ABSTRACT

A project of theoretical design of an aircraft is undertaken. The

requirements of the aircraft to be designed are analyzed and are
clearly defined. It is proposed to design a 120 seated commercial
aircraft. A list of aircrafts which are similar to the proposed design is
prepared and a comparative study is done on them. From this
comparative study, important design parameters such as takeoff
weight, aspect ratio, wing area, thrust to weight ratio etc… are
roughly estimated. These values are chosen in such a manner that
they are compatible with the proposed cruise speed of the aircraft.
The weight of the aircraft during various phases of its flight is
calculated using an iterative method. From this, the required
coefficient of lift at the beginning and end of cruise is calculated. The
aero foil whose drag bucket satisfies this calculated C L range is
selected as the wing cross section of the proposed aircraft. The
aerodynamic data of the chosen aero foil is analyzed. The drag
coefficient and hence the drag experienced by the aircraft is
calculated using these data. From these data the corresponding
engine either jet engine or propeller engine is selected according to
need.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.No CONTENT Page no
Abstract
i
1 Selection of aircraft and it’s parameters 1
1.1. Purpose and scope of airplane design 2
1.2.Classifications of airplane 2
1.3.Classification of airplane based on wings 3
1.4. Aircraft purpose 5
2 Comparative Study 9
2.1. Basic parameter 9
2.2. Comparison 11
2.2.1. Airbus A220-100 11
2.2.2. Boeing 727-100 12
3 Weight estimation 13
3.1. Formulae used 14
3.1.1. Enginestartup &takeoff 14

3.1.2. Climb& acceleration to cruise condition 14

3.1.3. Cruise out to destination 15

3.1.4. Loiter 16

3.1.5. Landing 16

3.1.6. Takeoff weight 17

3.2. Calculation 18

4 Wing loading 21

4.1. Introduction 21

4.2. Formulae 22

ii
 4.3. 4.3. Calculation 24

5 Thrust estimation and Engine selection 28

5.1. Introduction 28

5.2. Procedure 30

5.3. Calculation 30

5.4. Selection of Engine 31

6 Estimation of lift and drag 34

6.1. Theory 34

6.2. Formulae used 34

6.2. Calculation 37

7 Aerofoil selection and wing estimation 39

7.1. Configuration 39
7.2. Classifications of aerofoil 40
7.3. Aerofoil selection 41
7.4. Wing Selection 42
7.5. Procedure 43
7.6. Calculation 44
8 Tail, control surface & landing gear selection 46
8.1. Tail surface 46
8.2. Control surface 46
8.3. Slat 47
8.4. Elevator 47

iii
 8.5. Landing gear selection 48
9 Three view Diagram 50
9.1. Full specification 51
10 V-n Diagram 52
Conclusion 53
Reference 54

LIST OF FIGURE

Fig.No. Figure Page No.

1.1 Basic area of aircraft 1

1.2 Classification of wing 4
1.3 Flight control surfaces 5
2.1 Cruise altitude 10
3.1 Weight fraction 15
3.2 Various aircraft L/Dmax & average L/Dmax. 16
3.3 Mission requirements 17
4.1 Clmax Vs Sto 23
4.2 (Clmax)To (T/W)To 23
4.3 Clmax Vs SL 24
5.1 Operating speed of various aircraft 28

9.1 Three view Diagram 50

10.1 V-n Diagram 52

iv
 LIST OF TABLES

Table.No. Tables Page No.

1.1 Parameters 7
2.1 Comparison 11
3.1 Weight Calculation 19
4.1 Wing loading 26
5.1 Calculation of thrust estimation 31
6.1 CL calculation 37

6.2 Drag estimation 37

7.1 Wing configuration calculation 44

8.1 Parameters & values 46
8.2 Parameters & values 48
9.1 Full specification 51

v
 1. SELECTION OF AIRCRAFT AND ITS PARAMETER
Aim

To select an aircraft from Jane’s All the Worlds Aircraft book of given type
and to select the parameters of the selected aircraft.

Theory

The design of an aircraft draws on a number of basic areas of aerospace

engineering. These include aerodynamics, propulsion, light-weight structures, and
control.

Figure1.1.Basic area of aircraft.

Each of these areas involves parameters that govern the size, shape, weight, and
performance of an aircraft. There are many performance aspects that can be specified
by the mission requirements. These include,

• The aircraft purpose or mission profile;

• The type(s) and amount of payload;

• The cruise and maximum speeds;

• The normal cruise altitude;

1
 • The range or radius with normal payload;

• The endurance; the purchase cost; and

• The take-off distance at the maximum weight;

1.1. Purpose and scope of airplane desgin

The process of design of the device or a vehicle in general involves the

use of knowledge in device field to arrive at a produce that will satisfy
requirements regarding functional aspects, operational safety and cost. The
design of an airplane, which is being dealt in this course, involves synthesizing
knowledge in areas like aerodynamics, structures, propulsion, systems and
manufacturing techniques. The aim is to arrive at the configuration of an
airplane, which will satisfy aforesaid requirements.

• Obtaining the specification of the airplane, selecting the type and determining

• The geometric parameters

• Selection of the power plant

• Structural design and working out details of construction

• Fabrication of prototype

• Determination of airplane performance, stability, and structural intergrit

1.2. Classification of airplane

There are two types of airplanes

• Civil

• Military

2
 1.2.1. Civil

The civil airplanes are categorized as passenger, cargo, agricultural, sports &
ambulance.

1.2.2. Military

The military airplanes are categorized as fighter, bomber, interceptor,

reconnaissance, and airplanes for logistic support like troop-carriers and rescue
airplane. The military aircraft are often designed to cater to more the one role. For
example: fighter, bomber or interceptor-fighter.

1.3. Classifications of airplane based on wing configuration

Early airplane had two or more airplanes had two wings braced with wires.
Presently only single wing is used. These airplanes are called monoplane. When the
wing is supported by struts the airplane is called semi-cantilever monoplane.
Depending on the location of the wing on the fuselage, the airplane is called high
wing, mid wing and low wing configuration. Further, if the wing has no sweep the
configuration is called straight wing monoplane. The swept wing and delta wing
configuration.

3
Figure 1.2.Classification of wings

4
 Figure 1.3.Flight control surfaces

1.4. Aircraft Purpose

The starting point for the design of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its
purpose. It is generally categories into

• Combat aircraft,

• Passenger or

• Cargo transports, and

• General aviation aircraft.

These may also be further refined into subcategories based on particular

design objectives such as range (short or long), take-off or landing distances,
maximum speed, etc. The process of categorizing is useful in identifying any existing
aircraft that might be used in making comparisons to a proposed design.

5
Payload

The payload is what is carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s
mission. Standard payloads are passengers, cargo, or ordnance. The first 2 are
considered as nonexpendable payload because they are expected to be transported
for the complete duration of the flight plan.

Cruise maximum speed

The mission of an aircraft usually dictates its speed range. Propeller-driven

aircraft are usually designed to cruise at speed between 150 to 300 knots. Jetpowered
aircraft have higher cruise speeds that are normally specified in terms of Mach
number. The typical Mach number for business and commercial jet aircraft is from
0.8 to 0.85.

Normal cruise altitude

The cruise altitude is generally dictated by the cruise speed, propulsion

system, and cabin pressurization. An aircraft with an unpressurized cabin would
cruise no higher than 10000 feet. With propeller-driven aircraft, turbo-charged piston
engines can maintain a constant horsepower up to an altitude of approximately 20000
feet. Higher altitudes are possible with turboprop aircraft, such as the Piper
Cheyenne, which have a maximum ceiling from 35000 to 41000. The decrease in air
density with altitude lowers the drag, so that for these aircraft the cruise range
increase with altitude.

Range

The range is the furthest distance the aircraft can fly without refueling. In a
flight plan range refers to the distance traveled during the cruise phase.

6
The choice of the range is one of the most important decision because it has a large
effect on the aircraft take-off weight.

Table 1.1.Aircraft range

Endurance

Endurance is the amount of time an aircraft can fly without refueling. With a
reconnaissance is one of the main design drivers.

1.5. Parameters

PARAMETERS

Max Mach 0.86

Cruise Alt
10000 m/ 32786.8 ft
Range 4630 Km/ 2500 nm

Payload 12560 Kg/ 27690 lb

Endurance 30 mins

Table 1.2.Parameter

Result

7
 Thus a 120 seated commercial aircraft is selected from Jane’s All the Worlds
Aircraft book and the parameters related to the given aircraft is selected.

2. COMPARITIVE STUDY
Aim

To make a comparative study of Aircrafts having the specification and

functional similarities for their purpose of operation.

Introduction

For choosing an aircraft for our particular usage, we should be aware of the
basic qualities of the aircraft. We should compare the existing aircrafts for getting
our desired one. First upon we should be analyses the basic requirements of the
aircraft, like type of aircraft (passenger, fighter, bomber, cargo flight, etc.) then we
should go for the cruise speed & cruise altitude. Then the other requirements like
payload, range, endurance, take off-landing distance etc. Then we should search for
the existing flights having any of the same qualities and compare two or three flights
having the required qualities.

After finding the existing flight then go for comparing the parameters
whatever they have and our required one. Then calculate the dimensions of the flight
whatever we have desired and chose the weight, thrust and other factors required for
our desired one.

2.1. Basic parameters

2.1.1. Cruise mach no: It is the cruise speed at which the aircraft should fly.
Generally the speed of the aircraft is mentioned in the Mach no. It is the
ratio of the speed of object with the local speed of sound.

8
2.1.2. Weight: Weight of the Aircraft is affected by so many things. They are
the Empty structural weight, Fuel weight, Payload etc. Each aircraft
have its own capacity that can carry the weight at maximum efficiently
at the desired altitude.
2.1.3. Cruise altitude: When height increases the specific fuel consumption
of the aircraft decreases, so the fuel can be reserved in the aircraft, while
the aircraft is designed to working at a particular altitude from the
standard sea level. So the international atmospheric parameters will
vary with change in altitude.

9
 Table 2.1.Cruise altitude

2.1.4. Range: It is the maximum distance that can be achieved by the aircraft.
In this the transport and passenger aircraft mentioned the

range and the fighter, bomber and other type of military aircrafts are
mentioned as operating radius. In this the range is depend upon the type
of aircraft.
2.2. Comparison
SPECIFICATION AIRBUS A220-100 BOEING 727-100
Geometrical
Length (m) 35 40.59
Height (m) 11.5 10.44
Aspect ratio 10.97 7.07
Wing span (m) 35.1 32.9
Wing area (m2) 112.3 153
Total Seating Capacity 135 130
Crew 2 3
Wing configuation
Type of wing lowing with lowing with swept back
swept back wing wing

Specification of weight
Empty weight 35221 Kg / 77650 lb 39800 kg / 97696 lb
Fuel weight 17726 kg / 39080 lb 7680 gal / 29069 l
Take off weight 60781 kg / 134000 lb 76700 kg / 169000 lb
Performance
Max speed 470 kn / 871 km/hr 519 kn / 961 km/hr

10
Mach no. 0.82 0.9
Range 2760 nmi / 5110 km 2250 nmi / 4170 km
Endurance
Service ceiling 41000 ft / 12497 m 42000 ft / 13000 m
Take off run 4800 ft / 1463 m 8300 ft / 2500 m
Engine configuration
Engine Type TF P&W 1500G P&W JT8D
Number of engines 2 3
Table 2.2.Comparision Data

11
Result

Thus a comparative study of 120 seated commercial aircraft is done.

3. WEIGHT ESTIMATION OF THE AIRCRAFT

Aim

To estimate the weight of the 120 seated commercial aircraft during its
important phases like takeoff, cruise, climb, loiter, landing.

Theory

“Design takeoff gross weight” is the total weight of the aircraft as it begins the
mission for which it was designed. This is not necessarily the same as the “maximum
takeoff weight.” Many military aircraft can be overloaded beyond design weight but
will suffer a reduced maneuverability. Unless specifically mentioned, takeoff gross
weight.

The first step in the design of a new aircraft is to obtain an estimation of weight
of the aircraft during its important phases. This estimation is one of the most crucial,
since it is used in many other parts of the design.

The total take-off weight is divided into fuel weight, payload weight, and
empty or structure weight.

WTO = W fuel + W payload + W empty

The payload is further divided into nonexpendable and expandable type. The
nonexpendable payload remains unchanged throughout the flight plan. Expendable

12
payload is dropped somewhere in the flight plan. The total payload weight is,
therefore,

W payload = W expendable + W nonexpendable

Long range aircraft devote a greater percentage of their take-off to the weight
of fuel. The fuel weight is based on the flight plan. It considers the fuel used in all of
the flight phases.

For any flight, the fuel used is determined and represented as the ratio of the
fuel weight leaving (final) to the entering (initial) that phase.

Fuel Weight Fraction = (Wf/Wi) fuel.

3.1. Formulae used

3.1.1. Engine Start-Up and Take-off

The engine start-up and take off is the first phase of any flight plan. It consists of
starting the engines, taxing to the take-off position, take-off, and climb out.

0.97≤

3.1.2. Climb and Acceleration to Cruise Conditions

After take-off, the aircraft will generally climb to cruise altitude and accelerate
to cruise speed. The estimate for the weight fraction for this phase of the flight is
also found from empirical data.

13
 Figure 3.1 M Vs Wf/Wi

3.1.3. Cruise Out to Destination:

For a cruising aircraft, the fuel weight fraction can be determined quite well from
an analytic formulation called Brequet range equation.

For efficient cruise which maximizes range, L/D will be close to L/D max. A
reasonable estimate is

14
 Figure 3.2. Various aircraft & average L/Dmax

The value of the thrust-specific fuel consumption, C, can only be estimated at

this stage by considering comparison aircraft. A general range is,

0.5 C 1.2

3.1.4. Loiter

Loiter phase consists of cruising for a specified amount of time over a small
region. For this phase, the fuel weight fraction is derived form an analytic expression
called the endurance equation.

3.1.5. Landing

The final phase of the flight plan is landing. As an estimate of the fuel weight
fraction used at landing, we use the same empirical formula that was used for start-
up and take-off,

0.97≤

15
 Figure 3.3. Mission requirement

3.1.6. Total Take-off Weight

The structural weight is determined from the structural coefficient, s, given as

3.2. Procedure

• The required parameters of the aircraft i.e., Mach no. , Range, aspect ratio,
etc. are selected initially.

• Payload of the aircraft is calculated using the suitable formula.

• Now final weight of the aircraft during its important phases are calculated
using formulae listed above.

• Fuel used is calculated from the initial weight during take-off and the final
weight after landing.

• Form the fuel used the total fuel weight of the aircraft is calculated.

• Hence the available empty weight is calculated.

16
 • By comparing the available weight of the aircraft with the required weight of
the aircraft from the structural factor the initial weight of the aircraft is found
by repeated iterations.

3.3. Calculation:
MISSION ITERATION 1 ITERATION ITERATION ITERATION ITERATION
REQUIRMENTS 10 20 30 40
Mach number 0.860 0.860 0.860 0.860 0.860
Take off weight (lb) 1,000,000.00 93,012.06 76,844.30 76,661.39 76,659.32
Cruise altitude (ft) 32,786.88 32,786.88 32,786.88 32,786.88 32,786.88
Range (nm) 2,500.000 2,500.000 2,500.000 2,500.000 2,500.000
Payload (lb) 27,690.02 27,690.02 27,690.02 27,690.02 27,690.02
Sructural factor 0.370 0.370 0.370 0.370 0.370
Endurance (min) 30.000 30.000 30.000 30.000 30.000
ENGINE STARTUP
Wi/Wf 0.975 0.975 0.975 0.975 0.975
Wi 1,000,000.0 93,012.06 76,844.30 76,661.39 76,659.32
Fuel at take off (%) 1.060 1.060 1.060 1.060 1.060
Wf 975,000.000 90,686.76 74,923.19 74,744.85 74,742.83

CLIMB
Wi 975,000.000 90,686.76 74,923.19 74,744.85 74,742.83
Wi/Wf 0.950 0.950 0.950 0.950 0.950

Wf 926,250.000 86,152.42 71,177.03 71,007.61 71,005.69

CRUISE
a (ft/s) 982.900 982.900 982.900 982.900 982.900
velocity (ft/s) 845.294 845.294 845.294 845.294 845.294
velocity (knots) 506.771 506.771 506.771 506.771 506.771
C 0.700 0.700 0.700 0.700 0.700
L/D 19.200 19.200 19.200 19.200 19.200
Range (nm) 2,500.000 2,500.000 2,500.000 2,500.000 2,500.000

17
Wi 926,250.000 86,152.42 71,177.03 71,007.6 71,005.69
ln(Wi/Wf) 0.180 0.180 0.180 0.180 0.180
WI/Wf 1.197 1.197 1.197 1.197 1.197
Wf 773,780.402 71,970.91 59,460.61 59,319.08 59,317.48
LOITER

Endurance (min) 30.000 30.000 30.000 30.000 30.000

Endurance (hr) 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500
773,780.402 71,970.91 59,460.61 59,319.0 59,317.48
Wi
c 0.410 0.410 0.410 0.410 0.410
L/D 19.200 19.200 19.200 19.200 19.200
ln(Wi/Wf) 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011
Wi/Wf 1.011 1.011 1.011 1.011 1.011
Wf 765,562.633 71,206.56 58,829.12 58,689.09 58,687.51
LANDING

765,562.633 71,206.56 58,829.12 58,689.09 58,687.51

Wi
Wi/Wf 0.975 0.975 0.975 0.975 0.975
Wf 746,423.567 69,426.39 57,358.39 57,221.86 57,220.3
CALCULATION

Fuel used 253,576.433 23,585.66 19,485.90 19,439.52 19,438.99

Reserve fuel 12,678.822 1,179.283 974.295 971.976 971.950
Traped fuel 2,535.764 235.857 194.859 194.395 194.390
Total fuel 268,791.019 25,000.80 20,655.05 20,605.89 20,605.33
Payload (lb) 27,690.027 27,690.02 27,690.02 27,690.02 27,690.02
Empty structural 703,518.954 40,321.22 28,499.21 28,365.47 28,363.95
weight (lb)
Required structural 370,000.000 34,414.46 28,432.39 28,364.71 28,363.94
weight (lb)
Surplus empty 333,518.954 5,906.766 66.825 0.756 0.009
weight (lb)
Table 3.1.Weight Calculation Result

18
 Thus the weight of the 120 seated commercial aircraft is estimated during its
important flight phase.

4. WING LOADING

Aim
To estimate the wing loading of 120 seated aircraft and compare with the
available data.

4.1. Introduction

The wing loading (W/S) is the most important parameter affecting aircraft
performance. Optimization of this parameter forms a major part of the design
activities conducted after initial weight estimation. For example, if the wing loading
used for the initial layout is low, then the wing area would be larger and there would
be enough space for the landing gear and fuel tanks. However it results in a heavier
wing. Wing loading is interconnected for a number of critical performance items,
such takeoff distance, maximum speed, climb, rang etc., these two are often the
design drivers. A requirement for short takeoff can be met by using a large wing
(low W/S). On the other hand, the same take off distance could be met with a high
W/S.

In this section, different criteria are used to optimize the wing loading and
thrust loading. Wing loading affects stalling speed, climb rate, takeoff and landing
distance, minimum fuel required for range and turn performance .

19
 Similarly, a higher thrust loading would result in more cost which is
undesirable. However, it would also lead to enhanced climb performance. Hence, a
trade off is needed while choosing W/S. optimization of W/S based on various
considerations is carried out in the following subsections.

4.2. Formulae

4.2.1. Wing loading effect on take-off

The velocity required for take-off is defined as,

The take-off parameter, TOP has been found to correlate the take-off distance for a
wide range of aircraft. The TOP is defined as,

TOP =

Is the ratio of the density at the take-off site to that of the sea level.

With this correlating factor, the empirical estimate of the take-off distance, STO is,

20
 Figure 4.1.CLmax Vs Sto

Figure 4.2.(CLmax)To (T/W)To

4.2.3. Wing loading effect on landing

The landing parameter is a correlating factor called the landing parameter that relates
the wing loading to the landing distance.

With the correlating factor, the empirical estimate for the landing distance. S L is,

21
 Figure 4.3.CLmax Vs Sl

4.3. Procedure

• The required parameters of the aircraft i.e., Mach no. , Range, aspect ratio,
altitude etc. are selected initially.

• The drag coefficient of the aircraft is selected from 0.01 CD0 0.02.

• Now the CLmax is calculated form the CD0 and a constant k found using aspect
ratio.

• Using the values the TOP and LP are calculated using the formulae.

• From the TOP and LP the STO and SL are calculated.

4.4. Calculation
WING LOADING
CRUISE ALTITUDE 32786.88525
ALTITUDE (m) 10000
mach no 0.86

22
Wi (ib) Cruise 71005.69741
E 0.8
A 4.2
C D,O 0.011
K 0.0947
a (ft/s) 982.9
velocity (v) 845.294
σ* 0.33714
ρTO (kg/m3) 0.4129965
ρSL 1.225
ρTO (lbs/ft3) 0.025782546
CL 0.240994069
Q 9211.097298
(W/S)cruise 2219.819822
S 31.9871445
TAKE OFF
Wi (ib) TO 74742.83938
(w/s) TO 2336.652444
ρTO (lbs/ft3) 0.025782546
(CL) max TO 1.88
V stall 310.5061716
V take off 372.607406
T/W 0.31
W/T 3.225806452

23
σ* 0.33714
1/(CL) max TO 0.531914894
1/σ 2.966126832
Sg 1276.615127
FPR, R 15268.72213
Sa 6415.413733
TOR 7692.02886
LANDING
Wi (ib) landing 58687.51273
(CL) max 1.978947368
(W/S)land 1834.721843
V-flare 381.9225911
flare radius, Rf 22666.15475
Hf 31.06332257
Sa 2535.399767
Sg 245.2740331
LR 2780.6738

Table 4.1.Wing loading

24
25
Result

Thus the wing loading W/S is calculated and compared with the data sheet.

5. THRUST ESTIMATION AND ENGINE SELECTION

Aim

To estimate the maximum amount of thrust required by the aircraft to

complete all phase during flight plan and to select the engine required to produce the
maximum thrust that have been estimated.

5.1. Theory

The total drag on the aircraft have been determined. Now we have to scale the
available engines to provide the thrust necessary to overcome the drag based on the
mission.

The appropriate propulsion system for an aircraft depends on a number of

factors. These includes the design Mach number and altitude, fuel efficiency, and
cost.

Figure 5.1.Operating speed of various aircraft

26
 5.2. Number of engines

The number of engines is often specified by the need to produce a sufficient

amount of thrust based on mission requirements and the available thrust per engine.
A design should use the fewest number of engines necessary. This generally leads to
a simpler, lighter, more efficient, and less expensive aircraft.

5.3. Engine ratings

The maximum performance of an engine under various conditions is specified

by the engine rating. These rating corresponds to different thrust conditions that are
specified for take-off, maximum climb, and maximum cruise.

5.4. Formulae

Thrust to weight ratio of an aircraft is given by,

Where, G is called the climb gradient,

For subsonic climb, the total drag is the sum of the base drag, with drag coefficient
CD0, and the lift induced drag. Therefore,

Where, q = dynamic

pressure;

A = aspect ratio; e = Oswald’s coefficient; = minimum climb angle.

27
5.5. Procedure

• The required parameters of the aircraft i.e., Mach no. , Range, aspect ratio,
altitude etc. are selected initially.

• The drag coefficient of the aircraft is selected from 0.01 CD0 0.02.

• Now G, and CL is calculated form, CD0 and a constant k found using aspect
ratio.

• From the available dynamic pressure q, CL the drag to weight ratio is

calculated.

• From drag to weight ratio and climb gradient, the thrust to weight ratio is
found. From ratio thrust required is estimated.

• From Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft book the adequate Engine is selected.

5.6. Calculation
THRUST LOADING
CRUISE ALTITUDE 32786.88525
ALTITUDE (m) 10000
mach no 0.86
Wi (ib) Cruise 71005.69741
e 0.8
A 4.2
C D,O 0.011
K 0.0947

28
 a (ft/s) 982.9
velocity (v) 845.294
σ* 0.33714
ρTO (kg/m3) 0.4129965
ρSL 1.225
ρTO (lbs/ft3) 0.025782546
CL 0.240994069
q 9211.097298
Cd 0.0165
L/D=Cl/Cd 14.60570118
S 31.98
(T/W)cruise 0.068466415
T 4861.505556
TAKE OFF
Wi (ib) TO 74742.83938
D/W 0.065028567
Glide gradient, G 0.03489
T/W)takeoff 0.099918567
T 7468.197378
Table 5.1.Calculation of thrust estimation

5.7. Selection of engine

A choice of engine from different manufacturers is always the preferred commercial

position for the airframe manufacturer. This ensures that the engine price and
availability is more competitive. It also provides the potential airline customer with
more bargaining power when selecting the aircraft/ engine purchase.
29
There are several available engines that would suit our requirement. All of them are
currently used on civil aircraft operations therefore considerable experience is
available.

The appropriate propulsion system for an aircraft depends on a number of factors.

These include the design mach number and altitude, fuel efficiency, and cost,
presents choice for propulsion system based on the aircraft design mach number.

The P&W 1500G engine will suit better for the aircraft to produce thrust that must
be required by the overcome overall drag produced during the flight plans.

30
Result

Thus maximum amount of thrust required by the aircraft to complete all phase
during flight plan is calculated and the engine required to produce the maximum
thrust that have been estimated is selected.

31
 6. ESTIMATION OF LIFT AND DRAG
Aim

To estimate the total amount of Lift and drag induced in the aircraft.

6.1. Theory

An aerofoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces a force

perpendicular to the motion called lift. Subsonic flight aerofoils have a characteristic
shape with a rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with
asymmetric camber. A fixed-wing aircraft’s wings, horizontal, and vertical
stabilizers are built with aerofoil-shaped cross sections. Aerofoils are also found in
propellers, fans, compressors and turbines.

Drag is a force, which acts opposite to the force produced by engine thrust.
There is various type of drag. In of two types namely pressure drag and skin friction
drag. In aircraft drag is produced on various portions and major drag is wing drag
and other surface drag called parasite drag. When lift is produced there will be an
induced drag due to down wash. Interference drag is the drag produced due to the
interference effect of placing wing, tail, ect., in the fuselage

6.2. Formulae
According to thin aerofoil theory, lift coefficient of a symmetric aerofoil of
infinite wingspan is given as

Cl = 2 π α
The section lift coefficient of a cambered aerofoil of infinite wingspan is given as

Cl = Clo + 2 π α
Where
Cl = coefficient of lift of an aerofoil
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α = angle of attack
Cl0= coefficient of lift at zero angle of attack

Also the lift curve slope of any aerofoil shape (‘a’) is constant and is given as

Lift generated by the wing is given by

Where,

- Density of the air at the altitude of cruise,

V – Velocity of the aircraft during cruise,

S – Plane form area of the wing,

CL – Coefficient of lift.

During the cruise the lift generated by the wing is equal to the weight of the aircraft,
i.e. L=W.

CL = 2L/ (V2*S)

The drag coefficient for the wing corresponds to the base drag, the lift induced drag
and any additional drag that results from viscous losses such as produced by flow
separations. This is expressed in the equation,

Where,

33
If the aerofoil section was chosen so that the drag bucket encompasses the C L range
throughout cruise, then the loss is zero.

Hence,

This is the equation for estimation of drag from the wing of the aircraft. Total

drag induced in the given aircraft is

D= *S*CD

Where,

- Density of the air at the altitude of cruise,

V – Velocity of the aircraft during cruise,

S – Planform area of the wing, CD

– Coefficient of drag.

CD (Total) = 3*CD (wing)

6.3. Calculation
CL CALCULATION
ALTITUDE 32786.89
a(ft/S) 982.9
_ (lb) Cruise
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Wf

Mach No. 0.86

v (ft/s) 845.294
σ* 0.33714
ρSL 1.225
ρ (Kg/m3) 0.412997
ρ (lbs/ft3) 0.025783
s 31.98714
q 9211.097
L/CL 294636.7
CL1 0.240994
CL2 0.201324
Table 6.1.Cl calculation
Drage Estimation
ALTITUDE 32786.89
a(ft/S) 982.9
_ (lb) Cruise 71005.7
Wf 59317.48
Mach No. 0.86
v (ft/s) 845.294
σ* 0.33714
ρSL 1.225
ρ (Kg/m3) 0.412997
ρ (lbs/ft3) 0.025783
q 9211.097
CD,O 0.011
K 0.0947
CL 0.240994
CD=CD,O+KCL2 0.0165
Dwing 4861.506
Total Drag (lbf) 14584.52
Table 6.2.Drag estimation

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Result

Thus the total amount of drag induced in the aircraft is estimated theoretically.

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 7. AEROFOIL SELECTION AND WING ESTIMATION

Aim

To estimate the lift generated by the wing of the given aircraft during its cruise
phase of the flight plan and to select the appropriate aerofoil for the aircraft.

Theory

An aerofoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces a force

perpendicular to the motion called lift. Subsonic flight aerofoils have a characteristic
shape with a rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with
asymmetric camber. A fixed-wing aircraft's wings, horizontal, and vertical
stabilizers are built with aerofoil-shaped cross sections. Aerofoils are also found in
propellers, fans, compressors and turbines.

Aerofoil design is a major fact of aerodynamics. Various aerofoils serve

different flight regimes. Asymmetric aerofoils can generate lift at zero angle of
attack, while a symmetric aerofoil may better suit frequent inverted flight as in an
aerobatic airplane. In the region of the ailerons and near a wingtip a symmetric
aerofoil can be used to increase the range of angles of attack to avoid spin-stall.

7.1. Configuration of an airfoil

The leading edge- it is the point at the front of the airfoil that has maximum
curvature.

Trailing edge- it is defined similarly as the point of maximum curvature at rear of

the airfoil.

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Chord line- it is the straight line connecting leading and trailing edges. The chord
length or simply chord c is the length of the chord line that is the reference
dimensions of the airfoil section.

The mean chamber line- it is the locus of point‘s midway between the upper and
lower surfaces. Its shape dependent on the thickness distribution along the chord.

Maximum thickness-it is measured perpendicular to the chord line as percentage of

it.

The aerodynamic center- it is the chord wise length about which the pitching
moment is independent of the lift coefficient and angle of attack.

The center of pressure- it is the chord wise location a out which the pitching
moment is zero.

7.2. Classification of aerofoil

Based on the shape

• Symmetrical
• Semi-Symmetrical
• Flat Bottom
• Modified Flat Bottom
• Under-cambered
• Reflexed

Based on NACA nomenclature

• 4 – Digit series
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 • 5 – Digit series

• 6 – Digit series

Based on application
1. Low speed aerofoils (Subsonic aerofoils) – cambered aerofoil with curved top and
bottom surface with sharp trailing edge.

2. Modern speed aerofoils – flat top surface and curved bottom surface with cusped
trailing edge.

3. High speed aerofoils (Supersonic aerofoils) – sharp leading and trailing edge
i.e., similar to symmetrical wedge.

7.3. AREOFOIL SELECTION

NACA 63A-514 (Root airfoil)

NACA 63-512 (Midspan airfoil)

NACA 63-310 (Tip airfoil)

NACA 63A-514 (Root airfoil):

Max thickness 12.5% Max camber 2.2%

NACA 63-512 (Midspan airfoil):

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 Max thickness 12.5% Max camber 2.2%

NACA 63-310 (Tip airfoil):

Max thickness 10% Max camber 1.1%

7.4. Wing Selection:

After the final airfoil selection, the primary component of aircraft to be designed is
wing. The wing weight and its lifting capabilities are a function of the thickness of
the airfoil selection that is used in the wing structure. The first step toward designing
the wing is thickness estimation which can be obtained from the selected NACA
airfoil.
In designing the wing the most important part is to reduce the effect of vibration by
delaying the Critical Mach Number of the wing, for that requirement we had selected
a swept back angle to the wing structure. The choice of the standard series designed
specifically for the use in high speed.

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 7.5. Procedure

• During the cruise phase of any flight plan the lift generated by the wing of the
aircraft is always equal to the weight of the aircraft at that instant.

• And hence from the weight estimation of the aircraft done before the weight
of the aircraft at cruise (initial &final) is known in turn the lift.

• From the parameters selected initial for the given aircraft the dynamic
pressure q is calculated.

• From the calculation of wing loading the span area required for the aircraft is
determined.

• Using the dynamic pressure and the span area the lift coefficient is found for
the aircraft during its cruise phase.

• From the known CL and with the reference of “Theory of wing sections
including a summary of aerofoil data” by Abbott book the particular aerofoil
required to generate adequate lift is found.

Equivalent AR = a. M c
AR = b2 / S

Root chord, CR = (2 * S) / (b * (1+λ))

Tip chord, CT = λ * CR

Mean chord, Cmid = (2/3)CR * ((1+ λ+ λ2)/(1+ λ))

7.6. Calculation
Design Parameters Values

41
Wing area (S) 149.53 m2
Aspect ratio (AR) 10.7
Wing span (b) 31.9 m
Taper ratio (λ) 0.18
Root chord (CR) 8m
Tip chord (CT) 1.5 m
Mean chord (Cm) 5.47 m

Sweepback angle (ᴧ) 300

Dihedral angle (Г) 50

Table 7.1.Wing configuration calculation

42
RESULT:

Thus the lift generated by the wing of the given aircraft during its cruise phase
of the flight plan is estimated in terms of lift coefficient and the suitable aerofoil to
generate required lift is selected.

8. TAIL, CONTROL SURFACE & LANDING GEAR SELECTION

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8.1. Tail surface

The type and area of the tail surface are important from the point of view of
stability of the airplane. A conventional tail arrangement is chosen. Some of the
important parameters that decide the aerodynamic characteristics of the tail are (a)
area ratios (Sh/S) and (Sv/S),(b) tail volume ratios (Vh &Vv),(C) tail arm and (d)
tail span. All these parameters need to be decided for both the horizontal and vertical
tails. From the data of similar airplane, the following values are chosen.

Parameter Horizontal tail Vertical tail

Span/Height
12.6 m 6.26 m

Aspect ratio
5 1.82

Taper ratio
0.256 0.303

Area
31 m2 21 m2

Table 8.1.Parameters & values

8.2. Control surfaces

Flaps are the types of high-lift device used to increase the life of an aircraft
wing at a given airspeed. Flaps are usually mounted on the wing trailing edge of the
fixed wing aircraft. Flaps are used to lower the minimum speed at which the aircraft
can be safely flown, and to increase the angle of decent for landing. Flaps also cause
an increase in drag, so they are retracted when not needed.

44
 Extending the wing flaps increases the chamber or curvature of the wing,
raising the maximum lift coefficient or upper limit to the lift a wing can generate.
This allows the aircraft to generate the required lift at a lower speed, reducing the
stalling speed of the aircraft, and therefore also the minimum speed at which the
aircraft will safely maintain flight. The increase in chamber also increase the wing
drag, which can be beneficial during approach and landing, because it slows the
aircraft. In some aircraft pitch angle, which lower the nose thereby improving the
pilot’s view of the runway over the nose of the aircraft during landing. In other
configuration, however, depending on the type of flap and location of the wing, flaps
can cause the nose to rise (pitch up), obscuring the pilot’s view of the runway.

Slats are extendable, high lift devices on the leading edge of the wing of some
fixed wing aircraft. Their purpose is to increase lift during low speed operations such
as takeoff, initial climb, approach and landing. They accomplish this by increasing
both the surface area and the chamber of the wing by developing outwards wing
camber by extending panels possible position and extend progressively in concert
with flap extension.

8.3 Slat

Slats are most often extended and retracted using hydraulically or electrically
powered actuators. In some more simplistic design, however, they are held in the
retracted position by aerodynamic forces and use springs or counter weights for
automatic extension at low speed / high angle of attack

8.4 Elevator

Elevators are flight control surfaces, usually t the rear of an aircraft, which control
the aircraft’s pitch, and therefore the angle of attack and life of the wing. The
elevators are usually hinged to the tail plane or horizontal stabilizer. They may be

45
the only pitch control surface present, sometime located at front (early airplane) or
integrated into a rear ‘all moving tail plane”. Also called slab elevator or stabilator.

8.5. LANDING GEAR SELECTION:

One of the principal moving parts on the aircraft is landing gear. This must
be light small, provide smooth ride during taxing and safe energy absorption at
touchdown. It must be retractable to reduce drag during flight. Housing of the
landing gear is a space constraint. A conventional tricycle landing gear is chosen
based on the trend followed by similar airplanes. The important parameters of this
type of landing gear are wheel track, wheel based and turning radius. The values of
the parameter are based on tandum type.

Parameter Value

Wheel base (in m) 12.63

Track length (in m) 7.60

Turning radius (in m) 21.90

Table 8.2.Parameters & values

46
Conclusion

Thus the areas of tail and control surfaces are calculated and landing gear was
selected.

47
 9.Three View Diagram

Fig. 9.1. Three view diagram

48
 Parameters Values
Seating capacity 120
length of aircraft 38m
Height of aircraft 11m
Wing span 31.9m
Wing area 149 m2
Wing chord length Root – 8m
Mean-5.47m
Tip-1.5m
Wing taper ratio 0.18
t/c ratio 0.14
L/D max 22.68
L/D cruise 19.64
Wing sweep angle 25o
Cabin width 5
Fuselage width 5.5
Empty weight 28363.96 lb
Max takeoff weight 76659.32 lb
Max fuel capacity 9334.7 L
Cruise speed 0.86 M
Range 2500nm
Engines (x2) P&W 1500G
T/W ratio Takeoff -0.375
Cruise - 0.051
Loiter – 0.1
Table 9.1. Full specification

49
10.V n Diagram

50
 CONCLUSION

For a 120 seated aircraft suitable weight, span, take-off distance & landing

distance are estimated and aerofoil, engine have been selected successfully. Wing

loading helps in observing many parametric comparison. All the calculations have

been done in MS-Excel Worksheet.

This Aircraft Design Project gave an overall view on design of an aircraft with

more efficiency and power. In each chapter we acquired more knowledge on aircraft

parameters that determines the design of aircraft.

51
 REFERENCES

1. Anderson, John D. Jr., (1999) “Aircraft Performance and Design”, McGrawHill,

New York

2. Anderson, John D. Jr., (2001) “Introduction to Flight”, McGraw-Hill , New York

3. Perkins, C. and Hage, R. (1949) “Airplane Performance”, Stability and Control,

Wiley, New York

4. Raymer, Daniel P. (1992) “Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach”, AIAA

Education series, Washington, DC

5. Taylor, J. (2004) “Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft”, Jane’s, London, UK

6. Moaz Hussain (October 2019), “Aircraft Design Project (Detailed)_ Design of

100 Seater STOL Commuter Aircraft”, Bachelor of Engineering (Mini Project I),
DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.35083.85284

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