Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association

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Analysis of air quality in Dire Dawa,

Ethiopia

Oluwasinaayomi Faith Kasim, Muluneh Woldetisadik Abshare &

Samuel Babatunde Agbola

To cite this article: Oluwasinaayomi Faith Kasim, Muluneh Woldetisadik Abshare & Samuel
Babatunde Agbola (2018) Analysis of air quality in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, Journal of the Air & Waste
Management Association, 68:8, 801-811, DOI: 10.1080/10962247.2017.1413020
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2017.1413020

© 2018 The Author(s).

Kasim, Muluneh Woldetisadik
Oluwasinaayomi Faith
Samuel Babatunde
Abshare, and Agbola. Published
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Francis.
Published online: 25 May
2018.

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JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION
2018, VOL. 68, NO. 8, 801–811
https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2017.1413020

TECHNICAL PAPER

Analysis of air quality in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

Oluwasinaayomi Faith Kasima,b, Muluneh Woldetisadik Absharec, and Samuel Babatunde Agbolaa
a
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; bOrganisation for Social Science Research in
Eastern and Southern Africa, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; cDepartment of Geography and Environmental Study,
Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT
PAPER HISTORY
Ambient air quality was monitored and analyzed to develop air quality index and its implications for
Received July 15, 2017
livability and climate change in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. Using survey research design, 16 georeferenced
Revised November 21, 2017
locations, representing different land uses, were randomly selected and assessed for sulfur dioxide
Accepted November 22, 2017
(SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), and meteorological parameters (temperature and relative humidity). The study scientific concern but
found mean concentrations across all land uses for SO 2 of 0.37 ± 0.08 ppm, NO 2 of 0.13 ± 0.17 ppm, encompass economics,
CO2 of 465.65 ± 28.63 ppm, CO of 3.35 ± 2.04 ppm, and VOCs of 1850.67 ± 402 ppm. An air quality sociology, geopolitics,
index indicated that ambient air quality for SO 2 was very poor, NO2 ranged from moderate to very
national and local
poor, whereas CO rating was moderate. Significant positive correlations existed between
temperature and NO2, CO2, and CO and between humidity and VOCs. Significant relationships were politics, law and health,
also recorded between CO 2 and NO2 and between CO and CO 2. Poor urban planning, inadequate and city livability.
pollution control measure, and weak capacity to monitor air quality have implications for energy The current
usage, air quality, and local meteorological parameters, with subsequent feedback into global climate
change. Implementation of programs to monitor and control emissions in order to reduce air
concentration of
pollution will provide health, economic, and environmental benefits to the city. greenhouse gases in the
Implications: The need to develop and implement emission control programs to reduce air atmosphere is the highest
pollution in Dire Dawa City is urgent. This will provide enormous economic, health, and in the past 500,000 yr. It
environmental benefits. It is expected that economic effects of air quality improvement will offset the grew, exceptionally
expenditures for pollution control. Also, strategies that focus on air quality and climate change quickly, by 70% between
present a unique opportunity to engage different stakeholders in providing inclusive and sustainable
1970 and 2004 alone
development agenda for Dire Dawa.
(Intergovernmental Panel
Introduction on Climate Change [IPCC] 2007, 2013). Although there
Air pollution is one of the biggest environmental health has been some controversy in the past, it is now widely
CONTACT Oluwasinaayomi Faith Kasim [email protected] Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
© 2018 The Author(s). Oluwasinaayomi Faith Kasim, Muluneh Woldetisadik Abshare, and Samuel Babatunde Agbola. Published with license by Taylor & Francis.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way.

challenges confronting humanity. It is an invisible accepted that human activities, in particular fossil fuel
murderer and foremost cause of some of the most use and changing land uses, are the dominant factors for
common human health challenges. Estimates from the growth and are responsible for most of the warming
World Health Organization (WHO) (2014) indicate that observed over the past 50 yr. Chronic pollution emitted
air pollution is responsible for one in eight deaths from different sources exists in urban atmosphere, with
globally. Air pollution is responsible for 36% of deaths strong impacts on global warming, climate change,
from lung cancer, 35% of deaths from chronic human health, human comfort, and daily life. Medical
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung studies (Chen et al. 2007; Shah 2008; Skinder et al.
disease, 34% of deaths from stroke, and 27% of deaths 2014; Tiwari 2011; WHO 1999) have demonstrated that
from heart disease (WHO 2016a). Nearly 1.4 billion breathing diseases may be linked to peaks in pollution
urban residents in the world breathe air that does not and that the old and very young are most affected
match WHO air quality standards. At the global level, (WHO
mortality due to exposure to outdoor air pollution is 2016b). Air pollution is usually generated locally but
estimated to range from 200,000 to 570,000 (World with international implications due to interconnectivity
Resources Institute 2000). Air quality, global warming, of global atmosphere (Ramanathan and Feng 2009). As
and climate change are no longer exclusively a a result, broad-spectrum concerted effort is required to
802 O.F. KASIM ET AL.
address the threats of air pollution to the environment l.]) on the Djibouti–Addis Ababa railway, by passing
and human health. In spite of the magnitude of the the higher, ancient city of Harar. The city is about 500
impacts of air pollution on the environment and human km from Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, and 300
health, there is limited study on the issue in Ethiopia km from the international port of Djibouti (Figure 1).
and Dire Dawa City has not been represented in air The city was an impressively planned city with central
quality literature. straight avenues and quarters. In the 1960s, Dire Dawa’s
Ethiopian government’s strategic drive towards economy was booming due to the railway line and the
economic development, industrialization, and poverty emergence of small- and medium-scale industries.
reduction has not been accompanied by high priority for However, with the influx of contraband goods in the
air quality improvement and air pollution control 1980s–1990s, the town became a notorious center of
measures (Etyemezian et al. 2005). The government’s this illicit trade. The inability of local manufacturing
effort to provide better future for Ethiopians, at the industries to compete with contraband goods exposed
detriment of the rural areas, has implications on the town to multifaceted problems, including economic
urbanization, migration patterns, and environmental stagnation and degeneration. The city’s economy has
pollution outcomes (Dire Dawa Environmental not recovered to date (Dire Dawa Environmental
Protection Authority 2013; United Nations Human Protection Authority 2013; UNHabitat 2008). With this
Settlements Programme [UN-Habitat] 2008). Sources of economic slump, growth has been more organic and
air pollutants vary widely by the type of land use and dense; unplanned (informal) settlements can be seen
the levels of pollution controls that are in place. scattered throughout the city. It is Ethiopia’s second
Existing studies, especially in Addis Ababa, have largest city, with over 400,000 inhabitants.
identified air pollution sources to include lightand Ecologically, the city lies within semidesert scrub
heavy-duty motor vehicles, industry, home heating, and ecosystem, with diverse topographic features. Within
cooking, as well as fugitive sources such as biogenic the city’s boundary, altitude ranges from 960 m a.s.l. in
emissions and dust. Pollution control measures geared the northeast to 2450 m a.s.l. in the southwestern part of
toward reducing the concentration levels from the the city, although the greater part of the city is around
identified sources are virtually not in existence in 1200 m a.s.l. The city is located within the East African
Ethiopian cities (Etyemezian et al. 2005; Kumie et al. rift valley, with average temperature and rainfall of 34.6
2010; Tiwari 2011; Venn et al. 2005). By virtue of Dire °C and 637 mm, respectively (National Meteorological
Dawa’s location along the East African rift valley, Agency 2007; Dire Dawa Environmental Protection
inadequate pollution control measures suggest that toxic Authority 2013). According to Ethiopian National
gases may become trapped in the valley under Meteorological Agency (NMA) (2007), the mean
conditions of atmospheric stagnation, compounding minimum temperature has been increasing throughout
existing poor environmental conditions (Dire Dawa the country, particularly during the cool months, by
Environmental Protection Authority 2013). 0.37 °C per decade in the last 60 yr. From available
In spite of the magnitude of the impacts of air data, annual maximum temperatures, over the last 30 yr,
pollution on the environment and human health, there showed upward trend at the meteorological stations
exists limited evidence analyzing urban air pollution located in Dire Dawa Administration. According to
and the potential contributions of different land use NMA, the maximum temperature has been increasing
types to air pollution in Dire Dawa. As a result, by about 0.67 °C every 10 yr.
concerted effort is required to address the threats of air The study adopted survey research design to generate
pollution to the environment, climate change, and required data. Sampled locations were randomly
human health. Therefore, this paper analyzes air selected to cover the cores and peripheries of the city. In
pollution concentrations in order to develop an air selecting the sampled points, different land uses, which
quality index and the implication of air pollution for city included residential, circulation (transportation),
livability and climate change in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. commercial, industrial, recreational, and public land
Materials and methods uses, were taken into consideration. A total of 16
locations were selected (five residential, three
Dire Dawa, in eastern Ethiopia, was established in 1902
as a relatively lowland link (1200 m above sea level
[a.s.
 JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 803

Figure 1. Map of Ethiopia showing location of Dire Dawa. portable gas monitor with attached temperature and
relative humidity sensors (manufactured by Aeroqual
Limited, Auckland, New Zealand) and YuanTe SKY
industrial, two commercial, three circulation, two
2000-M4 handheld multigas detector (manufactured by
institutional, and a recreational land use), as shown in
Shenzhen Yuante Technology Corporation Limited,
Figure 2.
Guangdong, China). Average of the readings for each
Atmospheric pollution in cities and its impact on city
point was recorded and the location georeferenced, as
livability and climate change have been receiving more
shown in Figure 2. Air quality data were collected for
attention globally. However, there is acute shortage of
five weekdays (Monday to Friday) from 9 a.m. to 4
air quality monitoring infrastructure in Ethiopia;
p.m. daily. The order of recordings was reversed for
therefore, studies on air pollution in the country have
each day. The following day readings started from
been limited (Etyemezian et al. 2005; Kumie et al.
where previous day’s readings ended. The same
2010; Tiwari 2011; Venn et al. 2005). The dearth of
procedure was repeated throughout the duration of the
infrastructure and other logistic challenges imposed
study. At the end of the exercise, all the sampled
limitations on the equipment available for use and,
locations had morning and afternoon readings.
hence, the frequency of monitoring and measurement
carried out. Concentration levels of sulfur dioxide Sampled point coordinates were obtained with
(SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), handheld automated Garmin GPSMAP 64 Global
carbon dioxide (CO2), and volatile organic compounds Positioning System (GPS) navigator (manufactured by
(VOCs) were measured using AeroQual Series 500 Garmin

Figure 2. Coordinates of sampled locations within Dire Dawa.

804 O.F. KASIM ET AL.
Limited, Schaffhausen, Switzerland). The air quality
measuring equipments used for data collection were
recalibrated before each usage for quality assurance,
and the correlation coefficient between AeroQual Series
500 portable gas monitor and YuanTe SKY 2000-M4
handheld multigas detector calibrations was 0.986. The
readings from AeroQual Series 500 (the recorded
readings) were cross-checked for quality assurance by
the readings from YuanTe SKY 2000-M4 for all the
sampled points. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA] (2015) and
Standard deviations in the concentration represent adopted by Ethiopian Environmental Protection
dayto-day and time-of-the-day variations in the Authority, A stands for very good (0–15), B for good
recorded concentrations from the sampled locations. It (16–31), C for moderate (32–49), D for poor (50–99),
is important to note that due to sensitivity attached to and E for very poor (100 and over). AQI values were
healthrelated data in the city, it was impossible to obtain calculated for SO2, NO2, and CO concentration levels
current data on health for the city. The paper, therefore, within the sampled locations. The indices for the
relied on the existing literature to substantiate analysis pollutants were derived using the formula
from air quality data outcomes. Observation checklist
was used to document characteristics of the sampled
locations, whereas Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS; version 19; Chicago, IL, USA) was
used for data analysis.
Air quality index (AQI) is used to describe ambient
air quality. It serves as indicator of air quality based on
concentrations for air pollutants that have adverse
effects on human health and the environment. The index
is a tool for effective communication of air quality
status to people in terms that are easy to understand. It
transforms complex air quality data of various
pollutants into a single number (index value),
nomenclature, and color. The AQI is a rating scale for
outdoor air. The lower the AQI value, the better the air
quality.
Within AQI rating, as noted by the U.S.

pollutant data reading

AQI pollutant ¼ 100
Standard

Results
Sampled meteorological parameters and altitude
 JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 805
Table 1 contains the readings obtained for temperature ranged from 39% to 41%; that of circulation land use
and relative humidity in the sampled locations. The was around 40%; that of institutional land use ranged
mean temperature recorded for Dire Dawa was 38.29 ± from 35% to 37%; and the value for recreational land
1.75 °C. Within the land use types, the mean use was 37%. The highest value recorded for relative
temperatures recorded from commercial and circulation humidity was 55.4 ± 4.93%. Nine sampled locations
land uses were approximately 40 °C. The lowest (36.3 had relative humidity values that ranged from 50% to
± 1.27 °C) temperature was recorded from institutional 54%; four locations had values ranging from 45% to
land use. The mean temperatures from other land uses 49%; and two locations had values that were from 40%
hovered around 37 °C. Among the sampled to 44%.

Table 1. Meteorological parameters and altitude of sampled locations.

Temperature Humidity Altitude
Land use Sampled points (°C) (%) (m)
Residential Kazera-Megala river bank 38.4 ± 3.36 52.8 ± 4.21 1173
Gandagere Tarara 36.6 ± 3.29 51.8 ± 6.02 1283

Dire Dawa Mosque 38.8 ± 2.17 52.8 ± 4.55 1237

Outskirt 35.8 ± 2.86 54.0 ± 5.00 1192

Paradiso restaurant area 38.4 ± 1.82 50.8 ± 3.90 1257

Industrial Industrial area condominium 36.2 ± 2.28 43.8 ± 5.07 1141

Cement factory 37.4 ± 2.51 48.8 ± 2.17 1158

Cotton factory 37.8 ± 2.59 54.8 ± 5.54 1203

Commercial Taiwan Market 41.2 ± 2.39 46.2 ± 4.55 1211

Abattoir 39.4 ± 2.07 53.4 ± 5.59 1176

Circulation Ethio-Djibouti rail roundabout 40.6 ± 2.07 44.8 ± 7.66 1185

Coca-Cola factory/motor park 40.4 ± 2.61 45.2 ± 5.50 1231

Sabean area 39.6 ± 2.07 47.4 ± 4.93 1183

Institutional Dire Dawa University campus 35.4 ± 2.41 54.0 ± 9.03 1154
Dil Chora Referral Hospital 37.2 ± 1.92 55.4 ± 4.93 1223

Recreational Millennium Park 37.4 ± 1.14 50.2 ± 5.97 1168

Mean 38.29 ± 1.75 50.35 ± 3.87 1198.44

Source: Authors’ analysis (2016).

locations, the highest temperature was recorded at
Taiwan Market (41.2 ± 2.39 °C), followed by 40.6 ±
2.07 °C recorded from Ethio-Djibouti rail roundabout, Sulfur dioxide
whereas the lowest (35.4 ± 2.41 °C) was recorded Figure 3 presents recorded mean concentration levels of
within the premises of the Dire Dawa University sampled SO2, NO2, and CO. SO2 concentrations across
campus. Dire Dawa is located on lowland along the all the sampled locations indicated that circulation land
East African rift valley, with relatively flat topography. use emitted the highest level, with a mean value of 0.40
The sampled locations are at a mean value of 1198.44 ± 0.03 ppm. The literature has correlated circulation
m a.s.l. From the analysis, due to isotropic nature of the land use activities and SO 2 emission. However, in Dire
city’s terrain, there was no significant relationship at P < Dawa, industrial activity also contributed significantly
0.05 between temperature and altitude. to SO2 emissions. Within the sampled circulation land
Relative humidity records ranged from use, the highest concentration value (0.42 ± 0.02 ppm)
49.13 ± 6.25% to 54.7 ± 6.90% with a mean value of was recorded at Coca-Cola factory/ central motor park,
50.35 ± 3.87%. Relative humidity for residential land whereas the lowest concentration (0.37 ± 0.05 ppm)
use ranged from 50% to 54%; that of industrial land use was recorded at Ethio-Djibouti rail roundabout.
ranged from 36% to 38%; that of commercial land use
806 O.F. KASIM ET AL.
Industrial land use concentration levels of SO2 ranged Coca-Cola factory/motor park E D C
from 0.31 ± 0.07 to 0.52 ± 0.07 ppm, recorded from Sabean area E E C
cement factory and industrial area condominium,
respectively. Average SO2 concentration levels recorded Mean rating E E C
at all sampled land use type (industrial areas, Institutional Dire Dawa University campus E C A
commercial, residential, institutional, and recreational) Dil Chora Referral Hospital E D A
were 0.39 ± 0.11, 0.33 ± 0.01, 0.37 ± 0.37, 0.38 ± 0.02,
Mean rating E C A
and 0.24 ± 0.09 ppm, respectively. There was a
significant difference at (P < 0.05) between SO2 Recreational Millennium Park E B A
concentrations from circulation and recreational land Overall mean rating E E C
uses. Note. Analysis based on EPA standard (EPA 2015).
As noticed in the analysis, fairly high concentrations
of SO2 were also recorded within residential
environment and industrial land uses. This outcome NO2 concentrations for the city’s central market,
could be due to the interlinkage between vehicular popularly called Taiwan Market (0.52 ± 0.20 ppm) and
activities and residential land use. Air quality in terms Sabean area (0.60 ± 0.02 ppm) exceeded EPA
of SO2 concentration outcome was very poor (E) across maximum exposure time average of 0.01 ppm for
the land use in the city (Table 2). ambient air concentration. Mean values of NO 2 from
residential and industrial land uses were 0.07 ± 0.01 and
0.06 ± 0.01 ppm, respectively. The AQI rating for NO 2
Nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the city ranged from moderate, within
Concentrations of NO2 in Dire Dawa ranged from 0.03 institutional land use, to very poor, in commercial and
± 0.01 ppm recorded at Millennium Park, a recreational circulation land uses, largely due to emission from
facility, to 0.29 ± 0.33 ppm emitted from commercial Taiwan Market and Sabean area. The overall mean
activities. There was a significant difference at P < 0.05 rating for all land uses was very poor, as shown in
between concentrations from commercial activities and Table 2.
other land uses. High concentrations of NO 2 were
recorded from vehicular activities, with a mean value of
0.24 ± 0.31 ppm. Carbon monoxide
Table 2. Air quality index (AQI) ratings for SO2, NO2, and CO.
High concentrations of CO were recorded at Taiwan
Ratings Market (7.35 ± 1.00 ppm), followed by Kazera-Megala
Land use Sampled points SO2 NO2 CO river bank sample point (6.81 ± 0.62 ppm), where heaps
Residential Kazera-Megala river bank E D D of unattended household wastes could be seen.
Gandagere Tarara E D C Industrial activities also contributed to CO
Dire Dawa Mosque E D B
concentration (3.50 ± 1.06 ppm) plumes spewed into
the city’s atmosphere. The lowest concentration was
Outskirt E D C recorded at the Millennium Park and within institutional
Paradiso restaurant area E D B
land use (Dire Dawa University campus and Dil Chora

Mean rating E D C

Industrial Industrial area condominium E D B

Cement factory E D C

Cotton factory E D D

Mean rating E D C

Commercial Taiwan Market E E D

Abattoir E D B

Mean rating E E D

Circulation Ethio-Djibouti rail roundabout E D D

Figure 3. Mean concentrations (ppm) of SO2, NO2, and CO across different land uses.
 JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 807
Referral Hospital premises).There was a significant between humidity and VOCs (r = 0.503). From the
difference at P < 0.05 in CO concentrations from analysis, significant positive relationships were also
commercial land use and institutional land use, whereas recorded between CO2 and NO2 (r = 0.677) and between
there was no significant difference at P < 0.05 between CO and CO2 (r = 0.663), as shown in Table 3.
concentrations from residential and circulation land
uses. AQI outcome indicated that some locations, such
Discussion
as institutional and recreational land uses, have very
good ratings. The overall rating across all land use was With so many problems in the world, why should urban
moderate. managers and city dwellers, especially those in
developing countries such as Ethiopia, care about air

Carbon dioxide
Mean concentrations of CO2 and VOCs are presented in
Figure 4. Mean concentration values across different
land uses for CO2 ranged from 442.4 ± 14.74 ppm,
recorded from recreational land use,
to 501.0 ± 81.08 ppm, measured for
commercial land use. The high standard deviation value
(±81.08 ppm) of CO2 could be attributed to daily
reading variations. The recorded values from the main
market ranged from 442.4 ± 14.74 to 554.4 ± 80.04
ppm. The highest concentration of CO2 (554.4
± 80.04 ppm) was recorded at
Taiwan Market. CO2 concentrations from all sampled
points exceeded the American Society for Heating
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE 2008) concentration level
guideline of 400 ppm (it also exceeded
the annual global mean value in 2016).

Volatile organic compounds

Concentration of VOCs was highest (2495.100 ppm)
within institutional land use (Dire Dawa University and
Dil Chora Referral Hospital). The location of the
hospital at the center of the city and construction
activities within the university environment may be the
factors that influenced the observed readings. Recorded
mean concentration level for commercial land use was
2039.6 ppm, whereas the lowest value (2017.200 ppm)
was recorded at the Millennium Park, a recreational
facility. The mean concentrations of VOCs across all
the land uses ranged between 1586.27 ± 204.13 and
2495.1 ± 654.36 ppm.

Relationships between air quality and meteorological

parameters
Significant positive correlations were recorded between
temperature and NO2 (r = 0.500), CO2 (r = 0.499), and
CO (r = 0.498). There was also a positive relationship
808 O.F. KASIM ET AL.

Figure 4. Mean concentrations (ppm) of CO2 and VOCs across different land uses.

Table 3. Correlations between air quality and meteorological parameters.

Pearson correlation coefficients (significance, two-tailed)

Variable Temperature Humidity SO2 NO2 CO2 CO VOCs

Temperature 1

Humidity −0.484 1

SO2 0.075 −0.008 1

NO2 0.500* −0.360 0.056 1

CO2 0.499* −0.155 0.164 0.0677** 1

CO 0.498* −0.318 0.337 0.419 0.663** 1

VOCs −0.245 0.503* 0.000 −0.155 0.224 −0.215 1

Notes. Source: Authors’ analysis (2016). participation (Bishop and Syme 1995; Howley, Scott,
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).
and Redmond 2009). Studies on human population
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).
indicate that exposure to air pollution, especially NO 2
levels, may decrease lung function and increase the risk
pollution and climate change? Dire Dawa inhabitants of respiratory symptoms, such as acute bronchitis and
and city managers should care because the most cough and phlegm, particularly in children, with
important asset of any city is the health of its citizens implication for how livable a city is. Some studies have
(Chen et al. 2007; WHO 2016b). People’s health is a also shown association between NO 2 exposure and
function of the quality of the air they breathe and mortality (Environment and Climate Change Canada
susceptibility of the environment to climate change 2015).
impact (CARE International Poverty, Environment and A higher concentration level of VOCs as recorded in
Climate Change Network [PECCN] 2011; Cordova et the study, in conjunction with nitrogen oxides (NO x),
al. 2006; Schwela 2000; WHO 2016b). The observed has long been recognized as primary pollution
air quality in Dire Dawa has negative implications for contributing to formation of ground-level ozone, a
the inhabitants’ health and the city’s livability outcome. major driver of climate change, suspended particles, and
Research has linked the concept of livability to a range methane, with associated health, environmental, and
of factors, such as quality of life, health, sense of safety, climate effects affecting city livability (Fiore et al.
access to service, cost of living, comfortable living 2002; Baertsch-Ritter et al. 2004; Etyemezian et al.
standards, mobility and transport, air quality, and social 2005; Steiner et al. 2006; Ramanathan and Feng 2009;
 JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 809
Howley et al. 2009; Jacob and Winner 2009; EPA 2007, Peter et al. 2000; Schwela 2000; Tiwari 2011; WHO
2011; Njoku et al. 2016). 2016a). SO2 and other sulfur oxides contribute to acid
Concentration of CO in the city is below WHO and rain, which harms sensitive ecosystems. It is clear from
EPA guidelines of 9 ppm. However, a relatively high the analysis from this study that urgent action has to be
concentration of CO as shown in the Dire Dawa air taken to address SO 2 concentrations in the city. As noted
quality analysis has implications for the city’s livability by Shindell et al. (2008), there is huge economic benefit
and health. It has been documented that CO binds to from improved air quality for human health and
hemoglobin in red blood cells to reduce the capacity of environmental sustainability. Therefore, simultaneous
the cells to transport and release oxygen throughout the solutions that offer net benefits for both air quality and
body (WHO 1999, 2016a). Therefore, moderate climate, taking into account the possible trade-offs
exposure to CO, as recorded in the study, could between human health, food and water security, and
aggravate cardiac ailments affecting the brain and the ecosystems, would be advantageous (Obama 2015).
heart (Yusuf et al. 2013). CO also plays a role in the Inferring from previous studies on air quality carried
generation of ground-level ozone. Analysis from the out in Ethiopian cities (Etyemezian et al. 2005; Kumie
city indicated a correlation (r = 0.663) between CO and et al. 2010; Tiwari 2011; Venn et al. 2005), Dire Dawa
CO2 concentrations in the city. CO, as noted by EPA appears to be highly polluted. The city is lagging behind
(2007) and Ramanathan and Feng (2009), contributes to in urban planning indices for sustainable development
the formation of CO2 and ozone (O3), the greenhouse that is inclusive (UN-Habitat 2008). The status of the
gases that warm the atmosphere. city (second in hierarchy to Addis Ababa) is expected to
As deduced from the study’s results, average SO2 be accompanied by government patronage and other
(0.37 ± 0.08 ppm) and NO2 (0.13 ± 0.17 ppm) benefits of urbanization. In reality, the city is at the
concentrations were above the stipulated global (SO 2: receiving ends of ills of urbanization. For example,
0.075 ppm; NO2: 0.01 ppm) and Ethiopian (SO2: 0.125 from the analysis on air quality, Dire Dawa requires
ppm; NO2: 0.04 ppm) standards (Environmental urgent interventions to refocus its developmental
Protection Authority 2004). Activities that facilitate trajectory. As observed in the city, the poor air quality
high concentrations of SO2 in the air generally also lead outcomes are further compounded by rural–urban
to the formation of other sulfur oxides (SOx) (Dawson, migration, increasing population, poor land use
Adams, and Pandis 2007; Jacob and Winner 2009; planning and management, poverty, expansion of
Kleeman 2007). SOx reacts with other compounds in the informal settlement, and inadequate waste management
atmosphere to form small particles. These particles system. For instance, the city’s main market, Taiwan
contribute to particulate matter (PM) pollution that has Market, is a beehive of many activities not limited to
the tendency to penetrate deeply into sensitive parts of everyday buying and selling associated with market
the lungs and cause additional health problems. Short- environment. Other activities observed within and
term exposures to SO2 can harm the human respiratory around the market include proliferation of small-scale
system and make breathing difficult. Children, the industries, a waste recycling plant, and convergence of
elderly, and those who suffer from asthma are vehicular activities conveying goods and passengers to
particularly sensitive to the effects of SO2 (Peter et al. and from the market. Agglomeration of these activities,
2000; Schwela 2000; WHO 2016b). coupled with inadequate coordination owing to poor
The AQI ratings for SO2 and NO2 within the city were physical planning, was responsible for the recorded high
poor and very poor, respectively. The observed concentrations of air pollutants (NO2: 0.52 ± 0.20 ppm;
outcomes will have adverse effects on human health and SO2: 0.32 ± 0.14 ppm; CO: 7.35 ± 1.00 ppm; CO2:
the environment. For example, it has been documented 554.4 ± 80.04 ppm; and VOCs: 2105.6 ± 471.22 ppm).
that exposure to minute (low) levels of SO2 affects The recorded NO2 value (0.52 ± 0.20 ppm) exceeded the
breathing (Skinder et al. 2014; Tibbetts 2015; WHO EPA exposure limits for ambient air concentrations.
1999; Wu et al. 2012). It causes irritation by stimulating Most climate scientists agree that the main cause of
nerves in the lining of the nose, throat, and the lung the current global warming trend is human expansion of
airways, whereas higher exposure may lead to the greenhouse effects (IPCC 2007, 2013; Jacob and
dysfunction of the immune system (WHO 1999). Long Winner 2009; Ramanathan and Carmichael 2008;
exposure to SO2 and NO2 causes upper and lower Ramanathan and Feng 2009). As noted by Shindell et al.
respiratory diseases, increase in the rate of cough, (2008), the largest single factor contributing to modern
bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma (Chen et al. 2007; climate change is the increase of CO 2 in the atmosphere.
810 O.F. KASIM ET AL.
Human activities in Dire Dawa are changing the natural Conclusion
greenhouse (Dire Dawa Environmental Protection
Ethiopia has developed many policies and laws aimed at
Authority 2011). Although over 95% of the households
improving the environment. However, there are gaps
in Dire Dawa have access to electricity, about 65% of
between the environmental commitments made and the
the households are using biofuels as energy source (Dire
actual implementation to improve environmental
Dawa Administration 2006; Dire Dawa Environmental
outcomes (Gebremichael et al. 2014; UN-Habitat 2008).
Protection Authority 2013). Burning of fossil fuels for
The analysis showed that outdoor air quality in Dire
household energy has increased the concentration of
Dawa is declining due to the emission of toxic gases
atmospheric CO2. Concentrations of CO2 in the study
such as SO2, NO2, and CO in addition to increasing
area were high for all land uses, with no significant
concentrations of CO2 and VOCs. The decline as noted
variation at P > 0.05. The average value, 442.4 ± 14.74 in the study is a result of human activities across
ppm, recorded for the city is higher than global average different land uses. The poor state of air quality in the
of 400 ppm for year 2016. CO 2 and a wide range of city is further compounded by inadequate pollution
short-lived air pollutants constitute, directly or control measures and weak capacity to monitor
indirectly, a substantial proportion of the driving forces emissions. The continuous exposure to toxic gases by
to climate change, with adverse effects on human health the inhabitants of the city has negative effects on human
and sustainable development (Ana and Ogunseye 2015) health, with attendant poor environmental and climate
Compared with any other African countries within outcomes. Therefore, urban planners and city managers
the same latitudinal location, Ethiopia, due to its should exert influence by establishing basic
altitude, has temperate climate. Cold weather condition requirements to support healthy living and protect
influences building design and ventilation system in humans and the environment from toxic pollutants.
cities, including Dire Dawa. Rooms in most buildings There is an urgent need to develop and implement
(cutting across income strata) in Ethiopian cities have emission control programs to reduce air pollution in the
only one window and a door as a response to weather city. This will provide immense economic, health, and
condition. As observed in the older sections of the city, environmental benefits. The economic effects of air
most of the rooms in buildings have only one window quality improvement in the long run will offset the
or just a door serving the dual purposes of ventilation expenditures for pollution control. Also, strategies with
and access (a viable response to colder environment in dual focus on air quality and climate change present a
years past). Most of the newer buildings have installed unique opportunity to engage different stakeholders in
air conditioning system and fans to regulate indoor providing an inclusive and sustainable development
temperature. The mean temperature recorded (38.29 ± agenda for Dire Dawa.
1.75 °C), the documented 0.67 °C increase every 10 yr
(National Meteorological Agency 2007), and air
pollution will have effects on ambient temperature. The Acknowledgment
relationships between poor ventilation, overcrowding, The authors acknowledge the contributions of Professor C. O.
increasing indoor temperature, and meningitis outbreak Olatubara of the Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
have been documented (Greenwood 1987; Harrison et al University of Ibadan, Nigeria and Dr C. M Brierley,
2001; Kaburi et al. 2017). Therefore, Dire Dawa, like Department of Geography, University College London, UK.
The authors appreciate the support from Dr. Truphena
other settlements with similar climatic conditions,
Mukuna and Organisation for Social Science Research in
requires artificial ventilation to regulate indoor air Eastern and Southern Africa (OSSREA). The authors are also
temperature. Increase in temperature in Dire Dawa will grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their enlightening,
lead to increase in the number of air conditioning constructive, and useful comments on the paper.
systems to be installed or outright modification of
buildings to allow for crossventilation, with associated
Funding
cost implications. An increased usage of air
conditioners will have a significant impact on the This research was supported by funding from the Department
available megawatt of electricity by placing additional for International Development (DfID) under the Climate
Impact Research Capacity and Leadership Enhancement
demand on the already stressed power-generating
(CIRCLE) Programme.
system in the country.
 JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 811
About the authors change. Dire Dawa, Ethiopia: Dire Dawa Environmental
Protection Authority.
Oluwasinaayomi Faith Kasim Department of Urban and
Dire Dawa Environmental Protection Authority. 2013.
Regional Planning, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria;
Regional state of the environmental outlook report 2013.
Organisation for Social Science Research in Eastern and
Dire Dawa, Ethiopia: Dire Dawa Environmental
Southern Africa, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa,
Protection Authority.
Ethiopia.
Environment and Climate Change Canada. 2015. Volatile
organic compounds in consumer and commercial products.
Muluneh Woldetisadik Abshare Department of Geography
http://www.ec.gc.ca/cov-voc/ (accessed November 9,
and Environmental Study, Addis Ababa, University, Addis
2016).
Ababa, Ethiopia.
Environmental Protection Authority. 2004. Environmental
Samuel Babatunde Agbola Department of Urban and standard and regulation. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia:
Regional Planning, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. Environmental Protection Authority. Etyemezian, V., M.
Tesfaye, A. Yimer, J.C. Chow, D. Mesfin, T. Nega, G.
Nikolich, J.G. Watson, and M. Wondmagegn.
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