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Snake
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Main page This article is about the animal. For other uses, see Snake (disambiguation).
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Snakes are elongated, limbless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes /sɜːrˈpɛntiːz/.[2] Like all other squamates,
Current events Snakes
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snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many species of snakes have skulls with
Temporal range:
About Wikipedia several more joints than their lizard ancestors, enabling them to swallow prey much larger than their heads with their
Late Cretaceous – Present,[1]
Contact us highly mobile jaws. To accommodate their narrow bodies, snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys) appear one in front of
94–0 Ma
Donate the other instead of side by side, and most have only one functional lung. Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of
PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K PgN
vestigial claws on either side of the cloaca. Lizards have evolved elongate bodies without limbs or with greatly reduced
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limbs about twenty-five times independently via convergent evolution, leading to many lineages of legless lizards.[3]
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These resemble snakes, but several common groups of legless lizards have eyelids and external ears, which snakes lack,
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Community portal although this rule is not universal (see Amphisbaenia, Dibamidae, and Pygopodidae).
Recent changes Living snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica, and on most smaller land masses; exceptions include some
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large islands, such as Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, the Hawaiian archipelago, and the islands of New Zealand, as well as
Tools many small islands of the Atlantic and central Pacific oceans.[4] Additionally, sea snakes are widespread throughout the
What links here Indian and Pacific oceans. More than twenty families are currently recognized, comprising about 520 genera and about
Related changes 3,900 species.[5] They range in size from the tiny, 10.4 cm-long (4.1 in) Barbados threadsnake[6] to the reticulated python
Special pages of 6.95 meters (22.8 ft) in length.[7] The fossil species Titanoboa cerrejonensis was 12.8 meters (42 ft) long.[8] Snakes are
Permanent link thought to have evolved from either burrowing or aquatic lizards, perhaps during the Jurassic period, with the earliest
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known fossils dating to between 143 and 167 Ma ago.[9][10] The diversity of modern snakes appeared during the
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Paleocene epoch (ca. 66 to 56 Ma ago, after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event). The oldest preserved
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descriptions of snakes can be found in the Brooklyn Papyrus.
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Most species of snake are nonvenomous and those that have venom use it primarily to kill and subdue prey rather than for
Download as PDF self-defense. Some possess venom that is potent enough to cause painful injury or death to humans. Nonvenomous
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snakes either swallow prey alive or kill by constriction. Scientific classification
In other projects Kingdom: Animalia
Contents [hide]
Wikimedia Commons Phylum: Chordata
1 Etymology
Wikiquote
2 Evolution
Class: Reptilia
Languages 2.1 Origins Order: Squamata
Deutsch 3 Distribution Clade: Ophidia
Español 4 Taxonomy Suborder: Serpentes
Français
4.1 Families Linnaeus, 1758
한국어
4.2 Legless lizards
Italiano Infraorders
5 Biology
Русский
5.1 Size Alethinophidia Nopcsa, 1923
Tagalog
Tiếng Việt 5.2 Perception Scolecophidia Cope, 1864
中文 5.3 Skin
5.3.1 Molting
168 more
5.4 Skeleton
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5.5 Internal organs
5.6 Venom
5.7 Reproduction
Approximate world distribution of snakes, all
5.8 Facultative parthenogenesis
species
6 Behavior
6.1 Winter dormancy
6.2 Feeding and diet
6.3 Locomotion
6.3.1 Lateral undulation
6.3.2 Sidewinding
6.3.3 Concertina
6.3.4 Arboreal
6.3.5 Rectilinear
7 Interactions with humans
7.1 Bite
7.2 Snake charmers
7.3 Trapping
7.4 Consumption
7.5 Pets
7.6 Symbolism
7.7 Religion
7.8 Medicine
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links

Etymology
The English word snake comes from Old English snaca, itself from Proto-Germanic *snak-an- (cf. Germanic Schnake "ring snake", Swedish snok "grass snake"),
from Proto-Indo-European root *(s)nēg-o- "to crawl", "to creep", which also gave sneak as well as Sanskrit nāgá "snake".[11] The word ousted adder, as adder
went on to narrow in meaning, though in Old English næddre was the general word for snake.[12] The other term, serpent, is from French, ultimately from Indo-
European *serp- (to creep),[13] which also gave Ancient Greek hérpō (ἕρπω) "I crawl".
Evolution
The fossil record of snakes is relatively poor because snake skeletons are typically small A phylogenetic overview of modern snakes.
and fragile making fossilization uncommon. Fossils readily identifiable as snakes (though   Leptotyphlopidae
often retaining hind limbs) first appear in the fossil record during the Cretaceous period.[15]  
Scolecophidia   Anomalepididae
The earliest known true snake fossils (members of the crown group Serpentes) come from      
    Typhlopidae
the marine simoliophiids, the oldest of which is the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian age)  
  Anilius
Haasiophis terrasanctus,[1] dated to between 112 and 94 million years old.[16] Amerophidia  
    Tropidophiidae
Based on comparative anatomy, there is consensus that snakes descended from  
  Uropeltidae
lizards.[17]:11[18] Pythons and boas—primitive groups among modern snakes—have  
Uropeltoidea   Anomochilus
vestigial hind limbs: tiny, clawed digits known as anal spurs, which are used to grasp      
during mating.[17]:11[19] The families Leptotyphlopidae and Typhlopidae also possess     Cylindrophis
 
remnants of the pelvic girdle, appearing as horny projections when visible.   Pythonidae
 
Front limbs are nonexistent in all known snakes. This is caused by the evolution of their Pythonoidea   Xenopeltis
   
Hox genes, controlling limb morphogenesis. The axial skeleton of the snakes’ common   Loxocemus
 
ancestor, like most other tetrapods, had regional specializations consisting of cervical   Acrochordidae
 
(neck), thoracic (chest), lumbar (lower back), sacral (pelvic), and caudal (tail) vertebrae.   Xenodermidae
Early in snake evolution, the Hox gene expression in the axial skeleton responsible for the      
    Pareidae
development of the thorax became dominant. As a result, the vertebrae anterior to the  
Alethinophidia   Viperidae
hindlimb buds (when present) all have the same thoracic-like identity (except from the   Caenophidia  
Afrophidia   Homalopsidae
atlas, axis, and 1–3 neck vertebrae). In other words, most of a snake's skeleton is an    
 
extremely extended thorax. Ribs are found exclusively on the thoracic vertebrae. Neck,   Lamprophiidae
Macrostomata  
    Elapidae
lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are very reduced in number (only 2–10 lumbar and pelvic
 
vertebrae are present), while only a short tail remains of the caudal vertebrae. However,   Colubridae
 
the tail is still long enough to be of important use in many species, and is modified in some   Boidae
aquatic and tree-dwelling species.  
  Erycinae
 
Many modern snake groups originated during the Paleocene, alongside the adaptive   Calabaria
Booidea  
radiation of mammals following the extinction of (non-avian) dinosaurs. The expansion of   Ungaliophiinae
 
grasslands in North America also led to an explosive radiation among snakes.[20]  
  Sanzinia
Previously, snakes were a minor component of the North American fauna, but during the  
  Candoia
Miocene, the number of species and their prevalence increased dramatically with the first  
appearances of vipers and elapids in North America and the significant diversification of Note: the tree only indicates relationships, not evolutionary branching
Colubridae (including the origin of many modern genera such as Nerodia, Lampropeltis, times.[14]
Pituophis, and Pantherophis).[20]

Origins
There is fossil evidence to suggest that snakes may have evolved from burrowing lizards, such as the varanids (or a similar group) during the Cretaceous
Period.[21] An early fossil snake relative, Najash rionegrina, was a two-legged burrowing animal with a sacrum, and was fully terrestrial.[22] One extant analog of
these putative ancestors is the earless monitor Lanthanotus of Borneo (though it also is semiaquatic).[23] Subterranean species evolved bodies streamlined for
burrowing, and eventually lost their limbs.[23] According to this hypothesis, features such as the transparent, fused eyelids (brille) and loss of external ears
evolved to cope with fossorial difficulties, such as scratched corneas and dirt in the ears.[21][23] Some primitive snakes are known to have possessed hindlimbs,
but their pelvic bones lacked a direct connection to the vertebrae. These include fossil species like Haasiophis, Pachyrhachis and Eupodophis, which are slightly
older than Najash.[19]

This hypothesis was strengthened in 2015 by the discovery of a 113-million-year-old fossil of a four-legged snake in Brazil that has been named Tetrapodophis
amplectus. It has many snake-like features, is adapted for burrowing and its stomach indicates that it was preying on other animals.[24] It is currently uncertain if
Tetrapodophis is a snake or another species, in the squamate order, as a snake-like body has independently evolved at least 26 times. Tetrapodophis does not
have distinctive snake features in its spine and skull.[25][26]

An alternative hypothesis, based on morphology, suggests the ancestors of snakes were related to mosasaurs—extinct aquatic reptiles from the Cretaceous—
which in turn are thought to have derived from varanid lizards.[18] According to this hypothesis, the fused, transparent eyelids of snakes are thought to have
evolved to combat marine conditions (corneal water loss through osmosis), and the external ears were lost through disuse in an aquatic environment. This
ultimately led to an animal similar to today's sea snakes. In the Late Cretaceous, snakes recolonized land, and continued to diversify into today's snakes.
Fossilized snake remains are known from early Late Cretaceous marine sediments, which is consistent with this hypothesis; particularly so, as they are older than
the terrestrial Najash rionegrina. Similar skull structure, reduced or absent limbs, and other anatomical features found in both mosasaurs and snakes lead to a
positive cladistical correlation, although some of these features are shared with varanids.[citation needed]

Tetrapodophis Eupodophis Eupodophis Eupodophis

descouensi descouensi descouensi hind leg

Genetic studies in recent years have indicated snakes are not as closely related to monitor lizards as was once believed—and therefore not to mosasaurs, the
proposed ancestor in the aquatic scenario of their evolution. However, more evidence links mosasaurs to snakes than to varanids. Fragmented remains found
from the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous indicate deeper fossil records for these groups, which may potentially refute either hypothesis.[27][28]

In 2016, two studies reported that limb loss in snakes is associated with DNA mutations in the Zone of Polarizing Activity Regulatory Sequence (ZRS), a regulatory
region of the sonic hedgehog gene which is critically required for limb development. More advanced snakes have no remnants of limbs, but basal snakes such as
pythons and boas do have traces of highly reduced, vestigial hind limbs. Python embryos even have fully developed hind limb buds, but their later development
is stopped by the DNA mutations in the ZRS.[29][30][31][32]

Distribution
There are about 3,900 species of snakes,[33] ranging as far northward as the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia and southward through Australia.[18] Snakes can be
found on every continent except Antarctica, as well as in the sea, and as high as 16,000 feet (4,900 m) in the Himalayan Mountains of Asia.[18][34]:143 There are
numerous islands from which snakes are absent, such as Ireland, Iceland, and New Zealand[4][34] (although New Zealand's waters are infrequently visited by the
yellow-bellied sea snake and the banded sea krait).[35]

Taxonomy
 See also: List of snake genera

All modern snakes are grouped within the suborder Serpentes in Linnean taxonomy, part of
the order Squamata, though their precise placement within squamates remains
controversial.[36]

The two infraorders of Serpentes are: Alethinophidia and Scolecophidia.[36] This separation is
based on morphological characteristics and mitochondrial DNA sequence similarity.
Alethinophidia is sometimes split into Henophidia and Caenophidia, with the latter consisting of
"colubroid" snakes (colubrids, vipers, elapids, hydrophiids, and atractaspids) and acrochordids,
while the other alethinophidian families comprise Henophidia.[37] While not extant today, the
Madtsoiidae, a family of giant, primitive, python-like snakes, was around until 50,000 years ago
in Australia, represented by genera such as Wonambi. Approximate world distribution of snakes

There are numerous debates in the systematics within the group. For instance, many sources
classify Boidae and Pythonidae as one family, while some keep the Elapidae and Hydrophiidae (sea snakes) separate for practical reasons despite their extremely
close relation.

Recent molecular studies support the monophyly of the clades of modern snakes, scolecophidians, typhlopids + anomalepidids, alethinophidians, core
alethinophidians, uropeltids (Cylindrophis, Anomochilus, uropeltines), macrostomatans, booids, boids, pythonids and caenophidians.[14]

Families

Infraorder Alethinophidia 19 families

Taxon
Family[5] Genera[5] Species[5] Common name Geographic range[38]
author[5]
Western India and Sri Lanka through tropical Southeast Asia to
the Philippines, south through the Indonesian/Malaysian island
Bonaparte,
Acrochordidae 1 3 Wart snakes group to Timor, east through New Guinea to the northern
1831
coast of Australia to Mussau Island, the Bismarck Archipelago
and Guadalcanal Island in the Solomon Islands.
Stejneger,
Aniliidae 1 1 False coral snake Tropical South America.
1907
Cundall,
Anomochilidae Wallach, 1 3 Dwarf pipe snakes West Malaysia and on the Indonesian island of Sumatra.
1993
Northern, Central and South America, the Caribbean,
southeastern Europe and Asia Minor, Northern, Central and
East Africa, Madagascar and Reunion Island, the Arabian
Boidae Gray, 1825 14 61 Boas
Peninsula, Central and southwestern Asia, India and Sri Lanka,
the Moluccas and New Guinea through to Melanesia and
Samoa.
Hoffstetter,
Bolyeriidae 2 2 Splitjaw snakes Mauritius.
1946
Colubridae Oppel, 1811 258[5] 1866[5] Typical snakes Widespread on all continents, except Antarctica.[39]
Sri Lanka east through Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia,
Vietnam and the Malay Archipelago to as far east as Aru
Fitzinger,
Cylindrophiidae 1 14 Asian pipe snakes Islands off the southwestern coast of New Guinea. Also found
1843
in southern China (Fujian, Hong Kong and on Hainan Island)
and in Laos.
On land, worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, except
Elapidae Boie, 1827 55 359 Elapids in Europe. Sea snakes occur in the Indian Ocean and the
Pacific.[40]
Bonaparte,
Homalopsidae 28 53 Homalopsids Southeastern Asia and northern Australia.
1845
Lamprophiids (includes former
Fitzinger, Atractaspididae as well as 6 other Africa, southern Europe, and western-central Asia; two species
Lamprophiidae 60 314
1843 subfamilies formerly considered into southeastern Asia.
colubrids)
Loxocemidae Cope, 1861 1 1 Mexican burrowing snake Along the Pacific versant from Mexico south to Costa Rica.
Romer, Southeast Asia and islands on the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra,
Pareidae 3 20 Snail-eating snakes
1956 Borneo, Java, and their surrounding smaller islands).
Subsaharan Africa, India, Myanmar, southern China, Southeast
Fitzinger,
Pythonidae 8 40 Pythons Asia and from the Philippines southeast through Indonesia to
1826
New Guinea and Australia.
Brongersma, West Indies; also Panama and northwestern South America, as
Tropidophiidae 2 34 Dwarf boas
1951 well as in northwestern and southeastern Brazil.
Uropeltidae Müller, 1832 8 55 Shield-tailed snakes Southern India and Sri Lanka.
Viperidae Oppel, 1811 35 341 Vipers The Americas, Africa, and Eurasia east to Wallace's Line.
Southern and southeastern Asia, and islands on the Sunda
Xenodermidae Cope, 1900 6 18 Dragon & odd-scaled snakes Shelf (Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and their surrounding smaller
islands).
Southeast Asia from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, east
Bonaparte, through Myanmar to southern China, Thailand, Laos,
Xenopeltidae 1 2 Sunbeam snakes
1845 Cambodia, Vietnam, the Malay Peninsula and the East Indies
to Sulawesi, as well as the Philippines.
Wallach &
Xenophidiidae Günther, 1 2 Spine-jawed snakes Borneo & peninsular Malaysia.
1998
 Infraorder Scolecophidia 5 families
Family[5] Taxon author[5] Genera[5] Species[5] Common name Geographic range[38]
From southern Central America to northwestern South
Anomalepidae Taylor, 1939 4 18 Primitive blind snakes America. Disjunct populations in northeastern and
southeastern South America.
Vidal, Wynn,
Southern & southeastern Asia, including Sri Lanka, the
Gerrhopilidae Donnellan and 2 18 Indo-Malayan blindsnakes
Philippines, and New Guinea.
Hedges 2010
Africa, western Asia from Turkey to northwestern India, on
Socotra Island, from the southwestern United States south
through Mexico and Central to South America, though not in
Leptotyphlopidae Stejneger, 1892 13 139 Slender blind snakes the high Andes. In Pacific South America they occur as far
south as southern coastal Peru, and on the Atlantic side as far
as Uruguay and Argentina. In the Caribbean they are found on
the Bahamas, Hispaniola and the Lesser Antilles.
Most tropical and many subtropical regions around the world,
Typhlopidae Merrem, 1820 18 266 Typical blind snakes particularly in Africa, Madagascar, Asia, islands in the Pacific,
tropical America and in southeastern Europe.
Vidal, Vences, Branch
Xenotyphlopidae 1 1 Round-nosed blindsnake Northern Madagascar.
and Hedges 2010

Legless lizards
Main article: Legless lizard

While snakes are limbless reptiles, evolved from (and grouped with) lizards, there are many other species of lizards that have lost their limbs independently but
which superficially look similar to snakes. These include the slowworm and glass snake.

Other serpentine tetrapods that are unrelated to snakes include caecilians (amphibians), amphisbaenians (near-lizard squamates), and the extinct aistopods
(amphibians).

Biology
Size
The now extinct Titanoboa cerrejonensis snakes were 12.8 m (42 ft) in length.[8] By comparison, the largest extant snakes are
the reticulated python, measuring about 6.95 m (22.8 ft) long,[7] and the green anaconda, which measures about 5.21 m (17.1 ft)
long and is considered the heaviest snake on Earth at 97.5 kg (215 lb).[41]

At the other end of the scale, the smallest extant snake is Leptotyphlops carlae, with a length of about 10.4 cm (4.1 in).[6] Most
snakes are fairly small animals, approximately 1 m (3.3 ft) in length.[42]

Perception
An adult Barbados
Pit vipers, pythons, and some boas have infrared-sensitive receptors in deep grooves on the threadsnake, Leptotyphlops
snout, allowing them to "see" the radiated heat of warm-blooded prey. In pit vipers, the carlae, on an American quarter
dollar
grooves are located between the nostril and the eye in a large "pit" on each side of the head.
Other infrared-sensitive snakes have multiple, smaller labial pits lining the upper lip, just
below the nostrils.[43]

A snake tracks its prey using smell, collecting airborne particles with its forked tongue, then passing them to the vomeronasal
Thermographic image of a organ or Jacobson's organ in the mouth for examination.[43] The fork in the tongue provides a sort of directional sense of smell
snake eating a mouse
and taste simultaneously.[43] The snake's tongue is constantly in motion, sampling particles from the air, ground, and water,
analyzing the chemicals found, and determining the presence of prey or predators in the local environment. In water-dwelling
snakes, such as the anaconda, the tongue functions efficiently underwater.[43]

The underside of a snake is very sensitive to vibration, allowing the snake to detect approaching animals by sensing faint
vibrations in the ground.[43]

Snake vision varies greatly between species. Some have keen eyesight and others are only able to distinguish light from dark,
but the important trend is that a snake's visual perception is adequate enough to track movements.[44] Generally, vision is
best in tree-dwelling snakes and weakest in burrowing snakes. Some have binocular vision, where both eyes are capable of
focusing on the same point, an example of this being the Asian vine snake. Most snakes focus by moving the lens back and
forth in relation to the retina. Diurnal snakes have round pupils and many nocturnal snakes have slit pupils. Most species
possess three visual pigments and are probably able to see two primary colors in daylight. It has been concluded that the last
common ancestors of all snakes had UV-sensitive vision, but most snakes that depend on their eyesight to hunt in daylight
have evolved lenses that act like sunglasses for filtering out the UV-light, which probably also sharpens their vision by
improving the contrast.[45][46]
A line diagram from The Fauna
Skin of British India by G. A. Boulenger
Main article: Snake scale (1890), illustrating the
terminology of shields on the head
The skin of a snake is covered in scales. Contrary to the popular notion of snakes being slimy (because of possible confusion of of a snake
snakes with worms), snakeskin has a smooth, dry texture. Most snakes use specialized belly scales to travel, allowing them to
grip surfaces. The body scales may be smooth, keeled, or granular. The eyelids of a snake are transparent "spectacle" scales,
also known as brille, which remain permanently closed.

The shedding of scales is called ecdysis (or in normal usage, molting or sloughing). Snakes shed the complete outer layer of skin in one piece.[47] Snake scales
are not discrete, but extensions of the epidermis—hence they are not shed separately but as a complete outer layer during each molt, akin to a sock being turned
inside out.[48]

Snakes have a wide diversity of skin coloration patterns which are often related to behavior, such as the tendency to have to flee from predators. Snakes that are
at a high risk of predation tend to be plain, or have longitudinal stripes, providing few reference points to predators, thus allowing the snake to escape without
being noticed. Plain snakes usually adopt active hunting strategies, as their pattern allows them to send little information to prey about motion. Blotched snakes
usually use ambush-based strategies, likely because it helps them blend into an environment with irregularly shaped objects, like sticks or rocks. Spotted
patterning can similarly help snakes to blend into their environment.[49]

The shape and number of scales on the head, back, and belly are often characteristic and used for taxonomic purposes. Scales are named mainly according to
their positions on the body. In "advanced" (Caenophidian) snakes, the broad belly scales and rows of dorsal scales correspond to the vertebrae, allowing these to
be counted without the need for dissection.

Molting

Molting (or "ecdysis") serves a number of purposes. Firstly, the old and worn skin is replaced, and secondly, it helps get rid of
parasites such as mites and ticks. Renewal of the skin by molting supposedly allows growth in some animals such as insects,
but this has been disputed in the case of snakes.[48][50]

Molting occurs periodically throughout the life of a snake. Before each molt, the snake stops eating and often hides or moves
to a safe place. Just before shedding, the skin becomes dull and dry looking and the snake's eyes turn cloudy or blue-colored.
The inner surface of the old skin liquefies, causing it to separate from the new skin beneath it. After a few days, the eyes
become clear and the snake "crawls" out of its old skin, which splits close to the snake's mouth. The snake rubs its body
against rough surfaces to aid in the shedding of its old skin. In many cases, the cast skin peels backward over the body from
A common watersnake
shedding its skin head to tail in one piece, like pulling a sock off inside-out, revealing a new, larger, brighter layer of skin which has formed
underneath.[48][51]

A young snake that is still growing may shed its skin up to four times a year, but an older snake may shed only once or twice a year.[51] The discarded skin carries
a perfect imprint of the scale pattern, so it is usually possible to identify the snake from the cast skin if it is reasonably intact.[48] This periodic renewal has led to
the snake being a symbol of healing and medicine, as pictured in the Rod of Asclepius.[52]

Scale counts can sometimes be used to identify the sex of a snake when the species is not distinctly sexually dimorphic. A probe is fully inserted into the cloaca,
marked at the point where it stops, then removed and measured against the subcaudal scales.[53] The scalation count determines whether the snake is a male or
female, as the hemipenes of a male will probe to a different depth (usually longer) than the cloaca of a female.[53][clarification needed]

Skeleton
The skeleton of most snakes consists solely of the skull, hyoid, vertebral column, and ribs, though henophidian snakes retain
vestiges of the pelvis and rear limbs.

The skull consists of a solid and complete neurocranium, to which many of the other bones are only loosely attached,
particularly the highly mobile jaw bones, which facilitate manipulation and ingestion of large prey items. The left and right
sides of the lower jaw are joined together only by a flexible ligament at the anterior tips, allowing them to separate widely,
and the posterior end of the lower jaw bones articulate with a quadrate bone, allowing further mobility. The mandible and
quadrate bones can pick up ground-borne vibrations;[54] because the sides of the lower jaw can move independently of one
another, a snake resting its jaw on a surface has sensitive stereo auditory perception, used for detecting the position of prey.
The skeletons of snakes are
radically different from those of The jaw–quadrate–stapes pathway is capable of detecting vibrations on the angstrom scale, despite the absence of an outer
most other reptiles (as compared ear and the lack of an impedance matching mechanism—provided by the ossicles in other vertebrates—for receiving
with the turtle here, for example), vibrations from the air.[55][56]
consisting almost entirely of an
extended ribcage. The hyoid is a small bone located posterior and ventral to the skull, in the 'neck' region, which serves as an attachment for the
muscles of the snake's tongue, as it does in all other tetrapods.

The vertebral column consists of between 200 and 400 vertebrae, or sometimes more. The body vertebrae each have two ribs articulating with them. The tail
vertebrae are comparatively few in number (often less than 20% of the total) and lack ribs. The vertebrae have projections that allow for strong muscle
attachment, enabling locomotion without limbs.

Caudal autotomy (self-amputation of the tail), a feature found in some lizards, is absent in most snakes.[57] In the rare cases where it does exist in snakes, caudal
autotomy is intervertebral (meaning the separation of adjacent vertebrae), unlike that in lizards, which is intravertebral, i.e. the break happens along a predefined
fracture plane present on a vertebra.[58][59]

In some snakes, most notably boas and pythons, there are vestiges of the hindlimbs in the form of a pair of pelvic spurs. These small, claw-like protrusions on
each side of the cloaca are the external portion of the vestigial hindlimb skeleton, which includes the remains of an ilium and femur.

Snakes are polyphyodonts with teeth that are continuously replaced.[60]

Internal organs
Snakes and other reptiles have a three-chambered heart that controls the circulatory system via the left and right atrium, and
one ventricle.[61] Internally, the ventricle is divided into three interconnected cavities: the cavum arteriosum, the cavum
pulmonale, and the cavum venosum.[62] The cavum venosum receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and the cavum
arteriosum receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium. Located beneath the cavum venosum is the cavum pulmonale, which
pumps blood to the pulmonary trunk.[63]

The snake's heart is encased in a sac, called the pericardium, located at the bifurcation of the bronchi. The heart is able to move
around, owing to the lack of a diaphragm; this adjustment protects the heart from potential damage when large ingested prey is
passed through the esophagus. The spleen is attached to the gall bladder and pancreas and filters the blood. The thymus,
located in fatty tissue above the heart, is responsible for the generation of immune cells in the blood. The cardiovascular system
of snakes is unique for the presence of a renal portal system in which the blood from the snake's tail passes through the kidneys Anatomy of a snake.file info
before returning to the heart.[64] 1. esophagus
2. trachea
The vestigial left lung is often small or sometimes even absent, as snakes' tubular bodies require all of their organs to be long 3. tracheal lungs
and thin.[64] In the majority of species, only one lung is functional. This lung contains a vascularized anterior portion and a 4. rudimentary left lung
posterior portion that does not function in gas exchange.[64] This 'saccular lung' is used for hydrostatic purposes to adjust 5. right lung
6. heart
buoyancy in some aquatic snakes and its function remains unknown in terrestrial species.[64] Many organs that are paired, such
7. liver
as kidneys or reproductive organs, are staggered within the body, one located ahead of the other.[64] 8. stomach
Snakes have no lymph nodes.[64] 9. air sac
10. gallbladder
11. pancreas
Venom
12. spleen
See also: Snake venom, Venomous snake, and § Bite 13. intestine
Cobras, vipers, and closely related species use venom to immobilize, injure, or kill their prey. The venom is modified saliva, 14. testicles
15. kidneys
delivered through fangs.[17]:243 The fangs of 'advanced' venomous snakes like viperids and elapids are hollow, allowing venom to
be injected more effectively, and the fangs of rear-fanged snakes such as the boomslang simply have a groove on the
posterior edge to channel venom into the wound. Snake venoms are often prey-specific, and their role in self-defense is
secondary.[17]:243

Venom, like all salivary secretions, is a predigestant that initiates the breakdown of food into soluble compounds, facilitating
proper digestion. Even nonvenomous snakebites (like any animal bite) cause tissue damage.[17]:209

Certain birds, mammals, and other snakes (such as kingsnakes) that prey on venomous snakes have developed resistance and
even immunity to certain venoms.[17]:243 Venomous snakes include three families of snakes, and do not constitute a formal
taxonomic classification group.

Innocuous milk snakes are

often mistaken for coral snakes
The colloquial term "poisonous snake" is generally an incorrect label for snakes. A poison is inhaled or ingested, whereas whose venom is deadly to
humans.
venom produced by snakes is injected into its victim via fangs.[65] There are, however, two exceptions: Rhabdophis sequesters
toxins from the toads it eats, then secretes them from nuchal glands to ward off predators; and a small unusual population of
garter snakes in the US state of Oregon retains enough toxins in their livers from ingested newts to be effectively poisonous to small local predators (such as
crows and foxes).[66]

Snake venoms are complex mixtures of proteins, and are stored in venom glands at the back of the head.[66] In all venomous snakes, these glands open through
ducts into grooved or hollow teeth in the upper jaw.[17]:243[65] The proteins can potentially be a mix of neurotoxins (which attack the nervous system), hemotoxins
(which attack the circulatory system), cytotoxins, bungarotoxins, and many other toxins that affect the body in different ways.[65] Almost all snake venom
contains hyaluronidase, an enzyme that ensures rapid diffusion of the venom.[17]:243

Venomous snakes that use hemotoxins usually have fangs in the front of their mouths, making it easier for them to inject the venom into their victims.[65] Some
snakes that use neurotoxins (such as the mangrove snake) have fangs in the back of their mouths, with the fangs curled backwards.[67] This makes it difficult
both for the snake to use its venom and for scientists to milk them.[65] Elapids, however, such as cobras and kraits are proteroglyphous—they possess hollow
fangs that cannot be erected toward the front of their mouths, and cannot "stab" like a viper. They must actually bite the victim.[17]:242

It has been suggested that all snakes may be venomous to a certain degree, with harmless snakes having weak venom and no fangs.[68] According to this theory,
most snakes that are labelled "nonvenomous" would be considered harmless because they either lack a venom delivery method or are incapable of delivering
enough to endanger a human. The theory postulates that snakes may have evolved from a common lizard ancestor that was venomous, and also that venomous
lizards like the gila monster, beaded lizard, monitor lizards, and the now-extinct mosasaurs, may have derived from this same common ancestor. They share this
"venom clade" with various other saurian species.

Venomous snakes are classified in two taxonomic families:

Elapids – cobras including king cobras, kraits, mambas, Australian copperheads, sea snakes, and coral snakes.[67]
Viperids – vipers, rattlesnakes, copperheads/cottonmouths, and bushmasters.[67]

There is a third family containing the opistoglyphous (rear-fanged) snakes (as well as the majority of other snake species):

Colubrids – boomslangs, tree snakes, vine snakes, cat snakes, although not all colubrids are venomous.[17]:209[67]

Reproduction
See also: Sexual selection in scaled reptiles

Although a wide range of reproductive modes are used by snakes, all employ internal fertilization. This is accomplished by means of paired, forked hemipenes,
which are stored, inverted, in the male's tail.[69] The hemipenes are often grooved, hooked, or spined—designed to grip the walls of the female's cloaca.[70][69]

Most species of snakes lay eggs which they abandon shortly after laying. However, a few species (such as the king cobra) construct nests and stay in the vicinity
of the hatchlings after incubation.[69] Most pythons coil around their egg-clutches and remain with them until they hatch.[71] A female python will not leave the
eggs, except to occasionally bask in the sun or drink water. She will even "shiver" to generate heat to incubate the eggs.[71]

Some species of snake are ovoviviparous and retain the eggs within their bodies until they are almost ready to hatch.[72][73] Several species of snake, such as the
boa constrictor and green anaconda, are fully viviparous, nourishing their young through a placenta as well as a yolk sac; this is highly unusual among reptiles,
and normally found in requiem sharks or placental mammals.[72][73] Retention of eggs and live birth are most often associated with colder environments.[69][73]

Sexual selection in snakes is demonstrated by the 3,000 species that each use different tactics in acquiring mates.[74] Ritual
combat between males for the females they want to mate with includes topping, a behavior exhibited by most viperids in
which one male will twist around the vertically elevated fore body of its opponent and force it downward. It is common for
neck-biting to occur while the snakes are entwined.[75]

Facultative parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization.
Agkistrodon contortrix (copperhead) and Agkistrodon piscivorus (cottonmouth) can reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis,
meaning that they are capable of switching from a sexual mode of reproduction to an asexual mode.[76] The most likely type The garter snake has been
studied for sexual selection.
of parthenogenesis to occur is automixis with terminal fusion, a process in which two terminal products from the same meiosis
fuse to form a diploid zygote. This process leads to genome-wide homozygosity, expression of deleterious recessive alleles,
and often to developmental abnormalities. Both captive-born and wild-born copperheads and cottonmouths appear to be capable of this form of
parthenogenesis.[76]

Reproduction in squamate reptiles is almost exclusively sexual. Males ordinarily have a ZZ pair of sex-determining chromosomes, and females a ZW pair.
However, the Colombian Rainbow boa (Epicrates maurus) can also reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis, resulting in production of WW female progeny.[77]
The WW females are likely produced by terminal automixis.

Behavior
Winter dormancy
In regions where winters are too cold for snakes to tolerate while remaining active, local species will enter a period of brumation. Unlike hibernation, in which the
dormant mammals are actually asleep, brumating reptiles are awake but inactive. Individual snakes may brumate in burrows, under rock piles, or inside fallen
trees, or large numbers of snakes may clump together in hibernacula.

Feeding and diet

All snakes are strictly carnivorous, preying on small animals including lizards, frogs, other snakes, small mammals, birds, eggs, fish,
snails, worms, and insects.[17][1][18][78] Snakes cannot bite or tear their food to pieces so must swallow their prey whole. The eating
habits of a snake are largely influenced by body size; smaller snakes eat smaller prey. Juvenile pythons might start out feeding on
lizards or mice and graduate to small deer or antelope as an adult, for example.

The snake's jaw is a complex structure. Contrary to the popular belief that snakes can dislocate their jaws, they have an extremely
flexible lower jaw, the two halves of which are not rigidly attached, and numerous other joints in the skull, which allow the snake to
open its mouth wide enough to swallow prey whole, even if it is larger in diameter than the snake itself.[78] For example, the African
egg-eating snake has flexible jaws adapted for eating eggs much larger than the diameter of its head.[17]:81 This snake has no teeth,
but does have bony protrusions on the inside edge of its spine, which it uses to break the shell when eating eggs.[17]:81

The majority of snakes eat a variety of prey animals, but there is some specialization in certain species. King cobras and the
Australian bandy-bandy consume other snakes. Species of the family Pareidae have more teeth on the right side of their mouths than African egg-eating
on the left, as they mostly prey on snails and the shells usually spiral clockwise.[17]:184[79][80] snake eating an egg

Some snakes have a venomous bite, which they use to kill their prey before eating it.[78][81] Other snakes kill their prey by
constriction,[78] while some swallow their prey when it is still alive.[17]:81[78]

After eating, snakes become dormant to allow the process of digestion to take place;[53] this is an intense activity, especially after consumption of large prey. In
species that feed only sporadically, the entire intestine enters a reduced state between meals to conserve energy. The digestive system is then 'up-regulated' to
full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption. Being ectothermic ("cold-blooded"), the surrounding temperature plays an important role in the digestion
 process. The ideal temperature for snakes to digest food is 30 °C (86 °F). There is a huge amount of
metabolic energy involved in a snake's digestion, for example the surface body temperature of the South
American rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus) increases by as much as 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) during the digestive
process.[82] If a snake is disturbed after having eaten recently, it will often regurgitate its prey to be able
to escape the perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly efficient; the snake's
digestive enzymes dissolve and absorb everything but the prey's hair (or feathers) and claws, which are
excreted along with waste.

Locomotion
Dolichophis jugularis
The lack of limbs does not impede the movement of snakes. They have developed several different preying on a sheltopusik

modes of locomotion to deal with particular environments. Unlike the gaits of limbed animals, which form
a continuum, each mode of snake locomotion is discrete and distinct from the others; transitions between modes are abrupt.[83][84]
Carpet python
constricting and Lateral undulation
consuming a chicken Main articles: Undulatory locomotion and Hydrophiinae

Lateral undulation is the sole mode of aquatic locomotion, and the most common mode of
terrestrial locomotion.[84] In this mode, the body of the snake alternately flexes to the left and right, resulting in a series of
rearward-moving "waves".[83] While this movement appears rapid, snakes have rarely been documented moving faster than
two body-lengths per second, often much less.[85] This mode of movement has the same net cost of transport (calories burned
per meter moved) as running in lizards of the same mass.[86]

Terrestrial lateral undulation is the most common mode of terrestrial locomotion for most snake species.[83] In this mode, the
posteriorly moving waves push against contact points in the environment, such as rocks, twigs, irregularities in the soil,
etc.[83] Each of these environmental objects, in turn, generates a reaction force directed forward and towards the midline of
the snake, resulting in forward thrust while the lateral components cancel out.[87] The speed of this movement depends upon Crawling prints of a snake

the density of push-points in the environment, with a medium density of about 8 [clarification needed] along the snake's length
being ideal.[85] The wave speed is precisely the same as the snake speed, and as a result, every point on the snake's body follows the path of the point ahead of
it, allowing snakes to move through very dense vegetation and small openings.[87]

When swimming, the waves become larger as they move down the snake's body, and the wave travels backwards faster than the snake moves forwards.[88]
Thrust is generated by pushing their body against the water, resulting in the observed slip. In spite of overall similarities, studies show that the pattern of muscle
activation is different in aquatic versus terrestrial lateral undulation, which justifies calling them separate modes.[89] All snakes can laterally undulate forward
(with backward-moving waves), but only sea snakes have been observed reversing the motion (moving backwards with forward-moving waves).[83]

Sidewinding
Main article: Sidewinding

Most often employed by colubroid snakes (colubrids, elapids, and vipers) when the snake must move in an environment that
lacks irregularities to push against (rendering lateral undulation impossible), such as a slick mud flat, or a sand dune,
sidewinding is a modified form of lateral undulation in which all of the body segments oriented in one direction remain in
contact with the ground, while the other segments are lifted up, resulting in a peculiar "rolling" motion.[90][91] This mode of
locomotion overcomes the slippery nature of sand or mud by pushing off with only static portions on the body, thereby
minimizing slipping.[90] The static nature of the contact points can be shown from the tracks of a sidewinding snake, which
show each belly scale imprint, without any smearing. This mode of locomotion has very low caloric cost, less than ⅓ of the
cost for a lizard to move the same distance.[86] Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence that sidewinding is associated
with the sand being hot.[90]

Concertina
Main article: Concertina movement
A neonate sidewinder
When push-points are absent, but there is not enough space to use sidewinding because of lateral constraints, such as in
rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes)
tunnels, snakes rely on concertina locomotion.[83][91] In this mode, the snake braces the posterior portion of its body against sidewinding
the tunnel wall while the front of the snake extends and straightens.[90] The front portion then flexes and forms an anchor
point, and the posterior is straightened and pulled forwards. This mode of locomotion is slow and very demanding, up to seven
times the cost of laterally undulating over the same distance.[86] This high cost is due to the repeated stops and starts of portions of the body as well as the
necessity of using active muscular effort to brace against the tunnel walls.

Arboreal

The movement of snakes in arboreal habitats has only recently been studied.[92] While on tree branches, snakes use several
modes of locomotion depending on species and bark texture.[92] In general, snakes will use a modified form of concertina
locomotion on smooth branches, but will laterally undulate if contact points are available.[92] Snakes move faster on small
branches and when contact points are present, in contrast to limbed animals, which do better on large branches with little
'clutter'.[92]

Gliding snakes (Chrysopelea) of Southeast Asia launch themselves from branch tips, spreading their ribs and laterally
undulating as they glide between trees.[90][93][94] These snakes can perform a controlled glide for hundreds of feet depending
upon launch altitude and can even turn in midair.[90][93]
Golden tree snake climbing a
flower
Rectilinear
Main article: Rectilinear locomotion

The slowest mode of snake locomotion is rectilinear locomotion, which is also the only one where the snake does not need to bend its body laterally, though it
may do so when turning.[95] In this mode, the belly scales are lifted and pulled forward before being placed down and the body pulled over them. Waves of
movement and stasis pass posteriorly, resulting in a series of ripples in the skin.[95] The ribs of the snake do not move in this mode of locomotion and this method
is most often used by large pythons, boas, and vipers when stalking prey across open ground as the snake's movements are subtle and harder to detect by their
prey in this manner.[90]

Interactions with humans

Bite
Main article: Snakebite

Snakes do not ordinarily prey on humans. Unless startled or injured, most snakes prefer to avoid contact and will not attack humans. With the exception of large
constrictors, nonvenomous snakes are not a threat to humans. The bite of a nonvenomous snake is usually harmless; their teeth are not adapted for tearing or
inflicting a deep puncture wound, but rather grabbing and holding. Although the possibility of infection and tissue damage is present in the bite of a
nonvenomous snake, venomous snakes present far greater hazard to humans.[17]:209 The World Health Organisation (WHO) lists snakebite under the "other
neglected conditions" category.[98]
 Documented deaths resulting from snake bites are uncommon. Nonfatal bites from
venomous snakes may result in the need for amputation of a limb or part thereof. Of the
roughly 725 species of venomous snakes worldwide, only 250 are able to kill a human with
one bite. Australia averages only one fatal snake bite per year. In India, 250,000 snakebites
are recorded in a single year, with as many as 50,000 recorded initial deaths.[99] The WHO
estimates that on the order of 100 000 people die each year as a result of snake bites, and
around three times as many amputations and other permanent disabilities are caused by
snakebites annually.[100]
Vipera berus, one fang in glove The treatment for a snakebite is as variable as the bite itself. The most common and
with a small venom stain, the
other still in place effective method is through antivenom (or antivenin), a serum made from the venom of
the snake. Some antivenom is species-specific (monovalent) while some is made for use Most common symptoms of
with multiple species in mind (polyvalent). In the United States for example, all species of any kind of snake bite
venomous snakes are pit vipers, with the exception of the coral snake. To produce antivenom, a mixture of the venoms of the envenomation.[96][97]
Furthermore, there is vast
different species of rattlesnakes, copperheads, and cottonmouths is injected into the body of a horse in ever-increasing variation in symptoms between
dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted from the immunized horse. The serum is separated and further bites from different types of
purified and freeze-dried. It is reconstituted with sterile water and becomes antivenom. For this reason, people who are snakes.[96]
allergic to horses are more likely to suffer an allergic reaction to antivenom.[101] Antivenom for the more dangerous species
(such as mambas, taipans, and cobras) is made in a similar manner in India, South Africa, and Australia, although these
antivenoms are species-specific.

Snake charmers
Main article: Snake charming

In some parts of the world, especially in India, snake charming is a roadside show performed by a charmer. In such a show, the snake
charmer carries a basket containing a snake that he seemingly charms by playing tunes with his flutelike musical instrument, to
which the snake responds.[102] The snake is in fact responding to the movement of the flute, not the sound it makes, as snakes lack
external ears (though they do have internal ears).[102]

The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 in India technically prohibits snake charming on the grounds of reducing animal cruelty. Other
types of snake charmers use a snake and mongoose show, where the two animals have a mock fight; however, this is not very
common, as the animals may be seriously injured or killed. Snake charming as a profession is dying out in India because of
competition from modern forms of entertainment and environment laws proscribing the practice. Many Indians have never seen
snake charming and it is becoming a folktale of the past.[102][103][104][105]

Trapping
The Indian cobra is the
most common subject of The Irulas tribe of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in India have been hunter-gatherers in the hot, dry plains forests, and have
snake charmings. practiced the art of snake catching for generations. They have a vast knowledge of snakes in the field. They generally catch the
snakes with the help of a simple stick. Earlier, the Irulas caught thousands of snakes for the snake-skin industry. After the complete
ban of the snake-skin industry in India and protection of all snakes under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, they formed the Irula Snake Catcher's
Cooperative and switched to catching snakes for removal of venom, releasing them in the wild after four extractions. The venom so collected is used for
producing life-saving antivenom, biomedical research and for other medicinal products.[106] The Irulas are also known to eat some of the snakes they catch and
are very useful in rat extermination in the villages.

Despite the existence of snake charmers, there have also been professional snake catchers or wranglers. Modern-day snake trapping involves a herpetologist
using a long stick with a V- shaped end. Some television show hosts, like Bill Haast, Austin Stevens, Steve Irwin, and Jeff Corwin, prefer to catch them using bare
hands.

Consumption
Although snakes are not commonly thought of as food, their consumption is acceptable in some cultures and may even be
considered a delicacy. Snake soup is popular in Cantonese cuisine, consumed by locals in the autumn to warm their bodies.
Western cultures document the consumption of snakes only under extreme circumstances of hunger,[107] with the exception
of cooked rattlesnake meat, which is commonly consumed in Texas[108] and parts of the Midwestern United States.

In Asian countries such as China, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Cambodia,
drinking the blood of a snake—particularly the cobra—is believed to increase sexual
virility.[109] When possible, the blood is drained while the cobra is still alive, and it is
usually mixed with some form of liquor to improve the taste.[109]
A "海豹蛇" ("sea-leopard snake",
The use of snakes in alcohol is accepted in some Asian countries. In such cases, one or supposedly Enhydris bocourti)
occupies a place of honor among
more snakes are left to steep in a jar or container of liquor, as this is claimed to make the
the live delicacies on display
liquor stronger (as well as more expensive). One example of this is the Habu snake, which outside a Guangzhou restaurant.
Snake meat, in a Taipei is sometimes placed in the Okinawan liqueur Habushu (ブ酒), also known as "Habu
restaurant
Sake".[110]

Snake wine (蛇酒) is an alcoholic beverage produced by infusing whole snakes in rice wine or grain alcohol. First recorded as
being consumed in China during the Western Zhou dynasty, this drink is considered an important curative and is believed to reinvigorate a person according to
traditional Chinese medicine.[111]

Pets
In the Western world, some snakes are kept as pets, especially docile species such as the ball python and corn snake. To meet the demand, a captive breeding
industry has developed. Snakes bred in captivity are considered preferable to specimens caught in the wild and tend to make better pets.[112] Compared with
more traditional types of companion animal, snakes can be very low-maintenance pets; they require minimal space, as most common species do not exceed 5
feet (1.5 m) in length, and can be fed relatively infrequently—usually once every five to 14 days. Certain snakes have a lifespan of more than 40 years if given
proper care.

Symbolism
Main article: Serpent (symbolism)

In ancient Mesopotamia, Nirah, the messenger god of Ištaran, was represented as a serpent on kudurrus, or boundary stones.[113] Representations of two
intertwined serpents are common in Sumerian art and Neo-Sumerian artwork[113] and still appear sporadically on cylinder seals and amulets until as late as the
thirteenth century BC.[113] The horned viper (Cerastes cerastes) appears in Kassite and Neo-Assyrian kudurrus[113] and is invoked in Assyrian texts as a magical
protective entity.[113] A dragon-like creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian
art from the Akkadian Period until the Hellenistic Period (323 BC–31 BC).[113] This creature, known in Akkadian as the mušḫuššu, meaning "furious serpent", was
used as a symbol for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem.[113] It seems to have originally been the attendant of the Underworld god
Ninazu,[113] but later became the attendant to the Hurrian storm-god Tishpak, as well as, later, Ninazu's son Ningishzida, the Babylonian national god Marduk, the
scribal god Nabu, and the Assyrian national god Ashur.[113]
 In Egyptian history, the snake occupies a primary role with the Nile cobra adorning the crown of the
pharaoh in ancient times. It was worshipped as one of the gods and was also used for sinister
purposes: murder of an adversary and ritual suicide (Cleopatra).[citation needed] The ouroboros was a
well-known ancient Egyptian symbol of a serpent swallowing its own tail.[114] The precursor to the
ouroboros was the "Many-Faced",[114] a serpent with five heads, who, according to the Amduat, the
oldest surviving Book of the Afterlife, was said to coil around the corpse of the sun god Ra
protectively.[114] The earliest surviving depiction of a "true" ouroboros comes from the gilded shrines
in the tomb of Tutankhamun.[114] In the early centuries AD, the ouroboros was adopted as a symbol by
Gnostic Christians[114] and chapter 136 of the Pistis Sophia, an early Gnostic text, describes "a great
The reverse side of the throne
of Pharaoh Tutankhamun with four dragon whose tail is in its mouth".[114] In medieval alchemy, the ouroboros became a typical western
golden uraeus cobra figures. Gold dragon with wings, legs, and a tail.[114]
with lapis lazuli; Valley of the
Kings, Thebes (1347–37 BCE). In the Bible, King Nahash of Ammon, whose name means "Snake", is depicted very negatively, as a
particularly cruel and despicable enemy of the ancient Hebrews.

The ancient Greeks used the Gorgoneion, a depiction of a hideous face with serpents for hair, as an
apotropaic symbol to ward off evil.[115] In a Greek myth described by Pseudo-Apollodorus in his Bibliotheca,
Medusa was a Gorgon with serpents for hair whose gaze turned all those who looked at her to stone and was
slain by the hero Perseus.[116][117][118] In the Roman poet Ovid's Metamorphoses, Medusa is said to have
once been a beautiful priestess of Athena, whom Athena turned into a serpent-haired monster after she was
raped by the god Poseidon in Athena's temple.[119] In another myth referenced by the Boeotian poet Hesiod
and described in detail by Pseudo-Apollodorus, the hero Heracles is said to have slain the Lernaean
Hydra,[120][121] a multiple-headed serpent which dwelt in the swamps of Lerna.[120][121]

The legendary account of the foundation of Thebes mentioned a monster snake guarding the spring from
which the new settlement was to draw its water. In fighting and killing the snake, the companions of the
Imperial Japan depicted founder Cadmus all perished – leading to the term "Cadmean victory" (i.e. a victory involving one's own
as an evil snake in a WWII ruin).[citation needed]
propaganda poster
Three medical symbols involving snakes that are still used today are Bowl of Hygieia, symbolizing pharmacy,
and the Caduceus and Rod of Asclepius, which are symbols denoting medicine in general.[52] Snakes composing
a bronze kerykeion
One of the etymologies proposed for the common female first name Linda is that it might derive from Old from the mythical
German Lindi or Linda, meaning a serpent. Longanus river in
Sicily
India is often called the land of snakes and is steeped in tradition regarding snakes.[122] Snakes are
worshipped as gods even today with many women pouring milk on snake pits (despite snakes' aversion for
milk).[122] The cobra is seen on the neck of Shiva and Vishnu is depicted often as sleeping on a seven-headed snake or within the
coils of a serpent.[123] There are also several temples in India solely for cobras sometimes called Nagraj (King of Snakes) and it is
believed that snakes are symbols of fertility. There is a Hindu festival called Nag Panchami each year on which day snakes are
venerated and prayed to. See also Nāga.[citation needed]

"The Smoking Snake",

In India there is another mythology about snakes. Commonly known in Hindi as "Ichchhadhari" snakes. Such snakes can take the form
insignia of the Brazilian of any living creature, but prefer human form. These mythical snakes possess a valuable gem called "Mani", which is more brilliant
Expeditionary Force in than diamond. There are many stories in India about greedy people trying to possess this gem and ending up getting
WWII
killed.[citation needed]

The snake is one of the 12 celestial animals of Chinese zodiac, in the Chinese calendar.[124]

Many ancient Peruvian cultures worshipped nature.[125] They emphasized animals and often depicted
snakes in their art.[126]

Religion
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Main article: Snake worship Medusa (1597) by the

A common adder in the Italian artist Caravaggio
coat of arms of the Snakes are used in Hinduism as a part of ritual worship.[127] In the annual Nag Panchami festival,
Kyyjärvi municipality participants worship either live cobras or images of Nāgas. Lord Shiva is depicted in most images with a
snake coiled around his neck.[128] Puranic literature includes various stories associated with snakes, for example
Shesha is said to hold all the planets of the Universe on his hoods and to constantly sing the glories of Vishnu from
all his mouths. Other notable snakes in Hinduism are Vasuki, Takshaka, Karkotaka, and Pingala. The term Nāga is used to refer to entities that
take the form of large snakes in Hinduism and Buddhism.

Snakes have been widely revered in many cultures, such as in ancient Greece where the serpent was seen as a healer.[129] Asclepius carried a
serpent wound around his wand, a symbol seen today on many ambulances.[130] In Judaism, the snake of brass is also a symbol of healing, of
one's life being saved from imminent death.[131]

In religious terms, the snake and jaguar were arguably the most important animals in ancient Mesoamerica.[132] "In states of ecstasy, lords
dance a serpent dance; great descending snakes adorn and support buildings from Chichen Itza to Tenochtitlan, and the Nahuatl word coatl
meaning serpent or twin, forms part of primary deities such as Mixcoatl, Quetzalcoatl, and Coatlicue."[133] In the Maya and Aztec calendars, the Rod of
Asclepius, in
fifth day of the week was known as Snake Day.
which the
In some parts of Christianity, the redemptive work of Jesus Christ is compared to saving one's life through beholding the Nehushtan (serpent of snake, through
ecdysis,
brass).[134] Snake handlers use snakes as an integral part of church worship, to demonstrate their faith in divine protection. However, more
symbolizes
commonly in Christianity, the serpent has been depicted as a representative of evil and sly plotting, as seen in the description in Genesis of a healing
snake tempting Eve in the Garden of Eden.[135] Saint Patrick is purported to have expelled all snakes from Ireland while converting the country
to Christianity in the 5th century, thus explaining the absence of snakes there.[136]

In Christianity and Judaism, the snake makes its infamous appearance in the first book of the Bible when a serpent appears before Adam and Eve and tempts
them with the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge.[135] The snake returns in the Book of Exodus when Moses turns his staff into a snake as a sign of God's
power, and later when he makes the Nehushtan, a bronze snake on a pole that when looked at cured the people of bites from the snakes that plagued them in the
desert. The serpent makes its final appearance symbolizing Satan in the Book of Revelation: "And he laid hold on the dragon the old serpent, which is the devil
and Satan, and bound him for a thousand years."[137]

In Neo-Paganism and Wicca, the snake is seen as a symbol of wisdom and knowledge.

Medicine
Several compounds from snake venoms are being researched as potential treatments or preventatives for pain, cancers, arthritis, stroke, heart disease,
hemophilia, and hypertension, and to control bleeding (e.g. during surgery).[139][140][141]
 See also
Limbless vertebrates Spinal osteoarthropathy (reptile disease)
List of Serpentes families The New Encyclopedia of Snakes
List of snakes The Snakes of Europe and Snakes of Europe
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Ballcourt marker from the
Postclassic site of Mixco Viejo
in Guatemala. This sculpture
depicts Kukulkan, jaws
agape, with the head of a
human warrior emerging
from his maw.[138]

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Further reading
Behler JL, King FW (1979). The Audubon Society Field Guide to Reptiles and Ditmars RL (1939). A Field Book of North American Snakes. Garden City, New York:
Amphibians of North America . New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 581 . ISBN 978-0-394- Doubleday, Doran & Co. p. 305.
50824-5. Freiberg DM, Walls J (1984). The World of Venomous Animals . New Jersey: TFH
Bullfinch T (2000). Bullfinch's Complete Mythology . London: Chancellor Press. Publications. ISBN 978-0-87666-567-1.
p. 679. ISBN 978-0-7537-0381-6. Archived from the original on 9 February 2009. Gibbons JW, Gibbons W (1983). Their Blood Runs Cold: Adventures With Reptiles and
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External links
"Bibliography for "Serpentes" " . Biodiversity Heritage Library. Look up snake in
"Serpentes" . Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.
"US Snakes" . eNature. Archived from the original on 15 March 2008.
"Snakes of the Indian Subcontinent" . Naturemagics Kerala Photo Gallery. Wikiquote has quotations
"Herpetology Database" . Swedish Museum of Natural History. related to: Snake

BBC Nature: Snake news, and video clips from BBC programmes past and present.
Wikimedia Commons has
Basics of snake taxonomy at Life is Short but Snakes are Long media related to:
Serpentes (category)

Wikisource has the text

of the 1920 Encyclopedia
Americana article
Serpents.

V ·T·E Snake families [show]

V ·T·E Reptiles in culture [show]

Wikidata: Q25537662 · Wikispecies: Serpentes · Fauna Europaea: 15563 · Fauna Europaea (new): 4cf824f4-dda8-401a-8742-389c38ecce14 ·
Taxon identifiers
Fossilworks: 164090 · ITIS: 174118 · NBN: NHMSYS0000375563 · NCBI: 8570 · NZOR: 202065d2-dd4b-4a3c-9743-3b59cbdfd05a · WoRMS: 196112

Authority control BNF: cb119332629 (data) · GND: 4052617-3 · LCCN: sh85123727 , sh85120309 · NDL: 00563054

Categories: Snakes Turonian first appearances Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

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