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 DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.69763

Provisional chapter

Chapter 3

Processing and Preservation of Fresh-Cut Fruit and

Vegetable
ProcessingProducts
and Preservation of Fresh-Cut Fruit and
Vegetable Products
Afam I.O. Jideani, Tonna A. Anyasi,
Godwin
Afam I.O.R.A. Mchau,
Jideani, Elohor
Tonna O. Udoro and
A. Anyasi,
Oluwatoyin
Godwin R.A.O. OnipeElohor O. Udoro and
Mchau,
Oluwatoyin O. Onipe
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69763

Abstract
Fruits and vegetables are plant derived products which can be consumed in its raw form
without undergoing processing or conversion. Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables (FFV) are
products that have been cleaned, peeled, sliced, cubed or prepared for convenience or
ready-to-eat consumption but remains in a living and respiring physiological condition.
Methods of preserving FFV to retain its wholesomeness includes washing with hypo-
chlorite, hydrogen peroxide, organic acids, warm water and ozone for disinfestation and
sanitization; use of antimicrobial edible films and coatings; and controlled atmosphere
storage and modified atmosphere packaging of fruits and vegetables. Exposure of intact
or FFV to abiotic stress and some processing methods, induces biosynthesis of phenolic
compounds and antioxidant capacity of the produce. Conversely, loss of vitamins and
other nutrients has been reported during processing and storage of FFV, hence the need
for appropriate processing techniques to retain their nutritional and organoleptic proper-
ties. FFV are still faced with the challenge of quality retention and shelf life preservation
mostly during transportation and handling, without impacting on the microbiological
safety of the product. Hence, food processors are continually investigating processes of
retaining the nutritional, organoleptic and shelf stability of FFV.

Keywords: fresh-cut fruits, fresh-cut vegetables, preservation, bioactive compounds,

organoleptic properties

1. Introduction

According to the International Fresh-Cut Produce Association (IFPA), fresh-cut fruit and
vegetable products (FFVP) are defined as fruits or vegetables that have been trimmed,

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48 Postharvest Handling

peeled or cut into a 100% usable product which has been packaged to offer consumers
high nutrition and flavour while still maintaining its freshness [1, 2]. The importance of
fresh-cut produce lies in its major characteristics of freshness, convenience, nutrient reten-
tion and sensory quality while providing extended shelf life [3, 4]. Fresh-cut fruits and
vegetables (FFV) are products partially prepared and which require no additional prepa-
ration for their use. This makes it unavoidable that their overall quality diminishes dur-
ing processing and storage. It is made more so, as the operations involved in preparing
fresh-cut products damage the integrity of the cells, promotes contact between enzymes
and substrates, increases the entry of microorganisms and creates stress conditions on the
fresh-cut produce [4, 5].

According to Artes-Hernandez et al. [6] FFVP are also referred to as products prepared with
slight peeling, cutting, shredding, trimming and sanitizing operations and which have been
packed under semipermeable films and stored under refrigerated temperature. Fresh-cut
products are also reported to contain similar nutrients and ingredients as whole products
with the added advantage of short time preparation and the low prices at which they are
been sold [7]. Fresh-cut products constitute a major rapidly growing food segment which
is of interest to food processors and consumers. The fresh-cut industry is expanding more
rapidly than other sectors of the fruit and vegetable market due to its supply of both the
food service industry, retail outlet as well as its expanding production and access to new
markets across the globe. The growth rate of the sector is reported to be in the region of
billions of dollars in recent years with USA as the main producer and consumer while the
UK and France follows after [6]. FFVP presently sold in markets across the globe includes:
lettuce (cleaned, chopped, shredded), spinach/leafy greens (washed and trimmed), broccoli
and cauliflower (florets), cabbage (shredded), carrots (baby, sticks, shredded), celery (sticks),
onions (whole peeled, sliced, diced), potatoes and other roots (peeled, sliced), mushrooms
(sliced), jicama/zucchini/cucumber (sliced, diced), garlic (fresh peeled, sliced) as well as
tomato and pepper (sliced) [2].

Despite the fact that food processing methods extend the shelf life of fruit and vegetable prod-
ucts, processing of fresh-cut produce however reduces the shelf life of the commodity, render-
ing the product highly perishable as a result [6]. This biological changes may lead to flavour
loss, cut-surface discolouration, decay, rapid softening, increased rate of vitamin loss, shrink-
age as well as shorter shelf life of the fresh-cut produce. Interactions between intracellular
and intercellular enzymes with substrates as well as increased water activity may also lead
to flavour and textural changes upon processing [8]. A major effect of fresh-cut processing is
stress on vegetable tissues with the resultant phytochemical accumulation and loss induced
through reduced activity in key enzymes of secondary metabolic pathways. Fresh-cut pro-
cessing also results in cell breakdown as well as the release of intracellular products such as
oxidizing enzymes thereby quickening product decay [2].

Several factors are reported to affect the overall quality of fresh-cut produce. Among many of
such factors is appearance [1, 9]. Appearance according to Kays [10] and Lante and Nicoletto
[11] in combination with size, shape, form, colour as well as the absence of defects are factors
which greatly affects the purchase of fresh-cut produce by consumers. All of these factors can
 Processing and Preservation of Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetable Products 49
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also be influenced by several pre-harvest factors. Available nutrients inherent in fruits and made
available upon consumption includes antioxidant vitamins beta-carotene (pro-vitamin A),
α-tocopherol (vitamin E) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Research has also shown that regular
consumption of fruits and vegetables reduces risk of cancers, cardiovascular diseases and sev-
eral inflammations [12, 13]. This apart from regular body exercise and genetics has made fruit
and vegetable consumption one of the main factors that contributes to a healthy lifestyle. With
studies showing the nutritional benefits of fruits and vegetables, consumption of FFVP there-
fore promotes health through increase in the supply of antioxidant and other phytochemical
nutrients to the body.

2. Processing of FFV

FFV have been known to have a shorter shelf-life compared to intact fruit and vegetable
products due mainly to processing. Several processes involved in the production of FFVP
have been known to alter greatly the shelf stability of the cut-produce. There are traditional
processing procedures involved in obtaining fresh-cut products and this procedures usu-
ally requires an order of unit operations such as peeling, trimming, shredding, dicing, cut-
ting, washing/disinfecting, drying and packaging. Shelf life extension of the cut produce is
therefore dependent on a combination of these unit operations as well as proper temperature
management during storage, use of antibrowning agents, proper packing conditions as well
as good manufacturing and handling practices [6, 7]. The unit operations required in the han-
dling and processing of FFVP is shown in Figure 1.
Cutting
An essential aspect of processing of fresh-cut produce is cutting. Cutting helps divide whole
harvested fruit and vegetable products into minute fractions before packaging. The effect of
cutting however on the products is the wounding stress which the cut tissues are allowed to
suffer thus accelerating the rate of spoilage and deterioration of the cut produce [14]. Cutting
has been attributed to be the main factor responsible for the deterioration of FFV thereby
enabling the product to experience a more rapid rate of deterioration than whole products
[15]. Cutting increases respiration rate [16], induces deteriorative changes associated with
plant tissue senescence and thus the consequential decrease in shelf life when compared to the
unprocessed produce [4]. Cutting shape as well as the sharpness of the cutting blade has been
attributed as some factors that affect the quality attributes of fresh-cut products [17, 18]. The
works of Portela and Cantwell [19] showed that melon cylinders cut with a blunt blade dem-
onstrated higher ethanol concentrations, off-odour scores, electrolyte leakage, and increased
potential for ethylene secretion when compared to products processed with a sharp blade.
It was also reported that use of sharp cutting implements reduces wound response, lignin
accumulation, white blush, softening and microbial growth in fresh-cut carrots [18, 20–22].
Cutting-induced injury has been implicated as affecting the immediate visual quality of
fresh-cut products and has also been known to have longer-term effects on metabolism with
the concomitant quality changes that are detected at a later time. The actual cutting ­process
50 Postharvest Handling

Figure 1. Unit operations and maximum recommended temperatures for each step in the processing of fresh-cut fruit
and vegetable produce. Adapted from Artes-Hernandez et al. [6].

results in great tissue disruption as formerly sequestered enzymes and substrates mix are
found to mix, hydrolytic enzymes released, while signalling-induced wounding responses
may be initiated [23].

During the process of cutting, phenolic metabolism takes place: breakage of the plasma mem-
brane with the resultant effect of inducing oxidative enzymatic reactions thus triggering brown-
ing of tissues and oxidation of polyphenols [14, 24]; and production of injury signals which
induces the secretion of more secondary metabolites including phenolic antioxidants to heal the
wound damage [14, 25, 26]. It has been reported that the content of phenolic acids increases in
 Processing and Preservation of Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetable Products 51
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fresh-cut products. This fact can be attributed to the cutting of fresh fruits and vegetables with
knives thereby inducing the activity of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) in the cut fresh fruit and veg-
etables. FFV are thus easily susceptible to browning reaction as a result [27, 28]. Accumulation
of phytochemicals can also be as a result of altered O2 and CO2 levels during packaging as well
as the use of preservatives such as [14] ascorbic and citric acid [28–31].

Wounding as a result of cutting has been attributed as one of the basic source of stress expe-
rienced by fresh-cut produce. Some factors can however affect the wound response of the
fresh-cut produce and these factors include stage of maturity, cultivar, storage, processing
temperature, cutting method, water vapour pressure as well as O2 and CO2 levels [18, 19].
According to literature, wounding stress as a result of cutting of fruit and vegetables has been
shown to increase the antioxidant activity as well as the polyphenolic content in fresh-cut
produce such as carrots [32, 33], celery [34], lettuce [35], broccoli [36], mushroom, onions, and
mangoes [37]. Consequences of wounding includes increase in respiration rate; production
of ethylene; oxidative browning; water loss; and degradation of membrane lipids [4, 5]. This
therefore increases the susceptibility of FFV to increased perishability than their source com-
modity [38].

Sanitation and hygiene in processing facilities

During the production process, cut fruits are exposed to environmental microbes in the pro-
cessing facility. Reducing the level and rate of contamination will be dependent on the use of
the appropriate disinfectants and sanitizers. One of such disinfectants of high use in the FFV
industry is chlorine. The use of chlorine as a disinfectant is however of great concern and is
presently prohibited in some European countries due to issues of public health [39]. Chlorine
is generally used in the food industry due mostly to its low price and its wide application
of antimicrobial effectiveness [39, 40]. However, under certain conditions, chlorine has been
shown to be weak in reducing microbial loads [41] as it can easily be inactivated by organic
matter [40, 42] and its action is highly pH reliant. Chlorine has also been shown to produce
unhealthy by-products which are carcinogenic and mutagenic such as chloroform, trihalo-
methanes, chloramines and haloacetic acids, when reacting with organic molecules [43, 44].
Chlorine is also corrosive with its use banned in some European countries such as Belgium,
Denmark, Germany and The Netherlands [40, 45–47]. Presently, alternative chemical com-
pounds, biological methods and physical technologies which are more environmentally
friendly and possess less risk to the health of workers and consumers have been developed to
replace the use of chlorine [45–52].

Concentrations of 50–200 ppm and exposure time of 5 min of chlorine is commonly applied as
hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite and as disinfectant in the FFV industry in order to enhance
microbial safety of the produce [1, 49]. The exposure time of 5 min (depending on the microor-
ganism) has been shown in literature as the maximum exposure time required as longer times
of > 5–30 min did not result in increased removal of the pathogenic organisms [39, 53].

In the handling and processing of FFV, common practices are undertaken and needs to be
taken note of. These practices consist of protection from damage as a result of poor han-
dling and poor functioning of machinery, foreign body contamination, improper washing,
52 Postharvest Handling

drying and unhygienic practices by personnel. Hence worker sanitation which is most often
neglected in the fresh cut industry in collaboration with good manufacturing practices must
be enforced by food processors. In accompanying this process, training of food handlers in
food hygiene techniques must be undertaken [6].

Presently, new and alternative technologies for safety, improved quality and extended shelf
life of processed fresh-cut products have been developed. Such technologies include: ozone
(O3), a strong oxidizing agent in destroying microorganisms which has also been suggested
as an alternative to sanitizers due to its effectiveness at low concentrations, short contact
times and in the breakdown of nontoxic products; chlorine dioxide (ClO2), which is known
for its efficacy against pathogenic spores, bacteria and viruses; organic acids and calcium (Ca)
salts applied for maintenance of cell wall structure and firmness (Ca), inhibition of enzymatic
and non-enzymatic browning as well as in the prevention of microbial growth at heights that
did not affect flavour of the fresh-cut products with their efficacy against microbes higher for
bacteria than molds; electrolyzed water employed due to its strong bactericidal effect against
pathogens and spoilage microbes [6].

2.1. Inhibition of browning in FFV

It has been shown that fresh-cut process increases the metabolic activity mainly as a result of
the enzymes polyphenol oxidase (PPO) causing discoloration and peroxidase (POD) causing
enzymatic browning as well as de-compartmentalization of enzymes and substrates in tissues
causing changes in flesh colour [54]. PPO can induce the browning occurrence by catalyzing
the oxidation of phenol to o-quinones which are polymerized to produce brown pigments.
Postharvest techniques maintaining the quality of fresh-cut fruit have been investigated by
several researchers [55–57] including physical and chemical treatments. Many anti-browning
agents or mixtures have been investigated like: calcium ascorbate with citric acid and N-acetyl-
L-cysteine [58], citric acid [59], ascorbic acid with citric acid and calcium chloride [30], 4-hex-
ylresorcinol with potassium sorbate and D-isoascorbic acid [60] and modelling of the effects
anti-browning agents on colour change in fresh-cut [57].

In a study using mathematical modelling (Table 1), the effects of different anti-browning

compounds (ascorbic acid, citric acid, L-cysteine and glutathione) at four concentrations of
0% as control, 0.5, 1.5 and 2.5% on L*-value, hue angle, brown scores and brown pigments
of fresh-cut mangoes were investigated by Techavuthiporn and Boonyaritthonghai [57] and
they observed similar changing tendency of L*-value and hue angle decreasing in time during
storage at 10°C, while the brown scores and amount of brown pigment increased. They also
observed that treatment with L-cysteine or glutathione was effective in suppressing tissue
metabolism, PPO and POD activities, while citric acid significantly inhibited the growth of
microorganisms.

2.2. Microbial safety of FFV

The unit operation employed in processing of FFV involves peeling, cutting, slicing and shred-
ding; all of which cause disruption of surface cells, tissue and cytoplasm exposure, coupled with
high water activity and low pH; thereby providing a breeding ground for growth of pathogenic
 Processing and Preservation of Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetable Products 53
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Treatments KL ± S.E. (day−1)a KH ± S.E. (day−1)a KBS ± S.E. (day−1)a KBP ± S.E. (day−1)a
Control 0.0209 ± 0.0012 0.0158 ± 0.0008 0.2604 ± 0.0474 0.2616 ± 0.0187

Ascorbic acid

0.5% 0.0132 ± 0.0012 0.0132 ± 0.0002 0.3313 ± 0.04567 0.1566 ± 0.0231

1.5% 0.0088 ± 0.0007 0.0090 ± 0.0004 0.2146 ± 0.0777 0.1272 ± 0.0062

2.5% 0.0066 ± 0.0010 0.0079 ± 0.0003 0.2231 ± 0.0572 0.1186 ± 0.0129

Citric acid

0.5% 0.0213 ± 0.0023 0.0120 ± 0.0014 0.1859 ± 0.0466 0.1981 ± 0.0212

1.5% 0.0210 ± 0.0030 0.0098 ± 0.0012 0.1642 ± 0.0971 0.1559 ± 0.0177

2.5% 0.0164 ± 0.0023 0.0097 ± 0.0007 0.1443 ± 0.1053 0.1386 ± 0.0062

L-Cysteine

0.5% 0.0068 ± 0.0019 0.0095 ± 0.0011 0.1776 ± 0.0521 0.1427 ± 0.0263

1.5% 0.0053 ± 0.0008 0.0077 ± 0.0011 0.1342 ± 0.0400 0.1188 ± 0.0127

2.5% 0.0025 ± 0.0002 0.0041 ± 0.0001 0.1385 ± 0.0213 0.0653 ± 0.0047

Glutathione

0.5% 0.0180 ± 0.0010 0.0107 ± 0.0004 0.1866 ± 0.0487 0.1993 ± 0.0095

1.5% 0.0094 ± 0.0011 0.0089 ± 0.0004 0.1676 ± 0.0262 0.1311 ± 0.0115

2.5% 0.0061 ± 0.0007 0.0087 ± 0.0004 0.1329 ± 0.0229 0.0973 ± 0.0167

a
kL and kH represent the estimated rate constant of decreasing L*-value and Hue angle in Qt = Q0·e−k·t (Eq. 1) and kBS and
kBP represents the estimated rate constant of increasing brown colour (score) and brown pigment in Qt = Q0·ek·t (Eq. 2).
Qt = measured value of colour variables at time t, Q0 = initial value of colour variables at time zero, t the storage time
(day), and k reaction rate constant (day−1).
Adapted from Techavuthiporn and Boonyaritthonghai [57].

Table 1. The estimated parameters k and the standard error of estimates (S.E.) in Eqs. (1) and (2) for dipped fresh-cut
mangoes at different concentration and anti-browning agents.

microorganisms such as Escherichia coli 0157H7, Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes.
Peeling and cutting of fruits and vegetables removes the protective epidermal layer, thus expos-
ing the product to air and possible contamination by bacteria, molds and yeast. Contamination
of produce can occur at any stage from production till consumption. During growth, harvest,
transportation and further processing and handling, fresh-cut produce can be contaminated
with pathogens from human, animal, or environmental sources [40, 61]. Since most FFV are con-
sumed raw without any further treatment, consumption poses a potential health risk in cases
where there is contamination. Several outbreak incidences have been documented by Centre for
Disease Control and Prevention as reviewed by Ramos et al. [40]. Some of the sources of these
microorganisms include soil, manure, silage, sewage, water, raw meat, and domestic animals.
Presence of up to 104 of Listeria monocytogenes cells can cause food infection with up to 90 days
incubation period. Symptoms of its infection includes flu-like symptoms, septicemia, encepha-
litis, still birth and abortion in pregnant women [62]. There are a number of factors affecting the
microbial safety of FFV and which will be elucidated as follows:
54 Postharvest Handling

Product
Microbial growth and survival depend largely of the quality or type of fruit or vegetable in ques-
tion. The quality factors of a product that may affect microbial growth include pH, water activ-
ity, respiration rate, type of packaging, competitive microflora and innate antimicrobials [61].
The pH of a product strongly influences microbial growth. Most vegetables are known to have
a pH of ≥ 5 which supports the growth of pathogenic microorganisms. Despite the acidic pH of
most fruits, organisms such as E. coli 0157H7 and some Salmonella spp., still grow and survive in
such acidic environment. L. monocytogenes was reported survive on cantaloupe & melon cubes
[63] and apple slices at pH 3.42 [64]; Salmonella also survived on apple slices with 4.1 pH [65].
Fresh fruits and vegetables provide an ecological niche to some microorganisms; and these vary
from one product to another depending on the type of product, climatic conditions, geographi-
cal location, harvesting, handling and transportation. Microflora of fruits and vegetables include
bacteria such as Erwinia herbicola, Enterobacter agglomerans, Xanthomonas, Leuconostoc mesenteroi-
des, Lactobacillus spp. Flavobacterium; and moulds like Penicillium, Fusarium, and Aspergillus [40].
An antagonistic behaviour of native microflora of fruits and vegetables against pathogenic
microorganisms have been reported [61]. The growth of L. monocytogenes on lettuce was reduced
by Enterobacter [66]. The natural microflora may help control growth of pathogenic microbes
through (a) direct competition for nutrients and space; (b) production of antimicrobials [61].
Processing
Peeling and cutting increases respiration and ethylene secretion rate of fruits which in turn
increases senescence, which makes more sugar available thereby allowing rapid microbial
growth on fresh-cut fruits. Microbial contamination of fresh-cut produce can also be facilitated
by cross-contamination of produce through: (a) transfer of organisms from surface of fruits
onto FFV; (b) attachment of pathogens onto shredders and slicers which can be re-introduced,
for instance L. monocytogenes has been recovered from the environment of vegetable process-
ing plant [61]; (c) re-use of the same water for washing fruits and vegetables allows transfer of
microorganisms from contaminated parts to uncontaminated parts. Packaging conditions also
has influence on the growth of pathogenic microorganisms during storage. Modified atmo-
sphere packaging which uses low oxygen and increased carbon dioxide for preservation of
fresh-cut produce influences growth of pathogenic organisms. E. coli 0157:H7 grew on chicory
slices when atmospheric CO2 was increased to 30% when stored at 13 or 20°C. Storage tem-
perature is one of the most important factor that affects the growth and survival of pathogenic
microorganisms. Storage of FFV at temperatures ≤ 4°C reduces the growth of psychotropic
organisms such as L. monocytogenes which can survive at low temperatures. However coli-
forms like Salmonella and E. coli 0157:H7 are unable to survive at low temperatures, but they
proliferate at ambient temperatures. Fluctuations in storage temperatures should be avoided
at all costs in order to maintain the safety of fresh-cut vegetables from microbial contamination.

2.2.1. Methods for detection of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms on fruits and vegetables

2.2.1.1. Isolation using plate count method

Conventional method of bacterial enumeration works exquisitely on the recovery of viable

bacteria from fruits and vegetables. Many food microbiology laboratories lack availability
 Processing and Preservation of Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetable Products 55
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and utilization of novel molecular-based technologies. Due to this, conventional methods

such as standard plate count, selective or differential media for isolation and detection and
of bacteria samples; and further identification using biochemical methods such as gram stain
and other commercially available profiling systems [67]. Non-selective media such as nutrient
agar, tryptone soy agar can aid proliferation of bacteria cells at incubation time of 4 h before
subsequent transfer to a selective media such as Mac Conkey agar for E. coli, and Salmonella-
Shigella agar for Salmonella detection. Bacteria can be further separated into gram positive
and negative using gram stain. The process of transfer from non-selective to selective media
allows sub-lethally injured bacteria to recover in time for detection. Other biochemical tests
used as follow up to conventional isolation of pathogenic bacteria include catalase test for
identification of gram positive bacteria and oxidase test for gram negative bacteria [67].

2.2.1.2. Use of fluorogenic and chromogenic media

Another media used for isolation and detection of pathogenic bacteria is the use of fluoro-
genic and chromogenic culture media. Identification of bacteria on fluorogenic media is made
possible through the incorporation of enzyme substrates (which consists of a sugar/amino
acid-fluorogen complex) into a selective media which in turn speeds up biochemical confir-
mation of the bacterial identity [68]. For example, methylumbelliferyl is a fluorogen that has
been incorporated in an array of media for detection of coliforms such as E. coli 0157:H7 which
forms a blue fluorescence upon exposure to ultraviolet light. Rainbow agar, BCM O157:H7
(and other coliforms), CHROMagar, and Colilert are some examples of fluorogenic or chro-
mogenic media for coliforms detection. The most commonly used culture reference methods
for the detection of Listeria in foods are the ISO 11290 standards [69, 70]; FDA-BAM method
to isolate Listeria spp. from vegetables [71].

2.2.1.3. Molecular-based methods

Nucleic acid-based systems designed for the detection of genomic DNA specific to particu-
lar microorganisms are capable of achieving rapidly and highly sensitive identification even
when the target microbe is present in low numbers [72]. In order to achieve this, polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) is quite useful. PCR is a molecular-based detection method. This method
is focused on extraction of bacteria DNA; and it works best when there is enough bacterial cells
from which is boosted by the enrichment step. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
is another molecular-based method that works on the principle of antigen-antibody interac-
tion. It is more sensitive and specific to a bacteria strain than standard plate count method.
Steps in Antigen (food slurry/extract) is added to sample wells in a microtiter plate containing
an antibody with specificity to the target molecule. ELISA has been successfully used to detect
virulence determinants of pathogens such as Campylobacter, E. coli 0157:H7 and L. monocyto-
genes. Serotypes of Listeria spp. were categorized based on specific heat-stable somatic (O)
and heat-labile flagellar (H) antigens [71]. ELISA procedure entails adding sample, washing,
adding antibody complexes, adding detection reagents; and these steps are labour intensive.
This has led to automation of the ELISA process, thus cutting back on time and labour. A
good example is BioMerieux’s Vidas System in which the entire procedure is finished in 2 h
after addition of overnight enrichment broth. This system is available for assays of pathogenic
bacteria such as L. monocytogenes, Salmonella, E. coli, and Campylobacter [72].
56 Postharvest Handling

2.2.1.4. Rapid methods of microbial pathogenic detection

Standard methods of isolation and identification of pathogenic microorganisms in foods are

slower and time consuming which has led to demand of quicker methods; and for the past two
decades the latter have been developed for both on-site and laboratory tests. A method can
be characterized as rapid when it gives quicker results that the conventional method. Other
factors that determine its effectiveness are sensitivity, standardization, reliability, accuracy,
specificity, evaluation, ease of use, cost, validation, convenience and potential for automation.
Most of the advances in development of rapid methods are in molecular-based methods and
other areas including impedance and conductance, bacteriophages, biosensors, microscopy as
well as in miniaturized, automated biochemical detection kits [72]. There are currently many
diagnostic systems like RapID, Minitek, API, Biolog, MicroID, Crystal ID and VITEK systems
which are commercially available for identifying different microorganisms [8].

3. Prevention of contamination, safety and hygiene practices during

processing of FFV

The rate of contamination of FFVP after processing (cutting or wounding) is greater when
compared to those of whole fruits and vegetables [73, 74]. This has been largely attributed to
high moisture content in the fruits and vegetables as well as wound occurring in the tissues
due to processing [75]. Wounding of tissue as a result of slicing, cutting or peeling releases the
nutrients inherent in these products thereby enhancing microbial contamination and growth
[76]. Upon growth of these microbes on the FFV surface, susceptibility to the formation of
biofilms increases in the produce thus bringing about difficulty in the elimination of these
microbes [77]. Microbial biofilms are thus able to attach, grow and spread to any surface
with the cells associated with the biofilms possessing an advantage in growth and survival
over planktonic cells. Growth and survival advantage over planktonic cells by biofilms has
been attributed to the formation of exopolysaccharide matrix which surrounds the biofilms,
thereby building a wall against the environment and protecting the biofilms from sanitizers
[74, 78].
Pathogens of major concern in FFVP include Listeria monocytogenes, pathogenic Escherichia coli
and Salmonella spp. A number of human pathogens have also been implicated in the contami-
nation of FFV with a reported increase in recent years in the number of produce-linked food-
borne occurrences. Agricultural practices during harvesting, human handling, quality of water
and soil, contaminated equipment, processing methods, use of contaminated packaging mate-
rials as well as transportation and distribution have all been implicated in the contamination of
fresh-cut produce [6, 79]. Similarly, microbial adhesion on conveyor belts, containers and food
contact surfaces used along the food chain has been shown to lead to the formation of biofilms
[41, 80]. Microbial contamination has also been shown to lead to internalization of pathogens
into the fresh-cut fruit and vegetable produce. According to Golberg et al. [81], E. coli and
Salmonella typhimurium are capable of penetrating the leaves of iceberg lettuce. The works of
Seo and Frank [82] also showed that E. coli O157:H7 can penetrate between 20–100 μm below
 Processing and Preservation of Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetable Products 57
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the surface of lettuce leaves. Internalization of such pathogens has been reported to occur in the
stomata, vasculature, cut edges and intercellular tissues [83] with elimination of such patho-
gens rather impossible thus hindering assurance of product safety and rendering processing
and preservatory methods completely futile [83, 84].

Some of the biological methods employed in the reduction of pathogenic attack and spoilage
of processed FFV include bacteriocins such as lactic acid bacteria which produces organic
acids and bacteriocins that can act as antimicrobials [85]. For instance bacteriocin nisin is a nat-
ural preservative produced by Lactococcus lactis and is effective against mostly gram positive
bacteria [86, 87]. Nisin acts on the cell membrane of the microbe thereby forming pores that
result in cell death during the process [86, 88]. Other biological methods employed include
the use of bacteriophages which has found application as disinfectants and preservatives.
Other biological methods applied include the use of bacteriophages used in the destruction of
bacteria. Bacteriophages are virus that infect bacteria thereby bringing about their death and
destruction as a result. Its advantages in its application includes specificity in action; effective-
ness [89]; availability and accessibility; and reduced effects on the organoleptic properties of
the fresh-cut products [90].

Enzymes have also been employed in the control of pathogenic organisms in fresh-cut prod-
ucts. According to Simões et al. [91] and Thallinger et al. [92], enzymes are able to target
directly the biofilms that interfere with their development process, speed up the formation of
antimicrobials and even destroy mature biofilm. In attacking biofilms, enzymes mostly target
the extracellular polymeric matrix which surrounds the biofilm cells and influences the shape
of the biofilm structure as well as its resistance to shear forces [93]. Hence, enzymes can be
used as an alternative to conventional chemical disinfectants in the removal of biofilms from
fruits, leaves and other abiotic surfaces [39]. However, the use of enzymes requires prolonged
contact times for effectiveness against biofilms and the fact that extracellular polymeric sub-
stances produced by biofilms are mostly heterogeneous confers some disadvantages on the
use of enzymes [39]. Accordingly, use of enzymes alone as a biological control against patho-
gens in fresh produce does not guarantee total removal of biofilms. Lequette et al. [93] and
Augustin et al. [94] therefore suggested the use of enzymes in combination with other treat-
ments especially with antimicrobial agents.

4. Storage of FFV

4.1. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) of fresh-cut produce

One of the various ways of processing fresh-cut fruits and vegetable is the use of modified
atmosphere packaging (MAP) of the produce. The process of MAP helps in altering the
gaseous composition within a food packaging system. MAP relies greatly on the interface
between the rate of respiration of the produce and the transfer of gases through the packaging
material without any further alteration to the initial gas composition [95–98]. MAP can either
be passive: which involves generation of MAP in a packaging material by reliance wholly
on the natural process of respiration of the packaged produce as well as the permeability of
58 Postharvest Handling

the packaging film material in bringing about the desired gas composition. MAP can also be
active: involving the replacement of the gaseous composition in a packaged material through
the introduction of gas scavengers or absorbers such as ethylene scavengers, oxygen and car-
bon (iv) oxide, thereby establishing the preferred gas mixture within the package [95, 98–100].

FFV have a short shelf life due to respiratory metabolism (Figure 2). Modified atmosphere
packaging (MAP) has been used to reduce the rate of respiration and water loss leading to
prolonged storage period. MAP comprising of low O2 and elevated CO2 atmospheres have
been used to extend the shelf life and leading to high organoleptic characteristics of pear [101],
apple [102], mango [55] and peach [103] fresh cut. The effects of low O2 and CO2-enriched
atmospheres associated to different packaging, traditional and compostable, on shelf life of
fresh-cut nectarine slices stored (1°C) for 7 days by Maghenzani et al. [104] showed that low
permeability of the film has a positive influence on weight loss and firmness as the less perme-
able film allowed a greater water retention, which caused a lower weight loss. They observed
that MAP, acting on the respiratory metabolism, reduced respiratory metabolism with posi-
tive effect on colour, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, firmness and PPO activity, though
efficacy differed among two cultivars of the fruit. Biodegradable films performs better than
polyethylene film as a packaging material.

4.2. Freezing of FFVP

Freezing is a widely known and applied preservation process of various foods which offers
the advantage of producing high-quality nutritious foods with prolonged shelf life. Freezing
has also been described as one of the best methods used in preserving foods such as fruits and
vegetables. Freezing of FFV will reduce the problem of spoilage experienced by the fresh-cut
commodities. However, there is a perception by consumers that freezing reduces and affects
negatively the nutritional composition of the fruits [106, 107]. A point of comparison is based
on the fact that fresh produce could maintain its keeping quality in the consumer’s home for
a number of days prior to consumption [108].
During freezing most of the liquid water constituent of the food materials is transformed into
ice, thereby reducing water activity, which slows down the physical and biochemical changes

Figure 2. Fresh foods such as fruit and vegetables are alive and continue to respire after harvest. Reducing the respiration
rate and reducing the heat produced through efficient airflow inside ventilated packaging is important in maintaining
product quality [105].
 Processing and Preservation of Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetable Products 59
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involved in the deterioration of foods as well as the growth and reproduction of spoilage
microorganisms. Fruits and vegetables are composed of approximately 85–90% water which
crystallizes during freezing. The freezing process prevents microbial growth, reduces water
activity, and decreases chemical and enzymatic reactions [109]. According to Jaiswal et al.
[110], decrease in temperature experienced during freezing impedes metabolic reactions tak-
ing place in the fruit and vegetable after harvesting. Freezing also reduces the rate of microbi-
ological activities occurring in the FFV positively affecting the overall product quality. During
the process of freezing, conversion of water to ice brings about various stress mechanism
such as volumetric change of water converting into ice, spatial distribution of ice within the
system as well as the size of the ice crystal [111, 112]. The effect of this stress mechanism is
the deterioration of the frozen products by affecting the texture and structure of the cut fruit
and vegetable.
It is well known that FFV undergo faster physiological deterioration, biochemical changes
and microbial degradation [113] which may result in degradation of the colour, texture and
flavour. However, the high water content of fresh-cut products adversely affects the textural
quality of the products after thawing due to the formation of ice crystals and water solids
within the cell structure. When thawing takes place the cellular structure of the fruit and
vegetables is destroyed [114]. The reduction in the product water content results in improved
freezing performance and ameliorated product quality including better preservation of struc-
tural and textural characteristics [115]. Thus, in order to preserve the structural and textural
characteristics and improve freezing performance, the water content of the fruits and veg-
etables are reduced by dehydration before freezing. Frozen fruits and vegetables are mostly
consumed cooked with majority of vegetables blanched prior to freezing. Blanching action
prior to freezing has been reported to influence greatly the structure of the vegetable thus
resulting in an initial loss of firmness due to disruption of the plasma lemma and an increase
in the ease of cell separation accompanied by swelling of the cell wall [112, 116].
Several novel freezing practices are presently being investigated to overcome the problems of
FFV and other food produce undergoing physical and chemical changes as a result of freez-
ing. One of such novel methods which is presently being explored is dehydrofreezing [115].
During dehydrofreezing process, the food is first dried up to a needed moisture content level
before the onset of freezing. Hence it is aptly described as a process of freezing relatively
dehydrated foods [117]. For fresh-cut products, non-thermal dehydration techniques such
as vacuum and air drying are mildly applied prior to freezing. When the method of dry-
ing the FFV is through osmosis then it is termed osmodehydrofreezing. Dehydrofreezing is
particularly well suited for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables due to the fact that reducing the
moisture content in the produce will allow for the formation and expansion of ice crystals
without damaging the cellular structure of the product [115]. Theoretically, the dehydration
treatment not only reduces the amount of water to be frozen but also makes cell structures
less susceptible to breakdown by changing cell turgor pressure [118]. The reduced water con-
tent has the potential to reduce the freezing time, the initial freezing point and amount of
ice formed within the product [117]. As a consequence, the damage to plant cells caused by
ice crystal formation and the post-thawing quality degradation such as softening and loss
of good textural attributes are alleviated. Reduction in moisture content before freezing also
60 Postharvest Handling

leads to reduced freezing time since there is less water to freeze as well as a reduction in the
amount of ice formed within the produce [119, 120]. According to Li and Sun [118], fruits and
vegetables are said to exhibit better quality over those that are frozen without any form of
reduction in moisture content.

Generally, the texture of a thawed frozen fresh-cut fruit and vegetable product is much softer
than normal produce due to cell rupturing caused by expansion of the plant cells during freez-
ing. Hence the recommendation that the moisture content of fresh-cut produce be reduced
before freezing in order to mitigate the effect of freezing on the thawed product.

5. Nutritional content of FFV

FFV are derived from whole fruits by cutting them into desired shapes and sizes. However,
peeling and cutting cause serious damage to vegetable tissues which leads to dissociation of
cell components that brings about biochemical reactions such as accelerated oxidative brown-
ing and chlorophyll degradation. Other quality deterioration include water loss, development
of off-flavours, stimulation of microbial growth and tissue softening which makes fresh-cut
fruits have short shelf life [121–123]. Wounding stress as a result of cutting first causes the
plasma membrane to break thereby inducing reaction of oxidative enzymes with existing
phenolic compounds causing oxidation of the latter [24].
Nutritional value of fresh-cut fruits is usually a measure of vitamins A, B, C, E, polypheno-
lics and carotenoids; while that of vegetables include the previously mentioned vitamins,
glucosinolates, carotenoids and polyphenolics through spectrophotometric and colorimetric
methods [121]. Li et al. [123] tested the effect of cutting a whole pitaya fruit into slice, half and
quarter slices on its nutritional quality. Their results revealed that the various cutting styles
had little influence on vitamin C and soluble solids. However, total phenolic content, antioxi-
dant activity, increased significantly with cutting wounding intensity up to first two days of
storage before deterioration set in. Some nutritional contents of selected fruits and vegetables
are highlighted in Table 2.

5.1. Sugars

Total sugar content of swede were not affected by storage temperature; while lower tempera-
tures (0 & −2°C) increased the sugar content of turnip than higher temperatures as a result of
glucose and fructose metabolism by enzymes at lower temperatures [124]. Benítez et al. [122]
reported that soluble solid content of kiwi slices coated with aloe vera gel, alginate and chito-
san did not significantly change up till day 8 of storage at 5°C.

5.2. Vitamin C

Vitamin C is the vitamin that usually degrades most rapidly and can be used as an index of
freshness. Vitamin C is unstable in many vegetables such as asparagus [121]. There was no
significant difference in the ascorbic acid contents of FC papaya stored at 10–20°C for 0 to 24 h
 Processing and Preservation of Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetable Products 61
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Fruits/veg Sugars (oBrix) Vitamin C (mg/100 g) Polyphenols Antioxidants

(mg/100 g) (%DPPH)
Kiwi 12.6 44.99 - -

Apple - 3.00 329.30–660.00 12

Pitaya 0.15 g/kg 0.16 g/kg 0.6–1.2 g/kg 40–70

Papaya 11.82 13.3–18.0 1.9–3.5 -

Pineapple - 76.27–142.41 42.28–46.70 30–60

Banana - 46.75–53.25 60.25–85.24 70–90

Guava - 65.16–198.25 96.51–178.51 -

Radicchio leaves - - 143–360 -

Swede 535.2 g/kg - - -

Turnip 468.9 g/kg - - -

Source [1, 122–124, 127].

Table 2. Nutritional content of some fruits and vegetables.

but a significant decrease was observed at storage temperature and time of 4C, 48 h [125]. There
was no significant influence of cutting style on vitamin C content of pitaya fruit when cut in
slice, half and quarter shape [123]. Exposure of fresh-cut banana, pineapple and guava slices
to ozone for 0–30 min drastically reduced vitamin C contents of the fruits by 12.21, 46.44 and
67.13% respectively [126]. Vitamin C content of kiwi slices coated with chitosan and alginate,
stored at 5°C depreciated at storage time from day 1 to day 11. However, kiwi slices coated
with aloe vera gel significantly increased from 44.99 to 47.99 mg/100 g at the same storage
conditions [122].

5.3. Polyphenols

When wounding stress occurs, plants produce injury signals to induce the production of more
secondary metabolites including phenolic antioxidants to defense and heal the wounding
damage [24]. Wounding stress also activates phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) - an enzyme
responsible for synthesis of phenolic compounds in plant tissues. For example, carrots synthe-
size lignin along wound barriers [127]. Flavonoid contents of fresh-cut papaya significantly
increased at storage conditions of 20°C at 24, 36 and 48 h when treated with 405 nm LED illu-
mination [125]. Li et al. [123] reported a gradual increase in total polyphenol content of pitaya
fruit with storage time of 4 days. An approximate increase of 63, 78 and 90% was reported for
slice, half and quarter slice respectively at day 2; after which a decline was observed. Total
polyphenols and flavonoids in fresh-cut pineapple, and banana increased as the fruit slices
were exposed to ozone for up to 20 min; but a reverse trend was observed for guava slices. The
reason for increase polyphenols by ozone treatment was attributed to activation of PAL [126].
Upon 1 day in storage, total phenolic content of untreated and fresh-cut apples treated with
citric acid and UV light decreased by 50% Ref. [128].
62 Postharvest Handling

5.4. Antioxidants

Kim et al. [6] observed no significant difference in antioxidant capacity of fresh-cut papaya
stored at 4–20°C for 0 to 48 h. Antioxidant capacity of fresh-cut pineapple and banana
increased when exposed to ozone for 20 min and declined upon further treatment; while that
of fresh-cut guava reduced with ozone treatment and increased when ozone exposure time
was increased to 30 min [126]. A drastic loss of antioxidant potential of fresh-cut apples was
observed in both untreated and fruit pieces treated with pulsed light and gellan-gum coatings
during the first week of storage [129].

6. Emerging/future trends in processing and preservation of FFV

Fruits and vegetables remain important health food with low in fat, sodium and calories and
high concentrations of vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals especially antioxidants pro-
tecting body cells against free radicals [130, 131]. Emerging technologies to fresh-cut fruits
and vegetables to inactivate bacteria and viruses are focusing on modified atmosphere pack-
aging process. The microbial inactivation effect of this technologies has to be further assessed.
The number of studies is still low in the area of emerging technologies such as low-pressure
application to reduce microbial populations in FFV. Very few studies have focused on viral
inactivation during MAP processes. More evidence is needed that MAP process can contrib-
ute to reduce or eliminate specific foodborne pathogens to reduce the risk for foodborne infec-
tion associated with FFV when consumed as such or when used further in the food supply
chain as ingredients.

Packaging material, including low density polyethylene (LDPE), laminated aluminium foil
(LAF), high density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), is an essen-
tial component of the FFV, assuring the safe handling and delivery of such food products
from the point of production to the end user. Technological developments in smart packaging
offer new prospects to reduce losses, maintain quality, add value and extend shelf-life of agri-
cultural produce [105]. More novel and emerging packaging technologies are therefore still
needed in the way we handle and package FFV to meet the increasing consumer demand for
consistent supply of high quality, wholesome and nutritious products.

Smart, active and intelligent packaging with food spoilage indicator label (Green = fresh;
orange = warning) are beginning to emerge in FFV industry. We are also beginning to see
freshness and leakage indicators are commercially available for monitoring food [132]. Recent
advances in biotechnology, nanotechnology, nano-sensors and material science offer new
opportunity to develop new packaging materials and design for the fresh-cut fruit and veg-
etable industry. Incorporation of nano-sensors in the packaging material could capture and
analyze environmental signals and adjust stress response treatments on fresh fruits and veg-
etables. Evidently, recent developments and applications of nanotechnology could lead to
the development of antimicrobial packaging in response to spoilage. As stated by Opara and
Mditshwa [105], the application of emerging technologies in packaging design offers new
prospects for advanced quality monitoring using electronic devices that monitor and report
 Processing and Preservation of Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetable Products 63
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real time information on nutritional quality and safety of food. This and other areas of pack-
aging design remain a challenge for food, chemical and mechanical engineers.

7. Conclusion

FFV are increasing in demand due to its less processing and high nutritional content.
However, the impact of processing and storage conditions should be taken into consider-
ation by consumers due to the fact that nutritional quality of the produce can change as a
result of storage and due largely to biochemical and enzymatic reactions. While conventional
food processing method extends the shelf life and wholesomeness of fruits and vegetables,
fresh-cut processing renders the products highly perishable and undesirable by the consum-
ers. Suitable technology and techniques for preservation, retention of wholesomeness and
consumer desirability of fresh-cut products are therefore required to meet the present day
growing consumer demands.

Author details

Afam I.O. Jideani1, Tonna A. Anyasi1*, Godwin R.A. Mchau2, Elohor O. Udoro1 and Oluwatoyin
O. Onipe1

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]; [email protected]

1 Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture, University of Venda,

Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa

2 Department of Horticultural Sciences, School of Agriculture, University of Venda, Thohoyandou,

Limpopo Province, South Africa

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