Topic: Fashion

Fashion is an aesthetic expression, at a particular period and place and in a specific context, of clothing,
footwear, lifestyle, accessories, makeup, hairstyle, and body proportions. Whereas a trend often
connotes a peculiar aesthetic expression and often lasting shorter than a season, fashion is a distinctive
and industry-supported expression traditionally tied to the fashion season and collections. Style is an
expression that lasts over many seasons and is often connected to cultural movements and social
markers, symbols, class, and culture (ex. Baroque, Rococo, etc.). According to sociologist Pierre
Bourdieu, fashion connotes "the latest difference."Even though the terms are often used together,
fashion differs from clothing and costumes — "clothing" describes the material and technical garment;
"costume" has come to mean fancy-dress or masquerade wear. "Fashion," by contrast, describes the
social and temporal system that "activates" dress as a social signifier in a certain time and context.
Philosopher Giorgio Agamben connects fashion to the current intensity of the qualitative moment, to
the temporal aspect the Greek called kairos, whereas clothing belongs to the quantitative, what the
Greek called Chronos.While some exclusive brands may claim the label haute couture, the term is
technically limited to members of the Chambre Syndicale de la Haute Couture in Paris. Haute couture is
more aspirational; inspired by art and culture, and in most cases, reserved to the economic elite.

In reaction to increased mass-production of commodities clothing at lower prices and global reach,
sustainability has become an urgent issue among politicians, brands, and consumers.

Clothing fashions

Fashion is a look for a certain time and place. From this definition, fashion is what people wear in a
specific context. If a stranger would appear in this setting, adorning something different, the stranger
would be considered "out of fashion."

Early Western travelers, traveling to India, Persia, Turkey, or China, would frequently remark on the
absence of change in fashion in those countries. The Japanese shōgun's secretary bragged (not
completely accurately) to a Spanish visitor in 1609 that Japanese clothing had not changed in over a
thousand years. However, there is considerable evidence in Ming China of rapidly changing fashions in
Chinese clothing. Changes in costume often took place at times of economic or social change, as
occurred in ancient Rome and the medieval Caliphate, followed by a long period without significant
changes. In 8th-century Moorish Spain, the musician Ziryab introduced to Córdoba sophisticated
clothing-styles based on seasonal and daily fashions from his native Baghdad, modified by his
inspiration. Similar changes in fashion occurred in the 11th century in the Middle East following the
arrival of the Turks, who introduced clothing styles from Central Asia and the Far East.Additionally, there
is a long history of fashion in West Africa. The Cloth was used as a form of currency in trade with the
Portuguese and Dutch as early as the 16th Century. Locally produced cloth and cheaper European
imports were assembled into new styles to accommodate the growing elite class of West Africans and
resident gold and slave traders. There was an exceptionally strong tradition of cloth-weaving in Oyo and
the areas inhabited by the Igbo people.

Fashion in Europe and the Western hemisphere

According to scholars, a specific definition of fashion emerges with the rise of capitalism and more
liberal societies in Europe during late medieval times. The beginning in Europe of continual and
increasingly rapid change in clothing styles can be fairly reliably dated. Historians, including James Laver
and Fernand Braudel, date the start of Western fashion in clothing to the middle of the 14th century,
though they tend to rely heavily on contemporary imagery and illuminated manuscripts were not
common before the fourteenth century. The most dramatic early change in fashion was a sudden drastic
shortening and tightening of the male over-garment from calf-length to barely covering the buttocks,
sometimes accompanied with stuffing in the chest to make it look bigger. This created the distinctive
Western outline of a tailored top worn over leggings or trousers.

The pace of change accelerated considerably in the following century, and women's and men's fashion,
especially in the dressing and adorning of the hair, became equally complex. Art historians are,
therefore, able to use fashion with confidence and precision to date images, often to within five years,
particularly in the case of images from the 15th century. Initially, changes in fashion led to a
fragmentation across the upper classes of Europe of what had previously been a very similar style of
dressing and the subsequent development of distinctive national styles. These national styles remained
very different until a counter-movement in the 17th to 18th centuries imposed similar styles once again,
mostly originating from Ancien Régime France. Though the rich usually led fashion, the increasing
affluence of early modern Europe led to the bourgeoisie and even peasants following trends at a
distance, but still uncomfortably close for the elites – a factor that Fernand Braudel regards as one of
the main motors of changing fashion.

In the 16th century, national differences were at their most pronounced. Ten 16th century portraits of
German or Italian gentlemen may show ten entirely different hats. Albrecht Dürer illustrated the
differences in his actual (or composite) contrast of Nuremberg and Venetian fashions at the close of the
15th century (illustration, right). The "Spanish style" of the late 16th century began the move back to
synchronicity among upper-class Europeans, and after a struggle in the mid-17th century, French styles
decisively took over leadership, a process completed in the 18th century.Though different textile colors
and patterns changed from year to year, the cut of a gentleman's coat and the length of his waistcoat, or
the pattern to which a lady's dress was cut, changed more slowly. Men's fashions were primarily derived
from military models, and changes in a European male silhouette were galvanized in theaters of
European war where gentleman officers had opportunities to make notes of different styles such as the
"Steinkirk" cravat or necktie.

Though there had been distribution of dressed dolls from France since the 16th century and Abraham
Bosse had produced engravings of fashion in the 1620s, the pace of change picked up in the 1780s with
increased publication of French engravings illustrating the latest Paris styles. By 1800, all Western
Europeans were dressing alike (or thought they were); local variation became first a sign of provincial
culture and later a badge of the conservative peasant.Although tailors and dressmakers were no doubt
responsible for many innovations, and the textile industry indeed led many trends, the history of fashion
design is generally understood to date from 1858 when the English-born Charles Frederick Worth
opened the first authentic haute couture house in Paris. The Haute house was the name established by
the government for the fashion houses that met the standards of the industry. These fashion houses
have to adhere to standards such as keeping at least twenty employees engaged in making the clothes,
showing two collections per year at fashion shows, and presenting a certain number of patterns to
costumers. Since then, the idea of the fashion designer as a celebrity in his or her own right has become
increasingly dominant.Although fashion can be feminine or masculine, additional trends are
androgynous. The idea of unisex dressing originated in the 1960s when designers such as Pierre Cardin
and Rudi Gernreich created garments, such as stretch jersey tunics or leggings, meant to be worn by
both males and females. The impact of unisex wearability expanded more broadly to encompass various
themes in fashion, including androgyny, mass-market retail, and conceptual clothing. The fashion trends
of the 1970s, such as sheepskin jackets, flight jackets, duffel coats, and unstructured clothing, influenced
men to attend social gatherings without a dinner jacket and to accessorize in new ways. Some men's
styles blended the sensuality and expressiveness, and the growing gay-rights movement and an
emphasis on youth allowed for a new freedom to experiment with style and with fabrics such as wool
crepe, which had previously been associated with women's attire.

The four major current fashion capitals are acknowledged to be Paris, Milan, New York City, and London,
which are all headquarters to the most significant fashion companies and are renowned for their major
influence on global fashion. Fashion weeks are held in these cities, where designers exhibit their new
clothing collections to audiences. A succession of major designers such as Coco Chanel and Yves Saint-
Laurent have kept Paris as the center most watched by the rest of the world, although haute couture is
now subsidized by the sale of ready-to-wear collections and perfume using the same branding.

Modern Westerners have a vast number of choices in selection of their clothes. What a person chooses
to wear can reflect his or her personality or interests. When people who have high cultural status start
to wear new or different styles, they may inspire a new fashion trend. People who like or respect these
people are influenced by their style and begin wearing similarly styled clothes.

Fashions may vary considerably within a society according to age, social class, generation, occupation,
and geography, and may also vary over time. The terms fashionista and fashion victim refer to someone
who slavishly follows current fashions.

In the early 2000s, Asian fashion has become increasingly significant in local and global markets.
Countries such as China, Japan, India, and Pakistan have traditionally had large textile industries, which
have often been drawn upon by Western designers, but now Asian clothing styles are also gaining
influence based on their ideas.

Fashion industry

In its most common use, the term fashion refers to the current expressions on sale through the fashion
industry. The global fashion industry is a product of the modern age. In the Western world, tailoring has
since medieval times been controlled by guilds, but with the emergence of industrialism, the power of
the guilds was undermined. Before the mid-19th century, most clothing was custom-made. It was
handmade for individuals, either as home production or on order from dressmakers and tailors. By the
beginning of the 20th century, with the rise of new technologies such as the sewing machine, the rise of
global trade, the development of the factory system of production, and the proliferation of retail outlets
such as department stores, clothing became increasingly mass-produced in standard sizes and sold at
fixed prices.

Although the fashion industry developed first in Europe and America, as of 2017, it is an international
and highly globalized industry, with clothing often designed in one country, manufactured in another,
and sold worldwide. For example, an American fashion company might source fabric in China and have
the clothes manufactured in Vietnam, finished in Italy, and shipped to a warehouse in the United States
for distribution to retail outlets internationally.
The fashion industry was for a long time one of the largest employers in the United States, and it
remains so in the 21st century. However, U.S. employment in fashion began to decline considerably as
production increasingly moved overseas, especially to China. Because data on the fashion industry
typically are reported for national economies and expressed in terms of the industry's many separate
sectors, aggregate figures for the world production of textiles and clothing are difficult to obtain.
However, by any measure, the clothing industry accounts for a significant share of world economic
output.

The fashion industry consists of four levels:

The production of raw materials, principally Fiber, and textiles but also leather and fur.

The production of fashion goods by designers, manufacturers, contractors, and others.

Retail sales.

Various forms of advertising and promotion.The levels of focus in the fashion industry consist of many
separate but interdependent sectors. These sectors include: Textile Design and Production, Fashion
Design and Manufacturing, Fashion Retailing, Marketing and Merchandising, Fashion Shows, and Media
and Marketing. Each sector is devoted to the goal of satisfying consumer demand for apparel under
conditions that enable participants in the industry to operate at a profit.

Fashion trend

A fashion trend signifies a specific look or expression that is spread across a population at a specific time
and place. A trend is considered a more ephemeral look, not defined by the seasons can collections
released by the fashion industry. A trend can thus emerge from street style, across cultures, from
influencers and celebrities.

Fashion trends are influenced by several factors, including cinema, celebrities, climate, creative
explorations, innovations, designs, political, economic, social, and technological. Examining these factors
is called a PEST analysis. Fashion forecasters can use this information to help determine the growth or
decline of a particular trend.

Social influences

Fashion is inherently a social phenomenon. A person cannot have a fashion by oneself, but for
something to be defined as fashion there needs to be dissemination and followers. This dissemination
can take several forms; from the top down ("trickle-down") to bottom up ("bubble up"), or transversally
across cultures and through viral memes and media.

Fashion relates to the social and cultural context of an environment. According to Matika, "Elements of
popular culture become fused when a person's trend is associated with a preference for a genre of
music…like music, news or literature, fashion has been fused into everyday lives." Fashion is not only
seen as purely aesthetic; fashion is also a medium for people to create an overall effect and express
their opinions.

This mirrors what performers frequently accomplish through music videos. In the music video
‘Formation’ by Beyoncé, according to Carlos, "The pop star pays homage to her Creole roots.... tracing
the roots of the Louisiana cultural nerve center from the post-abolition era to present day, Beyoncé
catalogs the evolution of the city's vibrant style and its tumultuous history all at once. Atop a New
Orleans police car in a red-and-white Gucci high-collar dress and combat boots, she sits among the ruins
of Hurricane Katrina, immediately implanting herself in the biggest national debate on police brutality
and race relations in modern day."

The annual or seasonal runway show is a reflection of fashion trends and a designer's inspirations. For
designers like Vivienne Westwood, runway shows are a platform for her voice on politics and current
events. For her AW15 menswear show, according to Water, "where models with severely bruised faces
channeled eco-warriors on a mission to save the planet." Another recent example is a staged feminist
protest march for Chanel's SS15 show, rioting models chanting words of empowerment with signs like
"Feminist but feminine" and "Ladies first." According to Water, "The show tapped into Chanel's long
history of championing female independence: founder Coco Chanel was a trailblazer for liberating the
female body in the post-WWI era, introducing silhouettes that countered the restrictive corsets then in
favour."

Economic influences

Circular economy

With increasing environmental awareness, the economic imperative to "Spend now, think later" is
getting increasingly scrutinized. Today's consumer tends to be more mindful about consumption, looking
for just enough and better, more durable options. People have also become more conscious of the
impact their everyday consumption has on the environment and society, and these initiatives are often
described as a move towards sustainable fashion, yet critics argue a circular economy based on growth
is an oxymoron, or an increasing spiral of consumption, rather than a utopian cradle-to-cradle circular
solution.

In today's linear economical system, manufacturers extract resources from the earth to make products
that will soon be discarded in landfills, on the other hand, under the circular model, the production of
goods operates like systems in nature, where the waste and demise of a substance becomes the food
and source of growth for something new. Companies such as MUD Jeans, which is based in the
Netherlands employs a leasing scheme for jeans. This Dutch company "represents a new consuming
philosophy that is about using instead of owning," according to MUD's website. The concept also
protects the company from volatile cotton prices. Consumers pay €7.50 a month for a pair of jeans; after
a year, they can return the jeans to Mud, trade them for a new pair and start another year-long lease, or
keep them. MUD is responsible for any repairs during the lease period. Another ethical fashion
company, Patagonia set up the first multi-seller branded store on EBay in order to facilitate secondhand
sales; consumers who take the Common Threads pledge can sell in this store and have their gear listed
on Patagonia.com's "Used Gear" section.

China's domestic spending

Consumption as a share of gross domestic product in China has fallen for six decades, from 76 percent in
1952 to 28 percent in 2011. China plans to reduce tariffs on a number of consumer goods and expand its
72-hour transit visa plan to more cities in an effort to stimulate domestic consumption.The
announcement of import tax reductions follows changes in June 2015, when the government cut the
tariffs on clothing, cosmetics and various other goods by half. Among the changes – easier tax refunds
for overseas shoppers and accelerated openings of more duty-free shops in cities covered by the 72-
hour visa scheme. The 72-hour visa was introduced in Beijing and Shanghai in January 2013 and has
been extended to 18 Chinese cities.According to reports at the same time, Chinese consumer spending
in other countries such as Japan has slowed even though the yen has dropped. There is clearly a trend in
the next 5 years that the domestic fashion market will show an increase.

China is an interesting market for fashion retail as Chinese consumers' motivation to shop for fashion
items are unique from Western Audiences. Demographics have limited association with shopping
motivation, with occupation, income and education level having no impact; unlike in Western Countries.
Chinese high-street shoppers prefer adventure and social shopping, while online shoppers are
motivated by idea shopping. Another difference is how gratification and idea shopping influence
spending over ¥1k per month on fashion items, and regular spending influenced by value shopping.

Marketing

Market research

Consumers of different groups have varying needs and demands. Factors taken into consideration when
thinking of consumers' needs include key demographics.

To understand consumers' needs and predict fashion trends, fashion companies have to do market
research There are two research methods: primary and secondary. Secondary methods are taking other
information that has already been collected, for example using a book or an article for research. Primary
research is collecting data through surveys, interviews, observation, and/or focus groups. Primary
research often focuses on large sample sizes to determine customer's motivations to shop.The benefits
of primary research are specific information about a fashion brand's consumer is explored. Surveys are
helpful tools; questions can be open-ended or closed-ended. Negative factor surveys and interviews
present is that the answers can be biased, due to wording in the survey or on face-to-face interactions.
Focus groups, about 8 to 12 people, can be beneficial because several points can be addressed in depth.
However, there are drawbacks to this tactic, too. With such a small sample size, it is hard to know if the
greater public would react the same way as the focus group. Observation can really help a company gain
insight on what a consumer truly wants. There is less of a bias because consumers are just performing
their daily tasks, not necessarily realizing they are being observed. For example, observing the public by
taking street style photos of people, the consumer did not get dressed in the morning knowing that
would have their photo taken necessarily. They just wear what they would normally wear. Through
observation patterns can be seen, helping trend forecasters know what their target market needs and
wants.

Knowing the needs of consumers will increase fashion companies' sales and profits. Through research
and studying the consumers' lives the needs of the customer can be obtained and help fashion brands
know what trends the consumers are ready for.

Symbolic consumption

Consumption is driven not only by need, the symbolic meaning for consumers is also a factor.
Consumers engaging in symbolic consumption may develop a sense of self over an extended period of
time as various objects are collected as part of the process of establishing their identity and, when the
symbolic meaning is shared in a social group, to communicate their identity to others. For teenagers,
consumption plays a role in distinguishing the child self from the adult. Researchers have found that the
fashion choices of teenagers are used for self-expression and also to recognize other teens who wear
similar clothes. The symbolic association of clothing items can link individuals' personality and interests,
with music as a prominent factor influencing fashion decisions.

Political influences

Political figures have played a central role in the development of fashion, at least since the time of
French king Louis XIV. For example, First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy was a fashion icon of the early 1960s.
Wearing Chanel suits, structural Givenchy shift dresses, and soft color Cassini coats with large buttons,
she inspired trends of both elegant formal dressing and classic feminine style.Cultural upheavals have
also had an impact on fashion trends. For example, during the 1960s, the U.S. economy was robust, the
divorce rate was increasing, and the government approved the birth control pill. These factors inspired
the younger generation to rebel against entrenched social norms. The civil rights movement, a struggle
for social justice and equal opportunity for Blacks, and the women's liberation movement, seeking equal
rights and opportunities and greater personal freedom for women, were in full bloom. In 1964, the leg-
baring mini-skirt was introduced and became a white-hot trend. Fashion designers then began to
experiment with the shapes of garments: loose sleeveless dresses, micro-minis, flared skirts, and
trumpet sleeves. Fluorescent colors, print patterns, bell-bottom jeans, fringed vests, and skirts became
de rigueur outfits of the 1960s. Concern and protest over U.S involvement in the failing Vietnam War
also influenced fashion . Camouflage patterns in military clothing, developed to help military personnel
be less visible to enemy forces, seeped into streetwear designs in the 1960s. Camouflage trends have
disappeared and resurfaced several times since then, appearing in high fashion iterations in the 1990s.
Designers such as Valentino, Dior, and Dolce & Gabbana combined camouflage into their runway and
ready-to-wear collections. Today, variations of camouflage, including pastel shades, in every article of
clothing or accessory, continue to enjoy popularity.

Technology influences

Today, technology plays a sizable role in society, and technological influences are correspondingly
increasing within the realm of fashion. Wearable technology has become incorporated; for example,
clothing constructed with solar panels that charge devices and smart fabrics that enhance wearer
comfort by changing color or texture based on environmental changes. 3D printing technology has
influenced designers such as Iris van Herpen and Kimberly Ovitz. As the technology evolves, 3D printers
will become more accessible to designers and eventually, consumers — these could potentially reshape
design and production in the fashion industry entirely.

Internet technology, enabling the far reaches of online retailers and social media platforms, has created
previously unimaginable ways for trends to be identified, marketed, and sold immediately. Trend-setting
styles are easily displayed and communicated online to attract customers. Posts on Instagram or
Facebook can quickly increase awareness about new trends in fashion, which subsequently may create
high demand for specific items or brands, new "buy now button" technology can link these styles with
direct sales.

Machine vision technology has been developed to track how fashions spread through society. The
industry can now see the direct correlation on how fashion shows influence street-chic outfits. Effects
such as these can now be quantified and provide valuable feedback to fashion houses, designers, and
consumers regarding trends.

Media

The media plays a significant role when it comes to fashion. For instance, an important part of fashion is
fashion journalism. Editorial critique, guidelines, and commentary can be found on television and in
magazines, newspapers, fashion websites, social networks, and fashion blogs. In recent years, fashion
blogging and YouTube videos have become a major outlet for spreading trends and fashion tips, creating
an online culture of sharing one's style on a website or Instagram account. Through these media outlets,
readers and viewers all over the world can learn about fashion, making it very accessible. In addition to
fashion journalism, another media platform that is important in fashion industry is advertisement.
Advertisements provide information to audiences and promote the sales of products and services. The
fashion industry utilizes advertisements to attract consumers and promote its products to generate
sales. A few decades ago when technology was still underdeveloped, advertisements heavily relied on
radio, magazines, billboards, and newspapers. These days, there are more various ways in
advertisements such as television ads, online-based ads using internet websites, and posts, videos, and
live streaming in social media platforms.

Fashion in printed media

The dressing practices of the powerful has traditionally been mediated through art and the practices of
the courts. The looks of the French court were disseminated through prints, from the 16th century, but
became prevalent with the promotion of the centralized court around king Louis XIV, and the style that
became known under his name. At the beginning of the 20th century, fashion magazines began to
include photographs of various fashion designs and became even more influential than in the past. In
cities throughout the world these magazines were greatly sought after and had a profound effect on
public taste in clothing. Talented illustrators drew exquisite fashion plates for the publications which
covered the most recent developments in fashion and beauty. Perhaps the most famous of these
magazines was La Gazette du Bon Ton, which was founded in 1912 by Lucien Vogel and regularly
published until 1925 (with the exception of the war years).

Vogue, founded in the United States in 1892, has been the longest-lasting and most successful of the
hundreds of fashion magazines that have come and gone. Increasing affluence after World War II and,
most importantly, the advent of cheap color printing in the 1960s, led to a huge boost in its sales and
heavy coverage of fashion in mainstream women's magazines, followed by men's magazines in the
1990s. One such example of Vogue's popularity is the younger version, Teen Vogue, which covers
clothing and trends that are targeted more toward the "fashionista on a budget". Haute couture
designers followed the trend by starting ready-to-wear and perfume lines which are heavily advertised
in the magazines and now dwarf their original couture businesses. A recent development within fashion
print media is the rise of text-based and critical magazines which aim to prove that fashion is not
superficial, by creating a dialogue between fashion academia and the industry. Examples of this
development are: Fashion Theory (1997), Fashion Practice: The Journal of Design, Creative Process & the
Fashion Industry (2008), and Vestoj (2009).

Fashion in television
Television coverage began in the 1950s with small fashion features. In the 1960s and 1970s, fashion
segments on various entertainment shows became more frequent, and by the 1980s, dedicated fashion
shows such as Fashion Television started to appear. FashionTV was the pioneer in this undertaking and
has since grown to become the leader in both Fashion Television and new media channels. The Fashion
Industry is beginning to promote their styles through Bloggers on social media's. Vogue specified Chiara
Ferragni as "blogger of the moment" due to the rises of followers through her Fashion Blog, that became
popular.A few days after the 2010 Fall Fashion Week in New York City came to a close, The New
Islander's Fashion Editor, Genevieve Tax, criticized the fashion industry for running on a seasonal
schedule of its own, largely at the expense of real-world consumers. "Because designers release their fall
collections in the spring and their spring collections in the fall, fashion magazines such as Vogue always
and only look forward to the upcoming season, promoting parkas come September while issuing reviews
on shorts in January", she writes. "Savvy shoppers, consequently, have been conditioned to be
extremely, perhaps impractically, farsighted with their buying."The fashion industry has been the
subject of numerous films and television shows, including the reality show Project Runway and the
drama series Ugly Betty. Specific fashion brands have been featured in film, not only as product
placement opportunities, but as bespoke items that have subsequently led to trends in fashion.Videos in
general have been very useful in promoting the fashion industry. This is evident not only from television
shows directly spotlighting the fashion industry, but also movies, events and music videos which
showcase fashion statements as well as promote specific brands through product placements.

Controversial advertisements in fashion industry

Racism in fashion advertisements

There are some fashion advertisements that were accused of racism and led to boycotts from the
customers. Globally known, Swedish fashion brand H&M faced this issue with one of its children's wear
advertisements in 2018. A black child wearing a hoodie with a slogan written as "coolest monkey in the
jungle" right at the center was featured in the ad. When it was released, it immediately became
controversial and even led to a boycott. A lot of people including celebrities posted on social media
about their resentments towards H&M and refusal to work with and buy its products. H&M issued a
statement saying "we apologise to anyone this may have offended", which seemed insincere to some.

Another fashion advertisement regarding racism is from GAP, an American worldwide clothing brand.
GAP collaborated with Ellen DeGeneres in 2016 for the advertisement. It features playful, four young
girls where a tall white girl is leaning with her arm on a shorter black girl's head. When this ad was
released, some viewers harshly criticized that it underlies passive racism. A representative from The
Root, black culture magazine commented on the ad that it portrays the message that black people are
undervalued and seen like props for white people to look better. There were different points of views on
this issue, some saying that people are being too sensitive, and some getting offended. Regardless of
various views and thoughts, GAP replaced the ad to different image and apologized to critics.

Sexism in fashion advertisements

Many fashion brands have published ads that were too provocative and sexy to attract customers’
attention. British high fashion brand, Jimmy Choo, was blamed for having sexism in its ad which featured
a female British mode wearing the brand's boots. In this two-minute ad, men whistle at a model, walking
on the street with red, sleeveless mini dress. This ad gained much backlash and criticism by the viewers
since sexual harassment and misconduct were a huge issue during this time and even till now. Many
people showed their dismay through social media posts, leading Jimmy Choo to pull down the ad from
social media platforms.French luxury fashion brand Yves Saint Laurent also faced this issue with its print
ad shown in Paris in 2017. A female model is wearing a fishnet tights with roller-skate stilettos, almost
lying down with her legs opened in front of the camera. This advertisement brought harsh comments
from the viewers and French advertising organization directors for going against the advertising codes
related to "respect for decency, dignity and those prohibiting submission, violence or dependence, as
well as the use of stereotypes." They even said that this ad is causing "mental harm to adolescents." Lot
of sarcastic comments were made in social media about the ad and the poster was removed from the
city.

Public relations and social media

Fashion public relations involves being in touch with a company's audiences and creating strong
relationships with them, reaching out to media and initiating messages that project positive images of
the company. Social media plays an important role in modern-day fashion public relations; enabling
practitioners to reach a wide range of consumers through various platforms.Building brand awareness
and credibility is a key implication of good public relations. In some cases, hype is built about new
designers' collections before they are released into the market, due to the immense exposure generated
by practitioners. Social media, such as blogs, micro blogs, podcasts, photo and video sharing sites have
all become increasingly important to fashion public relations. The interactive nature of these platforms
allows practitioners to engage and communicate with the public in real-time, and tailor their clients'
brand or campaign messages to the target audience. With blogging platforms such as Instagram, Tumblr,
WordPress, and other sharing sites, bloggers have emerged as expert fashion commentators, shaping
brands and having a great impact on what is ‘on trend’. Women in the fashion public relations industry
such as Sweaty Betty PR founder Roxy Jacenko and Oscar de la Renta's PR girl Erika Bearman, have
acquired copious followers on their social media sites, by providing a brand identity and a behind the
scenes look into the companies they work for.

Social media is changing the way practitioners deliver messages, as they are concerned with the media,
and also customer relationship building. PR practitioners must provide effective communication among
all platforms, in order to engage the fashion public in an industry socially connected via online shopping.
Consumers have the ability to share their purchases on their personal social media pages (such as
Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc.), and if practitioners deliver the brand message effectively and meet
the needs of its public, word-of-mouth publicity will be generated and potentially provide a wide reach
for the designer and their products.

Fashion in political activism

As fashion concerns people, and signifies social hierarchies, fashion intersects with politics and the social
organization of societies. Whereas haute couture and business suits are associated by people in power,
also groups aiming to challenge the political order also use clothes to signal their position. The explicit
use of fashion as a form of activism, is usually referred to as "fashion activism."

Whereas fashion designers and brands have traditionally kept themselves out of political conflicts, there
has been a movement in the industry towards taking more explicit positions across the political
spectrum. From maintaining a rather apolitical stance, designers and brands today engage more
explicitly in current debates.For example, considering the U.S.'s political climate in the surrounding
months of the 2016 presidential election, during 2017 fashion weeks in London, Milan, New York, Paris
and São Paulo amongst others, many designers took the opportunity to take political stances leveraging
their platforms and influence to reach their customers. This has also led to some confusion around
democratic values, as fashion is not always the most inclusive platform for political debate, but a one-
way broadcast of top-down messages.

When taking an explicit political stance, designers appear to favor issues around which can be phrased
using clear language with virtuous undertones. For example, aiming to "amplify a greater message of
unity, inclusion, diversity, and feminism in a fashion space", designer Mara Hoffman invited the founders
of the Women's March on Washington to open her show which featured modern silhouettes of
utilitarian wear, described by critics as "Made for a modern warrior" and "Clothing for those who still
have work to do". Prabal Gurung debuted his collection of T-shirts featuring slogans such as "The Future
is Female", "We Will Not Be Silenced", and "Nevertheless She Persisted", with proceeds going to the
ACLU, Planned Parenthood, and Gurung's own charity, "Shikshya Foundation Nepal". Similarly, The
Business of Fashion launched the #TiedTogether movement on Social Media, encouraging member of
the industry from editors to models, to wear a white bandana advocating for "unity, solidarity, and
inclusiveness during fashion week".Fashion may be used to promote a cause, such as to promote
healthy behavior, to raise money for a cancer cure, or to raise money for local charities such as the
Juvenile Protective Association or a children's hospice.One fashion cause is trashion, which is using trash
to make clothes, jewelry, and other fashion items in order to promote awareness of pollution. There are
a number of modern trashion artists such as Marina DeBris, Ann Wizer, and Nancy Judd. Other designers
have used DIY fashions, in the tradition of the punk movement, to address elitism in the industry to
promote more inclusion and diversity.

Anthropological perspective

From an academic lens, the sporting of various fashions has been seen as a form of fashion language, a
mode of communication that produced various fashion statements, using a grammar of fashion. This is a
perspective promoted in the work of influential French philosopher and semiotician Roland Barthes.

Anthropology, the study of culture and of human societies, examines fashion by asking why certain
styles are deemed socially appropriate and others are not. From the theory of interactionism, a certain
practice or expression is chosen the those in power in a community, and that becomes "the fashion" as
defined at a certain time by the people under influence of those in power. If a particular style has a
meaning in an already occurring set of beliefs, then that style may have a greater chance of become
fashion.According to cultural theorists Ted Polhemus and Lynn Procter, one can describe fashion as
adornment, of which there are two types: fashion and anti-fashion. Through the capitalization and
commoditization of clothing, accessories, and shoes, etc., what once constituted anti-fashion becomes
part of fashion as the lines between fashion and anti-fashion are blurred, as expressions that were once
outside the changes of fashion are swept along with trends to signify new meanings. Examples range
from how elements from ethnic dress becomes part of a trend and appear on catwalks or street
cultures, for example how tattoos travel from sailors, laborers and criminals to popular culture.

To cultural theorist Malcolm Bernard, fashion and anti-fashion differ as follows: Anti-fashion is fixed and
changes little over time. Anti-fashion varies depending on the cultural or social group one is associated
with or where one lives, but within that group or locality the style changes little. Fashion is the exact
opposite of anti-fashion. Fashion can change (evolve) very quickly

and is not affiliated with one group or area of the world but spreads throughout the world wherever
people can communicate easily with each other. For example, Queen Elizabeth II's 1953 coronation
gown is an example of anti-fashion because it is traditional and does not change over any period,
whereas a gown from fashion-designer Dior's collection of 1953 is fashion because Dior's style changes
every season as Dior comes up with a new gown to replace the old one. In the Dior gown the length, cut,
fabric, and embroidery of the gown change from season to season. Anti-fashion is concerned with
maintaining the status quo while fashion is concerned with social mobility. Time is expressed in terms of
continuity in anti-fashion and as change in fashion. Fashion has changing modes of adornment while
anti-fashion has fixed modes of adornment. Indigenous and peasant modes of adornment exemplify
anti-fashion, as they are not primarily used for manifesting social hierarchies while also allowing for
social mobility. From this theoretical lens, change in fashion is part of the larger industrial system and is
structured by the powerful actors in this system to be a deliberate change in style, promoted through
the channels influenced by the industry (such as paid ads etc).

Anthropology of dress in Indonesia

The change from anti-fashion to fashion because of the influence of western consumer-driven culture
can be seen in eastern Indonesia. The ikat textiles of the Ngada area of eastern Indonesia are changing
because of modernization and development. Traditionally, in the Ngada area there was no idea similar
to that of the Western idea of fashion, but anti-fashion in the form of traditional textiles and ways to
adorn oneself were widely popular. Textiles in Indonesia have played many roles for the local people.
Textiles defined a person's rank and status; certain textiles indicated being part of the ruling class.
People expressed their ethnic identity and social hierarchy through textiles. Because some Indonesians
bartered ikat textiles for food, the textiles constituted economic goods, and as some textile-design
motifs had spiritual religious meanings, textiles were also a way to communicate religious messages.In
eastern Indonesia, both the production and use of traditional textiles have been transformed as the
production, use and value associated with textiles have changed due to modernization. In the past,
women produced the textiles either for home consumption or to trade with others. Today, this has
changed as most textiles are not being produced at home. Western goods are considered modern and
are valued more than traditional goods, including the sarong, which retain a lingering association with
colonialism. Now, sarongs are used only for rituals and ceremonial occasions, whereas western clothes
are worn to church or government offices. Civil servants working in urban areas are more likely than
peasants to make the distinction between western and traditional clothes. Following Indonesia's
independence from the Dutch in the 1940s, people increasingly started buying factory-made shirts and
sarongs. In textile-producing areas the growing of cotton and the production of naturally colored thread
became obsolete. Traditional motifs on textiles are no longer considered the property of a certain social
class or age-group. Wives of government officials are promoting the use of traditional textiles in the
form of western garments such as skirts, vests and blouses. This trend is also being followed by the
general populace, and whoever can afford to hire a tailor is doing so to stitch traditional ikat textiles into
western clothes. Thus traditional textiles are now fashion goods and are no longer confined to the black,
white and brown colour-palette, but come in an array of colours. Traditional textiles are also being used
in interior decoration and to make handbags, wallets and other accessories, which are considered
fashionable by civil servants and their families. There is also a booming tourist trade in the eastern
Indonesian city of Kupang where international and domestic tourists are eager to purchase traditionally
printed western goods.The use of traditional textiles for fashion is becoming big business in eastern
Indonesia, but these traditional textiles are losing their ethnic identity-markers and are being used as an
item of fashion.

Intellectual property

In the fashion industry, intellectual property is not enforced as it is within the film industry and music
industry. Robert Glariston, an intellectual property expert, mentioned in a fashion seminar held in LA
that "Copyright law regarding clothing is a current hot-button issue in the industry. We often have to
draw the line between designers being inspired by a design and those outright stealing it in different
places." To take inspiration from others' designs contributes to the fashion industry's ability to establish
clothing trends. For the past few years, WGSN has been a dominant source of fashion news and
forecasts in encouraging fashion brands worldwide to be inspired by one another. Enticing consumers to
buy clothing by establishing new trends is, some have argued, a key component of the industry's
success. Intellectual property rules that interfere with this process of trend-making would, in this view,
be counter-productive. On the other hand, it is often argued that the blatant theft of new ideas, unique
designs, and design details by larger companies is what often contributes to the failure of many smaller
or independent design companies.

Since fakes are distinguishable by their poorer quality, there is still a demand for luxury goods, and as
only a trademark or logo can be copyrighted, many fashion brands make this one of the most visible
aspects of the garment or accessory. In handbags, especially, the designer's brand may be woven into
the fabric (or the lining fabric) from which the bag is made, making the brand an intrinsic element of the
bag.

In 2005, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) held a conference calling for stricter
intellectual property enforcement within the fashion industry to better protect small and medium
businesses and promote competitiveness within the textile and clothing industries.

African-Americans in Fashion

African-Americans have used fashion through the years, to express themselves and their ideas. It has
grown and developed with time. African-American influencers often have been known to start trends
though modern-day social media, and even in past years they have been able to reach others with their
fashion and style.

Modern Day Fashion

Celebrities like Rihanna, Lupita Nyong'o, Zendaya, and Michelle Obama have been a few of the many
fashion idols in the black female community. For men, Pharrell Williams, Kanye West, and Ice Cube have
also helped define modern-day fashion for black men. Today's fashion scene is not just clothes, but also
hair and makeup. Recent trends have included the embracing of natural hair, the traditional clothing
worn with modern clothing, or traditional patterns used in modern clothing styles. All of these trends
come with the long-existing and persevering movement of "Black is Beautiful".

Early American Fashion

In the mid to end of the 1900s, African American style changed and developed with the times. Around
the 1950s is really when the black community was able to create their own distinct styles. The term
"Sunday attire" was coined, communities emphasized "Correct" dress, it was especially important when
"stepping out" for social occasions with community members, a habit that continues in the early 2000s.
Hair-dos and hairstyles also became a fashion statement, for example the "conk" which is hair that is
slightly flattened and waved. Afros also emerged and they were often used to symbolize the rejection of
white beauty standards at the time. Around the 1970s is when flashy costumes began to appear and
black artists really started to define their presences through fashion. Around this time is also when
movements started using fashion as one of their outlets.

Movements using Fashion

Civil Rights Movement

Black activists and supporters used fashion to express their solidarity and support of this civil rights
movement. Supporters adorned symbolic clothing, accessories and hairstyles, usually native to Africa.
Politics and fashion were fused together during this time and the use of these symbolic fashion
statements sent a message to America and the rest of the world that African Americans were proud of
their heritage. They aimed to send an even stronger message that black is beautiful and they were not
afraid to embrace their identities. An example would the Kente cloth, it is a brightly colored strip of cloth
that is stitched and woven together to create different accessories. This woven cloth of brightly colored
strips of fabric became a strong symbolic representation of pride in African identity for African
Americans of the 1960s and later. It was developed into what is called a dashiki, a flowing, loose-fitting,
tunic-style shirt. This cloth became one of the most notorious symbols of this revolution.

Black Panther Party

The Black Panther Party (BPP) was an essential piece of the Black Power movement that allowed
members that were involved to advocate for the African American race in different subjects like equality
and politics. The BPP members wore a very distinctive uniform: a black leather jacket, black pants, light
blue shirts, a black beret, an afro, dark sunglasses, and usually a fist in the air. Their image gave off a
very militant like feel to it. This notable uniform was established in 1996, but a different uniform was still
in place before; just the sunglasses and leather jackets. Each member wore this uniform at events,
rallies, and in their day-today life. Very few members changed the essential parts of the outfit, but some
added personal touches such as necklaces or other jewelry that was usually were a part of African
culture. The Black Panther uniform did succeed in intimidating enemies and onlookers and clearly sent a
message of black pride and power even though the initial intention of this party was to communicate
solidarity among the Black Panther Party members.

Colorism in Fashion

Since the 1970s, fashion models of color, especially black men and women, have experienced an
increase in discrimination in the fashion industry. In the years from 1970 to 1990, black designers and
models were very successful, but as the 1990s came to an end, the fashion aesthetic changed and it did
not include black models or designers. In today's fashion, black models, influencers, and designers
account for one of the smallest percentages of the industry. There are many theories about this lack of
diversity, that it can be attributed to the economic differences usually associated with race and class, or
it can reflect the differences in arts schooling given to mostly black populated schools, and also blatant
racism.

Statistics

A report from New York Fashion (Spring 2015) week found that while 79.69% of models on the runway
were white, only 9.75% of models were black, 7.67% were Asian, and 2.12% were Latina. The lack of
diversity also accounts for not only designers but models too, out of four hundred and seventy members
of The Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) only twelve of the members are black. From the
same study on New York Fashion Week, it was shown that only 2.7% of the 260 designers presented
were black men, and an even smaller percentage were black female designers. Even the relationship
between independent designers and retailers can show the racial gap, only 1% of designers stocked at
department stores being people of color. It was also found that in editorial spreads, over eighty percent
of models pictured were white and only nine percent were black models. These numbers have stayed
stagnant over the past few years.

Tokenism

Many fashion designers have come under fire over the years for what is known as tokenism. Designer or
editors will add one or two members on an underrepresented group to help them appear as inclusive
and diverse, and to also help them give the illusion that they have equality. This idea of tokenism helps
designers avoid accusations of racism, sexism, body shaming, etc.

Cultural Appropriation

There are many examples of cultural appropriation in fashion. In many instances, designers can be found
using aspects of culture inappropriately, in most cases taking traditional clothing from middle eastern,
African, and Hispanic culture and adding it to their runway fashion. Some examples are in a 2018 Gucci
runway show, white models wore Sikh headdresses, causing a lot of backlash. Victoria's secret was also
under fire for putting traditional native headdresses on their models during a lingerie runway show.
Marc Jacobs sent down models sporting dreadlocks in his spring 2017 New York Fashion Week show,
also facing immense criticism.

See also

References

Bibliography

Braudel, Fernand Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th Centuries, Vol 1: The Structures of Everyday
Life," William Collins & Sons, London 1981 ISBN 0-520-08114-5

Further reading

Breward, Christopher, The culture of fashion: a new history of fashionable dress, Manchester:
Manchester University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-7190-4125-9

Cabrera, Ana, and Lesley Miller. "Genio y Figura. La influencia de la cultura española en la moda."
Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body & Culture 13.1 (2009): 103–110

Cumming, Valerie: Understanding Fashion History, Costume & Fashion Press, 2004, ISBN 0-89676-253-X
Hollander, Anne, Seeing through clothes, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0-520-
08231-1

Hanifie, Sowaibah (5 August 2020). "Australia's first National Indigenous Fashion Awards winners
revealed, signalling hope for a more diverse industry". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation.

Hollander, Anne, Sex and suits: the evolution of modern dress, New York: Knopf, 1994, ISBN 978-0-679-
43096-4

Hollander, Anne, Feeding the eye: essays, New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1999, ISBN 978-0-374-
28201-1

Hollander, Anne, Fabric of vision: dress and drapery in painting, London: National Gallery, 2002, ISBN
978-0-300-09419-0

Kawamura, Yuniya, Fashion-ology: an introduction to Fashion Studies, Oxford and New York: Berg, 2005,
ISBN 1-85973-814-1

Lipovetsky, Gilles (translated by Catherine Porter), The empire of fashion: dressing modern democracy,
Woodstock: Princeton University Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-691-10262-7

McDermott, Kathleen, Style for all: why fashion, invented by kings, now belongs to all of us (An
illustrated history), 2010, ISBN 978-0-557-51917-0 – Many hand-drawn color illustrations, extensive
annotated bibliography and reading guide

Perrot, Philippe (translated by Richard Bienvenu), Fashioning the bourgeoisie: a history of clothing in the
nineteenth century, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-691-00081-7

Steele, Valerie, Paris fashion: a cultural history, (2. ed., rev. and updated), Oxford: Berg, 1998, ISBN 978-
1-85973-973-0

Steele, Valerie, Fifty years of fashion: new look to now, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000, ISBN
978-0-300-08738-3

Steele, Valerie, Encyclopedia of clothing and fashion, Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005

Davis, F. (1989). Of maids' uniforms and blue jeans: The drama of status ambivalences in clothing and
fashion. Qualitative Sociology, 12(4), 337–355.

External links

Media related to Fashion at Wikimedia Commons

The dictionary definition of fashion at Wiktionary

Quotations related to Fashion at Wikiquote