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Chapter 1: Introducing Communication
Adapted from Dr. Amy M. Corey
Communication is the process of creating, interpreting, and negotiating meaning.
Communication can be verbal, nonverbal, or textual. It can be aural, visual, or physical.
Although communication occurs in a variety of different ways, it is always a learned
behaviour. While most human beings are born with the physical abilities to speak, to hear, to
see, and so on, people must learn to communicate through codes, symbols, and systems of
language. In this way, communication is a collective practice in which people use symbols to
generate and interpret meaning.
Models of Communication
In order to explain the social process of communication, scholars have developed several
models. The three most well known models for communication are Linear, Interactional, and
Transactional. As West&Turner (2007) explain, each model sheds light on the development
of communication, but emphasizes different parts of the communication process. The models
provide pictures, or visual representations, of complex interactions. They are useful because
they simplify the basic structure of communication and can help us to understand that
structure not just verbally, but also visually. Most importantly, they identify the various
elements of communication and serve as a kind of map to show how different parts of the
communication process are interrelated.
Linear Models
Originally developed by Shanon&Weaver in 1948, this model describes communication
as a linear process. (See Figure 1.1.) This model describes how a sender, or speaker, transmits
a message to a receiver, or listener. More specifically, the sender is the source of the message.
A message may consist of the sounds, words, or behaviours in a communication interaction.
The message itself is transmitted through a channel, the pathway or route for communication,
to a receiver, who is the target or recipient of the message. There may be obstacles in the
communication process, or noise. Noise refers to any interference in the channel or distortion
of the message. This is a fairly simple model in which a message is simply passed from
sender to receiver.

Figure 1.1: Shannon and Weaver Model

While the linear model was highly influential during the mid-20th century, this model is
perhaps too simple. Its limitations are easy to see if you pause to think about the beliefs about
communication, or assumptions, made in this model. First, this model assumes that
communication only goes in one direction. Here, a person can be a sender or receiver, but not
both. This is problematic because communication in action is more dynamic than the linear
model suggests. In action, communication involves a give and take between senders and
receivers in which listeners are not simply passive receptacles for a sender’s message. This
model is also limited because it provides only one channel for only one message. Finally, it
implies that messages themselves are clear-cut with a distinct beginning and a distinct end.
However, communication is rarely, if ever, as neat and tidy as a linear model would suggest.
 Interactional Models
In the move to a more dynamic view of communication, interactional models follow two
channels in which communication and feedback flow between sender and
receiver. Feedback is simply a response that a receiver gives to a sender. (See Figure
1.2.) Feedback can be verbal (i.e. “yes”) or nonverbal (i.e. a nod or smile). Most importantly,
feedback indicates comprehension. It can help senders know if their message was received
and understood. By focusing on flow and feedback, interactional models view communication
as an ongoing process.

Figure 1.2: Interactional Model

The final feature of this model is the field of experience. The field of experience refers to
how environment, experiences, culture, and even heredity can influence how a sender
constructs a message. Keep in mind that each person brings a unique field of experience to an
interaction. Likewise, each communication interaction is unique. While the interactional
model is more dynamic than the linear model, it still contains some limitations. For instance,
this model implies that while people can be both senders and receivers, they cannot do so
simultaneously. In lived communication, roles are not quite so clear-cut and in fact are much
more fluid.
 Transactional Models
The transactional is the most dynamic of communication models. One notable feature of
this model is the move from referring to people as senders and receivers to referring to people
as communicators. This implies that communication is achieved as people both send and
receive messages. (See Figure 1.3.) Fundamentally, this model views communication as a
transaction. In other words, communication is a cooperative action in which communicators
co-create the process, outcome and effectiveness of the interaction.

Figure 1.3: Transactional Model

This model also places more emphasis on the field of experience. While each
communicator has a unique field of experience, they must also inhabit a shared field of
experience. In other words, communicators must share at least some degree of overlap in
culture, language, or environment if people are to communicate at all. This model also
recognizes that messages will influence the responses, or subsequent messages, produced in
the communication interaction. This means that messages do not stand alone, but instead are
interrelated. The principle of interrelation states that messages are connected to and build
upon one another. The transactional model forms the basis for much communication theory
because (1) people are viewed as dynamic communicators rather than simple senders or
receivers, (2) there must be some overlap in fields of experience in order to build shared
meaning, and (3) messages are interdependent.
Resources for Communication Theory
 Dr. Pierce’s Old School Website
 IACACT’s Communicopedia
 National Communication Association web site
 International Communication Association web site
 Canadian Communication association web site
 Association of Internet Researchers 
The transactional understanding of shared meaning has informed variety of
communication theories. In general terms, a theory comprises a way of seeing, interpreting,
and explaining. A theory is a framework for understanding. It illuminates social practices and
helps to make sense of the everyday life-world. Durham&Kellner (2001) suggest that we
consider a theory as “a way of seeing, an optic, that focuses on specific subject matter” (3).
Think about a theory as an optic or a technology that enhances vision. Just as there are many
different communication theories, there are also many different visual technologies.
Sunglasses, contacts, or even virtual reality goggles each help us to see in a certain way. For
instance, when you put on a pair of glasses, it will cause you to see in a particular way,
focusing things near or far depending on the type of lens. In this way, every different theory
will require a different way of seeing the world of communication. The most important part of
this metaphor is that a particular theory will bring specific aspects of communication into
focus yet may blur others. As you work through this book, pay attention to the ways in which
a particular perspective illuminates certain elements while leaving others in shadow. Also
think about how exploring different theories will provide a more comprehensive look at
communication while also allowing you to select those that will be of greatest use for your
interests in communication studies.