Definition and Principles of Communication

Welcome to your first module of the subject “Oral Communications in Context.” This module will
cover the importance, definition of communication, its principles and characteristics. At the end
of this module you are expected:

1. To be able to understand why we need to study communication;

2. To be able to give the definition of communication; and
3. To know and understand the principles and characteristics of
communication.
Once born, we start communicating with our parents – crying when we are
hungry, scared, or when we feel pain. As we grow up, our family, then
society
- teaches us how to speak then draw then read and write. Through these
practices, communication became integrated in our lives. It then became
a basic human activity that enables us to connect with each other
(Langley, 2006).
Having done this as early as we were babies and having done this
subconsciously, it may be a bit surprising to discover that communication is
a complex process. We take it for granted because it is natural for us. It is
second nature for us to speak, use facial expressions, listen to each other,
and to learn how to read and write. To be able to understand how it happens,
we would need to dissect its characteristics and elements.
Think about an incident or experience in the past where you got in trouble
because you misunderstood what your parents or sibling said. What did it
feel like after you found out that you heard something wrong? Did it affect
your day and your relationship with that person? Such simple experiences
can give a glimpse of how pivotal communication is in our lives.

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Why Communication is important

(http://picfind1.indexbuzz.net/picfind1/page729/)
Look at the illustration above. Why do you think this happened to their
project? In your opinion, how could they have avoided this error?
Mark Twain sums up communication nicely, “The difference between a
good word and the right word is the same as the difference between a
lightning bug and lightning.” (Dean Brenner, Marni Lane). Learning how to
be a good communicator opens a lot of opportunity for us in relationships,
career, and in fulfilling our goals and dreams.

Defining Communication
Communication started years ago with some of our ancestors surviving
through drawings, sounds, and gestures. Along with the evolution of
civilizations various mediums of communication also emerged.
Through time, technology became integrated in our language processes
and description.
Communication is defined in several ways but the fundamental or basic
aspects embodies the following definition:
Communication, originating from the Latin word communicare – meaning to
share, unite or join, can be defined as the process by which people share
ideas or thoughts which can be understood by another through a chosen
medium. These said medium can either be verbal or non-verbal channels.
In a nutshell, it is to send and receive messages using a channel.

Principles of Communication
Before we delve in to oral communication, let us first go through the
principles of communication. Knowing these would make it easier for us to
understand how to properly and adequately communicate with others.

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1. Schemata- driven
The process of communication makes you either the sender or receiver. By
taking one of the roles above, you will activate your schemata, background,
or experiences.
Schemata or schemas provide a basis on how we relate to ideas, concepts,
and events based on past experiences. Prior experiences give meaning to
conveyed messages. Having no previous experience nor idea will only resort
pronouncing or sounding the words. No experience of any communicative
act will trigger views, feelings, or ideas.
2. Interpretative act
Communication is an interpretative act. The exact meaning of the
message being transmitted is known only by the sender or speaker. The
sender has the absolute idea of what the meaning of the message is. The
receiver can only interpret, guess or infer based on how it appeals to
his/her sense of hearing.
3. Communication is active, forceful or powerful
In a communicative act, there will always be different effects to the
participants. Any message conveyed may have various interpretations
because of cultural, ideological, and environmental factors. What is rude in
one culture can be perceived as something acceptable in another. For
example, in western countries, calling an adult not related to you by their
first name is acceptable; yet, in the Philippines, this is rude. You need to use
their titles or (i.e. Attorney, Miss, Mrs., teacher, etc.) general terms showing
respect (i.e. auntie, kuya, tito, etc.) when you call refer to them or call them by
their name.
4. Communication is Symbolic
Signs, symbols, letters, graphs, pictures, etc. are concrete objects that stands
for or represents an idea. Non-verbal communication, on the other hand,
expresses ideas through gestures, voice pitch, posture, facial expression,
time, and space.
5. Communication always result in something
Two or more persons usually participate in any communicative act. One
sends the message while another reacts to the message. As a transactional
process, communication creates an effect on the involved parties. It will
elicit either a verbal or non-verbal response.
6. Communication is irreversible
The adage “Think before you click” suggests that you go over any message or
idea before posting it on your social networks or messages. The same
concept should also be applied to the other forms of communication. With
oral communications, the moment you utter the words to convey your
message already creates an impact to listeners. Attempts to reverse, restore,

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 or recreate the original mood or setting before these words were spoken
would be irrevocable. The discipline of mulling over your thoughts before
translating them into words can help avoid any instances which may
cause problems directly or indirectly.
7. Communication is contextual
Idea exchanges between the sender and the receiver involves
communication setting like time, occasion, purpose or manner of
communication. Consider cultural differences when communicating to avoid
any negative impact due to the effects of the factors above.
8. Communication is Progressive
Communication is a process you learn from birth and continues to evolve as
time passes by. Communicative competence is not learned in one sitting. You
go through different levels as you strive to improve your abilities to interact
with other people.
9. Communication is a process
Several stages of communication take place when people convey and
exchange ideas with one another. Each stage differs from the other.
Elements or components work in a coordinated manner the complete the
process.
10. Communication is ethical
A communicative event is expected to follow rules, values, and beliefs
agreed upon by members of society. These standards determine which
cultural group you belong to. Going against these conventions make the
interaction with others wrong or unethical.
Examples can be read here: Don’t give a thumbs-up sign in Russia and
other hand gesture facts (Schwertly, 2014).
11. Communication is Influenced by technology and media
Communication in the current age of technology is characterized by
the instant, real-time exchange of knowledge, messages, and services.
The rapid speed of communication influences how people construct
their messages and what platform the use to send their messages.

Why we need to study Oral Communication

Oral communication competence – both in listening and speaking – is
mandatory to the success of a person academically, professionally, and in
their personal lives. Poor listening skills lead to people being unable to
absorb and understand instructions. This issue intensifies as they
respond incorrectly or inappropriately because of deplorable speaking
skills. Being able to articulate your ideas and opinions adds value to one’s
self.
Skills in oral communication transcends the academic and professional
setting. Competence in listening and speaking can also contribute to
personal fulfillment.

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 Kinds of Communication

The previous module gave an overview of what communication is and

the principles that govern this process. In this module, the discussion
will be about the two main kinds of communication.
After reading this module and going through the activities, you should
be able:
4. To determine the kinds of communication; and
5. To understand how these kinds are used to be an effective
communicator.
Learning these kinds of communication will greatly aid you in
becoming more aware of how to create more emphasis or to tone down
when transmitting your messages or messages you receive.
To get an overview of the two main kinds of communication, refer to
the illustration below.

Communication

Non-Verbal Verbal

Audio Visual
Written Oral
Signals Signals

Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication transmits messages without relying on
language or speech. It uses audio signals or visual signals to communicate a
message.
1. Kinesics
Kinesics is the language of the body. Notice how our body movements and
facial expressions add visuals. You may know a friend or an acquaintance
who is entertaining to watch when telling a story because of the gestures
or
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facial twitches. This friend is practicing this form of non-verbal
communication.
To illustrate how body language and facial expressions affect how we
communicate, click on this link to watch the video FBI Agent Explains How
to Spot Liars from KOCO 5 News’ Youtube channel.
2. Proxemics
Proxemics is the language of space. Distance and space are devices that
can also be used to convey meaning. The relationship of people can be
determined by observing the distance they maintain from each other.
The illustration below, from the website bodylanguageproject.com, gives
a general description of space people take-up depending on their
relationship with others.

However, one must also consider other factors when deciphering the
relationship between people from other cultures. For example, Americans
are naturally more aggressive in nature when it comes to positioning
themselves when talking to others, on the contrary, an English person will
maintain a relatively farther distance as compared to the American.
3. Haptics
Haptics is the language of touch. This nonverbal communication reveals
feelings and culture. If you have ever heard of the saying mother’s touch, it
illustrates how someone can feel loved just through touching. Another
example is when friends bump fists to show that they acknowledge another
person’s idea or they absolutely agree on something. At work, it’s also
important to remember that there are rules to follow when communicating
with your superiors or colleagues. There is such thing as Professional-
functional touch, which is used to communicate emotions of managers to
their team members. (2014, Haptics accessed on slideshare.net)
4. Chronemics
Chronemics is the language of time. This shows the interrelatedness of time
and communication. A way in which one perceives and values time,
structures time, and reacts to time frames communication. Across cultures,
time perception plays a large role in the nonverbal communication process
(Chronoemics. basicknowledge101.com).

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An example can be what they call Filipino time. During events, Filipinos
allegedly come at least an hour or two late, thus, foreigners usually
complain about the practice of Filipino time since foreigners, especially
Americans, usually arrive on time. This goes to show that Filipinos and
foreigners may have a different understanding of what “on time” really
means.
5. Appearance
The language of looks-appearance. The way a person looks reflects on
his/her status or position, mood, culture, taste, and grooming. As with
working, certain companies require a specific look amongst their
employees, say a brand ambassador for a make-up brand versus a brand
ambassador for a laundry soap. Basically, how you look reflects not only to
you as a person but also to an institution or your social group.
Buzzfeed did a social experiment called Does It Pay To Be Attractive? This is
a good example of how people react to how someone looks. To learn more
about this social experiment follow this link.
6. Artifacts
Artifactual communication is the language of objects. “Artifactual
communication is the aesthetic coding and decoding of symbols or
representations. The coding and decoding is subjectively interpreted with
culture in mind in order to establish cautious generalizations) about the
individual who adorns themselves with an artifact” (2002. Artifactual
Communication: A Modern Approach to Understanding Communication
through Nonverbal Artifacts, Rudrow, K.). Artifacts and the interpretation
of what they mean are never absolute representation, merely
approximations. Objects, colors, body modifications, and environments
make up criteria that may constitute artifacts. (2002. Rudrow,K.)
7. Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to various nonverbal cues we can hear in our voice.
These elements are the following:
- Vocal Quality - refers to the how pleasant or unpleasant a
person’s voice sounds. Voice quality is usually referred to as the
timbre or tone color. As with communicating, emotions play a
role (2008. Flores, C. and Lopez, B, Effective Speech
Communication 5th Edition)
- Pitch - lowness or highness of tone. People vary in the pitch of
their voice although it can be observed that nervousness, fright, and
sometimes excitement may raise the pitch of the voice, on the other hand,
sadness or disappointment makes the pitch lower (2008, Flores and
Lopez).
c. Tempo - how fast or slow someone speaks
d. Volume - describes the force of the voice or how loud or soft it goes
e. Junctures - breaks or pauses applied at the end of utterances or
between thoughts

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Verbal Communication
Verbal communication uses written or spoken language to transmit
information or messages. It involves sound production; utterance of words
phrases and sentences through speech. There are five basic features of
human language:
1. Phonology
Phonology studies the system of sound in language including how sound is
organized and structured to convey meaning. Follow this link for a
simplified explanation of this topic.
2. Semantics
Semantics deal with meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in a
language. Semantics “explains different connotations (associated meaning)
and denotations (dictionary meaning of words)”. For a more interesting
take, head on to this link to watch “Introduction to Semantics” by Ashton
English.
3. Morphology
Morphology studies the formation of words. Words can be divided into two
categories: content words and function words. To know more follow this
link to watch The Linguistic Channel’s video “An Introduction to
Morphology”.
4. Syntax
Syntax is when one studies how words are put together to
form grammatically correct sentences in language.
5. Pragmatics
Pragmatics touches on how language is used. It is how words can be
interpreted in various scenarios.

Process and Elements of Communication

As mentioned in the previous module, we said that communication is a

process. In this module, we will be talking about the communication
process and the elements needed. At the end of this module you are
expected:
6. To be able to define and discuss the elements of communication;
7. To be able to understand the roles of these elements in the process
of communication; and
8. To be able to identify forms of communication; and
9. To be able to utilize different forms of communication to improve
quality of life.
To be able to understand how communication happens, always remember
that communication is a two-way process. Always remember that for
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 every message sent to the receiver, we must expect a feedback or
response either through non-verbal or verbal medium.

Process of Communication

The communication process pertains to the steps through which

communication takes place between the sender and the receiver in an
understandable manner. It is dynamic in nature rather than a static
occurrence. The diagram above shows the communication process and
Elements of Communication
The sender (source) is an individual, group, or organization who initiates
the communication. All communication begins with the sender. The
sender is the source of information for a target receiver or audience.
The first step the sender does involves the encoding process. This
process translates the ideas or concepts into the coded message that will
be communicated. The symbols can take on different forms like
languages, words, or gestures. The message is the idea or information
being conveyed by the sender to the receiver or listener. It includes
content, structure, and style.
To start sending the message, the sender uses a channel which is also
known as a medium. It is the method used to deliver the message. Most
channels are either oral or written but, as technology evolves, visual
channels are becoming more common. Usual channels include the television,
radio, telephone/mobile phone, etc. The message begins with the decoding
stage when the appropriate channel is selected.
Decoding is executed by the receiver. Once the message is received and
reviewed, it is sent to the brain to be interpreted to appoint meaning to it.
Successful communication occurs when the receiver correctly interprets
the sender's message.
The receiver is the individual or individuals to whom the message is
directed. All interpretations by the receiver are influenced by their
experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture.
Picture the next scene. Shelly is a shy student who says little inside
the classroom. She may feel a bit nervous when her teacher asked her.
Feedback is a key element of the communication process since it allows
the sender to review the effectiveness of the message. It may be in the form
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 of a spoken comment, a long sigh, a written message, a smile, or some
other action. Without feedback, the sender cannot confirm that the
receiver has interpreted the message correctly.
Certain barriers are present throughout the communication process. Some
usual barriers include the use of an inappropriate channel, incorrect
grammar, provocative words, words that conflict with body language, and
technical jargon. Noise is also another common barrier. Noise can occur
during any stage of the process. Noise is essentially anything that distorts a
message by interfering with the communication process. Noise can take
many forms, including a radio playing in the background, another person
trying to enter your conversation, and any other distractions that prevent
the receiver from paying attention.

Forms of Communication
1. Intrapersonal Communication

Source Receiver

When we talk about communication, we usually think of sending messages

to another person; however, communicating with one’s self is also possible.
It is the first level of communication we experience.
The prefix intra means “within”. We experience this kind of communication
when we meditate, analyze, think, study, and talk to one’s self. You talk to
yourself when you are about to make a decision and you argue or try to
persuade yourself. Sometimes you also do this when you’re rehearsing a
message you intend to send to others.
Talking to yourself is normal and necessary. You are simply engaging in
intrapersonal communication. The study of this form of communication is
not that popular; yet, awareness of this form of communication can
greatly enhance the quality of life.

2. Dyadic Communication

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 Source
Source
Receiver

Dyadiccommunication is when two people communicate. Communication

may take place through the phone, SMS messaging or face-to-face such as
interviews, dialogues or ordinary conversations.
It is through interpersonal communication that you establish, maintain,
restore and/or end relationships. At this level of communication, you
learn about others and hopefully, you learn about yourself as well.

3. Small Group Communication

Receiver
Source

Receiver
Source
Source
Receiver

Source Source
Receiver Receive

Source
Receive

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Small group communication happens when more than three people are
involved. This is simply an enlarged group which usually happens to solve
problems. Examples of this are conferences, business meetings, symposiums,
and team meetings inside the classroom.

4. Public Communication

Public communication happens between one and several other people. This
large group type of communication usually happens in public speaking. In
public speaking, the speaker addresses the audience to persuade, inform,
entertain, or do all of three. Just like the other forms, this kind of
communication requires knowledge and good communication skills from the
speaker.

5. Mass Communication

Mass communication happens when you communicate to an extremely

large audience. It is usually mediated by audio and/or visual means. The
purposes are to entertain, persuade and/or inform.

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Media and technology are used to reach a large audience in a variety of ways today. Examples of
mass communication media are television, radio, newspapers, recordings, movies, magazines,
comics, billboards, computers, and the internet. As seen in the image above, the newscaster is
communicating to his audience via the radio, television, and Youtube.

Communication Models

After learning about the different elements that support the process of
communication, we will now move on to the different models of
communication to further understand how communication happens. At the
end of this module you are expected:
10. To be able to identify the three standard communication models;
11. To be able to differentiate the various models of communication; and
12. To be able to distinguish the unique feature(s) of one
communication process from the other.
The process of communication can be studied through the communication
models. These communication models are conceptual models. Conceptual
models aid in simplifying the explanation of how something works.
As mentioned in the previous module, communication is a process and to be
able to understand how the process works, we will utilize the
communication models below.

Linear Communication Models

The linear model was the first kind of model that experts have made to
understand the process of communication. This kind of model has
improved and has been updated through the years. Characteristics of the
linear model are the following:
- Unidirectional - The linear model is a unidirectional model. It is one-way
communication. The speaker sends messages to the receiver with or
without effect. Senders can only transmit messages while receivers can only
receive the messages and no feedback is expected to happen.
Communication may not happen in turns – thus, the lack of feedback is seen
in this model. This applies to mass communication.
- Simple - This model presents a simple communication act. If you look at
the figure below, you will observe that it doesn't look like a process. Instead,
it looks like the transmission of one-way causality, which is conveying of
only a cause and effect. There is only the beginning and the end and there is
no interchanging of roles between the sender and receiver.

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 - Persuasion not Mutual understanding - This model promotes one-way
direction of communication which promotes advice and influence rather
than understanding from both receiver and sender. Again, the emphasis is on
the lack of feedback.

Course Module
4) Values psychological over social effects:
This model focuses more on the psychological effects (such as
understanding the messages) rather than the social effects (like building the
relationship amongst the communicators). There is no assurance that the
message was effective because the receiver is only concerned with the
delivery of the message and will now know the effect on the receiver/s
because of the lack of feedback.

MESSAGE
SENDER
RECIEVER

Examples of Linear Communication Models

A. Shannon-Weaver
The Shannon-Weaver model, also known as the Information Theory model,
was primarily developed to illustrate transmission of electronic
information back in 1948.

This conceptual model has six elements:

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 a) Information source / Sender: The Sender / Information Source
chooses the message/s to be communicated to the receiver and
the channel to use and sends the message.
b) Transmitter/ Encoder: This changes the message into a signal
then sends it over the communication channel
c) Channel – This is the medium the sender uses to transmit
the message/s
d) Receptor/Decoder – This does the opposite of the Encoder. It
decodes the message sent over the channel.
e) Receiver / Destination – The receiver is the person or group of
people who must get the message. The receiver can then provide a
feedback which will then reverse their roles.
f) Noise - Noise is a kind of disturbance coming from people, the
environment, internal knowledge, beliefs, etc. which hinders the
receiver from getting and understanding the message.
An example how this model explains this process: The sender can be you and
the receiver can be your friend. The channel you will use is your mobile
network. The encoder is your mobile network company and decoder is the
receiver’s smartphone. When you try to send an SMS message to your friend
and your friend receives only parts of the message due to disruption of
mobile signal, that is the noise.
B. Berlo’s SMCR model
David Berlo conceptualized the Sender-Message-Channel – Receiver (SMCR)
model during the sixties. He postulated this model from the Shannon-
Weaver Information Theory model and emphasized on the encoding and
decoding parts of the process.

Berlo’s model has 4 components: Sender, Message, Channel, and Receiver.

He stated that each of the components are affected by many factors.
1) Sender
a) Communication Skills
The communication skills of sender and receiver plays a significant role
in the process. Communication skills include writing, speaking, listening,
presenting, reading, etc. If the sender is not good in communicating, the
message might be lost in the process of transmittal.
b) Attitudes
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 The attitude of the sender and receiver also plays a part in the process.
The sender’s attitude towards others, himself/herself, and the
environment can affect the meaning of the message.
c) Knowledge
Knowledge of the sender and receiver on the subject matter makes the
sender and effective communicator. If the sender is familiar with the
subject or topic at hand, it adds value and impact to the message.
d) Social System
Beliefs, religions, social status, values and other social factors can affect
how the sender communicates the message and how the receiver
understands it. The situation and place or environment where it happens
are also part of this element.
e) Culture
Cultural difference can make it difficult to communicate. Some culture
may accept something while the other may find it offensive. Culture may
also be under social systems.
2) Message
a) Content
The content is the entirety of the message – it covers the beginning until
the end.
b) Elements
These are what comprise the message. This includes gestures, body
language, language, haptics, etc. Content is accompanied by elements
c) Treatment
Treatment is how the message is conveyed. It is how you package your
message.
d) Structure
Structure refers to the arrangement of elements in the content of the
message. Arrangement of elements affects the effectivity and impact of
the message.
e) Code
Code is the form in which the message will be sent. Message can be sent
in the form of videos, spoken word, text, culture etc. Improper use of a
code may still lead to miscommunication.
3) Channel – simply means the use of the five senses.
a) Hearing - Hearing is when you use your ears to get the message.
b) Seeing - When eyes are used, the sense of sight is activated.
c) Touching - Communication through touching is also possible.
d) Smelling - Smell can also be used as a channel for communication.
The smell of something burning can communicate the danger of
fire nearby.
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 e) Taste - Taste can also be a channel of communication. The tongue
has millions of tastes buds that can be used to decipher.
4) Receiver - the receiver and the sender have the same elements. You
can refer to the description above.
a) Communication Skills
b) Attitudes
c) Knowledge
d) Social System
e) Culture

Transactional Communication Models

The transactional models are communication models that illustrate how the
sender and receiver take turns in conveying and receiving messages. We call
the sender and receiver “communicators”. Their roles are reversed each
time sending and receiving messages occur at the same time. For this kind
of communication model we will scrutinize the Helix model.
Dance’s Helix Model
The Helical model of communication was conceptualized in 1967 by
Frank Dance. A helix is "an object having a three-dimensional shape like
that of a wire wound uniformly around a cylinder or cone" like a
corkscrew or coil that grows bigger and bigger as it moves up.

The Helix communication model illustrates how the development and

growth of communication or communicative actions will always be based on
previous experiences or behaviors. “That communication while moving
forward is at the same time coming back to itself and being affected by its
past behavior…” (Dance, 1967). This model shows how the knowledge base
of a person deepens and expands throughout life. This model also shows that

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a person’s understanding of a message or thought is influenced by external
and internal factors that are learned through out life.
To better illustrate how this works, refer to the illustration and example
below.

As babies, the only way we can communicate was through crying. Babies cry
when they are hungry, scared, uncomfortable or startled. When babies cry,
their parents will give them what they want – milk, a change of diapers, or be
rocked to sleep. As they grow up they continue to use crying as a language in
their toddler years but they also learn how to speak during these years. So
aside from crying to get what they want, they also communicate using the
vocabulary they learn. As they grow older, their vocabulary increases and
they learn to utilize not only words but non-verbal cues to communicate
what they want or need to others. This build-up of experiences to send and
receive messages can be explained by the helical model of communication.
Interactive Communication Model
Interactive communication model, also known as convergence model,
emphasizes the coding and decoding components of the process. It also focuses
on the cycle of message exchanges between the sender and receiver.
The source of the message will need to encode the message while the receiver
will need to decode the message. These messages will always be affected by the
“field of experience” – these are communication patterns rising from factors
such as psychological, social, cultural, societal or situational experiences or
gained knowledge. This model also takes into consideration noise as a form of
barrier in communication. Schramm’s communication model is an example of an
Interactive communication model.

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Schramm’s Communication Model

Schramm’s model has the following components:

a. Sender (transmitter) – sends the message
b. Encoder - converts the message into codes before sending
c. Decoder - gets the encoded message then converts it into the
language understandable by the receiver
d. Interpreter - tries to understand and analyze the message.
Message is considered received after interpretation is done
and message is understood. Interpreter and receiver are the
same.
e. Receiver - gets the message. Decoding and interpreting is
also part of his/her role.
f. Message - data sent by the sender and information that the
receiver gets.
g. Feedback - process where in receiver responds to the
received message
h. Medium or media - channel used to send the message.
i. Noise - interference disruptions during the process. This is
also created when the intended meaning sent by the sender
is different from what was interpreted by the receiver.
j. *Field of experience - patterns which affect the
communication process. This can be from society, culture,
situations, psychological or sociological events or experiences
of the sender and receiver.

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Schramm’s communication model states the communication is a never-
ending process. This model emphasizes the encoding and decoding parts of
the process. It suggests that the role of the receiver and sender will
eventually switch with each other as they continue the exchange of
messages. Feedback is seen as an important part of this model to ensure that
communication takes place. The field of experience affects the
messages being exchanged. It means that the background of the persons
involved in the communication process plays a role in how they interpret
the messages received or how they encode the messages they will be
sending.
This model can be used in Interpersonal and Intrapersonal communication.
A simple example of how this happens in real life: You are the sender and
your friend is the receiver. The communication is initiated by the sender.
The message is first processed in the sender’s brain then sent to the mouth to
be transmitted. The message is then delivered to your friend through
language, your voice, symbols, and non-verbal cues. While sharing the
message you may encounter disruptions or noise. Your friend will in turn try
to understand the message and will react or give feedback accordingly. This
process repeats until one of them ends the process.

Intercultural Communication

The rise of the internet and the improvement of transportation and

technology made it possible for us to get to know our fellow humans from
other countries. We are now living in a period where traveling from one
place to another is easier than before and communication has become
swift that we have found ways to work with other people from different
time zones and regions.
As our world becomes smaller in a sense that we get to touch base faster
and in more frequently than before, we will then be more exposed to
various cultures from different points in the world.
This module will be centered around intercultural communication and the
barriers as well as strategies to become effective and ethical
communicators.
It is expected that at the end of this module:
13. To be able to identify the aspects of intercultural communication;
14. To identify problems in intercultural communication; and
15. To be able to identify and apply strategies to avoid
intercultural communication breakdown;

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 Culture is the accumulated learned behavior of a group of people. It is the way
of life of people that they accept without thinking and it is passed along from
one generation to another through imitation and communication.
Culture doesn’t have to be from another country, it can also be observed
from people living in the same country but from different regions or states
or even groups of people coming from different schools, religion or even
family.
Intercultural communication involves communicating with another
person or group of people coming from a background or community who
does not share your beliefs, tradition, symbolism, or values. This kind of
communication should be done in a mindful way to be able to engage each
other properly and effectively.

Aspects of Intercultural communication

There are five basic elements or aspects to remember when participating
in an intercultural or cross-cultural communication. These elements are:
1) Cultural Identity
As mentioned earlier, culture is the sum of the beliefs, traditions, values,
symbols and practices of a group of people (Mulvaney, 2005). Different culture
doesn’t necessarily mean you live in a different country or continent. Different
culture can be seen within a community; say, culture in rural areas
Course Module

versus urban areas. We can even observe different culture from another
family who lives next door to us.
An example of cultural difference: Chinese families teach children early on
the value of handling money well as they want their children to focus
more on business, maths, and sciences. Also, it is part of their culture to be
transparent when it comes to money matters. (Lee-Chua, 2012) (Li,
2008). On the other hand, Filipinos shy away from talking about money
with their family as it is taboo. Money is often a topic avoided as it brings
misunderstanding. (Rapisura, 2016).
2) Gender role
Gender is a social construct and is not synonymous to sex, which refers to
the anatomical differences between male and female. Gender roles are
learned and taught by culture. A culture’s language reflects the social roles of
men and women.
An example can be calling an assertive girl “bossy” and calling an assertive
boy “a leader”. Immediately you can observe the negative connotation of the
term “bossy” – that is usually used to describe women in a patriarchal
society. Male language is often direct, commanding, and assertive while
female language should be polite, collaborative and nurturing.
3) Age Identity

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This refers not only to their biological age but it is also about how they
think and feel about themselves as they age. Age identity influences one’s
self-image, language use, personality, attitude and communication with
others. We consider that some children can be mature and not all adults are
responsible and matured.
We may have dealt with cases wherein old people usually generalize
that teenagers as brash and impulsive even if this is not true. Moreover,
older people specially those have reached their 50s to be fragile and
slow.
In other instances, advertisements use life-span-related role identities can
be used to trigger affect to a certain period. An example can be the infamous
McDonald’s commercial aptly titled, “Lolo” (Notz, 2002). This commercial
showed the relationship of “Karen” the granddaughter and her grandfather
who were eating at McDonald’s. This commercial became popular as it
showcases the relationship of the brand with the relationship of the two
characters.
4) Social Status
Social Status is determined and assigned according to income, titles
possessions, etc. Social classes in other cultures also differ from one another.
Generally speaking, the lower classes usually work blue collar jobs while the
upper middle and elite or upper class hold white collar jobs or manage their
own businesses.
Perception of a person’s status affects how the people around her
communicate. In the Philippines, the use of the English language, with the
slight twang, projects an elite social status. As Tolentino (2011) stated in an
interview with The Guidon, a student publication, English proficiency of
Ateneans is “… a marker of a kind of elitism in the country”. Showing this

kind of language proficiency insinuates a wealthy background even if the

student comes from the middle or lower classes and subsists on scholarships.
5) Religion
Religion is defined by Geertz, an anthropologist, as “(1) a system which acts
to (2) establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and
motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions of a general order of
existence and (4) clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality
that (5) the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.”
Religious identity is when someone sees themselves as a member of a
religious group and may be active or inactive in practicing their rituals
and customs. Religion plays a big part in the lifestyle of a person and seen
as sacred and important. Thus, religious issues and prejudices should be
handled respectfully.
Why is it important to learn more about cross-cultural communication?
At this day and age travel has become easier and the internet have made
cultures more exposed and accessible. To be able to communicate with

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 another person from another country, religion, social status, and gender
means to be able to have a smooth and harmonious relationship.

Problems in intercultural communication

To be able to avoid intercultural miscommunication, one must be able to
identify first the problems that need to be addressed. The following are the
problems that usually arise in intercultural communication:
1. Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the term applied to ethnic bias. This term comes
from the word “ethnos” meaning nation and the word “center”. This is
the conscious or unconscious worldview coming from a person’s own
perspective which establishes an archetype or rating of other groups
in reference to the ideal of his or her own group. This kind of
worldview often results to the inadequate understanding of other
cultures and judging other groups according to the preference of the
group they belong in which often leads to assertion of the inherent
inferiority of other groups. “Tunnel vision” is the idiom used for
ethnocentrism.
An example of ethnocentrism in the Philippines can be observed
during the 2017 Bar exam results. When the results of the bar exam
were posted online on social media, the comments section became a
platform where people questioned the results, some even saying that
they do not know the schools where the top examinees came from
since these schools were not from Metro Manila. One netizen even
questioned the integrity of a Dumaguete based law school. This
behavior clearly shows how Manilenos see provincial schools and
students subpar to those coming from NCR. They exhibit the
superiority of those coming from Manila.

2. Stereotyping
Stereotyping is the generalization “made about a group of people
underestimating their culture” (Baraceros and Lintao). Stereotyping
assumes members of a group of people share the same characteristics.
When one stereotypes, you judge how a person behaves or looks
based on what you believe about the group where they belong.
One of the usual stereotyping we hear are about women. Women are
still being boxed by society when it comes to rearing children. It is
expected that women should have children in a certain age range while
men are given the chance to do whatever they want until whatever
age. That women must always prioritize building a family rather than
building their own career. This stereotype is still rampant until now
even if a lot of groups around the world have strived for equality in
gender roles.

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 Another kind of stereotype can be seen in local television series.
Usually women protagonists have long straight hair while antagonist
women have short or curly/wavy hair. Another thing to observe is
how rich families are usually seen in formal clothes even if they’re
inside their house and will not be attending any formal event. These
stereotypes are very far from real rich families who dress simply
when going out or even dress in plain house clothes when they are
inside their house.
3. Prejudice
Prejudice is when one has a negative preconceived notion, feeling, or
attitude against a cultural group. These assumptions are often made
even if there is little or no interaction with this said group at all.
An example can be the prejudice towards Muslims. In Manila, it can be
observed that Catholics are usually wary of Muslims. The author has
observed how their neighbors are always hesitant or reserved when
interacting with their Muslim neighbor. Rarely did anyone talk to their
Muslim neighbors during events or gatherings. This prejudice usually
comes from how Muslims are portrayed by media thus when one
encounters a Muslim in society, their prejudice for this certain group
kicks in.

How to avoid intercultural miscommunication?

With these three problems in mind, how exactly do we ensure that we
communicate effectively and properly with people from other cultures?
- Delay attributing meaning
Non-verbal communication plays a big role in avoiding
intercultural communication breakdown. Avoid interpreting non-
verbal signals made by a person from another culture until you
have read and studied their culture adequately. When visiting
another place, say a province or country, study their culture
before the trip and try to learn more about their non-verbal cues.
An example can be when attending church service with Iglesia ni
Kristo. Men and women cannot sit together in one side even if
they are already married. Women are also expected to wear a
dress or skirt during service. Another example can be how you
give your business card in Japan.
In Japan, you are expected to hold your business card with both
hands and to bow when you give it to someone. The business
card must be turned towards the receiver. The receiver, on the
other hand, must also receive the business card with both hands
with head bowed slightly and must display the card for the
duration of the meeting.
d) Develop awareness of your non-verbal communication

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 Be mindful of how you use your face, gestures, body language,
and voice when communicating. Understanding how certain
cultures react to certain body language can smoothen and make
the experience with other cultures pleasurable.
Be aware of your voice, of your fidgeting or even the space you
allot when communicating with people from other cultures. A
thumbs up sign in Filipino means you “approve” or you’re okay
or you agree. While in other countries such as Middle East the
thumbs up sign is almost equivalent to giving someone the
middle finger.
e) Check whether non-verbal messages correspond to
verbal messages.
It is given that you will not be able to understand the language of
another group or culture immediately so you have to be very
observant and persistent in listening when you communicate
with them. Sometimes misinterpretation can happen when the
verbal and non-verbal messages come in conflict with each other.
Paying attention and being very mindful of how a person speaks
or reacts can give you clues if you really are communicating with
each other.

Listening

This module will be focused on how listening often plays a big role in the
process of communication. Developing good listening habits aid in the
efficiency and effectivity of sending and receiving messages. It also aids in
comprehending the meaning being conveyed and even help in managing
relationships with other people. At the end of this module, you should be
able to:
16. State the importance of listening;
17. Discuss the models of listening;
18. Apply good listening habits in your life; and
19. Identify and overcome challenges to listening
Before proceeding to the readings below, please follow this link
(https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ls/index.php/343479) to the Skills you
need website to get a free assessment in interpersonal skills. This is a good
springboard so you can check how well you listen. This assessment is not
graded but is a good start for this module so that you personally can see
the importance of listening.

Why is Listening Important?

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 Listening is a skill usually taken for granted especially since we normally
consider ourselves to be good listeners already. Just like eloquence,
listening is important achieving effective communication. Thus, it is crucial
to develop this skill.
Listening helps us stay focused on the message being sent, aids in
comprehension, and may improve or at the least maintain our
relationships with other people.
Listening is the most basic kind of communicating activity that we do daily.
Ang (2009), a researcher, said that we spend 45% of our time listening and
that 90% of the information we gather are retained and received through
our eyes and ears. It was stated in studies that “the level of our listening
effectiveness is only about 50%” which means that we do not receive and
understand the entirety of the message.
“But” you may argue, “I heard what my teacher said”. There is a difference
between listening and hearing. Hearing is when we refer to the plain act of
receiving sounds. While listening is a process where we use our sensory
experiences or our background knowledge to recognize, interpret spoken
or verbal language to satisfy a need. So, when you say that you “heard” your
teacher it means you just received the sound of her voice but if you really
understood and put meaning to the content of the sound she made, that
is when you can say you “listened” to your teacher.
The very main goal of listening is get what the speaker has to say about a
subject; however, listening should not just be focused on the content.
Listening must also be about structure, or organization of the topic
(Galero-Tejero).
To guide us in understanding the difference between hearing and listening,
the table below can quickly categorize the difference the two (Ang).

HEARING LISTENING

Hearing is a natural process Listening is more than hearing; it is a

(psychological) of receiving aural and SKILL that needs to be developed.
visual stimuli.

Hearing is the passive phase of speech Listening is the active phase of speech
reception. reception.

Good hearing is needed for effective Listening is a sub-process of

listening. communication that involves not only
hearing

Good hearing is NOT synonymous to Listening constitutes understanding

good listening. and remembering.
W

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 We are equipped with the sense of hearing; however, even if we are
exposed to the same sounds, we attach different meanings to them. This is
because we are individually different from each other. Each one of us is
different in terms of character traits, gender, cultural knowledge, age,
physical make up, and so on.
These differences are the reasons why various meaning can be assigned to
a sound. To be able to be a good communicator, you must also be aware of
these different reasons why a sound can have different meanings to
different people. Understanding much about listening can often help in
building social relationships, determine traits of people, perform
professional duties, and many more.

Models of Listening
- Active Listening requires effort and concentration on the listener’s part.
Listening to lectures, discussions, or conferences. This action demands
your full attention and concentration so you can understand the message.
O In critical or persuasive listening, it is important to
understand the message based on evidence or proof
presented by the speaker/sender to prove their point. With
this kind of listening, it is important to determine the
differences of ideas, to look in to the condition or state of
the object of the talk and other aspects in order to get more

information before deciding if you agree or disagree

with them. This kind of listening leads to reflective
thinking, thinking that requires to inquire and
investigate on the values, reason of things before
considering them valuable or meritorious. Reflective
thinking hinders you from automatically agreeing with
the speaker.
O In discriminative or instructional listening we “listen
to derive information, facts, ideas and principles.” This
kind of listening is used in class discussions, business
meetings and conferences where you hear people discuss
their observations, opinions, feelings, and thoughts about
the things that interest them. With this kind of listening, it
is important to determine the differences of ideas, to look
in to the condition or state of the object of the talk in
order to get instructions or information.
g) Passive Listening does not rely on focus or effort. This usually happens
when you do something else while listening. Simultaneously listening to
two sounds divide your attention which leads to superficial or
nonchalant listening. This also happens when you listen to while away
your time or when you try to ease up from stress. An example can be
listening to the radio while you talk to a parent.

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 O Emphatic or therapeutic listening: This kind of listening is
something that you do to relieve yourself from anxiety and
tension. You listen as an output of pent-up emotions. This kind
of listening does not necessarily have to be something you do
to analyze, appreciate or judge.
O In appreciative listening or emotional, we “listen for
pleasure, entertainment or enjoyment.” The moment you find
happiness and enjoyment in listening to a particular sound
that you do it over and over again repeatedly in an engaged
manner, that is already appreciative listening.

Barriers to Listening
In a perfect world, we would all be great listeners thus understanding
every message being sent to us. However, the reality is we deal with certain
situations or preconceived notions which acts as barriers in listening.
C. Noise – this is any kind of sensory stimuli that affects the
transmission of messages. It can dampen or boost your speaking
engagements depending on how you deal with them or utilize them.
O External – these are the kinds of noise that come from physical
objects such as the radio, roosters outside your house,
temperature of the room, uncomfortable chair, taste of food,

etc. that disturbs you and prevents you from giving

your complete focus and attention to what you’re
listening to.
e) Internal - these are emotional or mental distractions that
interfere with your attention while listening.
Daydreaming, prejudice against the speaker, anticipating
and predicting what will come up next can affect your
focus.
2 Understanding yourself – preconceived notions about yourself
will prevent you from getting the entirety of the message. How you
feel about the speaker and the topic also affects how you listen to
someone. If you see yourself superior to the speaker, you will have
a hard time listening to them because you tend to mentally
contradict their messages or criticize them in your mind. If you find
the topic boring, you tend to space out and just hear certain parts
which catches your interest- this is also called selective hearing.
3 Understanding others – these are about the preconceived
notions or beliefs about others. You judge the speaker according
to voice quality, gestures, appearance or social standing. These
actions and thoughts affect how you listen to the speaker. You
become preoccupied in criticizing the way they look or sound
which makes you either an attentive listener or someone who
totally disregards the messages coming from this speaker.

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 Here are more examples of internal and external noise:

Extrinsic Noise Intrinsic Noise

Hot or cold room Feeling of pain or hunger

Noisy neighbors Family problem

Uncomfortable chair Financial problem

Jeeps and buses outside windows Fear of teacher

Classmate fidgeting with his pen Sleeplessness

Old air conditioner Constant self-focus

Poor motivation of speaker Eagerness to talk

Lack of information or knowledge of the

Speaker’s style topic

Amount of information transmitted Beliefs

Listening Well
Listening is a fundamental component in communication. Practicing habits
in improving your listening skills not only make you a more competent
member of the workforce or school, it enhances your relationships with

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yourself and with other people. Business magazines such as Forbes and
Success magazine still discuss the importance of practicing good listening
habits to improve or maintain relationships at work and in business.
Here’s a guide you can utilize to improve your listening skills.
1. Stop Talking
“If we were supposed to talk more than we listen, we would have two
tongues and one ear.” Mark Twain.
When somebody is talking, stop talking, do not interrupt and let them finish
what they are saying. It is rude to talk while somebody else is speaking. Let the
other person finish first then you can provide your feedback. If it’s not your
turn to speak, respect the speaker and respect your role as the listener.
2. Concentrate on your task: Listening
Refrain from thinking about anything else other than what the speaker is
talking about. Relax and take in what is being said. Do not think about your
existing problems, pending tasks or favorite television series. Discipline your
mind in focusing only on one task at a time. “The mind is easily distracted by
other thoughts” so start practicing good habits in listening.
5) Don’t criticize the speaker
There may be times where your dislike how your speaker looks, dress or
sound, but you have to remember that the message she will be sharing or
giving is more important. Help make the speaker feel at ease by nodding or
using gestures to encourage them. Also, maintain eye contact – this shows
that you are attentively listening and that you understand what is being
communicated.
4. Remove Distractions: Focus on what is being said
Avoid shuffling papers, tapping your finger or pen on the table or
fidgeting too much. These actions not only distract you from listening but
it also distracts the speaker and might communicate that you are bored or
feeling hostile against him or her.
5. Avoid emotional reactions: Empathize
Be courteous and respect the speaker by thinking not about yourself but
putting yourself in their shoes. See the topic from their perspective and
disregard what you know, how you feel or what you’ve heard about the
topic while listening. If you disagree on some point, let the speaker finish
first before you voice your opinion or feedback about the message. Keep an
open mind.

6. Be Patient
If the speaker pauses, don’t interrupt. Put yourself in their shoes, sometimes
it takes a bit of time to construct your thoughts and verbalize them so let
them finish what they are saying.

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7. Guard against prejudice
Try to avoid focusing on annoying mannerisms or how they look like. Be
impartial and disregard any distractions coming from their appearance or
sound. Focus on the message not how they delivered the message to you. If
the speaker comes from a different background, let go of your preconceived
idea about their culture and pay extra attention only to what they are
saying. Make sure to take note of non-verbal cues.
8. Focus on main points
This may take some time to practice: sort through how they verbalized the
message and focus on the main point of their message. There is no need to
remember everything word for word. Just focus on the ideas that you pick
up from them.
9. Take down notes
Develop your own system of note taking to make it second nature as you
listen. Taking down notes is very different from taking dictation. Dictation
entails word for word transcription while taking down notes may be more
on using your own words as to how you understood topic. Practice on
getting the main idea of the message.
10. Watch for verbal and non-verbal communication
Listening does not only make use of sense of hearing, it actually utilizes all of
our senses. Look out for non-verbal cues such as gestures, facial expressions,
and eye movements. These non-verbal cues either add value or contradict
what the speaker is saying verbally. Non-verbal communication also signals
how confident or nervous the speaker is, which may affect how you perceive
the message.
Always remember that in order for the communication process to happen,
we should be mindful of our roles, both as speaker and receiver. In order to
be effective in any competency we should build up our skills in listening as
it is the foundation of other competencies.

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