Lecture #1

ESSENTIALS OF COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS

Questions to be discussed:
1. The notion of comparative linguistics.
2. Aims of comparative linguistic studies.
3. Methods of comparative linguistic research.
4. Terminology of comparative linguistic studies.
5. Survey of comparative investigations in linguistics.
Comparativistics as a branch of linguistics aims at establishing similar
general linguistic categories serving as a basis for the classification of languages of
different types. Comparativistics represents a linguistic subject of general typology
based on the method of comparison of two or more languages. This branch of
language studies reveals their common and different phonetical, morphological,
lexical and syntactic features. Each of them may be compared either
synchronically or diachronically.
The basic aims of typological investigations are the following:
to identify and classify the languages under investigation according to the
main common and divergent features;
to draw from these features the isomorphic and allomorphic traits
(peculiarities) in the languages compared;
to establish the typical language structures and the types of languages on
the basis of the obtained (acquired) isomorphic features;
to perform a truly scientific classification of all languages of the world on the
basis of the obtained practical data.
These are the goals of comparative linguistics which are pretty close to those
of language typology, though there exists specific practical aims of
comparative research. The results of comparative investigation may be applied in:
- translation practice;
- compiling dictionaries;
- teaching foreign languages.
Comparative linguistics is based on the typological method of research which is
grounded upon the procedure of comparison. The specific method of
comparative investigations is called contrastive. Sometimes scholars may also
apply the historical method based on reconstruction and diachronic analysis of
language data. Though, more often they deal with the functional methodology
aimed at analyzing the usage of language data in speech. Depending on the aspect
of research linguists may apply different methodology:
- descriptive;
- experimental;
- statistic;
- transformational;
- substitutional;
- intermediate and ultimate constituents analysis;
- inductive (comparing language data on the ground of certain criteria);
- deductive (working out criteria for comparison).
The terms most widely applied while carrying out comparative linguistic
research are the following: language universals are linguistic phenomena used to
characterize all languages existing on the globe on all levels taking into
consideration their systems and structures. According to the statistic principle they
are classified into unrestricted universals (absolute) and restricted universals
(relative). Languages may possess unique features as well, e.g. the final position of
prepositions in present day English special questions What do you depend on?
As for the language units analyzed there exist phonetic, morphological, lexical and
syntactic universals. The universal phonetic phenomenon is that all languages have
vowels and consonants.
As for the morphology:
a) in most languages words are structured into morphemes;
b) morphemes function as full and auxiliary elements
As for lexis:
a) in all languages vocabulary presents a system of semantic fields;
b) in all languages there exists polysemy, synonymy, homonymy and antonym.
As for syntax – all languages possess distribution of the subject, the predicate
and the secondary elements (SVO) in the sentence.
Type denotes a generalized form of features characteristic of a number
of languages: e.g. in syntactic typology they differentiate between several
types according to the basic word order of a language. Thus, there
are SOV,SVO,OVS,OSV,VOS and VSO types. E.g. English and Ukrainian belong
to the SVO type, while Turkish represents the SOV type; typological dominant
features are the phenomena registered very often either at the language level or in
the structure of a certain language. Thus, analytical connection in English and
synthetical connection in Ukrainian word groups are typological dominant features
of these languages on the syntactic level; typological recessive features are those
phenomena which lose their former dominant roles: the dual number in Ukrainian,
the case in Modern English. While comparing the languages we single out their
isomorphic (common) and allomorphic (divergent) features; the etalon language
is a hypothetical language created by linguists for the sake of contrasting
languages; a world language is spread throughout the whole world and understood
by many people. Greek, Latin used to perform this function. Nowadays English
and French are used for international communication in different spheres.
English, French, Russian, Chinese, Arabic and Spanish are officially recognized as
the languages of the United Nations Organization because they:
- represent big nations;
- possess great cultural heritage
- play an important role in world politics.
At the end of the 19th century artificial languages were considered to
perform international functions, though these attempts failed because:
- they wee not natural;
- had no spoken norm;
- lacked emotional colouring;
language norm (competence) is the unity of correct, conventionally recognized as
correct forms in the language system; speech norm is the unity of language forms
recognized in the process of communication without leading to misunderstanding.
History of comparative linguistics may be divided into 3 main periods:
the end of the 18th century up to the middle of the 19th century, which is called the
beginning of comparative research;
the end of the 19th century – the period of neogrammarian studies,
when linguists started comparing living languages;
the beginning of the 20th century up to the present – the period of structural
and functional approaches to language.
As early as the 17th and 18th centuries many European linguists pointed to
the existence of some common features in different languages (I.Komensky,
W.Leibnitz). This idea came into being in the minds of the first Europeans who
visited India in the16th and 17th centuries. They were often struck by a great
similarity  in the lingual form and meaning of a number of common words like
mother brother, sister, etc. The first attempt to create grammar on «common in all
languages principles» was made by the Frenchmen Arnaud and Lancelot (in Port
Royal, 1660). But only the beginning of the 19th century with its historic and
comparative method brought a dynamic development to European linguistics.
 
Lecture #2
GRAMMAR IN THE SYSTEM OF COMPARATIVE STUDY OF
LANGUAGES
Questions to be discussed:
1. Grammar as linguistic science.
2. Languages of the world. The notion of a language family. The basic language
families.
3. The genealogical classification of languages.
4. The typological (morphological) classification of languages.
Grammar is the part of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure
of language, i.e. the laws of formation and functioning of words and sentences.
This term is also used to denote the grammatical structure of language, i.e. the
system of morphological and syntactical forms and categories of language.
Grammar as science has ancient traditions. Its roots lie in the works of
ancient Indian linguists, and had been formed in the investigations of ancient
Greeks. By its very nature the origin of grammar from the very beginning studied
the formal means of expression (формальні засоби вираження) of linguistic
content in connected speech. Not by chance phonetics and writing had been the
parts of grammar for a long time, in such a way sounds and letters serve to be the
form of expression of linguistic content.
In linguistics general grammar (загальна граматика) and specific
grammars (окремі граматики) of each language are distinguished. General
grammar studies the universal grammatical features which are typical for all
languages. Specific grammar investigates the grammatical structure of a concrete
language, for example, the
grammar of English, German, Japanese, Ukrainian, Russian and others.
Both grammars are connected and correlated (співвідносяться) as gender and
aspect and present different levels of understanding of a language as linguistic
phenomenon.
It is difficult to define how much is the precise number of languages in the world.
It is conditioned by the fact that sometimes it is not clear whether the language is
independent or its territorial or regional variant, i.e. a dialect. Besides, there
exist the «dead languages» which are not always included in the general panorama
of the world languages. Modern linguistics distinguishes about 5000 languages.
English is the second language in the world (after Chinese) as for the number of
speakers. It is common knowledge that about half a million people now speak
English as first language. It is the national language of Great Britain, the USA,
Australia, New Zealand and part of Canada. English is native to many who live in
India, Israel [ˈɪzreɪl], Malta [ˈmɒltə] and Ceylon [sɪˈlɒn]. As for Ukrainian people
use it daily in different countries either as the first or the native language.
The interest to the knowledge of languages and their historical development
was not the same through centuries. The history and theoretical descriptions of
languages have their traits at different periods of time.
The problem of language classification, language distribution in accordance
with their definite taxonomic rubrics (таксономічні рубрики, тобто закон
розміщення за порядком від грецької «taxis – розміщення за порядком»,
«nomos» – закон ) has been one of the main points of linguistic investigation since
the beginning of the 19th century.
The most productive and recognized classifications are genealogical
and typological (morphological). In the middle of the century the interest to
the comparative and historical study of languages greatly increased. In the process
of comparative investigations the identity of ancient Indian words and
grammatical structure with the basic European languages was established and it
made an extraordinary impression on European scientists.
With the help of the comparative-historical method the genetically similar
words and forms of the related languages can be compared and their original type
can be restored. It is considered that if the relationship of languages is established
then regular sound and grammatical correlations (the identical flexions in
particular) in the contrasted languages give the most reliable results. Valid results
also take place when the roots of words which belong to the ancient layers of lexis
are similar.
It should be born in mind that the historical relationship of languages is not always
explained by the fact of their common geographical area of existence.
According to the principle of relationship languages may be divided into
several big groups which are usually called families. The language family is
formed by the joint combination of related languages, i.e. there are common
features in the structure of these languages. Languages that belong to different
families do not demonstrate any features of historical relationship. There are no
words and forms of common origin in such languages besides borrowings which
can interfere from one and the same source into related and non-related languages.
Inside the family the languages are connected with different degree of relationship.
Some languages of a family are characterized by a great number of distinctions; the
others have quite a few. The number of languages inside the family is termed the
branch or the group. Languages of one and the same branch are always closer to
each other than languages of two different branches. For example, Slavonic
languages as the branch of the Indo-European family have much more in common
than Ukrainian and English because the latter belongs to the Germanic branch of
languages. Inside the branch the level of identity between languages is not the
same that is why some groups are divided into subgroups of related languages.
According to the comparative grammatical study of the English and
Ukrainian languages the main point of interest in these terms are the Indo-
European and Germanic language families. The Indo-European family is the
largest group between all the language families according to the number of people
speaking them. Indo- European languages manifest their relationship rather
distinctly. This family is divided into twelve branches, the big part of which
consists of separate languages and some dead languages. To the Indo-European
family belong Indian, Iranian, Germanic, Slavonic, Romanic, Baltic, Celtic groups
of languages, and also some dead groups of languages. The Greek, Armenian and
Albanian languages stand separately in this family.
The Germanic group is usually divided into two subgroups – northern
Germanic (Scandinavian) or West Germanic. English together with German,
Dutch, Frisian and Yiddish are the languages of this branch. For the last two
centuries one more classification called morphological has been developing in
linguistics. The main principle of this classification is the affirmation that all the
languages of the world in spite of their relationship or nonrelationship may be
parted into different types according to some common features of their structures,
and above all it is the morphological structure of a word.
At the end of the 18th century a German linguist Frederic Shlegel was the first who
got interested in the possibility of defining the type of a language. The
scientist made an attempt to compare Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and the Turkic
languages and divided them into two types – inflected and non-inflected (affixal),
later termed as agglutinative. Such division distinctly presented the structure of the
languages under investigation. But still one problem remained disputable, namely,
the problem of distinguishing in the morphological classification of such
languages, as Chinese, for example, which has neither flexions nor regular affixes.
August Shlegel made changes in his brother’s theory and defined one more type of
languages – those that have no grammatical structure, later termed amorphous
languages. The linguist made it possible to single out two means of the
grammatical structure of inflected languages – analytical and synthetical. Wilhelm
fon Humboldt due to the profound knowledge of a great majority of languages
perfected the Shlegels’ classification and singled out the fourth type of languages –
incorporative. The scientist stated that there are no «pure» representatives of this or
that certain type of languages. Subsequently, typological classifications have been
verified, perfected, made in accordance with the new bases. But still the
typological classification of languages remains generally accepted, it presents the
four morphological types: inflected, agglutinative, amorphous and incorporative.
In languages of inflected type (флективна мова) flexion is the steady and essential
feature of the morphological structure of a word. Inflected languages
are characterized by the wide use of flexions which express different
grammatical meanings. At the same time flexion is often multifunctional, i.e.
expresses simultaneously several grammatical meanings. For example, in the
Ukrainian word рука the ending –а expresses three grammatical meanings
simultaneously: feminine gender, singular, Nominative case. Affixes in inflected
languages may occupy different positions in relation to the root, being a suffix, a
prefix, or an infix (инфикс – «аффікс,
що вставляється до кореня слова при словотворенні або словозміні»;
«вставляти букву, звук у слово у якості інфікса»).
Inflected languages are characterized by phonetically non-conditioned changes of a
root (бігати –біжу, літати – лечу, pronounce - pronunciation) and the presence of
a great number of types of declension and conjugation. The word in
inflected languages is an independent unit which has indicators of its relation to the
other words in a word-combination or a sentence. To inflected languages belong,
first of all, Indo-European languages. Their essential character is the division into
languages of analytical and synthetical structure. The analytical structure
presupposes the wide use of functional words, phonetical means and word-order
for the expression of grammatical meanings. English is the language with
analytical structure. The synthetical structure is characterized by the greater role of
the word forms which are created with the help of flexions and also word-forming
suffixes and prefixes in the expression of grammatical meanings. Ukrainian
belongs to the languages of synthetical structure.
The next morphological type of languages is agglutinative.
Agglutination (склеювання, прилипання) is the process of successive joining to
the root-stem specific affixes each of which expresses only one grammatical
meaning. In the agglutinative type of languages the borders of morphemes are
strictly differentiated between each other. The morphemes themselves remain
meaningful in any combinations. Agglutinative affixes are unchangeable in the
process of transformation of a grammatical form of the word. Amorphous (без
форми, без структури) languages constitute the third morphological type of
languages. Such languages are characterized by the absence of alterations (зміна,
варіант) in words. The grammatical meanings in amorphous languages are
expressed with the help of functional words, word-order, musical accent and
intonation. To the languages of this type Chinese, Vietnamese and some others
belong.
The last morphological type of languages is incorporative (змішаний). The
main structural peculiarity of such languages consists in the fact that the sentence
is built as a complex word, i.e. the words are merged and constitute integrity
(цілісність) which is a word and a sentence at the same time. Incorporation is
characteristic of American Indian languages, the languages of North-Eastern
Asia. The undertaken analysis makes it possible to state that any language or a
group of languages may have some specific peculiarities of the other
morphological types.
For example, Ukrainian is not devoid of agglutination. It can be seen in the forms
of the past tense of verbs, imperative mood of verbs in plural, in the formation of
verbs of the Passive Voice with the help of the suffix – cя (сь). Many languages
take intermediate position in morphological classification combining features of
different types.
 
Lecture #3
CONSTANTS FOR COMPARING ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN
MORPHOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Questions to be discussed:
1. The morphemic structure of English and Ukrainian words.
2. Grammatical meaning and grammatical category.
3. Grammatical forms of English and Ukrainian words.
4. Parts of speech in English and Ukrainian.
Grammar as a branch of Linguistics treats the laws of language units' usage
in speech. It considers and examines language from its smallest meaningful parts
up to its most complex organization. Grammar classifies words into categories and
states the peculiarities of each category. We think of vocabulary as the word-stock,
and grammar as the set of devices for handling this word stock. It is due to these
devices that language is able to give material linguistic form to human thought.
The semantic value of grammatical devices is developed in the process of
communication. So grammar is treated as a branch of linguistics, which studies the
structure of language, i.e. a system of morphological categories and forms,
syntactic categories and constructions.
That is why grammar consists of two branches – morphology and
syntax. Morphology studies grammatical properties of a word, word form changes
and their grammatical meanings.
One of the typological constants on the morphological level is the morpheme,
which is endowed in both languages with a certain minimal meaning. Not all
words can be analyzed into morphemes so easily (e.g. irregular verbs and nouns:
feet, children, spent; adjectives and pronouns: ця, його). Morphemes in
both languages can be modified (e.g. cats, pens, boxes, надписати – надіслати,
письмо – пишу). Such morphemes are called allomorphs. Morphemes may
possess one of the three meanings:
1) lexical (speech) – conveying generalized reflection of reality e.g. чит-has the
meaning of perceiving something, which is presented in letters);
2) derivational – the meaning, which is added to the speech meaning e.g. -ач in
глядач, пошукач indicates the doer of an action; -льн in вітальня, приймальна
points out a place. This meaning deals both with vocabulary and grammar;
3) relational – purely grammatical meaning, which indicates the relations between
words in a sentence e.g. The boy reads a book. Його зацікавили цією
книгою. (The morphemes s, и, ею, ою have only relational meaning). Ukrainian
has a larger number of relational morphemes if compared with English.
As for their role in a word morphemes are divided into:
1) segmental – which can be singled out by means of word segmentation: 
– root morphemes –the common part of related words, the most
important component of any word (certain words may possess 2 or more root
morphemes); 
– affixal morphemes – functional morphemes, added to the root (suffixes
– мамуся, wonderful and prefixes – виїхати, unpleasant); 
– inflectional morphemes – are placed at the end of a word expressing the syntactic
relations between words in the sentence (writes, новий; – interfixes occupy a place
between two roots within a word (Anglo-Saxon, statesman, handicraft,
броненосець);
2) Non-segmental morphemes include:
– zero inflections (water, дім);
– supersegmental, which appear due to the change of a stress (ˈextract –
exˈtract; ˈруки –рукú).
From the functional point of view affixes are classified into word
forming (derivational) and form building. Among derivational morphemes we
single out: -асу, -ance, -ion, -dom, -or, -ess, -hood, -ics, -ism, -ity, -ment, -ness,
-ship, - able, -al, -fold, -ful, -ic, -ile, -ish, -less, -ous, -some, -ward, -ate, -en, -esce,
- ify, ize, -ly, -wards, -ways; -ник, -івник, -ч, -ік\їк, -руць\єць, -ар\яр, -up, -ист,
-іст, -тель, -аль. They serve for forming new words and for making new forms of
already existing words. Suppletivity is sometimes used for building new forms of a
word in both languages (to be - was, were; good - better, the best; поганий -
гірший, найгірший, я - мене, ми - наш).
Grammatical meaning is treated as a generalized meaning, possessed by sets of
words, their forms, which are regularly registered in different
syntactic constructions. Thus, such words like finger, affair, table, pen, winter, сад,
папір, яблуко, праця, актор and the like are characterized with the meaning of
thingness.
So grammatical meaning differs from lexical meaning on the ground of:
1) existence of the formal oppositions within the grammatical system of a language
(girl :: girls, girl :: girl's, girls :: girls'). Such forms are built by means
of form-building affixes;
2) the abstract character of generalization;
3) relations with reality (baby belongs to the neutral gender in English, картина is
the Noun of the feminine gender in Ukrainian);
4) grammatical meaning serves as a ground for grammatical categories. A
grammatical category is generally represented by at least two grammatical forms.
A simple case of oppositions in pairs of grammatical forms are found, for instance,
between the singular and the plural in nouns, or Active and Passive Voice in verbs.
Grammatical form of a word presents the unity of grammatical meaning and forms
of its expression. In He waters the flowers every day and Still waters run deep we
have 2 different forms, which coincide, though the 1st indicates the verb in the
3rd person singular of the Present Indefinite Tense and the 2nd – the noun in the
plural form. If we compare на вітрилах пісні and дати нове життя пісні we
view different forms of the noun пісня - of the Genitive and the Dative Cases.
There exist, however, different forms possessing the same meaning (писатиму,
буду писати of the Future Tense). The above forms are considered as synthetical
and analytical. Synthetical forms reveal the grammatical meaning within the word
boundaries, i.e. lexical and grammatical meanings are combined within
one grammatical form (inflections; suppletivity; sound interchange – tooth – teeth,
to leave – left, left, важкий – важче). Analytical forms consist of at least two
words but actually constitute one sense-unit. In this case the lexical meaning is
revealed through the meaningful component and the grammatical meaning by the
functional element (буду малювати, сказав би, have come,would do).
Such forms are numerous in Modern English. They express: future, perfect
and continuous tense and aspect; the Passive Voice; certain mood forms and
degrees of comparison of adverbs and adjectives. The grammatical category of
definiteness / indefiniteness is realized only analytically. All these present-day
English forms sprung from free syntactic word combinations. They are associated
with the conditions of the English language development. The occurrence of
grammatical forms in different syntactical environments gives sufficient evidence
to treat them as systematic. Thus, they make the ground for grammatical
categories, like case, number, gender, person, tense, aspect, voice, mood.
Degrees of comparison in both languages may be expressed both synthetically and
analytically: calm - calmer / more calm - the calmest / the most calm; kind - kinder
/ more kind - the kindest / the most kind; важливий - більш
важливий / важливіший, найбільш важливий / найважливіший.
The finite verb in the languages compared has common morphological categories,
which are realized partly with the help of syntactic means (inflexions) and partly
through different analytical means.
Thus, the categories of person and number are realized in both
languages synthetically, the category of tense – synthetically and analytically, the
category of aspect – synthetically and analytically in English and only
synthetically in Ukrainian, the category of voice – only analytically in English but
synthetically and analytically in Ukrainian and the category of mood is realized in
both languages synthetically and analytically.
Grammarians long ago recognized the fact that there must be different kinds of
words, according to the positions they can fill and the functions they can
perform in various structures. The term parts of speech was given to these various
types of words. Parts of speech are defined as lexico-grammatical word-classes,
which differ in their grammatical meaning and forms, word-making devices and
functions in the sentence.
Grammatical categories identifying the parts of speech are known to be expressed
in paradigms. Though some structural ambiguity always results in English
whenever the form classes of the words are not clearly marked (The ship sails
today :: Ship the sails today).
Due to its historical development, English unlike Ukrainian has a much
larger number of morphologically unmarked words, i.e. regular roots morphemes.
Consequently, the number of inflexions expressing the morphological categories
is much smaller in English than in Ukrainian. Moreover, a lot of notionals in
English lack even the affixes identifying their lexico-morphological native. Free
rootmorpheme words, though fewer are represented in all lexico-morphological
classes – nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. (art, pen, she, read, do, ten, here;
ніс, я, є, три, тут; осад, брат, дім).
The number of inflexions in Ukrainian by far exceeds their number in
English since every notional part of speech has a variety of endings. They express
number, case, gender, tense, aspect, person, voice, mood, degrees of comparison.
In the structural nature of the compared languages the paradigm of the same
notionals naturally differs, the Ukrainian paradigms being richer than the English
ones.
However, in old English the noun paradigm included nine different inflexional
forms, the weak verbs paradigm ten forms and the paradigm of adjectives 13
forms. The variety of case inflexions of Ukrainian and Russian nouns is also
predetermined by the existence of four declensions.
Linguists are unanimous as for the existence of isomorphic set of parts of speech in
English and Ukrainian. The linguistic evidence gives us every reason to subdivide
the whole of the English vocabulary into 13 parts of speech. Seven of them include
notional or meaningful words, which make up the largest part of the word-stock
and six are function words, comparatively few in actual number of items, but used
very frequently.
Notional parts of speech are: nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns,
verbs, adverbs, statives. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles, modal words
and interjections are parts of speech largely devoid of lexical meaning and used
to indicate various functional relations between the notional words in an utterance.
In semantic terms functional words are known to be weak and very general.
In Ukrainian 12 parts of speech are to be singled out (7 notional and 5 functional).
The latter play a less important role in Ukrainian. The article is t e only part
of speech missing in Ukrainian.
Parts of speech are grouped according to the following criteria:
1) semantic – they are united according to the same general grammatical
meaning (thingness – for nouns, action – for verbs, quality – for adjectives,
the quality of the quality – for adverbs, number – for numerals, state – for statives);
2) morphological – a set of certain grammatical categories. It is important
for Ukrainian, but far less important for English;
3) syntactic – the functions in the sentence; specific modifiers they possess; typical
valency. This criterion is more important for English, than Ukrainian, because of
the productivity of conversion;
4) word-building – a set of word-building patterns necessary for deriving a part of
speech.
The above criteria are important for notionals. Functionals are deprived
of semantics, they only indicate relations between other words; they possess
no grammatical categories; functionals are never treated as parts of a sentence.
The identification of the parts of speech in the compared languages is not always
easy, though the main subdivision of words into notional and functionals seems to
be indisputable.
Nevertheless, the existence of the kind of morphologically indistinct notionals in
modern English does not deprive the languages of the regular system of
notional parts of speech in general and those of Noun, Verb, Adjective, and
Adverb in particular.
Common in the languages compared is also the “migration” of one part of speech
to another: a just man (adjective), he has just come (adverb), just a
moment (particle), хто там? (adverb), де там? (particle), а там ще люди
(conjunction).
 
Lecture #4
NOTIONAL PARTS OF SPEECH IN ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN
Questions to be discussed:
1. The noun. 5. The adverb.
2. The pronoun. 6. The stative.
3. The numeral. 7. The verb.
4. The adjective.
The lexico-grammatical meaning of the noun in English & Ukrainian is «substance
\ thingness». It is realized by means of common and proper nouns. The first group
includes concrete nouns (hat, heart, дім, капелюх), abstract (joy,
news, інформація, знання), collective (family, cattle, екіпаж, міліція), names of
materials (air, sugar, борошно, вугілля), class nouns (bird, furniture, квітка,
ссавець). The second group includes names of people (American, Michael,
німець, Семен), family names (Smith, Сидорчук), geographical names (London,
Київ), names of companies, newspapers, journals (Hoover, The Times,
«Урядовий кур’єр»).
The division of nouns into animate \ inanimate is revealed lexically in
both languages, though in Ukrainian it has grammatical representation connected
with gender, type of declension (тип відмінювання), forms of certain cases
(Vocative, Accusative – кличний, знахідний відмінки), word-building suffixes.
The lexiсo-grammatical category of definiteness \ indefiniteness in the system of
English nouns finds its linguistic expression in the article. Apart of the
article demonstrative and possessive pronouns, certain syntactic means (the
Tory government, Палац Україна) are used to specify either the meaning of the
noun or its grammatical links.
Compare :
A girl wants to see you. vs Вас хоче побачити дівчина.
The girl wants to see you. vs Дівчина хоче вас побачити.
I've bought a book. vs Я купив одну книгу.
A child can understand this rule. vs Кожна дитина може зрозуміти це
правило.
Ви можете взяти будь-яку книгу. vs You may take a book.
Here is the book you want to buy. vs Ось та книга, яку ви хочете купити.
The classes of pronouns are isomorphic in the languages compared. They are:
1) personal (I, she, you, я, ти, вони) possess the categories of gender,
case, number);
2) possessive (mine, my, мій) have gender, number, case);
3) reflexive (yourself - yourselves) have number;
4) demonstrative (this - has number, such, цей - have gender, number);
5) interrogative (who, what, який, чий - may have gender, number and case);
6) relative (coincide in form with interrogative);
7) reciprocal (each other, один одного - have gender forms);
8) negative (nobody, nothing, ніхто, ніскільки; нічий - has number, gender, case);
9) indefinite (each, something, дехто, хтось, який-небудь).
The numeral in both languages has a common implicit lexico-
grammatical meaning of quantity; part of an object or order of some objects. Thus,
they are subdivided into: 1) cardinal (three, один, двадцять три);2) ordinal (the
second, восьмий); 3) fractional (one-forth, дві треті).
In Ukrainian all numerals are declinable, possessing the categories of number, case
and gender distinctions: десяти, другого, двом цілим і чотирьом десятим тощо.
Only cardinal numerals один, два have 3 gender forms.
Ukrainian numerals also denote the indefinite number (декілька, кільканадцять)
and a group of objects (тринадцятеро, п'ятеро, трійко).
In English the numerals are invariable (незмінні).
The adjective as part of speech is characterized in English and Ukrainian
by common lexico-grammatical nature and functions. The adjective expresses
the attributes of substances (an interesting book, важливі заходи) and can serve as
a predicative (the child was small, дитина була маленькою). Adjectives may be
qualitative (gradable) and relative (expressing relations to qualities) which
characterize objects and phenomena through their relation to other objects and
phenomena (economic progress, міський житель). Gradable adjectives (якісні
прикметники) in both languages possess the category of degrees of comparison.
English relative adjectives fall into 2 subgroups: possessive
(Byronic, Shakespearian); genuinely relative (дійсно відносні) (Italian, eastern).
In Ukrainian this group is numerous and non-divided (Шевченківський,
київський, батьківський, журавлиний, березовий, сестрин, Надїїн, Михайлів,
козацький, виборчий, доїльний). Ukrainian also has contracted root adjectives
like винен, ладен, зелен; diminutive and augmentative forms of adjectives
(зменшувальні та підсилюючі форми) (гарненький, малесенький;
здоровенний, величезний). The number of Ukrainian emotionally colored
adjectives by far exceeds such forms in English (білесенький – extremely white).
The Ukrainian adjective possesses grammatical categories of gender, number, case
and degrees of comparison, whereas the latter is the only category registered
in English.
The adverb in English and Ukrainian is an indeclinable notional part of speech
expressing the quality or the state of an action, the circumstances in which
the action proceeds or a degree of some other quality. Qualitative adverbs
(distinctly, slowly, швидко, гарно) in both languages possess degrees of
comparison. It is the only grammatical category, which this part of speech has in
both languages. The rules of building such forms are the same as for the adjectives.
The rest of the adverbs denote certain circumstances (time – now, yesterday,
щойно, рано; place or direction – here, somewhere, backwards, надворі, десь;
cause and purpose – why, на зло; frequency and repetition – usually, twice,
завжди, часто; degree – extremely, fairly, цілком, майже; manner of action –
likewise, suddenly, upside-down, by chance, нехотячи, випадково; consequence
and cause (наслідку і причини) – therefore, hence, accordingly, for this reason,
тому що, через те що, у зв'язку з).
Statives in English and Ukrainian are invariable notional words denoting
the physical state of persons, things or phenomena, the psychological state of
persons, state in motion. English statives possess a characteristic prefix a– (afar,
afire, alike, afloat, awake). Ukrainian statives are built by means of the suffix –о
(прикро), –є (добре), –а (шкода). They may be graded (He is more dead than
alive. He was more ashamed than she. їй стало холодніше).
Verbs in English & Ukrainian convey verbality, i.e. different types of
activity (make, sing, write, сіяти), various processes (grow, appear, рости), the
inner state of a person (worry, feel, хворіти,каятися), possession (have, possess,
мати). Due to these lexico-grammatical properties the verb generally functions in
the sentence as the predicate. As regards their role in expressing predicativity,
verbs may be either of 1) complete predication; 2) incomplete predication.
The 1st group is presented with notional verbs, which are in their turn divided into
subjective (to sleep, іти – always intransitive); objective (to envy, давати – only
transitive); terminative (to find, зачиняти – express an action with some result);
durative (to hope, любити – express an action without any aim); mixed (to know,
to remember, сидіти – both terminative and durative); reflexive (to wash oneself,
to shave oneself, листуватись, одягатися, кусатися, журитися, битися). The last
group is really widespread in Ukrainian.
English notional verbs split into regular and irregular, based upon
correlation between the stem of the infinitive and its past forms. 13 classes of
Ukrainian verbs are singled out on the correlation between the infinitival stem of
the verb, on the one hand, and its present stem on, the other (будувати – будуєш,
будують; бувати – буваєш, бувають; казати – кажеш, кажуть; горіти – гориш,
горять тощо).
Allomorphic is the combinability of English notional verbs with
postpositional particles thus forming Phrasal Verbs (to look for, to look around, to
look through, etc).
Verbs of incomplete predication are presented in English with auxiliary verbs (do,
shall, would, мати). Close to auxiliaries by their function are English
and Ukrainian modal and linking verbs (e.g., can, to be to, ought to, dare, могти,
вміти, мусити; to be, to feel, to become, to remain, бути, ставати). They
can't function independently in the sentence. Auxiliaries are used only
together with a notional verb; linking verbs function as a copula of the compound
predicates; modal verbs show that a certain action is represented as necessary,
possible, desirable, and doubtful from the speaker's point of view. With the
infinitive forms they perform the function of the compound modal verbal
predicate. Modal verbs are followed by the Infinitive without the particle to
(exceptions to be to, to have to, ought to); their interrogative and negative forms
are built without the auxiliary do; they have more than one meaning; they lack
ending s in the 3rd person singular of the Present Indefinite Tense; have no future
forms, build no verbals, some of them possess no past forms.
Verbals (the infinitive, the gerund, the participle, інфінітив,
дієприкметник, дієприслівник) constitute a specific group of verbs, because they
lack number, person, mood; possess the qualities of the verb and the noun
(інфінітив, the infinitive, the gerund) or the adjective, the adverb (the participle,
дієприкметник, дієприслівник); build specific constructions in English (the
Accusative-with-the infinitive\participle; the Nominative-with-infinitive\participle,
the For-phrase, the Absolute constructions, the gerundial complex); perform
syntactic functions not typical of a verb. They possess only time relevance (to do –
to have done, writing – having written, пожовклий, відмовивши, співаючи),
aspect (to do – to be doing, being written – having been written, зблідлий, стоячи,
принісши) and voice (writing – being written, having written – having been
written, вживаний, вжитий). The only invariable verbal is participle II (written).
The participle has much in common with дієприслівник and дієприкметник. The
gerund is a unique form typical only of present day English.
Allomorphism is observed in the categorical meanings of the infinitive
and інфінітив, because the latter has no aspect and voice forms. The gerund,
the participle as well as дієприкметник and дієприслівник are formed by means
of word-building affixes.
The above mentioned constructions with verbals are built in the following way: the
For-phrase – by means of: the preposition for, a noun in the Common case, or a
pronoun in the Objective case and an Infinitive in its either indefinite, passive or
continuous form (It will be best for you to go back home; I am anxious for her to
succeed; There is no one for the children to play with); the Accusative-with-
infinitive/participle – by means of the pronoun in the Objective case or the noun in
the Common case and the infinitive/participle (I saw him run; Have somebody
fetch the chalk; He saw an old lady entering the cottage; I left her playing in the
garden); the Nominative-with-the-infinitive / participle – by means of the noun in
the Common case or the pronoun in the Nominative case and the
infinitive/participle (He is said to have arrived; The two ladies appeared to be
discussing clothes; She was kept waiting for some time; She got herself
respected); in the Nominative absolute participial construction the participle has
the subject of its own expressed by a noun or a pronoun. All forms of the participle
are used. Most usually this construction is indicated by a comma (The work
finished, we went home; Weather permitting, we shall start tomorrow; He came
into the room, his book shut).
If the gerund has a subject of its own different from that of a sentence, the gerund
and its subject form a construction called the gerundial complex. The nominal
element of the complex may be expressed either by a noun in the Common case, a
noun in the Possessive case, a pronoun in the Objective case, or a
possessive pronoun (His saying this made all the difference; He insisted on their
paying him at once). All these sentences with complexes correspond to complex
sentences in Ukrainian. Дієприкметниковий and дієприслівниковий звороти in
Ukrainian also correspond to complex sentences in English.
Практичне заняття №1.
Тема: Мета та об’єкт контрастивної лінгвістики.
Методи контрастивної лінгвістики; терміни та
поняття контрастивної лінгвістики; типологічні класифікації мов; короткий
огляд історії контрастивних досліджень.
Мета: з’ясувати мету та об’єкт, методи, терміни та
поняття контрастивної лінгвістики; типологічні класифікації мов; здійснити
короткий огляд історії контрастивних досліджень.
Питання для обговорення:
1. The subject of comparative linguistics and its aims.
2. Practical aims of contrastive typology.
3. Methods of contrastive typology.
4. Terms and notions used in contrastive typology.
5. Typological classifications of languages based on various principles.
6. A short history of comparative investigations.
Вправи: Левицький А.Е.
Порівняльна граматика англійської та української мов: Навчальний посібник.
– К.: «Освіта України», 2007. – 138с. (відповідний розділ) (вправи в
електронному вигляді додаються).
Практичне заняття №2.
Тема: Типологія морфологічних систем в англійській та українській мовах.
Ізоморфізм та аломорфізм у морфемній структурі слова;
граматичне значення, граматичні форми та категорії; типологія частин мови в
англійській та українській мовах.
Мета: встановити типологічні особливості іноземної мови стосовно рідної,
виявити методи та способи порівняння структур двох мов,
розглянути граматичні одиниці іноземної мови, відсутні в рідній, і
засоби їх вираження в ній.
Питання для обговорення:
1. Typological constants of the morphological level.
2. Isomorphisms and allomorphisms in the morphemic structure of English and
Ukrainian words.
3. Grammatical meaning, grammatical forms and grammatical categories in
English and Ukrainian.
4. Typology of parts of speech in the languages compared.
Вправи: Левицький А.Е.
Порівняльна граматика англійської та української мов: Навчальний посібник.
– К.: «Освіта України», 2007. – 138с. (відповідний розділ) (вправи в
електронному вигляді додаються).
Практичне заняття №3.
Тема: Типологія морфологічних систем в англійській та українській мовах.
Іменник, його категорії та синтаксичні функції. КР № 1.
Мета: встановити типологічні особливості іноземної мови стосовно рідної,
виявити методи та способи порівняння структур двох мов,
розглянути граматичні одиниці іноземної мови, відсутні в рідній, і
засоби їх вираження в ній. Провести письмовий контроль знань.
Питання для обговорення:
1. Typological features of the noun.
2. Category of number in English and Ukrainian.
3. Category of case in English and Ukrainian.
4. Category of gender in English and Ukrainian.
5. Category of definiteness / indefiniteness in English and Ukrainian.
6. Syntactic functions of the nouns.
7. КР № 1.
Вправи: Левицький А.Е. Порівняльна граматика англійської
та української мов: Навчальний посібник. – К.: «Освіта України», 2007. –
138с. (відповідний розділ) (вправи в електронному вигляді додаються).
Практичне заняття №4.
Тема: Типологія морфологічних систем в англійській та українській мовах.
Займенник, числівник, прикметник, прислівник,
статичний пасив; службові частини мови. 
Мета: встановити типологічні особливості іноземної мови стосовно рідної,
виявити методи та способи порівняння структур двох мов,
розглянути граматичні одиниці іноземної мови, відсутні в рідній, і
засоби їх вираження в ній.
Питання для обговорення:
1. Typology of the pronoun in the languages compared.
2. Typology of the numeral in English and Ukrainian.
3. Typology of the adjective in English and Ukrainian.
4. Typology of the adverb in English and Ukrainian.
5. Typology of statives in English and Ukrainian.
6. Typology of the functional parts of speech in English and Ukrainian.
Вправи: Левицький А.Е.
Порівняльна граматика англійської та української мов: Навчальний посібник.
– К.: «Освіта України», 2007. – 138с. (відповідний розділ) (вправи в
електронному вигляді додаються).
Практичне заняття №5,6.
Тема: Типологія морфологічних систем в англійській та українській мовах.
Дієслово.
Мета: встановити типологічні особливості іноземної мови стосовно рідної,
виявити методи та способи порівняння структур двох мов,
розглянути граматичні одиниці іноземної мови, відсутні в рідній, і
засоби їх вираження в ній.
Питання для обговорення:
1. Typological features of the verb.
2. Category of tense in English and Ukrainian.
3. Category of aspect in English and Ukrainian.
4. Category of person in English and Ukrainian.
5. Number of English and Ukrainian verbs.
6. Category of voice in English and Ukrainian.
7. Category of mood in English and Ukrainian.
8. Syntactic functions of English and Ukrainian verbs.
9. Modal verbs in English and Ukrainian.
10. Verbals in English and Ukrainian.
Вправи: Левицький А.Е.
Порівняльна граматика англійської та української мов: Навчальний посібник.
– К.: «Освіта України», 2007. – 138с. (відповідний розділ) (вправи в
електронному вигляді додаються).
Практичне заняття №7.
Тема: Типологія синтаксичних систем в англійській та
українській мовах. Словосполучення, види зв’язку між словами;
комунікативні типи речень; структурні типи речень; просте речення в
англійській та українській мовах.
Мета: встановити типологічні особливості іноземної мови стосовно рідної,
виявити методи та способи порівняння структур двох мов,
розглянути граматичні одиниці іноземної мови, відсутні в рідній, і
засоби їх вираження в ній.
Питання для обговорення:
1. Isomorphism and allomorphism in the means of syntactic- connection of word-
group elements.
2. Typology of word-groups in English and Ukrainian.
3. Typology of the communicative types of English and Ukrainian sentences.
4. Structural types of sentences in English and Ukrainian.
5. Simple sentence in English and Ukrainian.
Вправи: Левицький А.Е.
Порівняльна граматика англійської та української мов: Навчальний посібник.
– К.: «Освіта України», 2007. – 138с. (відповідний розділ) (вправи в
електронному вигляді додаються).
Практичне заняття №8.
Тема: Типологія синтаксичних систем в англійській та
українській мовах. Головні та другорядні члени речення;
типологія складних речень (складнопідрядні та складносурядні); пунктуація в
англійській та українських мовах. КР № 2.
Мета: встановити типологічні особливості іноземної мови стосовно рідної,
виявити методи та способи порівняння структур двох мов,
розглянути граматичні одиниці іноземної мови, відсутні в рідній, і
засоби їх вираження в ній. Провести письмовий контроль знань.
Питання для обговорення:
1. Typological characteristics of main and secondary parts of the sentence.
2. Typology of the compound sentence in the languages compared.
3. Typology of the complex sentence in English and Ukrainian.
4. English and Ukrainian punctuation.
5. КР № 2.
Вправи: Левицький А.Е.
Порівняльна граматика англійської та української мов: Навчальний посібник.
– К.: «Освіта України», 2007. – 138с. (відповідний розділ) (вправи в
електронному вигляді додаються).
 № Кількість
Зміст
з/п годин
Кредит 1. Контрастивна лінгвістика – мета, об’єкт, методи, терміни та
поняття. Типологія морфологічних систем в англійській та українській
мовах.
Підготуйте доповідь за наступними темами:
1. History of comparative linguistic investigations in
Europe.
2. History of comparative linguistic investigations in the
USA.
3. History of comparative linguistic investigations in
Ukraine.
4. Present-day comparative linguistic investigations in
Ukraine.
5. Comparative investigations in English and Ukrainian/
6. Development of English and Ukrainian vocalic systems
from the comparative perspective.
7. Development of English and Ukrainian consonantal
systems from the comparative perspective.
8. Development of English and Ukrainian word structure
from the comparative perspective.
9. Development of English and Ukrainian syntactic
systems from the comparative perspective.
10. Ways of development of nominal grammatical
1 24
categories in English and Ukrainian from the comparative
perspective.
11. Ways of development of verbal grammatical
categories in English and Ukrainian from the comparative
perspective.
12. Ways of development of one-member sentences in
English and Ukrainian from the comparative perspective.
13. Ways of development of compound sentences in
English and Ukrainian from the comparative perspective.
14. Ways of development of complex sentences in English
and Ukrainian from the comparative perspective.
15. Grounds for speech acts comparison in English and
Ukrainian.
16. Grounds for comparing communicative strategies and
tactics in English and Ukrainian speech.
17. Grounds for comparing different types of discourse in
English and Ukrainian.
18. Non-verbal English and Ukrainian communication
from the comparative perspective.
Кредит 2. Типологія морфологічних систем в англійській та українській
мовах. Іменник, займенник, числівник, прикметник, прислівник, статичний
 пасив; службові частини мови.
Виконати вправи (додаються)
2 24
Підготуйтесь до контрольної роботи №1
Кредит 3. Типологія морфологічних систем в англійській та українській
мовах. Статичний пасив; службові частини мови.
Підготуйте презентацію-доповідь на тему, актуальну в
3 24
сучасній лінгвістиці.
Кредит 4. Типологія синтаксичних систем в англійській та українській
мовах.
Виконати вправи (додаються)
4 24
Підготуйтесь до контрольної роботи №2
  Разом 96
Вправа 1. Наведені нижче українські речення мають іменникові групи
в орудному відмінку. Дайте англійські еквіваленти цим реченням із
використанням прийменникових конструкцій, де можливо.
1. Виставку організовано вчителем.
2. Уляна накрилася від дощу плащем.
3. Будинок спалило блискавкою.
4. Від Ялти ми пливли катером.
5. Сашко цокотів зубами від холоду.
6. Він працював слюсарем.
7. Я малюю фарбами.
8. Матуся годувала немовля кашею.
9. Пахне хліб любов’ю трударів.
10. Ми задоволені подорожжю.
Вправа 2. Передайте значення артиклів українською
мовою, використовуючи їх еквіваленти:
1. The dog has comе home. The dog is a domestic animal.
2. There is a hill behind our house.
3. Give me a newspaper, please.
4. Language is a means of communication.
5. English is the foreign language I know best.
6. Everyone must study a foreign language.
Вправа 3. У поданих реченнях визначте розряди прикметників та
їх синтаксичну роль.
1. Трохи далі росла сизувата тополина памолодь, пломеніла червона шелюга,
стовбурчилася колюча акація, маленькі берізки, що вже встигли зодягти на
себе білі сорочечки... (І. Цюпа). 2. Віками еволюції витворились спеціальні
роди словесної творчості, які орудують спеціальними формами для цього
ефекту (М. Грушевський). 3. На Лисій горі догоряє багаття нічне, і
листя осіннє на Лисій горі догоряє (В. Стус). 4. Я беру з татових рук
полив’яний глек, стернями виходжу: на дорогу (В. Стус). 5. Біля школи він
помітив високого русявого чоловіка – в пальті з каракулевим коміром, у
хутряній шапці (І. Світличний). 6. Казали, що Захаркового запаху боялись
навіть риби і тому погано клювали (О. Довженко). 7. І дрібнесенькі світляні
блиски грали, як леліточки, по темній бронзовій правій щоці (Леся Українка).
8. У всі віки на всіх перепуттях історії хліб був найбільшим з багатств. 9.
Ранок мудріший від вечора.
Вправа 4. У поданих нижче реченнях знайдіть прикметники, визначте
їх розряди й синтаксичну функцію.
1. They were only five years younger than I was which made them forty-five. 2.
Ann was certainly being bravely cheerful in a way which both exasperated
Hugh and half compelled his administration (I. Murdoch). 3. The electric light had
been burning all night (E. Hemingway). 4. He is stopping at one of the best hotels
in town (W. Saroyan). 5. His hair was grey and he was short and fat (E.
Hemingway). 6. There were several small losses: a spoon used for the baby’s
feeding, a pair of scissors (D. Lessing). 7. For four months, since in the canteen she
saw John’s tired smile, he had been one long thought in her mind (J. Galsworthy).
8. That early morning he had already done a good two hours’ work (J.
Galsworthy). 
Вправа 5. Визначте розряди займенників у наведених нижче
англійських реченнях, з’ясуйте їх синтаксичну роль.
1. There’s nothing for any of us to do (Ch. P. Snow). 2. I have made
myself perfectly pleasant here (B. Shaw). 3. But I can’t do anything for him (J.
Galsworthy). 4. “Who is that girl with yellow hair and dark eyes”, he asked. 5. She
rises with an air of one who waits and is almost at the end of her patience (B.
Shaw). 6. Your nerves are as bad as mine (G. Greene). 7. He seemed to get prouder
and prouder over each item of his own deficiency (S. Leacock).
Вправа 6. Охарактеризуйте англійські числівники щодо їх
розряду, синтаксичної функції у реченні.
1. Where’s the cedar I planted when I was five? (J. Galsworthy). 2. All
this triumphal business, these people coming and going, those two talking so
readily and quickly: the clear and sparkling morning! (J. Galsworthy). 3. On the
fourth evening Brander came... (Th. Dreiser). 4. Three fourths of the book was read
yesterday. 5. I have a passion for white people, I used to own three. But two are
dead and the third is sickly (G. Vidal). 6. Page 258 – here you are, my dear (J.
Galsworthy). 7. The Maintenon wore blue stockings, and ministered to Louis the
XIVth (J. Galsworthy).
Вправа 7. Запишіть речення, розкриваючи дужки і поставивши рислівники в
один зі ступенів порівняння.
1. Then the bus ... began to run, ________ still, through a long avenue
(fast) (W. Faulkner). 2. Moreover, he was ________ educated than the others
(well) (P. Buck). 3. She was the one who was being hurt ___________ (deeply)
(A. Wilson). 4. Driving _________ now, she arrived between four and five
(slowly) (J. Galsworthy). 5. However, I must bear my cross as _______ I may
(well) (B. Shaw).
Вправа 8. У наведених нижче англійських реченнях знайдіть слова категорії
стану. Перекладіть речення на українську мову.
1. The afternoon was full of transfiguring sunshine, some Judas trees were abloom
in the villa gardens (H. Wells). 2. I did not mind for myself. I should not
have cared if had been alone (Du Maurier). 3. His soul was all ablaze with bliss
(M. Twain). 4. We are not afraid of the truth (Yow and D’Usseau). 5. The rest of
his costume were the things he had worn at the funeral, of his father. So nearly
akin are human joy and sorrow (H. Wells). 6. The lieutenant lay asleep on the other
bed (E. Hemingway). 7. He lit a pool of paraffin on the scullery floor and instantly
a nest of wavering blue flame became agog for prey (H. Wells). 8. He [Mr. Polly]
rattled and stormed and left the parlour already ablaze behind him (H. Wells). 9.
But Mr. Polly’s establishment looked more like a house afire than most houses on
fire contrive to look from start to finish (H. Wells). 10. You know everything there
is to know about me. There’s not much, because I have not been alive for very long
(Du Maurier). 11. He did not answer. I was aware again of that feeling of
discomfort (Du Maurier). Вправа 9. Перекладіть українські речення на
англійську мову. Зверніть увагу на відносні часові форми англійського
дієслова, що відповідають абсолютним часовим формам з відносним часовим
значенням в українській мові:
а) Він запитав у сестри, чи прийде вона завтра до нас.
б) Я зрозуміла, що він все ще сердиться на мене.
в) Коли я увійшла до квартири, він вже закінчив прибирати і читав книгу.
г) Вчителька пояснила нам, що твори, які ми написали, вона
покаже директору.
ґ) Ми подумали, що буде важко виправити ті помилки, які ми зробили.
Вправа 10. Визначте сурядні та підрядні сполучники, з’ясуйте, до якої групи
за значенням вони належать.
1. The stranger had not gone far, so he made after him to ask the name
(Ch. Dickens). 2. Be quick, or it may be too late (Ch. Dickens) 3. ... real accuracy
and purity she neither possessed, nor in any number of years would acquire (Ch.
Bronte). 4. She stood quite silent while Butler appealed to her (Th. Dreiser).
5. Since Miss Wilfer rejected me, I have never again urged my suit (Ch. Dickens).
6. It seemed to him that he could contrive to secure for her the full benefit of both
his life insurance and his fire insurance... (H. Wells). 7. The reference was as plain
as it was unexpected (A. C. Clark). 8. Give me your promise that this shall be done
(J. B. Priestly). 9. But for a long time we did not see any lights (E. Hemingway).
10. Once they reached the open country the car leapt forward like a mad thing (I.
Murdoch). 11. Mrs. Banks has come down into the Yard tonight, on purpose that
you should hear him (Ch. Dickens). 12. In that small room he seemed even bigger
than I remembered him. 13. He prized the pencil, because it had been a gift from
his mother (G. E. Warren). 14. As soon as he had gone, I looked at the clock (Ch.
P. Snow).
Вправа 11. Знайдіть у реченнях модальні слова та з’ясуйте їх
значення. Перекладіть речення на українську мову та поясніть засоби
передачі модальних одиниць цільовою мовою.
1. Over the ridge she would find him. Surely she would find him (H. Wells). 2. He
had stopped their mouths, maybe, but at what a cost (J. Galsworthy). 3. Can
I possibly have made a mistake? She thought (E. Forster). 4. She was
probably dissatisfied just as he was (Th. Dreiser). 5. “May I escort you home?” he
said (R. Hichens). 6. “There must be something wrong somewhere”, he said with a
solemn, dejected movement of his head (E. Caldwell). 7. Knowledge of something
kept from her made him no doubt, unduly sensitive (J. Galsworthy). 8. “You’re to
go now, Blick!” said Hunter, getting up (I. Murdoch). 9. I didn’t save a penny last
year and so I had to come here for the summer (Ch. Williams). 10. He saw Fleur,
standing near the door, holding a handkerchief which the boy had evidently just
handed to her (J. Galsworthy). 11. I did something – a certain thing – something I
shouldn’t have done – but couldn’t help it! (E. Caldwell). 12. He ought to have
phoned Simkin earlier, knowing his habits (T. Bellow).
Вправа 12. Розподіліть англійські та українські словосполучення за трьома
групами залежно від засобів синтаксичного зв’язку між їх компонентами: а)
словосполучення з узгодженням; б) словосполучення з керуванням; в)
словосполучення з приляганням.
Англ.: the edge of the bowl, those people, a tiny mouth, a teacup of water, Knights
of the Round Table, old noises, magic beggar, parrot’s name, letters to write, Text
Five, a mile’s distance.
Укр.: радісна звістка, школи в районі, професор Іванов,
рядки з листа, історія країни, путивльський ліс, букети квітів,
дорога в нікуди, привіт від подруги, вказівка секретарю,
двадцятирічна вчителька.
Вправа 13. Дайте відповідно українські та англійські еквіваленти наведених
нижче простих об’єктних словосполучень.
Англ.: to play the piano, to play chess, to ride a bicycle, to drive a car. 
Укр.: шукати роботу, писати статтю, прохання надати допомогу,
говорити пошепки, заважати комусь.
Вправа 14. Якими членами речення є виділені слова в наведених
нижче реченнях?
Англ.: I saw a lovely sight. Не helps mе a lot. These parts are deserted. A vast
plane unfolded before us.
Укр.: Карета під’їхала до будинку. Криві вулички збігалися до центру міста.
Дзвіночок дзвенів і дзвенів. Подія зворушила мене.
Вправа 15. Визначте типи речень за метою висловлювання.
З’ясуйте ізоморфні та аломорфні риси речень англійської та української мов
щодо мети
висловлювання.
Укр.: 1. Виходь із свого тихого захисту – гущини лісової, де ти в холодочку
пахучому спочиваєш оповідні, ховаючись від гарячої спеки! (Панас Мирний).
2. В синьому промінні впали в трави тіні (Г. Коваль). 3. Може, це ти на
уламках імперій встала, в неволі народжена пісне? 4. Краплини
воску скапували вниз (Л. Горлач). 5. Тебе одну я серцем викликаю, одне ж бо
тільки серце в грудях є! (О. Ющенко). 6. Нехай мої струни лунають, нехай
мої співи літають по рідній коханій моїй стороні (Леся Українка). 7. Люблю я
жить! 8. Хто ж це біля столу з друзями сидить серед книжок? (В. Швець). 9.
Колосом і цвітом оповита, знов розхорошілася земля (Б. Степанюк)
Англ.: Laura was terribly nervous. Tossing the velvet ribbon over her
shoulder, she said to a woman standing by, “Is this Mrs. Scott’s house?” and the
woman, smiling queerly, said, “It is, my lass”. Oh, to be away from this! She
actually said, “Help me God!” as she walked up the tiny path and knocked. To be
away from these staring eyes, or to be covered up in anything, one of those
women’s shawls event I’ll just leave the basket and go, she decided. I shan’t even
wait for it to be emptied. Then the door opened. A little woman in black showed in
the gloom. Laura said “Are you Mrs. Scott?” But to her horror the woman
answered. “Walk in, please, miss”, and she was shut in the passage. “No”, said
Laura, “I don’t want to come in. I only want to leave this basket.” The little woman
in the gloomy passage seemed not to hear her. “Step this way, please, miss,” she
said in an oily voice, and Laura followed her (K. Mansfield).
Вправа 16. Визначте синтаксичні функції кожного члена речення.
1. What you saw tonight was an ending (I. Murdoch). 2. I dislike what you call his
trade (I. Murdoch). 3. That was what I came to find out (J. London). 4. Rosa
had the feeling that she was both recognized and expected (I. Murdoch). 5. He
watched until the final wisp of smoke had disappeared (E. Caldwell). 6. I could
work faster if your irons were only hotter (J. London). 7. No matter how brilliant a
physician is, a thing like that will ruin his career (E. Caldwell). 8. And you will
find that it is scarcely less of a shock for you because you saw what you expected
to see (I. Murdoch). 9. She could hardly hear his voice, so deafening and
continuous was the clatter of the waves upon the stones (I. Murdoch).

Питання до контролю:
1. Визначення порівняльної лінгвістики.
Цілі порівняльної лінгвістики. Методи дослідження порівняльної лінгвістики
.
2. Термінологія (науковий апарат) порівняльної лінгвістики.
3. Короткий огляд досліджень в порівняльній лінгвістиці.
4. Мовні родини. Типи мов.
5. Морфемна структура англійського та українського слів.
6. Граматичне значення та граматична категорія.
7. Граматичні форми англійських та українських слів.
8. Частини мови в англійській та українській мовах.
9. Іменник.
10. Займенник.
11. Числівник.
12. Прикметник.
13. Прислівник.
14. Дієслово.
15. Статистичний пасив.
16. Службові части мови.
17. Граматичні категорії як основні критерії для
порівняння частин мови. Номінативні категорії. Дієслівні категорії.
18. Синтагматичні зв’язки слів.
19. Структурні типи словосполучень в англійських та українських мовах.
20. Комунікативні типи речень.
21. Структурні типи речень.
22. Члени речень.
23. Пунктуація простого речення.
24. Пунктуація складного речення.