The ASAM

NATIONAL
PRACTICE
GUIDELINE
The ASAM National Practice Guideline 2020 Focused Update

For the Treatment of

Opioid Use Disorder
2020 Focused Update
Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019.
© Copyright 2020. American Society of Addiction Medicine, Inc. All rights reserved. Permission to make digital or hard copies of
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 CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE

The ASAM National Practice Guideline for the Treatment of

Opioid Use Disorder: 2020 Focused Update
2020 Focused Update Guideline Committee members Kyle Kampman, MD, Chair
(alpha order): Daniel Langleben, MD
Chinazo Cunningham, MD, MS, FASAM Ben Nordstrom, MD, PhD
Mark J. Edlund, MD, PhD David Oslin, MD
Marc Fishman, MD, DFASAM George Woody, MD
Adam J. Gordon, MD, MPH, FACP, DFASAM Tricia Wright, MD, MS
Hendrée E. Jones, PhD Stephen Wyatt, DO
Kyle M. Kampman, MD, FASAM, Chair 2015 ASAM Quality Improvement Council (alpha order):
Daniel Langleben, MD John Femino, MD, FASAM
Marjorie Meyer, MD Margaret Jarvis, MD, FASAM, Chair
Sandra Springer, MD, FASAM Margaret Kotz, DO, FASAM
George Woody, MD Sandrine Pirard, MD, MPH, PhD
Tricia E. Wright, MD, MS, FACOG, DFASAM Robert J. Roose, MD, MPH
Stephen Wyatt, DO, FAOAAM, FASAM, Co-Chair Alexis Geier-Horan, ASAM Staff
2019 Focused Update ASAM Quality Improvement Coun- Beth Haynes, ASAM Staff
cil (alpha order): Penny S. Mills, MBA, ASAM, Executive Vice-President
John Femino, MD, DFASAM Special External Reviewer:
Kenneth Freedman, MD, MS, MBA, DFASAM, FACP, Michael M. Miller, MD, FASAM, FAPA
AGAF Chair 2015 Treatment Research Institute Technical Team Mem-
R. Jeffrey Goldsmith, MD, DLFAPA, DFASAM bers (alpha order):
Barbara Herbert, MD, DFASAM Amanda Abraham, PhD
Margaret Jarvis, MD, DFASAM Karen Dugosh, PhD
Margaret Kotz, DO, DFASAM David Festinger, PhD
P. Stephen Novack, DO, MHCDS Kyle Kampman, MD, Principal Investigator
David R. Pating, MD, FASAM Keli McLoyd, JD
Sandrine Pirard, MD, PhD, MPH, FAPA, FASAM Brittany Seymour, BA
Maureen Boyle, PhD, ASAM Staff Abigail Woodworth, MS
Taleen Safarian, ASAM Staff Disclosure information for the 2015 Guideline Com-
Leah White, ASAM Staff mittee members, the ASAM Quality Improvement Council,
2019 Focused Update Research Triangle Institute Interna- and external reviewers is available respectively in Appendices
tional (RTI) Team Members (alpha order): IV, V, and VI
Karen Crotty, PhD, MPH, Principal Investigator ASAM is honored that this clinical practice guideline
Mark Edlund, MD, PhD has been endorsed by:
Janice Tzeng, MPH
Meera Viswanathan, PhD American Academy of Physician Assistants
Brittany Zulkiewicz, BS American Association of Nurse Anesthetists
Disclosure information for the 2019 focused update American College of Nurse-Midwives
Guideline Committee members and the ASAM Quality American College of Preventive Medicine
Improvement Council is available, respectively, in Appendi- American Osteopathic Academy of Addiction Medicine
ces VII and VIII. Federation of State Physician Health Programs
International Nurses Society on Addictions
2015 Guideline Committee Members (alpha order): National Association of Addiction Treatment Providers
Sandra Comer, PhD
Table of Contents
Chinazo Cunningham, MD, MS
Marc J. Fishman, MD, FASAM Abbreviations and Acronyms 3
Adam Gordon, MD, MPH, FASAM National Practice Guideline Glossary 3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7
Purpose 7
Received for publication January 8, 2020; accepted January 13, 2020. Background Updated 7
Copyright ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine Scope of Guideline 8
ISSN: 1932-0620/20/1402S-0001 Intended Audience 8
DOI: 10.1097/ADM.0000000000000633 Qualifying Statement 8

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 1

White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

Overview of Methodology 8 Transitioning Between Treatment Medications 47

2019 Focused Update New 8 Summary of Recommendations – Naltrexone 47
Summary of Recommendations 10 PART 7: PSYCHOSOCIAL TREATMENT IN CONJUNCTION 47
INTRODUCTION 17 WITH MEDICATIONS FOR THE TREATMENT OF OPIOID
Purpose 17 USE DISORDER
Background on Opioid Use Disorder 17 Background 47
Epidemiology 17 Goals of Psychosocial Treatment for Opioid Use Disorder 48
Mortality and Morbidity 17 Components of Psychosocial Treatment for Opioid Use Disorder 48
Scope of Guideline 18 Efficacy of Psychosocial Treatments in Opioid Use Disorder 48
Included and Excluded Medications 18 Peer Support and Mutual-Help Programs 48
Intended Audience 18 Adherence to Psychosocial Treatment Within Overall Treatment 49
Qualifying Statement 18 Psychosocial Treatment and Treatment with Methadone, 49
METHODOLOGY 19 Buprenorphine, or Naltrexone
Overview of Approach 19 Summary of Recommendations – Psychosocial Treatment in 49
2015 Guideline Development 19 Conjunction With Medications for the Treatment of Opioid Use
2019 Focused Update New 21 Disorder
PART 1: ASSESSMENT AND DIAGNOSIS OF OPIOID USE 22 PART 8: SPECIAL POPULATIONS: PREGNANT WOMEN 49
DISORDER Background 49
Comprehensive Assessment 22 Assessment of Opioid Use Disorder in Pregnant Women 50
Medical History 22 Medical Examination 50
Physical Examination 23 Opioid Agonist Treatment in Pregnancy 51
Assessment and History Considerations Specific to Females 23 Naltrexone in Pregnancy 51
Laboratory Tests 23 Naloxone in Pregnancy 51
Assessment for Mental Health Status and Psychiatric Disorder 23 Methadone Initiation 51
Assessment for Substance Use and Treatment History 24 Buprenorphine Initiation 52
Assessment for Co-occurring Substance Use 24 Dosing of Opioid Agonists During Pregnancy 52
Assessment for Nicotine Use 24 Postpartum Treatment 52
Assessment of Psychosocial and Environmental Factors 25 Breastfeeding 53
Diagnosing Opioid Use Disorder 25 Summary of Recommendations – Special Populations: Pregnant 53
DSM-5 Criteria for Diagnosis 25 Women
Summary of Recommendations 26 PART 9: SPECIAL POPULATIONS: INDIVIDUALS WITH PAIN 54
PART 2: TREATMENT OPTIONS 27 Background 54
Introduction 27 General Considerations for All Patients With Pain 54
Pharmacotherapy Options 27 Pain Management in Patients with Opioid Use Disorder 54
Opioid Dosing Considerations: Opioid Use Disorder Versus Chronic 28 Buprenorphine and Pain Management 55
Pain Naltrexone and Pain Management 55
Efficacy Considerations 28 Considerations for Surgery 55
Medication Management 31 Summary of Recommendations – Special Populations: Individuals 56
Length of Treatment 32 With Pain
PART 3: TREATING OPIOID WITHDRAWAL 33 PART 10: SPECIAL POPULATIONS: ADOLESCENTS 57
Background 33 Background 57
Assessment of Patients for Opioid Withdrawal 33 Confidentiality in Treatment 57
Medications in Opioid Withdrawal 34 Pharmacotherapy Options for Adolescents 57
Summary of Recommendations – Treating Opioid Withdrawal 35 Opioid Agonists: Methadone and Buprenorphine 57
PART 4: METHADONE 36 Efficacy Research on Agonists and Partial Agonists in Adolescents 57
Background 36 Opioid Antagonist: Naltrexone 57
PATIENT SELECTION AND TREATMENT GOALS 36 Psychosocial Treatment for Adolescents 57
COURSE OF TREATMENT 36 Summary of Recommendations – Special Populations: Adolescents 58
TRANSITIONING BETWEEN TREATMENT MEDICATIONS 38 PART 11: SPECIAL POPULATIONS: INDIVIDUALS WITH CO- 58
Summary of Recommendations – Methadone 39 OCCURRING PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS
PART 5: BUPRENORPHINE 39 Background 58
Background 39 Assessment of Psychiatric Co-occurrence 58
Formulations of Buprenorphine 40 Co-occurring Psychiatric Disorders and Suicide Risk 59
Patient Selection and Treatment Goals 40 Considerations with Specific Psychiatric Disorders 59
Precautions 40 Co-occurring Psychiatric Disorders and Agonist Treatment 59
Dosing 42 Co-occurring Psychiatric Disorders and Antagonist Treatment 59
Length of Treatment 43 Summary of Recommendations – Special Populations: Individuals 59
Transitioning Between Treatment Medications 43 With Co-occurring Psychiatric Disorders
Summary of Recommendations – Buprenorphine 44 PART 12: SPECIAL POPULATIONS: INDIVIDUALS IN THE 60
PART 6: NALTREXONE 44 CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
Background 44 Background 60
Formulations of Naltrexone: Oral Versus Extended-Release 45 Effectiveness of Pharmacotherapy 60
Injectable Treatment Options 61
Patient Selection and Treatment Goals 45 Summary of Recommendations – Special Populations: Individuals 62
Oral Naltrexone 45 in the Criminal Justice System
Extended-Release Injectable Naltrexone 45 PART 13: NALOXONE FOR THE prevention OF OPIOID 62
Precautions 45 OVERDOSE DEATH
Risk of Relapse and Subsequent Opioid Overdose 45 Introduction 62
Course of Treatment 45 Patients and Significant Others/Family Members 63
Initiation 45 Individuals Trained and Authorized to Use Naloxone 63
Dosing 46 Safety and Efficacy of Bystander Administered Naloxone 63
Adverse Effects 46 Routes of Administration 63

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Summary of Recommendations – Naloxone for the Treatment 63 NIDA – National Institute on Drug Abuse
of Opioid Overdose NIAAA – National Institute on Alcohol Abuse
PART 14: AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 64
Assessment and Diagnosis of Opioid Use Disorder (Part 1) 64 and Alcoholism
Treatment Options (Part 2) 64 NOWS – Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Syndrome
Opioid Withdrawal Management (Part 3) 64 NSAIDs – Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs
Methadone (Part 4) 64 NSDUH – National Survey on Drug Use and Health
Buprenorphine (Part 5) 64
Naltrexone (Part 6) 64
OBOT – Office-Based Opioid Treatment
Psychosocial Treatment in Conjunction With Medications for the 65 OOWS – Objective Opioid Withdrawal Scale
Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder (Part 7) OTP – Opioid Treatment Program
Special Populations: Pregnant Women (Part 8) 65 PMDP – Prescription Drug Monitoring Program
Special Population: Individuals With Pain (Part 9) 65 RCT – Randomized Controlled Trial
Special Populations: Adolescents (Part 10) 65
Special Populations: Individuals With Co-Occurring Psychiatric 65 RAM – RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method
Disorders (Part 11) SAMHSA – Substance Abuse and Mental Health
Special Populations: Individuals in the Criminal Justice System 65 Services Administration
(Part 12) SMART – Self-Management and Recovery Therapy
Naloxone for the Treatment of Opioid Overdose (Part 13) 65
References 66
SOWS – Subjective Opioid Withdrawal Scale
APPENDICES 71 TB – Tuberculosis
Appendix I: Included Clinical Guidelines and Systematic Reviews: 71 UROD – Ultra-rapid Opioid Detoxification
Appendix II: Bioequivalence Information and Charts 75
Appendix III: Overview of Opioid Use Disorder Pharmacotherapy 76
Options National Practice Guideline Glossary
Appendix IV: Available Pharmacotherapy Formulations 77 Abstinence: Intentional and consistent restraint from
Appendix V: 2019 Guideline Committee Member Relationships with 78 the pathological pursuit of reward and/or relief that involves
Industry and Other Entities the use of substances and other behaviors. These behaviors
Appendix VI: 2019 ASAM Board of Directors Relationships with 81
Industry and Other Entities
may involve, but are not necessarily limited to substance use,
Appendix VII: 2019 ASAM Quality Improvement Council (Oversight 87 gambling, video gaming, or compulsive sexual behaviors.1
Committee) Relationships with Industry and Other Entities Use of FDA approved medications for the treatment of
Appendix VIII: External Reviewer Relationships with Industry and 88 substance use disorder is consistent with abstinence.
Other Entities (2019 Guideline Development Process) Abuse: This term is not recommended for use in clinical
or research contexts. Harmful use of a specific psychoactive
substance. When used to mean substance abuse, this term
Abbreviations and Acronyms previously applied to one category of psychoactive substance-
related disorders in the DSM. While recognizing that the term
AA – Alcoholics Anonymous abuse is part of past diagnostic terminology, ASAM recom-
ACOG – American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology mends that an alternative term be found for this purpose
ACT – Assertive Community Treatment because of the pejorative connotations of the word abuse.
AIDS – Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Addiction: Addiction is a treatable, chronic medical dis-
ASAM – American Society of Addiction Medicine ease involving complex interactions among brain circuits, genet-
CBT – Cognitive Behavioral Therapy ics, the environment, and an individual’s life experiences. People
CDC – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention with addiction use substances or engage in behaviors that become
CNS – Central Nervous System compulsive and often continue despite harmful consequences.
COWS – Clinical Opioid Withdrawal Scale Prevention efforts and treatment approaches for addiction are
DATA 2000 – Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000 generally as successful as those for other chronic diseases.
DEA – Drug Enforcement Agency Addiction specialist clinician: A health professional
DSM-4 – Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental involved in the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of addic-
Disorders, 4th Edition tion, such as a physician, psychologist, nurse practitioners
DSM-5 – Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental (NPs), physician assistants (PA), clinical nurse specialists,
Disorders, 5th Edition certified registered nurse anesthetists, certified nurse mid-
ECG – Electrocardiogram wives (as distinguished from one specializing in research).
EMS – Emergency Medical Services Addiction specialist physician: Addiction specialist
FDA – U.S. Food and Drug Administration physicians include addiction medicine physicians and addic-
HBV – Hepatitis B Virus tion psychiatrists who hold either a subspecialty board certi-
HCV – Hepatitis C Virus fication in addiction medicine from the American Board of
HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus Preventive Medicine, a board certification in addiction medi-
IDU – Injection Drug Use cine from the American Board of Addiction Medicine, a
IM – Intramuscular subspecialty board certification in addiction psychiatry from
IV – Intravenous the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology, a subspe-
NA – Narcotics Anonymous cialty board certification in addiction medicine from the
NAS Neonatal Absence Syndrome American Osteopathic Association, or certification in addic-
NIH – National Institutes of Health tion medicine from ASAM.

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

Adherence (see also compliance): Adherence is a term implication as to which disorder is primary and which sec-
that health professionals have been using increasingly to ondary, which disorder occurred first, or whether one disorder
replace the term compliance. Both terms have been used, caused the other.
sometimes interchangeably, to refer to how closely patients Compliance: See also Adherence. To comply is ‘‘to
cooperate with, follow, and take personal responsibility for the act in accordance with another’s wishes, or with rules and
implementation of their treatment plans. The terms may be regulations’’ (Webster’s Dictionary). The term compliance
narrowly applied to how well patients follow medication is falling into disuse because patient engagement and
instructions or, more broadly, to all components of treatment. responsibility to change is a goal beyond passive compli-
Assessment of patients’ efforts to accomplish the goals of a ance. Given the importance of shared decision-making to
treatment plan is essential to treatment success. These efforts improve collaboration and outcomes, patients are encour-
occur along a complex spectrum from independent proactive aged to actively participate in treatment decisions and
commitment, to mentored collaboration, to passive coopera- take responsibility for their treatment, rather than to pas-
tion, to reluctant partial agreement, to active resistance, and to sively comply.
full refusal. Attempts to understand factors that promote or Concomitant conditions: Medical conditions (e.g.,
inhibit adherence/compliance must take into account behav- HIV, cardiovascular disease) and/or psychiatric conditions
iors, attitudes, willingness, and varying degrees of capacity (e.g., depression, schizophrenia) that occur along with a
and autonomy. The term adherence emphasizes the patient’s substance use disorder.
collaboration and participation in treatment. It contributes to a Contingency management: An evidence-based psy-
greater focus on motivational enhancement approaches that chosocial intervention in which patients are given tangible
engage and empower patients. rewards to reinforce positive behaviors such as treatment
Adolescence: The American Academy of Pediatrics participation or abstinence. Also referred to as motivational
categorizes adolescence as the totality of three developmental incentives.
stages (early-, middle- and late-adolescence)—puberty to Criminal Justice System: Consists of law enforcement
adulthood—that occur generally between 11 and 21 years agencies, courts and accompanying prosecution and defense
of age.1 This clinically-driven definition may differ from lawyers, and agencies for detaining and supervising offenders.
legal definitions. The total correctional population is the population of persons
Agonist medication: See Opioid Agonist Medication. incarcerated, either in a prison or a jail, and persons super-
Antagonist medication: See Opioid Antagonist Medi- vised in the community, either through problem solving courts
cation. or on probation or parole.
ASAM Criteria dimensions: The ASAM Criteria use Dependence: Used in three different ways: physical
six dimensions to define a holistic biopsychosocial assess- dependence is a state of neurological adaptation that is
ment of an individual to be used for service and treatment manifested by a drug class-specific withdrawal syndrome
planning including: acute intoxication or withdrawal poten- that can be produced by abrupt cessation, rapid dose reduc-
tial; biomedical conditions and complications; emotional, tion, decreasing blood level of the drug, and/or administration
behavioral, or cognitive conditions or complications; readi- of an antagonist; psychological dependence is a subjective
ness for change; continued use or continued problem poten- sense of need for a specific psychoactive substance, either for
tial; and recovery/living environment.2 its positive effects or to avoid negative effects associated with
Assertive community treatment (ACT): An evidence- its abstinence; and one category of psychoactive substance use
based, outreach-oriented, service delivery model for people disorder in previous editions of the DSM, but not in DSM-5.3
with severe and persistent mental illness(es) that uses a Harm reduction: A treatment and prevention approach
team-based model to provide comprehensive and flexible that encompasses individual and public health needs, aiming
treatment. to decrease the health and socioeconomic costs and conse-
Clinician: A health professional involved in the assess- quences of substance use and addiction-related problems,
ment, diagnosis, and treatment of medical problems, such as a especially medical complications and transmission of infec-
physician, psychologist, nurse practitioners (NPs), physician tious diseases, without necessarily requiring abstinence. A
assistants (PA), clinical nurse specialists, certified registered range of treatment and recovery support activities may be
nurse anesthetists, certified nurse midwives (as distinguished included in a harm reduction strategy.
from one specializing in research). Initiation (office and home): The phase of opioid use
Cognitive behavioral therapy: An evidence-based disorder treatment during which medication dosage levels are
psychosocial intervention that seeks to modify harmful beliefs adjusted until a patient attains stabilization. Buprenorphine
and maladaptive behaviors, and help patients recognize, initiation may take place in an office-based setting or home-
avoid, and cope with the situations in which they are most based setting. By regulation, methadone initiation must take
likely to misuse substances. place in an OTP or acute care setting (under limited circum-
Co-occurring disorders: Concurrent substance use and stances).4,5 The previous version of these guidelines used the
physical or mental disorders. Other terms used to describe co- term induction. While the meaning is the same in this context,
occurring disorders include dual diagnosis, dual disorders, the Guideline Committee noted that this language did not
concurrent disorders, coexisting disorders, comorbid disor- align with the terminology used for other medical conditions
ders, and individuals with co-occurring psychiatric and sub- and can make the process sound more difficult and complex
stance symptomatology (ICOPSS). Use of the term carries no than it is.

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 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

Illicit opioid use (including nonmedical use): Use of 3. Technical definition: A collaborative, goal-oriented style
an illicit opioid or the use of a prescribed medicine for reasons of communication with particular attention to the language
other than those intended by the prescriber, for example, to of change. It is designed to strengthen personal motivation
produce positive or negative reward. Nonmedical use of pre- for and commitment to a specific goal by eliciting and
scription drugs often includes use of a drug in higher doses than exploring the person’s own reasons for change within an
authorized by the prescriber or through a different route of atmosphere of acceptance and compassion.
administration than intended by the prescriber, and for a Naloxone challenge: Naloxone is a short-acting opioid
purpose other than the indication intended by the prescriber antagonist. Naloxone challenge is a test in which naloxone is
(e.g., the use of methylphenidate prescribed for attention deficit administered to patients to evaluate their level of opioid
hyperactivity disorder [ADHD] to produce euphoria rather than dependence before the commencement of naltrexone phar-
to reduce symptoms or dysfunction from ADHD). macotherapy.
Maintenance medication(s): Pharmacotherapy on a Naltrexone-facilitated opioid withdrawal manage-
consistent schedule for persons with addiction, usually with ment: This is a method of withdrawal management that
an agonist or partial agonist, which mitigates against the involves the use of multiple small doses of naltrexone,
pathological pursuit of reward and/or relief and allows remis- sometimes in combination with buprenorphine, over several
sion of overt addiction-related problems. days to manage withdrawal and facilitate the initiation of
Maintenance medications for addiction are associated treatment with naltrexone.4
with the development of a pharmacological steady state in Narcotic drugs: Legally defined by the Controlled
which receptors for addictive substances are occupied, result- Substances Act in the United States since its enactment in
ing in relative or complete blockade of central nervous system 1970. The term narcotic is broad and can include drugs
receptors such that addictive substances are no longer sought produced directly or indirectly by extraction from substances
for reward and/or relief. Maintenance medications for addic- of vegetable origin, or independently by means of chemical
tion are also designed to mitigate against the risk of overdose. synthesis, or by a combination of extraction and chemical
Depending on the circumstances of a given case, maintenance synthesis. The main compounds defined as narcotics in the
medications can be temporary or can remain in place lifelong. United States include: opium, opiates, derivatives of opium
Integration of pharmacotherapy with psychosocial treatment and opiates, including their isomers, esters, ethers, salts, and
generally is associated with the best clinical results. Mainte- salts of isomers, esters, ethers (but not the isoquinoline
nance medications can be part of an individual’s treatment alkaloids of opium), poppy straw and concentrate of poppy
plan in abstinence-based recovery activities or can be a part of straw, coca leaves, cocaine, its salts, optical and geometric
harm reduction strategies. isomers, and salts of isomers and ecgonine, its derivatives,
Medication management: Services that focus on the their salts, isomers, and salts of isomers. Any compound,
appropriateness, effectiveness, and safety of medications for a mixture, or preparation which contains any quantity of any of
given patient. These services include monitoring and evalu- the substances referred to above.
ating the patient’s response to medication (including ongoing Neuroadaptation: See Tolerance for the definition.
misuse of substances); dose titration as clinically indicated; Office-based opioid treatment (OBOT): Clinicians in
education to ensure the patient understands their treatment private practices or several types of public sector clinics that
plan, how to take their medications, potential side effects, and can be authorized to prescribe the partial opioid agonist
the importance of adherence; and provision of recommenda- buprenorphine in outpatient settings. There is no regulation,
tions for other treatment and recovery support services as per se, of the clinic site itself, but of the individual clinician
indicated. These services are intended to promote ongoing who prescribes buprenorphine.
engagement in treatment, optimize the patient’s medication Opiate: One of a group of alkaloids derived from the
response, and prevent relapse. opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), with the ability to induce
Moderation management: Moderation management is analgesia, euphoria, and, in higher doses, stupor, coma, and
a behavioral change program and national support group respiratory depression. The term excludes synthetic opioids.
network for people concerned about their drinking and who Opioid: A current term for any psychoactive chemical
desire to make positive lifestyle changes. MM empowers that resembles morphine in pharmacological effects, includ-
individuals to accept personal responsibility for choosing ing opiates and synthetic/semisynthetic agents that exert their
and maintaining their own path, whether moderation or effects by binding to highly selective receptors in the brain
abstinence. MM promotes early self-recognition of risky where morphine and endogenous opioids affect their actions.
drinking behavior, when moderate drinking is a more easily Opioid agonist medication: Opioid agonist medica-
achievable goal. tions pharmacologically occupy and activate opioid receptors
Motivational interviewing: in the body. They thereby relieve withdrawal symptoms and
reduce or extinguish cravings for opioids.
1. Layperson’s definition: A collaborative conversation style Opioid antagonist medication: Opioid antagonist
for strengthening a person’s own motivation and commit- medications pharmacologically occupy opioid receptors,
ment to change. but do not activate the receptors. This effectively blocks
2. Practitioner’s definition: A person-centered counseling the receptor, preventing the brain from responding to other
style for addressing the common problem of ambivalence opioids. The result is that further use of opioids does not
about change. produce analgesia, euphoria or intoxication.1

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Opioid intoxication: A condition that may follow the days after the last dose; symptoms peak between the third and
administration of opioids, resulting in disturbances in the level of eighth day and may persist for several weeks.
consciousness, cognition, perception, judgment, affect, behavior, Overdose: The inadvertent or deliberate consumption
or other psychophysiological functions and responses. These of a dose much larger than that either habitually used by the
disturbances are related to the acute pharmacological effects individual or ordinarily used for treatment of an illness, that
of, and learned responses to, opioids. With time, these distur- results in a serious toxic reaction or death.
bances resolve, resulting in complete recovery, except when Patient: As used in this document, an individual receiv-
tissue damage or other complications have arisen. Intoxication ing substance use disorder treatment. The terms client and
depends on the type and dose of opioid and is influenced by patient sometimes are used interchangeably, although staff in
factors such as an individual’s level of tolerance. Individuals often nonmedical settings more commonly refer to clients.
take drugs in the quantity required to achieve a desired degree of Physical dependence: State of physical adaptation that
intoxication. Behavior resulting from a given level of intoxication is manifested by a drug class-specific withdrawal syndrome
is strongly influenced by cultural and personal expectations about that can be produced by abrupt cessation, rapid dose reduc-
the effects of the drug. According to the International Classi- tion, and/or decreasing blood level of a substance and/or
fications of Diseases-10 (ICD-10), acute intoxication is the term administration of an antagonist.
used for intoxication of clinical significance (F11.0). Complica- Psychosocial interventions: Nonpharmacological
tions may include trauma, inhalation of vomitus, delirium, coma, interventions that may include structured, professionally
and convulsions, depending on the substance and method of administered interventions (e.g., cognitive behavior therapy
administration. or insight-oriented psychotherapy) or nonprofessional inter-
Opioid treatment program (OTP): A program certi- ventions (e.g., self-help groups and non-pharmacological
fied by the United States, Substance Abuse and Mental Health interventions from traditional healers).
Services Administration (SAMHSA), to treat patients with Psychosocial treatment: Any nonpharmacological. pro-
opioid use disorder using methadone. There programs may fessionally administered interventions (e.g., cognitive behavior
also offer treatment with buprenorphine and/or naltrexone. An therapy or insight-oriented psychotherapy) carried out in a
OTP can exist in several settings including, but not limited to, therapeutic context at an individual, family, or group level.
intensive outpatient, residential, and hospital settings. Ser- Precipitated withdrawal: A condition that occurs
vices may include medically supervised withdrawal and/or when an opioid agonist is displaced from the opioid receptors
maintenance treatment, along with various levels of medical, by an antagonist in an opioid dependent individual. It is also
psychiatric, psychosocial, and other types of supportive care. possible for a partial agonist to precipitate withdrawal.
Opioid treatment services: An umbrella term that Recovery: A process of sustained action that addresses
encompass a variety of pharmacological and nonpharmaco- the biological, psychological, social, and spiritual disturbances
logical treatment modalities. This term broadens understand- inherent in addiction. This effort is in the direction of a consistent
ing of opioid treatments to include all medications used to pursuit of abstinence, addressing impairment in behavioral
treat opioid use disorders and the psychosocial treatment that control, dealing with cravings, recognizing problems in one’s
is offered concurrently with these pharmacotherapies. Phar- behaviors and interpersonal relationships, and dealing more
macological agents include opioid agonist medications such effectively with emotional responses. Recovery actions lead to
as methadone and buprenorphine, and opioid antagonist reversal of negative, self-defeating internal processes and behav-
medications such as naltrexone. iors, allowing healing of relationships with self and others. The
Opioid use disorder: A substance use disorder involv- concepts of humility, acceptance, and surrender are useful in this
ing opioids. See Substance Use Disorder. process. (Note: ASAM continues to explore, as an evolving
Opioid withdrawal management: Usually used to process, improved ways to define recovery.)
refer to a process of withdrawing a person from a specific Remission: A state associated with an abatement of
psychoactive substance in a safe and effective manner. The signs and symptoms that characterize active addiction. Many
term encompasses safe management of intoxication states individuals in a remission state remain actively engaged in the
(more literally, detoxification) and of withdrawal states. In process of recovery. Reduction in signs or symptoms con-
this document, the term detoxification has been replaced by stitutes improvement in a disease state, but remission involves
the term withdrawal management.2 a return to a level of functioning that is free of active
Opioid withdrawal: Over time, opioids induce toler- symptoms and/or is marked by stability in the chronic signs
ance and neuroadaptive changes that are responsible for and symptoms that characterize active addiction.
rebound hyperexcitability when the drug is withdrawn. The Relapse: A process in which an individual who has
withdrawal syndrome includes craving, anxiety, dysphoria, established disease remission experiences recurrence of signs
yawning, sweating, piloerection (gooseflesh), lacrimation and symptoms of active addiction, often including resumption
(excessive tear formation), rhinorrhea (running nose), insom- of the pathological pursuit of reward and/or relief through
nia, nausea or vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, muscle aches, and the use of substances and other behaviors. When in relapse,
fever. With short-acting drugs, such as morphine or heroin, there is often disengagement from recovery activities. Relapse
withdrawal symptoms may appear within 8–12 hours of the can be triggered by exposure to rewarding substances
last dose of the drug, reach a peak at 48–72 hours, and clear and behaviors, by exposure to environmental cues to use,
after 7–10 days. With longer-acting drugs, such as metha- and by exposure to emotional stressors that trigger heightened
done, onset of withdrawal symptoms may not occur until 1–3 activity in brain stress circuits. The event of using substances

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or re-engaging in addictive behaviors is the latter part of the for the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction
process, which can be prevented by early intervention. Involving Opioid Use.7
Sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytics: This class of sub-
stances includes all prescription sleeping medications and Background Updated
most prescription antianxiety medications (e.g. benzodiaze- Opioid use disorder is a brain disorder that can range in
pines, Z-medications, and gabapentinoids). Nonbenzodiaze- severity from mild to severe. Diagnosis of this disorder is based
pine antianxiety medications, such as buspirone and gepirone, on a checklist of symptoms defined in the Diagnostic and
are not included in this class because they are not associated Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5)
with significant misuse. developed by the American Psychiatric Association.5
Sobriety: A state of sustained abstinence with a clear ASAM defines addiction as ‘‘a treatable, chronic medi-
commitment to and active seeking of balance in the biologi- cal disease involving complex interactions among brain cir-
cal, psychological, social, and spiritual aspects of an individ- cuits, genetics, the environment, and an individual’s life
ual’s health and wellness that were previously compromised experiences. People with addiction use substances or engage
by active addiction. in behaviors that become compulsive and often continue
Spontaneous withdrawal: A condition that occurs when despite harmful consequences.’’ Addiction is a serious biopsy-
an individual who is physically dependent on an opioid agonist chosocial illness, meaning that biological, psychological, and
suddenly discontinues or markedly decreases opioid use. social factors can all contribute to both the development of,
Stabilization: Attainment of a medically stable, steady and recovery from, this disease. The ASAM Criteria (dis-
state in which the patient is adequately supported to prevent cussed in Part 1) provide a framework for assessing how
deterioration of their illness. diverse biopsychosocial factors contribute to an individual
Substance use disorder: Substance use disorder is patient’s addiction and the type and intensity of treatment
marked by a cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological needed to support their recovery.2 ASAM views addiction as
symptoms indicating that the individual continues to use alcohol, fundamentally a neurological disease involving brain reward,
nicotine, and/or other drugs despite significant related problems. motivation, memory, and related circuitry, and recognizes that
Diagnostic criteria are given in the DSM-5.5 Substance use there are unifying features in all cases of addiction, including
disorder is the new nomenclature for what was included as substance-related addiction and nonsubstance-related addic-
substance dependence and substance abuse in the DSM-4.6 tion. In this context, the preferred term by ASAM for this
Tolerance: A decrease in response to a drug dose that disorder is addiction involving opioid use.
occurs with continued use. If an individual is tolerant to a A variety of substances commonly associated with
drug, increased doses are required to achieve the effects addiction work on specific receptors and neurotransmitter
originally produced by lower doses. Both physiological and systems in the nervous system. Pharmacological agents used
psychosocial factors may contribute to the development of in the treatment of addiction exert their effects via actions on
tolerance. Physiological factors include metabolic and func- specific receptors. Hence, the medications used in the treat-
tional tolerance. In metabolic tolerance, the body can elimi- ment of addiction have efficacy based on their own molecular
nate the substance more readily, because the substance is structure and the particular neurotransmitter receptors
metabolized at an increased rate. In functional tolerance, the affected by that medication. Medications developed for the
central nervous system is less sensitive to the substance. An treatment of addiction involving opioid use may have benefits
example of a psychosocial factor contributing to tolerance is in the treatment of addiction involving an individual’s use of
behavioral tolerance, when learning or altered environmental other substances. For instance, naltrexone, which is approved
constraints change the effect of the drug. Acute tolerance by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the
refers to rapid, temporary accommodation to the effect of a treatment of opioid dependence (using DSM, 4th Edition
substance after a single dose. Reverse tolerance, also known [DSM-4] terminology), is also FDA-approved for the treat-
as sensitization, refers to a condition in which the response to ment of alcohol dependence (DSM-4).6
a substance increased with repeated use. Tolerance is one of ASAM encourages clinicians, researchers, educators,
the criteria of the dependence syndrome. and policy makers to use the term ‘‘addiction involving ’’
Withdrawal management: Withdrawal management regardless of whether the patient’s condition at a given point
describes services to assist a patient’s withdrawal. The liver in its natural history seems to more prominently involve opioid
detoxifies, but clinicians manage withdrawal. use, alcohol use, nicotine use, or engagement in addictive
behaviors such as gambling. However, given the widespread
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY North American application of the DSM’s categorization of
disorders, this Practice Guideline will, for the sake of brevity
Purpose and convention, use the term opioid use disorder.
The American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) In 2018, an estimated 10.3 million people in the United
developed this National Practice Guideline for the Treatment States misused opioids (representing 3.7% of the population
of Opioid Use Disorder to provide information on evidence- aged 12 or older), including 9.9 million people who misused
based treatment of opioid use disorder. (Hereafter, in this pain relievers, and 808,000 who misused heroin.8 The 2018
document, this National Practice Guideline will be referred National Survey of Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) further
to as Practice Guideline.) This guideline is an update and found that 2.0 million persons in America met DSM-4 criteria
replacement of the 2015 ASAM National Practice Guideline for opioid use disorder.8

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Opioid misuse is associated with increased morbidity Prescribed courses of treatment described in this Prac-
and mortality. The leading causes of death in people using tice Guideline are effective only if the recommendations, as
opioids for non-medical purposes are overdose and trauma.9 outlined, are followed. Because lack of patient understanding
Injection drug use (intravenous or intramuscular [IM]) and adherence may adversely affect outcomes, clinicians
increases the risk of being exposed to HIV, viral hepatitis, should make every effort to promote the patient’s understand-
and other infectious agents. As a result of the opioid epidemic, ing of, and adherence to, prescribed and recommended phar-
drug-use associated infections, including infective endocardi- macological and psychosocial treatments. Patients should be
tis, osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, and epidural abscesses, are informed of the risks, benefits, and alternatives to a particular
increasing. A statewide study in North Carolina found that treatment, and should be an active party to shared decision-
drug-use associated infective endocarditis requiring hospital- making whenever feasible.
ization and valve surgeries increased more than 12-fold ASAM recognizes that there are challenges to imple-
between 2007 and 2017.10 mentation of these guidelines in certain settings, particularly
in relation to the availability of all FDA approved medications
Scope of Guideline for the treatment of opioid use disorder and access to psycho-
This Practice Guideline was developed for the treatment social treatment in various communities and settings. How-
of opioid use disorder and the prevention of opioid overdose- ever, this guideline aims to set the standard for best clinical
related deaths. The medications covered in this guideline are practice, providing recommendations for the appropriate care
mainly, but not exclusively, those that have been FDA-approved of all patients with opioid use disorder in diverse settings. In
for the treatment of opioid dependence (DSM-4) or opioid use circumstances in which the Practice Guideline is being used
disorder (DSM-5).5,6 The most recent version, DSM-5, com- as the basis for regulatory or payer decisions, improvement in
bined the criteria for opioid abuse and opioid dependence, from quality of care should be the goal. Recommendations in
prior versions of the DSM, in its new diagnosis of opioid use this Practice Guideline do not supersede any Federal or
disorder. Therefore, pharmacologic treatment may not be state regulation.
appropriate for all patients along the entire opioid use disorder
continuum. In a study comparing opioid dependence from Overview of Methodology
DSM-4 and opioid use disorder from DSM-5, optimal concor- This Practice Guideline was developed using the
dance occurred when four or more DSM-5 criteria were RAND Corporation (RAND)/University of California, Los
endorsed (i.e., the DSM-5 threshold for moderate opioid use Angeles (UCLA) Appropriateness Method (RAM) a process
disorder).11 Other medications have been used off-label to treat that combines scientific evidence and clinical knowledge to
opioid use disorder (clearly noted in the text); however, the determine the appropriateness of a set of clinical proce-
Guideline Committee has not issued recommendations on the dures.12 The RAM is a deliberate approach encompassing
use of those medications. As a final note, whether FDA- review of existing guidelines, literature reviews, appropriate-
approved or off-label, cost and/or cost-effectiveness were not ness ratings, necessity reviews, and document development.
considerations in the development of this Practice Guideline. For this project, ASAM selected an independent committee to
oversee guideline development, to participate in review of
Intended Audience treatment scenarios, and to assist in writing. For the 2015
This Practice Guideline is primarily intended for clini- guideline development process, ASAM’s then Quality
cians involved in evaluating patients and providing authori- Improvement Council, chaired by Margaret Jarvis, MD, over-
zation for pharmacological treatments at any level. The saw the selection process for the independent development
intended audience falls into the broad groups of physicians; committee, referred to as the Guideline Committee.7
other healthcare providers (especially those with prescribing The 2015 Guideline Committee was comprised of 11
authority); medical educators and faculty for other healthcare experts and researchers from multiple disciplines, medical
professionals in training; and clinical care managers, includ- specialties, and subspecialties, including academic research,
ing those offering utilization management services. internal medicine, family medicine, addiction medicine,
addiction psychiatry, general psychiatry, obstetrics/gynecol-
Qualifying Statement ogy, pharmacology, and clinical neurobiology. Physicians
This ASAM Practice Guideline is intended to aid with both allopathic and osteopathic training were represented
clinicians in their clinical decision-making and patient man- in the Guideline Committee. The 2015 Guideline Committee
agement. The Practice Guideline strives to identify and define was assisted by a technical team of researchers from the
clinical decision-making junctures that meet the needs of most Treatment Research Institute (TRI) affiliated with the Uni-
patients in most circumstances. Clinical decision-making versity of Pennsylvania and worked under the guidance of Dr.
should involve consideration of the quality and availability Kyle Kampman who led the TRI team as Principal Investiga-
of expertise and services in the community wherein care is tor in implementing the RAM.
provided. The recommendations in this guideline reflect the
consensus of an independent committee (see Methodology 2019 Focused Update New
Section) convened by ASAM between September 2018 and Between September 2018 and November 2019, ASAM
November 2019, to oversee a focused update of this Practice reconvened an independent committee (see Methodology
Guideline. This Practice Guideline will be updated regularly Section) to oversee a focused update of this Practice Guide-
as clinical and scientific knowledge advances. line.7 The purpose of the focused update was to develop new

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and revised recommendations based on a targeted review of Criteria for inclusion in the focused update included new
new evidence, FDA approval of new buprenorphine formu- evidence and guidelines that were considered a) clinically
lations (see Table 1) and evolving clinical practice guidance. meaningful and applicable to a broad range of clinicians
A full update of the guideline is scheduled to begin in 2021. treating addiction involving opioid use, and b) urgently
ASAM’s Quality Improvement Council worked with a tech- needed to ensure the guideline reflects the current state of
nical team from RTI International to develop and oversee the the science for the existing recommendations, aligns with
scope of work for the focused update. other relevant practice guidelines, and reflects newly
The methods used to search the literature and subse- approved medications and formulations. Relevant evidence
quently develop guideline statements were consistent with the and current practices not meeting these criteria will be
RAM methodology employed for the 2015 publication. reviewed and incorporated into the full update as appropriate.

TABLE 1. Buprenorphine Formulations

Generic Name Route of Administration Brand Names For the Treatment of Formulation Considerations
Dosing
Buprenorphine Sublingual Tablets Generic versions available Opioid withdrawal and opioid Some risk for diversion or
(monoproduct) Daily similar to Subutex use disorder misuse; Requires daily
compliance
Buprenorphine and Sublingual tablets and Generic versions available Opioid withdrawal and opioid Lower potential for misuse and
naloxone film in addition to use disorder diversion (compared to
Daily Suboxone, Cassipa, monoproduct); Requires daily
Zubsolv, Bunavail compliance
Buprenorphine Extended-release Injection Sublocade Moderate to severe opioid use No risk for patient diversion or
extended-release (Monthly) disorder in patients who misuse; Requires patients to
have initiated treatment with be on a stable dose of
transmucosal buprenorphine transmucosal buprenorphine
followed by dose adjustment for at least 7 days; Monthly
for a minimum of 7 days instead of daily medication
compliance; Less fluctuation
in buprenorphine levels
(compared to daily doses)
Buprenorphine Extended-release Injection Brixadi Moderate to severe opioid use Tentative approval from FDA
extended-release (Weekly or Monthly) disorder in patients who (not eligible for marketing in
have initiated treatment with the U.S. until November 30,
a single dose of 2020). No risk for patient
transmucosal buprenorphine diversion or misuse; only a
or who are already being single prior dose of
treated with buprenorphine transmucosal buprenorphine
required prior to initiation;
Weekly or Monthly instead
of daily medication
compliance; Less fluctuation
in buprenorphine levels
(compared to daily doses)
Buprenorphine Subcutaneous Implant Probuphine Implant Treatment of opioid use disorder Requires prolonged stability on
hydrochloride (Every 6 months) in patients who have 8 mg per day or less
achieved and sustained transmucosal buprenorphine;
prolonged clinical stability No risk for patient diversion
on low-to-moderate doses of or misuse; Healthcare
a transmucosal provider training required for
buprenorphine (i.e., no more implant insertion and
than 8 mg per day) removal; Insertion site should
be examined one week after
insertion; Implant must be
removed after 6 months;
Risks associated with
improper insertion and
removal; Currently only FDA
approved for a total
treatment duration of one
year (one insertion per arm);
Less fluctuation in
buprenorphine levels
(compared to daily doses)

Some patients may experience withdrawal/cravings when switched to a different formulation.
 Subutex was discontinued.
Table content was derived from FDA labels. Labels and label updates can be accessed at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm.

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Summary of Recommendations buprenorphine. While the combined use of these medi-

cations increases the risk of serious side effects, the harm
Part 1: Assessment and Diagnosis of Opioid caused by untreated opioid use disorder can outweigh
Use Disorder these risks. A risk-benefit analysis should be conducted,
and greater support should be provided including careful
Assessment Recommendations medication management to reduce risks.14
1. The first clinical priority should be given to identifying 11. A nicotine use query should be
and making appropriate referral for any urgent or emer- completed routinely for all patients and counseling on
gent medical or psychiatric problem(s), including drug- cessation of the use of tobacco products and electronic
related impairment or overdose. nicotine delivery devices (e.g. vaping) provided
2. Comprehensive assessment of the patient is if indicated.
critical for treatment planning. However, completion of 12. As part of comprehensive care the
all assessments should not delay or preclude initiating patient should receive a multidimensional assessment (as
pharmacotherapy for opioid use disorder. If not com- described in The ASAM Criteria), including an assess-
pleted before initiating treatment, assessments should be ment of social and environmental factors to identify
completed soon thereafter. facilitators and barriers to addiction treatment and
3. Completion of the patient’s medi- long-term recovery (including pharmacotherapy).1
cal history should include screening for concomitant Addiction is a complex biopsychosocial illness, for
medical conditions, including psychiatric disorders, which the use of medication(s) is only one component
infectious diseases (viral hepatitis, HIV, and tuberculosis of comprehensive treatment.
[TB]), acute trauma, and pregnancy.
4. A physical examination should be Diagnosis Recommendations
completed as a component of the comprehensive assess- 1. Other clinicians may diagnose opi-
ment process. The prescriber (the clinician authorizing oid use disorder, but confirmation of the diagnosis must be
the use of a medication for the treatment of opioid use obtained by the prescriber before pharmacotherapy for
disorder) should ensure that a current physical examina- opioid use disorder commences.
tion is contained within the patient medical record before 2. Opioid use disorder is primarily diagnosed on the basis of
(or soon after) a patient is started on pharmacotherapy. the history provided by the patient and a comprehensive
5. Initial laboratory testing should assessment that includes a physical examination.
include a complete blood count, liver enzyme tests, 3. Validated clinical scales that mea-
and tests for TB, hepatitis B and C, and HIV. Testing sure withdrawal symptoms may be used to assist in the
for sexually transmitted infections should be strongly evaluation of patients with opioid use disorder.
considered. Hepatitis A and B vaccinations should be 4. Drug testing is recommended dur-
offered, if appropriate. ing the comprehensive assessment process, and during
6. Women of childbearing potential treatment to monitor patients for adherence to prescribed
should be tested for pregnancy, and all women of child- medications and use of alcohol, illicit, and controlled
bearing potential should be queried regarding methods substances. The frequency of testing is determined by
of contraception. several factors including stability of the patient, type of
7. Patients being evaluated for opioid treatment, and treatment setting. For additional informa-
use disorder, and/or for possible medication use in the tion see The ASAM Appropriate Use of Drug Testing in
treatment of opioid use disorder, should undergo (or have Clinical Addiction Medicine guidance document.15
completed) an assessment of mental health status and
possible psychiatric disorders (such as is outlined in The Part 2: Treatment Options
ASAM Criteria and The ASAM Standards).2,13 1. All FDA approved medications for
8. Opioid use disorder is often co- the treatment of opioid use disorder should be available to
occurring with other substance use disorders. Evaluation all patients. Clinicians should consider the patient’s
of a patient with opioid use disorder should include a preferences, past treatment history, current state of ill-
detailed history of other past and current substance use ness, and treatment setting when deciding between the
and substance use disorders. use of methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone.
9. The use of cannabis, stimulants, 2. There is no recommended time limit for
alcohol, and/or other addictive drugs should not be a pharmacological treatment.
reason to withhold or suspend opioid use disorder treat- 3. Patients’ psychosocial needs
ment. However, patients who are actively using substan- should be assessed, and patients should be offered or
ces during opioid use disorder treatment may require referred to psychosocial treatment based on their indi-
greater support including a more intensive level of care vidual needs. However, a patient’s decision to decline
(see The ASAM Criteria and The ASAM Standards).2,13 psychosocial treatment or the absence of available psy-
10. The use of benzodiazepines and chosocial treatment should not preclude or delay phar-
other sedative-hypnotics should not be a reason to with- macotherapy, with appropriate medication management.
hold or suspend treatment with methadone or Motivational interviewing or enhancement can be used to

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encourage patients to engage in psychosocial treatment history of, opioid use disorder. Patients and family mem-
services appropriate for addressing individual needs. bers/significant others should be trained in the use of
4. The venue in which treatment is naloxone in overdose.
provided should be carefully considered. Methadone can
only be provided in opioid treatment programs (OTPs) and Part 3: Treating Opioid Withdrawal
acute care settings (under limited circumstances). Bupre- 1. Using methadone or buprenorphine
norphine can be prescribed by waivered clinicians in any for opioid withdrawal management is recommended over
setting, including OTPs and office based opioid treatment abrupt cessation of opioids. Abrupt cessation of opioids
(OBOT) in accordance with the Federal law (21 CFR may lead to strong cravings, and/or acute withdrawal
§1301.28). Naltrexone can be prescribed in any setting syndrome which can put the patient at risk for relapse,
by any clinician with the authority to prescribe medication. overdose, and overdose death.
Clinicians should consider a patient’s psychosocial situa- 2. Opioid withdrawal management
tion, co-occurring disorders, and risk of diversion when (i.e. detoxification) on its own, without ongoing treatment
determining which treatment setting is most appropriate for opioid use disorder, is not a treatment method for
(see The ASAM Criteria for additional guidance).1 opioid use disorder and is not recommended. Patients
5. Patients with active co-occurring should be advised about the risk of relapse and other
alcohol use disorder or sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic safety concerns, including increased risk of overdose
use disorder (or who are in treatment for a substance use and overdose death. Ongoing maintenance medication,
disorder involving use of alcohol or other sedative drugs, in combination with psychosocial treatment appropriate
including benzodiazepines or benzodiazepine receptor for the patient’s needs, is the standard of care for treating
agonists) may need a more intensive level of care than opioid use disorder.
can be provided in an office-based setting. Persons who 3. Assessment of a patient undergoing
are regularly using alcohol or other sedatives, but do not opioid withdrawal management should include a thorough
meet the criteria for diagnosis of a specific substance use medical history and physical examination, focusing on
disorder related to that class of drugs, should be signs and symptoms associated with opioid withdrawal.
carefully monitored. 4. By regulation, opioid withdrawal
6. The prescribing of benzodiaze- management with methadone must be done in an OTP or
pines or other sedative-hypnotics should be used with an acute care setting (under limited circumstances). For
caution in patients who are prescribed methadone or patients withdrawing from short acting opioids the initial
buprenorphine for the treatment of an opioid use disorder. dose should typically be 20-30 mg per day and the patient
While the combined use of these drugs increases the risk may be tapered off in approximately 6-10 days.
of serious side effects, the harm caused by untreated 5. Opioid withdrawal management
opioid use disorder can outweigh these risks. A risk- with buprenorphine should not be initiated until there
benefit analysis should be conducted when deciding are objective signs of opioid withdrawal. (See Part 3 for
whether to co-prescribe these medications. more information on the timing of initiating buprenor-
7. Methadone is recommended for patients who may benefit phine.) Once signs of withdrawal have been objectively
from daily dosing and supervision in an OTP, or for confirmed, a dose of buprenorphine sufficient to suppress
patients for whom buprenorphine for the treatment of withdrawal symptoms is given (an initial dose of 2-4 mg
opioid use disorder has been used unsuccessfully in an titrated up as needed to suppress withdrawal symptoms).
OTP or OBOT setting. 6. Alpha-2 adrenergic agonists (e.g.,
8. Opioid dosing guidelines developed for chronic FDA-approved lofexidine and off-label clonidine) are safe
pain, expressed in morphine milligram equivalents and effective for management of opioid withdrawal. How-
(MME), are not applicable to medications for the treat- ever, methadone and buprenorphine are more effective in
ment of opioid use disorders. reducing the symptoms of opioid withdrawal, in retaining
9. Oral naltrexone for the treatment patients in withdrawal management, and in supporting the
of opioid use disorder is often adversely affected by poor completion of withdrawal management.
medication adherence and should not be used except 7. Opioid withdrawal management using ultra-rapid opioid
under very limited circumstances. Clinicians should detoxification (UROD) is not recommended due to high
reserve its use for patients who would be able to comply risk for adverse events or death. Naltrexone-facilitated
with special techniques to enhance their adherence, for opioid withdrawal management can be safe and effective
example, observed dosing. Extended-release injectable but should be used only by clinicians experienced with this
naltrexone reduces, but does not eliminate, issues with clinical method, and in cases in which anesthesia or
medication adherence. conscious sedation are not employed.
10. The Prescription Drug Monitoring
Program (PDMP) should be checked regularly for the Part 4: Methadone
purpose of confirming medication adherence and to moni- 1. Methadone is a recommended
tor for the prescribing of other controlled substances. treatment for patients with opioid use disorder, who
11. Naloxone, for the reversal of opioid overdose, are able to give informed consent and have no specific
should be provided to patients being treated for, or with a contraindication for this treatment.

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2. The recommended initial dose of methadone and other opioids, before they can receive
methadone ranges from 10 to 30 mg, with reassessment naltrexone. The only exception would apply when an
as clinically indicated (typically in 2 to 4 hours). Use a experienced clinician receives consent from the patient to
lower-than-usual initial dose (2.5 to 10 mg) in individuals embark on a plan of naltrexone-facilitated opioid
with no or low opioid tolerance. withdrawal management.
3. Following initial withdrawal stabi- 11. There is no recommended time
lization, the usual daily dose of methadone ranges from 60 limit for pharmacological treatment with methadone.
to 120 mg. Some patients may respond to lower doses and Patients who discontinue methadone treatment should
some may need higher doses. Methadone titration should be made aware of the risks associated with opioid over-
be individualized based on careful assessment of the dose, and especially the increased risk of overdose death if
patient’s response and generally should not be increased they return to illicit opioid use. Treatment alternatives
every day. Typically, methadone can be increased by no including buprenorphine (see Part 5) and naltrexone (see
more than 10 mg approximately every 5 days based on the Part 6), as well as opioid overdose prevention with nalox-
patient’s symptoms of opioid withdrawal or sedation. one (see part 13), should be discussed with any patient
4. The administration of methadone should be monitored choosing to discontinue treatment.
because unsupervised administration can lead to misuse
and diversion. OTP regulations require monitored medi- Part 5: Buprenorphine
cation administration until the patient’s clinical response 1. Buprenorphine is a recommended treatment for
and behavior demonstrates that prescribing non-moni- patients with opioid use disorder, who are able to give
tored doses is appropriate. informed consent and have no specific contraindication
5. Patients’ psychosocial needs for this treatment.
should be assessed, and patients should be offered or 2. For patients who are currently
referred to psychosocial treatment based on their indi- opioid dependent, buprenorphine should not be initiated
vidual needs, in conjunction with methadone in the until there are objective signs of opioid withdrawal to
treatment of opioid use disorder. However, a patient’s reduce the risk of precipitated withdrawal. (See discus-
decision to decline psychosocial treatment or the absence sion).
of available psychosocial treatment should not preclude 3. Once objective signs of with-
or delay treatment with methadone, with appropriate drawal are observed, initiation of buprenorphine should
medication management. Motivational interviewing or start with a dose of 2–4 mg. Dosages may be increased in
enhancement can be used to encourage patients to engage increments of 2–8 mg.
in psychosocial treatment services appropriate for 4. The setting for initiation of bupre-
addressing their individual needs. norphine should be carefully considered. Both office-based
6. For patients who previously and home-based initiation are considered safe and effective
received methadone for the treatment of opioid use when starting buprenorphine treatment. Clinical judgement
disorder, methadone should be reinstituted immediately should be used to determine the most appropriate setting for
if relapse occurs or if an assessment determines that the a given patient and may include consideration of the
risk of relapse is high (unless contraindicated). Re-initi- patient’s past experience with buprenorphine and assess-
ation of methadone should follow the recommendations ment of their ability to manage initiation at home.
above regarding initial dose and titration. 5. Following initiation, buprenor-
7. Strategies directed at relapse pre- phine dose should be titrated to alleviate symptoms.
vention are an important part of addiction treatment and To be effective, buprenorphine dose should be sufficient
should be included in any plan of care for a patient to enable patients to discontinue illicit opioid use. Evi-
receiving opioid use disorder treatment or ongoing mon- dence suggests that 16 mg per day or more may be more
itoring of the status of their disorder. effective than lower doses. There is limited evidence
8. Transitioning from methadone to regarding the relative efficacy of doses higher than 24 mg
another medication for the treatment of opioid use disorder per day, and the use of higher doses may increase the risk
may be appropriate if the patient experiences dangerous or of diversion.16
intolerable side effects or is not successful in attaining or 6. The FDA recently approved several new bupre-
maintaining treatment goals through the use of methadone. norphine formulations for treatment of opioid use disor-
9. Patients transitioning from metha- der (see Table 1). As data regarding the effectiveness of
done to buprenorphine in the treatment of opioid use these products are currently limited, clinicians should use
disorder should ideally be on low doses of methadone these products as indicated and be mindful of emerging
before making the transition. Patients on low doses of evidence as it becomes available.
methadone (30–40 mg per day or less) generally tolerate 7. Patients’ psychosocial needs
transition to buprenorphine with minimal discomfort, should be assessed, and patients should be offered or
whereas patients on higher doses of methadone may expe- referred to psychosocial treatment based on their indi-
rience significant discomfort in transitioning medications. vidual needs, in conjunction with buprenorphine in the
10. Patients transitioning from meth- treatment of opioid use disorder. However, a patient’s
adone to naltrexone must be completely withdrawn from decision to decline psychosocial treatment or the absence

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 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

of available psychosocial treatment should not preclude who metabolize naltrexone more rapidly, may benefit from
or delay buprenorphine treatment, with appropriate med- dosing as frequently as every 3 weeks.
ication management. Motivational interviewing or 3. Oral naltrexone is not recom-
enhancement can be used to encourage patients to engage mended except under limited circumstances (see Part 6
in psychosocial treatment services appropriate for for more details).
addressing their individual needs. 4. Patients’ psychosocial needs should
8. Clinicians should take steps to be assessed, and patients should be offered or referred to
reduce the chance of buprenorphine diversion. Recom- psychosocial treatment based on their individual needs, in
mended strategies may include frequent office visits (e.g., conjunction with extended-release naltrexone. A patient’s
weekly in early treatment); drug testing, including testing decision to decline psychosocial treatment or the absence of
for buprenorphine and metabolites; and recall visits for available psychosocial treatment should not preclude or delay
medication counts. Refer to ASAM’s Sample Diversion naltrexone treatment, with appropriate medication manage-
Control Policy for additional strategies to reduce the risk ment. Motivational interviewing or enhancement can be used
for diversion.16 to encourage patients to engage in psychosocial treatment
9. Drug testing should be used to services appropriate for addressing their individual needs.
monitor patients for adherence to buprenorphine and 5. There is no recommended length of
use of illicit and controlled substances. For additional treatment with naltrexone. Duration depends on clinical
guidance see The ASAM Appropriate Use of Drug Testing judgment and the patient’s individual circumstances. Because
in Clinical Addiction Medicine.14 there is no physical dependence associated with naltrexone, it
10. Patients should be seen frequently can be stopped abruptly without withdrawal symptoms.
at the beginning of treatment until they are determined to 6. Transitioning from naltrexone to
be stable. methadone or buprenorphine should be planned, consid-
11. When considering a transition from buprenorphine to nal- ered, and monitored. Transitioning from an antagonist such
trexone, providers should note that 7–14 days should as naltrexone to a full agonist (methadone) or a partial
typically elapse between the last dose of buprenorphine agonist (buprenorphine) is generally less complicated than
and the start of naltrexone to ensure that the patient is not transitioning from a full or partial agonist to an antagonist
physically dependent on opioids before starting naltrexone. because there is no physical dependence associated with
12. When considering a transition antagonist treatment and thus no possibility of precipitated
from buprenorphine to methadone, there is no required withdrawal. Patients being transitioned from naltrexone to
time delay because the transition to a full mu-opioid buprenorphine or methadone will not have physical depen-
agonist from a partial agonist does not typically result in dence on opioids and thus the initial doses of methadone or
an adverse reaction. buprenorphine should be low. Patients should not be tran-
13. There is no recommended time sitioned until a significant amount of the naltrexone is no
limit for pharmacological treatment with buprenorphine. longer in their system, about 1 day for oral naltrexone or
Patients who discontinue buprenorphine treatment 28 days for extended-release injectable naltrexone.
should be made aware of the risks associated with opioid 7. Patients who discontinue naltrexone
overdose, and especially the increased risk of death if treatment should be made aware of the increased risks
they return to illicit opioid use. Treatment alternatives associated with opioid overdose, and especially the increased
including methadone (see Part 4) and naltrexone (see Part risk of overdose death, if they return to illicit opioid use.
6), as well as opioid overdose prevention with naloxone Treatment alternatives including methadone (see Part 4) and
(see part 13) should be discussed with any patient choos- buprenorphine (see Part 5), as well as overdose prevention
ing to discontinue treatment. with naloxone (see part 13) should be discussed with any
14. Buprenorphine taper and discon- patient choosing to discontinue treatment.
tinuation is a slow process and close monitoring is
recommended. Buprenorphine tapering is generally Part 7: Psychosocial Treatment in Conjunction
accomplished over several months. Patients should be with Medications for the Treatment of Opioid
encouraged to remain in treatment for ongoing monitor- Use Disorder
ing past the point of discontinuation. 1. Patients’ psychosocial needs should
be assessed, and patients should be offered or referred to
Part 6: Naltrexone psychosocial treatment, based on their individual needs, in
1. Extended-release injectable nal- conjunction with any pharmacotherapy for the treatment
trexone is a recommended treatment for preventing relapse of, or prevention of relapse to, opioid use disorder. How-
to opioid use disorder in patients who are no longer ever, a patient’s decision to decline psychosocial treatment
physically dependent on opioids, able to give informed or the absence of available psychosocial treatment should
consent, and have no contraindications for this treatment. not preclude or delay pharmacological treatment of opioid
2. Extended-release injectable nal- use disorder, with appropriate medication management.
trexone should generally be administered every 4 weeks Motivational interviewing or enhancement can be used to
by deep IM injection in the gluteal muscle at the set dosage encourage patients to engage in psychosocial treatment
of 380 mg per injection. Some patients, including those services appropriate for addressing their individual needs.

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

2. Treatment planning should include collaboration with Use of Drug Testing in Clinical Addiction Medicine
qualified behavioral healthcare providers to determine guidance document.14
the optimal type and intensity of psychosocial treatment 9. Care for pregnant women with
and for renegotiation of the treatment plan for circum- opioid use disorder should be comanaged by a clinician
stances in which patients do not adhere to recommended experienced in obstetrical care and a clinician experi-
plans for, or referrals to, psychosocial treatment. enced in the treatment of opioid use disorder.
10. Hospitalization during initiation of methadone or bupre-
Part 8: Special Populations: Pregnant Women norphine may be advisable due to the potential for
1. The first priority in evaluating pregnant women adverse events, especially in the third trimester.
for opioid use disorder should be to identify emergent or 11. Methadone should be initiated at a
urgent medical conditions that require immediate referral dose range of 10–30 mg. Incremental doses of 5–10 mg
for clinical evaluation. is recommended every 3–6 hours, as needed, to treat
2. Treatment with methadone or withdrawal symptoms, to a maximum fist day dose of 30-
buprenorphine is recommended and should be initiated 40 mg.
as early as possible during pregnancy. 12. After initiation, clinicians should
3. Pregnant women who are physi- increase the methadone dose by no more than 10 mg
cally dependent on opioids should receive treatment approximately every 5 days. The goal is to maintain the
using methadone or buprenorphine rather than with- lowest dose that controls withdrawal symptoms and
drawal management or psychosocial treatment alone. minimizes the desire to use additional opioids.
4. A medical examination and psy- 13. Clinicians should be aware that
chosocial assessment are recommended when evaluating the pharmacokinetics of methadone are affected by preg-
pregnant women for opioid use disorder. However, com- nancy. With advancing gestational age, plasma levels of
pletion of all assessments should not delay or preclude methadone progressively decrease and clearance
initiating pharmacotherapy for opioid use disorder. If not increases. Increased and/or split doses may be needed
completed before initiating treatment, assessments as pregnancy progresses. Twice-daily dosing is more
should be completed as soon as possible thereafter. effective and has fewer side effects than single dosing
5. Obstetricians and gynecologists, and other healthcare but may not be practical because methadone is typically
providers that care for pregnant women, should be alert dispensed in an OTP. After childbirth, doses may need to
to signs and symptoms of opioid use disorder. Pregnant be adjusted (typically reduced) based on changes in
women with opioid use disorder are more likely to seek weight and metabolism.
prenatal care late in pregnancy, miss appointments, expe- 14. If a woman becomes pregnant
rience poor weight gain, or exhibit signs of withdrawal while she is receiving naltrexone, it may be appropriate
or intoxication. to discontinue the medication if the patient and clinician
6. The psychosocial needs of preg- agree that the risk of relapse is low. A decision to remain
nant women being treated for opioid use disorder should be on naltrexone during pregnancy should be carefully
assessed and patients should be offered or referred to considered by the patient and her clinician and should
psychosocial treatment based on their individual needs. include a discussion on the insufficiency of research on
A woman’s decision to decline psychosocial treatment or risks (if any) of continued use of naltrexone. If the patient
the absence of available psychosocial treatment should not chooses to discontinue treatment with naltrexone and is at
preclude or delay pharmacological treatment, with appro- risk for relapse, treatment with methadone or buprenor-
priate medication management, during pregnancy. Moti- phine should be considered.
vational interviewing or enhancement can be used to 15. Use of naloxone challenge (see
encourage patients to engage in psychosocial treatment glossary) to test for opioid dependence and risk of
services appropriate for addressing their individual needs. precipitated withdrawal is not recommended for pregnant
7. Counseling and testing for HIV should be provided (in women with opioid use disorder.
accordance with state law). Tests for hepatitis B and C 16. Unless otherwise contraindicated
and liver enzymes are also suggested. Hepatitis A and B (see Part 8), mothers receiving methadone or buprenor-
vaccinations is recommended for those whose hepatitis phine for treatment of opioid use disorders should be
serology is negative. encouraged to breastfeed.
8. Drug and alcohol testing should be
used to monitor patients for adherence to medication and Part 9: Special Populations: Individuals with
for use of illicit and controlled substances. This should be Pain
done with informed consent from the mother, realizing 1. For all patients with pain, it is
that there may be adverse legal and social consequences important that the correct diagnosis is made and that
for substance use. State laws differ on reporting sub- pain is addressed. Alternative treatments including non-
stance use during pregnancy. Laws that penalize women opioid medications with pain modulating properties,
for substance use and for obtaining treatment serve to behavioral approaches, physical therapy, and procedural
prevent women from obtaining prenatal care and worsen approaches (e.g., regional anesthesia) should be consid-
outcomes. For further clarity see The ASAM Appropriate ered before prescribing opioid medications for pain.

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2. If pharmacological treatment is as described for acute pain above. The initial dose and
considered, non-opioid analgesics, such as acetamino- titration should typically be determined by the prescriber.
phen and NSAIDs, and non-opioid medications with pain In general, pre-surgery daily doses of these medications
modulating properties should be tried first. can be resumed if they were withheld for less than 2-3 days.
3. For patients with pain who have an 11. Patients on naltrexone may not
active opioid use disorder but are not in treatment, respond to opioid analgesics in the usual manner. There-
methadone or buprenorphine should be considered. fore, it is recommended that mild pain be treated with
The patient’s opioid use disorder and pain should be non-opioid analgesics, and moderate to severe pain be
stabilized and managed concurrently. treated with higher potency NSAIDs (e.g. ketorolac) on a
4. For patients taking methadone or short-term basis.
buprenorphine for the treatment of opioid use disorder, 12. Oral naltrexone should be discon-
temporarily increasing the dose or dosing frequency (i.e. tinued 72 hours before surgery and extended-release
split dosing to maximize the analgesic properties of these injectable naltrexone should be discontinued 30 days
medications) may be effective for managing pain. (Titra- before an anticipated surgery. (Reinitiation of naltrexone
tion of methadone should follow the guidance in Part 4 of should follow the guidance in Part 6 of this guideline)
this guideline) 13. Naltrexone’s blockade of the mu opioid receptor
5. For patients taking methadone for can often be overcome when necessary with high potency full
the treatment of opioid use disorder who have acute pain agonist opioids. In these instances, patients should be closely
refractory to other treatments and require additional monitored in an emergency department or hospital setting.
opioid-based analgesia, adding a short acting full agonist
opioid to their regular dose of methadone can be consid- Part 10: Special Populations: Adolescents
ered to manage moderate to severe acute pain. The dose 1. Clinicians should consider treating adolescents who have
of additional full agonist opioid analgesic prescribed is opioid use disorder using the full range of treatment
anticipated to be higher than the typical dose necessary to options, including pharmacotherapy.
achieve adequate analgesia in opioid-naı̈ve individuals. 2. Opioid agonists (methadone and
6. Patients receiving buprenorphine for opioid use buprenorphine) and antagonists (naltrexone) may be con-
disorder who have moderate to severe acute pain refrac- sidered for treatment of opioid use disorder in adolescents.
tory to other treatments and require additional opioid- Federal laws and FDA approvals should be considered when
based analgesia may benefit from the addition of as- recommending pharmacotherapy for adolescent patients.
needed doses of buprenorphine. 3. Psychosocial treatment is recom-
7. The addition of a short-acting full mended in the treatment of adolescents with opioid use
agonist opioid to the patient’s regular dose of buprenor- disorder. The risk benefit balance of pharmacological
phine can be effective for the management of severe acute treatment without concurrent psychosocial treatment
pain in supervised settings, such as during hospitaliza- should be carefully considered and discussed with the
tion. The dose of additional full agonist opioid analgesic patient and her or his parent or guardian as appropriate.
prescribed is anticipated to be higher than the typical A patient’s decision to decline psychosocial treatment or
dose necessary to achieve adequate analgesia in opioid- the absence of available psychosocial treatment should not
naı̈ve individuals. Because of a lack of evidence, the preclude or delay pharmacological treatment of opioid use
committee was unable to come to consensus on whether disorder, with appropriate medication management. Moti-
this adjunct treatment can be safely prescribed in ambu- vational interviewing or enhancement can be used to
latory care settings. encourage patients to engage in psychosocial treatment
8. Discontinuation of methadone or services appropriate for addressing their individual needs.
buprenorphine before surgery is not required. Higher- 4. Concurrent practices to reduce
potency intravenous full agonists opioids can be used infection (e.g., risk behavior reduction interventions) are
perioperatively for analgesia. recommended as components of comprehensive treatment
9. Decisions related to discontinuing for the prevention of blood-borne viruses (infections related
or adjusting the dose of buprenorphine prior to a planned to injection practices) and sexually transmitted infections.
surgery should be made on an individual basis, through 5. Adolescents may benefit from treatment in specialized
consultation between the surgical and anesthesia teams treatment programs that provide multidimensional ser-
and the addiction treatment provider when possible. vices (See The ASAM Criteria guidelines).2
10. If it is decided that buprenorphine
or methadone should be discontinued before a planned Part 11: Special Populations: Individuals with
surgery, this may occur the day before or the day of surgery, Co-occurring Psychiatric Disorders
based on surgical and anesthesia team recommendations. 1. A comprehensive assessment includ-
Higher-potency intravenous full agonists opioids can be ing determination of mental health status and suicide
used perioperatively for analgesia. Methadone or bupre- risk should be used to evaluate whether the patient is stable.
norphine can be resumed post-operatively when the need Patients with suicidal or homicidal ideation should
for full opioid agonist analgesia has resolved, with addi- be referred immediately for treatment and possibly hospitali-
tional considerations for post-operative pain management zation.

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

2. Management of patients at risk for suicide should 4. Initiation or maintenance of phar-

include reducing immediate risk, managing underlying macotherapy for the treatment of opioid use disorder is
factors associated with suicidal intent, and monitoring recommended for individuals within the criminal justice
and follow-up. system (including both jails and prisons). Criminal justice
3. All patients with psychiatric staff should coordinate care and access to pharmacother-
disorders should be asked about suicidal ideation and apy to avoid interruption in treatment. Patients should not
behavior. Patients with a history of suicidal ideation or be forced to transition from agonist (methadone or bupre-
attempts should have adherence for opioid use disorder norphine) to antagonist (naltrexone) treatment.
and psychiatric disorder medications monitored more 5. Individuals in the criminal justice
closely. system who have opioid use disorder or who are experienc-
4. Assessment for psychiatric disorder ing opioid withdrawal should be offered a combination of
should occur at the onset of agonist or antagonist treat- pharmacotherapy and psychosocial treatment (based on an
ment. However, completion of all assessments should not assessment of their individual psychosocial needs). A
delay or preclude initiating pharmacotherapy for opioid patient’s decision to decline psychosocial treatment or
use disorder. If not completed before initiating treatment, the absence of available psychosocial treatment should
assessments should be completed as soon as possible not preclude or delay pharmacological treatment of opioid
thereafter. Reassessment using a detailed mental status use disorder, with appropriate medication management.
examination should occur after stabilization with metha- Motivational interviewing or enhancement can be used to
done, buprenorphine, or naltrexone. encourage patients to engage in psychosocial treatment
5. Pharmacotherapy in conjunction services appropriate for addressing their individual needs.
with psychosocial treatment should be offered to patients 6. If an OTP is not accessible, providers may need to
with opioid use disorder and a co-occurring psychiatric transition individuals from methadone to buprenorphine.
disorder. A patient’s decision to decline psychosocial Effectively transitioning from methadone to buprenor-
treatment or the absence of available psychosocial treat- phine can be challenging but can be achieved safely if
ment should not preclude or delay pharmacological treat- managed by a provider experienced in the procedure.
ment of opioid use disorder, with appropriate mediation 7. Risk for relapse and overdose is
management. Motivational interviewing or enhancement particularly high in the weeks immediately following
can be used to encourage patients to engage in psychoso- release from prison and jails. Patients being treated for
cial treatment services appropriate for addressing their opioid use disorder while in prison or jail should be
individual needs. stabilized on pharmacotherapy (methadone, buprenor-
6. Clinicians should be aware of potential interactions phine or naltrexone) and continue in treatment after their
between medications used to treat co-occurring psychiat- release. Patient care on reentry to the community should be
ric conditions and opioid use disorder. individualized and coordinated with treatment providers in
7. Assertive community treatment should be considered for the community.
patients with co-occurring schizophrenia and opioid use 8. Naloxone kits should be available within correc-
disorder who have a recent history of, or are at risk of, tional facilities. Individuals with opioid use disorder
repeated hospitalization or homelessness. should receive a naloxone kit prior to release, and indi-
viduals and families should be educated in how to
Part 12: Special Populations: Individuals in the administer naloxone.
Criminal Justice System
1. All FDA approved medications for the treatment Part 13: Naloxone for the Treatment of Opioid
of opioid use disorder should be available to individuals Overdose
receiving healthcare within the criminal justice system. 1. Naloxone should be administered in
The treatment plan, including choice of medication, the event of a suspected opioid overdose.
should be based on the patient’s individual clinical needs. 2. Naloxone may be administered to
2. Continuation of treatment after pregnant women in cases of overdose to save the mother’s
release results in a substantial reduction in all-cause and life.
overdose mortality. Treatment should be individualized, 3. Patients who are being treated for
and patients should receive complete information to make opioid use disorder (as well as people with a history of
informed decisions in consultation with a medical and opioid use disorder leaving incarceration) and their family
treatment team. members/significant others should be given naloxone kits
3. Individuals entering the criminal justice system or prescriptions for naloxone. Patients and family mem-
should not be subject to forced opioid withdrawal. bers/significant others should be trained in the use of
Patients being treated for opioid use disorder at the time naloxone in overdose.
of entrance into the criminal justice system should con- 4. The Guideline Committee, based on consensus opinion,
tinue their treatment. Patients with opioid use disorder recommends that first responders such as emergency
who are not in treatment should be assessed and offered medical services personnel, police officers, and fire-
individualized pharmacotherapy and psychosocial treat- fighters be trained in and authorized to carry and
ment as appropriate. administer naloxone.

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 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

INTRODUCTION treatment of opioid dependence (using DSM, 4th Edition

[DSM-4] terminology), is also FDA-approved for the treat-
Purpose ment of alcohol dependence (DSM-4).6
The American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) ASAM encourages clinicians, researchers, educators,
developed the National Practice Guideline for the Treatment of and policy makers to use the term ‘‘addiction involving __’’
Opioid Use Disorder (the Practice Guideline) to provide regardless of whether the patient’s condition at a given point in
information on evidence-based treatment of opioid use disor- its natural history seems to more prominently involve opioid
der. This guideline is intended to assist clinicians in the deci- use, alcohol use, nicotine use, or engagement in addictive
sion-making process for prescribing pharmacotherapies and behaviors such as gambling. However, given the widespread
psychosocial treatments to patients with opioid use disorder. North American application of the DSM’s categorization of
Specifically, the Practice Guideline: disorders, this Practice Guideline will, for the sake of brevity
and convention, use the term opioid use disorder.
 Identifies current practices and outstanding questions
regarding the safe and effective use of medications for Epidemiology
the treatment of opioid use disorder. In 2018, an estimated 10.3 million people in the United
 Uses a methodology that integrates evidence-based prac- States misused opioids (representing 3.7% of the population
tices and expert clinical judgment to develop recommen- aged 12 or older), including 9.9 million pain reliever misusers
dations on best practices in opioid use disorder treatment. and 808,000 heroin users. The 2018 National Survey of Drug
 Presents best practices in a cohesive document for clini- Use and Health (NSDUH) found that 2.0 million persons in
cians’ use to improve the effectiveness of opioid use America met DSM 5 criteria for opioid use disorder.8 Impor-
disorder treatment. tantly, nonmedical use of prescription opioids has been shown
to be associated with the initiation of heroin use. In a study
Background on Opioid Use Disorder pooling data from the NSDUH from 2002 to 2012, the
Opioid use disorder is a brain disorder that can range in incidence of heroin use was 19 times greater among individ-
severity from mild to severe. Diagnosis of this disorder is based uals who reported prior nonmedical use of prescription
on a checklist of symptoms defined in the Diagnostic and opioids compared to individuals who did not report prior
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5) nonmedical prescription opioid use.17
developed by the American Psychiatric Association.5
ASAM defines addiction as ‘‘a treatable, chronic medi- Mortality and Morbidity
cal disease involving complex interactions among brain cir- Opioid misuse is associated with increased mortality. In
cuits, genetics, the environment, and an individual’s life the United States, more than 70,200 people died from drug
experiences. People with addiction use substances or engage overdoses in 2017; 47,600 of these deaths involved opioids.18
in behaviors that become compulsive and often continue These deaths include overdose from both illicit and prescrip-
despite harmful consequences.’’ Addiction is a serious biopsy- tion drugs. The sharpest increase occurred for deaths related
chosocial illness, meaning that biological, psychological, and to fentanyl and fentanyl analogs (other synthetic narcotics)
social factors can all contribute to both the development of, which accounted for 28,400 overdose deaths in 2017. Drug
and recovery from, this disease. The ASAM Criteria (dis- overdose deaths involving heroin rose from 1,960 in 1999 to
cussed in Part 1) provide a framework for assessing how 15,482 in 2017, and drug overdose deaths from prescription
diverse biopsychosocial factors contribute to an individual opioids rose from 3,442 in 1999 to 17,029 in 2017.18
patient’s addiction and the type and intensity of treatment Risky behaviors associated with opioid misuse increase
needed to support their recovery. ASAM views addiction as the risk of exposure to HIV, viral hepatitis, and other infectious
fundamentally a neurological disease involving brain reward, agents through contact with infected blood or body fluids (e.g.,
motivation, memory, and related circuitry, and recognizes that semen) that results from sharing syringes and injection para-
there are unifying features in all cases of addiction, including phernalia, or through unprotected sexual contact.9 Nearly one
substance-related addiction and nonsubstance-related addic- in 10 new HIV diagnoses occur among people who inject
tion. In this context, the preferred term by ASAM for this drugs.19 Importantly, injection drug use (IDU) is the highest-
disorder is addiction involving opioid use. risk behavior for acquiring hepatitis C virus. More than 41,000
A variety of substances commonly associated with Americans were newly diagnosed with acute hepatitis C in
addiction work on specific receptors and neurotransmitter 2016 with most new infections driven by IDU.20
systems in the nervous system. Pharmacological agents used Estimates of the total United States economic burden
in the treatment of addiction exert their effects via actions on resulting from the opioid crisis vary widely. One estimate
specific receptors. Hence, the medications used in the treat- suggested an economic cost of $78.5 billion per year and
ment of addiction have efficacy based on their own molecular included costs related to health care, lost productivity, addic-
structure and the particular neurotransmitter receptors tion treatment, and criminal justice involvement.21–23
affected by that medication. Medications developed for the Another estimate, from the Council of Economic Advisors,
treatment of addiction involving opioid use may have benefits found an economic cost of $696 billion in 2018 alone
in the treatment of addiction involving an individual’s use of including the value of lost lives, as well as increases in
other substances. For instance, naltrexone, which is approved healthcare and substance abuse treatment costs, increases
by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the in criminal justice costs, and reductions in productivity.23

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

Scope of Guideline has been in use, off label, in clinical settings for over
This Practice Guideline was developed to assist clini- 25 years.
cians in the evaluation and treatment of opioid use disorder. ASAM recognizes that withdrawal management and
Although there are existing guidelines for the treatment of withdrawal management medications could be potential
opioid use disorder, multiple new formulations of medications topics for future comprehensive guideline development.
used for its treatment have been approved over the last few ASAM will regularly review its published guidelines to
years. Moreover, few of the existing guidelines address the determine when partial or full updates are needed (see
needs of special populations such as pregnant women, indi- 2019 Focused Update section below). The emergence of
viduals with co-occurring psychiatric disorders, individuals newly approved medications, medical devices and new
with pain, adolescents, or individuals involved in the criminal research will be considered as part of this process. Since first
justice system. publication of this guideline, ASAM developed a consensus
Overall, the Practice Guideline contains recommenda- document that addresses topics discussed in this Practice
tions for the evaluation and treatment of opioid use disorder, Guideline (The ASAM Appropriate Use of Drug Testing in
opioid withdrawal management, psychosocial treatment, spe- Clinical Addiction Medicine).26 For this, and any new ASAM
cial populations, and opioid overdose. guidelines published before a full update to this Practice
Guideline, it is to be assumed that the recommendations in the
 Part 1: Contains guidelines on the evaluation of opioid latter documents will take precedence until this Practice
use disorder Guideline is updated.
 Part 2: Provides recommendations regarding treatment
options Intended Audience
 Part 3: Describes the management of opioid withdrawal This Practice Guideline is intended for all clinicians, at
 Parts 4–6: Provide guidelines on medications for treating any level, involved in evaluating for, and/or providing, opioid
opioid use disorder use disorder treatment in the United States. The intended
 Part 7: Describes psychosocial treatment used in conjunc- audience falls into the following broad groups:
tion with medications
 Parts 8–12: Provide guidelines for treating special pop- 1. Clinicians, including physicians, nurse practitioners
ulations and circumstances (NPs), physician assistants (PA), clinical nurse specialists,
 Part 13: Describes the use of naloxone in treating certified registered nurse anesthetists, and certified nurse
opioid overdose midwives involved in the assessment, diagnosis, and treat-
ment of opioid use disorder. General practice clinicians
Included and Excluded Medications (including those providing primary care, family practice,
The medications covered in this guideline include the pediatric, obstetric, gynecologic, emergency, and urgent
following: care services) are often first-line providers of medical care
related to opioid use disorder and are also a key audience
1. Methadone (part 4) for the guideline.
2. Buprenorphine (part 5) 2. Clinicians involved with the completion of health assess-
3. Naltrexone (part 6) ments and delivery of health services to special popula-
4. Naloxone (part 13) tions.
5. Clonidine (part 3) 3. Clinicians involved in making an initial assessment and
6. Lofexidine (part 3) offering psychosocial treatments in conjunction with med-
ications to treat opioid use disorder.
Methadone, buprenorphine, naltrexone, and naloxone 4. Clinical case managers responsible for clinical
all act directly upon opioid receptors, particularly the mu- care support, coordinating health-related and social ser-
subtype. Methadone is a mu-receptor agonist; buprenorphine vices, and tracking of patient adherence to the treatment
is a partial mu-receptor agonist; and naltrexone is an antago- plan.
nist. Buprenorphine and naltrexone are also kappa opioid
receptor antagonists which may contribute to their therapeutic Qualifying Statement
effects.24,25 Naloxone is a fast-acting antagonist used to The ASAM Practice Guideline is intended to aid clini-
reverse opioid overdose, a condition that may be life-threat- cians in their clinical decision-making and patient manage-
ening. Because of the differing actions of these medications at ment. The document strives to identify and define clinical
the receptor level, they can have very different clinical effects decision-making junctures that meet the needs of most
during treatment. patients in most circumstances. The ultimate judgment about
Clonidine and lofexidine for the management of care of a particular patient must be made together by the
opioid withdrawal are described in Part 3: Treating clinician and the patient in light of all the circumstances
Opioid Withdrawal of this Practice Guideline. Lofexidine presented by the patient. As a result, situations may arise in
has been used for the management of opioid withdrawal which deviations from the Practice Guideline may be appro-
for many years and was approved for this indication by priate. Clinical decision-making should involve consideration
the FDA in May 2018. Clonidine is not FDA-approved of the quality and availability of expertise and services in the
for opioid withdrawal syndrome in the United States but community wherein care is provided.

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In circumstances in which the Practice Guideline is and other entities among members of the Guideline Commit-
being used as the basis for regulatory or payer decisions, tee. All QIC members, committee members, and external
improvement in quality of care should be the goal. Finally, reviewers of the guideline were required to disclose all current
prescribed courses of treatment contained in recommenda- related relationships, which are presented in Appendices V-X.
tions in this Practice Guideline are effective only if the The 2015 Guideline Committee was composed of 11
recommendations, as outlined, are followed. Because lack experts and researchers from multiple disciplines, medical
of patient understanding and adherence may adversely affect specialties, and subspecialties, including academic research,
outcomes, clinicians should make every effort to engage the internal medicine, family medicine, addiction medicine,
patient’s understanding of, and adherence to, prescribed and addiction psychiatry, general psychiatry, obstetrics/gynecol-
recommended pharmacological and psychosocial treatments. ogy, and clinical neurobiology.7 Physicians with both allo-
Patients should be informed of the risks, benefits, and alter- pathic and osteopathic training were represented on the
natives to a particular treatment and should be shared parties Guideline Committee. The 2015 Guideline Committee was
to decision-making whenever feasible. ASAM recognizes that assisted by a technical team of researchers from the Treatment
there are challenges to implementation of these guidelines in Research Institute (TRI) affiliated with the University of
certain communities and settings, particularly in relation to Pennsylvania and worked under the guidance of Dr. Kyle
the availability of all FDA approved medications for the Kampman who led the TRI team as Principal Investigator in
treatment of opioid use disorder and access to psychosocial implementing the RAM. The 2019 focused update Guideline
treatment in all settings. However, this guideline aims to set Committee under the guidance of the Committee Chair Dr.
the standard for best clinical practice, providing recommen- Kyle Kampman and Co-Chair Dr. Stephen Wyatt and assisted
dations for the appropriate care of patients with opioid by RTI International (see section below titled 2019 Focused
use disorder in diverse settings. Recommendations in this Update for methods specific to the focused update). The RAM
Practice Guideline do not supersede any Federal or state process is a deliberate approach encompassing review of
regulation. existing guidelines, literature reviews, appropriateness rat-
ings, necessity reviews, and document development. The
METHODOLOGY steps are summarized in the flow chart in Exhibit 1 Method-
ology.
Overview of Approach
These guidelines were developed using the RAND/ 2015 Guideline Development
UCLA Appropriateness Method (RAM)—a process that com-
bines scientific evidence and clinical knowledge to determine Task 1: Review of Existing Guidelines
the appropriateness of a set of clinical procedures.12 This
process is particularly appropriate for these guidelines for two Review of Existing Clinical Guidelines. For the 2015 publi-
reasons. First, there are few randomized clinical trials (RCTs) cation, all existing clinical guidelines that addressed the use of
directly comparing the approved medications for the treat- medications and psychosocial treatments in the treatment of
ment of opioid use disorder. Second, evidence supporting the opioid use disorders including special populations (e.g., preg-
efficacy of the individual medications reflects varying years nant women, individuals with pain, and adolescents), and that
of research and varying levels of evidence (e.g., nonrandom- were published during the period from January 2000 to April
ized studies, retrospective studies). The RCT is the gold 2014, were identified and reviewed. In total, 49 guidelines
standard for evidence-based medicine. When data are lacking were identified and 34 were ultimately included in the analy-
from RCTs, other methods must be used to help clinicians sis. See Appendix I for a list of the guidelines that were
make the best choices. In addition, these guidelines are unique reviewed. The included guidelines offered evidence-based
in that they include all three of the medications approved at recommendations for the treatment of opioid use disorder
present by the FDA in multiple formulations, and they address using methadone, buprenorphine, and/or naltrexone, as well
the needs of special populations such as pregnant women, as treatment of opioid overdose with naloxone.
individuals with pain, adolescents, individuals with co-occur- Most existing clinical guidelines are based on system-
ring psychiatric disorder, and individuals in the criminal atic reviews of the literature including appropriateness criteria
justice system. Such special populations are often excluded used in the RAM. Therefore, the aim of this exercise was not
from RCTs, making the use of RCT data even more difficult. to re-review all of the research literature, but to identify within
The RAM process combines the best available scientific the existing clinical guidelines common questions or consid-
evidence combined with the collective judgment of experts erations that clinicians are likely to raise in the course of
to yield statements about the appropriateness of specific deciding whether and how to use medications as part of the
procedures that clinicians can apply to their everyday practice. treatment of individuals with opioid use disorder, and how
ASAM’s Quality Improvement Council (QIC) was the they have been addressed.
oversight committee for guideline development. The QIC
appointed a Guideline Committee to participate throughout Analysis of Clinical Guidelines. On the basis of the previously
the development process, rate treatment scenarios, and assist reviewed existing clinical guidelines, an analytic table was
in writing. In selecting the committee members, the QIC made created and populated to display the identified key compo-
every effort to avoid actual, potential, or perceived conflicts of nents. This table served as the foundation for development of
interest that may arise as a result of relationships with industry hypothetical statements. The hypothetical statements were

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

sentences describing recommendations derived from the anal- An appropriateness score of 1 meant that the statement
ysis of the clinical guidelines. was highly inappropriate. An appropriateness rating of 9
meant that the statement was highly appropriate. These
Preparation of Literature Review on Psychosocial Interven- appropriateness ratings were meant to identify consensus,
tions. For the 2015 publication, a review of the literature on or a lack thereof, in existing guidelines and research literature.
the efficacy of psychosocial treatment delivered in conjunc-
tion with medications for the treatment of opioid use disorder Guideline Committee Meeting. Upon completion and collec-
was conducted. This review was partially supported by fund- tion of the individual Guideline Committee member ratings,
ing from the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Articles were 201 out of the 245 hypothetical statements were identified as
identified for inclusion in the review through searches con- meeting the criteria for consensus. The remaining 44 state-
ducted in two bibliographic databases (e.g., PsycINFO and ments had divergent ratings. On September 15, 2014, the
PubMed) using predefined search terms and established Guideline Committee met in Washington, District of Colum-
selection criteria. Titles and abstracts were reviewed for bia, to discuss the hypothetical clinical statements. At this
inclusion by two members of the research team. meeting, the committee came to consensus on the hypotheti-
To increase the overall relevance of the review, the cal statements. After the meeting, the information gathered
search was limited to articles in the 6-year period from was used to revise several of the statements; and the Guideline
January 2008 to December 2014. If the article reflected a Committee was asked to re-rate the revised statements.
secondary analysis of data from a relevant study, the original
study was included in the literature review. In addition, Literature Review. A supplementary literature review was also
findings from three prominent systematic reviews (i.e., conducted to identify relevant studies that might resolve
2007 review on psychosocial interventions in pharmacother- statements that had resulted in divergent ratings during the
apy of opioid dependence prepared for the Technical Devel- Guideline Committee meeting. Information relating to the
opment Group for the World Health Organization, Guidelines vast majority of these divergent ratings was subsequently
for Psychosocially Assisted Pharmacotherapy of Opioid found within the existing guideline data set, and consequently
Dependence, and two 2011 Cochrane reviews examining included in the first draft of the Practice Guideline.
psychosocial and pharmacological treatments for opioid with- For the topics and questions for which answers were not
drawal management and psychosocial interventions com- found in the existing guideline data set, a full literature review
bined with agonist treatment) were summarized.26–28 was conducted. The topics and questions for which no further
The literature search yielded 938 articles. The titles and clarification was found in the literature were considered gaps
abstracts were reviewed to determine if the study met the that require additional research before inclusion in this guide-
inclusion/exclusion criteria, and those that did not (n ¼ 787) line. These gaps in the literature were: urine drug testing;
were removed. The remaining 151 articles were then reviewed patients using cannabis; the safety of delivering injectable
for inclusion, and 27 articles were ultimately retained for use naltrexone doses to patients with high metabolism every 3
in the literature review as the others did not meet the pre- weeks; and the safety of adding full agonists to treatment with
determined inclusion/exclusion criteria. These articles, along buprenorphine for pain management.
with the relevant systematic reviews of the literature, are
described in the literature review in the next section. Creation and Revision of Guideline Outline. All the identified
appropriate/uncertain hypothetical statements and supporting
Task 2: Identification of Hypothetical Statements research were incorporated into an outline defining each
and Appropriateness Rating specific section to be included in the final Practice Guideline.
The draft outline, review of existing guidelines, and literature
RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method. The first step in the review were all sent to the Guideline Committee members for
RAM is to develop a set of hypothetical statements, which review and discussion during two web teleconferences and
were derived from the guideline analysis and literature review through private communication. Two teleconferences were
described in the previous section, for appropriateness rating. held to ensure full participation from members of the Guide-
The analysis and literature review generated a list of 245 line Committee.
hypothetical statements that reflected recommended medical or
psychosocial treatment. Each member of the Guideline Com- Task 3: Comparative Analysis, Review, and
mittee reviewed the guideline analysis and literature review, Necessity Rating
and privately rated 245 hypothetical clinical statements on a 9-
point scale of appropriateness. In the context of this Practice Committee Review and Rating. The Guideline Committee then
Guideline, the meaning of appropriateness was defined as: re-rated the 211 appropriate hypothetical statements for neces-
A statement, procedure or treatment is considered to be sity. When rating for necessity, the Guideline Committee
appropriate if the expected health benefit (e.g., increased members were asked to adhere to the following guidance:
life expectancy, relief of pain, reduction in anxiety, A statement was considered necessary when all the
improved functional capacity) exceeds the expected nega- following criteria were met:
tive consequences (e.g., mortality, morbidity, anxiety, pain)
by a sufficiently wide margin that the procedure is worth 1. Not providing the service would be considered improper
doing, exclusive of cost. care.

20 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

2. Reasonable chance exists that this procedure and/or ser- The methods used to search the literature and subse-
vice will benefit the patient. (A procedure could be quently develop guideline statements were consistent with the
appropriate if it had a low likelihood of benefit, but few RAM methodology employed for the 2015 publication.7,12
risks; however, such procedures would not be necessary.) Criteria for inclusion in the focused update included new
3. The benefit to the patient is of significance and certainty. evidence and guidelines that were considered a) clinically
(A procedure could be appropriate if it had a minor but meaningful and applicable to a broad range of clinicians
almost certain benefit, but it would not be necessary.) treating addiction involving opioid use (including those
Necessity is a more stringent criterion than appropri- related to comments received by ASAM from ASAM mem-
ateness. If a procedure is necessary, this means that the bers), and b) urgently needed to ensure the guideline reflects
expected benefits outweigh the expected harms (i.e., it is
appropriate), and that they do so by such a margin that the
provider must recommend the service. Of course, patients
may decline to follow their provider’s recommendations.12
Of the 211 rated statements, 184 hypothetical state-
ments met the criteria for being both appropriate and neces-
sary and were incorporated in the guideline.

Final Draft Outline. The final draft outline highlighted hypo-

thetical statements that had been determined to rise to the
level of necessity.

Task 4: Drafting the National Practice Guideline

Draft and Review. A first draft of the Practice Guideline was
created using the Guideline Committee’s recommendations
resulting from supporting evidence and the appropriateness
and necessity ratings discussed above. The first draft of the
Practice Guideline was sent to the Guideline Committee for
review and electronic comment. During a subsequent tele-
conference in January 2015, the Guideline Committee dis-
cussed the comments received via first review. Revisions were
made to the draft, which went again through subsequent
reviews by the Guideline Committee and the ASAM QIC
throughout February and March 2015.

Task 5: External Review

External Review. ASAM sought input from ASAM members,

patient and caregiver groups, and other stakeholders including
experts from the criminal justice system, government agen-
cies, other professional societies, and hospitals and health
systems. ASAM also made the document and a qualitative
review guide available to ASAM members and the general
public for a 2-week period of review and comment. The final
draft Practice Guideline was submitted to the ASAM Board of
Directors in April 2015.

2019 Focused Update New

Between September 2018 and July 2019, ASAM
reconvened an independent committee (see page 2) to oversee
a focused update of this Practice Guideline.7 The purpose of
the focused update was to develop new and revised recom-
mendations based on a targeted review of new evidence and
evolving clinical practice guidance. A full update of the
guideline is scheduled to begin in 2021. ASAM’s QIC worked
with a technical team from RTI International (a not-for-profit
research institution based in the Research Triangle Park in
North Carolina) to develop and oversee the scope of work for
the focused update. Exhibit 1. Methodology and Disposition of Results.

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

the current state of the science on the existing recommenda- As with the 2015 guideline development process, sup-
tions, aligns with other relevant practice guidelines, and plementary literature searches were conducted to identify
reflects newly approved drugs and formulations. Relevant literature to help resolve differences among committee mem-
evidence and current practices not meeting these criteria will bers during the statement rating process and to update key
be reviewed and incorporated into the full update. background information such as opioid use disorder statistics,
A search of Medline’s PubMed database from January recent changes to prescribing regulations, and FDA approvals.
1, 2014 to September 27, 2018 was conducted to identify new A handful of key systematic reviews and guidelines were
practice guidelines and relevant systematic reviews address- released in the summer of 2019. These are referenced in places
ing the use of medications and psychosocial treatments in the to support the updated guidelines but were not available during
treatment of opioid use disorders, including in special pop- the RAM appropriateness and necessity rating process.
ulations. The archives of the Clinical Guideline Clearing-
house, and key agency and society websites, including the PART 1: ASSESSMENT AND DIAGNOSIS OF
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration OPIOID USE DISORDER
(SAMHSA), the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality,
and the National Institute of Mental Health were also searched Comprehensive Assessment
for additional guidelines. The FDA website was searched for ASAM has published guidance on conducting assess-
recent relevant drug approvals and mandated label changes ments and diagnosing opioid use disorder in both The ASAM
since publication of this Practice Guideline in 2015. A Criteria and the ASAM Standards of Care for the Addiction
predefined set of inclusion and exclusion criteria (consistent Specialist Physician (the ASAM Standards).2,29 The ASAM
with the 2015 process but meeting the above criteria for the Criteria provides comprehensive guidance on conducting a
focused update) were applied to identify practice guidelines multidimensional assessment and determining the appropriate
and systematic reviews for inclusion in the 2019 Focused level of care for a given patient. Assessments are structured
Update. Included guidelines and systematic reviews were not around six dimensions that provide a common language of
independently (i.e. outside of what was performed by the holistic, biopsychosocial evaluation and treatment across
authors) assessed for risk of bias. substance use, physical health, mental health, and broad issues
The literature search identified 210 unique practice relevant to recovery. These dimensions include:
guidelines and systematic reviews (208 were identified
through initial searches on September 27, 2018; one addi- 1. acute intoxication
tional systematic review was identified through a review of 2. biomedical conditions and complications
included guidelines; and a newly published systematic review 3. emotional, behavioral, or cognitive conditions or compli-
from the Institute for Clinical and Economic Review (ICER) cations
was added on October 26, 2018). Following dual review of 4. readiness for change
titles and abstracts, 67 publications were retrieved for full-text 5. continued use or continued problem potential
review. Eleven practice guidelines and 35 systematic reviews 6. recovery/living environment
met criteria for inclusion in the focused update. See Appendix
I for a list of included practice guidelines and systematic The ASAM Standards also describe the importance of
reviews employed. comprehensive assessment. Though the assessment process is
Key evidence from the identified practice guidelines; ongoing for the patient with substance use disorder, a com-
key findings from the systematic reviews; and newly approved prehensive assessment is ‘‘a critical aspect of patient engage-
FDA drugs, formulations and mandated label changes were ment and treatment planning’’ and should be conducted
abstracted and mapped to the existing ASAM recommenda- during the initial phase of treatment.29 The assessment does
tion statements to identify new and evolving clinical practice not necessarily need to occur in the first visit; it is critical,
guidance, evidence, and recommendations. Using the RAM, however, to determine emergent or urgent medical problems.
hypothetical statements were developed and presented, along Patients with opioid use disorder often have other physiologi-
with supporting evidence, to the focused update Guideline cal or psychiatric conditions that may complicate their treat-
Committee first for appropriateness rating and later, following ment. These concomitant medical and psychiatric conditions
revision, for necessity rating. Thirty statements were gener- may need immediate attention and require transfer to a more
ated for the first round of appropriateness rating. Following intensive level of care (see Part 11: Special Populations:
round one, statements were revised, and 24 were presented for Individuals with Co-occurring Psychiatric Disorders).
a second round of appropriateness and then necessity rating. The assessments discussed in this section are critical for
The 24 newly generated statements for the focused update comprehensive treatment planning. However, since patients
along with a review of the language in existing statements with opioid use disorder are at risk for significant harm –
resulted in major revisions to 32 existing recommendations including overdose and overdose death – a delay in comple-
and the addition of 13 new recommendations. In addition, 55 tion of each assessment should not delay or preclude the
statements underwent minor edits that did not change the initiation of pharmacotherapy for opioid use disorder.
substantive meaning of the original recommendation.
Exhibit 1 describes the methodology employed and Medical History
presents the disposition of results for both the original and The patient’s medical history should include screening
focused update guideline development process. for concomitant medical conditions and routine identification

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 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

of medications, allergies, pregnancy, family medical history, use (IDU) by the presence of new or older puncture marks.
and so on. Particular attention should be paid to the following: Common injection sites are inside the elbow (cubital fossa)
history of infectious diseases such as viral hepatitis, HIV, and and forearm, but other sites on the extremities, the neck (i.e.,
TB; acute trauma; history of injection drug use and related external jugular), and the groin (i.e. femoral vein) may be
infections (e.g. infective endocarditis, septic arthritis, osteo- used. Transition to injection in the neck, groin, and other sites
myelitis, abscesses, cellulitis, etc.); psychiatric, substance may occur when the patient has exhausted more peripheral
use, addictive behavior, and addiction treatment history; sites or when the patient is attempting to hide the signs of IDU.
and any previous history of pharmacotherapy. Classical physical signs are not always clear, it may take time
(and subsequent visits) to establish whether a patient has an
Physical Examination opioid use disorder.
As part of the comprehensive assessment of patients
with opioid use disorder, a physical examination may be Assessment and History Considerations
completed by the prescriber him/herself (the clinician autho- Specific to Females
rizing the use of a medication for the treatment of opioid use Use of contraception and determination of pregnancy are
disorder) or another member of the clinician’s health system. factors in choosing treatment options for women with opioid
The responsible clinician should assure that a current physical use disorder. Women of childbearing potential should be tested
examination (in accordance with the ASAM Standards) is for pregnancy, and all women of childbearing potential should
contained within the patient medical record before (or soon be queried regarding methods of contraception. Contraception
after) a patient is started on a new medication for the treatment and reproductive health are topics of discussion within the
of his/her opioid use disorder. assessment process of female patients who are considering
The examination should include identifying objective opioid use disorder treatment. Case management plans may
physical signs of opioid intoxication or withdrawal. Table 2 need to include referral to gynecological services for female
lists common signs of intoxication and withdrawal. In addi- patients.30 An in-depth discussion of the treatment of opioid use
tion, the examination should evaluate objective signs of disorder in pregnant women is described later in Part 8: Special
substance use disorders. See Table 3 for a list of physical Populations: Pregnant Women.
signs of substance use disorders (including opioid use disor-
der). Laboratory Tests
The examination should also look for common physical Initial laboratory testing should include a complete
signs of opioid use disorder (see Table 3), and physical health blood count, liver enzyme tests, and tests for TB, hepatitis
problems associated with substance use disorders including B and C, and HIV. Testing for sexually transmitted infections
sleep disorders, infectious diseases (see Laboratory Tests should be strongly considered. Hepatitis A and B vaccination
section below), pain, cardiovascular disease, and liver disease. should be offered, if appropriate. A complete blood count and
Special attention should be given to identifying injection drug liver enzyme studies should be conducted to screen for liver
dysfunction, infection, and other medical conditions. Abnor-
mal results may require further investigation or referral.
TABLE 2. Common Signs of Opioid Intoxication and
Withdrawal
Assessment for Mental Health Status and
Intoxication Signs Withdrawal Signs Psychiatric Disorder
Drooping eyelids Restlessness, irritability, anxiety Patients being evaluated for opioid use disorder, and/or
Constricted pupils Insomnia for possible medication use in the treatment of opioid use
Reduced respiratory rate Yawning disorder, should undergo an evaluation of possible co-occur-
Scratching (due to histamine release) Abdominal cramps, diarrhea,
Head nodding vomiting
ring psychiatric disorders, including behavioral addictions
Dilated pupils (e.g. gambling disorder, gaming disorder, etc.). During the
Sweating assessment process and physical examination, it is important
Piloerection for the clinician to assess for mental health status consistent
with the ASAM Standards.

TABLE 3. Objective Physical Signs in Substance Use Disorders

System Findings
Dermatologic Abscesses, rashes, cellulitis, thrombosed veins, jaundice, spider angioma, palmer erythema, scars, track marks,
pock marks from skin popping
Ear, nose, throat, and eyes Pupils pinpoint or dilated, yellow sclera, conjunctivitis, ruptured eardrums, otitis media, discharge from ears,
rhinorrhea, rhinitis, excoriation or perforation of nasal septum, epistaxis, sinusitis, hoarseness, or laryngitis
Mouth Poor dentition, gum disease, abscesses
Cardiovascular Murmurs, arrhythmias
Respiratory Asthma, dyspnea, rales, chronic cough, hematemesis
Musculoskeletal and extremities Pitting edema, broken bones, traumatic amputations, burns on fingers, gynecomastia
Gastrointestinal Hepatomegaly, hernias

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

In the ASAM Standards, I.1 indicates that the physician hypnotic, or anxiolytic intoxication or withdrawal. Alcohol
‘‘assures that an initial comprehensive, multicomponent or sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic withdrawal may result in
assessment is performed for each patient, either by performing seizures, hallucinosis, or delirium, and may represent a medical
it her/himself or by assuring it is conducted in full or in part by emergency. Likewise, concomitant use of alcohol and seda-
another qualified professional within the system in which she/ tives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics with opioids may contribute to
he is working.’’29 A thorough medical and psychiatric history respiratory depression. While the combined use of these drugs
and family history is indicated as a component of this same and opioids increases the risk of serious side effects, the harm
standard. Patients who are identified as exhibiting urgent or caused by untreated opioid use disorder can outweigh these
emergent psychiatric conditions, or who are psychiatrically risks. Co-occurring substance use disorders should be
unstable and represent a danger to themselves or others, addressed concomitantly. Patients with significant co-occur-
should be referred to the appropriate level of care for their ring substance use disorders, especially severe alcohol or
safety and the safety of others. Further specialty evaluation sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use, may require a higher
may be warranted depending on the severity of indicators for level of care. When evaluating patients with opioid use disorder,
psychiatric instability. Indicators of psychiatric instability or the clinician should also consider assessing for misuse of other
disorder include acute suicidal or homicidal ideation, acute medications not traditionally considered (e.g. gabapentin). A
psychosis, and delirium. 2017 systematic review reported that increasing numbers of
patients are self-administering higher than recommended doses
Assessment for Substance Use and Treatment of gabapentinoids (gabapentin and pregabalin) to achieve
History euphoric highs. Among opioid users the reported prevalence
A careful evaluation of current and past use of drugs, of gabapentinoid misuse ranged from 3% to 68%.31
including alcohol and nonmedical use of prescription medi- An evaluation of past and current substance use should be
cations, is required to diagnose opioid use disorder. Because conducted to determine whether addiction involving other sub-
opioid use disorder may co-occur with other substance use stances is present. For information on drug testing see The ASAM
disorders, the evaluator should assess frequency and quantity Appropriate Use of Drug Testing in Clinical Addiction Medicine
of substance use. guidance document.14 Concurrent use of other drugs or active
Completing a history of opioid misuse with a patient engagement in other addictive behaviors should lead to consid-
who has been identified as using opioids should focus on the eration of other treatment plan components for the patient. The
following: presence of co-occurring substance use disorders should provoke
a reevaluation of the level of care in which the patient is treated.
1. type and amount of opioid(s) used recently; However, if a more intensive level of care is not available or if a
2. route of administration; patient is unable or unwilling to engage in a more intensive level
3. last use; of care, that should not preclude or delay treatment initiation,
4. treatment history; and including medications. In most cases, co-occurring substance use
5. problems resulting from drug use. will not represent a medical emergency. In such cases, patients
can begin treatment for both their opioid use disorder and co-
The amount of drug being consumed will impact the occurring alcohol or substance use disorders.
likelihood and severity of withdrawal symptoms when the Evidence suggest that individuals who are actively
drug is stopped, so it is useful to obtain an estimate of the using other substances during opioid use disorder treatment
amount used (each time and number of times per day). may have a poorer prognosis.32–34 The Guideline Committee
Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs (PDMPs) offer infor- cautioned against excluding patients from treatment for their
mation about use of controlled prescription medications, opioid use disorder because they are using cannabis or other
including opioids. They can serve as important resources psychoactive substances. All co-occurring substance misuse
for clinicians’ use in completing full patient clinical assess- should be addressed. While more research is needed, evidence
ments of opioid and other controlled substance use history, demonstrates that patients in treatment have better outcomes
and it is recommended that they be utilized. As of June 2019, than those not retained in treatment.35–37 Suspension of
Missouri is the only U.S. state without a statewide PDMP. opioid use disorder treatment may increase the risk for death
PDMPs vary with respect to how they are administered, who is from overdose, accidents, or other health problems. Contin-
granted access, and which medications are monitored. ued use of cannabis or other psychoactive substances may
In addition, a history of outpatient and inpatient treat- impede treatment for opioid use disorder; thus, an approach
ment for alcohol and other substance use disorders should be that addresses all unprescribed substances is likely to result in
collected. Clinicians should ask for information about the type the best outcomes. Further research is needed on the outcomes
and duration of treatment and outcomes. of patients in opioid use disorder treatment who are continu-
ing the nonmedical use of other psychoactive substances.
Assessment for Co-occurring Substance Use
Opioid use disorder often co-occurs with alcohol, nico- Assessment for Nicotine Use
tine, and other substance use disorders. Therefore, evaluation of Nicotine use should be queried, and the benefits of
co-occurring alcohol, nicotine, and substance use (including cessation should be promoted routinely with patients present-
prescription medication misuse) is recommended. Clinicians ing for evaluation and treatment of opioid use disorder.
should assess signs and symptoms of alcohol or sedative, Several studies have demonstrated that smoking cessation

24 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

improves long-term outcomes among individuals receiving amounts of opioids or diminished effect with continued
treatment for substance use disorders.37–39 use at the same amount—as long as the patient is not taking
opioids under medical supervision; and (11) withdrawal
Assessment of Psychosocial and Environmental manifested by characteristic opioid withdrawal syndrome
Factors or taking opioids to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms—
Clinicians should conduct an assessment of the patient’s as long as the patient is not taking opioids under medical
social history, readiness for change, and social and environ- supervision.5
mental factors (as outlined in The ASAM Criteria and the More detail about diagnosing opioid use disorder is
ASAM Standards) to identify facilitators and barriers to available in the American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic
addiction treatment and long-term recovery, including phar- and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition.
macotherapy.2,29 In developing a comprehensive treatment Arlington, VA, American Psychiatric Association, 2013.
plan for the patient with opioid use disorder, the patient should
receive a multidimensional assessment (as described in The Withdrawal Scales
ASAM Criteria). The ASAM Criteria uses six dimensions to There are several useful opioid withdrawal scales that
create a holistic biopsychosocial assessment of an individual can assist the clinician in evaluating patients with opioid use
to be used for service planning and treatment as described disorder by identifying and quantifying the severity of opioid
above.2 The use of medications for patients with opioid use withdrawal symptoms. The Objective Opioid Withdrawal
disorder can be appropriate across all levels of care. Pharma- Scale (OOWS), which relies on clinical observation, is useful
cotherapy is not a level of care in addiction treatment, but one in measuring and documenting the objectively measurable
component of multidisciplinary treatment. ASAM recom- symptoms of opioid withdrawal. The Subjective Opioid
mends that the use of medications in the treatment of addic- Withdrawal Scale (SOWS) records the patient’s rating of
tion be part of a comprehensive treatment plan appropriate to opioid withdrawal on a 16-item scale.40 The Clinical Opioid
the patient’s needs and to the resources available in the Withdrawal Scale (COWS) includes 11 items, and contains
patient’s community. The use of medication(s) is only one signs and symptoms of opioid withdrawal, which are both
component of overall treatment. objective and subjective in nature.40 Finally, The Clinical
Institute Narcotic Assessment (CINA) also includes 11 items
Diagnosing Opioid Use Disorder and can help determine the severity of symptoms.41
Opioid use disorder is primarily diagnosed on the basis
of the history provided by the patient and a comprehensive Drug and Alcohol Testing
assessment that includes a physical examination and labora- Urine drug testing, or other reliable biological tests for
tory testing, including drug testing. Corroborating informa- the presence of drugs and alcohol, can be used in the process
tion reported by significant others can be used to confirm the of assessment and diagnosis to validate patient self-reported
diagnosis, especially when there is lack of clarity or incon- information and identify poly-substance use. Testing should
sistency in information. Other clinicians may make a diagno- also be used to monitor patients for adherence to medication
sis of opioid use disorder; however, prescriber confirmation of and for use of illicit and controlled substances during treat-
the diagnosis is required before medications are prescribed. ment. A variety of toxicology tests are available, some with
greater and lesser reliability and validity. The person who is
DSM-5 Criteria for Diagnosis interpreting these labs should be very familiar with the
The diagnosis of opioid use disorder is based on methodology and the reliability. Little research exists on
criteria outlined in the DSM-5. The criteria describe a the optimal frequency of testing. The recommendations given
problematic pattern of opioid use leading to clinically sig- below are based on the consensus opinion of the Guideline
nificant impairment or distress. There are 11 diagnostic Committee. The frequency of drug testing will be determined
criteria and severity is specified as either mild (presence by a number of factors, including the stability of the patient,
of 2-3 symptoms), moderate (presence of 4-5 symptoms) or the type of treatment, and the treatment setting. Providers
severe (presence of 6 or more symptoms) within a 12-month should also look to the test’s detection capabilities and
period. Opioid use disorder requires that at least two of the windows of detection to help determine the frequency of
following 11 criteria be met within a 12-month period: (1) testing. Patients will likely require more testing early in
taking opioids in larger amounts or over a longer period of treatment or during periods of relapse. Patients participating
time than intended; (2) having a persistent desire or unsuc- in treatment for opioid use disorder at OTPs are mandated by
cessful attempts to reduce or control opioid use; (3) spending state regulations and the Federal law42 to receive a minimum
excess time obtaining, using or recovering from opioids; (4) of eight drug tests per year, but may be tested more frequently
craving for opioids; (5) continuing opioid use causing based on clinical need. A 2017 consensus statement by ASAM
inability to fulfill work, home, or school responsibilities; states that the eight drug tests per year currently required
(6) continuing opioid use despite having persistent social or should be viewed as a minimum. Many patients will require
interpersonal problems; (7) lack of involvement in social, more frequent testing, and determinations about optimal
occupational or recreational activities; (8) using opioids in frequency are best made on an individualized basis.14 For
physically hazardous situations; (9) continuing opioid use in more information on drug testing see The ASAM Appropriate
spite of awareness of persistent physical or psychological Use of Drug Testing in Clinical Addiction Medicine guidance
problems; (10) tolerance, including need for increased document.

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

In general, opioids, and most other substances of inter- 10. The use of benzodiazepines and
est, are detectable in the urine for 1–3 days after use. A other sedative-hypnotics should not be a reason to with-
negative test does not rule out opioid use disorder or physical hold or suspend treatment with methadone or buprenor-
dependence. Urine, or other body fluid, testing is also helpful phine. While the combined use of these medications
to identify use of other psychoactive substances. increases the risk of serious side effects, the harm caused
by untreated opioid use disorder can outweigh these risks.
Summary of Recommendations A risk-benefit analysis should be conducted, and greater
support should be provided including careful medication
Assessment Recommendations management to reduce risks.13
1. The first clinical priority should be given to identifying 11. A nicotine use query should be
and making appropriate referral for any urgent or emer- completed routinely for all patients and counseling on
gent medical or psychiatric problem(s), including drug- cessation of the use of tobacco products and electronic
related impairment or overdose. nicotine delivery devices (e.g. vaping) provided if indi-
2. Comprehensive assessment of the patient is cated.
critical for treatment planning. However, completion of 12. As part of comprehensive care the
all assessments should not delay or preclude initiating patient should receive a multidimensional assessment (as
pharmacotherapy for opioid use disorder. If not com- described in The ASAM Criteria), including an assess-
pleted before initiating treatment, assessments should be ment of social and environmental factors to identify
completed soon thereafter. facilitators and barriers to addiction treatment and
3. Completion of the patient’s medi- long-term recovery (including pharmacotherapy). Addic-
cal history should include screening for concomitant tion is a complex biopsychosocial illness, for which the
medical conditions, including psychiatric disorders, use of medication(s) is only one component of compre-
infectious diseases (viral hepatitis, HIV, and tuberculosis hensive treatment.2
[TB]), acute trauma, and pregnancy.
4. A physical examination should be Diagnosis Recommendations
completed as a component of the comprehensive assess- 1. Other clinicians may diagnose opi-
ment process. The prescriber (the clinician authorizing oid use disorder, but confirmation of the diagnosis must be
the use of a medication for the treatment of opioid use obtained by the prescriber before pharmacotherapy for
disorder) should ensure that a current physical examina- opioid use disorder commences.
tion is contained within the patient medical record before 2. Opioid use disorder is primarily diagnosed on the basis of
(or soon after) a patient is started on pharmacotherapy. the history provided by the patient and a comprehensive
5. Initial laboratory testing should assessment that includes a physical examination.
include a complete blood count, liver enzyme tests, 3. Validated clinical scales that mea-
and tests for TB, hepatitis B and C, and HIV. Testing sure withdrawal symptoms may be used to assist in the
for sexually transmitted infections should be strongly evaluation of patients with opioid use disorder.
considered. Hepatitis A and B vaccinations should be 4. Drug testing is recommended
offered, if appropriate. during the comprehensive assessment process, and
6. Women of childbearing potential during treatment to monitor patients for adherence to
should be tested for pregnancy, and all women of child- prescribed medications and use of alcohol, illicit, and
bearing potential should be queried regarding methods controlled substances. The frequency of testing is deter-
of contraception. mined by several factors including stability of the patient,
7. Patients being evaluated for opioid type of treatment, and treatment setting. For additional
use disorder, and/or for possible medication use in the information see The ASAM Appropriate Use of Drug
treatment of opioid use disorder, should undergo (or have Testing in Clinical Addiction Medicine guidance docu-
completed) an assessment of mental health status and ment.14
possible psychiatric disorders (such as is outlined in The
ASAM Criteria and The ASAM Standards).2,29 Areas for Further Research
8. Opioid use disorder is often co- 1. More research is needed on best practices for drug testing
occurring with other substance use disorders. Evaluation during the initial evaluation and throughout the entire
of a patient with opioid use disorder should include a treatment process.
detailed history of other past and current substance use 2. Further research is needed on evidence-based approaches
and substance use disorders. for treating opioid use disorder in patients who continue to
9. The use of cannabis, stimulants, use alcohol, cannabis, and/or other psychoactive substan-
alcohol, and/or other addictive drugs should not be a ces.
reason to withhold or suspend opioid use disorder treat- 3. Assessment and diagnosis of OUD is occurring increas-
ment. However, patients who are actively using substan- ingly in nontraditional settings, including hospital emer-
ces during opioid use disorder treatment may require gency departments and primary care. Implementation
greater support including a more intensive level of care research is needed to determine the most effective tools
(see The ASAM Criteria and The ASAM Standards).2,29 and models for assessment and diagnosis in these settings.

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PART 2: TREATMENT OPTIONS approvals for these medications have primarily been for
‘opioid dependence’ as defined in prior versions of the
Introduction DSM, and not necessarily the definition contained in the
Once the diagnosis of opioid use disorder has been current version of the manual, the DSM-5. DSM-5 combined
established, and the patient is determined to be medically and opioid abuse and opioid dependence criteria from prior
psychiatrically stable, the next task is to decide on a course of versions of the DSM and included them in the new definition
treatment. Treatment options include pharmacotherapy with of opioid use disorder. As a result, pharmacologic treatment
one of three medications – methadone, buprenorphine, or may not be appropriate for all patients along the entire opioid
naltrexone – and psychosocial treatment. Withdrawal man- use disorder continuum (i.e. for individuals with new onset,
agement alone can be the first step but is not a treatment for mild opioid use disorder). In a study comparing opioid
opioid use disorder and should only be considered as a part of dependence from DSM-4 and opioid use disorder from
a comprehensive and longitudinal plan of care. DSM-5, optimal concordance occurred when four or more
Behavior change is an important part of recovery, that DSM-5 criteria were endorsed (i.e., the DSM-5 threshold for
may be facilitated by psychosocial treatment. However, these moderate opioid use disorder).11
treatments take time to be effective. Medications work The medications discussed in this Practice Guideline all
quickly to reduce the risk for overdose and overdose death. have evidence supporting their safety and efficacy. While
Thus, the combination of pharmacotherapy and psychosocial other medications have been used off-label to treat opioid use
treatments, tailored to the individual’s needs, is the recom- disorder the Guideline Committee has not issued recommen-
mended standard of care. Medications work rapidly to restore dations on the use of these medications, with some exceptions
balance to the brain circuits impacted by addiction, reducing (clearly noted in the text). Cost efficacy was not a consider-
cravings and withdrawal symptoms and enabling patients to ation in the development of this Practice Guideline.
address the psychosocial factors that contribute to their Each medication will be discussed in detail in subse-
disease and establish healthier patterns of behavior to support quent sections:
long-term recovery.
The choice among available treatment options should be 1. Methadone (mu-agonist) for opioid use disorder treatment
a shared decision between the clinician and the patient. A and opioid withdrawal management (part 4).
number of factors should be considered in deciding what 2. Buprenorphine (partial mu-agonist) for opioid use disorder
treatment(s) to choose. Among the first considerations are the treatment and opioid withdrawal management (part 5).
priorities of the patient, for instance: Is the patient open to 3. Naltrexone (antagonist) for opioid use disorder relapse
pharmacotherapy? Does the patient have access to an OTP? prevention (part 6).
What type of treatment setting does the patient prefer? Does 4. Naloxone (antagonist) to reverse an opioid overdose
the patient understand the pros and cons of the treatment (part 13).
medication options? A patient’s past experiences with treat- 5. Lofexidine (alpha-2 adrenergic agonist) for opioid with-
ment for opioid use disorder should be considered as well. Of drawal management (Part 3)
course, above all, evidence supporting the potential efficacy 6. Clonidine (alpha-2 adrenergic agonist) for opioid with-
and safety of the various treatments is critically important. drawal management (Part 3)
For most patients with opioid use disorder, the use of Since the 2015 publication of this Practice Guideline, in
medications (combined with psychosocial treatment) is supe- May 2018, the FDA approved the alpha-2 adrenergic agonist,
rior to psychosocial treatment on its own; this is true for lofexidine, as a treatment for withdrawal symptoms when
agonist, partial agonist, and antagonist medications. Evidence opioids are abruptly discontinued.51 Lofexidine will be cov-
suggests that both methadone and buprenorphine maintenance ered in ‘‘Part 3: Treating Opioid Withdrawal’’. The only
treatments are superior to withdrawal management alone and medication that is not FDA-approved for the treatment of
both significantly reduce illicit opioid use.15,36 Further, mor- opioid use disorder that will be covered in this Practice
tality is lower in patients on methadone or buprenorphine, as Guideline is another alpha-2 adrenergic agonist, clonidine,
compared to those not undergoing treatment.9,43 Methadone commonly used off-label for the treatment of opioid with-
and buprenorphine also lower the risk of acquiring or spread- drawal (see Part 3: Treating Opioid Withdrawal).
ing HIV infection.44–46 In clinical studies, evidence favors Key outcomes in evaluating the efficacy of the various
buprenorphine, compared to no treatment, in decreasing pharmacotherapies include, decreased mortality, abstinence
heroin use and improving treatment retention.35,47 Evidence from opioids, and retention in treatment. In regards to these
also supports the efficacy of extended-release injectable key outcomes, a 2016 Cochrane Collaboration meta-analysis
naltrexone versus placebo for prevention of relapse to opioid found no difference between methadone and buprenorphine in
use disorder.48–50 retaining patients in treatment, reducing illicit opioid use or in
reported adverse events.52 A 2016 systematic review con-
Pharmacotherapy Options ducted by the Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies
The medications covered in this Practice Guideline in Health (CADTH) found methadone and buprenorphine/
include those that have been approved by the FDA for the naloxone equally effective in reducing mortality, found that
treatment of opioid use disorder. (See Appendix III for an patients on buprenorphine/naloxone were more likely to
overview of the main pharmacotherapy options and Appendix abstain from opioid use, and found that more patients on
IV for a summary of available formulations). The FDA methadone were retained in treatment.53 The same review

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

found that higher doses of both medications were more Methadone and buprenorphine can also be administered
effective than lower doses.50 An earlier Cochrane Collabora- by non-waivered clinicians in emergency department and
tion meta-analysis also found methadone more effective than hospital settings under limited circumstances. Any clinician
buprenorphine in retaining patients in treatment when bupre- with the prescribing authority can provide either of these
norphine doses are flexible but found that at fixed medium or medications in a hospital inpatient setting:
high doses (16 mg and above), buprenorphine was as effective
as methadone in retaining patients in treatment.15,36 As noted  for withdrawal management or maintenance pharmaco-
earlier, there is strong evidence supporting the superiority of therapy for a patient as an adjunct to treatment for another
methadone and buprenorphine/(with or without naloxone) medical condition (other than a substance use disorder);
over medication-free treatment for reducing mortality, reduc-  to patients who have already been prescribed one of these
ing opioid use, and promoting treatment retention.15,54 medications and are admitted to the hospital, or treated in
the emergency department;
Opioid Dosing Considerations: Opioid Use In medical emergencies buprenorphine or methadone
Disorder Versus Chronic Pain can be ordered and administered by non-waivered clinicians
Guidelines for morphine milligram equivalents (MME) for no more than 3-days to treat acute withdrawal symptoms
for opioid dosing for chronic pain are not applicable to the while arranging for the patient’s referral for treatment as long
treatment of opioid use disorder. Higher MME dosage of as not more than one day’s medication is administered or
medications used in the treatment of opioid use disorder are given to a patient at one time.58
necessary and clinically indicated for effective treatment. The Naltrexone can be prescribed in any setting by any
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention specifically advi- clinician with the authority to prescribe medications. It is
ces against misapplication of the Guideline for Prescribing not listed among Federal or state-controlled substances sched-
Opioids for Chronic Pain for patients receiving or starting ules, and there are no regulations of facilities or prescribers for
medication for opioid use disorder.55 See ASAM’s public the use of naltrexone in the treatment of opioid use disorder
policy statement on Morphine Equivalent Units/Morphine (such that there are for OTP and OBOT).
Milligram Equivalents for additional details.56 Clinicians should consider a patient’s psychosocial situa-
tion, co-occurring disorders, and opportunities for treatment
Efficacy Considerations retention versus risks of diversion when determining whether
OTP or OBOT is most appropriate. Patients with active co-
Treatment Setting occurring alcohol, sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use disorder
The treatment setting described as Level 1 treatment in The (or who are in treatment for addiction involving the use of alcohol
ASAM Criteria may be a general outpatient location such as a or other sedative drugs, including benzodiazepines or benzodi-
clinician’s practice site. The setting described as Level 2 in The azepine receptor agonists) may need a more intensive level of
ASAM Criteria may be an intensive outpatient treatment or partial care than can be provided in an office-based setting; this may also
hospitalization program housed in a specialty addiction treatment be true for persons who are regularly using alcohol or other
facility, a community mental health center, or another setting. The sedatives, but do not meet the diagnostic criteria for a substance
ASAM Criteria describes Level 3 or Level 4 treatment, respec- use disorder related to that class of drugs. However, OBOT
tively, as a residential addiction treatment facility or hospital.2 services should not be withheld if the patient does not have access
In accordance with Federal laws and regulations derived to or is unwilling to participate in a more intensive level of care.
from the Harrison Act and Congressional exceptions to that In these cases, the patient should be carefully monitored.
1914 law, the venue in which treatment for opioid use disorder The use of benzodiazepines and other sedative-hyp-
is provided is as important a consideration as is the specific notics should not be a reason to withhold or suspend treat-
medication selected (methadone vs. buprenorphine vs. nal- ment. According to the FDA, while the combined use of these
trexone).57 OTPs are subject to both Federal and state laws drugs increases the risk of serious side effects, the harm
that have implications for patient treatment. Federal and state- caused by untreated opioid use disorder can outweigh these
licensed OTPs dispense and offer daily supervised dosing of risks. A risk-benefit analysis should be conducted, and greater
methadone. Some OPTs also offer the option of daily super- support should be provided including careful medication
vised dosing of buprenorphine. management to reduce risks. The prescribing of benzodiaze-
In accordance with Federal law 21 CFR §1306.07, pines or other sedative-hypnotics should be used with caution
physicians, NPs, PAs and other qualifying practitioners, in in patients with opioid use disorder, and particularly for
private practices, or various other types of private and public patients who are prescribed methadone or buprenorphine.
sector clinics, can be authorized to prescribe the partial opioid
agonist buprenorphine. Buprenorphine, but not methadone, Pharmacology
can be prescribed via regular outpatient prescriptions filled in Differences in efficacy may also arise from differences
a retail pharmacy (OBOT). This flexibility to provide OBOT in pharmacology; whereas methadone is a full agonist at the
is discussed more in Part 5: Buprenorphine. Existing regu- mu-opioid receptor and produces higher levels of physiologi-
lations governing buprenorphine do not address the treatment cal dependence; buprenorphine is a partial agonist associated
facilities, but rather the individual clinician who prescribes with less physiological dependence. As discussed, methadone
buprenorphine (see Part 5: Buprenorphine for clinician qual- and buprenorphine (at sufficient doses) appear equally effec-
ifications associated with OBOT). tive in reducing mortality, retaining patients in treatment and in

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reducing opioid use.15,59 Evidence supports the efficacy of Further study is needed on the relative effectiveness of
extended-release injectable naltrexone for relapse prevention extended-release naltrexone in reducing mortality compared
compared to a placebo control.48,49 A recent study comparing with methadone or buprenorphine. A recent retrospective
extended-release naltrexone to sublingual buprenorphine/nal- cohort study including data from more than 17,000 adults
oxone found it was more difficult to initiate treatment with without cancer who survived an opioid overdose found
extended-release naltrexone resulting in a higher rate of early decreased all-cause mortality and opioid-related mortality
relapse among those randomized to extended-release naltrex- among patients treated with buprenorphine but could not
one compared with those randomized to buprenorphine/nalox- draw any conclusions about the effect of naltrexone on
one.60 Notably however, for those who successfully initiated mortality due to uncertainty in the estimates.62
treatment, extended-release naltrexone and buprenorphine/nal-
oxone were similarly effective. Fatal overdose, non-fatal over- Contraindications and Precautions
dose, and other serious adverse events did not differ between The following section describes the major indications,
treatment groups.60 Similarly, a 12-week open-label RCT contraindications, and precautions for methadone, buprenor-
found extended-release naltrexone was similar to buprenor- phine, and naltrexone. This section is a summary and is not
phine/naloxone in maintaining short-term abstinence from an exhaustive description of medication information
illicit opioids following successful initiation.61 (Table 4).

TABLE 4. Contraindications and Precautions for Pharmacotherapy Options3,63,64

Medication Contraindications Warnings and Precautions
Methadone 1. Hypersensitivity 1. Head injury and increased intracranial pressure
2. Respiratory depression 2. Liver disease
3. Severe bronchial asthma or hypercapnia 3. Respiratory insufficiency
4. Paralytic ileus 4. Cardiac conduction effects
5. Drug interactions with medications metabolized by cytochrome p450 enzymes
principally CYP34A, CYP2B6, CYP2C19, and to a lesser extent by CYP2C9and
CYP2D6
6. Drugs co-administered with methadone, especially anti-retrovirals (including
PrEP), anti-convulsants, and rifampin, should be evaluated for interaction
potential
7. Diversion and misuse are possible
8. Physical dependence
9. Risk of life-threatening respiratory depression and death when used in association
with benzodiazepines or other CNS depressants including alcohol, other opioid,
and illicit drugs
10. Interaction with antidepressants and migraine medicines can cause a serious
CNS reaction called serotonin syndrome
11. Addison’s disease, a rare, but serious condition in which the adrenal glands do
not produce adequate amounts of the hormone cortisol
12. Neonatal withdrawal after use of methadone during pregnancy
Buprenorphine (all Hypersensitivity 1. Not recommended for patients with severe hepatic impairment
formulations) 2. May cause sedation
3. Physical dependence
4. Risk of life-threatening respiratory depression and death when used in association
with benzodiazepines or other CNS depressants including alcohol, other opioids,
and illicit drugs
5. Precipitated withdrawal if used in patients physically dependent on full agonists
opioids before the agonist effects have worn off
6. Interaction with antidepressants and migraine medicines can, in rare cases, cause
a serious CNS reaction called serotonin syndrome
7. Addison’s disease, a rare, but serious condition in which the adrenal glands do
not produce adequate amounts of the hormone cortisol
8. Diversion and misuse are possible
9. Neonatal withdrawal after use of buprenorphine during pregnancy
Naltrexone (oral 1. Hypersensitivity reactions to naltrexone, 1. Vulnerability to overdose
and injectable or for injectable previous hypersensitivity 2. Injection site reactions associated with injectable naltrexone
formulations) reactions to polylactide-co-glycolide 3. Precipitated opioid withdrawal
carboxymethylcellulose, or any other 4. Administer IM injections with caution to patients with thrombocytopenia or a
constituent of the diluent coagulation disorder
2. Active hepatitis (hepatitis or if LFTs 5. Risk of hepatotoxicity
are > 3x normal) 6. Patient should be monitored for the development of depression and suicidality
3. Patients currently physically dependent 7. Emergency reversal of opiate blockade may require special monitoring in a
on opioids, including partial agonists critical care setting
4. Patients receiving opioid analgesics 8. Eosinophil pneumonia has been reported in association with injectable naltrexone
5. Patients in acute opioid withdrawal 9. Insufficient evidence of safety during pregnancy

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

Methadone disorder and is not recommended. Ongoing maintenance

Methadone is frequently used to manage opioids medication, in combination with psychosocial treatment
withdrawal symptoms and is recommended for pharmaco- appropriate for the patient’s needs, is the standard of care
logical treatment of opioid use disorder (see Part 4: Metha- for treating opioid use disorder.
done). If the decision is made to taper, patients should be
Methadone is contraindicated for the following condi- advised about the risk of relapse and other safety concerns,
tions: including increased risk of overdose and overdose death.
Insufficient evidence is available on the relative effectiveness
1. Patients with known hypersensitivity to methadone hydro- of different rates of tapering the buprenorphine dose. One
chloride. trial did find that longer courses of buprenorphine with
2. Patients experiencing respiratory depression (in the gradual tapering were superior to rapid tapering for with-
absence of resuscitative equipment or in unmonitored drawal.67
settings). Buprenorphine is contraindicated for the following
3. Patients with acute bronchial asthma or hypercapnia (also conditions:
known as hypercarbia).
4. Patients with known or suspected paralytic ileus. 1. Patients with hypersensitivity to buprenorphine or any
Methadone should be used with caution for the follow- component of the formulation.
ing conditions: 2. Patients with severe liver impairment are not good can-
didates for office-based treatment with buprenorphine.
1. Patients with decompensated liver disease (e.g., jaundice, (Patients with hepatitis C infection who do not have severe
ascites) due to increased risk of hepatic encephalopathy. liver impairment may, however, be considered for office-
2. Patients with respiratory insufficiency. based buprenorphine treatment.)
3. Patients with concomitant substance use disorders, Buprenorphine should be used with caution for the
particularly patients with sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic following conditions:
use disorders. Interactions between methadone and
hypnotics, sedatives, or anxiolytics may be life-threaten- 1. Patients with current or previous hepatic dysfunction. A
ing. direct comparison of the effects of buprenorphine
4. Patients with concomitant psychiatric diagnoses that and methadone, however, showed no evidence of liver
impair their ability to maintain daily attendance at an OTP. damage during the initial 6 months in either treatment
5. Patients with low levels of physical dependence to opioids groups.68 Monitoring liver enzymes in patients at
should be started with low doses of methadone. increased risk for hepatotoxicity may be considered.
Significant medication interactions to consider before 2. Patients who, at present, have an alcohol use or sedative,
starting methadone are as follows: hypnotic, or anxiolytic use disorder.
3. Patients with hypovolemia, severe cardiovascular disease,
1. Methadone may prolong the QT interval and should be or taking drugs that may exaggerate hypotensive effects.
used in caution with other agents that may also prolong the Buprenorphine may cause hypotension, including ortho-
QT interval. These include class I or class III anti-arrhyth- static hypotension and syncope.
mic drugs, calcium channel blockers, some antipsychotics, Significant medication interactions to consider before
and some antidepressants. (See Figure A for discussion of starting buprenorphine include the following:
cardiac risk management)
2. Methadone is metabolized through the cytochrome P450 1. Alcohol and sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics may
enhance the central nervous system (CNS) depressive
enzyme pathway. Many agents interact with this pathway
effect of buprenorphine.
including alcohol, anticonvulsants, antiretrovirals, and
macrolide antibiotics. 2. Buprenorphine is metabolized to nor-buprenorphine
primarily by cytochrome CYP3A4; therefore, potential
interactions may occur when buprenorphine is
Buprenorphine given concurrently with agents that affect CYP3A4
Buprenorphine is a partial mu opioid receptor agonist activity. The concomitant use of buprenorphine with
available in a variety of formulations, several which have been CYP3A4 inhibitors (e.g., azole antifungals such as
newly approved by the FDA since publication of the 2015 ketoconazole, macrolide antibiotics such as erythromy-
practice guideline (see Table 1). Buprenorphine is recom- cin, and HIV protease inhibitors) should be monitored
mended for pharmacological treatment of opioid use disorder and may require dose reduction of one or both
(see Part 5: Buprenorphine). agents.63,65,66,69
Buprenorphine is also an effective treatment for opioid In 2016, based on literature reviews involving the
withdrawal with efficacy similar to methadone, and superior entire class of opioid pain medications and a review of
to lofexidine or clonidine in opioid withdrawal manage- reported adverse events, the FDA required the addition
ment47,57,65,66 Opioid withdrawal management (i.e. detoxi- of warnings on all opioid product labels (including
fication) on its own, without ongoing treatment for opioid methadone and buprenorphine). Required warnings include
use disorder, is not a treatment method for opioid use the following:

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 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

1. There is a risk of life-threatening respiratory depression and Naltrexone is contraindicated in patients:

death with concomitant use of methadone or buprenorphine
with benzodiazepines or other CNS depressants.70 1. with hypersensitivity reactions to naltrexone.
2. Opioids (including methadone and buprenorphine) can 2. who have previously exhibited hypersensitivity to naltrex-
interact with antidepressants and migraine medicines to one, polylactide-co-glycolide, carboxymethyl-cellulose,
cause a serious CNS reaction called serotonin syndrome, or any other components of the diluent (for extended-
in which high levels of the chemical serotonin build up in release injectable naltrexone).
the brain and cause toxicity.71 3. with current physical dependence on opioids, including
3. Use of opioids (including methadone and buprenorphine) partial agonists.
may lead to Addison’s disease, a rare, but serious condition 4. in acute opioid withdrawal.
in which the adrenal glands do not produce adequate 5. who have failed the naloxone challenge test (see Glossary)
amounts of the hormone cortisol.71 or who test positive for opioids.
4. Long-term use of opioids (including methadone and Naltrexone should be used with caution under the
buprenorphine) may be associated with decreased sex following conditions:
hormone levels and symptoms such as decreased libido,
impotence, or infertility.70 1. All patients should be warned of the risk of hepatic injury
In September 2017, the FDA released an additional drug and advised to seek medical attention if they experience
safety communication stating that based on additional review, symptoms of acute hepatitis. Hepatic injury is a concern if
the ‘‘FDA is advising that the opioid addiction medications very high doses are used, for example, 200–300 mg per
buprenorphine and methadone should not be withheld from day. Use of naltrexone should be discontinued in the event
patients taking benzodiazepines or other drugs that depress of symptoms and/or signs of acute hepatitis. Cases of
the CNS. The combined use of these drugs increases the risk hepatitis and clinically significant liver dysfunction were
of serious side effects; however, the harm caused by untreated observed in association with naltrexone exposure during
opioid addiction can outweigh these risks. Careful medication the clinical development program and in the postmarket-
management by health care professionals can reduce these ing period. Transient, asymptomatic hepatic transaminase
risks.’’13 elevations were also observed in the clinical trials and
While acknowledging the seriousness of each of these postmarketing period.
warnings, the Guideline Committee notes that when metha- 2. Patients who are pregnant or breastfeeding. Clinicians
done and buprenorphine are used as prescribed and when should discuss the paucity of research on the risks (if
treatment is carefully monitored by clinicians, these adverse any) of naltrexone on fetal development.
events are rare and treatment benefits outweigh the risks of 3. Patients with liver impairment should complete liver
no treatment. enzyme tests before and during treatment with naltrexone
to check for additional liver impairment.
Naltrexone 4. Patients who experience injection site reactions should be
Extended-release injectable naltrexone, administered monitored for pain, redness, or swelling. Incorrect admin-
every 3-4 weeks, is recommended for patients who are no istration may increase the risk of injection site reactions.
longer physically dependent on opioids for preventing relapse Reactions have occurred with extended-release injectable
in opioid use disorder (see Part 6: Naltrexone). Naltrexone is naltrexone.
an opioid antagonist that blocks the effects of opioids and is 5. Patients with co-occurring psychiatric disorders should be
used to prevent relapse in patients who are no longer depen- monitored for adverse events. Suicidal thoughts, attempted
dent on opioids. Naltrexone causes immediate withdrawal suicide, and depression have been reported.
symptoms (precipitated withdrawal) in a person with active Significant medication interactions to consider before
physical dependence on opioids. There are oral and extended- starting naltrexone include the following:
release injectable formulas of naltrexone. Oral naltrexone
often lacks effectiveness due to poor medication adherence72 1. Naltrexone should not be used with methylnaltrexone
and in a meta-analysis was not found to be superior to placebo or naloxegol.
or to no pharmacological treatments in treatment retention or 2. Naltrexone blocks the effects of opioid analgesics because
illicit opioid use reduction.73 Oral naltrexone should only be it is an opioid antagonist.
used under limited circumstances. For example, if taken daily, 3. Glyburide may increase serum concentration of naltrex-
oral naltrexone can be effective in patients who are highly one. Monitor for increased toxicity effects of naltrexone
motivated or legally mandated to receive treatment, and/or (e.g. liver enzyme elevations).
when taking the medication is closely supervised. Clinicians
may therefore want to reserve using oral naltrexone for
patients who are able to comply with special techniques to Medication Management
enhance their adherence. While extended-release injectable Medication management should be provided in conjunc-
naltrexone formulation may improve the adherence limita- tion with pharmacotherapy. Medication management services
tions of the oral formulation, studies suggest that adherence to focus on the appropriateness, effectiveness, and safety of
extended-release naltrexone is lower than that of buprenor- medications for a given patient. These services include moni-
phine.74 toring and evaluating the patient’s response to medication

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

(including ongoing misuse of substances) and medication psychosocial treatment should not preclude or delay phar-
adherence; dose titration as clinically indicated; education to macotherapy, with appropriate medication management.
ensure the patient understands their treatment plan, how to take Motivational interviewing or enhancement can be used to
their medications, and the importance of adherence; and pro- encourage patients to engage in psychosocial treatment
vision of recommendations for other treatment and recovery services appropriate for addressing individual needs.
support services as indicated. These services are intended to 4. The venue in which treatment is
promote ongoing engagement in treatment, optimize the provided should be carefully considered. Methadone can
patient’s medication response, and prevent relapse. only be provided in opioid treatment programs (OTPs) and
While some of the components of medication manage- acute care settings (under limited circumstances). Bupre-
ment, such as dose titration, should be performed by the norphine can be prescribed by waivered clinicians in any
prescriber, other components can be performed by other setting, including OTPs and office based opioid treatment
members of the patient’s care team, either within the program (OBOT) in accordance with the Federal law (21 CFR
or through referral. Medication management services as well §1301.28). Naltrexone can be prescribed in any setting
as other services designed to improve treatment outcomes and by any clinician with the authority to prescribe medication.
prevent relapse should be coordinated across all providers Clinicians should consider a patient’s psychosocial situa-
involved in the patient’s care. tion, co-occurring disorders, and risk of diversion when
determining which treatment setting is most appropriate
PDMP Monitoring (see The ASAM Criteria for additional guidance).1
Accessing PDMP data is advisable to check for other 5. Patients with active co-occurring
medications that the patient may be receiving. Due to varia- alcohol use disorder or sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic
tion in state PDMP laws, clinicians are encouraged to be use disorder (or who are in treatment for a substance use
familiar with the legal requirements associated with PDMPs disorder involving use of alcohol or other sedative drugs,
and prescribing of controlled substances in their state. In including benzodiazepines or benzodiazepine receptor ago-
addition, drug testing in combination with a patient’s self- nists) may need a more intensive level of care than can be
reported information about substance use is recommended as provided in an office-based setting. Persons who are regu-
a monitoring tool during treatment. Note that medications larly using alcohol or other sedatives, but do not meet the
dispensed through an OTP or other treatment program subject criteria for diagnosis of a specific substance use disorder
to the substance use disorder confidentiality regulations (42 related to that class of drugs, should be carefully monitored.
CFR Part 2) and are typically not captured in state PDMPs. 6. The prescribing of benzodiaze-
pines or other sedative-hypnotics should be used with
Length of Treatment caution in patients who are prescribed methadone or
While there is limited research on optimal length of buprenorphine for the treatment of an opioid use disorder.
addiction treatment, available research generally suggests that While the combined use of these drugs increases the risk
longer duration of treatment results in better outcomes. The of serious side effects, the harm caused by untreated
National Institute on Drug Abuse’s Principles of Drug Addiction opioid use disorder can outweigh these risks. A risk-
Treatment notes that individuals progress through addiction benefit analysis should be conducted when deciding
treatment at various rates and positive outcomes are contingent whether to co-prescribe these medications.
on adequate treatment duration.75 Generally, treatment partici- 7. Methadone is recommended for patients who may benefit
pation for less than 90 days is of limited effectiveness, and from daily dosing and supervision in an OTP, or for
treatment lasting significantly longer is associated with more patients for whom buprenorphine for the treatment of
positive long-term outcomes. For patients treated with metha- opioid use disorder has been used unsuccessfully in an
done, 12 months is considered the minimum, and some patients OTP or OBOT setting.
will continue to benefit from this treatment for many years.75 8. Opioid dosing guidelines developed for chronic
pain, expressed in morphine milligram equivalents
Summary of Recommendations – Treatment (MME), are not applicable to medications for the treat-
Options ment of opioid use disorders.
1. All FDA approved medications for 9. Oral naltrexone for the treatment of
the treatment of opioid use disorder should be available to opioid use disorder is often adversely affected by poor
all patients. Clinicians should consider the patient’s medication adherence and should not be used except under
preferences, past treatment history, current state of ill- very limited circumstances. Clinicians should reserve its use
ness, and treatment setting when deciding between the for patients who would be able to comply with special
use of methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone. techniques to enhance their adherence, for example, observed
2. There is no recommended time limit for dosing. Extended-release injectable naltrexone reduces, but
pharmacological treatment. does not eliminate, issues with medication adherence.
3. Patients’ psychosocial needs 10. The Prescription Drug Monitoring
should be assessed, and patients should be offered or Program (PDMP) should be checked regularly for
referred to psychosocial treatment based on their indi- the purpose of confirming medication adherence and
vidual needs. However, a patient’s decision to decline to monitor for the prescribing of other controlled sub-
psychosocial treatment or the absence of available stances.

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11. Naloxone, for the reversal of opioid overdose, withdrawal are similar to those of spontaneous withdrawal,
should be provided to patients being treated for, or with a but the time course is different, and symptoms may be much
history of, opioid use disorder. Patients and family mem- more severe. Review of postmarketing cases of precipitated
bers/significant others should be trained in the use of opioid withdrawal in association with treatment with naltrex-
naloxone in overdose. one has identified cases with symptoms of withdrawal severe
enough to require hospital admission, and in some cases,
Areas for Further Research management in an intensive care unit.77,78
1. Further research is needed to compare the advantages The timing of maximal precipitated withdrawal usually
of agonists and antagonists in the treatment of opioid occurs in the following scenarios:
use disorder. Whereas methadone, buprenorphine, and
extended-release injectable naltrexone are all superior to 1. Within 1 minute for intravenously administered naloxone.
no treatment in opioid use disorder, less is known about 2. Several minutes after IM naloxone.
their relative advantages. 3. Up to 90 minutes after sublingual buprenorphine.
2. Further research is needed to compare extended-release for- 4. Up to several hours after extended-release injectable nal-
mulations in treatment of opioid use disorder (extended- trexone79
release naltrexone vs extended-release buprenorphine). The duration of withdrawal depends on the half-life and
3. Further research is needed on the comparative effective- dose of the partial agonist or antagonist. Naloxone-precipitated
ness of various health care settings and delivery systems withdrawal typically lasts for 30–60 minutes, whereas bupre-
(e.g., integrated delivery systems, health maintenance norphine or naltrexone-precipitated withdrawal may last for
organizations, preferred provider organizations, point of several days. The ability to accurately assess patients for opioid
service care etc.) for treatment of opioid use disorder. dependence is important to avoid precipitated withdrawal when
4. Across a variety of sub-populations, further research is introducing antagonists and partial agonists medications.
needed to better understand and characterize the effective- Withdrawal management can make withdrawal from
ness of and adherence to the different pharmacotherapy opioids more comfortable. Given the high rate of relapse,
options to treat opioid use disorder. opioid withdrawal management on its own, without ongoing
pharmacotherapy, is not an effective treatment for opioid use
PART 3: TREATING OPIOID WITHDRAWAL disorder and is not recommended.80 If withdrawal manage-
ment alone, or withdrawal management followed by psycho-
Background social treatment alone, is proposed the patient should be
Opioid withdrawal syndrome refers to the wide range of informed of the high risks of subsequent relapse, and the
symptoms that occur after stopping or dramatically reducing increased risk for overdose and overdose death, as compared
the dose of opioid drugs after heavy and prolonged use. For to ongoing treatment with opioid agonists. Withdrawal man-
short-acting opioids such as heroin and oxycodone, symptoms agement is not necessary or recommended for patients being
usually emerge within 12 hours of the last opioid use, peak referred for treatment with methadone or buprenorphine.
within 24–48 hours, and diminish over 3–5 days. For long-
acting opioids such as methadone, withdrawal symptoms Assessment of Patients for Opioid Withdrawal
generally emerge within 30 hours of the last methadone Assessment of a patient undergoing opioid withdrawal
exposure and may last up to 10 days. Opioid withdrawal should include a thorough medical history and physical
syndrome is rarely life-threatening, but deaths have been examination focusing on signs and symptoms associated with
reported.76 However, abrupt discontinuation of opioids is opioid withdrawal. There are various scales available to assess
not recommended because it may precipitate withdrawal, lead opioid withdrawal. Objective signs, when present, are more
to strong cravings, and result in relapse to drug use. reliable, but subjective withdrawal features can also be sensi-
Symptoms of opioid withdrawal may include any of the tive measures of opioid withdrawal. These scales may be used
following: to measure opioid withdrawal symptoms during the initial
assessment to make the diagnosis of opioid withdrawal. In
1. Muscle aches 8. Insomnia addition, clinicians can assess the effectiveness of withdrawal
2. Increased tearing 9. Sweating management by repeating these scales intermittently as they
3. Runny nose 10. Yawning
4. Dilated pupils 11. Abdominal cramping treat withdrawal symptoms.
5. Piloerection 12. Nausea
6. Agitation 13. Vomiting  Objective Opioid Withdrawal Scale (OOWS) is an objective
7. Anxiety 14. Diarrhea measure in which the clinician checks for 13 signs of opioid
withdrawal (e.g., yawning, perspiration).40
Opioid withdrawal generally results from the cessation  Clinical Opioid Withdrawal Scale (COWS) is a clinical
or a dramatic reduction in the dose of opioids, which is assessment for 11 medical signs and symptoms of opioid
referred to as spontaneous withdrawal. Opioid withdrawal withdrawal (e.g., gastrointestinal distress).81
can also be precipitated when a patient who is physically  Subjective Opioid Withdrawal Scale (SOWS) is a measure
dependent on opioids is administered an opioid antagonist of 16 subjective symptoms of withdrawal, in which the
such as naloxone or naltrexone, or a partial opioid agonist patient rates their experience on a 5-point scale (e.g., I feel
such as buprenorphine. Signs and symptoms of precipitated restless).40

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

 The Clinical Institute Narcotic Assessment (CINA) scale is Buprenorphine withdrawal management can be done
a mix of subjective and objective measures assessing 11 either in an outpatient or an inpatient setting. None of the
common signs and symptoms of opioid withdrawal.41 available forms of buprenorphine are specifically FDA-
approved for withdrawal management, but they may be used
Opioid withdrawal management may occur in either for this purpose. None of the products have shown superiority
inpatient or outpatient settings. There is a lack of evidence to over another for this purpose. In the remainder of this section,
determine the relative safety of inpatient versus outpatient the term buprenorphine refers to the monotherapy and
withdrawal management. Inpatient withdrawal management combination formulations.
has higher rates of completion compared to outpatient with- Buprenorphine is a partial mu-opioid receptor agonist
drawal management; however, there is no demonstrable dif- with a higher affinity for the mu-receptor than most full agonists
ference in relapse following inpatient versus outpatient such as heroin and oxycodone. Therefore, it is important that
withdrawal management.82 For patients with significant or buprenorphine not be started until a patient is exhibiting
unstable physical or mental health issues, treatment in an objective signs of opioid withdrawal to avoid precipitated
inpatient setting with monitored withdrawal may be preferred. withdrawal. Opioid withdrawal usually occurs up to 12–
18 hours after the last dose of a short-acting agonist such as
Medications in Opioid Withdrawal heroin or oxycodone, and up to 24–48 hours after the last dose
For the management of opioid withdrawal, two main of a long-acting agonist such as methadone. Providers could
strategies have evolved. The first involves the provision of consider sooner dosing of buprenorphine in an inpatient setting
gradually tapering doses of opioid agonists, typically metha- where the patient can be closely monitored.
done or buprenorphine. The other strategy involves the use of With the increasing prevalence of fentanyl, concerns
alpha-2 adrenergic agonists (FDA-approved lofexidine, and have been raised about whether the protocol for initiation onto
off-label use of clonidine) along with other non-narcotic buprenorphine should be modified for patients regularly using
medications to reduce withdrawal symptoms. Both strategies this or other high potency opioids. Fentanyl is short acting but
have advantages and disadvantages, and both are superior to has a long half-life (8-10 hours) and a relatively high affinity for
placebo with respect to withdrawal severity and treatment the m-opioid receptor.80 Some clinicians have recommended
completion. Methadone and buprenorphine are generally waiting until patients are in at least moderate withdrawal
more effective in reducing the symptoms of opioid with- (COWS score of 13 or higher) before initiating buprenorphine.
drawal, in retaining patients in withdrawal management, However, there is little existing evidence addressing this issue.
and in supporting the completion of withdrawal management. Withdrawal management with buprenorphine should
With respect to withdrawal severity, recent evidence start with an initial dose of 2-4 mg, titrated up as needed to
from systematic reviews suggests that methadone tapers or suppress withdrawal (generally 4–16 mg per day). As noted
using alpha-2 adrenergic agonists for opioid withdrawal above, opioid withdrawal management on its own, without
results in similar severity of withdrawal symptoms.83 Bupre- ongoing pharmacotherapy, is not a treatment method for
norphine tapers, on the other hand, may be more effective than opioid use disorder and is not recommended. If the decision
alpha-2-adrenergic agonists in terms of withdrawal severity, is made to taper, patients should be advised about the risk of
duration, and treatment completion.84 However, if treatment relapse and other safety concerns, including increased risk of
with naltrexone is planned, managing withdrawal with alpha- overdose and overdose death. Insufficient evidence is avail-
2-adrenergic agonists may enable a more rapid initiation. able on the relative effectiveness of different rates of tapering
Buprenorphine and methadone appear to be similarly effec- the buprenorphine dose. The duration of the tapering schedule
tive although data are limited.84 can be as brief as 3–5 days or over 30 days. Studies examining
the relative efficacy of long versus short-duration tapers are
Withdrawal Management with Opioid Agonists not conclusive, and the Guideline Committee was unable to
Methadone and buprenorphine are both recommended reach a consensus on this issue. One trial did find that longer
for management of opioid withdrawal and while comparative courses of buprenorphine with gradual tapering were superior
evidence remains limited, they appear to have comparable to rapid tapering for withdrawal.65 Clinicians should be
results in terms of reducing withdrawal severity and improv- guided by patient response in determining the optimum
ing treatment retention and opioid abstinence. Withdrawal duration of the taper.
management with methadone must be done in an OTP or
inpatient setting. As noted above, opioid withdrawal manage- Withdrawal Management with Alpha-2
ment on its own, without ongoing pharmacotherapy, is not a Adrenergic Agonists
treatment method for opioid use disorder and is not recom- Because opioid withdrawal results largely from over-
mended. Ongoing maintenance medication, in combination activity of the brain’s noradrenergic system, alpha-2 adrener-
with psychosocial treatment appropriate for the patient’s gic agonists have a long history of off-label use for the
needs, is the standard of care for treating opioid use disorder. treatment of opioid withdrawal in the U.S. In May 2018,
If the decision is made to taper, patients should be advised the FDA approved lofexidine for the mitigation of symptoms
about the risk of relapse and other safety concerns, including associated with abrupt withdrawal from opioids. Lofexidine is
increased risk of overdose and overdose death. Methadone administered orally typically at a dose of three 0.18-mg tablets
tapers generally start with doses in the range of 20–30 mg per 4 times daily and can be continued for up to 14 days with
day and are completed in 6–10 days. dosing guided by symptoms. Lofexidine treatment should be

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discontinued with a gradual dose reduction over 2 to 4 days. 2. Opioid withdrawal management
Clonidine is generally used at doses of 0.1–0.3 mg every 6– (i.e. detoxification) on its own, without ongoing treatment
8 hours, with a maximum dose of 1.2 mg daily. Its hypotensive for opioid use disorder, is not a treatment method for opioid
effects often limit the amount that can be used. use disorder and is not recommended. Patients should be
Clonidine is often combined with other non-narcotic advised about the risk of relapse and other safety concerns,
medications targeting specific opioid withdrawal symptoms including increased risk of overdose and overdose death.
such as benzodiazepines for anxiety, loperamide or bismuth- Ongoing maintenance medication, in combination with
salycilate for diarrhea, acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti- psychosocial treatment appropriate for the patient’s needs,
inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) for pain, various med- is the standard of care for treating opioid use disorder.
ications for insomnia, and ondansetron for nausea. Alpha-2 3. Assessment of a patient undergoing
adrenergic agonists are more effective than placebo in reduc- opioid withdrawal management should include a thorough
ing severe withdrawal and in improving rates of treatment medical history and physical examination, focusing on
retention and completion. These medications can also be used signs and symptoms associated with opioid withdrawal.
concurrently with medications used to treat opioid use disor- 4. By regulation, opioid withdrawal
der. Alpha-2 adrenergic agonists can be used to treat with- management with methadone must be done in an OTP or
drawal when patients taper off buprenorphine or methadone, an acute care setting (under limited circumstances). For
and they can be used in preparation for initiation of extended- patients withdrawing from short acting opioids the initial
release naltrexone.83 dose should typically be 20-30 mg per day and the patient
Comparative data are limited but lofexidine and cloni- may be tapered off in approximately 6-10 days.
dine appear to be similarly effective in the treatment of opioid 5. Opioid withdrawal management
withdrawal with hypotension occurring less frequently with with buprenorphine should not be initiated until there
lofexidine.83 Lofexidine should therefore be the preferred are objective signs of opioid withdrawal. (See Part 3 for
choice for withdrawal management in an outpatient setting more information on the timing of initiating buprenor-
where monitoring of blood pressure and management of phine.) Once signs of withdrawal have been objectively
hypotension is more difficult. Other agents in the same confirmed, a dose of buprenorphine sufficient to suppress
pharmacological family as clonidine, such as guanfacine withdrawal symptoms is given (an initial dose of 2-4 mg
(available in the U.S.) can also be used off-label as safe titrated up as needed to suppress withdrawal symptoms).
and effective agents in the management of opioid withdrawal. 6. Alpha-2 adrenergic agonists (e.g.,
FDA-approved lofexidine and off-label clonidine) are safe
Anesthesia-Assisted Withdrawal Management and effective for management of opioid withdrawal. How-
Anesthesia-assisted opioid detoxification or UROD uses ever, methadone and buprenorphine are more effective in
large doses of naloxone to precipitate acute opioid withdrawal reducing the symptoms of opioid withdrawal, in retaining
in the patient who is under general anesthesia. Patients are patients in withdrawal management, and in supporting the
anesthetized, then intubated and mechanically ventilated. A completion of withdrawal management.
diuretic is used to enhance excretion of the opioid. Patients 7. Opioid withdrawal management using ultra-rapid opioid
experience mild withdrawal symptoms for about 6 days after detoxification (UROD) is not recommended due to high
awakening from anesthesia, compared with similar withdrawal risk for adverse events or death. Naltrexone-facilitated
symptoms on a 20-day methadone taper.85,86 opioid withdrawal management can be safe and effective
ASAM recommends against the use of UROD in the but should be used only by clinicians experienced with this
treatment of opioid withdrawal and stated these same recom- clinical method, and in cases in which anesthesia or
mendations in a policy statement. ASAM’s position is in conscious sedation are not employed.
accordance with other guidelines. Serious complications
including cardiac arrest and death have been reported with Areas for Further Research
anesthesia-assisted withdrawal management.87 The Centers 1. Further study is needed on methods to accelerate the
for Disease Control and Prevention issued a warning in 2013 withdrawal process and facilitate the introduction of
about severe adverse events including death from anesthesia- antagonists. Recently, researchers have begun to investi-
assisted withdrawal management.88 Furthermore, a system- gate the use of combinations of buprenorphine and low
atic review of five randomized trials concluded that the lack of doses of oral naltrexone to rapidly detoxify patients and
benefit, potential serious harms, and costs of heavy sedation facilitate the accelerated introduction of extended-release
or anesthesia do not support its use.89 injectable naltrexone.4 Although these techniques seem
promising, more research is needed before these can be
Summary of Recommendations – Treating Opioid accepted as standard practice. Similarly, there are insuffi-
Withdrawal cient data to determine whether opioid antagonists (nal-
1. Using methadone or buprenorphine trexone, naloxone or both) in combination with alpha-2
for opioid withdrawal management is recommended over adrenergic agonists (lofexidine and clonidine) reduce
abrupt cessation of opioids. Abrupt cessation of opioids withdrawal duration or increase rates of retention in
may lead to strong cravings, and/or acute withdrawal ongoing treatment with naltrexone.84
syndrome which can put the patient at risk for relapse, 2. Further research is needed to make recommendations on
overdose, and overdose death. the optimal duration of a buprenorphine taper, and to

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

compare the effectiveness of short versus long tapers with medications known to prolong the QT interval. While there
buprenorphine withdrawal management. are no clear data on the threshold dose of methadone that
3. Further research is needed to evaluate the safety of inpa- confers risk for QT interval prolongation, the consensus of the
tient as compared to outpatient withdrawal management. committee is that ECG should be considered for patients
4. Further research is needed to address whether the protocol receiving over 120 mg per day.90 However, there is no
for buprenorphine initiation should be modified for patients research on the use of ECG data for improving patient out-
regularly using fentanyl and other high potency opioids. comes. See Adverse Effect section below and ‘‘Part 2: Treat-
ment Options: Contraindications and Precautions’’ for
PART 4: METHADONE additional information.91

Background COURSE OF TREATMENT

Methadone, a slow-acting opioid agonist, is an effective
treatment for opioid withdrawal management and the treat- Initiation
ment of opioid use disorder. Methadone is taken orally so that The previous version of these guidelines used the term
it reaches the brain slowly, dampening the rewarding effect induction instead of initiation. While the meaning is the same
that can occur with other routes of administration while in this context, the guideline committee noted that this
preventing withdrawal symptoms. Methadone has been used language did not align with the terminology used for other
since the 1960 s to treat heroin addiction and remains an medical conditions and can make the process sound more
effective treatment option. Many studies have demonstrated difficult and complex than it is.
its superiority to medication-free approaches.36 In the United Initial dosing of methadone depends on the level of
States, Methadone is only available through approved OTPs, physical dependence. The recommended initial dose ranges
where it is dispensed to patients on a daily or almost daily from 10 to 30 mg, with reassessment as clinically indicated,
basis in the initial stages of treatment, and in acute care typically in 2–4 hours when peak levels have been reached.92
settings (under limited circumstances). Federal and state laws Reassessment in this time frame may not always be feasible,
allow take-home doses for patients who have demonstrated for example, when treatment initiation begins late in the day.
treatment progress and are judged to be at low risk for In these cases, it may be more practical to reassess first thing
diversion, and for whom the therapeutic benefits of take- in the morning. Timing of reassessment should not be a barrier
home doses outweigh the risks. to initiation of methadone.
Given the risk of overdose in the first 2 weeks, tolerance
PATIENT SELECTION AND TREATMENT GOALS is an important safety consideration. Federal law mandates
Treatment with methadone at an OTP is recommended that the initial dose cannot exceed 30 mg and the total dosage
for patients who have opioid use disorder, are able to give on the first day cannot exceed 40 mg.42 For individuals with
informed consent, and have no specific contraindications for no or low opioid tolerance (e.g. patients transitioning from
this treatment. Treatment with methadone has the following naltrexone, patients re-entering the community after residen-
four goals: tial treatment or incarceration [with no agonist treatment],
patients re-initiating methadone after relapse), use a lower-
1. suppress opioid withdrawal; than-usual dose (2.5 to 10 mg). Increase the dose slowly and
2. block the effects of illicit opioids; with careful monitoring for all patients, with particular atten-
3. reduce opioid craving and stop or reduce the use of illicit tion to patients who have not used opioids for 5 or more days,
opioids; do not use opioids daily, or use less potent opioids (e.g.,
4. promote and facilitate patient engagement in recovery- codeine).93 Avoid using automated dosing increases to protect
oriented activities including psychosocial interventions. against the risk of overdose. Particular caution should be
exhibited with patients with active cardiac disease or who
Precautions have been prescribed other medications associated with QT
interval prolongation.
Arrhythmias
Patients should be informed of the potential risk of Titration
arrhythmia when they are dispensed methadone. It is recom- Methadone has a long half-life and care must be taken to
mended to get a history of structural heart disease, arrhythmia, avoid too rapid dose increases during the first 1–3 weeks of
or syncope. In addition, the clinician should assess the patient treatment to avoid increasing the dose before the full effect of
for other risk factors for QT-interval prolongation. An elec- the last dose has been realized. Doses do not correlate well
trocardiogram (ECG) should be conducted for patients with with blood levels. Dosing should be based on the patient’s
significant risk factors including any prior ECG demonstrat- response and can vary widely between patients. Methadone
ing a QTc >450 milliseconds, or a history suggestive of prior should generally not be increased every day but rather
ventricular arrhythmia. ECG should also be considered when increased no more than 10 mg approximately every 5 days
other risk factors for QT interval prolongation are present based on the patient’s symptoms of opioid withdrawal or
including when high doses of methadone are being employed, sedation. For example, 10 mg increases at intervals of 5 days
patient or family history of cardiac risk factors, abnormal liver or 5 mg increases at intervals of 2-3 days as symptoms persist.
enzymes, electrolyte abnormalities, or the patient is taking Trough and peak plasma levels of methadone (or methadone

36 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

blood levels) may be used in addition to clinical evaluation to 2. A risk stratification plan, which can include the following:
assess the safety and adequacy of a patient’s dose, particularly a. Conduct an ECG for patients with significant risk factors at
admission; repeat within 30 days. Repeat once a year and if
in patients who seem to be rapid metabolizers and may need a the patient is treated with more than 120 mg of methadone
split dose.94–98 A relatively low dose of methadone (e.g., per day.
<30 mg per day) can lessen acute withdrawal but is often not b. Discuss risks and benefits of methadone with patients with QTc
intervals between 450 and 500 milliseconds. Adjust modifiable
effective in suppressing craving. Patients should be educated risk factors to reduce their risk.
to understand that the full benefits of methadone treatment c. Do not start methadone treatment for patients with known QTc
take time and that it is common to feel unwell during the first intervals above 500 milliseconds. If such an interval is discovered
during treatment, have a risk/ benefit discussion. Strongly
few days of methadone titration. consider lowering the methadone dose, changing concurrent
medications that prolong the QTc interval, eliminating other risk
factors, and, if necessary, switching to buprenorphine. Include
Maintenance follow-up ECG monitoring.
Though a few patients respond to a maintenance dose of d. Consider providing routine universal ECG screening if feasible,
30–60 mg per day, most patients fare better if their initial dose although there is insufficient evidence to formally recommend
doing so.’’
is gradually raised to a maintenance level of 60–120 mg per
day, which typically creates sufficient tolerance to minimize a
euphoric response if patients self-administer additional
opioids. Multiple randomized trials found that patients have
better outcomes, including retention in treatment, with higher Psychosocial Treatment
doses (80–100 mg per day) than lower doses.99,100 Though Because opioid addiction is a chronic relapsing disease,
not well studied, doses above 120 mg per day are being used strategies specifically directed at relapse prevention are an
with some patients as blockade of opioid effects is becoming important part of comprehensive treatment and can include
increasingly more difficult due to the increased availability of counseling and/or other psychosocial treatments. Patients’
high potency opioids including fentanyl and other synthetic psychosocial needs should be assessed, and patients should
opioids.92 be offered or referred to psychosocial treatment based on their
individual needs. However, there may be instances when
Adverse Effects pharmacotherapy alone results in positive outcomes. A
Higher methadone doses may be associated with patient’s decision to decline psychosocial treatment or the
increased risk of adverse effects, including prolongation of absence of available psychosocial treatment should not pre-
the QT interval and arrhythmias (torsades des pointes), which clude or delay pharmacological treatment of opioid use
in some cases have been fatal (see Precautions section disorder, with appropriate medication management. Motiva-
above).101 The FDA issued a safety alert for methadone tional interviewing or enhancement can be used to encourage
regarding these cardiac events.102 Clinicians, in consultation patients to engage in psychosocial treatment services appro-
with patients, may need to consider the relative risk of adverse priate for addressing their individual needs.
events due to QT prolongation with methadone as compared Family involvement in treatment can provide strong
to the risk of morbidity and mortality of an untreated opioid support for patient recovery; and family members may also
use disorder.103 Changing to buprenorphine or naltrexone benefit. The concept of family should be expanded to include
maintenance should be considered when risks of QT pro- members of the patient’s social network (as defined by the
longation are high as these medications do not seem to patient), including significant others, close friends, clergy,
significantly prolong the QT interval. While there is limited employers, and case managers.
evidence on effective screening strategies for preventing
cardiac morbidity and mortality in patients treated with Monitoring Treatment
methadone, the Guideline Committee concurs with the Federal and state-approved OTPs dispense and supervise
recommendations from SAMHSA’s TIP 63 which recom- administration of methadone. Treatment monitoring for metha-
mends that OTPs develop a cardiac risk management plan done is subject to federal regulations (42 CFR Part 8). These
(Figure A).91,104 regulations include requirements for medication administration,
dispensing and use, as well as diversion control and drug testing.
Figure A: Cardiac Risk Management Plan from SAMHSA’s TIP 6391 Patients are seen daily at the beginning of their treat-
‘‘OTPs should consider the following elements in crafting a cardiac risk
ment for supervised dosing. Once patients are stabilized, take
management plan: home doses of methadone may be dispensed based on criteria
1. An intake assessment of risk factors, which can include: defined in the regulations. The stability of a patient is deter-
a. Family history of sudden cardiac death, arrhythmia, myocardial
infarction, heart failure, prolonged QTc interval, or unexplained
mined by the medical director based on several indicators
syncope. which may include the absence of problematic alcohol and
b. Patient history of arrhythmia, myocardial infarction, heart failure, illicit drug use, participation in psychosocial treatment and
prolonged QTc interval, unexplained syncope, palpitations, or
seizures. other recovery-based activities, and productive occupational
c. Current use of medications that may increase QTc interval (for a and social functioning. The regulations allow stable patients
complete list, see www.crediblemeds.org/pdftemp/pdf / to be seen less frequently (once per week after six months in
CompositeList.pdf; register for free for the most current list).
d. Patient history of use of cocaine and methamphetamines (which treatment and once every two weeks after a year in treatment).
can prolong the QTc interval). Treatment should include relapse monitoring with fre-
e. Electrolyte assessment (for hypokalemia or hypomagnesemia).
quent testing for alcohol and other relevant psychoactive

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

substances. Testing for methadone metabolites (e.g., EDDP) 3. patient wants to change and is a candidate for the
is recommended to ensure adherence and detect possible diver- alternative treatment.
sion. Medication transitions should be planned, considered,
Accessing PDMP data is advisable to check for other and monitored. Particular care should be taken in reducing
medications that the patient may be receiving. Due to the methadone dosing before transfer to avoid precipitating a
variation in state PDMP laws, clinicians are encouraged to be relapse. If the patient becomes unstable and appears at risk for
familiar with the legal requirements associated with PDMPs relapse during the transfer of medications, reinstating metha-
and prescribing of controlled substances in their state. PDMP done may be the best option.
checks in combination with drug testing and a patient’s self-
reported information is recommended for monitoring sub- Transitioning to Buprenorphine
stance use during treatment (See The ASAM Appropriate Use Patients on low doses of methadone (30–40 mg per day
of Drug Testing in Clinical Addiction Medicine guidance or less) generally tolerate the transition to buprenorphine with
document).14 minimal discomfort; whereas patients on higher doses of
Patients who discontinue agonist therapy should be made methadone may find that transitioning causes significant
aware of the risks associated with an opioid overdose, and discomfort. Patients should be closely monitored during
especially the increased risk of overdose death. Patients should such a transition because there is a risk that stable methadone
also be made aware of other risks associated with intravenous drug patients may become unstable when changing to buprenor-
use including the risk of infections (HIV, Hepatitis C, endocarditis, phine.
sepsis, etc.). Treatment alternatives including buprenorphine (see To minimize the risk of precipitated withdrawal, it is
Part 5) and naltrexone (see Part 6), as well as opioid overdose recommended that clinicians use careful initial dosing fol-
prevention with naloxone (see part 13), should be discussed with lowed by rapid titration up to an appropriate maintenance
any patient choosing to discontinue treatment. dose. Patients should be experiencing mild to moderate
opioid withdrawal before the transition. This would typically
Length of Treatment occur up to 24–48 hours after the last dose of methadone,
There is no recommended time limit for treatment with after a sufficient time has elapsed for there to be minimal risk
methadone. Clinicians should not encourage patients to dis- that the first dose of buprenorphine will precipitate
continue medication based on a pre-determined duration of significant withdrawal.
treatment. While the optimal duration of treatment with During office-based initiation of buprenorphine, the
methadone has not been established, it is known that relapse use of the COWS can be helpful in determining if patients are
rates are high for most patients who drop out; thus, long-term experiencing mild to moderate withdrawal.80 A COWS score
treatment is often needed. While the research is limited, of 11–12 or more is generally indicative of sufficient with-
available research generally suggests that at longer duration drawal to allow a safe and comfortable initiation onto bupre-
of treatment result in better outcomes. The National Institute norphine. For home-based initiation, clinicians should
on Drug Abuse’s Principles of Drug Addiction treatment notes discuss with patients the importance of waiting for physical
that individuals progress through addiction Treatment at symptoms of opioid withdrawal (e.g. pupil dilation, goose
various rates and positive outcomes are contingent on ade- bumps, gastrointestinal discomfort, etc.) before taking their
quate treatment duration.74 Generally, treatment participation first dose of buprenorphine to prevent precipitated with-
for less than 90 days is of limited effectiveness, and treatment drawal.
lasting significantly longer is associated with more positive An initial dose of 2–4 mg of buprenorphine should be
long-term outcomes. For patients treated with methadone, given. If withdrawal symptoms improve, the patient can be
12 months is considered the minimum, and some patients will given additional 2–8 mg doses as needed to suppress with-
continue to benefit from this treatment for many years. drawal symptoms. The prescribing doctor should contact the
Treatment duration depends on the response of the patient later in the day to assess the response to dosing. The
individual patient and is best determined by collaborative likelihood of precipitating withdrawal on commencing
decision making between the clinician and the patient. Treat- buprenorphine is reduced as the time interval between the
ment should be reinstituted immediately for most patients last methadone dose and the first buprenorphine dose
who were previously taking methadone and have relapsed or increases.
are at risk for relapse.
Transitioning to Naltrexone
TRANSITIONING BETWEEN TREATMENT Patients transitioning from methadone to naltrexone
MEDICATIONS need to be completely withdrawn from methadone and other
Transitioning from methadone to other opioid use dis- opioids before they can receive naltrexone. This may take up
order treatment medications may be appropriate in the fol- to 14 days, but can typically be achieved in 7 days.64 A
lowing cases: naloxone challenge (administration of 0.4–0.8 mg naloxone
and observation for precipitated withdrawal) may be useful
1. patient experiences intolerable methadone side effects; before initiating treatment with naltrexone to document the
2. patient has not been successful in attaining or maintaining absence of physiological dependence and to minimize the risk
their treatment goals through the initially chosen pharmaco- for precipitated withdrawal (see Glossary for more on nalox-
therapy one challenge).

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Summary of Recommendations – Methadone before making the transition. Patients on low doses of
1. Methadone is a recommended methadone (30–40 mg per day or less) generally tolerate
treatment for patients with opioid use disorder, who transition to buprenorphine with minimal discomfort,
are able to give informed consent and have no specific whereas patients on higher doses of methadone may
contraindication for this treatment. experience significant discomfort in transitioning med-
2. The recommended initial dose of ications.
methadone ranges from 10 to 30 mg, with reassessment 10. Patients transitioning from meth-
as clinically indicated (typically in 2 to 4 hours). Use a adone to naltrexone must be completely withdrawn from
lower-than-usual initial dose (2.5 to 10 mg) in individuals methadone and other opioids, before they can receive
with no or low opioid tolerance. naltrexone. The only exception would apply when an
3. Following initial withdrawal sta- experienced clinician receives consent from the patient to
bilization, the usual daily dose of methadone ranges from embark on a plan of naltrexone-facilitated opioid
60 to 120 mg. Some patients may respond to lower doses withdrawal management.
and some may need higher doses. Methadone titration 11. There is no recommended time
should be individualized based on careful assessment of limit for pharmacological treatment with methadone.
the patient’s response and generally should not be Patients who discontinue methadone treatment should
increased every day. Typically, methadone can be be made aware of the risks associated with opioid
increased by no more than 10 mg approximately every overdose, and especially the increased risk of overdose
5 days based on the patient’s symptoms of opioid with- death if they return to illicit opioid use. Treatment
drawal or sedation. alternatives including buprenorphine (see Part 5) and
4. The administration of methadone should be monitored naltrexone (see Part 6), as well as opioid overdose
because unsupervised administration can lead to misuse prevention with naloxone (see part 13), should be dis-
and diversion. OTP regulations require monitored medi- cussed with any patient choosing to discontinue treat-
cation administration until the patient’s clinical response ment.
and behavior demonstrates that prescribing non-moni-
tored doses is appropriate. Areas for Further Research
5. Patients’ psychosocial needs 1. Further research is needed to assess the effectiveness of
should be assessed, and patients should be offered or specific types of psychosocial treatment in combination
referred to psychosocial treatment based on their indi- with methadone in OTP or inpatient settings. Treatment
vidual needs, in conjunction with methadone in the with methadone generally includes some psychosocial
treatment of opioid use disorder. However, a patient’s components, however, it is unclear when added psychoso-
decision to decline psychosocial treatment or the absence cial treatment improves patient outcomes, and which
of available psychosocial treatment should not preclude psychosocial treatments are beneficial to which patients.
or delay treatment with methadone, with appropriate 2. Research is needed to evaluate the use of ECG in treatment
medication management. Motivational interviewing or with methadone in preventing adverse cardiac events.
enhancement can be used to encourage patients to engage 3. Further research is needed on how to determine the opti-
in psychosocial treatment services appropriate for mal length of treatment with methadone for individual
addressing their individual needs. patients.
6. For patients who previously 4. More research is needed on outcomes following transitions
received methadone for the treatment of opioid use from methadone to other opioid use disorder treatment
disorder, methadone should be reinstituted immediately medications. For example, to what extent do different
if relapse occurs or if an assessment determines that the protocols for medication transitions affect short- and
risk of relapse is high (unless contraindicated). Re-initi- long-term treatment outcomes.
ation of methadone should follow the recommendations
above regarding initial dose and titration. PART 5: BUPRENORPHINE
7. Strategies directed at relapse pre-
vention are an important part of addiction treatment and Background
should be included in any plan of care for a patient Buprenorphine is recommended for the treatment of
receiving opioid use disorder treatment or ongoing mon- opioid use disorder. Buprenorphine relieves drug cravings
itoring of the status of their disorder. without producing euphoria, and with reduced risk of danger-
8. Transitioning from methadone to ous and adverse effects compared with full agonist opioids. In
another medication for the treatment of opioid use disor- addition to its pharmacological properties, an advantage of
der may be appropriate if the patient experiences dan- buprenorphine is that it can be prescribed in office-based
gerous or intolerable side effects or is not successful in treatment settings. The FDA approved buprenorphine in 2002,
attaining or maintaining treatment goals through the use making it the first medication eligible to be prescribed by
of methadone. certified physicians through the Drug Addiction Treatment
9. Patients transitioning from meth- Act of 2000 (DATA 2000).105 Through DATA 2000, physi-
adone to buprenorphine in the treatment of opioid use cians may apply for waivers to prescribe certain narcotic
disorder should ideally be on low doses of methadone schedule III, IV, or V medications, including buprenorphine,

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

from their office settings. This provision of the act expands Bioequivalence information and charts for the various
access to community-based treatment options and mitigates formulations of buccal and sublingual buprenorphine and
the need to receive treatment through more specialized, and buprenorphine/naloxone products are contained in Appendix
often less available, OTPs. However, buprenorphine may also II. All information provided in this section is based on dosages
be administered in an OTP setting with similar program and for the generic equivalents of buprenorphine/naloxone sublin-
administration requirements to those for methadone. gual tablets and buprenorphine monoproduct sublingual tab-
Recent legislation has further expanded the types of lets. Because of the possibility of slight differences in
practitioners who can prescribe buprenorphine for the treat- bioavailability between the different formulations of buprenor-
ment of opioid use disorder. The Comprehensive Addiction phine, patients transitioning from one form of buprenorphine to
and Recovery Act (CARA) signed into law in July 2016 another should be monitored for efficacy and adverse effects.
extended the authority to prescribe buprenorphine to qualify-
ing NPs and PAs who obtain a waiver.106 The SUPPORT for Patient Selection and Treatment Goals
Patients and Community Act (Congress.gov) signed into law Buprenorphine is an effective treatment recommended
in October 2018 further expanded buprenorphine prescribing for patients who have opioid use disorder, are able to give
privileges (through October 1, 2023) to qualifying clinical informed consent, and have no specific contraindications
nurse specialists, certified registered nurse anesthetists, and for this treatment. Treatment with buprenorphine has the
certified nurse midwives.107 following four goals:

Formulations of Buprenorphine 1. suppress opioid withdrawal;

For this Practice Guideline, recommendations using the 2. block the effects of illicit opioids;
term buprenorphine will refer generally to both the bupre- 3. reduce opioid craving and stop or reduce the use of illicit
norphine only (monoproduct) and the combination buprenor- opioid;
phine/naloxone (combination product) formulations. When 4. promote and facilitate patient engagement in recovery-
recommendations differ by formulation it will be noted. oriented activities including psychosocial intervention.
This Practice Guideline generally recommends using There is ample evidence for the efficacy of buprenor-
combination buprenorphine/naloxone for both withdrawal phine for the treatment of opioid use disorder108 Buprenor-
management and treatment of opioid use disorder, with phine poses significantly lower risk for overdose compared to
special considerations for pregnant and breastfeeding women full agonist opioids due to the ceiling effects of buprenorphine
(See Part 8: Special Populations: Pregnant Women). Combi- for respiratory depression at higher doses. Consequently,
nation products contain naloxone (an opioid receptor antago- buprenorphine has been approved for OBOT.
nist), which is included to discourage intravenous use of
buprenorphine. If a patient who is physically dependent on Precautions
a full agonist opioid injects buprenorphine/naloxone, the
naloxone will induce withdrawal symptoms. These with- Alcohol or Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Use
drawal symptoms are generally averted when buprenor- Some studies have shown potential adverse interactions
phine/naloxone is taken as prescribed, however a small between buprenorphine and sedatives. While the combined
amount of naloxone may be absorbed sublingually and can use of these drugs increases the risk of serious side effects, the
precipitate withdrawal. Patients dependent upon methadone harm caused by untreated opioid use disorder can outweigh
or other long-acting opioid products may be more susceptible these risks. However, patients with opioid use disorder and
to this effect compared to those on short-acting opioid prod- concurrent alcohol, sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use dis-
ucts. Buprenorphine/naloxone products have not been evalu- orders may need more intensive monitoring during office-
ated in adequate and well-controlled studies for initiation in based treatment with buprenorphine to minimize the risk of
patients who are physically dependent on long-acting opioid adverse events. Patients with these co-occurring disorders
products. For this reason, buprenorphine monotherapy may be may be better treated in a setting with greater supervision
considered in patients taking long-acting opioids. Following such as an OTP. See ‘‘Part 2: Treatment Options: Contra-
initiation, the patient may then be transitioned to an extended- indications and Precautions’’ for additional information.
release or combination formulation.68
The FDA has approved numerous buprenorphine and Treatment Access
buprenorphine/naloxone formulations (see Table 1). Newly The DATA 2000, CARA 2016, and SUPPORT 2018,
approved formulations include extended-release injections, laws respectively allow qualifying physicians, NPs, PAs, and
an extended-release subdermal implant, and generic ver- other qualifying practitioners including clinical nurse special-
sions of sublingual and buccal tablets and films. These new ists, certified registered nurse anesthetists, and certified nurse
formulations provide a broader array of treatment options midwives to obtain waivers from SAMHSA to prescribe
and their introduction onto the market provides patients and buprenorphine in their office practices or in a clinic set-
clinicians with much needed choice and flexibility when ting.105,107,109
using buprenorphine for the treatment of opioid use disorder. Both the monoproduct and combination product are
Clinicians should use the new injectable products as indi- approved by the FDA for the treatment of opioid use disorder
cated and be mindful of emerging evidence as it becomes and can be used in settings outside of an OTP. Providers who
available. wish to prescribe buprenorphine for the treatment of opioid

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use disorder or withdrawal management must obtain a waiver physician to treat and manage patients with opioid use
under DATA 2000. Providers with DATA 2000 waivers may disorder. Any criteria of the Secretary under this subclause
treat opioid use disorder with approved buprenorphine prod- shall be established by regulation. Any such criteria are
ucts in any practice settings in which they are otherwise effective only for 3 years after the date on which the
credentialed to practice and in which such treatment would criteria are promulgated but may be extended for such
be medically appropriate (this may be subject to additional additional discrete 3-year periods as the Secretary con-
state regulations). The SUPPORT 2018 Act also made per- siders appropriate for purposes of this subclause. Such
manent the prescribing authority for PAs and NPs and allows an extension of criteria may only be effectuated through
waivered practitioners to immediately treat 100 patients at a a statement published in the Federal Register by the
time if the practitioner is board certified in addiction medicine Secretary during the 30-day period preceding the end of
or addiction psychiatry; or if the practitioner provides bupre- the 3-year period involved.
norphine in a qualified practice setting.107,110,111 The legisla- 9. The physician graduated in good standing from an accred-
tion also codified SAMHSA’s regulations allowing certain ited school of allopathic medicine or osteopathic medicine
practitioners to treat up to 275 patients. See Exhibit 4 ‘‘Clini- in the United States during the 5-year period immediately
cian Qualifications for OBOT’’ for further details. preceding the date on which the physician submits to the
Secretary a written notification of the intent of the physician
Exhibit 4: Clinician Qualifications for OBOT to begin dispensing drugs to patients for maintenance or
To qualify for a DATA 2000 waiver, a physician must hold detoxification treatment and successfully completed a com-
a current, valid state medical license and a drug enforcement prehensive allopathic or osteopathic medicine curriculum or
agency (DEA) registration number. In addition, the physician accredited medical residency that included not less than
must meet at least one of the following criteria outlined by the 8 hours of training on treating and managing patients with
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, SAMHSA: opioid use disorder and meets the statutory requirements.
Qualifying NPs and PAs, clinical nurse specialists,
1. The physician holds a subspecialty board certification in certified registered nurse anesthetists, and certified nurse
addiction medicine or addiction psychiatry by The Amer- midwives are required to:
ican Board of Preventive Medicine or the American Board
of Psychiatry and Neurology 1. be licensed under state law to prescribe schedule III, IV,
2. The physician holds a subspecialty board certification in or V medications for the treatment of pain;
addiction psychiatry from the American Board of Medical 2. obtain no fewer than 24 hours of initial training provided
Specialties. by one of the following organization: ASAM, American
3. The physician holds an addiction certification or board Academy of Addiction Psychiatry, American Medical
certification from ASAM or the American Board of Association, American Osteopathic Association, Ameri-
Addiction Medicine. (ASAM certification was taken over can Nurses Credentialing Center, American Psychiatric
by the American Board of Addiction Medicine in 2007.) Association, American Association of Nurse Practitioners,
4. The physician holds a subspecialty board certification American Academy of Physician Assistants, or any other
in addiction medicine from the American Osteopathic organization that the Secretary of Health and Human
Association. Services determines is appropriate;
5. The physician has, with respect to the treatment and 3. have such other training or experience as the Secretary
management of patients with opioid use disorder, com- determines will demonstrate the ability of the practitioner
pleted not less than 8 hours of training (through classroom to treat and manage patients with opioid use disorder;
situations, seminars at professional society meetings, elec- 4. be supervised by, or works in collaboration with, a quali-
tronic communications, or otherwise) that is provided by fying physician, if required by state law to prescribe
ASAM, the American Academy of Addiction Psychiatry, medications for the treatment of opioid use disorder in
the American Medical Association, the American Osteo- collaboration with or under the supervision of a physician.
pathic Association, the American Psychiatric Association,
or any other organization that the Secretary determines is Initiation
appropriate for purposes of this subclause. The setting for initiation of buprenorphine should be
6. The physician has participated as an investigator in one or carefully considered. During initiation, both office-based and
more clinical trials leading to the approval of a narcotic home-based observation is considered safe and effective.
drug in schedule III, IV, or V for maintenance or detoxifi- Initiation within the clinician’s office was traditionally rec-
cation treatment, as demonstrated by a statement submit- ommended to reduce the risk of precipitated opioid with-
ted to the Secretary by the sponsor of such approved drug. drawal. However, home-based buprenorphine initiation has
7. The physician has such other training or experience as the become increasingly common in recent years and is consid-
state medical licensing board (of the state in which the ered safe and effective under appropriate circumstances.
physician will provide maintenance or detoxification treat- Clinical judgement should be used to determine the most
ment) considered to demonstrate the ability of the physi- appropriate setting for a given patient and may include
cian to treat and manage patients with opioid use disorder. consideration of the patient’s past experience with buprenor-
8. The physician has such other training or experience as the phine and assessment of their ability to manage initiation at
Secretary considers to demonstrate the ability of the home.110,112,113

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

Buprenorphine has a higher affinity for the mu-opioid once-weekly or once-monthly injection. Only a single prior
receptor compared to most full opioid agonists. Because dose of transmucosal buprenorphine is required prior to
buprenorphine is a partial mu-agonist, the risk of overdose initiation. Research on the use of the extended release for-
during buprenorphine initiation is low. However, buprenor- mulations is emerging and, therefore, the clinical committee
phine will displace full agonists from the receptor with recommends that clinicians use these products as indicated
resultant reduction in opioid effects. Thus, some patients and be mindful of further evidence as it becomes available.
may experience precipitated withdrawal if insufficient time
has elapsed since their last dose of opioids. After Initiation
Patients who are currently dependent on opioids should Evidence suggests that buprenorphine doses of 16 mg or
wait until they are experiencing mild to moderate opioid more per day or more may be more effective than lower doses
withdrawal before taking the first dose of buprenorphine to at suppressing illicit opioid use.15 The FDA generally rec-
reduce the risk of precipitated withdrawal. Clinicians should ommends dosing to a limit of 24 mg per day, noting that there
use objective signs of opioid withdrawal before initiating is limited evidence regarding the relative efficacy of higher
buprenorphine initiation. Generally, buprenorphine initiation doses. In addition, the use of higher doses may increase the
should occur at least 6–12 hours after the last use of heroin or risk of diversion.
other short-acting opioids, and 24–72 hours after the last use
of long-acting opioids such as methadone. Adverse Effects
During office-based initiation of buprenorphine, the use Buprenorphine and combinations of buprenorphine and
of the COWS can be helpful in determining if patients are naloxone are generally well tolerated. Side effects reported
experiencing mild to moderate withdrawal.81 A COWS score with these medications include headache, anxiety, constipa-
of 11–12 or more is generally indicative of sufficient with- tion, perspiration, fluid retention in lower extremities, urinary
drawal to allow a safe and comfortable initiation onto bupre- hesitancy, and sleep disturbance. Unlike treatment with meth-
norphine. For home-based initiation, clinicians should discuss adone, QT-interval prolongation does not seem to be an
with patients the importance of waiting for physical symp- adverse effect associated with buprenorphine treatment.
toms of opioid withdrawal (e.g. pupil dilation, goose bumps,
gastrointestinal discomfort, etc.) before taking their first dose Psychosocial Treatment
of buprenorphine to prevent precipitated withdrawal. All patients should be assessed for psychosocial needs,
With the increasing prevalence of fentanyl, concerns and patients should be offered or referred to psychosocial
have been raised about whether the protocol for initiation onto treatment based on their individual needs. The types and
buprenorphine should be modified for patients regularly using duration of psychosocial treatment will vary, and the topic
this or other high potency opioids. Fentanyl is short acting but is discussed further in Part 7: Psychosocial Treatment in
has a long half-life (8–10 hours) and a relatively high affinity Conjunction With Medications for the Treatment of Opioid
for the mu-opioid receptor.80 Some clinicians have recom- Use Disorder. However, a patient’s decision to decline psy-
mended waiting until patients are in at least moderate with- chosocial treatment or the absence of available psychosocial
drawal (COWS score of 13 or higher) before initiating treatment should not preclude or delay pharmacological
buprenorphine. However, there is little existing evidence treatment of opioid use disorder, with appropriate medication
addressing this issue. management. Motivational interviewing or enhancement
Treatment decisions for patients transferring from should be used to encourage patients to engage in psychoso-
another provider or with previous buprenorphine treatment cial treatment or recovery support services appropriate for
experience should be individualized and based on the patient’s addressing their individual needs. In the absence of added
medical and treatment history. psychosocial treatment, clinicians may need to further indi-
vidualize treatment plans to address the potential for issues
Dosing related to adherence and diversion.

At Initiation Monitoring Treatment

The risk of precipitated withdrawal can be reduced by Patients should be seen frequently at the beginning of
using a lower initial dose of buprenorphine. An initial dose of their treatment until patients are determined to be stable. The
2–4 mg and observation of the patient for signs of precipitated stability of a patient is determined by an individual clinician
withdrawal is recommended. If 60–90 minutes have passed based on several indicators which may include abstinence from
without the onset of withdrawal symptoms, then additional illicit drugs, participation in psychosocial treatment and other
dosing can be done in increments of 2–8 mg. Repeat of the recovery-based activities, and productive occupational and
COWS during initiation can be useful in assessing the effect of social functioning. Stable patients can be seen less frequently.
buprenorphine dose. Once it has been established that the Accessing PDMP data is advisable to check for other
initial dose is well tolerated, the buprenorphine dose can be medications that the patient may be receiving. Due to varia-
increased fairly rapidly to a dose that provides stable effects tion in state PDMP laws, clinicians are encouraged to be
for 24 hours and is clinically effective. One extended-release familiar with the legal requirements associated with PDMPs
buprenorphine injections that received tentative FDA and prescribing of controlled substances in their state. In
approval in December 2018 is indicated for initiation, stabili- addition, drug testing in combination with a patient’s self-
zation and maintenance treatment when administered as a reported information about substance use is recommended as

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 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

a monitoring tool during treatment. Note that medications 90 days is of limited effectiveness, and treatment lasting
dispensed through an OTP or other treatment program significantly longer is associated with more positive long-
subject to the substance use disorder confidentiality regula- term outcomes.
tions (42 CFR Part 2) and are typically not captured in Patients and clinicians should not take the decision to
state PDMPs. terminate treatment with buprenorphine lightly. Buprenor-
Urine drug testing is a reasonably practical and reliable phine taper and discontinuation is a slow process and close
method to test for adherence to medication and illicit drug monitoring is recommended. Buprenorphine tapering is gen-
use. However, other reliable biological tests for the presence erally accomplished over several months. Factors associated
of drugs may be used. The frequency of drug testing should with successful termination of treatment with buprenorphine
be determined by a number of factors, including the stability are not well described or supported by outcomes. Factors that
of the patient, the type of treatment, and the treatment may be taken into consideration or given emphasis in this
setting.14 Drug testing is required a minimum of eight times decision include:
per year for patients in OTP. Testing may include substances
such as buprenorphine, illicit opioids, cocaine, methamphet- 1. employment and financial stability;
amine, cannabis, and controlled prescription medications 2. housing stability;
including benzodiazepines, opioids, and amphetamines. 3. engagement in mutual-help programs, or involvement in
How often and exactly what drugs should be tested to other meaningful activities;
optimize treatment has not been definitively established. 4. sustained abstinence from opioid and other drugs during
See The ASAM Appropriate Use of Drug Testing in Clinical treatment;
Addiction Medicine guidance document for more informa- 5. positive changes in the psychosocial environment;
tion.14 6. evidence of additional psychosocial supports;
Continued substance use by the patient is not a suffi- 7. persistent engagement in treatment for ongoing monitor-
cient reason to discontinue buprenorphine treatment. If a ing past the point of medication discontinuation.
patient is continuing to use substances it may reflect the need Patients who relapse after pharmacotherapy has been
for a change in treatment plan including a change in medica- discontinued should be returned to treatment with buprenor-
tion, dosage, or level of care. phine.
Clinicians should take steps to reduce the chance of
diversion. Diversion has been reported with both buprenor- Transitioning Between Treatment Medications
phine monotherapy and combination buprenorphine/nalox- Buprenorphine is generally tolerated well by patients.
one.114 Strategies to reduce the potential of diversion may Transitioning from buprenorphine to other opioid treatment
include frequent office visits, drug testing including testing medications may be appropriate in the following cases:
for buprenorphine and metabolites, observed dosing, and
recall visits for pill counts. Patients receiving treatment with 1. patient experiences intolerable side effects;
buprenorphine should be counseled to have adequate means to 2. patient has not been successful in attaining or maintaining
secure their medications to prevent theft or accidental inges- their treatment goals through the initially chosen pharma-
tion by young children. Unused medication should be dis- cotherapy;
posed of safely.73 3. patient wants to change and is a candidate for alternative
Patients who discontinue agonist therapy should be treatment.
made aware of the risks associated with an opioid overdose,
and especially the increased risk of overdose death. Patients Transitioning to Methadone
should also be made aware of other risks associated with Transitioning from buprenorphine to methadone does
intravenous drug use including the risk of infections (HIV, not typically result in any type of adverse reaction since
Hepatitis C, endocarditis, sepsis, etc.). Treatment alternatives moving from a partial opioid agonist to a full agonist does
including methadone (see Part 4) and naltrexone (see Part 6), not pose a risk for precipitating withdrawal symptoms. No
as well as opioid overdose prevention with naloxone (see part time delay is required in transitioning a patient from bupre-
13) should be discussed with any patient choosing to norphine to treatment with methadone.
discontinue treatment.
Transitioning to Naltrexone
Length of Treatment Buprenorphine has a long half-life; 7–14 days should
There is no recommended time limit for treatment with typically elapse between the last dose of buprenorphine and
buprenorphine. Clinicians should not encourage patients to the start of naltrexone to ensure that the patient is not
discontinue medication based on a pre-determined duration physically dependent on opioids before starting naltrexone.
of treatment. While the research is limited, available research A naloxone challenge (see Glossary) may be useful before
generally suggests that longer duration of treatment results in starting naltrexone to demonstrate an absence of physical
better outcomes. The National Institute on Drug Abuse’s dependence. Recently, investigators have begun to evaluate
Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment notes that individu- newer methods of rapidly transitioning patients from bupre-
als progress through addiction Treatment at various rates and norphine to naltrexone using repeated dosing over several
positive outcomes are contingent on adequate treatment days with very low doses of naltrexone along with ancillary
duration.75 Generally, treatment participation for less than medications.115 Although the results are promising, it is too

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early to recommend these techniques for general practice, and 9. Drug testing should be used to
the doses of naltrexone used may not be readily available to monitor patients for adherence to buprenorphine and
most clinicians. use of illicit and controlled substances. For additional
guidance see The ASAM Appropriate Use of Drug Testing
Summary of Recommendations – Buprenorphine in Clinical Addiction Medicine.14
1. Buprenorphine is a recommended treatment for 10. Patients should be seen frequently
patients with opioid use disorder, who are able to give at the beginning of treatment until they are determined to
informed consent and have no specific contraindication be stable.
for this treatment. 11. When considering a transition from buprenorphine to nal-
2. For patients who are currently trexone, providers should note that 7–14 days should
opioid dependent, buprenorphine should not be initiated typically elapse between the last dose of buprenorphine
until there are objective signs of opioid withdrawal to and the start of naltrexone to ensure that the patient is not
reduce the risk of precipitated withdrawal. physically dependent on opioids before starting naltrexone.
3. Once objective signs of with- 12. When considering a transition
drawal are observed, initiation of buprenorphine should from buprenorphine to methadone, there is no required
start with a dose of 2–4 mg. Dosages may be increased in time delay because the transition to a full mu-opioid
increments of 2–8 mg. agonist from a partial agonist does not typically result in
4. The setting for initiation of bupre- an adverse reaction.
norphine should be carefully considered. Both office-based 13. There is no recommended time
and home-based initiation are considered safe and effective limit for pharmacological treatment with buprenorphine.
when starting buprenorphine treatment. Clinical judgement Patients who discontinue buprenorphine treatment
should be used to determine the most appropriate setting for should be made aware of the risks associated with opioid
a given patient and may include consideration of the overdose, and especially the increased risk of death if
patient’s past experience with buprenorphine and assess- they return to illicit opioid use. Treatment alternatives
ment of their ability to manage initiation at home. including methadone (see Part 4) and naltrexone (see Part
5. Following initiation, buprenor- 6), as well as opioid overdose prevention with naloxone
phine dose should be titrated to alleviate symptoms. (see part 13) should be discussed with any patient choos-
To be effective, buprenorphine dose should be sufficient ing to discontinue treatment.
to enable patients to discontinue illicit opioid use. Evi- 14. Buprenorphine taper and discon-
dence suggests that 16 mg per day or more may be more tinuation is a slow process and close monitoring is
effective than lower doses. There is limited evidence recommended. Buprenorphine tapering is generally
regarding the relative efficacy of doses higher than 24 mg accomplished over several months. Patients should be
per day, and the use of higher doses may increase the risk encouraged to remain in treatment for ongoing monitor-
of diversion.15 ing past the point of discontinuation.
6. The FDA recently approved several new bupre-
norphine formulations for treatment of opioid use disor- Areas for Further Research
der (see Table 1). As data regarding the effectiveness of 1. Further research is needed on the comparative effective-
these products are currently limited, clinicians should use ness of newly approved buprenorphine formulations.
these products as indicated and be mindful of emerging 2. Further research is needed on how to determine the opti-
evidence as it becomes available. mal length of treatment with buprenorphine for individual
7. Patients’ psychosocial needs should patients.
be assessed, and patients should be offered or referred to 3. More research is needed to identify best practices for
psychosocial treatment based on their individual needs, in linking patients to continuing care when buprenorphine
conjunction with buprenorphine in the treatment of opioid is initiated in an acute care setting.
use disorder. However, a patient’s decision to decline 4. Further research is needed to assess the effectiveness of
psychosocial treatment or the absence of available psycho- specific types of psychosocial treatment in combination
social treatment should not preclude or delay buprenorphine with buprenorphine. Evidence is needed to determine
treatment, with appropriate medication management. Moti- when added psychosocial treatment improves patient out-
vational interviewing or enhancement can be used to comes, and which psychosocial treatments are beneficial
encourage patients to engage in psychosocial treatment to which patients.
services appropriate for addressing their individual needs.
8. Clinicians should take steps to PART 6: NALTREXONE
reduce the chance of buprenorphine diversion. Recom-
mended strategies may include frequent office visits (e.g., Background
weekly in early treatment); drug testing, including testing Extended release injectable naltrexone is a long-acting
for buprenorphine and metabolites; and recall visits for opioid antagonist that may be used to prevent relapse to opioid
medication counts. Refer to ASAM’s Sample Diversion use. Naltrexone blocks the effects of opioids if they are used.
Control Policy for additional strategies to reduce the risk Naltrexone is available in oral and extended-release injectable
for diversion.16 formulations.

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Formulations of Naltrexone: Oral Versus naltrexone (e.g. patients who may need an opioid analgesic
Extended-Release Injectable within the next month); and (3) patients who may benefit
Except under special circumstances, evidence does not from medication to prevent return to illicit drug use but
support the use of oral naltrexone as an effective treatment cannot or will not take extended-release naltrexone and do
for prevention of opioid use disorder relapse. A meta-analy- not wish to be treated with (or do not have access to) opioid
sis of 1,158 participants in 13 randomized trials comparing agonists. Under these limited circumstances in which oral
treatment with oral naltrexone to either placebo or no naltrexone might be appropriate and following a negative
medication found oral naltrexone was not superior to pla- naloxone challenge, the first oral dose of naltrexone can be
cebo or to no medication in either treatment retention or 25 mg, increasing to 50 mg daily from day 2 of treatment.
preventing return to illicit opioid use.72 Studies that found Those who tolerate a daily dose of 50 mg may be switched to a
oral naltrexone effective were conducted in situations in 3-day per week regimen (two 100-mg doses, followed by one
which patients were highly motivated, were legally man- 150-mg dose) for a total weekly dose of 350 mg. Adherence
dated to receive treatment, and/or taking the medication must be closely monitored when reducing to a 3-day per
under the supervision of their family or significant week regimen.
others.72,116
Extended-release naltrexone is more effective than Extended-Release Injectable Naltrexone
placebo117 or no medication118,119 in preventing return to As described in ‘‘Part 2: Treatment Options’’, extended-
illicit opioid use, and while not eliminating, reduces the poor release injectable naltrexone is indicated for the prevention of
adherence observed with the oral formulation. Extended- relapse to opioid use disorder, following complete opioid
release injectable naltrexone should generally be adminis- withdrawal. It may be useful for patients who have contra-
tered every 4 weeks by deep IM injection in the gluteal muscle indications to treatment with buprenorphine or methadone;
at a set dosage of 380 mg per injection. Some patients, patients for whom buprenorphine and methadone were not
including those who metabolize naltrexone more rapidly, successful treatment modalities; individuals who are highly
may benefit from dosing as frequently as every 3 weeks. motivated to taper off their current agonist therapy; or patients
One trial found naltrexone to be efficacious in patients with who do not want to be treated with an agonist.
more than one substance use disorder and using more than one
drug (heroin and amphetamines), which is common in patients Precautions
with opioid use disorder.120
Risk of Relapse and Subsequent Opioid Overdose
Patient Selection and Treatment Goals Patients maintained on naltrexone will have diminished
Extended-release injectable naltrexone and under lim- tolerance to opioids and may be unaware of the consequent
ited circumstances, oral naltrexone, are effective treatments increased sensitivity to opioids if they stop taking naltrexone.
recommended for patients to prevent relapse to opioid use Patients who discontinue antagonist therapy should be made
disorder, are able to give informed consent, are fully with- aware of this phenomenon. If the patient stops naltrexone and
drawn from opioids, and have no specific contraindications resumes use of opioids in doses that do not reflect the degree
for this treatment. to which they have lost tolerance, there is risk of an opioid
Treatment with naltrexone generally has the following overdose.121 A similar dynamic occurs in patients who
four goals: undergo withdrawal management with no meaningful fol-
low-up treatment, or those who drop out of methadone or
1. prevent relapse to opioid use in patients who have been buprenorphine treatment.
detoxified and are no longer physically dependent on
opioids; Course of Treatment
2. block the effects of illicit opioids;
3. reduce opioid craving; Initiation
4. promote and facilitate patient engagement in recovery- Before administering naltrexone, it is important that the
oriented activities including psychosocial interventions. patient has been adequately withdrawn from opioids and is no
longer physically dependent. Naltrexone can precipitate
Oral Naltrexone severe withdrawal symptoms in patients who have not been
In line with multiple other guidelines and government adequately withdrawn from opioids. As a general rule,
agencies, the Guideline Committee does not recommend the patients should be free from short-acting opioids for about
use of oral naltrexone except under very limited circum- 6 days before starting naltrexone, and free from long-acting
stances. Examples of limited circumstances under which opioids such as methadone and buprenorphine for 7–10 days.
treatment with oral naltrexone might be considered include: A naloxone challenge can be used if it is uncertain whether
(1) for highly compliant and motivated patients such as safety the patient is no longer physically dependent on opioids. In
sensitive workers (e.g. police, firefighters, and healthcare the naloxone challenge, naloxone hydrochloride (a shorter-
professionals) or other individuals with high levels of moni- acting injectable opioid antagonist) is administered and the
toring and knowledge of negative consequences for non- patient is monitored for signs and symptoms of withdrawal. A
adherence; (2) patients who wish to take an opioid low-dose oral naltrexone challenge has been used as
receptor antagonist but are unable to take extended-release an alternative.

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Dosing psychosocial treatment, see Part 7: Psychosocial Treatment

Extended-release injectable naltrexone can be given in Conjunction with Medications for the Treatment of Opioid
every 3–4 weeks by deep intramuscular (IM) injection in Use Disorder).
the gluteal muscle at a set dosage of 380 mg per injection.
Whereas the injection interval is generally every 4 weeks, Monitoring Treatment
some patients may metabolize naltrexone more rapidly. Patients should be seen frequently at the beginning of
Patients may report experiencing break through cravings or their treatment until they are determined to be stable. The
being able to overcome the opioid receptor blockade at some stability of a patient is determined by an individual clinician
point in the month. While there are no current studies evalu- based on several indicators which may include abstinence
ating more frequent dosing, the consensus of the Guideline from illicit drugs, participation in psychosocial treatment and
Committee was that some patients, including those who other recovery-based activities, and occupational and social
metabolize naltrexone more rapidly, may benefit from dosing functioning. Stable patients can be seen less frequently but
as frequently as every 3 weeks. should be seen at least monthly.
Under the limited circumstances for which oral naltrex- Accessing PDMP data is advisable to check for use of
one is appropriate, it can be dosed at: 50 mg daily or three other prescription medications (note: medications dispensed
times weekly dosing with two 100-mg doses followed by one through an OTP, and in some cases those prescribed or
150-mg dose. Oral naltrexone seems to be most useful when dispensed by treatment programs subject to the substance
there is a support person to administer and supervise the use disorder confidentiality regulations (42 CFR Part 2) are
medication. A support person may be a family member, close not captured in state PDMPs).
friend, or an employer. In addition, drug testing is recommended. Urine
drug testing is a reasonably practical and reliable method
Adverse Effects to test for adherence to medication and illicit drug use.
Naltrexone, both oral and extended-release injectable, is However, other reliable biological tests for the presence of
generally well tolerated. Apart from opioids, it does not drugs may be used. The frequency of drug testing will be
typically interact with other medications. Most common side determined by a number of factors, including the stability
effects in random order can include insomnia, lack of energy/ of the patient, the type of treatment, and the treatment
sedation, anxiety, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain/cramps, setting.14 Drug testing is required a minimum of eight times
headache, cold symptoms, joint and muscle pain, and injec- per year for patients in OTP. Testing may include substan-
tion site reactions specific to extended-release injectable ces such as illicit opioids, cocaine, methamphetamine,
naltrexone. To reduce injection site reactions in obese cannabis, and controlled prescription medications includ-
patients, a longer needle size may be used.34 ing benzodiazepines, opioids, and amphetamines. How
often and exactly what drugs should be tested for to opti-
Psychosocial Treatment mize treatment has not been definitively established. (For
The psychosocial needs of patients treated with nal- detailed recommendations see The ASAM Appropriate Use
trexone should be assessed, and patients should be offered or of Drug Testing in Clinical Addiction Medicine guidance
referred to psychosocial treatment based on their individual document.)14
needs. Research on extended-released injectable naltrexone
as a standalone therapy without psychosocial treatment is Length of Treatment
limited. In addition, the types of psychosocial treatments There is no recommended length of treatment with
studied have varied, and there is no clear guidance on what naltrexone. While the research is limited, available research
psychosocial treatment should be provided in conjunction generally suggests that longer duration of addiction treatment
with naltrexone. Therefore, as with buprenorphine and meth- results in better outcomes. The National Institute on Drug
adone, psychosocial treatment should be offered in conjunc- Abuse’s Principles of Drug Addiction treatment notes that
tion with naltrexone treatment but a patient’s decision to individuals progress through addiction treatment at various
decline psychosocial treatment or the absence of available rates and positive outcomes are contingent on adequate
psychosocial treatment should not preclude or delay treat- treatment duration.75 Generally, treatment participation for
ment of opioid use disorder with naltrexone, with appropriate less than 90 days is of limited effectiveness, and treatment
medication management. Motivational interviewing or lasting significantly longer is associated with more positive
enhancement can be used to encourage patients to engage long-term outcomes. Duration of treatment should depend on
in psychosocial treatment or support services appropriate for the response of the individual patient, the patient’s individual
addressing their individual needs. In the absence of added circumstances, and clinical judgment.
psychosocial treatment, clinicians may need to further indi- Patients who discontinue naltrexone treatment should
vidualize treatment plans to address the potential for issues be made aware of the increased risks associated with opioid
related to adherence. overdose, and especially the increased risk of overdose death,
However, given the paucity of evidence of demon- if they return to illicit opioid use. Treatment alternatives
strated efficacy of extended release naltrexone without psy- including methadone (see Part 4) and buprenorphine (see
chosocial treatment, methadone or buprenorphine may be Part 5), as well as overdose prevention with naloxone (see
the preferred pharmacotherapy in the absence of psychoso- part 13) should be discussed with any patient choosing to
cial treatment (for more recommendations regarding discontinue treatment.

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Transitioning Between Treatment Medications naltrexone, it can be stopped abruptly without withdrawal
Transitioning from naltrexone to other opioid treatment symptoms.
medications may be appropriate in the following cases: 6. Transitioning from naltrexone to
methadone or buprenorphine should be planned, consid-
1. patient experiences intolerable side effects; ered, and monitored. Transitioning from an antagonist
2. patient has not been successful in attaining or maintaining such as naltrexone to a full agonist (methadone) or a
their treatment goals through the initially chosen pharma- partial agonist (buprenorphine) is generally less compli-
cotherapy; cated than transitioning from a full or partial agonist to an
3. patient wants to change medications and is a candidate for antagonist because there is no physical dependence asso-
alternative treatment. ciated with antagonist treatment and thus no possibility of
Transfer of medications should be planned, considered, precipitated withdrawal. Patients being transitioned from
and monitored. Transitioning from an antagonist such as naltrexone to buprenorphine or methadone will not have
naltrexone to a full agonist (methadone) or a partial agonist physical dependence on opioids and thus the initial doses
(buprenorphine) is generally less complicated than transition- of methadone or buprenorphine should be low. Patients
ing from a full or partial agonist to an antagonist because there should not be transitioned until a significant amount of the
is no physical dependence associated with antagonist treat- naltrexone is no longer in their system, about 1 day for oral
ment. Patients being transitioned from naltrexone to bupre- naltrexone or 28 days for extended-release injectable
norphine or methadone will not have physical dependence on naltrexone.
opioids and thus the initial doses of methadone or buprenor- 7. Patients who discontinue naltrex-
phine used may be low and titration to the maintenance dose one treatment should be made aware of the increased risks
should be done slowly and carefully. The clinician should associated with opioid overdose, and especially the
discuss with the patient the potential for sedation, impairment, increased risk of overdose death, if they return to illicit
and fatigue, and carefully monitor these symptoms during opioid use. Treatment alternatives including methadone
initiation and titration. Patients should not be transitioned (see Part 4) and buprenorphine (see Part 5), as well as
until a significant amount of the naltrexone is no longer in overdose prevention with naloxone (see part 13) should
their system this varies but is typically about 1 day for be discussed with any patient choosing to discontinue
oral naltrexone or 28 days for extended-release injectable treatment.
naltrexone.
Areas for Further Research
Summary of Recommendations – Naltrexone 1. Further research is needed to test the relative effectiveness
1. Extended-release injectable nal- of extended-release injectable naltrexone as compared to
trexone is a recommended treatment for preventing relapse agonist treatment, including methadone and extended-
to opioid use disorder in patients who are no longer release injectable buprenorphine, in terms of treatment
physically dependent on opioids, able to give informed retention, substance use outcomes, and mortality.
consent, and have no contraindications for this treatment. 2. Further research is needed on optimal withdrawal man-
2. Extended-release injectable nal- agement and initiation protocols to initiate treatment with
trexone should generally be administered every 4 weeks naltrexone and minimize the risk of precipitated with-
by deep IM injection in the gluteal muscle at the set dosage drawal.
of 380 mg per injection. Some patients, including those 3. Further research is needed on outcomes related to admin-
who metabolize naltrexone more rapidly, may benefit from istering extended-release injectable naltrexone every
dosing as frequently as every 3 weeks. 3 weeks for individuals who metabolize naltrexone at
3. Oral naltrexone is not recom- higher rates.
mended except under limited circumstances (see Part 6 4. Further research is needed on how to determine the opti-
for more details). mal length of treatment with naltrexone for individual
4. Patients’ psychosocial needs should patients.
be assessed, and patients should be offered or referred to 5. Further research is needed on the safety and efficacy of
psychosocial treatment based on their individual needs, in naltrexone for pregnant women.
conjunction with extended-release naltrexone. A patient’s 6. Further research is needed to develop more effective
decision to decline psychosocial treatment or the absence strategies for improving adherence to extended-release
of available psychosocial treatment should not preclude or injectable naltrexone.
delay naltrexone treatment, with appropriate medication
management. Motivational interviewing or enhancement PART 7: PSYCHOSOCIAL TREATMENT IN
can be used to encourage patients to engage in psychoso- CONJUNCTION WITH MEDICATIONS FOR THE
cial treatment services appropriate for addressing their TREATMENT OF OPIOID USE DISORDER
individual needs.
5. There is no recommended length of Background
treatment with naltrexone. Duration depends on clinical Psychosocial treatment can help patients manage crav-
judgment and the patient’s individual circumstances. ings, reduce the likelihood of relapse, and assist them in
Because there is no physical dependence associated with coping with the emotional and social challenges that often

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accompany substance use disorders. Psychosocial treatment is of long-acting reversible contraception), etc., should be
available in a variety of outpatient and inpatient settings, but considered and incorporated into a patient’s treatment plan
most studies have focused on outpatient treatment. Psycho- as appropriate.
social treatment is provided using a variety of approaches in
various milieus, including social skills training; individual, Efficacy of Psychosocial Treatments in Opioid
group, and couples counseling; cognitive behavioral therapy; Use Disorder
motivational interviewing; and family therapy. Determining The systematic review of psychosocial interventions
level of need and best approach to psychosocial treatment conducted as part of the 2015 guideline development process
should be individualized to each patient. Mutual help and found that in general psychosocial therapy in combination
other recovery support services complement professional with pharmacotherapy appears to improve clinical out-
treatment, but do not substitute for professional treatment. comes.122 The review noted significant gaps in the literature
including a lack of information about which psychosocial
Goals of Psychosocial Treatment for Opioid interventions are most effective in combination with specific
Use Disorder medications. Of note, a systematic review examining the
Although psychosocial treatment options vary, common efficacy of adding specific, structured psychological treat-
therapeutic goals are to: ments to standard agonist maintenance treatments with stan-
dard clinician-led medical management and counselling, did
1. modify the underlying processes that maintain or reinforce not improve treatment retention or decrease illicit opioid use
use behavior; during treatment compared to standard treatment with agonist
2. encourage engagement with and adherence to the treat- medication.27 This question has not been adequately studied
ment plan, including pharmacotherapy; and for treatment with naltrexone.
3. treat any concomitant psychiatric disorders that either Evidence is available demonstrating the superiority of
complicate a substance use disorder or act as a trigger some psychosocial treatments over others. Specifically, a
for relapse. 2008 meta-analysis compared 2,340 participants who
received one of the following interventions: contingency
Components of Psychosocial Treatment for management (CM), relapse prevention, cognitive behavioral
Opioid Use Disorder therapy (CBT), or CBT combined with CM. Participants
Psychosocial treatment should be considered in con- receiving any psychosocial treatment had better outcomes
junction with all pharmacological treatments for opioid use than participants who did not. Contingency management and
disorder. However, because of the potential harm associated the combined CM and CBT intervention produced better
with untreated opioid use disorder, a patient’s decision to outcomes than the other interventions.123
decline psychosocial treatment or the absence of available While questions remain about which specific psycho-
psychosocial treatment should not preclude or delay pharma- social therapies work best with which pharmacological
cological treatment of opioid use disorder, with appropriate treatments, there is widespread support for recommending
medication management. Motivational interviewing or psychosocial treatment as an important component of a
enhancement can be used to encourage patients to engage patient’s opioid use disorder treatment plan. The clinical
in psychosocial treatment or support services appropriate for committee recommends that patients routinely be assessed
addressing their individual needs. In the absence of added for psychosocial needs and offered or referred to psychoso-
psychosocial treatment, clinicians may need to further indi- cial treatments appropriate to their individual needs as an
vidualize treatment plans to address the potential for issues adjunct to pharmacological treatments, with appropriate
related to adherence and diversion. medication management. While, a patient’s decision to
At a minimum, the psychosocial treatment component decline psychosocial treatment or the absence of available
of the overall treatment program should include the following: psychosocial treatment should not preclude or delay phar-
macological treatment of opioid use disorder, motivational
1. assessment of psychosocial needs; interviewing or enhancement can be used to encourage
2. individual and/or group counseling; patients to engage in psychosocial treatment or support
3. linkages to existing support systems; and services appropriate for addressing their individual
4. referrals to community-based services. needs. In the absence of added psychosocial treatment,
clinicians may need to further individualize treatment plans
Psychosocial treatment may also include more inten- to address the potential for issues related to adherence,
sive individual counseling and psychotherapy, contingency and diversion.
management, and mental health services. Broader psychoso-
cial support includes recovery support services, case man- Peer Support and Mutual-Help Programs
agement, and more specific social needs assistance (e.g., Although not considered by ASAM to be a psychosocial
employment, housing, legal services, etc.). Furthermore, treatment on their own, peer support services and mutual help
interventions related to the provision of and education around programs are ancillary service that may be an effective
harm reduction services including naloxone distribution, adjunct to treatment. Peers who have successfully maintained
sterile syringe services, safe injection practices, risky behav- recovery can provide mentoring, advocacy, and connections
ior modification, contraception access (including the option to community resources for individuals in treatment for opioid

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use disorder. Peer support services are increasingly offered in Summary of Recommendations – Psychosocial
medical settings to help engage patients in treatment. Mutual- Treatment in Conjunction With Medications for
help programs may include 12-step programs such as Alco- the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder
holics Anonymous (AA), Narcotics Anonymous (NA), and 1. Patients’ psychosocial needs should
Medication Assisted Recovery Anonymous (MARA). Other be assessed, and patients should be offered or referred to
mutual-help groups include Self-Management and Recovery psychosocial treatment, based on their individual needs, in
Therapy (SMART), and Moderation Management. Many conjunction with any pharmacotherapy for the treatment
providers recommend mutual-help programs, but there is of, or prevention of relapse to, opioid use disorder. How-
anecdotal information to suggest that some of these programs ever, a patient’s decision to decline psychosocial treatment
may be less accepting of patients receiving medications for or the absence of available psychosocial treatment should
opioid use disorder. not preclude or delay pharmacological treatment of opioid
use disorder, with appropriate medication management.
Adherence to Psychosocial Treatment Within Motivational interviewing or enhancement can be used to
Overall Treatment encourage patients to engage in psychosocial treatment
Clinicians should determine the optimal type of psy- services appropriate for addressing their individual needs.
chosocial treatment to which to refer patients based on shared 2. Treatment planning should include collaboration with
decision-making with the patient and in consideration of the qualified behavioral healthcare providers to determine
availability and accessibility of area resources. Collaboration the optimal type and intensity of psychosocial treatment
with qualified behavioral health providers is one way for and for renegotiation of the treatment plan for circum-
clinicians to determine the type of psychosocial treatment that stances in which patients do not adhere to recommended
would best fit within a patient’s individualized treatment plan. plans for, or referrals to, psychosocial treatment.
The ASAM Standards describe in standards III.1 and III.2 the
role of the clinician in coordinating care and providing Areas for Further Research
therapeutic alternatives.29 Key concepts within these stand- 1. Further research is needed to identify the comparative
ards speak to the importance of patient education about advantages of specific psychosocial treatments.
alternatives, shared decision-making in selection of therapeu- 2. Further study is needed to evaluate the effectiveness
tic services, and the incumbent responsibility of the clinician of psychosocial treatment in combination with specific
to assure through the treatment planning and treatment man- pharmacotherapies.
agement processes that psychosocial treatment is being 3. Further research is needed on which concurrent psycho-
offered and that the patient is progressing toward mutually social treatments are most effective for different patient
agreed-upon goals. Treatment plans should be renegotiated populations and treatment settings including primary care.
when patients do not follow through with psychosocial treat- 4. Further research is needed on which psychosocial treat-
ment referrals and/or if it is determined that the treatment plan ments can be effectively delivered in primary care settings.
goals are not being advanced. 5. Further research is needed on effective strategies for
engaging patients in treatment, including models incorpo-
Psychosocial Treatment and Treatment with rating peer support.
Methadone, Buprenorphine, or Naltrexone
As noted above, the current body of evidence suggests PART 8: SPECIAL POPULATIONS: PREGNANT
that in general psychosocial treatment in conjunction with WOMEN
pharmacotherapy improves patient outcomes. However, due
to mixed findings, it is unclear which specific components of Background
psychosocial treatment should be recommended. Some stud- Many of the medical risks associated with opioid use
ies have found that the addition of psychosocial treatment disorder are similar for both pregnant and nonpregnant
improves adherence and retention in treatment124–126 and women; however, opioid use disorder carries obstetrical
improves withdrawal management outcomes,27 while other risks for pregnant women. Several obstetrical complications
studies found no benefit to specific psychosocial treatments123 have been associated with opioid use in pregnancy, including
or report mixed findings.27,127–129 The consensus of the preeclampsia, miscarriage, premature delivery, fetal growth
committee, as noted above, is that all patients prescribed restriction, and fetal death.130 It is difficult to establish the
methadone, buprenorphine or naltrexone should be assessed extent to which these problems are due to opioid use,
for psychosocial needs and offered or referred to psychosocial withdrawal, or co-occurring use of other drugs. Other factors
treatments appropriate to their individual needs as an adjunct that may contribute to obstetrical complications include
to pharmacological treatments. A patient’s decision to decline concomitant maternal medical, nutritional, and psychoso-
psychosocial treatment or the absence of available psychoso- cial issues.
cial treatment should not preclude or delay treatment of opioid Opioid use is also associated with neonatal abstinence
use disorder with pharmacotherapy, with appropriate medica- syndrome (NAS). NAS is the traditional term used to describe
tion management. However, motivational interviewing or the constellation of withdrawal signs infants exhibit following
enhancement can be used to encourage patients to engage prenatal exposure to substances that typically include opioid
in psychosocial treatment or support services appropriate for agonists. Federal agencies now commonly use the term
addressing their individual needs. neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS) to explicitly

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link in utero opioid exposure to subsequent infant withdrawal vaccination is recommended for those whose viral hepatitis
signs. Both terms are used in this document. serology is negative.
Pregnant women with active opioid use disorder should All pregnant women should be screened for substance
be treated with methadone or buprenorphine as the standard of use with a validated screening tool. Women who screen
care. Pregnant women with a history of opioid use disorder are positive for substance use should receive a comprehensive
also candidates for opioid agonist treatment if a return to substance use assessment as part of obstetrical best practi-
opioid misuse is possible during pregnancy. Women who ces.14 Drug testing may be used to detect or confirm suspected
choose a medication-free approach using psychosocial modal- opioid and other drug use but should be performed only with
ities should be closely monitored. the patient’s consent and in compliance with state laws (See
ASAM’s Appropriate Use of Drug Testing in Clinical Addic-
Assessment of Opioid Use Disorder in tion Medicine guidance document). State laws differ in terms
Pregnant Women of clinicians’ reporting requirements of identified drug use
As is the case for any patient presenting for assessment (through either drug testing or self-report) to child welfare
of opioid use disorder, the first clinical priority should be to services and/or health authorities. Laws that penalize pregnant
identify any emergent or urgent medical conditions that women for substance use disorders serve to prevent women
require immediate attention. Diagnosing emergent conditions from obtaining prenatal care and treatment for opioid use
can be challenging because women may present with symp- disorder, which may worsen outcomes for mother and child.
toms that may be related to overdose and/or a complication in The American Congress College of Obstetricians and Gyne-
pregnancy. A comprehensive assessment including medical cologists (ACOG) recommends that ‘‘in states that mandate
examination and psychosocial assessment is recommended in reporting, policy makers, legislators, and physicians should
evaluating opioid use disorder in pregnant women. However, work together to retract punitive legislation and identify and
completion of all assessments should not delay or preclude implement evidence-based strategies outside the legal system
initiating pharmacotherapy for opioid use disorder. If not to address the needs of women with addictions’’.133 Routine
completed before initiating treatment, assessments should urine drug testing is not highly sensitive for many drugs and
be completed soon thereafter. The clinician should ask ques- may result in false-positive and negative results that are
tions in a direct and nonjudgmental manner to elicit a detailed misleading and potentially devastating for the patient. Even
and accurate history. with patient consent, urine testing should not be relied upon as
the sole or valid indication of drug use. They suggest that
Medical Examination positive urine screens should be followed with a definitive
drug assay. Similarly, in a study conducted on pregnant
Physical Examination women in Florida, where there is mandatory reporting to
A physical examination should be conducted for preg- health authorities, study authors identified that compliant
nant women who are presenting with potential opioid use clinician reporting of drug misuse was biased by racial
disorder. The examination should include identifying objec- ethnicity and socioeconomic status of the pregnant woman.
tive physical signs of opioid intoxication or withdrawal. The It was their conclusion that any state that regulates for
objective physical signs for patients, including pregnant mandatory urine testing and reporting do so based on medical
women, are described in Part 1: Assessment and Diagnosis criteria and medical necessity of such testing.131
of Opioid Use Disorder. For a pregnant patient with a history of addiction,
Obstetricians and gynecologists, and other healthcare providers should be aware that the postpartum period is a
providers that care for pregnant women should be alert time of increased vulnerability. Therefore, assessment for
to signs and symptoms of opioid use disorder. Pregnant relapse risk, which may include drug testing with patient
women with opioid use disorder are more likely to seek consent, should be part of the postpartum visit.14
prenatal care late in pregnancy, miss appointments, expe-
rience poor weight gain, or exhibit signs of withdrawal or Imaging
intoxication. Pregnant women with opioid use disorder, Confirmation of a viable intrauterine pregnancy by
as with non-pregnant individuals, also have a higher risk of sonography is sometimes required before acceptance into
HIV and viral hepatitis which can impact pregnancy, an OTP that is tailored specifically to pregnant women.
labor management and recommendations related to breast- Imaging is also useful for confirmation of gestational age
feeding. On physical examination, some signs of injection and assessment of fetal weight if there is concern for fetal
drug use may include puncture marks, abscesses, or cellu- growth abnormalities.
litis.
Psychosocial Assessment. Research has found that the major-
Laboratory Tests ity of women entering treatment for opioid use disorder have a
Women who use opioids intravenously are at high risk history of sexual assault, domestic violence, and/or adverse
for infections related to sharing injection syringes and sexu- childhood experiences. Therefore, obtaining a psychosocial
ally transmitted infections. Therefore, counseling and testing history is important when evaluating pregnant women for
for HIV should be provided to pregnant women with opioid opioid use disorder.132 The psychosocial needs of pregnant
use disorder, according to state laws. Tests for hepatitis B and women being treated for opioid use disorder should be
C and liver enzymes are also suggested. Hepatitis A and B assessed and patients should be offered or referred to

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psychosocial treatment based on their individual needs. A There is a growing body of evidence comparing out-
woman’s decision to decline psychosocial treatment or the comes related to methadone and buprenorphine treatment
absence of available psychosocial treatment should not pre- during pregnancy.133 Infants born to mothers treated with
clude or delay pharmacological treatment, with appropriate buprenorphine had shorter hospital stays (10 vs. 17.5 days),
medication management, during pregnancy. Motivational had shorter treatment durations for NOWS (4.1 vs. 9.9 days),
interviewing or enhancement can be used to encourage and required a lower cumulative dose of morphine (1.1 vs.
patients to engage in psychosocial treatment services appro- 10.4 mg) compared to infants born to mothers on treatment
priate for addressing their individual needs. with methadone.134 However, in this trial, mothers treated
with buprenorphine were more likely to drop out of treatment
Opioid Agonist Treatment in Pregnancy. Decisions to use compared to mothers treated with methadone. Larger studies
opioid agonist medications in pregnant women with opioid are needed comparing the safety and effectiveness of bupre-
use disorder revolve around balancing the risks and benefits norphine versus methadone in the obstetric population.
to maternal and infant health. Opioid agonist treatment has
minimal long-term developmental impacts on children rela- Buprenorphine Monoproduct versus Buprenorphine/Nalox-
tive to harms resulting from maternal use of heroin or misuse one. While the evidence on the safety and efficacy of naloxone
of prescription opioids. There is a risk of NOWS when opioid in pregnant women remains limited,135,136 the combination
agonists are used during pregnancy; however, there is no buprenorphine/naloxone product is frequently used and the
evidence that methadone or buprenorphine taken for opioid consensus of the guideline committee is that the combination
use disorder in pregnancy results in higher rates of NOWS product is safe and effective for this population. Naloxone is
compared to illicit opioid use, and the risk of untreated opioid minimally absorbed when these medications are taken
use disorder to the woman and fetus is much higher than the as prescribed.
risk of NOWS. Therefore, women with opioid use disorder
who are not in treatment should be encouraged to start opioid Naltrexone in Pregnancy. There is insufficient research on the
agonist treatment with methadone or buprenorphine as early safety and efficacy of naltrexone during pregnancy. If a
in the pregnancy as possible. Furthermore, pregnant women woman becomes pregnant while she is receiving naltrexone,
who are on agonist treatment should be encouraged not to it may be appropriate to transition to methadone or bupre-
discontinue treatment while they are pregnant or post-par- norphine, or to discontinue the medication if the patient and
tum, when they are at increased risk of relapse. Providers doctor agree that the risk of relapse is low. A decision to
should also counsel pregnant women who use nicotine that remain on naltrexone during pregnancy should be carefully
reducing or stopping smoking can reduce the severity of considered by the patient and their clinician and should
NOWS.133 – 138 include a discussion on the paucity of information surround-
ing the risks (if any) of continued use of naltrexone. If the
Treatment Management Team. Pregnancy in women with patient wishes to remain on naltrexone, it is important to
opioid use disorder should be managed by a clinician with obtain consent for ongoing treatment. If the patient decides to
experience in both obstetrical care and treatment of opioid use discontinue treatment with naltrexone and they are at risk of
disorder or comanaged by a clinician with experience in relapse, treatment with methadone or buprenorphine should
obstetrical care and another clinician experienced in the be considered.
treatment of opioid use disorder. Release of information forms
need to be completed to ensure communication among Naloxone in Pregnancy. The use of an antagonist such as
healthcare providers. naloxone to evaluate opioid dependence in pregnant women is
contraindicated because induced withdrawal may precipitate
Opioid Agonists Versus Withdrawal Management. Pregnant preterm labor or fetal distress. Naloxone should be used in the
women who are physically dependent on opioids should case of maternal overdose to save the woman’s life and can be
receive treatment using agonist medications, in combination used in the combination buprenorphine/naloxone product for
with psychosocial treatment, rather than withdrawal manage- opioid use disorder treatment as the naloxone is minimally
ment or psychosocial treatment alone as these approaches absorbed when taken as prescribed.
may pose a risk to the fetus. Furthermore, withdrawal man-
agement has been found to be inferior in effectiveness over Methadone Initiation
pharmacotherapy with opioid agonists and increases the risk
of relapse without fetal or maternal benefit. Conception While in Treatment with Methadone. Conceiving
while on methadone has been associated with better drug
Methadone Versus Buprenorphine. Providers should discuss treatment outcomes compared to women who initiate metha-
treatment options as well as risks and benefits with the patient done during pregnancy. Pregnant women in treatment with
and document the decision in her chart. For women who are methadone before conception who are not in physical with-
pregnant or breastfeeding, opioid agonist treatment with drawal can be continued on methadone as outpatients.
methadone or buprenorphine is the most appropriate treat-
ment, taking into consideration effects on the fetus, neonatal Timing of Treatment in Pregnancy. Treatment with methadone
abstinence syndrome, and impacts on perinatal care and should be initiated as early as possible during pregnancy to
parenting of young children. produce the most optimal outcomes. Longer duration of

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treatment with methadone is associated with longer gestation buprenorphine. However, there is little existing evidence
and higher birth weight.134 NOWS can occur as a result of addressing this issue.
treatment with methadone but is easily treated. Patients should Drug dosing is similar to that in women who are not
be counseled related to this risk. The NOWS risk to the fetus is pregnant (see Part 5: Buprenorphine for more information).
significantly less than the risk of untreated opioid use disorder.
Data collected on exposure in human pregnancies are com- Dosing of Opioid Agonists During Pregnancy
plicated by confounding variables including drug, alcohol,
and cigarette use; poor maternal nutrition; and an increased Methadone Dosing. In the second and third trimester, metha-
prevalence of maternal infection but there is no definitive done doses may need to be increased due to increased
evidence of abnormal development in children exposed to metabolism and circulating blood volume. With advancing
methadone in utero. Providers should also counsel pregnant gestational age, plasma levels of methadone progressively
women who use nicotine that reducing or stopping smoking decrease and clearance increases.139–142 The half-life of
can reduce the severity of NOWS.133 methadone falls from an average of 22–24 hours in nonpreg-
The optimum setting for initiation of treatment has not nant women to 8.1 hours in pregnant women.143 As a result,
been evaluated in this population. Hospitalization during increased and/or split methadone doses may be needed as
initiation of methadone may be advisable due to the potential pregnancy progresses to maintain therapeutic effects. Split-
for adverse events (e.g., overdose and adverse drug interac- ting the methadone dose into two 12-hour doses may produce
tions), especially in the third trimester. The decision of more adequate treatment response in this period. A common
whether to hospitalize a patient for initiation of methadone misconception is that that doses of methadone should
should consider the experience of the clinician as well as decrease as pregnancy progresses; however, data refute this
comorbidities and other risk factors for the individual patient. misconception. Refer to Part 4 for guidelines on appropriate
This is also an ideal time for the woman to be assessed by a methadone initiation and titration including the risk for
social worker and case manager, and to initiate prenatal care if overdose death. The risk and severity of NOWS are not
it has not been initiated earlier. correlated with methadone doses taken by the mother at
Methadone should be initiated at a dose range from 10 the time of delivery and tapering of dose is not indi-
to 30 mg. Incremental doses of 5–10 mg can be given every cated.144,145 After birth, the dose of methadone will likely
3–6 hours as needed to treat withdrawal symptoms, to a need to be decreased (see Postpartum Treatment discussion
maximum first day dose of 30–40 mg. After initiation, clini- below).
cians should increase the methadone dose by no more than
10 mg approximately every 5 days (e.g., 10 mg increases at Buprenorphine Dosing. The need to adjust dosing of bupre-
intervals of 5 days or 5 mg increases at intervals of 2–3 days norphine during pregnancy is less common compared with
as symptoms persist), if indicated, to maintain the lowest dose methadone. Clinicians may consider split dosing in patients
that controls withdrawal symptoms and minimizes the desire who complain of discomfort and craving in the afternoon and
to use additional opioids. Considerations should be given to evening. As with methadone, there is a risk of NOWS when
lowering the dose as clinically appropriate based on the buprenorphine is used during pregnancy; however, there is no
patient’s physiological response (e.g. sedation). evidence that buprenorphine taken for opioid use disorder in
pregnancy results in higher rates of NOWS compared to illicit
Buprenorphine Initiation. Initiation of buprenorphine may opioid use, and the risk of untreated opioid use disorder to the
lead to withdrawal symptoms in patients with physical depen- woman and fetus is much higher than the risk of NOWS.
dence on opioids. To minimize this risk, initiation should Buprenorphine treatment for pregnant women is associated
begin when a woman shows objective, observable signs of with less severe NOWS compared to methadone. Buprenor-
withdrawal, but before severe withdrawal symptoms are phine dose should be determined based on the clinical
evidenced. This usually occurs at least 6–12 hours after the response of the patient. The risk and severity of NOWS are
last dose of a short-acting opioid, and up to 24–48 hours after not known to be correlated with buprenorphine doses taken by
the use of long-acting opioids. Hospitalization during initia- the mother at the time of delivery and tapering of dose is not
tion of treatment with buprenorphine may be advisable due to indicated. In addition, for pregnant women who use nicotine,
the potential for adverse events, especially in the third tri- reducing or stopping smoking can reduce the severity of
mester. The decision of whether to hospitalize a patient for NOWS.133,146
initiation of methadone should consider the experience of the
clinician as well as comorbidities and other risk factors for the Postpartum Treatment. Pharmacological treatment for opioid
individual patient. use disorder should be continued following delivery. If the
With the increasing prevalence of fentanyl, concerns dose of methadone was increased as pregnancy progressed
have been raised about whether the protocol for initiation onto to maintain therapeutic effects, the dosage will likely need
buprenorphine should be modified for patients regularly using to be reduced postpartum. Dosages should be titrated as
this or other high potency opioids. Fentanyl is short acting but needed to prevent sedation. It is less common for pregnant
has a long half-life (8–10 hours) and a relatively high affinity women to require dosage changes for buprenorphine. How-
for the mu-opioid receptor. Some clinicians have recom- ever, the patient should be monitored closely throughout
mended waiting until patients are in at least moderate with- pregnancy and the postpartum period and dosages adjusted
drawal (COWS score of 13 or higher) before initiating as needed.130

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The postpartum period can be a vulnerable time for completion of all assessments should not delay or pre-
women with opioid use disorder and research suggests that clude initiating pharmacotherapy for opioid use disorder.
women are more likely to relapse during this time than during If not completed before initiating treatment, assessments
pregnancy. Women should routinely be screened for postpar- should be completed as soon as possible thereafter.
tum depression and providers should regularly evaluate the 5. Obstetricians and gynecologists, and other healthcare
patient’s needs for different or additional psychosocial treat- providers that care for pregnant women, should be alert
ments and support services. to signs and symptoms of opioid use disorder. Pregnant
women with opioid use disorder are more likely to seek
Breastfeeding. Mothers receiving methadone or buprenor- prenatal care late in pregnancy, miss appointments, expe-
phine (including both the monoproduct and combination rience poor weight gain, or exhibit signs of withdrawal
product) for the treatment of opioid use disorders should or intoxication.
be encouraged to breastfeed in the absence of other contra- 6. The psychosocial needs of preg-
indications. Guidelines from the Academy of Breastfeeding nant women being treated for opioid use disorder should
Medicine encourage breastfeeding for women treated with be assessed and patients should be offered or referred to
methadone who are enrolled in methadone programs.147 Some psychosocial treatment based on their individual needs.
of the benefits include improved maternal-infant bonding and A woman’s decision to decline psychosocial treatment
favorable effects on NOWS.148,149 It is not clear whether the or the absence of available psychosocial treatment
favorable effects of breastfeeding on NOWS are related to the should not preclude or delay pharmacological treat-
breast milk itself or the act of breastfeeding.149,150 In a study ment, with appropriate medication management, during
of buprenorphine and breastfeeding, it was shown that the pregnancy. Motivational interviewing or enhancement
amount of buprenorphine metabolites secreted in breast milk can be used to encourage patients to engage in psycho-
are so low that they pose little risk to breastfeeding infants.151 social treatment services appropriate for addressing
Insufficient research exists on the risks (if any) of their individual needs.
naltrexone for breastfeeding infants. There is limited data 7. Counseling and testing for HIV should be provided (in
indicating that naltrexone is minimally excreted into breast- accordance with state law). Tests for hepatitis B and C
milk.152 The decision to continue breastfeeding while taking and liver enzymes are also suggested. Hepatitis A and B
naltrexone should be based on a mother’s individual circum- vaccinations is recommended for those whose hepatitis
stances and preference. Clinicians should discuss this decision serology is negative.
with the mother including a discussion on the risk of relapse, 8. Drug and alcohol testing should be
benefits of breastfeeding, and the risk to the infant of mini- used to monitor patients for adherence to medication and
mum exposure to naltrexone, noting that the data are unclear for use of illicit and controlled substances. This should be
as to whether or not an actual risk exists. Consider monitoring done with informed consent from the mother, realizing
the infant for exposure. If the infant is being treated for NOWS that there may be adverse legal and social consequences
consider use of oral naltrexone instead of extended release for substance use. State laws differ on reporting sub-
naltrexone since the treatment can be more rapidly adjusted if stance use during pregnancy. Laws that penalize women
there are signs of exposure. for substance use and for obtaining treatment serve to
Specialty advice should be sought for women with prevent women from obtaining prenatal care and worsen
concomitant physical illnesses or other substance use disor- outcomes. For further clarity see The ASAM Appropriate
ders. Contraindications to breastfeeding include HIV-positive Use of Drug Testing in Clinical Addiction Medicine
mothers. In addition, precautions and tailored advice are guidance document.14
necessary for mothers who use alcohol, cocaine or amphet- 9. Care for pregnant women with
amine-type drugs. opioid use disorder should be comanaged by a clinician
experienced in obstetrical care and a clinician experi-
Summary of Recommendations – Special enced in the treatment of opioid use disorder.
Populations: Pregnant Women 10. Hospitalization during initiation of methadone or bupre-
1. The first priority in evaluating pregnant women norphine may be advisable due to the potential for
for opioid use disorder should be to identify emergent or adverse events, especially in the third trimester.
urgent medical conditions that require immediate referral 11. Methadone should be initiated at a
for clinical evaluation. dose range of 10–30 mg. Incremental doses of 5–10 mg is
2. Treatment with methadone or recommended every 3–6 hours, as needed, to treat with-
buprenorphine is recommended and should be initiated drawal symptoms, to a maximum fist day dose of 30–40 mg.
as early as possible during pregnancy. 12. After initiation, clinicians should
3. Pregnant women who are physi- increase the methadone dose by no more than 10 mg
cally dependent on opioids should receive treatment approximately every 5 days. The goal is to maintain the
using methadone or buprenorphine rather than with- lowest dose that controls withdrawal symptoms and
drawal management or psychosocial treatment alone. minimizes the desire to use additional opioids.
4. A medical examination and psy- 13. Clinicians should be aware that
chosocial assessment are recommended when evaluating the pharmacokinetics of methadone are affected by preg-
pregnant women for opioid use disorder. However, nancy. With advancing gestational age, plasma levels of

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methadone progressively decrease and clearance General Considerations for All Patients With
increases. Increased and/or split doses may be needed Pain
as pregnancy progresses. Twice-daily dosing is more For all patients with pain, it is important that the correct
effective and has fewer side effects than single dosing diagnosis of pain etiology be made and that a suitable pain
but may not be practical because methadone is typically treatment be identified. Nonpharmacological treatments (e.g.,
dispensed in an OTP. After childbirth, doses may need to psychosocial treatments, physical therapy) have been shown
be adjusted (typically reduced) based on changes in to be effective for many types of pain and should be consid-
weight and metabolism. ered.
14. If a woman becomes pregnant If pharmacological treatment is considered, then non-
while she is receiving naltrexone, it may be appropriate opioid analgesics such as acetaminophen and NSAIDs and
to discontinue the medication if the patient and clinician other medications with pain-modulating properties, such as
agree that the risk of relapse is low. A decision to remain gabapentinoids, tricyclic antidepressants, norepinephrine-
on naltrexone during pregnancy should be carefully serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and dissociative anesthetics
considered by the patient and her clinician and should (e.g., ketamine) may be useful and should be considered first.
include a discussion on the insufficiency of research on Additional non-opioid interventions such as regional anesthe-
risks (if any) of continued use of naltrexone. If the patient sia should also be considered.
chooses to discontinue treatment with naltrexone and is at The presence or history of substance use disorder alone,
risk for relapse, treatment with methadone or buprenor- including opioid use disorder, should not preclude the use of
phine should be considered. opioids to treat pain. Pain treatment should be coordinated
15. Use of naloxone challenge (see with the opioid use disorder treating clinician to help optimize
glossary) to test for opioid dependence and risk of pain care (e.g., by using split rather than single daily doses of
precipitated withdrawal is not recommended for pregnant buprenorphine or methadone to maximize the analgesic prop-
women with opioid use disorder. erties of these medications as discussed below) and reduce the
16. Unless otherwise contraindicated potential for relapse.
(see Part 8), mothers receiving methadone or buprenor-
phine for treatment of opioid use disorders should be Pain Management in Patients with Opioid Use
encouraged to breastfeed. Disorder
Methadone or buprenorphine may be considered for
Areas for Further Research patients with pain who have an active opioid use disorder but
1. Further research is needed on the safety of combination are not undergoing treatment. Both methadone and buprenor-
buprenorphine/naloxone and new extended-release formu- phine have analgesic effects. Transition to opioid agonist
lations for use in pregnancy. treatments can help comanage pain and opioid use disorder.
2. Further research is needed to investigate the safety of
naltrexone while pregnant or breastfeeding. Methadone and Pain Management
3. Further research is needed to determine what, if any, Patients prescribed methadone for opioid use disorder
clinical benefit there is to routinely drug testing pregnant should receive pain management in the same way as other
women. patients, ideally through consultation with a clinician experi-
4. Further research is needed on the comparative effective- enced in pain care and their addiction treatment provider.
ness of inpatient versus outpatient settings for methadone
and buprenorphine initiation for pregnant women. Acute and Chronic Pain Management
5. Further research is needed on best treatment approaches Temporarily increasing the methadone dose or dosing
for pregnant or breastfeeding women who cannot or will frequency may be effective for managing pain. Splitting the
not take medication for opioid use disorder. daily methadone dose across 3–4 doses per day can maximize
the analgesic properties of this medication. The withdrawal
PART 9: SPECIAL POPULATIONS: INDIVIDUALS and craving suppressing properties of methadone typically
WITH PAIN last for 24–36 hours while its analgesic effects typically last
for 6–8 hours. As discussed in Part 4 of this guideline,
Background methadone has a long half-life and care should be taken to
The occurrence of acute and chronic pain among avoid too rapid dose increases (refer to Part 4 for guidance on
patients with an opioid use disorder is not uncommon and titration).
it is critical to manage pain safely and effectively. There are If the patient has pain refractory to this and non-opioid
three general scenarios (listed below), in which patients with treatment strategies and requires additional opioid-based
opioid use disorder could require pain care: analgesia, the addition of a short acting full-agonist opioid
can be considered to manage moderate to severe acute pain.153
1. patients with an untreated and active opioid use disorder; The dose of additional full agonist opioid analgesic prescribed
2. patients under opioid use disorder treatment with opioid is anticipated to be higher than the typical dose necessary to
agonists; achieve adequate analgesia in opioid-naı̈ve individuals.154,155
3. patients under opioid use disorder treatment with naltrex- Patients on methadone maintenance who have co-occurring
one. chronic pain should optimally be treated by a clinician

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experienced in the treatment of pain in consultation with their with non-opioid analgesics such as acetaminophen and
opioid treatment program. NSAIDs. High potency NSAIDs, such as Ketorolac, may
be prescribed for moderate to severe pain. The use of NSAIDs
Buprenorphine and Pain Management should be time-limited due to risk of adverse effects,
including gastritis.
Acute Pain Management Emergency pain management options in patients taking
As a partial mu-opioid agonist, buprenorphine has naltrexone, which may optimally be used in combination
analgesic properties. Temporarily increasing buprenorphine when appropriate, include the following:
dosing and/or dividing the dose may be effective for acute
pain management. As discussed above, this split dosing 1. regional anesthesia;
strategy better aligns the dosing with buprenorphine’s anal- 2. conscious sedation with benzodiazepines or ketamine;
gesic properties. The analgesic effects of buprenorphine last 3. nonopioid options in general anesthesia;
for approximately 6–8 hours while the withdrawal and crav- 4. over-riding the naltrexone blockade with high-potency
ing suppressing properties last for approximately 24 hours. opioids.
When moving to split dosing the clinician should ensure that Naltrexone’s blockade of the mu-opioid receptor can
the patient has not missed their last non-split dose. Increasing also often be overcome, when necessary, with high potency
the daily dose of buprenorphine by 20–25% and splitting it full agonist opioids.64 Higher doses are typically needed to
into 3–4 doses can often adequately address acute pain. override the opioid receptor blockade so this should be done in
Patients receiving buprenorphine for opioid use disorder an inpatient setting with monitoring of vitals. Use of high
who have acute pain refractory to other treatments and require potency opioids, with high affinity for the mu-opioid receptor,
additional opioid-based analgesia may also benefit from the administered intravenously is recommended in these cases.
addition of as-needed doses of buprenorphine. Adding a short-
acting full agonist opioid to the patient’s regular dose of Considerations for Surgery
buprenorphine can also be effective for managing severe acute
pain. The guideline committee recommends that this may be Patients Treated with Methadone or
considered in supervised settings, such as during hospitaliza- Buprenorphine
tion. The dose of additional full agonist opioid analgesic Discontinuation of methadone or buprenorphine before
prescribed is anticipated to be higher than the typical dose surgery is not required. Higher-potency intravenous full ago-
necessary to achieve adequate analgesia in opioid-naı̈ve indi- nists opioids can be used perioperatively for analgesia in
viduals. Because of a lack of evidence, the committee was addition to the patient’s regular dose of methadone or bupre-
unable to come to consensus on whether this adjunct treatment norphine (except to the extent that doses may be skipped
can be safely prescribed in ambulatory care settings. An during the NPO [nothing per orem] period before sur-
increased risk of relapse and overdose are the main concerns gery).156–158 Discontinuation of methadone or buprenorphine
when prescribing a full opioid receptor agonist for acute pain is also not recommended before elective cesarean section.
care in individuals with opioid use disorder. Since buprenorphine has a high affinity for the mu-
In situations when a full opioid agonist is needed for pain opioid receptor there were initially concerns that full-opioid
management, discontinuation of buprenorphine is not required. agonists would not be effective for treating pain in patients
However, if the decision is made to discontinue buprenorphine taking this medication. However, research has demonstrated
during the treatment of severe pain to allow for more mu opioid that the addition of full-opioid agonists can be effective for
receptor availability, patients should be monitored closely the treatment of pain in these patients.157,158 Reducing the
because high doses of a full agonist may be required. As the dose of buprenorphine to provide more mu-opioid receptor
partial agonist effect dissipates, the full agonist effect may lead availability and increase the efficacy of full opioid agonists
to over-sedation and respiratory depression. co-administered with buprenorphine has been suggested, but
there is insufficient research on this topic. Decisions related
Chronic Pain Management to discontinuing or adjusting the dose of buprenorphine
Split dosing of buprenorphine (with dosing every 6– prior to a planned surgery should be made on an individual
8 hours) may be adequate for chronic pain management in basis, through consultation between the surgical and anes-
many patients with opioid use disorder and chronic pain. thesia teams and the addiction treatment provider when
Chronic opioid therapy, especially at high doses, may possible.
heighten pain sensitivity.155 Some evidence suggests that If it is decided that buprenorphine or methadone
patients experiencing substantial pain on high doses of full should be discontinued before a planned surgery, this may
agonist opioids experience improved pain management when occur the day before or the day of surgery, based on surgical
transitioned to buprenorphine.156 Overall, buprenorphine and anesthesia team recommendations. Higher-potency intra-
therapy carries a lower risk of adverse effects, especially venous full agonists opioids can be used perioperatively for
overdose, compared to full agonist opioids. analgesia. Methadone or buprenorphine can be resumed post-
operatively when the need for intravenous analgesia has
Naltrexone and Pain Management resolved, with additional considerations for post-operative
Patients on naltrexone may not respond to opioid pain management as described for acute pain above. The
analgesics in the usual manner. Mild pain may be treated pre-surgery daily doses of these medications can be resumed

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if they are withheld for a short period of time (up to 2–3 days). 7. The addition of a short-acting full
If these medications are withheld for a longer period of time agonist opioid to the patient’s regular dose of buprenorphine
they may need to be reinitiated gradually by the prescribing can be effective for the management of severe acute pain in
clinician after the need for full opioid agonist analgesia has supervised settings, such as during hospitalization. The dose
resolved. For guidance on re-initiation and titration see Parts 4 of additional full agonist opioid analgesic prescribed is
and 5 of this guideline. anticipated to be higher than the typical dose necessary
to achieve adequate analgesia in opioid-naı̈ve individuals.
Patients Treated with Naltrexone Because of a lack of evidence, the committee was unable to
Oral naltrexone should be discontinued at least 72 hours come to consensus on whether this adjunct treatment can be
before elective surgery if pain management with opioids is safely prescribed in ambulatory care settings.
anticipated. Extended-release naltrexone should be stopped at 8. Discontinuation of methadone or
least 30 days before surgery, and oral naltrexone may be used buprenorphine before surgery is not required. Higher-
temporarily (until 72 hours prior to the planned surgery). The potency intravenous full agonists opioids can be used
surgical team should be aware of the use of naltrexone. perioperatively for analgesia.
Patients should be off opioids for 3–7 days before resuming 9. Decisions related to discontinuing
naltrexone (oral or extended-release formulations). Re-initia- or adjusting the dose of buprenorphine prior to a planned
tion of naltrexone should be coordinated with the opioid use surgery should be made on an individual basis, through
disorder treating clinician. See the naltrexone section for consultation between the surgical and anesthesia teams
recommendations related to initiation. and the addiction treatment provider when possible.
10. If it is decided that buprenorphine
Summary of Recommendations – Special or methadone should be discontinued before a planned
Populations: Individuals With Pain surgery, this may occur the day before or the day of
1. For all patients with pain, it is surgery, based on surgical and anesthesia team recom-
important that the correct diagnosis is made and that mendations. Higher-potency intravenous full agonists
pain is addressed. Alternative treatments including non- opioids can be used perioperatively for analgesia. Meth-
opioid medications with pain modulating properties, adone or buprenorphine can be resumed post-operatively
behavioral approaches, physical therapy, and procedural when the need for full opioid agonist analgesia has
approaches (e.g., regional anesthesia) should be consid- resolved, with additional considerations for post-opera-
ered before prescribing opioid medications for pain. tive pain management as described for acute pain above.
2. If pharmacological treatment is The initial dose and titration should typically be deter-
considered, non-opioid analgesics, such as acetamino- mined by the prescriber. In general, pre-surgery daily
phen and NSAIDs, and non-opioid medications with pain doses of these medications can be resumed if they were
modulating properties should be tried first. withheld for less than 2–3 days.
3. For patients with pain who have an 11. Patients on naltrexone may not
active opioid use disorder but are not in treatment, respond to opioid analgesics in the usual manner. There-
methadone or buprenorphine should be considered. fore, it is recommended that mild pain be treated with
The patient’s opioid use disorder and pain should be non-opioid analgesics, and moderate to severe pain be
stabilized and managed concurrently. treated with higher potency NSAIDs (e.g. ketorolac) on a
4. For patients taking methadone or short-term basis.
buprenorphine for the treatment of opioid use disorder, 12. Oral naltrexone should be discon-
temporarily increasing the dose or dosing frequency (i.e. tinued 72 hours before surgery and extended-release
split dosing to maximize the analgesic properties of these injectable naltrexone should be discontinued 30 days
medications) may be effective for managing pain. (Titra- before an anticipated surgery. (Reinitiation of naltrexone
tion of methadone should follow the guidance in Part 4 of should follow the guidance in Part 6 of this guideline)
this guideline) 13. Naltrexone’s blockade of the mu opioid receptor
5. For patients taking methadone for can often be overcome when necessary with high potency
the treatment of opioid use disorder who have acute pain full agonist opioids. In these instances, patients should be
refractory to other treatments and require additional closely monitored in an emergency department or
opioid-based analgesia, adding a short acting full agonist hospital setting.
opioid to their regular dose of methadone can be consid-
ered to manage moderate to severe acute pain. The dose Areas For Further Research
of additional full agonist opioid analgesic prescribed is 1. Research on optimal acute and chronic pain management
anticipated to be higher than the typical dose necessary to strategies for patients on medications for opioid use
achieve adequate analgesia in opioid-naı̈ve individuals. disorder.
6. Patients receiving buprenorphine for opioid use 2. Studies on the safety and effectiveness of adding full
disorder who have moderate to severe acute pain refrac- agonist opioid analgesics to the patient’s baseline bupre-
tory to other treatments and require additional opioid- norphine dose in non-acute care settings are needed.
based analgesia may benefit from the addition of as- 3. Further research is needed on chronic pain management
needed doses of buprenorphine. for patients with opioid use disorder.

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4. Research on pain management in pregnant women on opinion of the Guideline Committee. Limited data are avail-
medications for opioid use disorder during delivery. able comparing the relative effectiveness of these treatments
in adolescents.
PART 10: SPECIAL POPULATIONS:
ADOLESCENTS Opioid Agonists: Methadone and
Buprenorphine
Background Buprenorphine has been approved by the FDA for the
The American Academy of Pediatrics categorizes ado- treatment of patients aged 16 years and older. When pre-
lescence as the totality of three developmental stages (early-, scribed outside of opioid treatment programs, through a
middle- and late-adolescence)—puberty to adulthood— waiver, federal law does not limit the prescription of bupre-
which occur generally between 11 and 21 years of age.1 norphine to adolescent patients based on their age. There is no
Adolescents present for treatment with a broad spectrum of evidence to suggest that there are major safety concerns
opioid use disorder severity and with a range of co-occurring conveyed by younger age.
medical and psychiatric illnesses. Consequently, clinicians Methadone is approved for the treatment of patients
will need to respond with a full range of treatment options, who are aged 18 years and older. Federal regulations for
including pharmacotherapy. However, limited evidence exists opioid treatment programs (42 CFR 8.12) allow for metha-
regarding the efficacy of pharmacotherapies for opioid with- done and buprenorphine (when not prescribed pursuant to a
drawal management or opioid use disorder in adolescents.159 DATA 2000 waiver) to be provided for patients under 18 who
Pharmacological therapies have primarily been developed have a documented history of at least two prior unsuccessful
through research with adult populations.160 withdrawal management attempts, and have parental con-
The treatment of adolescents with opioid use disorder sent.42
presents many unique medical, legal, and ethical dilemmas
that may complicate treatment. Given these unique issues, Efficacy Research on Agonists and Partial
adolescents with opioid use disorder often benefit from Agonists in Adolescents
services designed specifically for them. Furthermore, the There are no controlled trials evaluating methadone for
family should be involved in treatment whenever possible. the treatment of opioid use disorder in adolescents under the
age of 18. Descriptive trials support the usefulness of treat-
Confidentiality in Treatment ment with methadone in supporting treatment retention in
One issue of particular importance to consider in the adolescent with heroin use disorder.165 The usefulness of
treatment of adolescents is confidentiality. Adolescents have treatment with buprenorphine has been demonstrated in
reported that they are less likely to seek substance use disorder two RCTs. Studies have, however, not included adolescents
treatment if services are not confidential.161 Confidential care, under the age of 16.166,167 Buprenorphine is not FDA-
particularly with respect to sensitive issues such as reproduc- approved for use in patients less than 16 years old. Bupre-
tive health and substance use, has become a well-established norphine is more likely to be available in programs targeting
practice.162,163 This is a subject of complexity as it is an area older adolescents and young adults. No direct comparison of
governed by both Federal and state laws. Moreover, defined the efficacy of buprenorphine versus methadone has been
age ranges of adolescence vary. A myriad of clinical and legal conducted in adolescent populations.
responsibilities may be evoked if confronted by a young
person’s request for confidentiality. More than half of the Opioid Antagonist: Naltrexone
states in the U.S., by law, permit adolescents under 18 years of Extended release naltrexone has been approved by the
age to consent to substance use disorder treatment without FDA for the treatment of patients aged 18 years and older.
parental consent. Collaboration with families, including Naltrexone does not induce physical dependence and is easier
shared information and decision making, should be pursued to discontinue. Some small studies have demonstrated the
with the adolescent’s consent. Providers will also sometimes efficacy of extended-release injectable naltrexone in adoles-
need to make decisions based on best medical judgement cents and young adults.75,168 The safety, efficacy, and phar-
about disclosure without adolescent consent for safety con- macokinetics of extended-release injectable naltrexone have
cerns to address imminent danger. State law should also be not been established in the adolescent population, although
consulted. An additional reference source in decision-making there is no evidence to suggest that younger age should convey
regarding the implications on coordination of care, effective- major safety risks.
ness of treatment without parental communication, and more
are fully discussed in a SAMHSA’s Treatment Improvement Psychosocial Treatment for Adolescents
Protocol (TIP) #33.164 Psychosocial treatment is recommended in the treat-
ment of adolescents with opioid use disorder. Recommended
Pharmacotherapy Options for Adolescents treatments based on the consensus opinion of the Guideline
Opioid agonists (methadone and buprenorphine) and Committee include family intervention approaches, educa-
antagonists (naltrexone) may be considered for treatment of tional or vocational support, and behavioral interventions to
opioid use disorder in adolescents. However, efficacy studies incrementally reduce use. Adolescent group counseling can
for these medications have largely been conducted in adults. cause unintended (iatrogenic) effects as group members can
This recommendation is based largely on the consensus ‘‘reinforce drug use and thereby derail the purpose of the

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therapy’’ according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse and the current recommendations are based on research with
should be carefully considered.75 Holistic risk-reduction inter- adults.
ventions, including naloxone distribution; education on over- 2. Further research is needed to identify which psychosocial
dose prevention; safe injection practices; risky behavior treatments, alone and in combination with pharmacother-
modification; and contraception access (including the option apy, are best suited for use with adolescents.
of long-acting reversible contraception); etc., should be con- 3. More longitudinal studies are needed to determine treat-
sidered and incorporated into an adolescent patient’s treatment ment factors (e.g., treatment modality, length of treatment,
plan as appropriate. Treatment of co-occurring psychiatric treatment settings) associated with positive long-term out-
conditions is also especially important in this population. comes for adolescents with OUD.
Adolescents often benefit from specialized treatment programs
that provide multiple services. The risk benefit balance of PART 11: SPECIAL POPULATIONS:
pharmacological treatment without concurrent psychosocial INDIVIDUALS WITH CO-OCCURRING
treatment should be carefully considered and discussed with PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS
the patient and their parent or guardian as appropriate. While a
patient’s decision to decline psychosocial treatment or the Background
absence of available psychosocial treatment should not pre- Co-occurring psychiatric disorders are common among
clude or delay pharmacological treatment of opioid use disor- individuals who have opioid use disorder. Epidemiological
der (with appropriate medication management), motivational studies have demonstrated a higher prevalence of substance
interviewing or enhancement should be used to encourage use among people with psychiatric disorders relative to the
patients to engage in psychosocial treatment services appropri- general population.169 Reasons for the association between
ate for addressing their individual needs. psychiatric and substance use disorders may include (1) that
the dual diagnoses result from risk factors that are common to
Summary of Recommendations – Special both disorders (e.g. adverse childhood experiences), (2)
Populations: Adolescents shared genetic vulnerability that contributes to the dysregu-
1. Clinicians should consider treating adolescents who have lation in dopamine and glutamate systems in psychiatric and
opioid use disorder using the full range of treatment substance use disorders,170,171 and (3) substances may be used
options, including pharmacotherapy. as a method of self-medication among patients with psychi-
2. Opioid agonists (methadone and atric disorders.172–174
buprenorphine) and antagonists (naltrexone) may be con- Co-occurring psychiatric disorders should not bar
sidered for treatment of opioid use disorder in adoles- patients from opioid use disorder treatment. The presence
cents.91 Federal laws and FDA approvals should be of the following common psychiatric disorders should be
considered when recommending pharmacotherapy for evaluated in patients presenting with possible opioid use
adolescent patients. disorder:
3. Psychosocial treatment is recom-
mended in the treatment of adolescents with opioid use 1. depression;
disorder. The risk benefit balance of pharmacological 2. anxiety;
treatment without concurrent psychosocial treatment 3. personality disorders;
should be carefully considered and discussed with the 4. post-traumatic stress disorder.
patient and her or his parent or guardian as appropriate.
A patient’s decision to decline psychosocial treatment or
the absence of available psychosocial treatment should not Assessment of Psychiatric Co-occurrence
preclude or delay pharmacological treatment of opioid use The assessment of psychiatric disorders is critical when
disorder, with appropriate medication management. Moti- attempting to place patients in the appropriate treatment.
vational interviewing or enhancement can be used to Hospitalization may be appropriate for patients with severe
encourage patients to engage in psychosocial treatment or unstable psychiatric symptoms that may compromise the
services appropriate for addressing their individual needs. safety of self or others. An initial patient assessment should
4. Concurrent practices to reduce determine whether the patient is stable. Patients with suicidal
infection (e.g., risk behavior reduction interventions) are or homicidal ideation should be referred immediately for
recommended as components of comprehensive treatment treatment and possibly hospitalization. Patients should also
for the prevention of blood-borne viruses (infections related be assessed for signs or symptoms of acute psychosis and
to injection practices) and sexually transmitted infections. chronic psychiatric disorders.
5. Adolescents may benefit from treatment in specialized An assessment including medical history, physical
treatment programs that provide multidimensional ser- examination, and an assessment of mental health status
vices (See The ASAM Criteria guidelines).2 and/or psychiatric disorder should occur at the beginning
of agonist or antagonist treatment (see Part 1: Assessment
Areas for Further Research and Diagnosis of Opioid Use Disorder). However, completion
1. Further studies are needed to examine the efficacy of of all assessments should not delay or preclude initiating
pharmacotherapy for adolescents with opioid use disorder. pharmacotherapy for opioid use disorder. If not completed
Due to the few clinical trials in adolescents, most of before initiating treatment, assessments should be completed

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as soon as possible thereafter. Reassessment using a detailed of ACT has had mixed results on substance use disorder
mental status examination should occur after stabilization outcomes, but has shown benefit in preventing homeless-
with methadone, buprenorphine, or naltrexone. ness.178–180 When ACT or another intensive case manage-
ment programs are unavailable, traditional case management
Co-occurring Psychiatric Disorders and Suicide can be helpful to patients who are unable to manage necessary,
Risk basic tasks.
Psychiatric disorders and substance use disorders are
both strongly associated with increased risk for suicide.175 Co-occurring Psychiatric Disorders and Agonist
More than 90% of patients who attempt suicide have a major Treatment
psychiatric disorder.176 In cases where suicide attempts Pharmacological and conjunctive psychosocial treat-
resulted in death, 95% of patients had a psychiatric diagno- ments should be considered for patients with both an opioid
sis.177 use disorder and a psychiatric disorder. Suicidal patients
Management of a suicidal patient should include the should be hospitalized. Agonist treatment could be initiated
following: in the inpatient setting following stabilization. Patients at risk
for suicide should not be given take-home doses if started on
1. Reduce immediate risk. agonist treatment medication unless the risk/benefit ratio is
2. Manage underlying factors associated with suicidal intent. clearly justified.
3. Monitor and follow-up.
Methadone
Methadone for the treatment of opioid use disorder has
Considerations with Specific Psychiatric been found to reduce psychiatric distress in a few weeks.
Disorders Psychotherapy has been found useful in patients who have
moderate to severe psychiatric disorders.
Depression or Bipolar Disorder
Antidepressant therapy may be initiated with pharma- Buprenorphine
cotherapy for opioid use disorder for patients with symptoms Psychiatrically stable patients are good candidates for
of depression. Patients presenting with mania should be buprenorphine. Patients with depression who are receiving
evaluated to determine whether symptoms arise from the treatment with buprenorphine require a higher level of moni-
bipolar disorder or substance use. Patients with bipolar disor- toring. The extended-release injectable and implantable
der may require additional psychiatric care, hospitalization, buprenorphine formulations may be useful in patients with
and/or treatment with prescription mood stabilizers. a co-occurring psychiatric disorder who may not be able to
All patients with depression, including bipolar disorder, adhere well to daily oral dosing.
should be asked about suicidal ideation and behavior. Patients
with a history of suicidal ideation or attempts should have Co-occurring Psychiatric Disorders and
their medication use monitored regularly, including medica- Antagonist Treatment
tions for the treatment of opioid use disorder and psychiatric Psychiatrically stable patients are candidates for treat-
medications. ment with extended-release injectable naltrexone. There are
little data, however, regarding the relative efficacy of naltrex-
Schizophrenia one in opioid-dependent patients with co-occurring psychiat-
Antipsychotic medication may be initiated with phar- ric disorders. The once-monthly injections of extended-
macotherapy for opioid use disorder for patients with schizo- release injectable naltrexone may be useful in patients with
phrenia or other psychotic disorders. Coadministration of a co-occurring psychiatric disorder who may not be able to
antipsychotic medications with opioid agonist pharmacother- adhere well to daily oral dosing. Patients should be closely
apy or use of long-acting depot formulations of antipsychotic observed for adverse events as some patients have reported
medications is an option to consider in patients with histories suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and depression.
of medication nonadherence.
All patients with schizophrenia should be asked about Summary of Recommendations – Special
suicidal ideation and behavior. Patients with a history of Populations: Individuals With Co-occurring
suicidal ideation or attempts should have their medication Psychiatric Disorders
use monitored regularly. This includes medications for the 1. A comprehensive assessment
treatment of opioid use disorder and psychiatric medications. including determination of mental health status and sui-
For patients with schizophrenia and co-occurring opioid cide risk should be used to evaluate whether the patient is
use disorder who have a recent history of, or are at risk of stable. Patients with suicidal or homicidal ideation should
repeated hospitalization or homelessness, assertive commu- be referred immediately for treatment and possibly hospi-
nity treatment (ACT) should be considered. ACT is designed talization.
to provide treatment, rehabilitation, and support services to 2. Management of patients at risk for suicide should include
individuals who are diagnosed with severe psychiatric dis- reducing immediate risk, managing underlying factors
orders, and whose needs have not been well met by more associated with suicidal intent, and monitoring and fol-
traditional psychiatric or psychosocial services. The efficacy low-up.

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3. All patients with psychiatric disor- facilities. At the end of 2017, there were an estimated 1.5
ders should be asked about suicidal ideation and behavior. million people in prison under state or Federal jurisdiction.182
Patients with a history of suicidal ideation or attempts In all, 6.7 million people in the United States are under
should have adherence for opioid use disorder and psychi- correctional control (prison policy initiative, 2018).183
atric disorder medications monitored more closely. Approximately one quarter of those held in the U.S. criminal
4. Assessment for psychiatric disorder justice system have been convicted of a drug offense.184
should occur at the onset of agonist or antagonist treat- Continued drug use is common among people in prison,
ment. However, completion of all assessments should not and many individuals initiate injection drug use while in
delay or preclude initiating pharmacotherapy for opioid prison.185
use disorder. If not completed before initiating treatment, Drug use in prison is particularly risky because of the
assessments should be completed as soon as possible environment. The high concentration of at-risk individuals,
thereafter. Reassessment using a detailed mental status the stress of incarceration, loss of tolerance following with-
examination should occur after stabilization with metha- drawal, and general overcrowding can increase the risk of
done, buprenorphine, or naltrexone. adverse consequences associated with drug use, including
5. Pharmacotherapy in conjunction violence, overdose and overdose deaths, suicide, and self-
with psychosocial treatment should be offered to patients harm.186 Sterile injection equipment is rare and sharing
with opioid use disorder and a co-occurring psychiatric needles is common, leading to a high risk of contracting
disorder. A patient’s decision to decline psychosocial and spreading HIV and hepatitis C. Discharge from prison is
treatment or the absence of available psychosocial treat- associated with a high risk for opioid overdose and death.187
ment should not preclude or delay pharmacological treat- Consequently, it is important to identify and implement
ment of opioid use disorder, with appropriate mediation effective treatments for justice involved individuals and effec-
management. Motivational interviewing or enhancement tively coordinate transitions to community care.
can be used to encourage patients to engage in psychoso- For the purposes of this Practice Guideline, a prison is
cial treatment services appropriate for addressing their to be differentiated from a jail. At the most basic level, the
individual needs. fundamental difference between jail and prison is the length of
6. Clinicians should be aware of potential interactions stay for inmates. Jails are usually run by local law enforce-
between medications used to treat co-occurring psychiat- ment and/or local government agencies and designed to hold
ric conditions and opioid use disorder. inmates awaiting trial or serving a short sentence. Prison terms
7. Assertive community treatment should be considered for are of longer duration. Opioid use disorder treatment should
patients with co-occurring schizophrenia and opioid use not be discontinued when individuals become incarcerated.
disorder who have a recent history of, or are at risk of, Federal law requires that incarcerated individuals be
repeated hospitalization or homelessness. treated for health problems since they have no other way to
access medical care. Thus, individuals with hypertension,
Areas for Further Research COPD, diabetes, HIV, wound infections, schizophrenia, and
1. Implementation research is needed to determine best other serious health problems receive treatment while incar-
practices for assessing, diagnosing, and treating co-occur- cerated. Addiction treatment, with few exceptions, has his-
ring psychiatric disorders for patients with opioid use torically been excluded from the range of services provided in
disorder in diverse treatment settings. U.S. correctional facilities. However, as addiction is increas-
2. More longitudinal research is needed to better understand ingly recognized as a serious health problem for which there
how co-occurring psychiatric disorders affect long-term are effective medications, there is growing pressure for jails
prognosis for opioid use disorder remission, and how risks and prisons to treat this disease, as is required for other
for both opioid use disorder and psychiatric condition health conditions.
relapse can be anticipated and mitigated.
3. More research is needed on how to improve access and Effectiveness of Pharmacotherapy
linkage to psychiatric care for patients with co-occurring Pharmacotherapy can effectively treat opioid use disor-
opioid use disorder. der among incarcerated individuals. All FDA approved med-
ications for the treatment of opioid use disorder should be
PART 12: SPECIAL POPULATIONS: available to patients within the criminal justice system. The
INDIVIDUALS IN THE treatment plan, including choice of medication, should be
CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM based on the patient’s individual clinical needs. Most research
on the effectiveness of pharmacotherapy for the treatment of
Background opioid use disorder among incarcerated individuals has
A substantial proportion of justice involved individuals focused on methadone. However, there is growing evidence
– including those in prisons, jails, drug courts, or under supporting the use of buprenorphine and extended-release
community supervision – have opioid use disorder. A history naltrexone in this population.188 A randomized controlled trial
of incarceration is common among people who inject drugs; of methadone in conjunction with counseling compared with
56–90% of people who inject drugs have been incarcerated counseling alone found that in the year following release from
previously.181 The United States leads the world in the number jail, those who were treated with methadone and counseling
of people incarcerated in Federal and state correctional spent 7 times as many days in treatment for substance use

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disorder during the post-release year compared with those treatment.189,192 However, buprenorphine was diverted in
who had counseling alone. None of the counseling-only some cases. Recent approval of new extended-release bupre-
participants continued in treatment for the entire year, com- norphine formulations can help to address this by reducing the
pared to 37 percent of the methadone participants. The risk of diversion.
counseling-only individuals were also significantly more
likely to test positive for opioids 12 months post-release.189 Naltrexone
A recent 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis (pub- Extended-release injectable naltrexone has been shown
lished after the RAM rating process and presented here as to be effective for relapse prevention in some trials conducted
additional supporting material) found that among 807 inmates in criminal justice settings. A 24-week trial comparing
(within prisons and jails), methadone treatment during incar- extended-release naltrexone with usual care in the form of
ceration increased community treatment engagement, brief counseling and referrals for community treatment pro-
reduced illicit opioid use and reduced injection drug use grams found that treatment with extended-release naltrexone
post-release.190 The same systematic review found that bupre- was more effective than usual care in preventing opioid
norphine and naltrexone were as effective as methadone in relapse among individuals in the criminal justice system with
reducing illicit opioid use post-release.191 a history of opioid use disorder and a preference for opioid
Treatment with methadone or buprenorphine while free treatment.119 In a small pilot trial involving individuals on
incarcerated results in significant reductions in deaths from parole with prior opioid use disorder, 6 months of treatment
overdose in the weeks and months following release from with extended-release injectable naltrexone was associated
prison.192,193 Correctional personnel should collaborate with with fewer opioid-positive urine drug screens and a reduced
community-based treatment providers to ensure seamless likelihood of reincarceration.202 Further research is needed to
continuity of pharmacotherapy and psychosocial treatment determine the comparative effectiveness of extended-release
upon re-entry. A retrospective analysis of data from the Rhode naltrexone with methadone and extended-release buprenor-
Island Office of State Medical Examiners found that among phine for the treatment of opioid use disorder within the
recently incarcerated individuals, there was a 60.5% reduction criminal justice setting.
in deaths resulting from a drug overdose in 2017 compared
with 2016 following introduction of a new model for screen- Treatment Options
ing and treating incarcerated individuals with opioid use All justice-involved individuals, regardless of type of
disorder within the Rhode Island Department of Corrections offense or disposition, should be screened for opioid use
prison/jail system.192 The number of individuals needed to be disorder and considered for initiation or continuation of
treated to prevent one death from overdose was 11.192 medication for the treatment of opioid use disorder. Patients
Naloxone kits should be available within correctional with opioid use disorder not in treatment should be assessed
facilities. At-risk individuals and their families should be and offered individualized pharmacotherapy and psychosocial
educated in how to administer naloxone, and all individuals treatment as appropriate. All FDA approved medications for
with opioid use disorder should be offered naloxone kits upon the treatment of opioid use disorder should be available to
release from the facility.194 patients within the criminal justice system and the treatment
plan, including choice of medications, should be based on the
Methadone patient’s individual clinical needs.
Treatment with methadone has been shown to have Individuals entering the criminal justice system should
several beneficial effects for incarcerated individuals with not be subject to forced opioid withdrawal nor forced to
opioid use disorders. Individuals treated with methadone transition from agonist (methadone or buprenorphine) to
inject less drugs, use less drugs after release, and are more antagonist (naltrexone) treatment. If opioid withdrawal does
likely to participate in community-based addiction treat- occur, the patient should be provided withdrawal management
ment.185,195–197 Treatment with methadone lowered the rate services. Patients being treated for opioid use disorder at the
of reincarceration during the 3-year period following first time of entrance into the criminal justice system should
incarceration.197,198 Importantly, forced withdrawal from continue their treatment. Criminal justice staff should coor-
methadone treatment during incarceration reduces the likeli- dinate care and access to pharmacotherapy to avoid interrup-
hood of individuals re-engaging in treatment post- tion in treatment.
release.199,200 Risk for relapse and overdose is particularly high in the
weeks immediately following release from prison and jails.
Buprenorphine Patients being treated for opioid use disorder while in prison
As noted, buprenorphine has also been associated with or jail should be stabilized on pharmacotherapy and continued
beneficial effects in individuals in prison with opioid use on treatment after their release. Continuation of treatment
disorder. An RCT comparing buprenorphine and methadone after release results in a substantial reduction in all-cause and
among men who use heroin who were newly admitted to overdose mortality. Incarcerated individuals with a history of
prison showed that treatment completion rates were similar, opioid use disorder who are not receiving pharmacological
but that patients taking buprenorphine were significantly more treatment should be assessed for relapse risk prior to reentry.
likely to enter community-based treatment after release.201 In Medications should be initiated a minimum of 30 days before
a more recent trial, buprenorphine initiated in prison was also release, and aftercare should be arranged in advance.203
associated with a greater likelihood of entering community Patient care on reentry to the community should be

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individualized and coordinated with treatment providers in the should not be forced to transition from agonist (methadone
community.194 or buprenorphine) to antagonist (naltrexone) treatment.
5. Individuals in the criminal justice
Methadone and Buprenorphine system who have opioid use disorder or who are experienc-
For patients without contraindications, treatment for ing opioid withdrawal should be offered a combination of
opioid use disorder with either methadone or buprenorphine pharmacotherapy and psychosocial treatment (based on an
during incarceration should be continued after release. For assessment of their individual psychosocial needs). A
individuals who have been tapered off medication, restart patient’s decision to decline psychosocial treatment or
methadone or buprenorphine with rapid transition to follow- the absence of available psychosocial treatment should
up care after reentry. Limited research is available comparing not preclude or delay pharmacological treatment of opioid
methadone and buprenorphine treatment in the prison popu- use disorder, with appropriate medication management.
lation. A 2009 trial found no post-release differences between Motivational interviewing or enhancement can be used to
the buprenorphine and methadone groups in self-reported encourage patients to engage in psychosocial treatment
relapse to illicit opioid use, self-reported rearrests, self- services appropriate for addressing their individual needs.
reported severity of crime or reincarceration. The buprenor- 6. If an OTP is not accessible, providers may need to
phine group reported for their post-release treatment in the transition individuals from methadone to buprenorphine.
community more often than did the methadone treatment Effectively transitioning from methadone to buprenor-
group.201 As described above, a 2019 systematic review found phine can be challenging but can be achieved safely if
that buprenorphine was as effective as methadone in reducing managed by a provider experienced in the procedure.
illicit opioid use post-release in prison and jail settings.190 7. Risk for relapse and overdose is
particularly high in the weeks immediately following
Naltrexone release from prison and jails. Patients being treated for
Extended-release injectable naltrexone may be consid- opioid use disorder while in prison or jail should be
ered to prevent relapse among criminal justice involved stabilized on pharmacotherapy (methadone, buprenor-
individuals with a history of opioid use disorder for patients phine or naltrexone) and continue in treatment after their
with no contraindications, during incarceration or before release. Patient care on reentry to the community should be
release from prison or jail. Further research is needed on individualized and coordinated with treatment providers in
the comparative effectiveness of extended-release injectable the community.
naltrexone compared with buprenorphine or methadone for 8. Naloxone kits should be available within correc-
the treatment of individuals in the criminal justice system with tional facilities. Individuals with opioid use disorder
opioid use disorder. should receive a naloxone kit prior to release, and indi-
viduals and families should be educated in how to
Summary of Recommendations – Special administer naloxone.
Populations: Individuals in the Criminal Justice
System Areas for Further Research
1. All FDA approved medications for the treatment 1. Further research is needed to identify organizational and
of opioid use disorder should be available to individuals patient-level factors influencing real-world effectiveness
receiving healthcare within the criminal justice system. of pharmacotherapy delivered in jails and prisons.
The treatment plan, including choice of medication, 2. Research is needed to assess the impact of extended-
should be based on the patient’s individual clinical needs. release naltrexone with or without psychosocial treatment
2. Continuation of treatment after on mortality in justice involved individuals.
release results in a substantial reduction in all-cause and 3. Comparative effectiveness research is needed comparing
overdose mortality. Treatment should be individualized, extended-release naltrexone with methadone and buprenor-
and patients should receive complete information to make phine (including extended-release buprenorphine) for the
informed decisions in consultation with a medical and treatment of opioid use disorder in justice involved pop-
treatment team. ulations, particularly the comparative impact on mortality.
3. Individuals entering the criminal justice system 4. More research is needed on best practices for coordinating
should not be subject to forced opioid withdrawal. Patients and ensuring ongoing access to opioid use disorder treat-
being treated for opioid use disorder at the time of ment upon reentry.
entrance into the criminal justice system should continue
their treatment. Patients with opioid use disorder who are not PART 13: NALOXONE FOR THE PREVENTION
in treatment should be assessed and offered individualized OF OPIOID OVERDOSE DEATH
pharmacotherapy and psychosocial treatment as appropriate.
4. Initiation or maintenance of phar- Introduction
macotherapy for the treatment of opioid use disorder is Death from opioid overdose is an epidemic in the U.S.
recommended for individuals within the criminal Poisoning deaths involving opioid analgesics more than tripled
justice system (including both jails and prisons). Criminal in the U.S. since 1999.204 Unintentional poisoning (primarily
justice staff should coordinate care and access to pharma- due to drug overdose) is now the leading cause of injury-related
cotherapy to avoid interruption in treatment. Patients death among Americans aged 25–64, having surpassed motor

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vehicle accidents in 2009.205 Patients who overdose on opioids There have been a number of nonrandomized studies
are in a life-threatening situation that requires immediate evaluating the effectiveness of community-based overdose
medical intervention. Naloxone is a mu-opioid antagonist with prevention programs that include the distribution of naloxone
well-established safety and efficacy that can reverse opioid to nonmedical personnel. A comprehensive review of these
overdose and prevent fatalities. Fentanyl and its analogs are trials207 concluded that bystanders (mostly opioid users) can
becoming increasingly prevalent in the drug supply. These and will use naloxone to reverse opioid overdose when
highly potent opioids often require higher doses of naloxone, properly trained, and that this training can be done success-
and due to naloxone’s short half-life, requires monitoring and fully through these programs. The authors acknowledge that
often requires administering multiple doses. the lack of randomized controlled trials of community-based
As of June 2017, all 50 states and the District of overdose prevention programs limits conclusions about their
Columbia had passed legislation designed to improve layper- overall effectiveness. SAMHSA supports the use of naloxone
son naloxone access and 40 states had adopted Good Samari- for the treatment of opioid overdose by bystanders in their
tan laws.206 These laws make it easier for medical Opioid Overdose Prevention Toolkit.206
professionals to prescribe and dispense naloxone; easier for
people who might be in a position to assist in an overdose to Routes of Administration
access naloxone; and encourage those individuals to summon Naloxone is marketed in vials for injection, in an auto-
emergency responders without fear of legal repercussions injector for either IM or subcutaneous (SC) use, and as a nasal
(i.e., Good Samaritan laws). spray. The FDA-approved autoinjector was designed to be
Naloxone is contraindicated in patients known to be used by a patient or family member for the treatment of opioid
hypersensitive to naloxone hydrochloride or to any of the overdose. In November 2015 the U.S. FDA-approved the
other ingredients. There is little peer-reviewed evidence on intranasal formulation.
any naloxone-related allergic reactions. Few studies have compared the efficacy of naloxone by
route of administration, including intranasal, IM, or intrave-
Patients and Significant Others/Family nous. Before FDA approval of the naloxone nasal spray
Members product, many first responders used improvised adaptors to
Patients who are being treated for opioid use disorder, convert the liquid naloxone product into a rapidly acting nasal
and their family members or significant others, should be spray. A recent study comparing the FDA approved nasal
given prescriptions for naloxone. Patients and family mem- spray and autoinjector to the improvised nasal devices found
bers/significant others should be trained in the use of naloxone that the approved formulations were superior to the impro-
in overdose. The practice of co-prescribing naloxone for home vised devices delivering higher levels of naloxone into the
use in the event of an overdose situation experienced by the blood stream.211 Further research is needed to definitively
patient or by any others in the household is endorsed by assess the relative effectiveness of injectable vs. intranasal
ASAM in a public policy statement and by SAMHSA in its naloxone.
toolkit on opioid overdose.204,207
Summary of Recommendations – Naloxone for
Individuals Trained and Authorized to Use the Treatment of Opioid Overdose
Naloxone 1. Naloxone should be administered in
Until recently, administration of naloxone for the treat- the event of a suspected opioid overdose.
ment of opioid overdose was only recommended for hospital 2. Naloxone may be administered to
personnel and paramedics. State legislation and new formu- pregnant women in cases of overdose to save the
lations (including a naloxone nasal spray approved in 2015) mother’s life.
has made the use of naloxone for the treatment of opioid 3. Patients who are being treated for
overdose accessible to first responders, including emergency opioid use disorder (as well as people with a history of
medical technicians, police officers, firefighters, correctional opioid use disorder leaving incarceration) and their family
officers, and individuals who might witness opioid overdose. members/significant others should be given naloxone kits
The primary issues to be considered in this Practice Guideline or prescriptions for naloxone. Patients and family mem-
include the safety and efficacy of naloxone for the treatment bers/significant others should be trained in the use of
of opioid overdose by first responders and bystanders, and the naloxone in overdose.
best form of naloxone to use for this purpose. 4. The Guideline Committee, based on consensus opinion,
recommends that first responders such as emergency
Safety and Efficacy of Bystander Administered medical services personnel, police officers, and fire-
Naloxone fighters be trained in and authorized to carry and
Ample evidence is available supporting the safety and administer naloxone.
efficacy of naloxone for the treatment of opioid over-
dose.207 – 209 Naloxone can be safely and effectively used Areas for Further Research
by paramedics and other first responders as well as bystand- 1. Further research is needed to develop new opioid overdose
ers.210 – 214 Further, naloxone can and should be adminis- reversal medications with higher potency and/or a longer
tered to pregnant women in cases of overdose to save the half-life to address highly potent synthetic opioids such
mother’s life. as fentanyl.

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

2. Further research is needed on the most effective strategies facilitate the accelerated introduction of extended-release
for increasing community availability of naloxone and injectable naltrexone.215 Although these techniques seem
community access to training on naloxone administration promising, more research is needed before these can be
and overdose prevention. accepted as standard practice. Similarly, there are insuffi-
3. Further research is needed on the most effective strategies cient data to determine whether opioid antagonists (nal-
for engaging patients in treatment following an opioid trexone, naloxone or both) in combination with alpha-2
overdose reversal with naloxone. adrenergic agonists (lofexidine and clonidine) reduce
withdrawal duration or increase rates of retention in
PART 14: AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ongoing treatment with naltrexone.84
Although this Practice Guideline is intended to guide 2. Further research is needed to make recommendations on
the assessment, treatment, and use of medications in opioid the optimal duration of a buprenorphine taper, and to
use disorder, there are areas where there was insufficient compare the effectiveness of short versus long tapers with
evidence to make a recommendation. Further research is buprenorphine withdrawal management.
needed to compare the advantages of different medications 3. Further research is needed to evaluate the safety of inpa-
for different patient groups, especially with the emergence of tient as compared to outpatient withdrawal management.
new treatments. The recommended areas of future research 4. Further research is needed to address whether the protocol
are outlined below and presented in the order they were for buprenorphine initiation should be modified for patients
introduced in the guideline. regularly using fentanyl and other high potency opioids

Assessment and Diagnosis of Opioid Use Methadone (Part 4)

Disorder (Part 1) 1. Further research is needed to assess the effectiveness of
1. More research is needed on best practices for drug testing specific types of psychosocial treatment in combination
during the initial evaluation and throughout the entire with methadone in OTP or inpatient settings. Treatment
treatment process. with methadone generally includes some psychosocial
2. Further research is needed on evidence-based approaches for components, however, it is unclear when added psychoso-
treating opioid use disorder in patients who continue to use cial treatment improves patient outcomes, and which
alcohol, cannabis, and/or other psychoactive substances. psychosocial treatments are beneficial to which patients.
3. Assessment and diagnosis of OUD is occurring increas- 2. Research is needed to evaluate the use of ECG in treatment
ingly in nontraditional settings, including hospital emer- with methadone in preventing adverse cardiac events.
gency departments and primary care. Implementation 3. Further research is needed on how to determine the optimal
research is needed to determine the most effective tools length of treatment with methadone for individual patients.
and models for assessment and diagnosis in these settings. 4. More research is needed on outcomes following transitions
from methadone to other opioid use disorder treatment
Treatment Options (Part 2) medications. For example, to what extent do different
1. Further research is needed to compare the advantages of protocols for medication transitions affect short- and
agonists and antagonists in the treatment of opioid use long-term treatment outcomes.
disorder. Whereas methadone, buprenorphine, and
extended-release injectable naltrexone are all superior to Buprenorphine (Part 5)
no treatment in opioid use disorder, less is known about 1. Further research is needed on the comparative effective-
their relative advantages. ness of newly approved buprenorphine formulations.
2. Further research is needed to compare extended-release for- 2. Further research is needed on how to determine the opti-
mulations in treatment of opioid use disorder (extended- mal length of treatment with buprenorphine for
release naltrexone vs extended-release buprenorphine). individual patients.
3. Further research is needed on the comparative effective- 3. More research is needed to identify best practices for
ness of various health care settings and delivery systems linking patients to continuing care when buprenorphine
(e.g., integrated delivery systems, health maintenance is initiated in an acute care setting.
organizations, preferred provider organizations, point of 4. Further research is needed to assess the effectiveness of
service care etc.) for treatment of opioid use disorder. specific types of psychosocial treatment in combination
4. Across a variety of sub-populations, further research is with buprenorphine. Evidence is needed to determine
needed to better understand and characterize the effective- when added psychosocial treatment improves patient out-
ness of and adherence to the different pharmacotherapy comes, and which psychosocial treatments are beneficial
options to treat opioid use disorder. to which patients.

Opioid Withdrawal Management (Part 3) Naltrexone (Part 6)

1. Further study is needed on methods to accelerate the 1. Further research is needed to test the relative effectiveness
withdrawal process and facilitate the introduction of of extended-release injectable naltrexone as compared to
antagonists. Recently, researchers have begun to investi- agonist treatment, including methadone and extended-
gate the use of combinations of buprenorphine and low release injectable buprenorphine, in terms of treatment
doses of oral naltrexone to rapidly detoxify patients and retention, substance use outcomes, and mortality.

64 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

2. Further research is needed on optimal withdrawal man- 4. Research on pain management in pregnant women on
agement and initiation protocols to initiate treatment with medications for opioid use disorder during delivery.
naltrexone and minimize the risk of precipitated with-
drawal. Special Populations: Adolescents (Part 10)
3. Further research is needed on outcomes related to admin- 1. Further studies are needed to examine the efficacy of
istering extended-release injectable naltrexone every pharmacotherapy for adolescents with opioid use disorder.
3 weeks for individuals who metabolize naltrexone at Due to the few clinical trials in adolescents, most of
higher rates. the current recommendations are based on research
4. Further research is needed on how to determine the opti- with adults.
mal length of treatment with naltrexone for individual 2. Further research is needed to identify which psycho-
patients. social treatments, alone and in combination with
5. Further research is needed on the safety and efficacy of pharmacotherapy, are best suited for use with adoles-
naltrexone for pregnant women. cents.
6. Further research is needed to develop more effective 3. More longitudinal studies are needed to determine treat-
strategies for improving adherence to extended-release ment factors (e.g., treatment modality, length of treatment,
injectable naltrexone. treatment settings) associated with positive long-term out-
comes for adolescents with OUD.
Psychosocial Treatment in Conjunction With
Medications for the Treatment of Opioid Use Special Populations: Individuals With
Disorder (Part 7) Co-Occurring Psychiatric Disorders (Part 11)
1. Further research is needed to identify the comparative 1. Implementation research is needed to determine best
advantages of specific psychosocial treatments. practices for assessing, diagnosing, and treating co-occur-
2. Further study is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of ring psychiatric disorders for patients with opioid use
psychosocial treatment in combination with specific phar- disorder in diverse treatment settings.
macotherapies. 2. More longitudinal research is needed to better understand
3. Further research is needed on which concurrent psycho- how co-occurring psychiatric disorders affect long-term
social treatments are most effective for different patient prognosis for opioid use disorder remission, and how risks
populations and treatment settings including primary care. for both opioid use disorder and psychiatric condition
4. Further research is needed on which psychosocial treat- relapse can be anticipated and mitigated.
ments can be effectively delivered in primary care settings. 3. More research is needed on how to improve access and
5. Further research is needed on effective strategies for linkage to psychiatric care for patients with co-occurring
engaging patients in treatment, including models incorpo- opioid use disorder.
rating peer support.
Special Populations: Individuals in the Criminal
Special Populations: Pregnant Women (Part 8) Justice System (Part 12)
1. Further research is needed on the safety of combination 1. Further research is needed to identify organizational and
buprenorphine/naloxone and new extended-release formu- patient-level factors influencing real-world effectiveness
lations for use in pregnancy. of pharmacotherapy delivered in jails and prisons.
2. Further research is needed to investigate the safety of 2. Research is needed to assess the impact of extended-
naltrexone while pregnant or breastfeeding. release naltrexone with or without psychosocial treatment
3. Further research is needed to determine what, if any, clinical on mortality in justice involved individuals.
benefit there is to routinely drug testing pregnant women. 3. Comparative effectiveness research is needed comparing
4. Further research is needed on the comparative effective- extended-release naltrexone with methadone and buprenor-
ness of inpatient versus outpatient settings for methadone phine (including extended-release buprenorphine) for
and buprenorphine initiation for pregnant women. the treatment of opioid use disorder in justice involved
5. Further research is needed on best treatment approaches populations, particularly the comparative impact on mor-
for pregnant or breastfeeding women who cannot or will tality.
not take medication for opioid use disorder. 4. More research is needed on best practices for coordinating
and ensuring ongoing access to opioid use disorder treat-
Special Population: Individuals With Pain ment upon reentry.
(Part 9)
1. Research on optimal acute and chronic pain management Naloxone for the Treatment of Opioid
strategies for patients on medications for opioid use Overdose (Part 13)
disorder. 1. Further research is needed to develop new opioid overdose
2. Studies on the safety and effectiveness of adding full reversal medications with higher potency and/or a longer
agonist opioid analgesics to the patient’s baseline bupre- half-life to address highly potent synthetic opioids such
norphine dose in non-acute care settings are needed. as fentanyl.
3. Further research is needed on chronic pain management 2. Further research is needed on the most effective strategies
for patients with opioid use disorder. for increasing community availability of naloxone and

ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine 65

White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

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21. Nielsen, S., Larance, B., Degenhardt, L., Gowing, L., ily Physician, 63(3), 200-205.
Kehler, C., & Lintzeris, N. (2016). Opioid agonist treat- 30. Taveros, M. C., & Chuang, E. J. (2017). Pain manage-
ment for pharmaceutical opioid dependent people. ment strategies for patients on methadone maintenance
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2016(5). therapy: A systematic review of the literature. BMJ
22. Nolan, S., Klimas, J., & Wood, E. (2016). Alcohol use in Supportive & Palliative Care, 7(4), 383-389.
opioid agonist treatment. Addiction Science & Clinical 31. Timko, C., Schultz, N. R., Cucciare, M. A., Vittorio, L.,
Practice, 11(1). & Garrison-Diehn, C. (2016). Retention in medication-
23. Noormohammadi, A., Forinash, A., Yancey, A., Cran- assisted treatment for opiate dependence: A systematic
nage, E., Campbell, K., & Shyken, J. (2016). Buprenor- review. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 35(1), 22-35.
phine versus methadone for opioid dependence in 32. Tran, T. H., Griffin, B. L., Stone, R. H., Vest, K. M., &
pregnancy. Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 50(8), 666-672. Todd, T. J. (2017). Methadone, buprenorphine, and nal-
24. Oueslati, B., Moula, O., & Ghachem, R. (2018). The trexone for the treatment of opioid use disorder in
impact of OPRM1’s genetic polymorphisms on metha- pregnant women. Pharmacotherapy: The Journal
done maintenance treatment in opioid addicts: a system- of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy, 37(7),
atic review. Pharmacogenomics, 19(8), 741-747. 824-839.
25. Reimer, J., Wright, N., Somaini, L., Roncero, C., Mar- 33. Tsai, L. C., & Doan, T. J. (2016). Breastfeeding among
emmani, I., McKeganey, N., . . . D’Agonne, O. (2016). mothers on opioid maintenance treatment: a literature
The impact of misuse and diversion of opioid substitution review. Journal of Human Lactation, 32(3), 521-529.
treatment medicines: evidence review and expert con- 34. Voon, P., Karamouzian, M., & Kerr, T. (2017). Chronic
sensus. European addiction research, 22(2), 99-106. pain and opioid misuse: A review of reviews. Substance
26. Saulle, R., Vecchi, S., & Gowing, L. (2017). Supervised Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 12(1), 36
dosing with a long-acting opioid medication in the 35. Zedler, B. K., Mann, A. L., Kim, M. M., Amick, H. R.,
management of opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Joyce, A. R., Murrelle, E. L., & Jones, H. E. (2016).
of Systematic Reviews, 2017(4). Buprenorphine compared with methadone to treat preg-
27. Sokol, R., LaVertu, A. E., Morrill, D., Albanese, C., & nant women with opioid use disorder: a systematic
Schuman-Olivier, Z. (2018). Group-based treatment review and meta-analysis of safety in the mother, fetus
of opioid use disorder with buprenorphine: A systematic and child. Addiction, 111(12), 2115-2128.

74 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

Appendix II: Bioequivalence Information and Charts

Available formulations of buprenorphine vary in bioequivalence as observed in pharmacokinetic studies. When
transitioning patients between different formulations of buprenorphine bioavailability should be considered. Patients being
switched between formulations should be started on an equivalent dosage as the previously administered product. However,
dosage adjustments may be necessary when transitioning between products. Patients should be monitored for symptoms related
to overdosing or underdosing. Corresponding dosage strengths are detailed below.

Suboxone or Suboxone or
generic generic Generic equiv. Brixadi
equivalent equivalent Zubsolv Cassipa of Subutex Sublocadey (IM or
(sublingual (sublingual (sublingual Bunavail (sublingual (sublingual (subcutaneous deep SC
tablet) film) tablet) (buccal film) film) tablet) injection) injection)z
2 mg bup/ 0.5 mg 2 mg bup/ 0.5 mg One 1.4 mg bup/0.36 2 mg bup tablet
nal tablet nal film mg nal tablet
4 mg bup/ 1 mg nal 4 mg bup/ 1 mg One 2.9 mg bup/ One 2.1 mg/ Two 2 mg bup
(taken as: two nal film 0.71 mg nal 0.3 mg nal tablets
2 mg bup/0.5 mg tablet film
nal tablets)
8 mg bup/ 2 mg nal 8 mg bup/ 2 mg One 5.7mg/1.4 mg One 4.2mg/0.7 mg One 8 mg bup tablet 100 mg 16 mg SC bup
tablet nal film nal tablet nal film weekly
injection; or
64 mg SC bup
monthly
injection
12 mg bup/3 mg nal 12 mg bup/3 mg One 8.6 mg bup/2.1 One 6.3mg/1 mg 12 mg bup (Taken
(Taken as: One nal film mg nal tablet nal film as: One and a
and a half 8 mg half 8 mg bup
bup/2 mg nal tablets or one
tablets or one 8 mg bup
8 mg bup/2 mg tablets plus two
nal tablets plus 2 mg bup
two 2 mg bup/ tablets)
2 mg nal
tablets)
16 mg bup/4 mg nal 16 mg bup/4 mg One 11.4 mg bup/ Two 4.2 mg bup/ 16 mg bup/ 16 mg bup (taken 24 mg SC bup
(taken as: nal (taken as: 2.9 mg nal 0.7 mg nal 4 mg nal as: Two 8 mg weekly
Two 8 mg bup/2 mg Two 8 mg bup/ tablet films bup tablets) injection; or
nal tablets) 2 mg nal 96 mg SC bup
films) monthly
injection
24 mg bup/6 mg nal 24 mg bup/6 mg 17.2 mg bup/4.1 mg Two 6.3 mg bup/1 24 mg bup (taken 300 mg 32 mg SC bup
(taken as: nal (taken as: nal (Taken as: mg nal films as: Three 8 mg weekly
three 8 mg bup/3 mg Two 12 mg bup/ Two 8.6 mg bup tablets) injection; or
nal tablets) 3 mg nal bup/2.1 mg nal 128 mg SC bup
films) tablets) monthly
injection

In a pharmacokinetic study, the 16 mg/4 mg dose of CASSIPA showed comparable relative bioavailability of buprenorphine and naloxone compared with the same dose of
buprenorphine/naloxone administered sublingually, as two 8 mg/2 mg sublingual films.
yThe recommended dose of SUBLOCADE following induction and dose adjustment with transmucosal buprenorphine is 300 mg monthly for the first two months followed by a
maintenance dose of 100 mg monthly. The maintenance dose may be increased to 300 mg monthly for patients who tolerate the 100 mg dose, but do not demonstrate a satisfactory
clinical response, as evidenced by self–reported illicit opioid use or urine drug screens positive for illicit opioid use.
zBrixadi received tentative approval from the FDA in 2018 and is eligible for marketing approval on November 30, 2020

ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine 75

White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

Appendix III: Overview of Opioid Use Disorder Pharmacotherapy Options

For the Treat- Potential Side

Generic Name ment of Effects Effects Advantages Disadvantages Regulatory
Methadone
Methadone Opioid withdrawal Improved retention in Constipation, Strongest retention in More frequent clinic Only federally
management; treatment, hyperhidrosis, treatment; visits, only certified and
Ongoing reduced respiratory improved social SAMHSA- accredited OTPs
treatment of withdrawal depression functioning; certified OTPs can dispense
opioid use symptoms and (particularly associated with may provide methadone for
disorder cravings, reduced combined with reductions in methadone for the treatment of
illicit opioid use, benzodiazepines or criminal activity addiction OUD.
reduced mortality other CNS and recidivism; treatment, higher Exceptions include:
risk depressants), and infectious risk for administering
sedation, QT disease respiratory (not prescribing)
prolongation, acquisition and depression due to an opioid for no
interactions with transmission long half-life and more than 3 days
other medications stacking effect to a patient in
that alter cytochrome (requires more acute opioid
P450 metabolism, monitoring) withdrawal while
sexual dysfunction, preparations are
severe hypotension made for
including orthostatic ongoing care;
hypotension and administering
syncope, misuse opioid
potential, NOWS medications in a
hospital to
maintain or
detoxify a patient
as an ‘‘incidental
adjunct to
medical or
surgical
treatment of
conditions other
than addiction.
Buprenorphine
Buprenorphine (with Opioid withdrawal Improved retention in Constipation, nausea, Ceiling effects on Requires X-Waiver to Must have a waiver
or without management; treatment at precipitated respiratory prescribe; risk to prescribe
naloxone) Ongoing doses of 16 mg withdrawal, depression, more for overdose buprenorphine
treatment of or higher, excessive sweating, rapid induction when combined for OUD (OTPs
opioid use reduced insomnia, peripheral to steady state with alcohol, can dispense
disorder withdrawal edema, respiratory dose, less benzodiazepines, buprenorphine
symptoms and depression when potential for or other sedatives under OTP
cravings, reduced with benzodiazepines euphoria regulations
illicit opioid use, or other CNS (compared to without using a
reduced mortality depressants, misuse methadone), federal waiver);
potential, NOWS considered safe Subject to patient
Implant: Nerve damage for office-based limits;
during insertion/ treatment; Prescribing
removal, accidental improved social buprenorphine
overdose or misuse functioning; implants or
if extruded, local associated with extended release
migration or reductions in injectables
protrusion criminal activity requires REMS
Subcutaneous: Injection and recidivism; Program
site itching or pain, and infectious certification
death from disease specific to
intravenous injection acquisition and formulation
transmission
Naltrexone
Naltrexone Prevention of relapse Reduced illicit opioid Nausea, anxiety, No risk for misuse or Patients must be fully Any healthcare
to opioid use use, reduced insomnia, physiological withdrawn from provider with
disorder cravings precipitated dependence; no opioids before prescribing
following withdrawal, special regulatory beginning authority can
complete opioid hepatotoxicity, requirements; treatment, lower prescribe or
withdrawal vulnerability to improved social retention in administer
opioid overdose, functioning; treatment, high naltrexone
depression, associated with rates of
suicidality, muscle reductions in medication
cramps, dizziness or criminal activity nonadherence,
syncope, somnolence and recidivism; has not been
or sedation, anorexia, and infectious demonstrated to
decreased appetite or disease reduce mortality
other appetite acquisition and (and may
disorders transmission increase
Intramuscular: Pain, mortality risk
swelling, induration after medication
(including some discontinuation)
cases requiring
surgical intervention)

76 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

Appendix IV: Available Pharmacotherapy Formulations

MU-OPIOID FOR THE COMMON STANDARD

GENERIC/TRADE RECEPTOR TREATMENT FORMULA- AVAILABLE MAINTE- DOSING REGI-
NAME EFFECT OF TIONS STRENGTHS NANCE DOSE MEN
Methadone (Methadose, Full agonist Opioid withdrawal Liquid concentrate, tablet: 5 mg, 10mg Range: 60 to 120 mg Once daily (or split
Dolophine) and opioid use tablet, oral dispersible tablet: dosing when
disorder solution of 40mg appropriate)
powder or oral solution: 5mg/
dispersible tablet 5 mL, 10mg/5mL
oral concentrate
solution: 10mg/
mL
Generic buprenorphine Partial agonist Opioid withdrawal Sublingual tablet 2 mg 16 mg Daily
monoproduct and opioid use 8 mg Range: 4 mg to 24
disorder mg
Generic buprenorphine/ Partial agonist Opioid withdrawal Sublingual tablet 2 mg/0.5 mg 16 mg/4 mg Daily
naloxoney combined and opioid use 8 mg/2 mg Range: 4 mg/1 mg to
with antagonist disorder 24 mg/6 mg
y
Buprenorphine/naloxone Partial agonist Opioid withdrawal Sublingual tablet 0.7 mg/0.18 mg 11.4 mg/2.9 mg Daily
(Zubsolv) combined and opioid use 1.4 mg/0.36 mg Range: 2.9 mg/0.71
with antagonist; disorder 2.9 mg/0.71 mg mg to 17.2 mg/
5.7 mg/1.4 mg 4.2 mg
8.6 mg/2.1 mg
11.4 mg/2.9 mg
y
Buprenorphine/naloxone Partial agonist Opioid withdrawal Buccal film 2.1 mg/0.3 mg 8.4 mg/1.4 mg Daily
(Bunavail) combined and opioid use 4.2 mg/0.7 mg Range: 2.1 mg/0.3
with antagonist disorder 6.3 mg/1 mg mg to 12.6 mg/
2.1 mg
y
Buprenorphine/naloxone Partial agonist Opioid withdrawal Sublingual film; may 2 mg/0.5 mg 16 mg/4 mg Daily
(Suboxone) combined with and opioid use also be 4 mg/1 mg Range: 4 mg/1 mg to
antagonist disorder administered 8 mg/2 mg 24 mg/6 mg
buccally 12 mg/3 mg
y
Buprenorphine/naloxone Partial agonist Opioid withdrawal Sublingual film 16 mg/4 mg 16 mg/4 mg Daily
(Cassipa) combined and opioid use Range: 16–24 mg
with antagonist disorder
Buprenorphine Partial agonist Treatment of opioid Implants 80 mg/implant 4 implants for Implants last for
(Probuphine) use disorder in 6 months of 6 months and are
clinically stable treatment then removed,
patients taking 8 after which a
mg/day or less of second set can be
buprenorphine or inserted
buprenorphine/
naltrexone tablet
equivalents
Extended-release injection Partial agonist Moderate to severe Subcutaneous 100mg Common monthly Monthly
buprenorphine opioid use injection 300mg dose: 300 mg for
(Sublocade) disorder in the first 2
patients who have months; 100 mg
initiated thereafter
treatment with Range: 100 mg to
transmucosal 300 mg monthly
buprenorphine
followed by dose
adjustment for a
minimum of 7
days
Extended-release injection Partial agonist Initiation, Subcutaneous Weekly: 8 mg, 16 mg, 24 mg SC weekly; Weekly or Monthly
buprenorphine (Brixadi) stabilization, and injection (Weekly 24 mg, 32 mg Range: 8–32 mg
maintenance or Monthly) Monthly: 64 mg, or 96 mg SC
treatment of 96 mg, 128 mg monthly; Range
opioid use 64–128mg
disorder
Oral naltrexone Antagonist For the blockade of Oral tablet 50 mg 50 mg Once daily (also
(Revia) the effects of Range: 25–50 mg alternative off-
exogenously label regimens)
administered
opioids.
Extended-release injection Antagonist Prevention of relapse Intramuscular 380 mg 380 mg monthly Once monthly by
naltrexone (Vivitrol) to opioid use injection Range: 380 mg every injection
disorder 3–4 weeks
following
complete opioid
withdrawal

Dosages above 24 mg buprenorphine or 24 mg/6 mg buprenorphine/naloxone per day have not shown clinical advantage.
Dosing every 3–4 weeks may be appropriate for some patients.
ynaloxone not absorbed when taken as prescribed.

ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine 77

White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

Appendix V: 2019 Guideline Committee Member Relationships with Industry and Other Entities

Institutional,
Organiza-
Guideline Ownership/ tional or
Committee Speakers Partnership/ other finan- Expert
Member Salary Consultant Bureau Principal cial benefit Research Witness
Chinazo O. Cunningham, Albert Einstein None None General Electric None None None
MD, MS, FASAM College of Health
Medicine –
Professor of
Medicine
Quest Diagnostics Data Safety Monitoring
Board - Spouse
Mark Edlund, MD RTI International – None None American Psychiatric None None None
Senior Research Association –
Public Health Member
Analyst
Centers for Disease
Control and
Prevention
Patient-Centered
Outcomes
Research
Institute
Marc Fishman, MD, Maryland Treatment Alkermes None Maryland Treatment None Alkermes - Research Represented
DFASAM Centers – Centers Grant plaintiff in
Medical class action
Director, CEO lawsuit
alleging
managed care
criteria for
utilization
management
violated
standard of
care
US WorldMeds National Institute on Represented
Drug Abuse - plaintiff in
Research Grant allegation that
a patient was
denied access
to care based
on overly
restrictive
criteria
Danya/Mid Represented
Atlantic defendant in
ATTC an allegation
that physician
and treatment
center were
responsible for
data of
patient
NADCP
Verily
Adam J. Gordon, MD, University of Utah None None AMERSA - Board of None National Institutes of None
MPH, FACP, School of Directors, Health –
DFASAM Medicine – Substance Abuse Research Grant
Professor of Journal Editor-in-
Medicine Chief
Salt Lake City VA Veterans Health Veterans Health
Health Care Administration Administration –
System – Research Grant
Psychiatry/Chief
of Medicine
Hendree Jones, PhD University of North BayMark None None None None None
Carolina
Department of
OB/GYN –
Professor
UNC Horizons –
Executive
Director
Kyle M. Kampman, Perelman School of US World None Addiction Psychiatry None Alkermes – Clinical None
MD, FASAM Medicine – Meds Fellowship Trial on use of
(Chair) Professor of naltrexone in
Psychiatry conjunction with
buprenorphine in
adults with OUD
transitioning from
buprenorphine
maintenance prior
to first dose of
vivitrol

78 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

(Continued)
Institutional,
Organiza-
Guideline Ownership/ tional or
Committee Speakers Partnership/ other finan- Expert
Member Salary Consultant Bureau Principal cial benefit Research Witness
Alkermes National Institute on
Drug Abuse –
Clinical Trial on
cariprazine for
cocaine use
disorder
Allergan
Indivior
Marjorie Meyer, MD University of None None University of Vermont None None None
Vermont – Medical Center
Associate
Professor
Daniel Langleben, MD University of Alkermes None None None None None
Pennsylvania -
Professor
Sandra A. Springer, Yale School of Alkermes None Infectious Diseases National Center for National Institutes of None
MD, FASAM Medicine – Society of America Advancing Health –
Associate and HIV Medical Translational Research Grant
Professor of Association – Sciences
Medicine Member of
Working Group at
the Intersection of
OUD and
Infectious Disease
Epidemics
Veterans National Academy of Veterans National Institute on
Administration Sciences – Administration Drug Abuse –
Healthcare Appointed Cooperative Research Grant
System Committee Studies
Member of
Engineering and
Medicine Working
Group on
Evaluating
Community
Programs
Integrating
Infectious disease
and OUD
Treatments
National Institute on
Alcohol Abuse
and Alcoholism –
Research Grant
George E. Woody, MD University of None None None None Alkermes – Research Diagnosis of
Pennsylvania Grant Substance Use
Perelman School Disorder
of Medicine
Department of
Psychiatry -
Professor
American Society of Presence/Absence
Addiction of substance
Medicine – use disorder or
Research Grant other health
problem that
could impair
practice of
licensed
professional
National Institute on
Drug Abuse -
Clinical Trial on
improving
outcomes of
opioid addicted
prisoners with
extended release
injectable
naltrexone given
before or after
reentry
Tricia E. Wright, MD, University of Cambridge American College of None State of Hawaii None None
MS, FACOG, California San University Obstetrics and
DFASAM Francisco – Press Gynecology
Professor of
Clinical
Medicine
University Health American Society of
Partners, Addiction
University of Medicine
Hawaii

ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine 79

White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

(Continued)
Institutional,
Organiza-
Guideline Ownership/ tional or
Committee Speakers Partnership/ other finan- Expert
Member Salary Consultant Bureau Principal cial benefit Research Witness
Stephen A. Wyatt, DO, Atrium Health – None None None None None None
FAOAAM, FASAM Medical Director
(Co-chair) of Addiction
Medicine

The above table presents relationships of the Guideline Committee during the past 12 months with industry and other entities that were determined to be relevant to this document.
These relationships are current as of the completion of this document and may not necessarily reflect relationships at the time of this document’s publication. A relationship or
arrangement is considered to be significant if the individual receives compensation which includes cash, shares, and/or anything else of value including direct ownership of shares, stock,
stock options or other interest of 5% more of an entity or valued at $10,000 or more (excluding mutual funds), whichever is greater. A relationship or arrangement is considered to be
modest if it is less than significant under the preceding definition. A relationship or arrangement is considered to be unpaid if the individual does not receive monetary reimbursement.

Indicates significant relationship. Indicates modest relationship.

80 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

Appendix VI: 2019 ASAM Board of Directors Relationships with Industry and Other Entities

Institutional,
Ownership/ Organizational
Partnership/ or other finan-
Board Member Salary Consultant Speakers Bureau Principal cial benefit Research
Anthony P. Albanese, Veterans Health Gilead Sciences Gilead Sciences Agape Family None None
MD, DFASAM Administration - Ministries -
Chief of Board of
Hepatology, VA Directors
Northern Member
California
Healthcare
System
Veterans Health AbbVie AbbVie California Impaired
Administration – Pharmaceuticals Pharmaceuticals Driving Taskforce
Affiliations
Officer, VA
Office of
Academic
Affiliations
Anika Alvanzo, MD, Johns Hopkins None None Uzima Consulting None None
MS, FACP, University School Group, LLC
DFASAM of Medicine -
Faculty (95%)
Uzima Consulting
Group, LLC (5%)
Gavin Bart, MD, Hennepin Healthcare National Alliance for None None American College of None
PhD, FACP, Medication Academic
DFASAM Assisted Addiction
Recovery Medicine
National Institutes of National Institute on
Health – Federal Drug Abuse -
Grants Investigator on
several grants
Substance Abuse and Substance Abuse and
Mental Health Mental Health
Services Services
Administration – Administration –
Federal Grants Director of
International
Technology
Transfer Grant
Gregory Boehm, MD, Private Practice - None None None None None
DFASAM Outpatient IOP
(90%)
Salvation Army -
Child/Adolescent
Psychiatry (10%)
Psychiatric Patient
Care in Re-Entry
Program
Brent Boyett, DO, Pathway Healthcare Mississippi Board of ALANA Pathway Healthcare - Outpatient Addiction None
DMD, DFASAM (99%) Medical Directors Chief Medical Recovery Centers
Officer, Board of
Directors
Member
Mississippi Board of Indivior
Medical Directors
(no pay as of yet,
will be about
1%)
Kelly J. Clark, MD, Addiction Crisis Council of State None CleanSlate Centers - CleanSlate Centers - None
MBA, DFAPA, Solutions Governments was Chief Equity Interest
DFASAM Medical Officer
Dr Kelly Clark, Sandoz Addiction Crisis DisposeRX - Equity
PLLC; Solutions - Interest
Founder
DisposeRx DisposeRx - Director
Private Practice - Dr
Kelly Clark,
PLLC
Paul H. Earley, MD, Earley Consultancy, DynamiCare Health, None Federation of State None None
DFASAM LLC - Physician Inc. Physician Health
Programs -
President
Georgia Professionals
Health program -
Medical Director
DynamiCare Health,
Inc. - Consultant

ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine 81

White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

(Continued)
Institutional,
Ownership/ Organizational
Partnership/ or other finan-
Board Member Salary Consultant Speakers Bureau Principal cial benefit Research
Kenneth I. Freedman, MA Department of Sandoz - Advisory None averHealth - Chief None None
MD, MS, MBA, Public Health, Panel for reSET Medical Officer
FACP, AGAF, Lemuel Shattuck
DFASAM Hospital
averHealth - Chief American Society of
Medical Officer Addiction
(15%) Medicine –
Corporate Round
Table Member
Boston Medical
Library – Trustee
and Finance
Committee
Member
Joseph Garbely, DO, Caron Treatment None None Caron Treatment Penn State College of None
DFASAM Centers - Vice Centers - Vice Medicine -
President of President of Clinical
Medical Services, Medical Services, Associate
Medical Director Medical Director Professor of
(95%) Psychiatry
Collaborative Reading Hospital Stony Brook College
Neuropsychiatric Addiction of Medicine -
Services, LLC - Medicine Clinical Adjunct
Addiction Fellowship Associate
Psychiatrist (5%) Program - Professor of
Program Director Family Medicine
Murtuza Ghadiali, The Permanente None None Bay Area Physicians None None
MD, FASAM Medical Group for Human Rights
(100%) - President
Alliance Health
Project of UCSF
- Advisory Board
Member
Adam J. Gordon, MD, Department of None None None AMERSA Journal of None
MPH, FACP, Veterans Affairs Substance Abuse
DFASAM (75%) - Editor in Chief
University of Utah National Institutes of
School of Health – Grant
Medicine (25%) Reviews
National Institutes of
Health – Grant
Reviews (<1%)
Charitable
Organizations,
e.g. ASAM,
AMERSA -
Activity
Participation
(<1%)
William F. Haning, University of Hawaii None None American Board of American Medical None
III, MD, DFAPA, School of Psychiatry and Response –
DFASAM Medicine - Neurology - Physician
Emeritus Addiction (Spouse)
Professor, Psychiatry
Department of Examination
Psychiatry Committee Chair
Retirement
Pension (40%)
University of Health Pacific Health Fire Departments of
Partners - Research and Honolulu, Kauai,
Director of Education and Maui
Addiction Institute - Board Counties
Training of Directors
Programs (20%) Member
U.S. Navy - Department of Water
Retirement Safety, Honolulu
Pension (20%)
Social Security Emergency
Benefits (20%) Department of
the Queen’s
Medical Center
Randolph P. Holmes, Private Practice None None None None None
MD, FASAM Medical Group
(90%)
Residency Faculty
(5%)

82 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

(Continued)
Institutional,
Ownership/ Organizational
Partnership/ or other finan-
Board Member Salary Consultant Speakers Bureau Principal cial benefit Research
Treatment Program
Medical Director
(5%)
Brian Hurley, MD, Los Angeles County Valera Health (2016) PsyBAR Annenberg Physician None University of
MBA, DFASAM Department of Training Program California -
Mental Health - in Addictive Smoking
Clinical and Disease - Cessation Grant -
Administrative Financial Officer Primary
Work (66%) Investigator
Private Practice - American Academy
Clinical Work of Addiction
(13%) Psychiatry State
Targeted
Response
Technical
Assistance
Consortium
PsyBAR Insurance
Reviews - Expert
Clinical Opinions
(7%)
Center for Care
Innovcations
Treating
Addiction in the
Primary Care
Safety Net
Program -
Training Work
(5%)
Cedar Sinai Health
System -
Psychiatrist (5%)
Friends Research
Institute - Senior
Scientist (4%)
Annenberg Physician
Training Program
in Addictive
Disease -
Associate
Director (<1%)
Frank James, MD, JD, United HealthCare None None None None None
FASAM
Optum
Margaret A. E. Jarvis, Geisinger - Chief of Addiction Solutions Geisinger American Board of None None
MD, DFASAM Addiction Preventive
Medicine (90%) Medicine -
Addiction
Medicine Exam
Committee
Member
Addiction Solutions -
Consultant (10%)
Miriam Komaromy, University of New Lawfirm of Baron and Rubicon, MD Albuquerque Insight None None
MD, FACP, Mexico Health Budd Meditation
DFASAM Sciences Center Society – Board
of Directors
Member
American Medical
Association
Alliance for Health
Policy
Marla D. Kushner, Private Practice; Insight Behavioral Alkermes American Osteopathic None None
DO, FSAHM, Insight Health Academy of
FACOFP, Behavioral Addiction
DFASAM Health - Medicine - Board
Consultant of Directors
Member
New Hope Recovery Dane Street New Hope Recovery
Center Center - Medical
Director
Mercy Hospital - Insight Behavioral
Part-Time Health ARCH
Employee Program -
Medical Director
Advocate Physician’s
Group HMO

ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine 83

White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

(Continued)
Institutional,
Ownership/ Organizational
Partnership/ or other finan-
Board Member Salary Consultant Speakers Bureau Principal cial benefit Research
Independent
Physicians of
Mercy HMO
Midwestern
University -
Teaching
Advocate Hope
Children’s
Hospital -
Teaching
Residents
Weiss Hospital -
Teaching
Residents
Caribbean Medical
University -
Teaching
Des Moines
University -
Teaching
Dane Street -
Consultant
Alkermes - Speaker
Ilse Levin, DO Mid Atlantic None None None American Medical None
Permanente Association
Medical Group Liaison to the
National
Commission of
Correctional
Healthcare Board
of Directors
United States Navy –
Physician
(Spouse)
American Academy
of Family
Physicians –
Board of
Directors
(Spouse)
Kaiser - Shareholder
Penny S. Mills, MBA American Society of None None None None None
Addiction
Medicine (100%)
Yngvild K. Olsen, Outpatient Non-Profit Behavioral Health None National Council on Oxford University None
MD, MPH, Specialty Administration Alcoholism and Press - Co-
DFASAM Addiction Drug Dependence Author of Book
Treatment Center - Board of on Opioid
(70%) Directors Epidemic
Member
Maryland’s
Behavioral
Health
Administration -
Medical
Consultant (25%)
PCSS - ASAM
Clinical Expert
(<5%)
Ken Roy, MD, CMO of Addiction None US World Meds, Addiction Recovery None None
DLFAPA, Recovery Lucymera Resources
DFASAM Resources - Treatment
Employee Program - Chief
Medical Officer
Legal Consultations Alkermes, Vivitrol US World Meds -
Advisory Board
Member
Consultation and Alkermes - Advisory
Speaker Efforts Board Member
for Pharma
Peter Selby, MBBS, Centre for Addiction Johnson & Johnson - None University of Toronto None Pfizer Canada Inc.
CCFP, FCFP, and Mental E-NRT Advisory Addiction
MHSc, DFASAM Health - Chief of Board Medicine
Medicine in Fellowship,
Psychiatry American Board
Division (20%) of Addiction
Medicine -
Program Director

84 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

(Continued)
Institutional,
Ownership/ Organizational
Partnership/ or other finan-
Board Member Salary Consultant Speakers Bureau Principal cial benefit Research
University of Toronto NVision Insight Centre for Addiction
Department of Group and Mental
Family and Health
Community
Medicine -
Clinician
Scientist (20%)
Centre for Addiction Mylein & Associates Ontario Ministry of
and Mental Health and Long-
Health Term Care
Addictions
Research
Program -
Clinician
Scientist (60%)
Boehringer Ingelheim Canadian Institutes of
(Spouse) Health Research
Canadian Centre on
Substance Use
and Addiction
Public Health Agency
of Canada
Medical Psychiatry
Alliance
Canadian Cancer
Society Research
Institute
Cancer Care Ontario
Ontario Institute for
Cancer Research
Bhasin Consulting
Fund Inc.
Patient-Centered
Outcomes
Research Institute
Jeffrey Selzer, MD, Medical Society of None None New York State None None
DFASAM the State of New Psychiatric
York - Medical Association -
Director of the Addiction
Committee for Psychiatry
Physician Health Committee Chair
(80%)
Northwell Health - Medical Society of
Director of the State of New
Employee York - Addiction
Assistance and Behavioral
Program (20%) Health
Committee
Member
American Society of
Addiction
Medicine -
Secretary and
Public Policy
Committee Chair
Scott Teitelbaum, University of Florida None None IBH Addiction None None
MD, DFASAM Health - Vice Recovery Center
Chair of – Board of
Department of Directors
Psychiatry, Chief Member
of Addiction
Medicine
Florida Recovery
Center - Medical
Director,
Fellowship
Director
Melissa Weimer, DO, St. Peters Health Alkermes (2017) MCE Conference None InforMed - Author of None
MCR, FASAM Partners - CME Material
Employee (50%)
Yale School of Indivior (2016)
Medicine -
Employee (50%)
US Department of American Association
Justice - of Addiction
Consultant (2%) Psychiatry

ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine 85

White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

(Continued)
Institutional,
Ownership/ Organizational
Partnership/ or other finan-
Board Member Salary Consultant Speakers Bureau Principal cial benefit Research
SCOPE of Pain - SCOPE of Pain
Consultant
(0.5%)
Timothy Wiegand, URMC Faculty None None New York Society of None None
MD, FACMT, Practice (71%) Addiction
FAACT, Medicine -
DFASAM President Elect
Other Clinical American College of
Practice - e.g. Medical
Huther Doyle Toxicology -
Outpatient CD Board of
(18%) Directors
Member, Chair of
Addiction and
Practice
Committees;
Expert Witness (8%) Medical Toxicology
Foundation -
Finance Chair
Royalties/other - e.g.
Uptodate (3%)
Aleksandra Zgierska, University of None None None None Pfizer Inc. - Research
MD, PhD, Wisconsin Grants awarded
DFASAM to University of
Wisconsin -
Principal/Co-
Principal
Investigator
The above table presents relationships of the ASAM Board of Directors during the past 12 months with industry and other entities that were determined to be relevant to this
document. These relationships are current as of the completion of this document and may not necessarily reflect relationships at the time of this document’s publication.

86 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

Appendix VII: 2019 ASAM Quality Improvement Council (Oversight Committee) Relationships
with Industry and Other Entities

Institutional,
Organizational
Quality Improve- Ownership/ or other
ment Council Speakers Partnership/ financial
Member Salary Consultant Bureau Principal benefit Research
John P. Femino, Femino Consultancy Dominion None None None None
MD, DFASAM - CEO Diagnostics
Kenneth I. Aetna/CVS Health averHealth None Massachusetts None American Academy of
Freedman, MD, – Medical Department of Addiction Psychiatry
MS, MBA, Director, SE Public Health - Research Grant
FACP, AGAF, Territory
DFASAM
Sandoz Substance Abuse and
Mental Health
Services
Administration
- Research Grant
Pfizer
Substance Abuse
and Mental
Health Services
Administration
R. Jeffrey Self-Employed None None None None None
Goldsmith, MD, Specialist in
DLFAPA, Addiction
DFASAM Medicine
Barbara Herbert, Column Health – Advocates for None None None None
MD, DFASAM Senior Physician Human
Potential
Margaret M. Kotz, Emerita Case None None None None None
DO, DFASAM Western Reserve
University
Medical School
Margaret A. Jarvis, Geisinger Health None None Geisinger Health None None
MD, DFASAM System System
Department of
Psychiatry –
Chief of
Addiction
Medicine
P. Stephen Novack, Avita Health System None None None None None
DO – Addiction
Provider
David R. Pating, San Francisco None None National Quality None None
MD, FASAM County - Forum Behavioral
Employee Health Steering
Committee
American Society of
Addiction Medicine
Quality Committee
Sandrine Pirard, Beacon Health None None None None None
MD, PhD, Options – Vice
MPH, FAPA, President,
FASAM Medical
Director
The above table presents relationships of the ASAM Quality Improvement Council during the past 12 months with industry and other entities that were determined to be relevant
to this document. These relationships are current as of the completion of this document and may not necessarily reflect relationships at the time of this document’s publication. A
relationship or arrangement is considered to be significant if the individual receives compensation which includes cash, shares, and/or anything else of value including direct ownership
of shares, stock, stock options or other interest of 5% more of an entity or valued at $10,000 or more (excluding mutual funds), whichever is greater. A relationship or arrangement is
considered to be modest if it is less than significant under the preceding definition. A relationship or arrangement is considered to be unpaid if the individual does not receive monetary
reimbursement. Indicates significant relationship. Indicates modest relationship.

ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine 87

White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

Appendix VIII: External Reviewer Relationships with Industry and Other Entities (2019 Guideline
Development Process)

Institutional,
Ownership/ Organizational or
External Speakers Partnership/ other financial
Reviewer Representation Salary Consultant Bureau Principal benefit
Samantha Arsenault Shatterproof Shatterproof (100%) None None None None
Chris A. Bina, PharmD Federal Bureau of U.S. Government - Sr. None None None None
Prisons (FBP) Deputy Assistant
Director, Health
Services Division
Federal Bureau of Prisons
Nathaniel Counts Mental Health America Mental Health America None None National Prevention LifeBridge Health –
(MHA) (100%) Science Coalition Employee (Mother)
One Circle Foundation
Flawless Foundation
Health Care
Transformation
Task Force
Jon Fanburg, MD American Academy of Maine Medical Center - None None Section on Adolescent None
Pediatrics (AAP) Staff Physician (95%) Health for the
Section on American
Adolescent Health Academy of
(SOAH) Pediatrics –
Executive
Committee
Member
Quality Counts - Health
Care Consulting (5%)
James Finch, MD, Individual Reviewer Private Practice Addiction None None James W Finch, MD, Practice was clinical site
DFASAM Medicine (90%); PLLC – Private for Duke University
Educational/Training Practice Physician node of NIDA
Consultant: NC Clinical Trials
Governor’s Institute on Network
Substance Abuse
(10%)
North Carolina Governor’s
Institute on Substance
Abuse - Educational/
Training Consultant
(10%)
Michael Fingerhood, Individual Reviewer Johns Hopkins University - None None None None
MD, FACP, Employee (100%)
FASAM
Kevin Fiscella, MD, National Commission University of Rochester American Society of None New York State None
MPH on Correctional Medical School Addiction Department of
Health Care (100%) Medicine - Drug Health -
(NCCHC) Court Initiatives Buprenorphine
Working Group
Member
Katie Greene National Governors National Governors None None National Governors None
Association (NGA) Association (100%) Association -
Program Director
NGA Health
Henrick Harwood National Association of Retired; Consulting Foundation for Opioid None Institute for Research, None
State Alcohol and Response Efforts Education and
Drug Abuse Training in
Directors Addictions - Board
(NASADAD) Member
Steven M. Jenkusky, Magellan Managed Care Organization None None None None
MD, MA, FAPA and Part-Time Hospital
Physician
Magellan Healthcare
Presbyterian Healthcare
Services
Paul Katz, DO, FACA, Individual Reviewer - Chesapeake Wellness None None Chesapeake Wellness None
DFASAM ASAM Maryland/ Center - CEO Center - President
DC State Chapter and CEO
President
Eastern Shore Psychological Cecil County Drug and
Services - Associate Alcohol
Director of Addiction Commission -
Services Appointed Member
Mayors Council on
Drug and Alcohol
- Member

88 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

(Continued)
Institutional,
Ownership/ Organizational or
External Speakers Partnership/ other financial
Reviewer Representation Salary Consultant Bureau Principal benefit
Bobby P. Kearney, MD, Individual Reviewer - Private Practice Opioid None None Addiction Recovery None
FASAM ASAM Opioid Treatment Program Medical Services
Treatment Program
(OTP) Interest
Group
Audrey M. Kern, MD, Individual Reviewer - Pear Therapeutics - Medical None None SUD/OUD Pear None
FASAM ASAM Northern Director (95%) Therapeutics -
New England State Medical Director
Chapter President
Sobriety Centers of New
Hampshire (5%)
Julie Kmiec, DO, American Osteopathic University of Pittsburgh None None None American Osteopathic
FASAM Academy of Physicians - Clinical Academy of
Addiction Work (65%) Addiction Medicine;
Medicine Pennsylvania Society
(AOAAM) of Addiction
Medicine
University of Pittsburgh -
Research and Teaching
(25%)
Consultation - Independent
Contractor (10%)
Michelle R. Lofwall, Individual Reviewer Braeburn - Consulting Fees Titan - Study Design/ None None None
MD, DFASAM and Research Funding Research Protocol
CVS Caremark -Consulting
Fees
Titan – Consulting Fees
Indivior – Consulting Fees
Douglas W. Martin, American Academy of None None None Interstate Postgraduate None
MD Family Physicians Medical
(AAFP) Association -
Board of Directors
Member
Iowa Academy of
Family Physicians
- Board of
Directors
American Academy of
Family Physicians
Opioid Advisory
Committee -
Member
Shannon C. Miller, MD, Individual Reviewer U.S. Government/ None Veterans Private Practice LLC - American Society of
DFAPA, DFASAM Department of Administration Sole Proprietor Addiction Medicine -
Veterans Affairs (VA) - (clinical patient Senior Editor of
Salaried Physician care, consulting to Principles of
(Clinical, Research, law firms Addiction Medicine
Teaching,
Administrative)
Local Medical S
chools
Andrey Ostrovsky, MD Individual Reviewer Solera Health (90%) MindRight None None None
Blue Cloud (3%) Boulder Care
Children’s National Medical Pocket Naloxone
Center (7%)
Karuna Health
Aira
CityBlock
Galileo
Sitka
BlueCloud
FindLocalTreatment.com

Nicolette
Solera
Care at Hand
Mark Pirner, MD, PhD US World Meds US World Meds (100%) None None None None
John A. Renner, Jr. MD American Academy of Veterans Administration None None AAAP - Board of Johnson & Johnson -
Addiction (93%) Directors Member Stock Holder
Psychiatry (AAAP)
and American
Psychiatric
Association (APA)

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White et el.  Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019

(Continued)
Institutional,
Ownership/ Organizational or
External Speakers Partnership/ other financial
Reviewer Representation Salary Consultant Bureau Principal benefit
Boston University Veterans Administration
Psychiatric Associates
- Teaching (1%)
Massachusetts General Boston University
Hospital - Consulting, School of
Teaching (<1%) Medicine
AAAP/PCSS - Consulting, Boston University
Teaching (2%) Medical Center
Massachusetts Psychiatric
Association - Teaching
(<1%)
APA & APA Publishing -
Teaching, Royalties
(2%)
Nick Reuter, MPH Indivior Indivior None None None None
Elizabeth Salisbury- American College of American Institutes of None American Academy Health and Medicine American Academy of
Afshar, MD, MPH, Preventive Research - Director of of Family Policy Research Addiction Psychiatry
FAAFP, FACPM, Medicine (ACPM) the Center for Physicians FMX Group – Board of - STR-TA
DFASAM Addiction Research Directors Member
and Effective Solutions
(85%)
%); Heartland Alliance Midwest Opioid American College of Providers Clinical Support
Health - Part-Time Summit Preventive System - Provide
Physician (15%) Medicine - Buprenorphine
Conference Waiver Trainings
Planning
Committee
Member
American Family Physician Illinois Academy of
Journal - Co-Editor Family Physicians
(<.05%) - Board of
Directors Member
(ended in 2018)
Illinois Society of
Addiction
Medicine -
Treasurer
National Institute on
Alcohol Abuse and
Alcoholism
National Academy of
Medicine –
Member of Opioid
Work Group on
Prevention,
Treatment and
Recovery
Andrew J. Saxon, MD, Individual Reviewer Department of Veterans Alkermes, Inc. None Alkermes, Inc. - American Academy of
FASAM Affairs - Staff Advisory Board Addiction Psychiatry
Psychiatrist (70%) Member
University of Washington - American Psychiatric
Faculty Member (15%) Association
UpToDate - Section Editor Up-To-Date - Editor
(7%)
Forensic Work (8%)
Kenneth Stroller, MD American Association Johns Hopkins Medicine None AATOD AATOD – Board of None
for the Treatment Academic Medical Directors Member
of Opioid Center (90–95%)
Dependence
(AATOD)
Medical Consulting - Johns Hopkins The Joint Commission
Mostly Forensic (5– Medicine National
10%) Behavioral Health
Council
SAMHSA Center for
Substance Abused
Treatment’s
National Advisory
Council

90 ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine

 Adopted by the ASAM Board of Directors December 18, 2019 NPG for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder

(Continued)
Institutional,
Ownership/ Organizational or
External Speakers Partnership/ other financial
Reviewer Representation Salary Consultant Bureau Principal benefit
Bruce G. Trigg, MD Individual Reviewer Consultant work including None None None None
mentoring and
buprenorphine trainings
for the NY State
Department of Health,
NY City Department
of Health, Montana
Department of Health
(100%)
Marvin Ventrell National Association of NAATP None None NAATP None
Addiction
Treatment
Providers (NAATP)
Corey Waller, MD, MS, Individual Reviewer Health Management None None None None
DFASAM, FACEP Associates
Locums Emergency
Department Work
Alysse G. Wurcel, MD, Infectious Diseases None None None None None
MS Society of America
(IDSA)

The above table presents relationships of the external reviewers during the past 12 months with industry and other entities that were determined to be relevant to this document.
These relationships are current as of the completion of this document and may not necessarily reflect relationships at the time of this document’s publication.

ß 2020 American Society of Addiction Medicine 91