metals

Article
Fatigue Life Improvement of the High Strength Steel
Welded Joints by Ultrasonic Impact Peening
Ján Lago 1 , Libor Trško 2, * , Michal Jambor 3 , František Nový 3 , Otakar Bokůvka 3 ,
Miloš Mičian 3 and Filip Pastorek 2
1 LAGO Nástrojáreň s. r. o., Vel’ké Rovné 1571, 013 62 Vel’ké Rovné, Slovak Republic; [email protected]
2 Research centre of the University of Žilina, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina,
Slovak Republic; [email protected]
3 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovak Republic;
[email protected] (M.J.); [email protected] (F.N.);
[email protected] (O.B.); [email protected] (M.M.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +421-041-513-7629




Received: 13 April 2019; Accepted: 22 May 2019; Published: 28 May 2019


Abstract: Ultrasonic impact peening was applied on welded joints manufactured from Strenx 700
MC high strength low alloy steel with the aim to improve the fatigue properties. Three different
surface treatment parameters were tested, which resulted in transformation of the near-surface tensile
residual stresses in the weld metal and heat affected zone to compressive residual stress field, while
maximal values from −400 MPa up to −800 MPa were reached. The highest fatigue life improvement
was reached by the double peening with the 85 N contact force, where the fatigue limit for N = 108
cycles increased from 370 MPa to 410 MPa.

Keywords: ultrasonic impact peening; high strength low alloy steel; fatigue life; residual stresses;
severe plastic deformation

1. Introduction
Welding is still one of the most common methods of joining components in the automotive
industry. Since the properties of the welded joints significantly depend on the content of alloying
elements, mainly carbon, all the components, which were planned to join in the construction by
welding, had to be manufactured from the low-alloyed steels. This fact was for a long time preventing
the use of steels with higher mechanical properties to reduce the size and weight of the construction.
The weight reduction becomes more important, than it ever was, because of the huge demand for
lower fuel consumption, carbon dioxide emission and the higher effectivity of transport (reduction
of trailer weight and increase of its loading capacity). These demands caused a strong call for the
development of the new types of steels with improved mechanical properties while simultaneously
keeping good weldability with common technologies.
Based on these requirements, the steel industry focused on the development of the special high
strength low alloy steels (HSLA), which exhibit excellent mechanical properties, while maintaining
good weldability with conventional technologies due to their low content of alloying elements. The
improvement of mechanical properties is based on special thermo-mechanical processing providing
extremely fine-grained microstructures, microstructures strengthened by precipitation hardening or
solid solution strengthening [1–4]. The main problem is that the material is locally annealed during the
welding, which leads to partial loss of the superior mechanical properties and increases the tendency
of the weld for crack initiation during the cyclic loading [5].

Metals 2019, 9, 619; doi:10.3390/met9060619 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2019, 9, 619 2 of 15

Various technologies of application of the cold working processes on the surface of structural
materials were developed in recent years and have proven to be very effective for the increase of the
fatigue limit of structural materials [6,7]. Those methods are usually based on intensive local plastic
deformation of material with an aim to increase the dislocation density (work hardening), accumulate
compressive residual stresses and provide grain refinement of the surface layers. One of the intensively
studied methods and currently most applied in industry is the shot peening [8–12]. It is performed
by bombarding the surface of a component with small spherical shots causing work hardening on
the surface, which is performed by a nozzle copying of the component’s shape [8]. In the process,
the component has to be enclosed inside a cabinet to provide constant peening parameters and to
avoid scatter of the media outside of the peening area (avoiding loss of the media, danger to human
beings, e. g., the eye contact and breathing of particles and so on). Since the welding is often used on
large industrial components and structures, it is impossible to close them inside a cabinet to perform
the shot peening process. However, since the welds are the weakest points of the structure and they
have just linear trajectories, the complexity of the shot peening process is not so necessary and more
direct approach could be applied.
Ultrasonic impact peening (UIP) is a technology of the surface severe plastic deformation using
the high velocity impact of a tool, which is exceeded into vibrations at resonance frequency, usually of
20 kHz. It was proven, that with proper peening parameters it is possible to reach similar improvement
of mechanical properties as with the more common shot peening process [13–16] and in special
cases even improvement in corrosion resistance [17]. However, this technology is not suitable for
difficult complex surfaces, though it has a high potential to copy the linear trajectories of welded
joints in large constructions, since the peening head requires just the power supply and can be moved
freely on the peened surface, while high frequency impact cause intensive plastic deformation of the
material localized under the tip of the peening tool. The resulting effect is similar to other methods of
surface severe plastic deformation such as shot peening, deep rolling, etc., which is accumulation of
compressive residual stresses and grain refinement of the surface layers.
This work describes the results of application of the ultrasonic impact peening process on
welded joints manufactured from Strenx 700 MC HSLA steel by the metal active gas (MAG) method.
Application of the UIP process with three different process parameters provided changes in the residual
stress state of the welded joint and resulted in fatigue life increase in the high-cycle region.

2. Experiment Preparation

2.1. Experimental Material and Weld Execution

Strenx 700 MC is a thermomechanically rolled steel with precisely controlled heating, rolling
and cooling process. The chemical composition (Table 1) is characterized by the low carbon and
manganese contents to ensure good weldability and precisely added small amounts of elements such
as Niobium, Titanium and Vanadium (their summary content cannot exceed 0.22 wt.%) to ensure the
grain refinement of the final steel. The grain refinement together with the high micropurity results in
the values of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and the yield point (Table 2), which are usually achieved in
low alloy steels after the heat treatment; however, the steel is still suitable for cold forming and welding.
According to the EN-10149-2 standard, the EN S700 MC steels rank in the category of extra high
strength steels used for various applications, such as the truck frames, cranes and mining machines.

Table 1. Chemical composition of the experimental material Strenx 700 MC (wt.%) obtained by optical
emission spectroscopy analysis.

C Si Mn S P Al Nb V Ti Fe
0.11 0.093 0.64 0.017 0.009 0.017 0.088 0.19 0.14 rest.
Metals 2019, 9, 619 3 of 15

Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

Table 2. Mechanical properties of the Strenx 700 MC obtained by tensile test and Charpy impact test.
Table 2. Mechanical properties of the Strenx 700 MC obtained by tensile test and Charpy impact test.
Yield Point [MPa] UTS [MPa] Elongation δ5 [%] KV [J·cm−2 ]
Yield point [MPa] UTS [MPa] Elongation δ5 [%]
+20 ◦ C KV−20
[J‧cm
◦ C−2] −30 ◦ C
741 823 11.5
76
+20 °C −2051°C −30 °C 49
741 823 11.5
76 51 49

For experimental
For experimental works,
works, welded
welded joints
joints manufactured
manufactured by by welding
welding ofof two
two 1010 mm
mm thick
thick Strenx
Strenx
700MC sheet metals by the MAG procedure were used. Before the welding, the edges of the sheet
700MC sheet metals by the MAG procedure were used. Before the welding, the edges of the sheet
metals were machined to a 30 ◦ bevel, to create a 60◦ V shape channel. Welding was carried out with
metals were machined to a 30° bevel, to create a 60° V shape channel. Welding was carried out with
the use
the use of
of one
one root
root bead,
bead, two
two filling
filling beads
beads and
and one
one covering
covering bead
bead as
as sketched
sketched in in Figure
Figure 1. The ESAB
1. The ESAB
OK Aristorod (ESAB, Annapolis Junction, MD, USA) wire was used as a filler material.
OK Aristorod (ESAB, Annapolis Junction, MD, USA) wire was used as a filler material. Its chemicalIts chemical
composition and
composition and mechanical
mechanical properties
properties are
are listed
listed in
in Table
Table 3
3 (according
(according toto the
the delivered
delivered material
material
datasheet with the wire supply).
datasheet with the wire supply).

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Welding
Weldingprocess
processofof
thethe
Strenx 700700
Strenx MCMC
steel: Sequence
steel: of theofbeads
Sequence (a), macro-etched
the beads cross-
(a), macro-etched
section of the final weld (b).
cross-section of the final weld (b).

Table 3.
Table ESAB OK
3. ESAB OK Aristorod
Aristorod 69
69 chemical
chemical composition
composition (wt.%)
(wt.%) and
and mechanical
mechanical properties.
properties.
C Si C Mn Mo Cr Ni V
Si Mn Mo Cr Ni V
0.08 0.60 1.60 0.25 0.30 1.40 0.07
0.08 0.60 1.60 0.25 0.30 1.40 0.07
Yield point [MPa] UTS [MPa] Elongation δ5 [%]
Yield point [MPa] UTS [MPa] Elongation δ5 [%]
730 800 19
730 800 19
Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

2.2. Specimens Manufacturing and Surface Strengthening
Metals 2019, 9, 619 Manufacturing
Specimens
2.2. Specimens for rotating and
bending
Surfacefatigue tests with
Strengthening geometry according to Figure 2 4were of 15
machined in a position where the welded joint was in the middle of the gauge length (Figure 3). Since
Specimens for rotating bending fatigue tests with geometry according to Figure 2 were
the rotating bending loading is carried out by symmetrical four-point bending, the loading stress is
2.2. Specimens
machined in aManufacturing
position whereand theSurface
welded Strengthening
joint was in the middle of the gauge length (Figure 3). Since
constant in the gauge length of the specimen [18]. This assures the constant loading value of all the
the rotating
Specimens bending
for fromloading
rotating is carried out tests
by symmetrical four-point bending, the loading stress is
welded joint zones thebending
weld metalfatigue
(WM) with geometry
through according
the heat affected zoneto Figure
(HAZ) 2towere machined
the base metal
constant
in a positionin the gauge
where the length
welded of the
joint specimen
was in the [18].
middle This
of assures
the gaugethe constant
length loading
(Figure 3). value
Since theof all the
rotating
(BM) [19]. Specimens in as-welded conditions were ground using the grinding papers up to the #1200,
welded joint
bending zones
loading is from
carriedtheout
weldby metal (WM) through
symmetrical four-pointthe heat affected
bending, the zone
loading(HAZ) to the
stress base metal
is constant in
to eliminate the surface roughness created during the specimens machining.
(BM)
the [19].length
gauge Specimens
of theinspecimen
as-welded[18].conditions were the ground using the grinding papers upwelded
to the #1200,
It is important to clarify, that UIP This assures
surface treatment constant
was notloading valueon
performed ofthe
all the
as-welded joint
sheet
to eliminate
zones from thetheweld
surface roughness
metal created the
(WM) through during
heat the specimens
affected zone machining.
(HAZ) to the base metal (BM) [19].
metal material, only on the machined fatigue test specimens.
It is important to clarify, that UIP surface treatment
Specimens in as-welded conditions were ground using the grinding papers was not performed
up toon
thethe as-welded
#1200, sheet
to eliminate
metal material, only on the machined fatigue test
the surface roughness created during the specimens machining. specimens.

Figure 2. Drawing of the test specimen used for rotating-bending fatigue tests. Dimensions are given
in mm.2. Drawing of the test specimen used for rotating-bending fatigue tests. Dimensions are given
Figure
Figure 2. Drawing of the test specimen used for rotating-bending fatigue tests. Dimensions are given
in mm.
in mm.

Figure 3.
Figure Position of
3. Position of the
the welded
welded joint
joint in
in the
the final
final rotating-bending
rotating-bending fatigue
fatigue test
test specimen.
specimen.

It is important to clarify,
Figure 3. Position thatwelded
of the UIP surface
joint in treatment was not performed
the final rotating-bending fatigueon
testthe as-welded sheet
specimen.
Surface of the specimens was treated with ultrasonic impact peening technology at impact
metal material, only on the machined fatigue test specimens.
frequency of f = 20 kHz and the displacement amplitude of the contact tip was ± 10 µm (Figure 4). In
Surface of
Surface of the
the specimens
specimens was was treated
treated with
with ultrasonic
ultrasonic impact
impact peening
peening technology
technology at at impact
impact
the end of the ultrasonic peening tool was inserted a SiC tip with radius of R = 20 mm. The tip was
frequency of
frequency of ff = 20
20 kHz
kHz andandthe
thedisplacement
displacementamplitude
amplitudeofofthe thecontact
contacttip tipwas
was ± 10 µm
± 10 µm(Figure
(Figure 4).4).
In
sliding on the surface of the specimen and did not perform any relative movement during the peening
thethe
In end
endofofthe
theultrasonic
ultrasonicpeening
peeningtool
toolwas
wasinserted
insertedaa SiCSiC tip
tip with radius of R R == 20 mm.
mm. The
The tip
tip was
was
treatment. Three types of the treatments were carried out. The first treatment was performed at the
slidingon
sliding onthe
thesurface
surfaceof of the
the specimen
specimenand and did
did not
not perform
perform anyany relative
relative movement
movementduringduringthe
the peening
peening
value of the static contact force of the tool to the specimen of 85 N and the second at 135 N. The third
treatment. Three
treatment. Three types
types ofof the
the treatments
treatments were
were carried
carried out.
out. The
The first
first treatment
treatment was
was performed
performed at at the
the
treatment was the double treatment with the contact force of 85 N. The treatment was performed on
valueof
value ofthe
thestatic
staticcontact
contactforce
forceof ofthe
thetool
toolto
tothe
thespecimen
specimenof of8585NNandandthethesecond
secondat at135
135N.N.The
The third
third
a lathe (the peening head was mounted in the cutting knife holder). The specimen rotation speed was
treatmentwas
treatment wasthethedouble
doubletreatment
treatmentwithwiththe
thecontact
contactforce
forceofof8585N.N.The
Thetreatment
treatmentwaswasperformed
performedon on
720 rpm and main feed was 13.5 m·min−1, which resulted in the velocity of 15.8 m·min−1 and
aa lathe
lathe (the peening
peening head
headwas wasmounted
mountedininthe thecutting
cuttingknife holder).
knife holder). TheThespecimen
specimenrotation speed
rotation was
speed
720 720rpmrpmandand main feed was −1,−1which resulted in the velocity m·min−1−1 and
was main feed was13.5
13.5m·min
m·min , which resulted in the velocity of 15.8 15.8 m·min and
Metals 2019, 9, 619
x FOR PEER REVIEW 55 of
of 15
16

theoretical coverage of ≈1500 impact·mm−2 of the specimen with 7 mm diameter. The contact area was
theoretical ≈1500 −2 of the specimen with 7 mm diameter. The contact area was
intensivelycoverage ofthe
cooled by impact·mm
flowing metalworking fluid (5% water solution of Emulzin H) throughout
intensively cooled by the
the whole ultrasonic flowing
peening metalworking
process, in orderfluid (5% water
to avoid solution of
the excessive Emulzin H)ofthroughout
overheating the
the deformed
whole ultrasonic peening process, in order to avoid the excessive overheating of the deformed surface.
surface.

Figure
Figure 4. Model of
4. Model of the
the ultrasonic
ultrasonic impact
impact peening
peening process.
process.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Basic Mechanical Properties
3.1. Basic Mechanical Properties
A welded joint is considered as satisfactory, when its ultimate tensile strength is comparable to the
A weldedTo
base material. joint is considered
verify the mechanical as satisfactory,
properties,when its ultimate
two tensile tensile strength
test specimens with 8 mmis comparable
gauge length to
the base material. To verify the mechanical properties, two tensile test specimens
diameter, were prepared. This specimen geometry was chosen to be similar to those used for the fatigue with 8 mm gauge
lengththus
tests, diameter,
to verifywere
the prepared.
mechanical This specimen
properties of geometry
the weldedwas jointchosen
in theto be similar
same to those
conditions used the
in which for
the fatigue tests, thus to verify the mechanical properties of the welded joint
fatigue tests were performed. Results of the tensile tests of welded joints (in the as-welded state with in the same conditions
in which gauge-length
polished the fatigue tests wereare
surface) performed. Results
given in Table 4 andof the
when tensile tests of
compared to welded
mechanical joints (in the as-
properties of
welded state with polished gauge-length surface) are given in Table
the base metal (Table 2), the yield point decreased for approximately 50 MPa, while the UTS value 4 and when compared to
mechanical properties of the base metal (Table 2), the yield point decreased
was kept approximately the same. The stress–strain curves (Figure 5) show that the welded material for approximately 50
MPa,a while
had the UTS
significant yieldvalue was
point, kept indicates
which approximately
that the thewelded
same. The stress–strain
material curves (Figure
kept its ductile properties.5) show
The
that the welded material had a significant yield point, which indicates that the
yielding of the test rod 1, in Figure 5, is characterized by two yield points. This is a result of combined welded material kept
its ductile properties.
microstructures in theThe yielding
welded ofwhere
joint, the testthe
rodfirst
1, in Figure 5,
yielding is characterized
started by two yield
at the microstructure points.
with the
This is mechanical
lowest a result of combined
properties,microstructures
probably the weld in the
metalwelded
(laterjoint, whereby
confirmed thethefirst yielding
hardness started
test). Whileat
the microstructure with the lowest mechanical properties, probably the
the strain hardening mechanism caused increase of the material toughness, the slip was activated in weld metal (later confirmed
by heat
the the hardness test).where
affected zone, Whilethethe strain hardening
dislocation density was mechanism
decreased caused increase
by annealing of the
during material
the welding
toughness,
process. the slip
Direct was activated
correlation with yield in the heat
points of affected
the originalzone, BM where
and WMthe dislocation
cannot be found density duewasto
decreased by annealing during the welding process. Direct correlation
chemical mix and thermal influence of the welding process. For the test rod 2, presented in Figure with yield points of the5,
original
the BM and
described WM cannot
mechanism did notbe become
found due to chemical
evident. mix andofthermal
The elongation the welded influence
joint isof the welding
usually higher
process.
than Forbase
of the the test rod This
metal. 2, presented
was alsoinconfirmed
Figure 5, the described
in this mechanism
case, where did not become
the elongation of the evident.
welded
The elongation of the welded joint is usually higher than of the base
specimens (δ5 = 12.5%) is higher than of the base metal (δ5 = 11.5%), however, it is lower than metal. This was also confirmed
of the
in this
filler case,(δ5
metal where
= 19%).theThis
elongation
occurs due of the welded specimens
to chemical mix and new (δ5crystallization
= 12.5%) is higherof thethan
meltedof material,
the base
metal (δ5
which = 11.5%),
results however, itofisthe
in combination lower than of
chemical themechanical
and filler metal properties
(δ5 = 19%).of This
theoccurs
original due to chemical
materials.
mix and new crystallization of the melted material, which results in combination of the chemical and
mechanical properties of the 4.original
Table Resultsmaterials.
of tensile test, Strenx 700 MC welded joints.
The microhardness measurement (Figure 6) showed that the weld metal and heat affected zone
Specimen
had lower hardness than the Yield base Point
metal.[MPa]
The reason can UTS [MPa]
be found Elongation δ5 [%]
in the fundamental of the Strenx
1 679 810
steel manufacturing. To achieve good weldability and high strength, the low alloy steel was 12.1
thermomechanically
2 processed to obtain 684 a high level of plastic821 deformation and to decrease 12.8 the grain
size. TheAverage
melted weld metal in the weld 682 crystallized freely and 816even when its chemical composition
12.5
was very similar to the BM, the microstructure was significantly different. Partial recrystallization of
the BM occurred in the heat affected zone, which resulted again in decrease of the hardness. This also
corresponds to the decrease of the yield point of the welded joint, while keeping the UTS value
Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

approximately the same. Since the weld metal was not deformed, it started to yield at much lower
force 2019,
Metals than9,the
619 BM. However, the weld metal reached the ultimate tensile strength of the BM
6 ofby
15
significant plastic deformation.

Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

approximately the same. Since the weld metal was not deformed, it started to yield at much lower
force than the BM. However, the weld metal reached the ultimate tensile strength of the BM by
significant plastic deformation.

Figure 5. Stress–strain curves of Strenx 700 MC welded joints.

Figure 5. Stress–strain curves of Strenx 700 MC welded joints.
The microhardness measurement (Figure 6) showed that the weld metal and heat affected
Table 4. Results of tensile test, Strenx 700 MC welded joints.
zone had lower hardness than the base metal. The reason can be found in the fundamental of the
Strenx steel manufacturing.
Specimen To achieve
Yield point good weldability
[MPa] UTS [MPa]and high strength,δ5
Elongation the[%]
low alloy steel was
thermomechanically processed
1 to obtain
679 a high level of plastic
810 deformation
12.1and to decrease the grain
size. The melted weld2Figure
metal 5.
inStress–strain
the weld
684 crystallized freely
curves of Strenx and
821700 MCeven when
welded its chemical composition
joints.
12.8
was very similar toAverage
the BM, the microstructure
682 was significantly
816 different. Partial
12.5 recrystallization of
the BM occurred in theTable
heat 4.affected
Results zone,
of tensile test, Strenx
which resulted700again
MC welded joints. of the hardness. This
in decrease
also corresponds to the decrease of the yield point of the welded joint, while keeping the UTS value
Specimen Yield point [MPa] UTS [MPa] Elongation δ5 [%]
approximately the same. Since the weld metal was not deformed, it started to yield at much lower force
1 679 810 12.1
than the BM. However, the weld metal reached the ultimate tensile strength of the BM by significant
2 684 821 12.8
plastic deformation.
Average 682 816 12.5

Figure 6. Results of microhardness measurement through the base metal, heat affected zone and weld
metal (BM-HAZ-WM) zones of the welded joint.

Figure 6. Results of microhardness measurement through the base metal, heat affected zone and weld
Figure 6. Results of microhardness measurement through the base metal, heat affected zone and weld
metal (BM-HAZ-WM) zones of the welded joint.
metal (BM-HAZ-WM) zones of the welded joint.
 The residual stresses were analyzed on the final fatigue tests specimens to see the final values
after machining and grinding/impact peening. To trace the position of the weld metal and
consequently the heat affected area and base metal (Figure 7), the surface of the specimen was etched
with 2% Nital. The residual stress measurement was carried out using the Proto iXRD device (Proto,
Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16
Windsor,
Metals ON,
2019, 9, 619 Canada), X-ray Cr Kα radiation, collimator spot with area of 1 mm , two-peak model
2
7 of 15
and sin2ψ evaluation method [20,21].
3.2. Residual Stress Analysis
3.2. Residual Stress stresses
The residual Analysiswere analyzed on the final fatigue tests specimens to see the final values
after machining and grinding/impact peening. To trace the position of the weld metal and
The residual stresses were analyzed on the final fatigue tests specimens to see the final values after
consequently the heat affected area and base metal (Figure 7), the surface of the specimen was etched
machining and grinding/impact peening. To trace the position of the weld metal and consequently
with 2% Nital. The residual stress measurement was carried out using the Proto iXRD device (Proto,
the heat affected area and base metal (Figure 7), the surface of the specimen was etched with 2%
Windsor, ON, Canada), X-ray Cr Kα radiation, collimator spot with area of 1 mm2, two-peak model
Nital. The residual stress measurement was carried out using the Proto iXRD device (Proto, Windsor,
and sin2ψ evaluation method [20,21].
ON, Canada), X-ray Cr Kα radiation, collimator spot with area of 1 mm2 , two-peak model and sin2 ψ
evaluation method [20,21].

Figure 7. Position of measured residual stresses in the welded joint.

The depth profile residual stress analysis of the sheet metal weld (Figure 8) revealed significant
tensile residual stress in the weld metal and heat affected zone, reaching a maximal value of
approximately 200 MPa. The base material had typical compressive residual stresses, which are
common for the rolled finishing materials.
Since the final specimens were machined
Figure 7. Position of measuredand significant
residual stresseslayer ofwelded
in the material was removed to create
joint.
the gauge length, another residual stress measurement was carried out to evaluate the residual
Figure 7. Position of measured residual stresses in the welded joint.
stresses
The directly in theresidual
depth profile machined specimens.
stress Asthe
analysis of cansheet
be seen
metalinweldFigure 9, machining
(Figure 8) revealedand grinding
significant
The depth profile residual stress analysis of the sheet metal weld (Figure
tensile residual stress in the weld metal and heat affected zone, reaching a maximal valuethis
created a shallow layer of the compressive residual stresses, approximately 0.1 8)
mm revealed
deep. significant
Behind of
tensile residual
layer, the
approximately stress
values200 in The
of residual
MPa. the weld
stresses metal and
base practically
material heat
copied
had affected zone,ofreaching
the character
typical compressive the curvesa stresses,
residual maximalwhich
measured value
in of
deeper
are
approximately
layers of for
common thethe 200
original MPa.
rolledweldedThe
finishing base
joint material
(Figure 8).
materials. had typical compressive residual stresses, which are
common for the rolled finishing materials.
Since the final specimens were machined and significant layer of material was removed to create
the gauge length, another residual stress measurement was carried out to evaluate the residual
stresses directly in the machined specimens. As can be seen in Figure 9, machining and grinding
created a shallow layer of the compressive residual stresses, approximately 0.1 mm deep. Behind this
layer, the values of residual stresses practically copied the character of the curves measured in deeper
layers of the original welded joint (Figure 8).

atϕφ== 00° (axial

◦
Figure 8.8. Residual
Figure Residual stress
stress in
in the
the welded
welded joint
joint zones
zones prior
prior to
tomachining,
machining, measured
measured at (axial
residual
residualstresses).
stresses).

Since the final specimens were machined and significant layer of material was removed to create
the gauge length, another residual stress measurement was carried out to evaluate the residual stresses
directly in the machined specimens. As can be seen in Figure 9, machining and grinding created a
shallow layer of the compressive residual stresses, approximately 0.1 mm deep. Behind this layer,
the values of residual stresses practically copied the character of the curves measured in deeper layers
Figure 8. Residual stress in the welded joint zones prior to machining, measured at φ = 0° (axial
of theresidual
original welded joint (Figure 8).
stresses).
 Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

Metals 2019,9,9,619
Metals2019, x FOR PEER REVIEW 88ofof1516

Figure 9. Residual stress in the zones of as welded machined fatigue test specimen, measured at φ =
0° (axial residual stresses).

Figure9.9.Residual
Figure
Application of stress
Residual the in
stressUIPthethe
in zones of as
onzones
the welded machined
ofcircumference
as welded offatigue
machined the test specimen,
fatigue
fatigue test test measured
specimen
specimen, at ϕ
measured = 0φ◦ = in
resulted
at
(axial residual
transformation
0° (axial ofstresses).
residualthestresses).
tensile residual stresses in the weld metal and heat affected zone to high value
of compressive residual stresses (Figure 10). The highest values of residual stresses were reached after
Application of the UIP on the circumference of the fatigue test specimen resulted in transformation
usingApplication of the
the UIP process withUIP
135 on the circumference
N contact of thedepth
force. The effective fatigue test
for all thespecimen
treatment resulted
parametersin
of the tensile residual stresses in the weld metal and heat affected zone to high value of compressive
transformation of the tensile residual stresses in the weld metal and heat affected
was approximately 1 mm, where the residual stresses converged to the curve of the as-welded zone to high value
residual stressesresidual
of compressive (Figure stresses
10). The(Figure
highest values
10). of residual
The highest stresses
values werestresses
of residual reached after
were using after
reached the
material.
UIP process with 135 N contact force. The effective depth for all the treatment parameters
using the UIP process with 135 N contact force. The effective depth for all the treatment parameters was
approximately 1 mm, 1where
was approximately mm, the residual
where stresses converged
the residual to the curve
stresses converged to of
thethecurve
as-welded
of thematerial.
as-welded
material.

(a)

(a)

(b)
Figure 10. Cont.

(b)
 Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16
Metals 2019, 9, 619 9 of 15

(c)
Figure
Figure 10.10.Residual
Residualstress
stressininthe
thewelded
weldedjoint
jointzones
zonesprior
priortotoand
and after
after applicationofofthe
application the ultrasonic
ultrasonic
impact
impact peening
peening (UIP)
(UIP) with
with different
different parameters,
parameters, measured
measured at at
ϕφ = =0 0°(axial
◦ (axialresidual
residualstresses):
stresses):WM
WM(a),
(a),
HAZ
HAZ (b),
(b), BM BM (c).
(c).

3.3.
3.3.Fatigue
FatigueLife
LifeResults
Results
The
Thefatigue
fatiguelifelifetesting
testingwas
wasperformed
performed under
under rotating bending loading
rotating bending withRR==−1,
loading with −1, = 20
f =f 20 HzHz and
◦
and temperature
temperature 21 ±213 ±°C.3 Results
C. Results (Figure
(Figure 11) show
11) show that
that all theallthree
the three parameters
parameters of theof the ultrasonic
ultrasonic impact
impact peening
peening improvedimproved the fatigue
the fatigue properties
properties of theofStrenx
the Strenx
welded welded joints.
joints. The of
The use use135of N
135contact
N contact
force
force had only small influence on the fatigue limit, which increased from 370 MPa to 380 MPa at8 10 8
had only small influence on the fatigue limit, which increased from 370 MPa to 380 MPa at 10 run-
run-out number
out number of ofcycles.
cycles.However,
However,for forlower
lowernumber
number of of cycles,
cycles, the
the fatigue
fatiguelife
lifeimprovement
improvementwas was
significantly higher. For example, for N = 10 6 6loading cycles, the fatigue strength of the as welded
significantly higher. For example, for N = 10 loading cycles, the fatigue strength of the as welded
specimens
specimens was
was NN = 385
= 385MPaMPaand
andforfor
thethe
UIP 135135
UIP N treatment
N treatment it was 410410
it was MPa. It isItnecessary
MPa. to bear
is necessary in
to bear
mind, that the scatter of the results for the UIP 135 treatment was high, which
in mind, that the scatter of the results for the UIP 135 treatment was high, which assumes an assumes an instability of
the treatment
Metals 2019, effect.
instability of9,the
x FOR PEER REVIEW
treatment effect. 10 of 16

Use of treatment with 85 N contact force and double treatment with 85 N contact force (2 × 85
N) led to significant fatigue life improvement. Both treatments led to increase of the fatigue limit from
370 MPa to 410 MPa. The double treatment with 85 N contact force provided a 10 MPa higher fatigue
strength at N = 106 cycles, when compared to single 85 N treatment.
It seems that the double treatment was more effective in the fatigue life improvement, however
the increase of accumulated compressive residual stresses was not very significant. The reason is
probably filling of the weaker areas created during the screw-type trajectory of the peening tool on
the surface. The trajectory of the second treatment was always axially shifted against the first one,
providing the better peening coverage of the surface.

Figure 11. S–N

Figure curves
11. S–N of of
curves Strenx
Strenx700
700MC
MCwelded
welded joints beforeand
joints before andafter
after application
application of UIP
of the the UIP
with with
different parameters.
different parameters.

Use of
The treatment
reason of with 85 Nofcontact
the drop fatigue force and double
properties after thetreatment withforce
135 N contact 85 N contact was
treatment forcethe × 85 N)
(2 so-
led tocalled
significant fatigue
overpeening life improvement.
effect, usually referred to Both
shottreatments led to[8,12,22].
peening process increaseUsing
of theoffatigue limit from
too extensive
peening
370 MPa parameters
to 410 MPa. The caused the increase
double treatmentof the surface
with 85 Nroughness and damage
contact force provided of the
a 10thin
MPasurface layer
higher fatigue
which
strength N = 106 cycles,
at accelerated fatigue crackcompared
when initiation process. This
to single 85fact
N is necessary to understand while applying
treatment.
this treatment because the higher intensities, even when they provide the higher residual stresses, do
not ensure the highest fatigue properties and fatigue tests are always required.

4. Fracture Surface Analysis

Fracture surfaces of as-welded Strenx 700 MC specimens after fatigue tests were all characterized
Metals 2019, 9, 619 10 of 15

It seems that the double treatment was more effective in the fatigue life improvement, however
the increase of accumulated compressive residual stresses was not very significant. The reason is
probably filling of the weaker areas created during the screw-type trajectory of the peening tool on
the surface. The trajectory of the second treatment was always axially shifted against the first one,
providing the better peening coverage of the surface.
The reason
Figureof11.the
S–N drop
curves of fatigue
of Strenx 700 properties after
MC welded joints the and
before 135after
N application
contact forceof the treatment
UIP with was the
different parameters.
so-called overpeening effect, usually referred to shot peening process [8,12,22]. Using of too extensive
peening parameters caused the increase of the surface roughness and damage of the thin surface layer
The reason of the drop of fatigue properties after the 135 N contact force treatment was the so-
which accelerated fatigue crackusually
called overpeening effect, initiation process.
referred This
to shot fact is
peening necessary
process to understand
[8,12,22]. while applying
Using of too extensive
this treatment
peening because
parameters the higher
caused intensities,
the increase of theeven
surfacewhen theyand
roughness provide
damagethe higher
of the residual
thin surface layerstresses,
which accelerated fatigue crack initiation process. This fact is necessary
do not ensure the highest fatigue properties and fatigue tests are always required. to understand while applying
this treatment because the higher intensities, even when they provide the higher residual stresses, do
not ensure
4. Fracture theAnalysis
Surface highest fatigue properties and fatigue tests are always required.

Fracture surfaces
4. Fracture of Analysis
Surface as-welded Strenx 700 MC specimens after fatigue tests were all characterized
by the surface fatigue
Fracture crack
surfaces initiationStrenx
of as-welded (Figure
700 12a,b) in the after
MC specimens HAZ. In the
fatigue area
tests wereofallstable fatigue crack
characterized
growth, by
thethe
propagation wascrack
surface fatigue mostly realized
initiation by transcrystalline
(Figure 12a,b) in the HAZ.fatigue
In the mechanism
area of stableand a local
fatigue presence
crack
of secondary cracks and facets of intercrystalline fracture appeared (Figure 12c). The final fracture had
growth, the propagation was mostly realized by transcrystalline fatigue mechanism and a local
presence
a character of secondary cracks
of transcrystalline and facets
ductile of intercrystalline
fracture with dimple fracture appeared (Figure 12c). The final
morphology.
fracture had a character of transcrystalline ductile fracture with dimple morphology.

Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 12. Fracture

Figure surface
12. Fracture of as-welded
surface of as-welded Strenx
Strenx700
700 MC specimen
MC specimen loaded
loaded at MPa
at 395 395 MPa and fractured
and fractured
after 6.86 × 10
after 5 cycles:
6.86 Overall
× 105 cycles: view
Overall viewofofthe
thefracture (a),detail
fracture (a), detailof of surface
surface fatigue
fatigue crackcrack initiation
initiation (b), (b),
fatiguepropagation
fatigue crack crack propagation
withwith intercrystallinefacet
intercrystalline facet (c)
(c) and
andfinal
finalfracture
fracture(d).(d).

Fatigue crack in the specimens treated by the UIP initiated always in the HAZ. Surface treatment
with the UIP process shifted the fatigue crack initiation into the subsurface of the material, mostly on
various welding defects such as pores and large inclusions. Figure 13a shows the fracture surface of
the UIP 85N specimen where the fatigue crack was initiated by the “fish-eye” mechanism. In this
case, the crack initiated and propagated around the defect creating so called “optically dark area”
(Figure 13b). When the inner crack reached the surface of the specimen, the crack started to propagate
 (c) (d)

Figure 12. Fracture surface of as-welded Strenx 700 MC specimen loaded at 395 MPa and fractured
Metalsafter 9, 619× 105 cycles: Overall view of the fracture (a), detail of surface fatigue crack initiation (b),
2019, 6.86 11 of 15
fatigue crack propagation with intercrystalline facet (c) and final fracture (d).

Fatigue
Fatigue crack
crack in
in the
the specimens
specimens treated
treated byby the
the UIP
UIP initiated
initiated always
always inin the HAZ. Surface
the HAZ. Surface treatment
treatment
with the UIP process shifted the fatigue crack initiation into the subsurface of the
with the UIP process shifted the fatigue crack initiation into the subsurface of the material, mostly material, mostlyon
on various welding defects such as pores and large inclusions. Figure 13a shows
various welding defects such as pores and large inclusions. Figure 13a shows the fracture surface of the fracture surface
of
thethe
UIPUIP85N85N specimenwhere
specimen wherethethefatigue
fatiguecrack
crackwas
wasinitiated
initiatedbyby the
the “fish-eye”
“fish-eye” mechanism.
mechanism. In In this
this
case, the crack initiated and propagated around the defect creating so called “optically
case, the crack initiated and propagated around the defect creating so called “optically dark area” dark area”
(Figure
(Figure 13b).
13b). When
When the the inner
inner crack
crack reached
reached thethe surface
surface of the specimen,
of the specimen, the crack started
the crack started to propagate
to propagate
by typical transcrystalline fatigue mechanism. The delamination of the strengthened
by typical transcrystalline fatigue mechanism. The delamination of the strengthened surface surface layerlayer
can
be
canobserved
be observedin the
innear-surface area area
the near-surface of theoffracture surface
the fracture (Figure
surface 13c).13c).
(Figure The strengthened surface
The strengthened also
surface
created an area with finer transcrystalline dimples in the area of final fracture (Figure
also created an area with finer transcrystalline dimples in the area of final fracture (Figure 13d). 13d).

Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 13. Fracture surface of UIP 85N Strenx 700 MC specimen loaded at 415 MPa and fractured
Figure 13. Fracture surface of UIP 85N Strenx 700 MC specimen loaded at 415 MPa and fractured after
after 5.8 6× 106 cycles: Overall view of the fracture (a), detail of fish-eye fatigue crack initiation (b),
5.8 × 10 cycles: Overall view of the fracture (a), detail of fish-eye fatigue crack initiation (b),
delamination of the strengthened surface layer (c) and final fracture with area of finer dimples in the
delamination of the strengthened surface layer (c) and final fracture with area of finer dimples in the
strengthened surface layer (d).
strengthened surface layer (d).
Subsurface fatigue crack initiation and delamination of the strengthened surface layer was also
Subsurface
common fatigue
for all the UIPcrack initiation
2 × 85 N (Figureand14)
delamination
and UIP 135ofNthe strengthened
(Figure surface layer
15) specimens. Since was also
the UIP
common for all the UIP 2 × 85 N (Figure 14) and UIP 135 N (Figure 15) specimens. Since the
process affects only the surface layer, the fatigue crack propagation mechanism and mechanism of final UIP
process affects only the surface layer, the fatigue crack propagation mechanism and mechanism of
final fracture were identical in all specimens, thus transcrystalline fatigue mechanism with local
occurrence of intercrystalline facets and transcrystalline ductile fracture with dimple morphology
respectively.
 delamination of the strengthened surface layer (c) and final fracture with area of finer dimples in the
strengthened surface layer (d).

Subsurface fatigue crack initiation and delamination of the strengthened surface layer was also
common
Metals 2019, for all
the UIP 2 × 85 N (Figure 14) and UIP 135 N (Figure 15) specimens. Since the
9, 619 UIP
12 of 15
process affects only the surface layer, the fatigue crack propagation mechanism and mechanism of
final fracture were identical in all specimens, thus transcrystalline fatigue mechanism with local
fracture were identical in all specimens, thus transcrystalline fatigue mechanism with local occurrence
occurrence of intercrystalline facets and transcrystalline ductile fracture with dimple morphology
of intercrystalline facets and transcrystalline ductile fracture with dimple morphology respectively.
respectively.

Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 14. Fracture surface of UIP 2 × 85 N Strenx 700 MC specimen loaded at 415 MPa and fractured
Figure 14. Fracture surface of UIP 2 × 85 N Strenx 700 MC specimen loaded at 415 MPa and fractured
after 3.23 × 1077 cycles: Overall view of the fracture (a), detail of fish-eye fatigue crack initiation (b),
after 3.23 × 10 cycles: Overall view of the fracture (a), detail of fish-eye fatigue crack initiation (b),
delamination of the strengthened surface layer (c) and final fracture with area of finer dimples in the
delamination of the strengthened surface layer (c) and final fracture with area of finer dimples in the
strengthened surface layer (d).
strengthened surface layer (d).
The fact that the fatigue crack always initiated in the HAZ shows, that this zone was the weakest
pointThe
of thefactwelded
that thejoint
fatigue crack of
in terms always
cyclicinitiated
loading.inThe
the shift
HAZof shows, that this
the fatigue zone
crack was the point
initiation weakest to
point of thevolumes
subsurface welded joint in terms
of material was of caused
cyclic loading. The shift
by an increase of of
thethe fatigue crack
dislocation initiation
density in thepoint
treatedto
subsurface volumes of material was caused by an increase of the dislocation density
surface layer. Further dislocation slip (micro-plastic deformation), which is necessary for the fatigue in the treated
surface
crack layer. Further
nucleation process,dislocation
is limited slip
in the (micro-plastic
microstructuredeformation), which isdislocation
with near-saturated necessary density.
for the fatigue
In this
crackeven
case, nucleation
when theprocess,
loading is stress
limitedin in
thethe microstructure
subsurface volumewithwasnear-saturated dislocation
lower than the nominal density.
loading In
stress
this case, even when the loading stress in the subsurface volume was lower than the
on the surface (resulting from the character of the rotating bending loading, where the maximal stress nominal loading
stress
is on surface
on the the surface
and(resulting
reaches zero from inthe
thecharacter of the
specimen’s rotating
axis), bending loading,
microstructural defectswhere
such as thepores
maximaland
intermetallic inclusions took place as the points with higher stress concentration. This effect isas
stress is on the surface and reaches zero in the specimen’s axis), microstructural defects such pores
a result
and intermetallic inclusions took place as the points with higher stress concentration. This effect is a
result of high-quality and uniform surface treatment, with no under-treated (weak spots) or over-
treated (surface delamination) surface areas, which would serve as stress concentrators.
surface layer. Further dislocation slip (micro-plastic deformation), which is necessary for the fatigue
crack nucleation process, is limited in the microstructure with near-saturated dislocation density. In
this case, even when the loading stress in the subsurface volume was lower than the nominal loading
stress on the surface (resulting from the character of the rotating bending loading, where the maximal
stress2019,
Metals is on9,the
619 surface and reaches zero in the specimen’s axis), microstructural defects such as13
pores
of 15
and intermetallic inclusions took place as the points with higher stress concentration. This effect is a
result of high-quality and uniform surface treatment, with no under-treated (weak spots) or over-
of high-quality and uniform surface treatment, with no under-treated (weak spots) or over-treated
treated (surface delamination) surface areas, which would serve as stress concentrators.
(surface delamination) surface areas, which would serve as stress concentrators.

Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 15. Fracture surface of UIP 135 N Strenx 700 MC specimen loaded at 410 MPa and fractured
Figure 15. Fracture surface of UIP 135 N Strenx 700 MC specimen loaded at 410 MPa and fractured
after 4.0 × 1055 cycles: Overall view of the fracture (a), detail of fish-eye fatigue crack initiation (b),
after 4.0 × 10 cycles: Overall view of the fracture (a), detail of fish-eye fatigue crack initiation (b),
ductile delamination of the strengthened surface layer (c) and final fracture with area of finer dimples
ductile delamination of the strengthened surface layer (c) and final fracture with area of finer dimples
in the strengthened surface layer (d).
in the strengthened surface layer (d).
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Based on the experimental results, the following can be concluded:
Based on the experimental results, the following can be concluded:
- Joining of Strenx 700 MC steel with OK Aristorod 69 welding wire created a joint with similar
- Joining of Strenx 700 MC steel with OK Aristorod 69 welding wire created a joint with similar
ultimate tensile strength, however the yield point decreased for approx. 50 MPa.
ultimate tensile strength, however the yield point decreased for approx. 50 MPa.
- The welding process caused accumulation of tensile residual stresses in the weld metal and heat
- The welding process caused accumulation of tensile residual stresses in the weld metal and
affected zone, which reached maximal value of approximately 200 MPa.
heat affected zone, which reached maximal value of approximately 200 MPa.
- - The
Theultrasonic impact
ultrasonic impactpeening
peening(UIP)
(UIP)was
wasable
abletototransform
transformthe
thetensile
tensileresidual
residual stresses
stresses in
in the
the
weld metal and heat affected zone into compressive ones, with maximal values between
weld metal and heat affected zone into compressive ones, with maximal values between −400 −400
and
and−800
−800MPa.
MPa.
- Increasing of severity of the ultrasonic impact peening increased the values of residual stresses
correspondingly.
- The highest fatigue life improvement was reached by the double peening with the 85 N
contact force, where the fatigue limit for N = 108 cycles increased from 370 MPa to 410 MPa,
while the S–N curve in the region of the lower number of cycles to failure was approx. 10 MPa
Metals 2019, 9, 619 14 of 15

- Increasing of severity of the ultrasonic impact peening increased the values of residual
stresses correspondingly.
- The highest fatigue life improvement was reached by the double peening with the 85 N contact
force, where the fatigue limit for N = 108 cycles increased from 370 MPa to 410 MPa, while the
S–N curve in the region of the lower number of cycles to failure was approx. 10 MPa above the
single treatment with 85 N contact force.
- Since the fatigue crack always initiated in the HAZ, this area can be considered as the weakest
point of the welded joint in terms of cyclic loading.
- Treatment with the UIP process caused shifting of the fatigue crack initiation point from the
surface to the sub-surface volume of material, where weld defects acted as the most significant
stress concentrators.

Author Contributions: Experiment design and surface treatment (J.L.), residual stress evaluation (L.T.), fatigue
testing (M.J.), mechanical testing (F.N., F.P.), data evaluation (O.B.), welding (M.M.).
Funding: This research was funded by APVV, grant number APVV-16-0276; VEGA, grant number 1/0951/17 and
KEGA, grant number 009ŽU-4/2019.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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