Physical, Mechanical Properties and Oil Content of Selected Indigenous
Seeds Available for Biodiesel Production in Bangladesh
M.A. Haque, M. P. Islam, M.D. Hussain, F. Khan
Department of Farm Power and Machinery, Bangladesh Agricultural University,
Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh.
Corresponding author’s e-mail:
[email protected] ABSTRACT
This study identifies the physical and mechanical properties and oil contents of seeds of four
indigenous plants in Bangladesh, namely the Jatropha, Karanj, Castor, and Rubber. Physical
properties such as length, width, thickness, slender ratio, weight and bulk density were
measured to find out the size, shape and space required by the seeds. Mechanical properties
like hardness and crushing strength of the seeds were determined as well. All these properties
are necessary for processing and storage of the seeds for oil extraction. Hardness and crushing
strength of the seeds were measured by a Manual Hardness Tester. Oil content was measured
by chemical method (Cold percolation method). Among the four types of seeds, Rubber seed
was the largest with a length of 21.2 mm followed by Karanj 17.9 mm, Jatropha 17.1 mm and
Castor 11.8 mm. The slender ratio of Jatropha, Karanj, Castor and Rubber seeds were found
to be 1.8, 1.2, 1.9 and 1.1 respectively. Jatropha and Castor seeds had similar cylindrical
shape with rounded tips. Karanj seed was found to be circular and flat. Shape of the Rubber
seed was rectangular, inflated but slightly flattened in thickness. Rubber seed was the heaviest
(4.3 g), as its size was also biggest followed by Karanj (1.2 g), Jatropha (0.8 g) and Castor
(0.2 g), respectively. Hardness were found to be 2.7, 1.9, 1.7 and 8.6 kg for Jatropha, Castor,
Karanj and Rubber seeds while crushing strength were 38.1, 26.6, 24.1 and 121.2 kg/cm2,
respectively. The oil contents of Jatropha, Karanj, Castor and Rubber seeds were 32.4%,
31.8%, 67.7%, 38.9% by weight respectively. All the four types of seeds contain satisfactory
amount of oil which can be extracted commercially and checked for their suitability for the
production of biodiesel.
Keyword: Oilseeds, physical properties, mechanical properties, oil content, Bangladesh
1. INTRODUCTION
Bangladesh is heavily dependent on import of fossil fuel and coal. Such dependency makes
economy of Bangladesh more vulnerable to external price shocks in the international energy
market. Price of fuel in the international market has been showing rising trend since last few
years. Bangladesh annually imports about 3.5 million tons of different fuel oils. Of them,
some 1.3 million tons are crude oil, 1.45 million tons diesel, 380 tons kerosene, 215 tons jet
fuel and 155,000 tons petrol and octane (Energy & Power, 2003). The search for alternatives
of fossil fuels is a major environmental and political challenge also. A promising alternative
source of fuel, called biodiesel, has already been developed and is being used in some
countries. Biodiesel is a chemical compound of methyl ester derived from raw or used
vegetable oils and animal fats. Biodiesel is considered "carbon dioxide neutral" because all of
the carbon dioxide released during combustion is sequestered out of the atmosphere during
crop growth. Recent environmental and economic concerns (Kyoto Protocol) have prompted
resurgence in the use of biodiesel throughout the world. In 1991, the European Community,
proposed a 90% tax reduction for the use of biofuels, including biodiesel (Jatrophaworld,
M.A. Haque, M. P. Islam, M.D. Hussain, F. Khan. “Physical, Mechanical Properties and Oil
Content of Selected Indigenous Seeds Available for Biodiesel Production in Bangladesh”.
Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. Manuscript 1419, Vol. XI, 2009.
2004). The superior lubricating properties of biodiesel increases functional engine efficiency.
Their higher flash point makes it safer to store. The biodiesel molecules are simple
hydrocarbon chains, containing no sulfur, or aromatic substances associated with fossil fuels.
They contain higher amount of oxygen (up to 10%) that ensures more complete combustion
of hydrocarbons (Global Farmer, 2009).
Biodiesel almost completely eliminates lifecycle of carbon dioxide emissions. When
compared with petro-diesel it reduces about half of the emission of particulate matter,
unburned hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide; most part of the polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons and entire sulphates on an average (Du et al., 2004). Lower emission of sulphur
dioxide, soot, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and aromatics are
noted. NOx emissions from biodiesel are reported to range between plus or minus 10% as
compared with petro-diesel depending on engine combustion characteristics (Tick et al.,
1999). Biodiesel can be mixed with petroleum-based diesel in any proportion (Khan et al,
2000). Biodiesel blends can be used in most compression-ignition (diesel) engines with little or
no modifications.
For a truly renewable source of fuel, crops or other similar agricultural sources would have to be
considered. Every year Bangladesh needs to import fuel from other countries and even now due to
the shortage of the agricultural lands she needs to import food items from abroad. But, there are
some native plants which grow well in the fallow lands and also can play a major role for getting
the non-edible oil which could be possible to convert biodiesel or directly used as a source of
alternative fossil fuel in Bangladesh. This can save the country’s hardly earned foreign
currency. Some of the well-known non-edible oil seed producing plants are Jatropha
(Jatropha curcas), Karanj (Pongamia pinnata), Castor (Ricinus communis), Rubber (Hevea
barasiliensis) seeds. India, Indonesia, Malaysia and China are already producing biodiesel
successfully from Jatropha curcus and oil palm. These oils could be potential sources of
biodiesel since the poor people in the rural areas use these for direct burning. There are many
other indigenous plant seeds available in Bangladesh and these should be investigate for there
potentiality to produce oil. In this context, the study was carried out with the following
objectives:
i) To study the physical and mechanical properties of some selected indigenous seeds.
ii) To determine the oil content of these seeds.
2. METERIALS AND METHODS
The physical, mechanical properties and the oil content of the following selected indigenous
seeds (Table 1 and Figure 1) were measured.
Table 1. English, local and scientific name of the seeds under study
English name Local name Scientific name
a. Jatropha Sada mander, Jamal gota, Arenda, Ratan jot Jatropha curcas
b. Karanj Karanja Pongamia pinnata
c. Castor Veranda, Venna Ricinus communis
d. Rubber Rubber Hevea barasiliensis
M.A. Haque, M. P. Islam, M.D. Hussain, F. Khan. “Physical, Mechanical Properties and Oil
Content of Selected Indigenous Seeds Available for Biodiesel Production in Bangladesh”.
Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. Manuscript 1419, Vol. XI, 2009.
a) Jatropha seed b) Karanj seed c) Castor seed d) Rubber seed
Figure 1. Seeds under the study
2.1 Physical properties
Size, shape, weight, density, volume are some of the physical characteristics which are
important in many problems associated with design of a specific machine or analysis of the
behavior of the products. Size (length & width), weight, bulk density and moisture content of
the seeds (Figure 1) were measured at the Processing Lab of the Department of Farm Power
& Machinery, Bangladesh Agricultural University. The weight of the selected seeds (20 seeds
from each type) were measured by a digital balance (TC-203, Denver Instrument Company,
USA, with a readability of 0.001 g) and the average values were tabulated with standard
deviation. The sizes (length and width) of the seeds were measured by a slide calipers and the
bulk densities were measured by using a measuring cylinder (1000 ml) (Figure 2) and a
digital balance as follows:
Weight of the sample
Bulk density, ( g / cc) = (1)
Volume of the sample
Moisture content (MC) of the seeds was determined by oven dry method at 105° C for 24
hours. The moisture content was calculated in dry basis as follows:
Weight of water in the sample
MC (% d .b.) = (2)
Weight of bone dry matter
2.2 Mechanical Properties
The seed hardness was measured at BRRI (Bangladesh Rice Research Institute) by using a
manually operated hardness tester (Kiya Seisakusho Ltd. Tokyo, Japan) (Figure 2). The seeds
were loaded flat under the indenter which moved vertically. When the seed started to crack
then the reading of the tester was observed. There were two load indicators: the black one
turned due to pressure and went back to “zero” when the seed broke and the red one remained
still after breaking the seed indicating the breaking load or seed hardness. It is expressed as kg
force applied. The crushing strength was calculated with respect to the projected area of the
indenter used. The diameter of the indenter was 3 mm.
Weight required cracking the seed
Crushing strength, (kg / cm 2 ) = (3)
Projected area of seed under load
M.A. Haque, M. P. Islam, M.D. Hussain, F. Khan. “Physical, Mechanical Properties and Oil
Content of Selected Indigenous Seeds Available for Biodiesel Production in Bangladesh”.
Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. Manuscript 1419, Vol. XI, 2009.
Figure 2. Measurement of the seed bulk density (left) and hardness (right)
2.3 Oil Extraction
Oil can be extracted from the seeds by applying heat, solvents or by pressure. Extraction by
heat is not used commercially for vegetable oils. The oil from seeds can be extracted by three
different methods. These are mechanical extraction using a screw press, solvent extraction
and cold percolation method.
In this study the oil percentage of the seeds was estimated (Figure 3) by cold percolation
method (Gravimetric method) in laboratory (Kartha et al., 1957). The word cold in this
context means no heat was applied and extraction occurs at room temperature. The applied
method is described below.
Figure 3. Oil extraction by the cold percolation method
2.3.1 Preparation of Seeds
Matured seeds were collected from ripe fruits and were sun dried. They were decorticated
manually. To prepare the seeds for oil extraction, they should be solar heated for several hours
or roasted for 10 minutes. The seeds should not be overheated. The process breaks down the
cells containing the oil. The heat also liquefies the oil, improves the extraction process.
2.3.2 Equipment and Chemicals Used
Agate mortar and pestle, percolator and sintered glass funnel, shaking machine, 20 ml air tight
plastic bottle, 100 ml beaker, sand bath, Mattler electronic balance, Sodium sulphate
(Na2SO4), Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and finely crushed glass powder .
2.3.3 Procedure
0.3g of seed powder with 2g of glass powder and Na2SO4 was taken into a mortar. The
mixture was grinded to a fine stage. Then 10 ml of CCl4 was put into the mortar to make a
M.A. Haque, M. P. Islam, M.D. Hussain, F. Khan. “Physical, Mechanical Properties and Oil
Content of Selected Indigenous Seeds Available for Biodiesel Production in Bangladesh”.
Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. Manuscript 1419, Vol. XI, 2009.
solution. The solution was then taken in a 20 ml vial. The volume of the solution was made 20
ml by adding CCl4. The vial was shaken over night by using a shaker. The solution was then
filtered with the help of sintered glass funnel and percolator. The filtrate was collected in a pre
weighted beaker with two glass ball. The beaker containing filtrate (oil + CCl4) with two glass
balls were placed on a sand bath for evaporation of CCl4. Evaporation was done at 60-70° C
in a sand drier. After the evaporation the beaker containing oil was kept in desiccators for
cooling. Finally the beaker with oil and glass ball was weighed accurately.
2.3.4 Calculation of Oil Content
The percentage of oil was calculated from the Equation 4.
(w − w1 ) × 100 (4)
% of oil = 2
w
Where, w = weight of sample, w1= weight of the beaker with glass ball, w2 = weight of the
beaker with glass ball and oil, w2 – w1 = weight of oil.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Physical properties of the seeds
Physical properties i.e. physical dimensions, slender ratio, weight, bulk density of the seeds of
Jatropha, Karanj, Castor and Rubber at a moisture content range of 9-14% (dry basis) are
detailed in Table 2.
Table 2. The physical properties of Jatropha, Karanj, Castor and Rubber seeds
Sample Weight of Av. length, Av. width, Thickness, Slender Bulk Av. MC,%
type seed, g L, mm W, mm mm ratio (L/W) density, g/cc d.b.
Jatropha 0.8 17.1 9.6 8.2 1.8 0.3 9.1
Karanj 1.2 17.9 14.4 6.3 1.2 0.6 10.9
Castor 0.2 11.8 6.3 4.1 1.9 0.8 10.1
Rubber 4.3 21.5 18.8 17.3 1.1 0.3 14.2
Jatropha seed was much larger than Castor seed although both the seeds were of similar shape
with a slender ratio of 1.8 and 1.9, respectively having a cylindrical shape with rounded tips.
Karanj seed was flattened with a circular shape having a slender ratio of 1.2. Rubber seed was
the largest among the four types of seeds under study. Its shape was rectangular with rounded
tips and slightly flattened thickness having a slender ratio of 1.1. Bulk density of Karanj and
Castor seed were found to be around 0.6 g/cc while Jatropha and Rubber seeds showed the
lower bulk densities of 0.3 g/cc and 0.3 g/cc respectively because they had hollow space
between the endosperm and the outer hard shell. Moreover, endosperm of these two types of
seeds was found to be spongy.
3.2 Mechanical properties of the seeds
Hardness and crushing strength of the dry seeds are shown in Fig.4. Moisture content of the
seeds was in the range of 9-14% (w.b.). It is evident from the figure that the Rubber seed had
the highest hardness value (8.6 kg). This is because it had a thick and hard shell covering the
endosperm. Karanj and Castor seeds had the lowest hardness among the four types of seeds.
Both these seeds had a similar hardness value around 1.8 kg. The reason was most part of the
M.A. Haque, M. P. Islam, M.D. Hussain, F. Khan. “Physical, Mechanical Properties and Oil
Content of Selected Indigenous Seeds Available for Biodiesel Production in Bangladesh”.
Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. Manuscript 1419, Vol. XI, 2009.
seeds was soft endosperm covered by a comparatively soft shell. Jatropha seed showed a
relatively higher hardness (2.7 kg) than those of the Castor (1.9 kg) and Karanj (1.7 kg) seeds.
Although Jatropha and Castor seeds had the similar shape and nature, hardness of Jatropha
seed was higher because of its comparatively hard outer shell. Crushing strength of rubber
seeds were found to be 121.1 kg/cm2 followed by Jatropha seed (38.1 kg/cm2), Castor seed
(26.5 kg/cm2) and Karanj seed (24 kg/cm2) respectively. Rubber seed required much higher
load to crack than other three types of seeds.
Figure 4. Hardness and crushing strength of the seeds
3.3 Oil content and cake yield of the seeds
Figure 5 shows the average percentage of oil and cake obtained from the seeds. The figure
indicates that Castor seed had much higher oil content (67.7%) followed by Rubber seed,
Jatropha seed and Karanj seed respectively. The oil content of Rubber seed was found to be
38.9% while the oil content of Jatropha seed and Karanj seed was similar (32.4% and 31.8%,
respectively). All the four types of seeds contain satisfactory amount of oil (based on the
proposition by Armstrong,1991; Edward et al., 1994; Foidl et al.,1996 and Svelele,2009) for
commercial extraction which can be checked for their suitability for the production of
biodiesel.Yield of cake from the seeds were 68.8%, 67.6%, 61.3% and 32.3% for Karanj,
Jatropha, Rubber and Castor seeds respectively just in reverse order of the oil contents of the
seeds.
M.A. Haque, M. P. Islam, M.D. Hussain, F. Khan. “Physical, Mechanical Properties and Oil
Content of Selected Indigenous Seeds Available for Biodiesel Production in Bangladesh”.
Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. Manuscript 1419, Vol. XI, 2009.
Figure 5. Oil content and cake yield of the seeds
4. CONCLUSIONS
Investigations were made into some basic properties of four different types of seeds obtained
from indigenous trees available in Bangladesh such as Jatropha, Karanj, Castor and Rubber
useful for the design of processing and extraction system of oil from them. Oil content of
these seeds were also determined to check their suitability for commercial extraction.
Information on the physical properties (weight, length, width, bulk density and moisture
content), and mechanical properties (hardness, crushing strength) of the seeds were recorded.
Physical and mechanical properties of the seeds will also help to modify the existing
mechanical oil expeller used for Brassica. Among the four types of seeds, Rubber seed was
the largest in dimension with a length of 21.2 mm followed by Karanj 17.9 mm, Jatropha 17.1
mm and Castor 11.8 mm. The slender ratio of Jatropha, Karanj, Castor and Rubber seeds were
found to be 1.8, 1.2, 1.9 and 1.1 respectively. Jatropha and Castor seeds had similar
cylindrical shape with rounded tips. Karanj seed was found to be circular and flat. Shape of
Rubber seed was rectangular, inflated but slightly flattened thickness. Rubber seed was the
heaviest (4.3 g), as its size was also biggest followed by Karanj (1.2 g), Jatropha (0.8 g) and
Castor (0.2 g), respectively. Rubber seeds showed the highest hardness (8.6 kg) followed by
Jatropha (2.6 kg), Castor (1.9 kg) and Karanj (1.7 kg) respectively. Crushing strength was
found to be 121.2, 38.1, 26.6 and 24.1 kg/cm2 for Rubber, Jatropha, Castor and Karanj seeds
respectively. Castor seed yielded the highest amount of oil (67.7%) followed by Rubber
(38.9%), Jatropha (32.4%) and Karanj (31.8%) respectively. All the four types of seeds have
sufficient percentage of oil content which can be extracted commercially. These oils could be
potential sources of biodiesel since the rural poor use these for direct burning. However,
chemical properties of these oils should be investigated to check their suitability for
transesterification. The percentages of cake obtained from the seeds were 67.6%, 68.8%,
32.3% and 61.0% for Jatropha, Karanj Castor and Rubber seeds, respectively.
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Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. Manuscript 1419, Vol. XI, 2009.
