7.

Climate Change & Energy Production

Sources
of Energy

Energy
Security

Energy Energy
Choices Efficiency

Figure 1 Understanding how sources of energy, energy efficiency and energy choices
impact the energy security of a society of a country.

Human
Activities

Atmospheric Weather Ocean

Circulatory & Circulatory
System System
Climate

Positive &
Negative
Feedback

Figure 2 The Analysing how different factors may impact the weather
and climate which enables us in understanding implications of global
warming.

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 7.1 Energy Choices & Security
7.1.1 Range of Energy Sources
Energy can be generated from both Renewable and Non-Renewable sources. The majority of the world’s fuel comes
from non-renewable sources which is unlikely to change by 2030.

7.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fossil Fuel Consumption:

Advantages Disadvantages
o Efficient source of energy which can be used as fuel o They are made from dead organisms and therefore
and also to generate electricity. contain high amounts of carbons which are
o Oil and Gas can be delivered over long distances released as carbon dioxide when they are burnt.
through pipelines. They are the most important contributor to global
o Relatively cheap and abundant for the present warming.
generation of users. They account for 80% of the o Use of fossil fuels is unsustainable as there is only a
global energy consumption. finite stock of this resource. They cannot be
o Advanced technology such as combustion engines replenished to the rate at which they extracted.
have enabled safe extraction. The technology to o They are difficult to extract and can often cause
control pollution from these fuels to a certain level extensive environmental damage owing to oil
also exists. spillages, burst pipelines, habitat clearance on the
surface of coal mines, deeper oil rigs, position of
rigs closer to the sea.

7.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of renewable energy sources:

Advantages Disadvantages
o They do not release pollutants such as greenhouse o Fossil fuel resources are still economically cheaper
gases or chemicals that contribute to acid rain. to exploit and remain the more feasible option for
o They require less overall maintenance than many.
generators that use traditional fuel sources. o The technologies to harness renewable sources are
o With renewable energy, one can produce energy not available on a large scale partly due to
locally. The more renewable energy one is using for geographic limitations and local political issues.
their needs, the less they’ll rely on imported o Many of these resources aren’t available 24/7,
energy, contributing to energy independence on year-round. There can be unpredictable weather
the whole. events that disrupt these technologies. Fossil fuels
are not intermittent and can be turned on or off at
any given time.

7.1.4 Characteristics of Particular Renewable Energy Sources:

Energy Source Advantages Disadvantages
Hydroelectric Power: o Cost is relatively low, making it a o Vast areas may be flooded.
Is generated when water contained in competitive source of renewable o Dams may restrict the flow of
an artificially made reservoir (created electricity. sediment thereby affecting
by damming a river) can flow through o The hydro station consumes no ecosystems or farming.
a turbine under immense pressure. water, unlike coal or gas plants. o They may lead to increased
The water turns the propellers which o Project produces no direct waste, erosion rates downstream.
and it has lower output level of o The cost of building dams is high,
cause rotation in the turbine shaft,
greenhouse gases than fossil fuel and dams may eventually silt-up,
which generates electricity in the
powered energy plants. rendering them unusable.
turbine’s motor.

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Tidal Power: o Tides are more predictable than the .
It produces energy by using the ebbing wind and the sun. o Such installations may interfere
or flooding tide to turn turbines which o Total availability of tidal power may with navigation and can have
produce energy. The turbines be much higher than previously impact on wildlife.
generate power as the tide comes in assumed and that economic and o They are expensive to set up.
and again as it goes out. environmental costs may be
brought down to competitive levels.
Solar Energy: o Renewable clean power is available o It is very expensive to turn solar
Solar panels are large flat panels made every day of the year, even cloudy energy into high-quality energy
up of many individual solar cells. days produce some power. needed for manufacturing
o Virtually no maintenance as solar (compared to using fossil fuels).
panels last over 30 years.
Wind Power: o It’s very cost effective and virtually o If there is no wind, no energy is
Is produced by wind turbines driven free. It is one of the lowest price generated.
by wind- the wind turns the rotor renewable technologies available. o Thus, placement of the turbines
blades which rotate a metal shaft that o Wind turbines use only a fraction of is critical: they need to be in
transfers the rotational energy into a the land which causes no trouble in areas of consistent high wind.
generator. work for the farmers.
Biofuel: o Biofuels are produced from wheat, o Biofuel crops are often planted
Is produced by burning plant material corn, soybeans and sugarcane at the expense of natural
to produce heat. The gas is recycled. which can be produced again and ecosystems, where new land
again on demand, so they are clearance to create space for the
sustainable. biofuel crop has destroyed the
natural ecosystem.
Wastes: o Resource used is readily available o Burning adds to global warming
Is the process of generating energy in and its use does not deplete natural gases in the atmosphere
the form of electricity and/or heat capital. (although it could be argued that
from the primary treatment of waste, o A useful purpose is being served by decomposition of the waste
or the processing of waste into a fuel waste that would otherwise have to would do this in any case).
source. It’s a form of energy recovery. be disposed of in some other way.
Geothermal Energy: o This method of heat transfer is low o High initial cost for individual
Mile-deep wells are dug into impact and does not release any households.
underground reservoirs to access the form of pollution. o Hard to be implemented for
steam and hot water, which are used o One can achieve savings of up to homeowners as piece of land
to drive turbines connected to 80% over conventional energy next to the house is required.
electricity generators. usage. o Building geothermal energy
o Use 25% to 50% less electricity than plants can affect seismic stability
conventional systems for heating or to a large extent.
cooling.

Nuclear Power: o It does not emit carbon dioxide and o Nuclear power plants produce
so does not contribute to global radioactive wastes. When people
Nuclear power is the use of nuclear warming. are exposed to such radiation,
reactions that release nuclear energy o The technology is readily available. the DNA in their cells can be
to generate heat, which most o A large amount of electrical energy damaged by mutation.
is generated in a single plant. o How best to dispose of nuclear
frequently is then used in steam
o It is very efficient, especially in waste is still an unresolved
turbines to produce electricity in a
comparison to fossil fuels: 1 kg problem.
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nuclear power plant. Nuclear power uranium contains 20 000 times o It is impossible to build a plant
can be obtained from nuclear fission, more energy than 1 kg coal. with 100 percent reliability, and
nuclear decay and nuclear fusion there will always be a small
reactions. probability of failure (e.g. the
Chernobyl disaster).

7.1.5 Energy Security

o Is a country’s ability to secure all its energy needs whereas energy insecurity refers to a lack of security over
energy sources.
o Energy insecurity can cause and be the result of geopolitical tension.
o For most consumers, a diversified energy mix is the best policy, rather than depending on a single supplier.

7.1.6 Factors affecting the choice of energy generation

o The availability and reliability
of supply
o Sustainability of supply
o Scientific and technological
development
o Political & Economic factors
o Cultural attitudes
o Environmental factors

7.1.7 Ways to Achieve Greater

Efficiency through Energy
Conservation
o Smart meters
o Enhanced environmental
standards.
o Reduced energy use and
emissions of carbon dioxide Figure 3 1 TJ = 1000 gigajoules. The world’s energy sources, 1970–2030
o Reduction of waste
o Improved thermal efficiency of walls and windows
o Reduction of heat loss between inner and outer walls
o Energy-efficient domestic appliances
o Improved daylighting by larger windows

Sustainability
The use of resources at such a rate that allows natural regeneration and/ or minimizes damage to the environment.

Why Save?
Energy saving is the quickest, most cost- effective way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It also reduces the use
of scarce resources.

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 Figure 4 Relative contributions of different sources of commercial energy by world region.

Figure 5 Nuclear (a) Nuclear energy consumption and (b) hydro energy consumption by region.

Exam Tips

 You should be able to discuss the factors that affect the choice of energy resources of two different
societies. These could be two types of country (MEDC/ LEDC) or could be two different societies within
the same country (e.g. indigenous population and advanced-urban population in Brazil or Australia).
 Improvements in energy efficiencies and energy conservation can limit growth in energy demand and
contribute to energy security.

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 7.2 Climate Change, Causes and Impact

7.2.2 Ocean Circulatory Systems

Warm ocean currents move water away from the equator, whereas cold ocean currents move water away from cold
regions towards the equator. The major currents move huge masses of water over long distances.

Specific Heat Capacity- Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy it takes to raise the temperature of 1 g
of substance by 1 °C. It takes more energy to heat up water than it does to heat land. However, it takes
longer for water to lose heat. Hence, land is hotter than the sea by day, but colder than the sea by night.

Surface Ocean Currents- Surface ocean currents are caused by the influence of prevailing winds blowing
across the sea. The dominant pattern of surface ocean currents (known as gyres) is roughly circular. The
pattern of these currents is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the southern
hemisphere. The effect of surface ocean currents on temperatures depends on whether the current is cold
or warm.

7.2.3 Atmospheric Circulatory Systems

 Air Motion- The basic cause of air motion is the unequal heating of Earth’s surface. Variable heating of the
Earth causes variations in pressure and this in turn sets
the air in motion.

 Pressure Variations- Pressure is measured in

millibars (mb) and is represented on maps by isobars,
lines of equal pressure. The trend of pressure change is
of more importance than the actual reading itself.
Decline in pressure indicates wetter weather and rising
pressure indicates drier weather.

 General Circulation Models- In 1735, George Hadley

described the operation of the Hadley cell to explain
atmospheric circulation. He suggested that direct heating
Figure 6 The effect of the sea on temperatures in coastal of low latitudes forces air to rise by convection, the air
margins. then travels towards the poles but sinks at the
subtropical anticyclone (high pressure belt). Hadley
suggested that similar cells might exist in mid latitudes and high latitudes.

7.2.4 Greenhouse Gases and Human Activities

The quantity of greenhouse gases emitted by any individual country depends on its economy, level of development,
and societal expectations. Transport, a lifestyle with expectations of air conditioning, and other high-energy
demands at home and work all lead to the high fuel economy seen there. Over the past 100 years, atmospheric
concentrations of these gases have risen dramatically.

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 Figure 7 Characteristics of greenhouse gases.

Figure 8 Global Emissions by Gas in Percentage. Source: IPCC, 2014

7.2.5 Effects of Global Warming

Feature Effect or Impact
Environmental Features
Ice & Snow Melting of polar ice caps and glaciers
Coastlines Increase in sea level causing coastal flooding

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 Water Cycle Increased flooding; more rapid circulation; decrease in water availability; change
in annual precipitation; extreme tidal levels
Ecosystems Change in biome distribution and species composition (e.g. poleward and
altitudinal migration); loss of biodiversity and habitats (e.g. Australia bushfires);
ocean acidification; extinction of wildlife species
Weather An increase in storm activity such as more frequent and intense hurricanes is likely
(because of more atmospheric energy)
Societal Features
Water Resources Severe water shortages and possibly wars over supply; droughts and famines
Agriculture May shift towards poles (away from drought areas); change in distribution of crop
growing areas; food shortages; drop in crop yield
Coastal Residential Locations Relocation due to flooding and storms
Human Health Increased disease (e.g. risk of malaria)
Industries Tourism, and other non essential industries may be affected

7.2.6 Feedback and Global Warming

Positive Feedback Negative Feedback
May involve greater thawing of permafrost, leading to May involve increased evaporation in tropical latitudes,
an escalation in methane levels, which increases the leading to increased snowfall on the polar ice caps. The
mean global temperature. As methane is a greenhouse surface of snow and ice is very reflective so the albedo
gas, it has the potential to increase temperatures, is increased. Increased reflectivity reduces the amount
thereby reinforcing the rise in temperature. of solar radiation received and so lowers temperatures.

7.2.7 Climate Sensitivity

Is a measure of how much the Earth's climate will cool or warm after a change in the climate system, for instance,
how much it will warm for doubling in carbon dioxide concentrations?

7.2.8 Uncertainty of Climate Models

These are very complex as they cover the whole of the Earth (and beyond) and try to integrate atmospheric, oceanic,
terrestrial, lithospheric, hydrological, and human systems. In addition, the further forward in time scientists try to
predict, the less accurate their estimates are.

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 7.3 Climate change- Mitigation and Adaptation
7.3.1 Mitigation
Mitigation involves reduction and/or stabilization of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
and their removal from the atmosphere. It aims to reduce the causes of climate change. Mitigation can be achieved
through:
o Reduction of Energy Consumption- Energy consumption could be reduced in many ways, e.g. by using public
transport, using locally produced foods, turning off appliances when not in use, becoming vegetarian/vegan,
installing better insulation in homes.

o Decarbonization- It refers to a large reduction of carbon dioxide per value of gross world product. Since
most of the carbon dioxide comes
from burning fossil fuels, a sharp
reduction in the use of fossil fuels or
a large-scale system to capture and
sequester the carbon dioxide is
needed. There are three key steps
to decarbonization:
o Energy efficiency
o Reducing the emissions of
carbon dioxide per
megawatt hour of
electricity generated
o Fuel shift- from direct use of
fossil fuels to electricity Figure 9 Thames Barrier which protects London from tidal flooding. Rising sea levels
will mean the Barrier is closed more frequently.
based on clean primary
energy
o Reductions of emissions of oxides of nitrogen and methane from agriculture- ¾th of all agricultural land is
used for livestock production which is the single biggest source of habitat destruction. The livestock sector is
also responsible for 15% of global man made emissions.
o Alternatives to fossil fuels- The use of alternative energy sources would reduce emissions of carbon dioxide.
These alternative energy sources include hydroelectric power and solar power. They do not produce carbon
dioxide when they are operating although carbon dioxide is released during the construction of the facilities.
However, only certain places have the potential to produce alternative energy supplies.
o Geoengineering- Using the sulfate aerosol particles in the air to dim the incoming sunlight and thereby cool
the planet to offset the warming effects of carbon dioxide; or placing giant mirrors in space to deflect some
of the incoming solar radiation are some
radical ideas suggested by scientists. Exam Tips
o Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) techniques Some climate change “solutions” may be an example
o UN-REDD Programmer
of both mitigation and adaptation. Afforestation is an
o Biomass
example of mitigation (use as a renewable energy
o Carbon Capture and Sequestration
source with carbon capture to reduce the emissions of
(CSS)
o Enhancing carbon dioxide absorption carbon) and a form of adaptation (to store increased
atmospheric carbon).
7.3.2 Adaptation
Adaptation refers to efforts to live with the consequences of climate change. Adaptation includes measures such as
protecting cities from storm surges and protecting crops from high temperatures and droughts.

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7.3.3 Policy Changes
Carbon dioxide imposes high costs on society (including future generations) but those
who emit the carbon dioxide do not pay for the social costs that they cause? The result
is the lack of a market incentive to shift from fossil fuels to the alternatives.
Carbon Taxes Carbon Trading Carbon Offset Schemes
o Some countries are introducing o Carbon trading is an attempt to o Carbon offset schemes are
taxes to encourage producers to create a market in which designed to neutralize the
reduce emissions of carbon permits issued by governments effects of the carbon dioxide
dioxide. to emit carbon dioxide can be that are produced by human
o These environmental taxes can traded. activities by investing in projects
be implemented by taxing the o Governments set targets for the that cut emissions elsewhere.
burning of fossil fuels in amount of carbon dioxide that o Companies typically buy carbon
proportion to their carbon can be emitted by industries; credits from projects that plant
content. they are divided between trees or encourage a switch
o These taxes are most effective if individual plants or companies. from fossil fuels to renewable
they are applied internationally, Plants that exceed that limit are energy.
but are also valuable nationally. forced to buy permits from o Offsets are dangerous because
others that do not. they dissuade people from
o The system works by putting a changing their behaviour.
limit on total emissions.

7.3.4 Politics of Carbon Dioxide Mitigation & Adaptation

o Kyoto Protocol
Is an agreement signed by 183 countries in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. The countries aimed for the stabilization of
greenhouse gas emissions at safe levels that would avoid serious climate change. They concurred to cut
greenhouse gas emissions by 5% of their 1990 levels by 2012. It is currently the only legally binding international
agreement that seeks to tackle the challenges of global warming.

o Paris Agreement
The Paris Agreement is an agreement within the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), dealing with greenhouse-gas-
emissions mitigation, adaptation, and finance, signed in 2016. The key
objective is to limit global warming to 2°C compared with pre-industrial
levels. It also seeks for zero net greenhouse gas emissions between 2050
and 2100. However, there is no mechanism to force a country to set a
specific target, nor is there any measure to penalize countries if their targets
are not met.

o The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

The IPCC is the international body for assessing the science related to
climate change. It was set up by the WMO and UNEP to provide
policymakers with regular assessments of climate change, its impacts and
future risks. IPCC assessments provide a scientific basis for governments at
all levels to develop climate-related policies. The report also states that
behavioral changes, such as dietary changes that could involve eating less
Figure 10 Changing patterns in carbon meat, can have a role in cutting emissions.
emissions.

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o National Adaptation Programmes of Action
A NAPA is a plan submitted by an LEDC to the UNFCCC to outline the country’s perception of its urgent and
immediate needs to adapt to climate change. Completing a NAPA makes LEDCs eligible for project funding from
the Global Environment Facility (GEF).

What ‘The Game Changers’, a Netflix documentary shows:

A switch from a meat-based diet to a plant based one could solve global problems of water depletion,
water pollution, increased carbon emissions and biodiversity loss.

o Globally, a shift to a plant-based diet would free up a total area of land the size of Africa taking
the pressure of many endangered ecosystems & species.
o Livestock sector (including meat, fish & dairy farming) uses 83% of the World’s farmland yet
provides only 18% of the world’s calories.
o With more than 70 billion animals consumed globally each year, growing animals require vast
amounts of land, making it the leading driver of deforestation.
o Livestock farming requires a large amount of freshwater to produce animal feed. This has
resulted in 25% of the world’s rivers no longer reaching the ocean. Eg: one hamburger is 2,400
litres of embedded water.
o Farm animals produce 50 times more waste per year than the entire human population,
polluting rivers, lakes and groundwater. The livestock sector is also responsible for 15% of
global man-made emissions.

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