Chapter 3

Extracting Information from Geological Maps & Folds

Geologic Maps
Geologic maps are one of the most fundamental types of geologic docu-
ments and yet they are a strange mixture of data and interpretation; it is often not
easy to tell one from the other. Published maps are all solid colors and bold, confi-
dent lines; they look like they are representing data. In this Chapter, we will build
on the visualization that we began in Chapter 1 and the vector methods from

Chapter 2 to introduce you to some of the types of information that you can ex-
tract from a geologic map.
Most of the features that we deal with at a map scale are approximately pla-
nar features — stratigraphic contacts, faults, dikes, etc. — and, more often than
not, they are not horizontal. At a regional scale, the surface of the earth where we
make most of our observations is pretty planar but, at more detailed scales, topog-
raphy is very irregular. Mapping the outcrop patterns of these planar features is ba-
sically an exercise in locating the line of intersection between the planar feature
and the irregular 3D surface of the Earth.
CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

Three Point Problems Some Common Map Symbols

Contact

A geologist cannot always go the the Fault

field and put a compass on the rock to de-

Thrust fault, saw teeth on upper plate
termine a strike and dip. Even when s/he
Fault, bar and ball on downthrown side
can do so, we frequently want to know the
orientation of a planar rock unit at a scale Anticlinal trace of axial surface

larger than the outcrop scale. That is, we synclinal trace of axial surface

want to know the average orientation at a Overturned anticline trace of axial

surface with trend and plunge of hinge
map scale. Fortunately, our geologic maps
provide sufficient information to enable the Overturned syncline trace of axial surface

structural geologist to determine orientation Strike and Dip of Bedding, of overturned

bedding

independent of outcrop and compass. Strike and Dip of Cleavage or foliation,

of joint

The orientation of a plane can be de-

termined if we know the positions of three non-collinear points within the plane.
Because the surface of the earth has variable topography, we can commonly find
three points on a plane at different topographic elevations. Geologic maps com-

7600 ft

slo
pe Js
dis
tan
ce
⎛ 800 ft ⎞
δ = tan −1 ⎜ = 38°
⎝ 1025.5 ft ⎟⎠
6800 ft
map distance = 1025.5 ft

200 0! 1000 m

Figure 3.1 — The classical three-point problem where a line is draw between two points of
equal elevation on a planar surface, yielding the strike (left). On the right is the construc-
tion in a vertical plane parallel to the line labeled “1025.5” (feet) on the map for calculating
the dip using the elevation values (in feet) and map distance.

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

monly depict topography with contour lines and, even if they don’t, modern digital
elevation models are available for most of the earth’s surface and the elevation of
any point can be determined via the Internet.
Figure 3.1 shows the classical way of determining strike and dip from a geo-
logic map with topographic contours. This simple method takes advantage of the
fact that a line connecting two points of equal elevation along a mapped contact of
a planar feature define the strike of a plane. The dip can then be calculated from a
third point at different elevation from a simple geometric construction. Both the
map distance, and the elevation difference to the third point, perpendicular to the
strike, can be read directly off the geologic map.
A more general method takes advantage of the vector methods we’ve just
learned in the previous chapter. It is more flexible because all three points can be at
different elevations and can be used wherever we have spot elevations but no topo-
graphic contours (e.g., in Google Earth). We use the cross product of two vectors in
a plane — just like we did in the previous Chapter to determine the true dip from
two apparent dips — but this time we are not using unit vectors describing orienta-
tions of two lines in the plane, but are using position vectors whose magnitude is
much greater than one (Fig. 3.2).
A position vector is a line connecting a point in space to the origin of the co-
ordinate system (P1, P2, and P3 in Fig. 3.2). The coordinates of the position vector
are just the scalar components of the vector projected onto the coordinate system
axes. In the case of our geologic map, we could use the UTM coordinates (eastings

Figure 3.2 — Three points in a plane can be

N
v used to calculate the orientation of a plane.
P2 The coordinates of the three points are the
u coordinates of the three position vectors,
P1, P2, and P3. To get the vectors that lie
P1 P3 within the plane, v and u, we use vector
subtraction as described in the text. The
pole to the plane is calculated from v × u.

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

and northings) plus elevation to define the position vector in an East-North-Up co-
ordinate system. Or, we could use any other local Cartesian coordinate system.
To calculate the pole to the plane, we will use the cross product of two vec-
tors in the plane, v and u. These two vectors can be calculated from the position
vectors using vector subtraction. The complete sequence of steps is given, below:
The first step is to subtract the position vectors to get v and u. Note that at
this point, we are working in an ENU coordinate system so the subscripts in the fol-
lowing equation correspond to the axes of our coordinate system: 1=E, 2=N, and
3=U.

v = ⎡⎢ ( P21 − P11 ) ( P2 2 − P12 ) ( P2 3 − P13 ) ⎤

⎥⎦
⎣
(3.1)
u = ⎡⎢ ( P31 − P11 ) ( P32 − P12 ) ( P33 − P13 ) ⎤⎦⎥
⎣

To convert these to a lower hemisphere NED centric coordinate system — which

we will need in order to calculate our orientations — we switch the order of the
first two components of the vector and multiply the third by –1:

v ′ = ⎡⎢ ( P2 2 − P12 ) ( P21 − P11 ) − ( P2 3 − P13 ) ⎤⎥

⎣ ⎦
(3.2)
u′ = ⎡⎢ ( P32 − P12 ) ( P31 − P11 ) − ( P33 − P13 ) ⎤⎥
⎣ ⎦

The cross product is defined as:

" v ′ × u′ = ⎡⎢ ( v2u3 − v3u2 ) ( v3u1 − v1u3 ) ( v1u2 − v2u1 ) ⎤=⎡ s s2 s3 ⎤ (3.3)

⎣ ⎦⎥ ⎣ 1 ⎦

The cross product gives us the pole to the plane but we need to convert it to a unit
vector before it can be transformed back into geographic orientations like trend
and plunge or strike and dip. We start by calculating the magnitude of cross prod-
uct, smagn:

" smagn = s12 + s22 + s32 (3.4)

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

And now we calculate the unit pole vector, " p̂ , by dividing each component of s by
its magnitude, smagn.

⎡ s s2 s3 ⎤
" p̂ = ⎡⎣ p1 p2 p3 ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 1 ⎥ (3.5)
⎢⎣ smagn smagn smagn ⎥⎦

If the third component is negative, i.e., p3 < 0, then the unit pole vector we have
calculated points into the upper hemisphere. To covert to the lower hemisphere in
this case, multiply each component by –1.
We’re now ready to convert our unit pole vector back to trend and plunge.
The plunge is straightforward because it is just the arcsine of the p3 component of
the pole to the plane:

" plunge = sin −1 ( p3 ) (3.6)

As we saw in Chapter 2, the trend is a function of p2 and p1 and the sign of p1. If p1
≥ 0 then you use the equation on the left, below; otherwise use the equation on the
right:

⎛ p2 ⎞ ⎛p ⎞
" trend = tan −1 ⎜ or trend = 180 + tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ (3.7)
⎝ p1 ⎟⎠ ⎝ p1 ⎠

To get the right-hand rule strike, just add 90° to the trend; the dip is 90°–plunge.

Figure 3.3 — A
three point calcu-
lation in GMDE.
This program can
also calculate the
uncertainties;
those shown here
are given a hori-
zontal and vertical
uncertainty of 40
ft.

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

Figure 3.4 — The spreadsheet to

do the same calculation as shown
in Figure 3.3. Note that the switch
from an ENU to an NED coordi-
nate system occurs in row 11.

The program GeolMapDataExtractor (GMDE) can do this calculation for

you automatically (Fig. 3.3), and the equations we have just seen are exactly how
the program does it. As a scientist, you are, of course, not content to trust your pre-
cious data to a canned program, and thus will want to calculate these values your-
self. Figure 3.4 shows you how to set up your spreadsheet using the same values as
in Figure 3.3.

Stratigraphic Thickness from Maps

Stratigraphic thickness is defined as the thickness of a unit measured per-
pendicular to the upper and lower surfaces of the unit. For people truly interested
in stratigraphic sequences, there is still no substitute for going out in the field and
measuring a stratigraphic section with tape, compass, Jacob staff, or whatever. Mea-
suring section that way is certainly the most accurate way to determine the thick-
ness of a unit but the process is time-consuming. For the rest of us, especially when
drawing cross sections, we are more likely to calculate the thickness of a strati-
graphic unit from a geologic map, commonly called a map thickness. In this sec-
tion, we will see how to determine the map thickness in the way that geologists have
for many decades. In the next chapter, we’ll learn how to do the calculation in a
much more flexible way after learning a new concept.
To calculate a map thickness, t, using traditional methods (Fig. 3.5), you must
determine the map distance, h, between the top and bottom of the unit measured
in the true dip direction (i.e., perpendicular to strike); the vertical distance, v, be-

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

Figure 3.5 — Cross section illus-

t = v cos(δ) + h sin(δ)
trating the traditional way of cal-
h
v
culating map thickness. In all
t three cases, the cross section is
t = –v cos(δ) + h sin(δ) perpendicular to the strike of the
h unit so that the true dip, δ, is used.
v
There are three cases (from left to
h
t
right): the unit dips in the same
t direction but less steeply than the
v slope; the unit dips in the oppo-
t = v cos(δ) – h sin(δ) site direction from the slope; and,
the unit dips in the same direction
as the slope but more steeply.

tween base and top along the same transect; and the true dip, δ. There are three
equations and the correct one to use depends on the relationship between the dip
direction and the slope direction (Fig. 3.5). For cases where the stratigraphic unit
dips more steeply and in the same direction as the slope, one uses:

" t = −v cos δ + hsin δ (3.8a)

When the slope and dip direction are the same, but the slope is steeper, the correct
formula to use is:

" t = v cos δ − hsin δ (3.8b)

And finally, where the dip and the slope are in opposite directions, the equation is:

h
α
s v Figure 3.6 — The two right triangles
necessary to solve for the thickness on
α
t your own. The equations shown in the
δ graphic will eventually simplify to
–1 Equation 3.8c, though it is not neces-
α = tan (v/h) sary to take it that far.
s = h/cos(α)#
t = s sin(α+δ)

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

" t = v cos δ + hsin δ (3.8c)

I highly recommend that, rather than memorizing these equations, you simple de-
rive the equation from the geometry when you need it. Trying to recall which spe-
cial case to use can lead to errors and it is usually faster to derive the correct equa-
tion than to look up and use an equation out of a book, cookbook style. To work
out the equations yourself, note that there are two right triangles as shown in Figure
3.6. You first calculate the slope angle, α, and slope distance, s, and then you use
those quantities along with the dip to derive the thickness. Similar graphics can be
devised for the other two special cases.
The necessity to construct these diagrams in the true dip direction and re-
member the three special cases (Fig. 3.5) is limiting when it come to writing a single
general equation to accomplish the task of determining map thickness. In the next
Chapter, we will learn a powerful set of methods known as coordinate transforma-
tions that will enable, not only a general solution to this problem but to a whole set
of interesting problems typically encountered in structural geology.

e
l in e
st lin
e e
cr g
in
h

ce
u r fa e e
ia l
s lin lin
ax g
e h
of in u
g
h o
ce

tr
tr a

Figure 3.7 — Basic fold terminology illustrated with two folded surfaces.
The hinge line connects points of maximum curvature on a surface
whereas the crest and trough lines connect the topographically highest
and lowest points, respectively, on the surface. The axial surface is the
surface that contains all of the hinge lines on all of the folded surfaces.

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

Analysis of Folded Rocks

Folded rocks (Fig. 3.7) are some of the most aesthetically pleasing of all geo-
logical structures and are quite important economically as hydrocarbon traps.
When folded rocks intersect the irregular surface of the Earth, the resulting out-
crop patterns can be quite complex. On a map, the fold is usually represented by
the trace of the axial surface (the intersection between the surface of the earth and
the axial surface) or sometimes the crest line. For fold with shallowly dipping axial
surfaces (i.e., recumbent folds) the trace can be quite complex.

Cylindrical Folds
The simplest fold model is that of a cylindrical fold (Fig. 3.8) in which
there is a line of zero curvature, known as the fold axis, and non-zero curvature at
any point along the fold in a direction perpendicular to the fold axis. the resulting
structure is completely two dimensional such that a measurement of bedding orien-
tation in one part of the fold should be identical to bedding measured in any other
part of the fold parallel to the fold axis. If you were to measure bedding throughout
a cylindrical fold and plot the poles. They would lie within a single plane known as
the profile plane (Fig. 3.8). The profile plane is perpendicular to the fold axis and
provides the “truest” view of the fold. Any profile plane constructed anywhere
along the fold will show the same view as long as it is perpendicular to the fold axis.

poles
to be
d ding
Figure 3.8 — A perfect cylindrical
fold illustrating the concept of a
fold axis (line of zero curvature
shown in red) and profile plane. All
of the poles to bedding should be
oriented parallel to the profile
plane. In the real case, bedding is
is not measured along a single arc,
ax
ld but can be measured anywhere on
Fo
the surface and the projected paral-
lel to the fold axis to a common
pro plane.
file
p lan
e

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

(a) (b)

π
β

Figure 3.9 — Finding a cylindrical fold axis by plotting bedding orientations on

a stereonet. (a) β-diagram of great circles representing the strikes and dips of
bedding and the region of intersection defines the fold axis. (b) π-diagram of
poles to bedding. The pole to the best fit great circle through the bedding poles
defines the fold axis.

The cylindrical fold model is highly oversimplified and very few natural folds are
perfectly cylindrical. Nonetheless, the model provides a quick way of determining a
fold axis and it allows us to project a plunging fold geometry to depth.
Determining the fold axis is simple: as implied in the previous paragraph, we
measure a number of bedding orientations around a fold and plot them on a stere-
onet. Two different approaches can be used: in a β-diagram, we plot the great cir-
cles of bedding and locate the fold axis where the maximum number of intersec-
tions occur (Fig. 3.9a). In the π-diagram, the poles to the bedding planes are cal-
culated and a great circle fit to the bedding poles. The pole to the best fit great cir-
cle defines the fold axis (Fig. 3.9b). As you can imagine looking at Figure 3.9a, the
β-diagram can get messy very quickly with a lot of bedding measurements. For that
reason, and because the numerical solution to this problem uses the poles anyway
as we shall see in a later chapter, most structural geologists prefer the π-diagram.
Either type of diagram is easy to use in a stereonet program (look for the “Cylin-
drical best fit” menu option).
Most folds are not as nicely curved as the idealized folds depicted in Figures
3.8 and 3.9. Instead, they tend to have mostly planar limbs and a narrow hinge
zone where the dip changes occur over a narrow area. In this case, the geologist

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

(a) (b)

fold fold
axis axis

ne
p la
a xi a l p l a n e

a xi a l
Figure 3.10 — Determining the fold axis and axial plane on a stereonet. At the top of each
diagram is a profile view of a bed (in green) with the axial plane in blue. In the stereonet
views, below, the poles to bedding are shown with green dots, the cylindrical best fit and
fold axis in red and the axial plane in blue. Dashed lines with arrows show where each
limb plots on the stereonet. (a) and upright asymmetric fold. The downward pointing
poles for both limbs are plotted. (b) an overturned asymmetric fold. The poles of the over-
turned limb are plotted as upward pointing poles.

who conscientiously measures bedding orientations at regular intervals is more like-

ly to see two point clusters, corresponding to the two limbs, with a relatively small
number of measurements in-between (Fig. 3.10). Furthermore, if the fold is asym-
metric, then there will be fewer measurements from the shorter limb. In these cases,
the resulting π-diagram can be used to locate not only the fold axis but also the fold
axial plane. Where bedding thickness is preserved across the fold, the axial plane
bisects the angle between the limbs of the fold and contains the fold axis. This cal-
culation is straightforward for upright folds (Fig. 3.10a); you can see on the stere-
onet that the axial plane plots between the two point clusters. However, overturned
folds are more problematical because, whereas for the upright limb we plot the
downward pointing poles, for the overturned limb we are plotting the upward
pointing poles so they will appear in the lower hemisphere (Fig. 3.10b). In this case
the axial plane will bisect the large obtuse angle between the two point clusters.

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

Figure 3.11 — The construction of dip isogons and the three general classes of
folds: (a) Class 1 dip isogons where the radius of curvature of the lower bedding
surface is smaller than the upper surface. (b) Class 2 dip isogons where both bed-
ding surfaces have the same curvature; and (c) class 3 dip isogons where the lower
surface has a larger radius of curvature than the upper surface.

Dip Isogons
Cylindrical folds come in several flavors. A common way to classify them is
with dip isogons, which are used to describe the geometric relationship of one
bedding surface to the next. A dip isogon connects two points on adjacent bedding
surfaces which both have the same dip relative to the axial plane of the fold. As
shown in Figure 3.11, there are three general classes of folds based on dip isogons.
Where bedding thicknesses are preserved, Class 1 dip isogons are also known as
parallel folds (Fig. 3.11a). Class 2 dip isogons result from similar folds (Fig.
3.11b). Finally, Class 3 dip isogons indicate a fold where the inner surface is less
curved than the outer surface. We will return to fold geometry and kinematics in
Chapter 10 because cross section construction relies heavily on choosing an appro-
priate fold model.

Folds in Map View

A cylindrical fold is just about the simplest fold form you can imagine and
yet, when you convolve the form with the topography of the earth, the resulting
map pattern can be highly complicated. Even in the absence of topography, correct
interpretation of the fold axis and axial trace can be counterintuitive. Because the
axial plane is, well, a plane, the trace that the axial plane makes across the land sur-
face is plotted on the map, i.e., the intersection between the plane and the topogra-

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

(a) (b)

Figure 3.12 — Folds and topography in (a) map view, and (b) down-plunge view. In the map
view (a), the heavy black lines are index topographic contours and the light gray lines are
other topo contours; a hill with NW-trending ridge is depicted. The yellow lines are traces of
fold axial planes with standard symbols for over-turned anticlines and synclines. the block
diagram in (b) shows the down-plunge view of the structure — tilted so the viewer is looking
parallel to the trend and plunge of the folds — where the true fold geometry is revealed. In
this view, axial traces are approximately straight lines. In (b) only the index contours are
shown as discontinuous black lines. Diagrams created with Visible Geology (thanks,
Rowan!).

phy (Fig. 3.12a). The fold axis is a line that, in general, intersects the surface in a
point (really a point for each geological surface). Thus, we show the trend and
plunge of the fold axis as a small arrow pointing in the direction of the trend of the
axis with a number next to it for the plunge (Fig.
3.12a). The down-plunge view of a cylindrical
fold, which can be approximately achieved by There is a spectacular web-based
resource, Visible Geology,
tilting the map so that you are looking in the di-
where you can create your own
rection direction of plunge, provides the most
3D models, look at those created
accurate perspective on the fold geometry and by other people or visualize a
can help make sense of a seemingly complicated stereonet in 3D:
map pattern (Fig. 3.12b). In the next chapter, we http://app.visiblegeology.com
will see how to calculate down-plunge views of
folds.

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

Working out the geometry of fold axis and axial plane is not always straight
forward, even in the absence of significant topography. A couple of tricks will help
you to interpret folds more quickly. Most importantly, as shown in Figure 3.10, the
fold axis is a line contained within the axial plane, but it can have any rake within
that plane. Thus, for some types of folds known as reclined folds, the trend of the
fold axis can actually be as much as 90° to the strike of the axial plane. If we know
the strike of the axial plane and the trend and plunge of the fold axis, we can de-
termine the dip of the axial plane. Alternatively, by using the trace of the axial
plane in down-plunge view and the trend and plunge of the axis from a π-diagram,
we can calculate the orientation of the axial plane using the cross product or on a
stereonet.
The other “trick” is equally useful, enabling rapid determination of the
trend and plunge of the fold axis: the strike of any vertical bedding must be parallel
to the fold axis trend and the dip of any bedding that strikes perpendicular to the
fold axis must be equal to the plunge of the fold axis. Thus, if you find bedding
dipping 90° in one part of an area that has experienced one episode of cylindrical
folding, you know that the trend of the folds is parallel to the strike of that bed!

Structural Contour Maps

Just about any value can be contoured to
show its spatial variation and structure data are no A 3752

exception. In a structural contour map, one con- 3500

tours lines of equal elevation on a surface of inter- 3000

est. Surfaces can be smoothly varying or they can be B

disrupted by faults. Automatic contouring algo- 2500 2940

rithms can do a good job where the elevations are 2000

smoothly varying but tend to have trouble where
1500
contours terminate abruptly against a fault. Fur- 1475 C
thermore, the geologist has a better idea of what de-
Figure 3.12 — Contouring via
formed geological surfaces actually look like so is in linear interpolation along the
a better position to draw realistic contours, though sides of a triangle with apices
of know elevation.
one must always be aware of unintended bias.

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

A geologist doing a first pass at contouring a surface would operate very

much as a computer program does: s/he would construct a mesh of triangles —
such a mesh is frequently accomplished using Delaunay triangulation — with
apices at the points of known elevation and would then linearly interpolate be-
tween the points (Fig. 3.12). This sort of contouring is tedious to do by hand but
easy to implement in a computer program.
A significant difference between contours of the topographic surface and a
geologic surface of interest is that the surface of the Earth is continuous whereas
the geologic surface can have gaps and overlaps across faults. A normal fault will
produce a gap (Fig. 3.13a) and a thrust fault will produce an overlap (Fig. 3.13b).
Folded surfaces that are also faulted yield the most complex patterns (Fig. 3.13c).
Clearly, a good structure contour map, except in the simplest case of an inclined
planar surface with constant strike and dip, requires extensive subsurface data to
construct. Such data may be available where there has been extensive hydrocarbon
industry exploration.


0
6000

6000
700
5000
5000

1000 6000 0
4000

600 4000
0
5000
2000 2000
500
0
4000
6000

4000
5000
6000

3000
5000

3000
4000

4000

3000

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.13 — Examples of structure contour maps. (a) A normal fault produces a
gap, (b) thrust or reverse fault an overlap, and (c) a cylindrically folded surface cut by
a thrust fault striking perpendicular to the fold axis.

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

Exercises—Chapter 3
These exercises and those of the next Chapter will rely heavily on the program
GeolMapDataExtractor (GMDE) and a digital copy of the Poker Peak geologic
map from the US Geological Survey (Albee and Cullens, 1975). GMDE, in either
Macintosh or Windows version can be downloaded from:

http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/faculty/RWA/programs/strikedipthickness.html

and the Poker Peak Quadrangle map can be downloaded from the class Web site.
GMDE will allow you to make quick accurate measurements on the map. Note
that you will need an Internet connection for the program to get elevations auto-
matically. For Exercises 1 and 2, you will also need a copy of Google Earth, which
you can download for free from:

http://www.google.com/earth/download/ge/agree.html

1. Open the Poker Peak Quad in GMDE and make sure it is georeferenced (it
should automatically be unless you have separated the .jpg file of the map from
the .txt file of the same name (the .txt file contains the georeferencing informa-
tion.) Locate the part of the map shown to the right. Notice that a fault is
shown offsetting the stratigraphic
units.
(a) Across the entire segment of the map
shown, digitize the following con-
tacts: base of Kp, top of Kp, top
of Kb, top of Kd.
(b) Save your contacts as a .kml file
(File>Export KML>contacts),
and then open the .kml file in
Google Earth.
(c) Kp and Kd are two very light
gray to nearly white limestone
units. Trace these white units on
the Google Earth image from
the northern end of your digi-
tizing to the south.
(d) Evaluate the mapping job and

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CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

the evidence for a fault, based on the agreement or lack of agreement of

your digitized contacts with the units that you see in Google Earth. It will
probably help to tilt and pan the Google Earth view to evaluate different
perspectives. Turn in a paragraph with your assessment of the mapping.

2. With the Poker Peak Quad loaded into

GMDE, digitize about 60 strikes and
dips around the Big Elk Anticline, the
area outlined in the red polygon to the
right.
(a) In GMDE, select
Settings>Mode>Strike & Dip Only.
Each time you want to measure a
strike and dip, select
Operations>Drag Strike Line or se-
lect ⌘D from the keyboard (easier).
To drag a strike line, click at the in-
tersection of the strike line and dip
tick mark and then drag the mouse in
the direction of the right-hand rule
strike (you can correct it if you drag
in the wrong direction with the pop-
up menu). You will have to type the
dip value in by hand. Once you are
happy with the strike and dip, press the “Record Strike & Dip” Button. The
program should draw a new strike and dip symbol over the one that you just
measured.
(b) When you have measured and recorded all of the strikes and dips in the out-
lined area, save your data. You should save it in three ways:
(i) first, select File>Save Data>Thickness/Orientation Data. This will allow
you to read your data back in to GMDE easily which will be useful in
next week’s lab.
(ii) Next select File>Export Strikes & Dips. This file can be easily read into
Stereonet.
(iii) Finally, select File>Export KML>Strikes & Dips to make a file for visual-
ization in Google Earth. In the dialog box that appears, just click Okay
which will use the default values.

MODERN STRUCTURAL PRACTICE "65 R. W. ALLMENDINGER © 2015-16

CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

(c) Open the KML file in Google Earth. The strikes and dip symbols are ren-
dered in three dimensions so you can clearly see the relationship between
strike and dip and the actual stratification. Be sure that you have topography
turned on in Google Earth and tilt and pan to get a good feeling for the 3D
nature of the geology. In Google Earth, save an image of the screen
(File>Save image) which you think shows especially well the rela-
tionship between the measured strike and dip and the geology
and turn it in with a sentence about why you liked it.
(d) Open the second file in Stereonet. Calculate the poles to the plane, make a
π-diagram, and determine the fold axis of the Big Elk Anticline. Turn in
your plot with the fold axis clearly annotated.

3. In GMDE with the Poker Peak

Quad loaded, find the area in the
northeast corner of the map shown
to the right.
(a) Select Settings>Mode>Strike &
Dip Only and uncheck the
check box that says “user en-
tered strike and dip”. Use
GMDE to find the East, North,
and Up coordinates of three
points on the base of the purple
TRa where it crosses the ridge
with the number “14” on it. To
do so click the “click” button
next to one row, then click on the
map exactly where you want to place the point. Repeat for the other two
points. If you have an Internet connection enabled, the program will get the
elevation for you automatically; otherwise, you will have to type in the eleva-
tion coordinate by hand.
(b) Copy the ENU coordinates of the three points you have defined into a
spreadsheet and calculate the strike and dip of the unit in the spreadsheet
using vector subtraction and the cross product. You can compare your an-
swer to the correct answer that GMDE calculates automatically.
(c) Compare your calculated value to the strike and dip symbol that the geolo-
gist measured on the ridge for the base of TRa and discuss the uncertainties
and reasons for the difference in two values, if any. Once you record your

MODERN STRUCTURAL PRACTICE "66 R. W. ALLMENDINGER © 2015-16

CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

strike and dip, you can see it’s location in a satellite image by choosing Da-
tum Details from the Window menu. This may help you in your discussion.
Turn in both the spreadsheet with the calculation of the strike
and dip and the your comparison with the mapped value and your
discussion.

4. GMDE allows you to make accurate distance measurements: just click and drag
the mouse from the top (or base) of the unit in the direction of the true dip to
the base (or top) of the unit. The distance and azimuth of the line you drag is
shown in the box at the lower left corner of the map view. Be sure to read the
distance before releasing the mouse! You can read the elevations off of the topo
contours on the map or, if you have an Internet connection, hold down the op-
tion key while you click the mouse at the point for which you want the eleva-
tion.
(a) On the same ridge that you used for problem 3, calculate the thickness of
TRa using the appropriate Equation 3.8. Do the calculation for both the ge-
ologist measured orientation and the orientation that you determined from
the three-point problem in Exercise 3.
(b) Make a drawing and derive a set of equations for the two right triangles
that you would use to get a the answer in part (a). You don’t have to derive
Equation 3.8 but the equations that you do get have to give you the same
answer as Eqn. 3.8!

5. On the next page is a map showing a number of borings that were made to de-
termine the elevation of the Jurassic Twin Creek Limestone in the subsurface
around the nose of the Big Elk anticline. Contour these elevations by hand us-
ing a contour interval of 500 ft and describe the resulting surface. You do not
need to do a formal linear interpolation between adjacent points.

MODERN STRUCTURAL PRACTICE "67 R. W. ALLMENDINGER © 2015-16

CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

7,072 4,112 2,910

5,771

38,500
6,865 4,933
2,013

964
6,414 3,704
36,500

7,615 2,838
5,712

34,500
7,234 4,600
2,193

6,066
1,538
4,721

32,500 Jtc outcrop 7,619 3,610

5,576 1,971
North

30,500 7,166
3,437
8,078 5,536

6,717
6,787 7,335 2,788
7,478
28,500 5,247
6,348 4,713

4,801 6,655
5,958 6,482
3,496 5,391
5,491
4,502 3,986
26,500 3,523 5,720
4,549 3,718
3,727 4,333 5,168
2,619 4,394

3,405 3,890
2,914
24,500
4,560
3,529
3,352
3,366

22,500
0

00

00

00
00

00

00

0
,0

,0

,0

,0
5,

7,

9,

11

13

15

17

East
East
17,000
15,000
13,000
11,000
9,000
7,000
5,000
22,500
24,500
26,500
28,500
30,500
32,500
34,500
36,500
A
38,500
North
4,933
6,414
3,704
5,712
4,600
7,234
6,066
7,619
5,576
3,610
2,838
2,013
7,166
5,536
3,437
7,335
6,348
4,713
5,391
3,986
3,890
5,168
5,720
3,529
3,405
4,333
6,655
7,478
5,491
5,958
6,787
6,482
4,549
2,788
1,971
9
2,193
2
964
5
2,910
5,771
7,615
8
6,717
8,078
4
4,721
4,112
3
3,718
1
3,366
7
1,538
6
A
7,072
6,865
,933
,414
,704
,712
,600
,234
,066
,619
,576
,610
,838
,013
,166
,536
,437
,335
,348
,713
,391
,986
,890
,168
,720
,529
,405
,333
,655
,478
,491
,958
,787
,482
,549
,788
,971
,193
64
,910
,771
,615
,717
,078
,721
,112
,718
,366
,538
,072
,865

MODERN STRUCTURAL PRACTICE "68 R. W. ALLMENDINGER © 2015-16