Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Pablo Borbon Main Campus II
Alangilan, Batangas City

ChE 413: PROCESS DYNAMICS AND CONTROL

A.Y. 2020-2021, 1st Semester

ON-LINE MEASUREMENT OPTIONS FOR PROCESS CONTROL:

TEMPERATURE

Submitted by:
Enage, Alzen G.
Gunday, Mica C.
Hernandez, Aldrick Lance G.
Hernandez, Krizzete M.
Macalalad, Jefferson A.
Maranan, Amira Jemly D.
Sandoval Joyce Anne P.
Tingson, Leonel C.
ChE 3102 / 3103

Submitted to:
Engr. John Romar C. Panopio
Course Instructor
TEMPERATURE

The physical quantity which can be described as hotness or coldness of any

object or substance is called temperature. It can be measured in different units and
scales according to the requirement. The temperature of any material can be measured
by using different methods and devices. Temperature measuring devices are used to
measure the energy level of the physical property or any substance. The SI unit of
temperature is Kelvin (k), other than this; it can be measured in Celsius scales(C) and
Fahrenheit scale (F).
Temperature instrumentation includes a wide range of field instruments and
sensors used to measure temperature in commercial and industrial systems. These
temperature control systems include manual and automatic processes for monitoring
and controlling the temperature to maintain an ideal operating range to optimize
production and prevent equipment damage or failure.

Temperature measurement in today‘s industrial environment encompasses a

wide variety of needs and applications. To meet this wide array of needs the process
controls industry has developed a large number of sensors and devices to handle this
demand. Temperature is a very critical and widely measured variable. Many processes
must have either a monitored or controlled temperature. This can range from the simple
monitoring of the water temperature of an engine or load device, or as complex as the
temperature of a weld in a laser welding application. More difficult measurements such
as the temperature of smoke stack gas from a power generating station or blast furnace
or the exhaust gas of a rocket may be need to be monitored. Much more common are
the temperatures of fluids in processes or process support applications, or the
temperature of solid objects such as metal plates, bearings and shafts in a piece of
machinery.

Temperature-Measuring Devices
1. Thermometers
One of the most common devices for measuring temperature is the glass
thermometer. This consists of a glass tube filled with mercury or some other liquid,
which acts as the working fluid. Temperature increase causes the fluid to expand, so
the temperature can be determined by measuring the volume of the fluid.

2. Non-contact
The non-contact temperature sensor category includes a wide variety of
primarily optical devices. These all operate on some form of radiative heat transfer
measurement. In general, all things radiate heat. This heat can be detected as a
radiation from the device. By measuring this radiation, you can determine the
temperature of the device, not only from a distance of a few millimeters, but also from
millions of light years distant.

3. Probes
Temperature probes are devices used to measure temperature using
contact-style sensing methods. These methods infer temperature by using probes to
measure changes in a temperature-sensitive characteristic (such as voltage difference
or resistance). This fall into three general categories: Resistance elements, thermopiles
and semiconductor.

THERMOCOUPLE
Definition

A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring temperature and is commonly found

being used in a broad range of scientific, industrial and engineering environments. Their
small size and rapid response times mean they can be put to work in all manner of
hazardous or challenging settings, while still providing the ability to swiftly and
accurately measure extreme temperatures (anywhere in the range of 270 to 2,500
degrees Celsius, depending on their specific configuration).
This sensor consists of two dissimilar metal wires, joined at one end, and
connected to a thermocouple thermometer or other thermocouple-capable device at the
other end. Due to their wide range of models and technical specifications, it is extremely
important to understand its basic structure, how it works, its ranges as to better
determine what is the right type and material of thermocouple for your application.
Despite this impressive ability, they‘re actually relatively simple tools that are
both highly robust and extremely cost-effective. Thermocouples are available in different
combinations of metals or calibrations. The most common are the ―Base Metal‖
thermocouples known as N, T, J and K Types. There are also high temperature
calibrations - also known as Noble Metal thermocouples - Types R, S, C and GB.
They offer different extremes of these key characteristics - some are designed using
particular materials to withstand the highest temperatures and most challenging
environments, while others are less rugged, cheaper to manufacture, and intended for
use in less extreme environments.
 K-Type Thermocouples - The most commonly used type in
numerous industries and sectors. Type-K units are made
from a combination of nickel-based wires (typically
chromel/alumel), which results in an especially cost-
effective thermocouple that tends to be accurate and
reliable across a wide range of operating temperatures. K-
type thermocouples are generally used within ranges of -
200 to +1260 celsius and are considered temperature accurate to a standard
deviation of ±0.75%. Type-K thermocouples have a wide range of potential
applications due to being nickel-based, which means their wires are able to
operate at a particularly wide range of temperatures and generally exhibit solid
resistance to corrosion and oxidation.

 J-Type Thermocouples - These are another widely used

variety, although they will generally have a narrower
temperature range (-40 to +750 Celsius) than K-types, and
exhibit a shorter overall lifespan if regularly exposed to more
excessive heat. The positive leg of a type-J unit is made from
iron wire, and th e negative leg will be composed of a
copper-nickel (constantan) alloy.
It‘s one of the least expensive thermocouple varieties, and is considered
versatile, being especially well-suited to use in reducing (non-oxidizing)
atmospheres and vacuums, and is ideal for taking readings from many older
types of equipment as well as inert materials. However, the iron components in J-
type units are highly susceptible to oxidation, and should not be used in
situations where they‘re likely to be at risk of exposure to moisture of any kind.

 N-Type Thermocouples - Consist of wires made from

nicrosil-nisil alloys (nickel, chromium and silicon), and
display many similar properties to those found in K-type
thermocouples, with operating temperatures in the range
of -270 to +1300 celsius. However, they‘re slightly more
expensive than K varieties, owing to their more recent
development in order to overcome certain issues with K-types in specific
environments - in particular, the type-N offers better all-round stability in nuclear
applications, and exhibits lower susceptibility to oxidation than K varieties under
more extreme heat demands.
  T-Type Thermocouples - Temperature ranges run
between −200 to +350 celsius, and it‘s noted for being an
especially stable thermocouple configuration, composed
of copper-constantan alloy wires. This makes it ideally
suited to a variety of cryogenic and other extreme low-
temperature applications, including a wide range of
laboratory and similar deep-freeze conditions. It functions
well in oxidising atmospheres too, and is frequently used
for differential measurement due to the fact that only copper wires make direct
contact with the probes.
Function

A thermocouple is a sensor tool that‘s principally designed to measure the

unknown temperatures of various physical bodies, components or substances.
Crucially, a thermocouple is made up of at least two wires of different metals that,
when joined together to form a circuit, create two separate electrical junctions. One
junction is located where an unknown temperature needs to be measured (the ‗hot‘ or
measuring junction), and one connected to a body of known and stable temperature
(the ‗cold‘ or reference junction).
The temperature differentials between these two junctions at any given time
create voltage within the circuit, and the subsequent current flow can be used to
measure the temperature at the unknown or ‗hot‘ point of contact.
How Does It Measure Temperature?

A basic thermocouple circuit

consists of two wires of dissimilar metals
or metal alloys that are joined at one end
and left open at the other end. When the
junction is heated, an electromotive force
is generated that results in a voltage
differential between the open ends. This is
referred to as the Seebeck effect. Then the thermocouple uses an attached voltmeter to
measure that current. Provided it already knew the stable start temperature at the cold
end, the thermocouple can use these voltage readings to calculate a precise
temperature reading at the hot junction.
Purpose

1. Thermocouples for thermostats

Thermostats in a plethora of settings very often include thermocouples as key
components in their proper and efficient functioning. There is often some confusion
about the exact differences between one and the other, due to their frequent proximity,
closely related (but distinct) functions, and similar names.

2. Thermocouples for medical thermometers

Hospital grade thermometers and other forms of medical detection, diagnosis
and treatment equipment often use a thermocouple. These are frequently configured in
specialist or miniaturized versions, intended to help with faster and more accurate
temperature readings of both patients and heat-critical machinery and processes. Many
types of medical thermometers rely on thermocouple technologies for extremely precise
measurement using very fine-gauge wires.

3. Thermocouples for vehicle diagnostics

Data read by engine thermocouples and other vehicular sensors can be used to
monitor and adjust factors such as exhaust gas readings, cylinder head and spark plug
function, disc brake performance, battery health and changes to external environments.

4. Thermocouples for boilers, heating sensors and ovens

Thermocouples for boilers, hot water systems, heating sensors and ovens work
in much the same way as they would for a thermostat, as outlined above. Gas varieties
of these appliances in particular often incorporate thermocouples as safety features,
preventing gas valves from opening if the heat from a lit pilot light isn‘t generating the
required voltage across a thermocouple circuit.

5. Thermocouples for food thermometers, industrial probes and sensors

Food thermometers very often incorporate thermocouple technology to provide a
very swift and accurate temperature reading, both at the manufacture and preparation
stages of food ingredients and whole meals. Unlike a traditional catering thermometer,
thermocouples aren‘t intended to be left in the food during cooking.

The rapid response time of a thermocouple in, say, a digital food thermometer
means it can be used to quickly and accurately relay precise temperatures at multiple
locations on larger items, such as meat and poultry, without having to wait for the
thermometer itself to register the correct heat reading in each spot.
 Many of these thermocouples intended for a factory, mechanical or laboratory
applications will also include features such as magnetic probes and more robust thermo
sensors in order to perform well in far more demanding environments than are typically
required for most domestic uses.

REFERENCES:

https://ph.rs-online.com/web/generalDisplay.html?id=ideas-and-advice/thermocouples-
guide

https://www.omega.co.uk/prodinfo/thermocouples.html#:~:text=A%20thermocouple%20i
s%20a%20sensor,device%20at%20the%20other%20end.

http://www.ia.omron.com/support/guide/53/introduction.html#:~:text=A%20thermocouple
%20is%20a%20temperature,joined%20together%20at%20one%20end.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781855739352500028

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)

A Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a Resistance Thermometer

or RTD) is an electronic device used to determine the temperature by measuring the
resistance of an electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a temperature sensor.

The traditional RTD element is constructed of a small coil of platinum, copper, or

nickel wire wound to a precise resistance value around a ceramic or glass bobbin. The
winding is generally of helix style for industrial use. These three metals are having
different resistance variations with respective to the temperature variations. That is
called resistance-temperature characteristics.
 RTDs are either a metal film deposited on a form or are wire-wound resistors,
which are then sealed in a glass-ceramic composite material. The coil is wound to be
non-inductive. The space between the element and the case is filled with a ceramic
powder for good thermal conduction. The element has three leads, so that correction
can be made for voltage drops in the lead wires.

Function/Purpose

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) is temperature measuring transducers

used in industrial applications. If we want to measure temperature with high accuracy,
an RTD is the ideal solution, as it has good linear characteristics over a wide range of
temperatures.

RTDs are used in the following conditions:

 A wide temperature range (approximately -200 to 850°C)

 Good accuracy (better than thermocouples)
 Good interchange ability
 Long-term stability
With a temperature range up to 850°C, RTDs can be used in all but the highest-
temperature industrial processes. When made using metals such as platinum, they are
very stable and are not affected by corrosion or oxidation. Other materials such as
nickel, copper, and nickel-iron alloy have also been used for RTDs. However, these
materials are not commonly used since they have lower temperature capabilities and
are not as stable or repeatable as platinum.

How Does It Measure Temperature?

RTDs work on a basic correlation between metals and temperature. As the

temperature of a metal increases, the metal's resistance to the flow of electricity
increases. Similarly, as the temperature of the RTD resistance element increases, the
electrical resistance, measured in ohms (Ω), increases.

In practice, an electrical current is transmitted through a piece of metal (the RTD

element or resistor) located in proximity to the area where temperature is to be
measured. The resistance value of the RTD element is then measured by an
instrument. This resistance value is then correlated to temperature based upon the
known resistance characteristics of the RTD element.

An RTD is a passive measurement device; therefore, you must supply it with an

excitation current and then read the voltage across its terminals. The RTD value is
measured by using a bridge circuit. By supplying the constant electric current to the
bridge circuit and measuring the resulting voltage drop across the resistor, the RTD
resistance can be calculated. Thereby, the temperature can be also determined. This
temperature is determined by converting the RTD resistance value using a calibration
expression. The different modules of RTD are shown in below figures. There are
essentially three different methods to measure temperature using RTDs: Two-Wire –
RTD Signal Connection, Three-Wire – RTD Signal Connection, Four-Wire – RTD Signal
Connection.

 Two-Wire – RTD Signal Connection - the simplest among RTD circuit designs. In
this serial configuration, a single lead wire connects each end of the RTD
element to the monitoring device. Because the resistance calculated for the
circuit includes the resistance in the lead wires and connectors as well as the
resistance in the RTD element, the result will always contain some degree of
error. 2-wire RTD‘s are mostly used with short lead wires or where close
accuracy is not required.
 Three-Wire – RTD Signal Connection - the most commonly used RTD circuit
design and can be seen in industrial process and monitoring applications. In this
configuration, two wires link the sensing element to the monitoring device on one
side of the sensing element, and one links it on its other side.
 Four-Wire – RTD Signal Connection - In a 4-wire RTD configuration, two wires
link the sensing element to the monitoring devise on both sides of the sensing
element. One set of wires delivers the current used for measurement, and the
other set measures the voltage drop over the resistor. It produces the most
accurate results.

REFERENCES

Saeid Mokhatab, ... John Y. Mak, in Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and
Processing (Fourth Edition), 2019

https://www.electrical4u.com/resistance-temperature-detector-or-rtd-construction-and-
working-principle/
https://www.jms-se.com/rtd.php

https://knowledge.ni.com/KnowledgeArticleDetails?id=kA03q000000x1rnCAA&l=en-PH

https://sea.omega.com/ph/prodinfo/rtd.html#faq

https://www.omega.com/en-us/resources/rtd-2-3-4-wire-connections

https://instrumentationtools.com/difference-between-2-3-and-4-wire-rtds/

FILLED-SYSTEM THERMOMETER

A thermometer which has a bourdon tube connected by a capillary tube to a

hollow bulb; the deformation of the bourdon tube depends on the pressure of a gas
(usually nitrogen or helium) or on the volume of a liquid filling the system. Also known
as filled thermometer. The operation of a filled-system thermometer is based on one of
three principles: the thermal expansion of a liquid, the temperature dependence of the
pressure of a gas, or the temperature dependence of the saturated vapor pressure of a
liquid. A distinction is made between gas-filled, liquid-filled, and vapor-filled, or vapor-
pressure, thermometers. (The substances that are used as fills in the three types are
nitrogen, mercury, and ethyl chloride, respectively.)

A filled-system thermometer is a hermetically sealed system consisting of a bulb

connected by a capillary to a readout or recording spring manometer. Thermometers of
this type are commonly used in industry in the temperature range from –60° to 550°C.
With long capillaries of up to 60 m such thermometers may be used for remote
temperature measurement.The scale of the manometer that measures the pressure in
the bulb of a filled-system manometer is calibrated in degrees Celsius.

Filled System Temperature Measurement and Specifications

Filled system temperature measurement systems have been mostly replaced in

new facilities with electronic measurements based on thermocouples or RTD‘s.

Filled-system temperature measurement methods depend upon three well-known

physical phenomena:
 A liquid will expand or contract in proportion to its temperature and in accordance
to the liquid‘s coefficient of thermal/volumetric expansion.
 An enclosed liquid will create a definite vapor pressure in proportion to its
temperature if the liquid only partially occupies the enclosed space.
 The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature in accordance
with the basic principle of the universal/perfect gas law: PV = nRT where P =
 absolute pressure, V = volume, T = absolute temperature, R = universal gas
constant and n = number of gas particles (moles).

All filled-system temperature measurement instruments consists of a bulb,

connecting tubing known as ―capillary,‖ and a pressure sensing element, usually a
bourdon tube. All commercially available filled system thermometers have been
classified by ASME B40.200 (ASME B40.4). The standard classifies filled-system
thermometers by the type of fill fluid used (liquid, vapor, gas) and further subdivided by
the type of temperature compensation. The different types of filled systems are
identified by ―Class Numbers‖, ranging from 1 through 5, refer ASME B40.200 for more
details.

A. Bulb Design

The bulb volume varies over a range of 100 to 1 depending on the fill fluid, the
temperature span, and the capillary length. Long bulbs give an average temperature
and are sometimes used in stretched-out form for gas ducts. Different bulb materials are
available. However when used with a Thermo well, standard material such as copper,
bronze, or stainless steel can be used. In case atmospheric corrosion, Stainless steel
is preferred. If a well is not used (not recommended), the bulb must suitable for process
fluid.

B. Capillary Tubing & Armoring

Capillary tubing is small-diameter tubing, usually of stainless steel. Armor should

always be specified not to provide only mechanical strength but also distinguish with
other tubing. Armor material shall be stainless steel. However, in a corrosive
atmosphere, the armor should be plastic coated. The length of capillary shall be
carefully selected and specified so that instrument can be installed as per requirement,
since it cannot be stretched or spliced.

C. Mounting the Bulb

Of the many mounting styles available for installing a bulb, the one generally
recommended has a bulb with an adjustable union and bendable extension. The
bendable extension is usually of smaller diameter than the bulb, thus reducing
conduction error. The extension with adjustable union permits sliding the bulb against
the bottom of its well to make solid contact and give improved thermal performance.
 D. Temperature Compensation

Since the thermal sensing fluid extends from the bulb to the pressure element, it
is affected by the temperatures existing everywhere in the system – bulb, capillary, and
pressure element. The temperature sensitivity of the fluid in the bulb is the essence of
the measuring system; in other parts of the system, the sensitivity is a characteristic that
may or may not cause significant error. Vapor-pressure systems, Class 2, are not
subject to errors from this cause because the system pressure depends only on the
temperature of the liquid/vapor interface, which is in the bulb; the volume of the bulb
chamber is temperature-sensitive but to a negligible extent.

For Class 1, 3, and 5 systems, errors of varying extent can be caused by ambient
temperature. The need for compensation is a function of ratio of bulb volume to total
system volume, length of capillary, ambient temperature, measuring range, and need
for accuracy. Case compensation corrects only for variations of case temperature. Full
compensation corrects for variations of the temperature of the capillary and case. Case
compensation is usually achieved by installing a bimetallic strip into the instrument case
and attaching it to the pressure sensing element. Full compensation is accomplished by
installing an auxiliary capillary without bulb parallel to the primary/main capillary and
connecting it to the measuring mechanism.

The decisions as to whether to specify compensation and which type to use may be
handled in either of the following ways:
 The preferred and most reliable way is to order Class 1 or 3 instruments with full
compensation, that is, as Classes 1A or 3A. Class 2 instruments do not require
compensation
 For economy: In addition to the usual information included in an instrument
specification, state (1) the ambient temperature ranges for the capillary and the
case, and (2) the required accuracy. The Manufacturer can then select the
proper compensation, if any is required

E. Hydrostatic/Head Errors

In as much as a filled-system instrument works through the medium of a fluid, it

is subject to pressure variations, therefore zero-shift errors, plus or minus; occur merely
by changing the relative elevations of the bulb and pressure element. The magnitude of
the error is a function of the filling pressure, the type of filling fluid, the phase of the
filling fluid, and the elevation offset, and it may vary from zero, for Class 2B, to large for
some other classes. Reference should be made to Table 1 and manufacturer‘s
literature so that the specification for an instrument may include information about
elevations, if needed, so that proper compensation may be incorporated in the
instrument. It is best to avoid the need for head compensation, everything else being
equal.

F. External / Atmosphere Pressure Errors

External pressure may cause measuring errors because the pressure element
measures the gage pressure of the filling fluid. Barometric pressure change has
negligible effect on the liquid-filled systems, Classes 1 and 5, which are at relatively
high internal pressure. Vapor and gas systems, Classes 2, 3 and 4, are affected by
barometric pressure change but the resulting error usually does not exceed 0.4 percent
of span.

Filled-bulb Temperature Sensors

Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure

temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in a sealed system and then heated, the molecules in
that fluid will exert a greater pressure on the walls of the enclosing vessel. By
measuring this pressure, and/or by allowing the fluid to expand under constant
pressure, we may infer the temperature of the fluid.
Four types of filled bulb temperature sensors
1. Liquid Filled (Class I A,B)
2. Vapor filled (Class II A,B,C,D)
3. Gas Filled (Class III A,B)
4. Mercury Filled (Class V A,B)

Class I and Class V systems use a liquid fill fluid (class V is mercury). Here, the
volumetric expansion of the liquid drives an indicating mechanism to show temperature:
 Class III systems use a gas fill fluid instead of liquid. Here, the change in
pressure with temperature (as described by the Ideal Gas Law) allows us to sense the
bulb‘s temperature:

These systems, it is quite critical that the tube connecting the sensing bulb to the
indicating element be of minimal volume, so the fluid expansion is primarily due to
changes in temperature at the bulb rather than changes in temperature along the length
of the tube. It is also important to realize that the fluid volume contained by the bellows
(or bourdon tube or diaphragm . . .) is also subject to expansion and contraction due to
temperature changes at the indicator.

This means the temperature indication varies somewhat as the indicator

temperature changes, which is not desirable, since we intend the device to measure
temperature (exclusively) at the bulb.

Various methods of compensation exist for this effect (for example, a bi-metal
spring inside the indicator mechanism to automatically offset the indication as ambient
temperature changes), but it may be permanently offset through a simple ―zero‖
adjustment provided that the ambient temperature at the indicator does not change
much. A fundamentally different class of filled-bulb system is the Class II, which uses a
volatile liquid/vapor combination to generate a temperature-dependent fluid expansion:
 Given that the liquid and vapor are in direct contact with each other, the pressure
in the system will be precisely equal to the saturated vapor pressure at the vapor/liquid
interface.

This makes the Class II system sensitive to temperature only at the bulb and
nowhere else along the system‘s volume. Because of this phenomenon, a Class II filled-
bulb system requires no compensation for temperature changes at the indicator.

Class II systems do have one notable idiosyncrasy, though: they have a

tendency to switch from Class IIA to Class IIB when the temperature of the sensing bulb
crosses the ambient temperature at the indicator.

Simply put, the liquid tends to seek the colder portion of a Class II system while
the vapor tends to seek the warmer portion. This causes problems when the indicator
and sensing bulb exchange identities as warmer/colder.

The rush of liquid up (or down) the capillary tubing as the system tries to reach a
new equilibrium causes intermittent measurement errors. Class II filled-bulb systems
designed to operate in either IIA or IIB mode are classified as IIC.

One calibration problem common to all systems with liquid-filled capillary tubes is
an offset in temperature measurement due to hydrostatic pressure (or suction) resulting
from a different in height between the measurement bulb and the indicator.

This represents a ―zero‖ shift in calibration, which may be permanently offset by a

―zero‖ adjustment at the time of installation. Class III (gas-filled) and Class IIB (vapor-
filled) systems, of course, suffer no such problem because there is no liquid in the
capillary tube to generate a pressure due to height.

Generalization

In general, filled system thermometers are designed for use in locations where
the indicating part of the instrument must be placed some distance away from the point
where the temperature is to be measured. For these reasons they are often called
distant reading thermometers. However, this is not true of all filled system
thermometers. In few designs, the capillary tubing is extremely short and in few, it is
non-existent. In general, however, filled-system thermometers are designed to be
distant reading thermometers. Some distant reading thermometers may have capillaries
as along as 125 feet.

There are 2 basic types of filled-system thermometers. One as a Bourdon tube

that responds primarily to changes in volume of the filling fluid; the other one in which
the Burdon tube responds primarily to changes in the pressure of the filling fluid.
Clearly, some pressure effect will exist in volumetric thermometers and some volumetric
effect will exist in pressure thermometers.

A distant reading thermometer consists of a hollow metal sensing bulb at one

end of a small-bore capillary tube, which is connected at the other end to a Bourdon
tube or other device that responds to volume changes or to pressure changes. The
system is partially or completely filled with a fluid that expands when heated and
contracts when cooled. The fluid may be a gas, an organic liquid, or a combination of
liquids and vapor.

The device usually used to indicate temperature changes by its response to

volume changes or pressure changes is called as bourdon tube. A bourdon tube is a
curved or twisted tube which is open at one end and sealed on the other.

REFERENCES:

https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Filled-System+Thermometer

Filled-bulb Temperature Sensors: Temperature Measurement Guide. (2019, June 24).

Retrieved November 07, 2020, from https://instrumentationtools.com/filled-bulb-
temperature-sensors/

John, P. (2011, September 07). Filled System Temperature Measurement-

Thermometer,Working,Design,Errors. Retrieved November 07, 2020, from
http://www.instrumentationtoday.com/filled-system-temperature-
measurement/2011/09/

Integrated Publishing, Inc. - A (SDVOSB) Service Disabled Veteran Owned Small

Business. (n.d.). Retrieved November 07, 2020, from
http://navyaviation.tpub.com/14113/Filled-System-Thermometers-102.html
BIMETAL THERMOMETERS

Bimetal Thermometers also called

thermostatic bimetal is a temperature gauge that
makes use of the mechanical displacement of
metals in reaction to a change in temperature. It
uses bimetallic strip with two different expansion
rates and as the metals expands/contacts, a
mechanical arrangement (Figure 1) displays the
temperature change that the bimetal strip in helical
arrangement experiences. Figure 1:. Bimetal Temperature gauge

Two fundamental properties of metal are responsible for why bimetal

thermometer works: (a) Metals expand and contracts when subjected to temperature
change (thermal expansion coefficient); (b) The thermal expansion coefficient of all
metals are different from one another, meaning they expand/contract at different rates
at the same temperature.

Two (2) different metal strips are welded together in a way that there is no
relative motion between the two. Since the metal strips expands/contracts to different
lengths at the same temperature, the metal with high thermal expansion coefficient
expands the bimetal strip, moving the temperature gauge, and as the temperature cools
down, the metal with low thermal expansion coefficient is responsible for reverting the
gauge back to its position.

With one end of a straight strip fixed

(fixed end), the other end deflects (free end)
as the temperature changes (Figure 2). There
are two main mechanical arrangements for
bimetal thermometer:

(a) Spiral type arrangement

(b) Helical type arrangement

Figure 2. Deflection of Bimetallic strain

Spiral type bimetallic thermometer

The bimetal strip is arranged in a

spiral-shaped form with a fixed end at
the center of the spiral. As the ambient
temperature changes, the strip expands
in a circular manner and with the pointer
attached on the free end, the
temperature can then be read off a
calibrated scale.

This is the simplest design of a bimetal thermometer which is not only space-
saving, but also cost-effective. However, the design shows that the metal strip which
senses the temperature change, and the pointer which delivers the reading, should be
within the range of each other. This means that the temperature to be measured must
be directly in the location of the bimetal thermometer. This limits the uses of this design
to refrigerators, freezers, or to determining the room temperature.

Helical type bimetallic thermometer

Because of the limits of the spiral

type arrangement, the helix type is
done to compensate. This is usually
used in industrial applications. For this
arrangement, the helical bimetal strip is
connected onto a rotatable rod that
guides the pointer at the upper end of
the metal rod. As the bimetal strips
expand due to temperature changes, it
makes the rod rotate, and in turn makes the pointer shows the temperature reading in
the calibrated scale.

Because the temperature reading (pointer) can be far from the temperature
sensor (bimetal strips), it opens different applications such as reading the temperature
of a fluid inside a pipe. For a bimetal thermometer with uniform scale division to work,
the bimetal strips must be designed to have a linear deflection at a temperature range,
meaning it should linearly expand as the temperature increases. The temperature
ranges can vary depending on the bimetal strips used but it usually has temperature
ranging from 580 down to −180°C and lower. Although, at low temperatures, the rate of
deflection drops, this can give an inaccurate reading. Bimetal thermometers are also
prone to physical constraints and do not have a long-time stability at temperatures
above 430°C.
REFERENCES:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Am3lqOGCuA
https://www.tec-science.com/thermodynamics/temperature/how-does-a-bimetallic-strip-
thermometer-
work/#:~:text=Due%20to%20their%20metallic%20materials%2C%20bimetallic%
20thermometers%20can,at%20the%20joint%20by%20diffusion%20processes%
20%28cold%20welding%29.
https://circuitglobe.com/bimetallic-
thermometer.html#:~:text=Bimetallic%20Thermometer%20Definition%3A%20Th
e%20bimetallic%20thermometer%20uses%20the,of%20metal%20changes%20w
ith%20the%20variation%20in%20temperature.
Perry‘s Handbook 8th edition (Section 8)

PYROMETER
The pyrometer is ideal for taking accurate measurements of temperature without
contact. Thanks to an optical mechanism, the pyrometer is safe for measuring high
temperatures. Its infrared capabilities make the pyrometer the perfect tool to use when a
conventional sensor is inadequate. A pyrometer is useful for measuring moving,
extremely hot or hard-to-reach objects. Many pyrometer models can be calibrated to
meet ISO standards.
What is Pyrometer?

Pyrometer also is known as an Infrared thermometer or Radiation thermometer

or non-contact thermometer used to detect the temperature of an object‘s surface
temperature, which depends on the radiation (infrared or visible) emitted from the
object. Pyrometers act as photo detector because of the property of absorbing energy
and measuring of EM wave intensity at any wavelength. Pyrometers are available in
different spectral ranges (since metals – short wave ranges and non-metals-long wave
ranges).
 Color pyrometers are used to measure the radiation emitted from the object
during the temperature measurement. These can measure the object‘s temperature
very accurately. Hence the measuring errors are very low with these devices.
Color pyrometers are used to determine the ratio of two radiation intensities with
two spectral ranges. These are available in series of Metis M3 and H3 and handheld
portables Capella C3 in different versions.

High-speed pyrometers are used to temperature more fastly and quickly than M3
devices. These are available in combination with 1-color and 2-color pyrometers. These
devices can create clear temperature profiles of fast-moving objects and control the
adequate temperature level.

Working Principle of Pyrometer

Pyrometers are the temperature measuring devices used to detect the object‘s
temperature and electromagnetic radiation emitted from the object. These are available
in different spectral ranges. Based on the spectral range, pyrometers are classified into
1-color pyrometers, 2-color pyrometers, and high-speed pyrometers.
The basic principle of the pyrometer is, it measures the object‘s temperature by
sensing the heat/radiation emitted from the object without making contact with the
object. It records the temperature level depending upon the intensity of radiation
emitted. The pyrometer has two basic components like optical system and detectors
that are used to measure the surface temperature of the object.

When any object is taken whose surface temperature is to be measured with the
pyrometer, the optical system will capture the energy emitted from the object. Then the
radiation is sent to the detector, which is very sensitive to the waves of radiation. The
output of the detector refers to the temperature level of the object due to the radiation.
Note that, the temperature of the detector analysed by using the level of radiation is
directly proportional to the object‘s temperature.

The radiation emitted from every targeted object with its actual temperature goes
beyond the absolute temperature (-273.15 degrees Centigrade). This emitted radiation
is referred to as Infrared, which is above the visible red light in the electromagnetic
spectrum. The radiated energy is used for detecting the temperature of the object and it
is converted into electrical signals with the help of a detector.
Types of Pyrometer
Optical Pyrometers
These are one of the types of pyrometers used to detect thermal radiation of the
visible spectrum. The temperature of the hot objects measured will depend on the
visible light they emit. Optical pyrometers are capable of providing a visual comparison
between a calibrated light source and the targeted object‘s surface. When the
temperature of the filament and the object‘s surface is the same, then the thermal
radiation intensity caused due to the filament merges and into the targeted object‘s
surface and becomes invisible. When this process happens, the current passing
through the filament is converted into a temperature level.
In an optical pyrometer, a brightness comparison is made to measure the
temperature. As a measure of the reference temperature, a color change with the
growth in temperature is taken. The device compares the brightness produced by the
radiation of the object whose temperature is to be measured, with that of a reference
temperature. The reference temperature is produced by a lamp whose brightness can
be adjusted till its intensity becomes equal to the brightness of the source object.
For an object, its light intensity always depends on the temperature of the object,
whatever may be its wavelength. After adjusting the temperature, the current passing
through it is measured using a multimeter, as its value will be proportional to the
temperature of the source when calibrated. The working of an optical pyrometer is
shown in the figure below.

As shown in the figure above, an optical pyrometer has the following components.
1. An eye piece at the left side and an optical lens on the right.
2. A reference lamp, which is powered with the help of a battery.
3. A rheostat to change the current and hence the brightness intensity.
4. So as to increase the temperature range which is to be measured, an
absorption screen is fitted between the optical lens and the reference bulb.
 5. A red filter placed between the eye piece and the reference bulb helps in
narrowing the band of wavelength.
The radiation from the source is emitted and the optical objective lens captures it.
The lens helps in focusing the thermal radiation on to the reference bulb. The observer
watches the process through the eye piece and corrects it in such a manner that the
reference lamp filament has a sharp focus and the filament is super-imposed on the
temperature source image. The observer starts changing the rheostat values and the
current in the reference lamp changes. This in turn, changes its intensity. This change in
current can be observed in three different ways.
1. The filament is dark. That is, cooler than the temperature source.
2. Filament is bright. That is, hotter than the temperature source.
3. Filament disappears. Thus, there is equal brightness between the filament and
temperature source. At this time, the current that flows in the reference lamp is
measured, as its value is a measure of the temperature of the radiated light in the
temperature source, when calibrated.

Infrared or Radiation Pyrometers

These pyrometers are designed to detect thermal radiation in the infrared region,
which is usually at a distance of 2-14um. It measures the temperature of a targeted
object from the emitted radiation. This radiation can be directed to a thermocouple to
convert into electrical signals. Because the thermocouple is capable of generating
higher current equal to the heat emitted. Infrared pyrometers are made up of
pyroelectric materials like polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), triglycine sulfate (TGS), and
lithium tantalate (LiTaO3).
As discussed earlier, an Optical Pyrometer can be not only be used
for temperature measurement, but also can be used to see the heat that is measured.
The observer is actually able to calculate the infrared wavelength of the heat produced
and also see the heat patterns by the object. But the amount of heat that the device can
sense is limited to 0.65 microns. This is why the radiation pyrometer is more useful, as it
can be used to measure all temperatures of wavelengths between 0.70 microns and 20
microns

The wavelengths measured by the device are known to be pure radiation

wavelengths, that is, the common range for radioactive heat. This device is used in
places where physical contact temperature sensors like Thermocouple, RTD,
and Thermistors would fail because of the high temperature of the source.
The main theory behind a radiation pyrometer is that the temperature is
measured through the naturally emitted heat radiation by the body. This heat is known
to be a function of its temperature. According to the application of the device, the way in
which the heat is measured can be summarized into two:
1. Total Radiation Pyrometer – In this method, the total heat emitted from the hot
source is measured at all wavelengths.
2. Selective Radiation Pyrometer – In this method, the heat radiated from the hot
source is measured at a given wavelength.

As shown in the figure above, the radiation pyrometer has an optical system,
including a lens, a mirror and an adjustable eye piece. The heat energy emitted from the
hot body is passed on to the optical lens, which collects it and is focused on to the
detector with the help of the mirror and eye piece arrangement. The detector may either
be a thermistor or photomultiplier tubes. Though the latter is known for faster detection
of fast moving objects, the former may be used for small scale applications. Thus, the
heat energy is converted to its corresponding electrical signal by the detector and is
sent to the output temperature display device.
Six Infrared Pyrometers Technologies
1. Short-Wavelength Pyrometers
Short-Wavelength pyrometers can be defined as those that are short than 3um.
Compared with Long-Wavelength pyrometers, errors are relatively small for moderate
emissivity variation, optical obstruction and misalignment. Additionally, with careful
wavelength selection, certain short-wavelength pyrometers can view through common
interferences like steam, flames, combustion gasses, water, and plasma.

2. Long-Wavelength Pyrometers
Long-Wavelength pyrometers are typically 8-14um. These are general purpose
pyrometers that are ideal for measuring low-temperatures (below 100°C / 212°F) and
high-emissivity materials. A change in emissivity will result in a large temperature for
long-wavelength pyrometers. Handheld IR sensors are a good example of a long-
wavelength pyrometer

3. Specialty-Wavelength Pyrometers
Specialty-Wavelength pyrometers are exactly like they sound. They are filtered at
very particular and special wavelengths where a particular material is either transparent
or opaque at that particular wavelength. Some examples include Glass, Carbon-based
flames, thin-film plastics, and others. These pyrometers are used for specific
applications.

4. Two-Color Pyrometers
Two-Color pyrometers are a type of ratio pyrometer. Ratio pyrometers measure
infrared energy at two wavelengths and convert the ratio of measured energy at both
wavelengths to a temperature reading. This technology allows ratio pyrometers to
compensate for emissivity variation for most materials. Two-color pyrometers can also
tolerate partial misalignment and dirty windows. With a fixed wavelength set, two-color
pyrometers are limited in the fact that they cannot view through common interferences
like steam, flames, combustion gasses, plasmas, and water.

5. Dual-Wavelength Pyrometers
Dual-Wavelength pyrometers have the same features as two-color pyrometers
but with some significant added capabilities. Dual-Wavelength technology differs from
two-color technology in that dual-wavelength pyrometers use separate, distinct, and
selectable wavelength sets. With the ability to carefully select wavelength sets, certain
dual-wavelength pyrometers can view through steam, flames, water, combustion
gasses, and plasmas. The separate and distinct wavelength sets also allow dual-
wavelength pyrometers to tolerate scale 20x better than two-color pyrometers.

6. Multi-Wavelength Pyrometers
Multi-Wavelength pyrometers are used for specific non-grey body materials with
unique emissivity characteristics. These materials include aluminum, copper, specialty
steels, and zinc. Application-specific algorithms correct for complex emissivity
characteristics.

Advantages/Disadvantages
Usually, Pyrometers are compared with thermometers and also have some advantages
and disadvantages while using.
The Advantages of pyrometer are
 It can measure very high temperature without any contact with the object or the
hot source. This is the Non-contact measurement. Thus, it can be used in a wide
variety of applications.
 It has a fast response time
 Good stability while measuring the temperature of the object.
 It can measure different types of object‘s temperature at variable distances.
For Radiation Polymer:
 The biggest advantage is that in radiation pyrometer, the optical lens can be
adjusted to measure temperature of objects that are even 1/15 inch in diameter
and that too kept at a long distance from the measuring device.
 The sight path of the device is maintained by the construction of the instrument
components, such as the lens and curved mirrors.
For Optical Pyrometer:
 Simple assembling of the device enables easy use of it.
 Provides a very high accuracy with +/-5 degree Celsius.
 As stated above, there is no need of any direct body contact between the optical
pyrometer and the object. As long as the size of the object, whose temperature is
to measured fits with the size of the optical pyrometer, the distance between both
of them is not at all a problem. Thus, the device can be used for remote sensing.
 This device can not only be used to measure the temperature, but can also be
used to see the heat produced by the object/source. Thus, optical pyrometers
can be used to measure and view wavelengths less than or equal to 0.65
microns. But, a Radiation Pyrometer can be used for high heat applications and
can measure wavelengths between 0.70 microns to 20 microns.
The Disadvantages of pyrometer are
 Pyrometers are generally rugged and expensive
 Accuracy of the device can be affected due to the different conditions like dust,
smoke, and thermal radiation.
In Optical Pyrometer:
 As the measurement is based on the light intensity, the device can be used only
in applications with a minimum temperature of 700 degree Celsius.
 The device is not useful for obtaining continuous values of temperatures at small
intervals.

Applications
Pyrometers are used in different applications such as,
 To measure the temperature of moving objects or constant objects from a greater
distance.
 To measure temperatures of liquid metals or highly heated materials.
 In metallurgy industries
 In smelting industries
 Hot air balloons to measure the heat at the top of the ballon
 Steam boilers to measure steam temperature
 To measure the temperature of liquid metals and highly heated materials.
 To measure furnace temperature.

REFERENCES:

https://www.pce-instruments.com/english/measuring-instruments/testmeters/pyrometer-
kat_40090.html
https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-pyrometer-working-principle-and-its-
types/#:~:text=Working%20Principle%20of%20Pyrometer&text=The%20basic%
20principle%20of%20the,the%20intensity%20of%20radiation%20emitted.
http://www.instrumentationtoday.com/radiation-
pyrometer/2011/08/#:~:text=The%20main%20theory%20behind%20a,a%20fun
ction%20of%20its%20temperature.&text=Total%20Radiation%20Pyrometer%2
0%E2%80%93%20In%20this,is%20measured%20at%20all%20wavelengths
http://www.instrumentationtoday.com/optical-pyrometer/2011/08/
LASER

What is a laser?

The letters in the word laser stand for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation. A laser is an unusual light source. It is quite different from a light bulb or a
flash light. Lasers produce a very narrow beam of light. This type of light is useful for
lots of technologies and instruments—even some that you might use at home!

How does a laser work?

Light travels in waves, and the distance between the peaks of a wave is called
the wavelength

Each color of light has a different wavelength. For example, blue light has a
shorter wavelength than red light. Sunlight—and the typical light from a light bulb—is
made up of light with many different wavelengths. Our eyes see this mixture of
wavelengths as white light.

This image shows a representation of the different wavelengths present in sunlight. When all of
the different wavelengths (colors) come together, you get white light. Image credit: NASA

A laser is different. Lasers do not occur in nature. However, we have figured

ways to artificially create this special type of light. Lasers produce a narrow beam of
light in which all of the light waves have very similar wavelengths. The laser‘s light
waves travel together with their peaks all lined up, or in phase. This is why laser beams
are very narrow, very bright, and can be focused into a very tiny spot.

This image is a representation of in phase laser light waves. Image credit: NASA

Because laser light stays focused and does not spread out much (like a flashlight
would), laser beams can travel very long distances. They can also concentrate a lot of
energy on a very small area.

This image shows how a laser can focus all of its light into one small point. Credit:
NASA

Lasers have many uses. They are used in precision tools and can cut through
diamonds or thick metal. They can also be designed to help in delicate surgeries.
Lasers are used for recording and retrieving information. They are used in
communications and in carrying TV and internet signals. We also find them in laser
printers, bar code scanners, and DVD players. They also help to make parts for
computers and other electronics.
How Laser Thermometers Measure Temperature

Laser thermometers are actually infrared thermometers. The laser simply

provides a means to aim the thermometer. The molecules that make up objects are
vibrating constantly; the hotter the molecule is, the faster it vibrates, producing invisible
light in the form of infrared energy. Infrared (IR) thermometers measure the infrared
energy given off by all objects. To display the temperature, the thermometer converts
the infrared energy it measures into an electrical signal, which is then displayed as a
temperature.

How the Thermometer Measures Infrared Energy

Infrared energy has a longer wavelength than visible light and is part of the
electromagnetic spectrum of light, which also includes microwaves, radio waves,
ultraviolet light, gamma and X-rays. Infrared energy can be measured in three ways:
transmitted, reflected and emitted. IR thermometers measure the emitted energy of
objects. IR thermometers use a series of lenses and mirrors to focus the emitted
infrared energy onto a detector. The detector converts the emitted infrared energy into
an electrical signal, which the thermometer turns into a digital temperature reading.
Since all IR thermometers can detect transmitted, reflected and emitted infrared energy,
the thermometer has to be calibrated using the manufacturer's directions to read
emitted infrared energy only.

Emitted infrared energy is the only energy that can give an accurate surface
temperature reading. If the IR thermometer is to be used on multiple objects, an emitted
infrared energy guide will be needed. Most objects have an emitted infrared energy of
0.95; however, some objects have a higher or lower emitted infrared energy. The guide
allows the IR thermometer to be adjusted to read a specific object's emitted energy.

When to Use Your Infrared Thermometer

IR thermometers are used to measure the temperatures of very hot objects,

objects in hard-to-reach places, hazardous materials and in food manufacturing to
monitor the temperature of frozen and hot foods. Use the laser sight to focus on the
object being measured. For an accurate temperature reading, the object being
measured should fill the field of view of the IR thermometer. Dark-colored objects give
the most accurate temperature reading; shiny objects may reflect infrared light back to
the thermometer, which will skew the temperature readings.

To get the best temperature reading from shiny objects, a portion of the object
should be covered with black tape. The black tape should be allowed to come to the
ambient temperature of the object before a reading is taken. Use the black tape as the
target for the temperature reading. For liquid objects, just stir the liquid and then take
the temperature reading. IR thermometers work at room temperature and in very cold
environments. For the most accurate readings the thermometer should be the same
temperature of the ambient or surrounding temperature.

REFERENCES:

https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/laser/en/

https://sciencing.com/thermal-physics-an-overview-13725855.html

SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVE

A Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) is an acoustic wave that travels along the
surface of a material exhibiting elasticity, with amplitude that typically decays
exponentially with depth into the substrate. SAW were discovered in 1885 by Lord
Rayleigh and are often named after him: Rayleigh waves. The velocity of acoustic
waves is typically 3000 m/s, which is much lower than the velocity of the
electromagnetic waves.

SAW DEVICE

SAW Device converts electrical energy into mechanical wave on a single crystal
substrate and vice versa. It provides a very complex signal processing in a very small
volume. The operation of this device is based on acoustic wave propagation near the
surface of a piezoelectric solid. This implies that the wave can be trapped or otherwise
modified while propagating. The displacements decay exponentially away from the
surface, so that most of the wave energy is confined within a depth equal to one
wavelength. The surface wave can be excited electrically by means of an interdigital
transducer (IDT).

Basic structure of SAW device

SAW DEVICE COMPONENTS
Piezoelectric Substrate
The commonly used substrate crystals are: Quarts, Lithium Niobate,
Lithium Tantalate, Zinc Oxide and Bismuth Germanium Oxide. They have different
piezoelectric coupling coefficients and temperature sensitivities. The ST quartz is used
for the most temperature stable devices. The wave velocity of the substrate material is
in the range 1500m/s to 4800 m/s, which is 105 times lower than the electromagnetic
wave velocity. This enables the construction of a small size delay line of considerable
delay.

Transducers (IDT)

Consist of series of interleaved electrodes made of a metal fil deposited

on a piezoelectric substrate. The width of the electrodes usually equals the width of the
inter-electrode gaps giving the maximal conversion of electrical to mechanical signal
and vice versa. The minimal electrode width which is obtained in industry is around 0.3
, which determines the highest frequency of around 3Ghz.

Reflectors

The wave reflects from the reflective array and travels back to the
transducer, which transforms it back to the electrical signal. The attenuation of the
signal is minimal if the frequency of the input signal matches the resonant frequency of
the device.

APPLICATIONS OF SAW
Saw Touchscreen
Waves are directed across screen by reflectors then directed to receiving
transducers. When finger touches screen it absorbs waves, received values are
compared to stored digital maps to calculate x and y coordinates. Applications of Saw
Touch Screen are ATM‘s, Amusement Parks, Gaming Environments, Kiosks and
Industrial Control Rooms.

Advantages
 Best optical quality
 High surface durability
 Activated by multiple sources
 High ―touch-life‖
 Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Contaminates on screen can cause false touches
 Non-conductive material cannot activate screen

Sensors

SAW sensors are a class of micro electromechanical systems (MEMS)

which rely on the modulation of surface acoustic waves to sense a physical
phenomenon. The sensor transduces an input electrical signal into a mechanical wave
which, unlike an electrical signal can easily influenced by physical phenomena. The
device then transduces this wave back into an electrical signal. Changes in amplitude,
phase, frequency, or time delay between the input and output electrical signal can be
used to measure the presence of the desired phenomenon.

 RFID
 SAW FILTER
 SAW RESONATORS

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SAW

Advantages
• Low Velocity
• Low attenuation
• Low cost
• Simple design and fabrication
• Low power consumption
Disadvantages
• Cannot be operated in liquids
• Piezoelectric substrates are temperature dependent

REFERENCES:

https://www.slideshare.net/akhilbaraik/surface-acoustic-wave-technology

https://www.slideshare.net/nhojndungu/surface-acoustic-waves

https://www.slideshare.net/sjykmuch/surface-acoustic-wave-saw-based-sensors
SEMICONDUCTOR

Semiconductor probes are the third main category of probe, and are placed on
Integrated Circuits (ICs). Like a resistance probe, they require a current (or voltage)
supply to create a reading. This is where the similarity ends. Semiconductor probes are
created from a semiconductor wafer that contains a number of active circuits. Probably
the most common of these are the Analog Devices AD590 Device. The actual circuit
that the device consists of is shown below.

This device is essentially a temperature variable resistance device, which then

converts the change in resistance to a change in current. In this particular device, the
controlled current output is equal to 1µA/°K. These devices do not typically have the
accuracy that an RTD would due to the manufacturing tolerances, however they are
extremely cost effective for large volume applications. The devices have a relatively
large initial tolerance or absolute offset, but this is countered by a very high level of
repeatability.

As an example, an AD590K will vary as much as ±2.5°C at 25°C, but once you
know what this offset is, you can adjust for it and the device will be able to make
measurements that are repeatable to within 0.1°C.
 The above temperature sensor has three terminals and required Maximum of 5.5
V supply. This type of sensor consists of a material that operates according to
temperature to vary the resistance. This change of resistance is sensed by the circuit
and it calculates the temperature. When the voltage increases then the temperature
also rises. We can see this operation by using a diode.

Temperature sensors directly connected to microprocessor input and thus

capable of direct and reliable communication with microprocessors. The sensor unit can
communicate effectively with low-cost processors without the need for A/D converters.

Background on Semiconductor Sensors

In general, the semiconductor temperature sensor is best suited for embedded
applications - that is, for use within equipment. This is because they tend to be
electrically and mechanically more delicate than most other temperature sensor types.
However, they do have legitimate application in many areas, hence their inclusion. The
sensors can be grouped into five broad categories: voltage output, current output,
resistance output, digital output and simple diode types.

1. Voltage Output Temperature Sensors

2. Current Output Temperature Sensors
3. Resistance Output Temperature Sensors
4. Digital Output Temperature Sensors
The digital temperature sensor is the first sensor to integrate a sensor and
an analog to digital converter (ADC) on to a single silicon chip. Digital temperature
sensors eliminate the necessity for extra components, such as an A/D converter, within
the application and there is no need to calibrate components or the system at specific
reference temperatures as needed when utilizing thermistors.

5. Diode Output Temperature Sensors

Diodes are frequently used as temperature sensors in a wide variety of
moderate-precision temperature measurement applications. Linear temperature
coefficient such as –2mV/C° across operating temperatures makes diodes a great
solution for flexible and low-cost applications. The circuitry can be quite simple, but
making a temperature measurement system with a diode will require excitation,
offsetting, and amplification.

Comparison of Semiconductor-based sensors to other sensors

For basic temperature sensing where accuracy of ±2°C to ±3°C is adequate,
thermistors tend to be a popular choice due to their low cost and minimal bill of
materials (BOM). However, for MCU-based applications if an ADC input is not available,
then semiconductor sensors are the preferred option. For designs that require higher
accuracy better than ±2°C, lower power consumption and/or high-resolution
measurements, semiconductor sensors provide the best performance for the price as
long as the sensing range is within –40 to +125 °C.

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) traditionally offer the highest accuracy

as good as ±0.2°C, albeit at high cost and with additional external BOM cost necessary
to maintain accurate analog to digital conversions. New semiconductor temperature
sensors like the Si705x from Silicon Labs now offer accuracy levels comparable to
RTDs without the need for external BOM.

REFERENCES:

https://www.rs-online.com/designspark/measuring-temperature-accurately-with-
semiconductor-sensor

https://web.mst.edu/~cottrell/ME240/Resources/Temperature/Temperature.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_measurement#:~:text=One%20of%20the%20
most%20common,the%20volume%20of%20the%20fluid

https://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/sensors_transducers_detectors/temperature_se
nsing/temperature_probes#:~:text=Temperature%20probes%20are%20devices
%20used,as%20voltage%20difference%20or%20resistanc

https://www.analog.com/media/en/technical-documentation/data-sheets/AD590.pd

https://www.capgo.com/Resources/Temperature/Semiconductor/Semi.html

https://www.watelectrical.com/6-different-types-of-temperature-sensors-with-their-
specifications/

https://www.elprocus.com/temperature-sensors-types-working-operation/