phase of
current θ0.
To charge batteries as fast as possible, the average currents
that flow through the cells of the CHB converter need to be
controlled as high as possible in constant current mode. So,
both current magnitude and modulation index need to be
controlled as shown in Fig. 3(a). Also, to have CC-CV on the
grid-tied CHB converter, the DC voltage of each cell of the
converter needs to be controlled by another PI controller as
shown in Fig. 3(a). The Vdc-ref* can be selected based on the
Fig. 2, Li-Ion battery model with internal resistance and polarization full charge voltage of the battery. In Lipo, the Vdc-ref* is 4.2V
parameters.
for each cell of the battery. In the controller block in Fig. 3(a),
the phase difference between the grid voltage and the AC
II. THE CC-CV CONTROLLER FOR FAST ELECTRICAL input current of the CHB converter should be controlled.
VEHICLE CHARGING STATIONS BASED ON INTERNAL As shown in Fig. 2, the output voltage of the LIBs is
RESISTANCE AND POLARIZATION PARAMETER COMPENSATION functions of internal resistance and polarization parameters of
Many configurations of EVCSs were proposed in the battery. So, when the terminal voltage of battery is controlled
literature [10]. In this paper, a two-stage grid-tied converter is to 4.2V (the nominal voltage of battery for the SOC close to
used to charge the LIBs in EVCS as shown in Fig. 1. In Fig. 1, 100%) at the end of constant current mode, the voltage drops
the first stage (AC/DC CHB converter) provides DC powers of internal resistance and polarization parameters lead to lower
for the batteries that are connected to the DC side of the CHB open circuit voltage of battery than 4.2V. As a result, the
converter. The currents Ib-1, Ib-2,… Ib-i that flow through battery needs longer constant voltage mode to increase the
batteries have high frequency ripples with the DC component. open circuit voltage up to 4.2V, which can significantly
The LF and RF are the coupling inductance and parasitic reduce the speed of charging due to lower charging current in
resistance of the coupling inductance of the grid-tied converter, the CV mode. As shown in Fig. 4, by using a compensation
respectively. The iin, vac-CHB, and vac-Grid are the AC input technique for voltage drops of both internal resistance and
current of the CHB, the AC generated CHB voltage, and the
polarization parameters of batteries, the constant current mode
AC voltage of the grid, respectively. The second stage of the
CHB converter (DC/DC converter) provides isolated DC can be increased and the charging speed can be improved. In
power for the high voltage DC link (capacitor C) of the EVCS. Fig. 3(b) and Fig. 4, because in the charging process, the
The main focus of this paper is to charge the LIBs which are charging time is much longer than the time constant of the
connected to the DC side of the CHB converter as fast as polarization parameters of LIBs, most of the Ib flows through
possible. So, the second stage (DC/DC converter) is not the the Rp. So, the following equation can be used to consider the
focus of this paper. effect of internal resistance and polarization parameters at the
end of the CV charging process,
Modeling of batteries were discussed in many papers [11-
12]. In Fig. 2, a model of LIB which is used in this paper is Vb ≈ Vdc−oc (SOC) + (Rin + Rp )Ib (2)
shown. As shown in Fig. 2, a LIB has 3 passive components. where Rin, and Rp need to be estimated in different
Rin, Rp, and Cp are the internal resistance of battery, the charging/discharging cycles due to different ages, and ambient
polarization resistance and capacitance of battery, temperatures of batteries.

3584
Fig. 3, Controller block with compensation technique for the EVCS with the CHB, (a) Controller block of the proposed CC-CV technique. (b) The compensation
of parameters of LIBs for the first cell of the CHB.
where ΔVb, and ΔIb are the voltage and current variations
during changing the load current Ib, respectively. Fig. 5 is
obtained by measuring the terminal voltage of a 14.8V
1300mAh Lipo battery when the load current is changed from
0A to 2600mA (2C). As shown, after changing load, the first
voltage drop (in very short time) is due to the internal
resistance as derived in (3). The second voltage drop is due to
the polarization parameters of batteries that have time constant
to reach final voltage RpIb. To calculate the second voltage
drop of the battery (polarization parameters), the KVL
equation of Fig. 2 can be obtained, when a load current is
applied to the terminal of the battery,
Ib Rp Ib
Vb (s) = Vdc−oc ( SOC) + Rin + , (4)
s s( R p C p s + 1)
Fig. 4, Comparison of three techniques for the CC-CV charging of the LIB
batteries. By taking the inverse Laplace transform of (4), the
III. PROPOSED ONLINE BATTERY INTERNAL RESISTANCE following time domain equation can be obtained for the
AND POLARIZATION PARAMETER ESTIMATION TECHNIQUE terminal voltage of the battery, when the load current is
In this paper, a simple and accurate technique is proposed applied to the battery,
t −t0
which can estimate the Rp, Cp and Rin of batteries. In Fig. 2, −
R pC p
when the load current (Ib) is applied to the terminals of the V b (t ) = V dc − oc ( SOC ) + R in I b + R p I b (1 − e ) (5)
battery in very short time, the voltage drop of the battery 1
where Vdc-oc(SOC) is the open circuit voltage of the battery
shows only the Rin with the following equation, due to the that is a function of SOC of the battery. t0 is the time instant
high value of the polarization capacitance (Cp) and almost that the load current is applied to the battery,
constant open circuit voltage of battery during changing the 1
Cn 
current Ib, SOC(t ) = SOCi − I b (t )dt (6)
ΔV
Rin = b (3) where SOCi is the initial SOC of the battery that can be
ΔI b estimated based on the open circuit voltage/SOC characteristic
of the battery. This can be obtained by conducting

3585
experiments on the battery or using the datasheet of From (11), the following equation can be found for the
manufacturers. The Cn is the nominal capacity of the battery. time constant of polarization parameters or RpCp,
As shown in (5) and (6), the Vdc-oc(SOC) also is a function of ((t 2 − t 0 ) 2 − (t1 − t 0 ) 2 )(Vb (t1 ) − Vb (t 3 ))
time instant that the current is injected or absorbed from the
terminals of the battery in (6). However, the effect of + ((t 3 − t 0 ) 2 − (t1 − t 0 ) 2 )(Vb (t1 ) − Vb (t 2 ))
variations of Vdc-oc(SOC) on the terminal voltages of the RpC p =
battery is negligible, when the load current is applied in very 2(Vb (t1 ) − Vb (t 3 ))(t1 − t 2 )
short time to the terminals of the battery. + 2(Vb (t 2 ) − Vb (t1 ))(t1 − t 3 ) (12)
The main goal of using (5) is to find the Rin, Rp, and Cp. To
reach this goal, measurements of terminal voltages and current By subtracting two selected equations (for example the
of the battery should be done. In (5), in order to simplify the first and third equations in (11)), the Rp can be estimated as
equation, the Taylor series can be used instead of the follow,
exponential term near x=0 (t=t0) as follow,
(Vb (t1 ) − Vb (t 3 ))
∞ n Rp =
x (t − t ) (t − t ) (t − t ) 2 (t − t ) 2
ex =  Ib ( 1 0 − 3 0 − 1 0 2 + 3 0 2 )
n =0 n! (7)
RpC p RpC p 2( R p C p ) 2( R p C p )
(13)
In (7), by ignoring the terms of the Taylor series higher
than the second order, the following equation can be obtained Furthermore, from one of the equations in (11), and using
for (7) as functions of the Rin, Rp, and Cp. the equations (12) and (13), the following equation can be
used to determine the Rin,
t −t 0
−
R pC p t − t0 (t − t 0 ) 2 (t1 − t 0 ) (t1 − t 0 ) 2
e ≈ 1− + , Vb (t1 ) − Vb (t 0 ) − R p I b ( − )
R p C p 2( R p C p ) 2 RpC p 2( R p C p ) 2
(8) Rin =
By replacing (8) into (5), the simplified time-domain Ib (14)
equation of the battery can be written as,
The above equations can estimate the internal resistance
t − t0 and polarization parameters of the battery in very short time
Vb (t ) = Vdc −oc ( SOC ) + Rin I b + R p I b ( after a load current is applied to the battery at t=t0. Because
RpC p the Taylor series in (7) is close to the exponential term in (7)
(t − t 0 ) 2 at t=t0.
− ) The 4-cell 1300mAh 14.8V Lipo battery is used in the
2( R p C p ) 2
(9) experiment to find the internal resistance and polarization
parameters of the battery as shown in Fig. 5. The Lipo battery
where in (9), the Vdc-oc(SOC) can be replaced by the terminal
is a kind of LIBs that is so popular for the EVs. In Fig. 5(a),
voltage of the battery, before the load current is changed. So,
by using the equations (12-14), the Rin, Rp, and Cp are
(9) can be written as,
estimated. In Fig. 5 (b), the DC load current which is injected
t − t0 (t − t 0 ) 2 to the terminal of the battery is shown. The estimated
−
Vb (t ) = Vb (t 0 ) + Rin I b + R p I b ( − ) parameters of the battery are 0.0489Ω, 0.0424Ω, and 157.15F
R p C p 2( R p C p ) 2 for the Rin, Rp, and Cp, respectively. As shown in Fig. 5(a), the
(10)
estimated parameters of the battery can follow the terminal
where t0- is a very short time before load current is applied to
voltages of the battery during changing the DC load current.
the battery at t0. In order to find the Rin, Rp, and Cp, three
voltage measurements should be obtained after the load Also, the proposed technique does not need to use the open
current is applied to the battery, circuit voltage/SOC characteristics of the batteries to estimate
the parameters of the batteries, which highly depend on the
 − t1 − t 0 (t 1 − t 0 ) 2 ages and the number of charging/discharging cycles of the
V (
 b 1 t ) = V (
b 0t ) + R I
in b + R I
p b ( − ), batteries. As a result, by compensating the parameters of the
 R p C p 2( R p C p ) 2 LIB batteries, the charging speed of the batteries can be
 optimized even with a battery that is old or has high number of
 − t 2 − t 0 (t 2 − t 0 ) 2 charging/discharging cycles.
Vb (t 2 ) = Vb (t 0 ) + Rin I b + R p I b ( − ),
 R p C p 2( R p C p ) 2 Moreover, the proposed technique can estimate the
 2 parameters of the batteries in very short time. So, the
Vb (t 3 ) = Vb (t 0 − ) + Rin I b + R p I b ( t 3 − t 0 − (t 3 − t 0 ) ), estimation process can be very short and the fast charging can
 R p C p 2( R p C p ) 2 be achieved.
(11) To implement the proposed estimation technique on a grid-
tied CHB converter, a constant load current should be applied

3586
to the batteries of the CHB. However, the CHB converter has
AC ripple on the DC side of each H-bridge. The batteries take
most of the AC ripple current during charging/discharging.
This AC current ripple cannot be used to estimate the
parameters of the batteries based on the equations (12-14). So,
a technique needs to be used to apply the constant load current
to the terminals of the batteries in each cell of the CHB to
detect the parameters of the batteries. In Fig. 6, a test resistance
(Rtest) in series with a power switch (s1) are connected in
parallel with the terminals of the battery. When the power
switch is turned on, the DC current will be passed through the
load and by measuring the terminal voltages and current of the (b)
battery, the parameters of the battery can be estimated based on
(12-14). As discussed in this section, the proposed parameter Fig. 5, Terminal voltage and current of battery, a) the measured and estimated
voltage of battery, b) the measured current of battery.
estimation technique can estimate the Rin, Rp and Cp in a short
time after the load is applied to the terminal of the battery. So,
the duration of time that the s1 is on and the energy of the
battery is dissipated on the Rtest is low.
Because 63% of the change of voltage of the battery is
happened after one time constant of polarization parameters of
the battery, when the load of battery is changed. The
measurements of voltages and current should be done within
the first time constant of polarization parameters of battery to
assure that the estimated parameters of the battery are
accurate.
Fig. 7 shows the proposed flowchart which can be used to Fig. 6, Parameter estimation circuit for the multilevel CHB converter.
estimate the parameters of the battery in the grid-tied CHB
converter. As shown in Fig. 7, before the load is applied to the
terminals of the battery, the voltage of the battery is measured.
Then, the load is applied to the battery when s1 is turned on.
Next, the current of battery at t1 and the voltage of terminals
of battery are measured at three time instants t1, t2, and t3.
After t3, the load is removed from the terminals of the battery
by turning off s1. Then, based on (12) and the measured
voltages and current, the time constant of the polarization
parameter or RpCp are obtained. If the RpCp is higher than the
difference between t3 and t0, the Rin, Rp, and Cp can be
estimated based on (13-14) and these parameters can be used
for the CC-CV fast charging, otherwise, three time instants t1,
t2, and t3 are selected based on the obtained RpCp to have t3-
t0<RpCp. The new time instants can be assigned
as t1 = ( R p C p ) / 3, t 2 = (2 R p C p ) / 3 , and t 3 = R p C p . These
new time instants can assure accurate estimation of the
terminal voltage of the battery. Finally, a new load is applied
to the terminal of battery to measure the voltages and current
in the new time instants as shown in Fig. 7.

(a) Fig. 7, Proposed flowchart of estimation of parameters of battery and the

CC-CV charging technique.

3587
TABLE I. Circuit parameters of the CHB fast charging. resistance. So, the SOCs need longer duration of time to
Parameter Symbol Value charge up to the 96.8% for the CC-CV with the compensation
Line frequency F 60 Hz of internal resistance.
Ac grid Voltage (RMS) Vac-Grid 110 V In the fourth experimental results in Fig. 12, the CC-CV
Total rated power Stotal 1.550 kVA charging technique are shown, when both internal resistance
Maximum Demand Load IL 14.14 A and polarization parameters of the batteries are compensated.
Number of H-bridge cells i 3 The three cells are balanced in less than 530s. As shown in
Number of switching K 18
Fig. 12, the proposed technique can charge the cells up to
transitions in half-period 96.8% with a short duration of time of the CV mode. Also, the
Inductance LF 0.4845pu proposed technique can increase the duration of time of the
Resistance of inductance RF 0.0643pu CC charging mode more than the other two techniques. As
Impedance of DC link 1
ωC
0.0775pu shown in Fig. 10, 11, and 12, the proposed CC-CV with the
Capacitor compensation of internal resistance and polarization
Nominal battery voltage Vn 14.8V
parameters of the batteries can reduce the charging time more
Nominal battery capacity Cb 1300mAh
than 24.5% and 49% than the CC-CV without any
Number of batteries in Nb 4
series for each cell compensations and the CC-CV with the compensation of
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS internal resistance techniques, respectively, when the SOCs
To validate the proposed fast charging technique on the are charged from 70% to 96.8%. It is obvious that for charging
LIB, a 7-level 3-cell CHB converter is used to obtain the current higher than 2C in the CC mode, the proposed
experimental results. The parameters of the grid-tied CHB technique can significantly improve the charging performance
converter is shown in Table I. The 4-cell, 14.8V, and due to the higher voltage drop of polarization parameters in
1300mAh Lipo battery is used on the experimental results. the higher charging current.
The picture of the hardware prototype which is used on the V. CONCLUSIONS
experiments is shown in Fig. 8. To apply the SHCM-PWM In this paper, a new controller for fast charging of the grid-
technique, optimization techniques [14-17] need to be used to tied CHB converters with the CC-CV was proposed. The
find the solutions that can meet the current harmonic limits of proposed technique can control the average current which is
IEEE 519 [13]. In this paper, the particle swarm optimization applied to each cell of the converter. Also, an estimation
technique [18-22] is used to obtain the solutions of the technique is proposed which does not need to use the open
SHCM-PWM technique [19-20]. The proposed technique is circuit voltage/SOC characteristics to estimate the parameters
applied to the single-phase CHB converter, however, the same of batteries. Finally, the experimental results validated the fast
technique for three-phase fast charging also can be used [23]. charging of batteries with the CC-CV charging technique with
In the first experimental result in Fig. 9, the time-domain the compensation of internal resistance and polarization
waveforms of the vac-CHB(t), vac-Grid(t), and iin(t) are shown in parameters of batteries than the other two techniques.
Fig. 9(a). The RMS of AC input current of the CHB converter
is 5.5A and the phase of AC current is 40 degree. The
harmonic spectrum of the AC input current iin(t) is shown in
Fig. 9(b). As shown all of the current harmonics meet the
IEEE 519 standard [13].
In the second experimental result in Fig. 10, the CC-CV
charging technique based on the proposed controller in Fig. 3
is shown. The SOCs of the batteries are charged from 70% to
96.8% for all of the three cases in Fig. 10, Fig.11, and Fig.12.
As shown in Fig. 10 (a) and Fig. 10 (b), the CC mode of the
batteries are ended in less than 395s and the batteries are Fig. 8, Hardware prototype of the 7-level 3-cell CHB converter.
charged in the CV mode up to 660s until the SOCs reach
96.8%. As shown in Fig. 10 (b), the batteries are controlled on
the constant voltage by using the proposed controller in Fig.3.
In the third experimental result in Fig. 11, the CC-CV
charging technique is shown, when the effect of internal
resistance is compensated by the proposed estimation
technique. As shown in Fig. 11 (a), due to the compensation of
Rin, the duration of time of the CC mode is increased up to
430s in comparison to Fig. 10(a). However, the duration of
time of the CV mode is increased up to 790s. This is due to
the fact that the injected current during the CV mode is much
lower in the CC-CV mode with the compensation of internal (a)
resistance than without any compensation of internal

3588
 (b)
Fig. 9, Time domain and harmonic spectrum waveforms of CHB converter
during 5.5A and 40degree charging mode during experiment, (a) the time (a)
domain of vac-CHB(t), vac-Grid(t), and iin(t), (b) the harmonic spectrum of iin(t).

(b)
(a)

(b) (c)
Fig. 11, CC-CV charging technique with the compensation of Rin based on
proposed controller for the CHB converter during experiment, (a) the average
currents of the first, second, and third cells, (b) the terminal voltages of the
CHB cells, (c) the SOC of the first cell.

(c)
Fig. 10, CC-CV charging technique based on proposed controller for the CHB
converter during experiment, (a) the average currents of the first, second, and
third cells, (b) the terminal voltages of the CHB cells, (c) the SOC of first the
cell. (a)

3589
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