ECEG-3205: Superconductors

UG Program
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Electrical Materials and Technology
Overview

 Introduction

 BCS theory of superconductors

 Meissner`s effect

 Classification of superconductor materials

 London equation

 Application of Superconductors

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 2

A brief history of low temperature
 1800 Charles and Gay-Lusac (from P-T relationship)
proposed that the lowest temperature is -273 C (= 0 K)
 1877 Cailletet and Pictet liquified Oxygen (-183 C or 90 K)
 soon after, Nitrogen (77 K) is liquified
 1898 Dewar liquified Hydrogen (20 K)
 1908 Onnes liquified Helium (4.2 K)
 1911 Onnes measured the resistance of metal at such a
low T. To remove residual resistance, he chose mercury.
Near 4 K, the resistance drops to 0.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 3

Superconductivity
 It`s state of a material with Zero Resistivity.

 is a quantum phenomenona -- quantum phenomenon on

macroscopic scale.

 Discovered in 1911 by H. Kamerlingh Onnes

 Before 1986 Tc < 23 K

 1986 Tc ~ 35 K ,

 1987 Tc ~ 90 K

 1994 Tc ~ 153 K

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Superconductivity
 Superconductivity was discovered in 1911 by Kamerlingh Onnes
 but apart from a few specialized applications in high-field electromagnetics it
remained little more than a laboratory curiosity for 75 years, because of the
extremely low values of Tc required to produce the effect (prior to 1986, 0.01 < Tc <
23 k ).
 Such low temperatures can only be achieved by using liquid helium as
the coolant, which is relatively expensive and difficult to work with.
 In 1986 Bednorz and Muller discovered a ceramic superconductor with
a Tc of 35 K and the following year a material with a Tc of 90 K was
found, which meant that liquid nitrogen could be used as the coolant
(nitrogen liquefies at 77 K).
 This lead to an explosion of activity in both fundamental and applied
research on superconductivity,
 One of the main goals being to find a material which is
superconducting at room temperature (~300 K).

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 5

Superconductivity
 As temperature is decreased the resistivity of a metal also
decreases (as shown in next slide) because the number of
phonons (i.e. thermal vibrations) decreases.
 However, defects are still present in the solid and these
continue to scatter the carriers and limit the mobilities, so
that at very low temperatures, as T tends to 0 K the
resistivity generally approaches a small but finite value
dependent on the level of defects in the solid.
 In some materials, however, the D.C. resistivity drops
EXACTLY TO ZERO at some critical temperature Tc > 0 K,
as shown in Fig, these materials are termed
SUPERCONDUCTORS.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 6

 Superconductivity: Characteristics

 Zero Resistivity
Superconductor (e.g. Pb)
𝜌 =0⇒ 𝜎~∞

𝐽 = 𝜎 𝐸 ⇒ We have a
Normal metal
(e.g. Ag) flow of charge without
residual applied external field.
𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑐 ( °𝐾)
0 Al 1.2
0 Temperature, T
Tc In 3.4
Sn 3.7
A superconductor such as lead evinces a transition to zero resisitivity
Pb 7.2
at a critical temperature Tc (7.2 K for Pb) whereas a normal
Nb* 9.2
conductor such as silver does not, and exhibits residual resisitivity at
Hg 4
the lowest temperatures.
Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 7
Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 8
Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 9
Superconductivity: Characteristics

 Zero Resistivity is influenced

(initiated) by two factors:
 Temperature, Tc

 Magnetic Flux density, Bc

 High Current density Jc

 These should be below their

critical Values.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 10

Microscopic Theory : BCS Theory of Superconductors
 Superconductivity is very much a quantum effect and
involves the formation of electron pairs, termed "Cooper
pairs".
 (Although one electron would be expected to repel another
because they have the same charge, it can produce an attractive
force on another electron by deforming the lattice of positive ions in
which it is moving.)
 The electrons in these pairs are constrained to have equal
and opposite momentum, so that if the momentum of one
member of the pair is changed by a "collision" with a defect
or phonon, the momentum of the other member of the pair
is changed by an equal and opposite amount.
 Hence the momentum of the pair as a whole remains
unchanged by the collision - the pair is not affected by
collisions and has an infinite mobility.
Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 11
Microscopic Theory : BCS Theory of Superconductors
 A cooper pair consists of two electrons attracted to each
other sufficiently that they form a bond state.
 As temp decreasing the number of phonons also
decreases.

 Each member of the pair has equal and opposite

momentum : So momentum of the pair remains unchanged by
collisions, i.e. no scattering occurs
Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 12
Cooper Pairs

Lattice vibration 2

1
A pictorial and intuitive view of an indirect attraction between two
oppositely travelling electrons via a lattice distorsion and vibration.

 Generally, for non-transtional materials,

1
𝑇𝐶 𝛼 where 𝑇𝐶 < 10°𝐾
𝑀1/2

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 13

Meissner`s Effect
 Another important property of superconductors was
discovered in 1933 by Meissner & Ochsenfeld.
 Due to the perfect conductivity, that magnetic flux should
be excluded from entering a superconductor, but also it
was found that flux was expelled from the material as it
was cooled through its transition temperature.
 This phenomenon is termed the ‘Meissner effect’.
 The expulsion of the magnetic field requires the flow of
circulating ‘screening currents’ and hence the existence of
the Meissner effect necessitates that the resistance must
be zero.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 14

Meissner`s Effect
 This ‘perfect diamagnetism’ demonstrates that
superconductivity is a true thermodynamic state and that in
moving from the normal to the superconducting state, a
material undergoes a thermodynamic phase transition.
 In order for this to happen, the overall free energy must be
lower in the superconducting state than in the normal state
and this energy difference, which depends on the
temperature, is known as the condensation energy.
 When a magnetic field is applied to a material in the
superconducting state, energy is required to prevent it from
penetrating.
 If that is larger than the condensation energy, the material
will lower its overall free energy by returning to its normal
state.
Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 15
Meissner`s Effect
 When a magnetic field is applied to a material in the
superconducting state, energy is required to prevent it from
penetrating.
 If that is larger than the condensation energy, the material
will lower its overall free energy by returning to its normal
state.
 Thus there is a critical magnetic flux density, Bc, which is a
function of temperature :

 where fn and fs are the Helmholtz free energies of the normal and
superconducting states respectively and μ0 is the permeability of
free space.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 16

 Basic Properties: Meissner`s Effect
 A superconductor cooled below Tc expels all magnetic field
lines from the bulk by setting up a surface current.
 Perfect Dia-magnetic! (a material that generates a magnetic field in the direction opposite to an
externally applied magnetic field and is therefore repelled by it ; permeability less than unity and a negative
susceptibility)

𝐵𝑖𝑛 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑀 + 𝐵
𝐵𝑖𝑛 = 0;

𝜇𝑜 𝑀
= 𝜒𝑚 = −1
𝐵
μ0 is the
Magnetic permeability of space
and B is the externally
M magnetization of a material
Magnetic susceptibility χm

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 17

 Meissner`s Effect (Cont.…)
Magnet

Superconductor above Tc

N
Magnet S

Surface currents

Superconductor below Tc

Left: A magnet over a superconductor becomes levitated. The superconductor is a perfect

diamagnet which means that there can be no magnetic field inside the superconductor.
Right: Photograph of a magnet levitating above a superconductor immersed in liquid nitrogen
(77 K). This is the Meissner effect. (SOURCE: Photo courtesy of Professor Paul C.W. Chu.)

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 18

Magnetic Levitation
The Shanghai Maglev Train or Shanghai Transrapid a magnetic levitation train, or maglev line that operates
in Shanghai, China. The line is the first commercially operated magnetic levitation line, and the only high-
speed magnetic levitation line in the world.

Construction of the line began in March 1, 2001,and public commercial service commenced on 1 January
2004. The top operational commercial speed of this train is 431 km/h (268 mph), making it the world's fastest
train in regular commercial service since its opening in April 2004. During a non-commercial test run on 12
November 2003, piloted by Jonathan Texiera, a maglev train achieved a Chinese record speed of 501 km/h
(311 mph).The Shanghai Maglev has a length of 153 metres (502 ft), a width of 3.7 metres (12 ft), a height of
4.2 metres (14 ft) and a three-class, 574-passenger configuration.

The train line was designed to connect Shanghai Pudong International Airport and the outskirts of central
Pudong where passengers could interchange to the Shanghai Metro to continue their trip to the city center. It
cost $1.2 billion to build.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 19

Classification of Superconductor Materials

 Based on the superconductors response to an applied

field.

TYPE I (Soft) Superconductors

 B = µoH is the applied field and M is

the overall magnetization of the
sample H is magnetic field strength

 Field inside the sample,

𝐵𝑖𝑛 = µ𝑜𝐻 + µ𝑜𝑀, which is Normal

State
zero only for 𝐵 < 𝐵𝑐

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 20

 TYPE I (Soft) Superconductors

Bc (Tesla)
Lead
0.1
Normal state

Superconducting Tc
state
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Temperature (K)

The critical field vs temperature in Type I superconductors.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 21

TYPE I (Soft) Superconductors: Examples
Bc (T)
0.08

0.06

Lead
0.04

Mercury

0.02
Tin

0
0 2 4 6 8
Temperature (K)
The critical field vs temperature in three examples of Type I
superconductors.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 22

 TYPE II (Hard) Superconductors

Magnetic field lines

Normal state
Superconducting state
Vortex of flux lines

The mixed or vortex state in a Type II superconductor.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 23

TYPE II (Hard) Superconductors (Cont.… )
Critical magnetic field

Bc2 Normal state

Vortex state

Bc1
Meisner state
0 Tc

Temperature dependence of Bc1 and Bc2.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 24

London Equation

London penetration depth; 𝜆𝐿

Superconductor

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 25

London Equation (Cont.…)

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London Equation (Cont.…)
 Numerically;
𝜆𝐿 °0
𝜆𝐿 𝑇 = 𝑇 4
; 𝜆𝐿 ~ 10 − 100𝑛𝑚
1−
𝑇𝑐

 As 𝑇 ↑ → 𝑛𝑠 ↓ →↑ 𝜆𝐿 ….. The superconductor converts to

normal state.

 Solving Eq. (2) for the one dimensional case:

𝐵𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐵0 exp(−𝑥/𝜆𝐿 )

Reference: Electrical properties of materials - solymar, walsh

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 27

Coherence Length in Superconductors: Additional Topic

2ħ𝑉𝐹
ξ0 = − ;
𝜋𝐸𝑔
𝑉𝐹 the fermi velocity ; 𝐸𝑔 superconducting band gap

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 28

Application of Superconductors

In 1986 J. George Bednorz (right) and K. Alex

Müller, at IBM Research Laboratories in Zurich,
discovered that a copper oxide based ceramic-
type compound (La-Ba-Cu-O) which normally
has high resistivity becomes superconducting
when ooled below 35 K This Nobel prize
winning discovery opened a new era of
hightemperature- superconductivity research;
now there are various ceramic compounds that
are superconducting above the liquid nitrogen
(an inexpensive cryogen) temperature (77 K).
|SOURCE: IBM Zürich Research Laboratories.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 29

Maglev train.
 A train can be levitated above its track using powerful,
superconducting magnets, so that there is little friction.
 One, built in Japan in 2005, travelled at half the speed of
sound.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging
 MRI requires a very strong magnetic field. This is
produced using supercondctors.

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Hadron Collider
 Particle accelerators use superconducting magnets and rf
cavities to accelerate particles to high energies.
 The Large Hadron Collider:
 The LHC consists of a 27-kilometre ring of superconducting
magnets with a number of accelerating structures to boost
the energy of the particles along the way.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 32

These high temperature superconductor (HTS) flat tapes are based on (Bi2-
xPbx)Sr2Ca2Cu3O10-d(Bi-2223). The tape has an outer surrounding protective
metallic sheath. Right: HTS tapes having ac power loss below 10 mW/m have a
major advantage over equivalent-sized metal conductors, in being able to
transmit considerably higher power loads. Coils made from HTS tape can be
used to create more compact and efficient motors, generators, magnets,
transformers and energy storage devices.
| SOURCE: Courtesy of Australian Superconductors.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 33

 High field electromagnetics — solenoids made of
superconducting cable can carry very high currents
and therefore generate large magnetic fields.
 As they do not dissipate energy they do not require
cooling (other than to maintain the superconductor
below Tc) and are therefore cheaper and less
complicated than conventional solenoids.
 Such solenoids can be used in e.g. NMR body
scanners or magnetic levitation trains.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 34

 Superconductor
Mechanical
Radial forces support structure

Air Coil windings

Copper matrix
Solenoid

A solenoid carrying a current experiences radial forces pushing the coil

apart and axis froces compressing the coil.
Superconducting
electromagnets used on MRI.
Operates with liquid He,
providing a magnetic field
0.5–1.5 T.

SOURCE: Courtesy of IGC Magnet Business

group.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 35

Application of Superconductors (Cont…)

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 36

 Device/chip interconnects — the use of
superconductors as interconnects instead of ordinary
metals will lead to faster circuit operation (the RC time
constant for charging up a metal track to produce a
particular voltage on it will decrease as R tends to
zero.
 Lossless power transmission.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 37

SQUID (superconducting quantum interference
device)
 - detecting brainwave,
 - diagnosing problems in various parts of the human body,
 - as an MRI detector,
 - oil prospecting,
 - earthquake prediction,
 - submarine detection, etc.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 38

Ex:

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 3 39