International Journal of

Environmental Research
and Public Health

Article
Influence of the CoViD-19 Pandemic on Mental Workload and
Burnout of Fashion Retailing Workers in Spain
Ana María Rodríguez-López, Susana Rubio-Valdehita * and Eva María Díaz-Ramiro

Faculty of Psychology, Campus de Somosaguas, University Complutense of Madrid, 20223 Madrid, Spain;
[email protected] (A.M.R.-L.); [email protected] (E.M.D.-R.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-91-394-3231

Abstract: This study analyzed the levels of mental workload and the presence of burnout on a sample
of fashion retailing workers from Spain and its relationship with the current CoViD-19 (Coronavirus
disease-19) pandemic. We established a cross-sectional design. Participants (n = 360) answered an
online survey including questions about sociodemographic data, perception of CoViD-19, CarMen-Q
questionnaire (workload), and MBI (burnout syndrome). The survey campaign took place in October
and November 2020. The results showed that participants exhibited deep concern about the CoViD-19
pandemic and its influence in the workplace. Although the mental workload was near the middle
point of the scale, participants showed moderate to high burnout levels, revealing that the sample
was at risk of experiencing higher burnout levels over time as the pandemic and associated economic
crisis continued. The multiple regression analysis results indicated that environmental changes,
work overload, somatic symptoms, insomnia, negative job expectations, and uncertainty constituted
significant mental workload predictors. Insomnia, somatic symptoms, and negative job expectations
constituted significant predictors for burnout. Differences between job positions and genders in



mental workload and burnout were found. In conclusion, the uncertainty at work derived from the

 CoViD-19 pandemic harms fashion retailing workers’ psychological well-being in Spain.
Citation: Rodríguez-López, A.M.;
Rubio-Valdehita, S.; Díaz-Ramiro, Keywords: mental workload; burnout; CoViD-19; pandemic; fashion retailing sector; Spain
E.M. Influence of the CoViD-19
Pandemic on Mental Workload and
Burnout of Fashion Retailing Workers
in Spain. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public 1. Introduction
Health 2021, 18, 983. https://doi.org/
Today, a “healthy company” does not focus solely and exclusively on obtaining
10.3390/ijerph18030983
satisfied customers but must also ensure that the people who make up the organization
itself, that is, its employees, enjoy healthy working conditions. Due to this new perspective,
Received: 12 December 2020
Accepted: 20 January 2021
companies are varying their course by changing human resources management, which
Published: 22 January 2021
now focuses on the psychosocial health of the people who make up the workforce to obtain
beneficial results. It is necessary to consider this last point, since it has been possible to
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
verify the correlation that “good health” has with the social and economic benefits that the
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
organization can have [1].
published maps and institutional affil- Globalization’s effects are the constant change of the workplace, which has forced
iations. organizations to adapt to the changing nature of the work context, the development
of information and technological communication, and demographic changes. That is
why in Europe, corporate social responsibility (CSR) has developed on a large scale in
the last decade. There are several definitions to understand how CSR works within
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
organizations [2]. Some authors define it as a concept by which companies integrate social
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
and environmental concerns in their business strategies. Other authors expand this concept
This article is an open access article
with the idea that there are two dimensions: internal and external. The first dimension
distributed under the terms and deals with practices regarding the employees’ concerns about their well-being and health.
conditions of the Creative Commons On the other hand, the external dimension refers to the company’s social environment,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// such as suppliers.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ In December 2019, a cluster of 27 pneumonia cases emerged in Wuhan (Hubei, China),
4.0/). with a common exposure to a wholesale market for seafood, fish, and live animals. On

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18030983 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 2 of 18

7 January 2020, Chinese authorities identified as the causative agent of this outbreak a
new virus of the Coronaviridae family, which was later named SARS-CoV-2. Chinese
authorities shared the genetic sequence on 12 January. On 11 February 2020, the WHO
(World Health Organization) called the disease CoViD-19 by consensus. The Emergency
Committee of the Health Regulations International (ECHRI) declared the outbreak a Public
Health Emergency of Major International (PHEMI) at its meeting on 30 January 2020.
Subsequently, the WHO recognized it as a global pandemic on 11 March 2020 [3].
In mid-March 2020, the Spanish government declared a state of national emergency
due to the health crisis. To control the high number of infections, the government decreed
compulsory home confinement. In the health field, all nonpriority medical acts were
limited, and urgent activity was maintained. To monitor the number of cases, the Span-
ish government established a reporting system of all confirmed CoViD-19 cases in each
Autonomous Community (AC) through an epidemiological survey. The survey includes
clinical-epidemiological information approved by the Report on Alerts and Preparedness
and Response Plans and the National Epidemiological Surveillance Network. Each AC
must continually update the survey information [4].
Italy was the first European country to exhibit alarming data on the virus’s lack
of control [5]. However, the Italian infection curve was only a week or two ahead of
developments in Austria, Spain, Switzerland, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom.
Thus, Italy and Spain were the first and worst affected countries in Europe’s first wave
of CoViD-19. According to the National Institute of Statistics [6], in the first wave caused
by CoViD-19 in Spain (between January and May), 45,684 people died from this disease.
In addition to the 45,684 deaths due to CoViD-19, doctors certified another 4218 cases in
which the cause of death was not directly the disease, although the virus contributed as a
comorbidity.
In June 2020, the state of national emergency in Spain ended with devastating conse-
quences for the Spanish economy. During the lockdown, the Spanish GDP (Gross Domestic
Product) dropped 22.1%. The International Monetary Fund estimated a 12.8% drop in
Spain’s GDP by the end of 2020 and a 6.3% recovery in 2021. On the other hand, the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development estimated an 11.1–14.4% drop
in Spain’s GDP and a 5–7.5% recovery in 2021. 71% of Spanish entrepreneurs described
their economic situation as “bad” or “very bad” [7].
Today, the entire world is facing a second wave of infections by CoViD-19. Data
from Eurostat and national statistical agencies (Scotland: NRS, Northern Ireland: NISRA,
Germany: Destatis) show that deaths by CoViD-19 in the second wave are higher than in
the first wave. Western European countries such as Italy and Spain, which were the most
affected on the first wave, are suffering nearly as badly. Central and Eastern Europe, which
were barely affected by the first wave, now exhibit alarming spikes in cases and deaths [8].
According to the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, as of week 52, 2020,
the EU/EEA reported 17,348,389 cases and 427.798 deaths, with France, United Kingdom,
Italy, Spain, Germany, and Poland being the most affected countries. In Spain, the sum of
cases reached 18,794,13 and the sum of deaths 50,122. However, the number of deaths in
Spain’s second wave is lower than in the first. Multiple reasons could explain this decrease
in the number of deaths: highest mortality of the first wave, knowledge acquired about the
virus, better management of time and sanitary spaces, improved hospital equipment, and
increment of diagnostic resources.
Even though the Spanish GDP increased by 16.5% after the end of the state of national
emergency, the second wave’s appearance has led to maintaining these pessimistic predic-
tions. Thus, due to this second wave, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development estimated a 12.8% drop in Spain’s GDP by December with a higher impact
on the retail sector and the tourism sector. By now, 33,000 businesses have disappeared,
and large companies have not managed to trace their sales [9].
Over the last decade, fashion retailing in Spain has significantly increased its value
in the market, reflected in the intensification in job offers, approximately 132,000, and its
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 3 of 18

value-added by 4.1% in the manufacturing industry [10]. In 2019, fashion retailing suffered
a 20% drop in revenue compared to 2007, and experts estimate an additional 35–40% drop
in 2020, according to an EY (Ernst & Young) and The Boston Consulting Group study [11].
The impact caused by the CoViD-19 (Coronavirus disease-19) pandemic on fashion retailing
is immediate: more than 65,000 people from fashion retailing will lose their jobs due to
the closure of sales points and the disappearance of smaller businesses [12]. The Spanish
government allowed shops and shopping centers to open under multiple restrictions to
reactivate fashion retail economically. Restrictions are the following [13]:
• Protective measures against the virus: mandatory hygiene measures that workers must
carry out (i.e., use of a mask, interpersonal distance of 2 m, hygiene and disinfection
of hands and personal objects).
• General hygiene and protection measures: mandatory hygiene measures that es-
tablishments must carry out (i.e., the existence of protective material for the entire
staff, protocol in case a worker tests positive for coronavirus or maintains contact
with someone infected, cleaning protocol of the uniform, cleaning protocol of the
establishment).
• Specific measures: organizational measures (i.e., entry and exit to the workplace
in a staggered manner, limit the number of workers in the workplace, daily moni-
toring of body temperature on entry and exit from work, facilitate online sales, the
establishment of limited capacity in stores and shopping centers).
On the other hand, the governments of each AC have also established specific restric-
tions: Madrid, Murcia, Cantabria, Extremadura, and Cataluña establish a perimeter closure
by municipalities which prevents travel to stores or shopping centers outside the munici-
pality of residence; Andalucía, Asturias, Galicia, and Baleares established the mandatory
closure of all stores and shopping centers at 6:00 p.m.; Castilla-La Mancha established
the temporary closure of all stores and shopping centers, Castilla y León, Extremadura,
Navarra, Aragón, and Cataluña reduced the capacity of stores and shopping centers by
30%. Ceuta y Melilla, Comunidad Valenciana, La Rioja, País Vasco, and Canarias have not
implemented specific measures [14].
Thus, due to the economic difficulties of recent decades and the emergence of large
international competitors, added to the recent pandemic caused by the CoViD-19 virus,
have led to a tightening of the working conditions of workers in this sector and, conse-
quently, to increase the prevalence of occupational diseases such as burnout related to
mental workload [15,16]. Mental workload is a multidimensional concept that implies the
difference between a job’s cognitive demands and an employee’s cognitive skills [17]. Men-
tal workload is task- and person-specific and involves motivation, individual capacities,
and performance [18].
On the other hand, the most accepted definition of burnout describes it as a “syndrome
of emotional exhaustion and cynicism that frequently occurs among individuals who do
people work of some kind” [19]. Thus, several studies have analyzed the effects of stress on
professional selling employees [20,21], showing that stress is inherent to this sector due to
its client-oriented nature. This type of stress can lead to adverse physical and psychological
effects as burnout [22].
Recent studies have estimated that the psychological impact caused by the CoViD-19
pandemic is like that of a catastrophe: 1 in 5 people will manifest depressive and anxious
symptoms [22]. Over the last year, numerous studies have revealed these consequences
in health sector workers worldwide. Khasne et al. [23] showed that more than half (52%)
of their healthcare workers’ sample exhibited pandemic-related burnout. Chor et al. [24]
found that 53% of their sample were experiencing burnout, and Matsuo et al. [25] showed
that 31.4% of a sample of healthcare workers from Japan were experiencing burnout. Den-
ning et al. [26] showed that 67.1% of healthcare workers from a multinational cross-sectional
study were positive for burnout, among others. Several studies have also analyzed the
predictors on the relationship between the CoViD-19 pandemic and burnout, showing
that work hours, work overload, being in close contact with people, anxiety symptoms,
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 4 of 18

depression symptoms, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and insomnia are consis-

tent predictors [26–31]. Furthermore, recent studies showed that other psychosocial risks
such as social support, social value, being stigmatized as a healthcare worker, witnessing
disease, lack of organizational justice, emotional work, distress intolerance, intolerance
of uncertainty, interpersonal conflicts, and role conflicts are also significant predictors for
burnout and mental distress [31–34].
Among psychosocial risks, one of the variables most extensively studied in the last
year has been risk perception from CoViD-19. Several studies show that sociocultural and
sociodemographic factors such as higher education level, prosocial values, and gender
(females) are associated with higher risk perception. Having experience with the virus is
also associated with higher risk perception [35,36]. Another critical finding regarding risk
perception is that those with higher levels engage more in protective behaviors such as
staying at home, hand washing, and disinfecting personal objects [37,38].
Recent studies have also given great importance to certain sociodemographic variables
such as socioeconomic status (SE), strongly associated with the perceived severity of CoViD-
19. Irigoyen-Camacho et al. (2020) exhibit that people with higher SE showed higher
perceived severity and carried out more preventive actions. Multiple studies also showed
that low-income individuals are more affected by the pandemic: household crowding and
higher odds of working on-site are associated with higher CoViD-19 infection rates [37,39].
However, it is vital to know this impact on workers in other sectors to implement
psychological prevention measures in these groups. The current pandemic has caused
workers in continuous contact with other people to display changes in their daily tasks
and in their work environment to adjust to the health prevention regulations. Also, envi-
ronmental changes and performing uncommon tasks are well-known stressors correlated
with burnout syndrome development [23].
In Spain, Oliver et al. [40] conducted a survey to quickly assess the Spanish citizens’
situation and perception on four areas related to the CoViD-19 pandemic: their social
contact behavior during the confinement, their economic impact, their work situation, and
their health status. They found a significant economic impact of the CoViD-19 pandemic
in small businesses as 47.3% of respondents working in small (1–9 workers) companies
reported having been financially affected, and 19.4% reported facing insolvency at their
work. Fashion retailing was the third most affected in terms of occupations, only behind
hospitality and construction. 9.3% of the participants who had or were in danger of losing
their job/business were working in fashion retailing (only 5.3% of participants who did
not think they will lose their jobs working in fashion retailing).
As mentioned above, many studies analyzed the impact of the CoViD-19 on healthcare
workers’ mental health; however, there is no research that we know on the pandemic’s
impact on fashion’s retailing workers mental health. Therefore, the present study aims
to evaluate the levels of mental workload and burnout manifested by fashion retailing
workers in the context of CoViD-19 in Spain and determine which of the pandemic aspects
are more determinant of the increase of mental workload and burnout. We expect that
fashion retailing workers show similar results to mental health workers, such as similar
predictors. It is necessary to highlight that it is difficult to find empirical studies analyzing
the relationship between the CoViD-19 pandemic and higher levels of mental workload lev-
els, which, in our opinion, constitutes a novel contribution to current literature. The present
study also evaluates uncertainty and negative job expectations as possible predictors in the
relationship of CoViD-19 pandemic and burnout and mental workload.
Lastly, it is necessary to highlight that it is difficult to find empirical studies distin-
guishing between psychosocial risks by jobs in this sector. Due to the diversity of the nature
of each position’s tasks [41], the present study makes a distinction between job positions,
which constitutes a novel contribution of this work to current literature.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 5 of 18

2. Materials and Methods

A cross-sectional design was established, which involved a random sample of 360 fash-
ion retailing workers. Participants were recruited through LinkedIn and from disseminat-
ing this research through other social networks (i.e., Instagram, Twitter). It was necessary to
be employed and to have at least six months seniority at the moment to participate. Those
who wished to participate would access a link through a post or message that would lead
to a Google Forms’ questionnaire. In the Google Forms’ questionnaire, they first gave their
informed consent to participate in the study. We collected data throughout October and
November 2020. The sample’s mean age was 32.48 years old, ranging from 19 to 56 years
old, 31.7% were males and 68.3% were females.
Participants answered an online survey that consisted of the following instruments:
Socio-demographical variables (Appendix A): Participants had to indicate their age,
gender, educational level, civil status, if they have children or not, employment position if
they have had any sick leave during the last year, cause of the sick leave, labor seniority,
and type of contract.
CarMen-Q (Appendix B): Mental workload questionnaire (Cognitive Demands, Tem-
poral Demands, Emotional Demands, Performance Demands) [42] was developed for the
Spanish population and consisted of 29 multiple choice response items. Item’s response
format was a Likert frequency scale of four alternatives in which 0 meant never, 1 rarely,
2 often, and 3 always. The authors stated the items so that a higher score indicated a
higher mental workload. CarMen-Q questionnaire contained the following subscales: the
factor “cognitive demands” consisted of 10 items related to the processing of complex
information, difficulties in perceiving information, complex decision making, memory
load, and the amount of information that needs to be taken into account to perform job
tasks. The factor “temporal demands” was constituted by 7 items that ask for work rhythm,
presence of annoying interruptions, or the possibility of taking breaks when the worker
needs it. The factor “emotional demands” was formed by 7 items related to the job’s
emotional and health consequences. Five items constituted the “performance demands”
factor that asked about the performance requirements at the level of responsibility, required
accuracy of responses, and error severity. In our sample, CarMen-Q had high reliability
(Cronbach’ α = 0.93).
MBI (Appendix C): Burnout Syndrome Inventory (Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonal-
ization, Personal Accomplishment) [43,44], which consisted of 22 multiple-choice response
items, evaluated using a Likert scale with response options ranging from “never” (0) to
“every day” (6). The questionnaire contained the following subscales: (1) Emotional Ex-
haustion, which assessed the experiences of being emotionally exhausted by the demands
of work, (2) Depersonalization, which evaluated the degree to which the employee shows
attitudes of coldness and detachment that occur in the workplace, (3) Personal Accom-
plishment, which assessed the feelings that the worker has of self-efficiency and fulfillment
that occur in the workplace. MBI version for the Spanish population was used, and it
met enough requirements for both factor validity and internal consistency [43,44]. In our
sample, MBI had good reliability (Cronbach’ α = 0.82).
Perception of CoViD-19: participants answered questions related to how they per-
ceived the CoViD-19 pandemic and how they thought it affects or has affected their job
and their mental well-being. It consisted of 8 multiple choice response items, with a Likert
scale from “totally disagree” (0) to “totally agree” (5).
The Ethics Committee approved this study of the authors’ research center, obtaining a
favorable report in September 2020 (Ref. 2019/20-022).
We performed all statistical analyses using IBM SPSS v. 25.0.

3. Results
First, we calculated descriptive statistics for all measures.
Regarding sociodemographic data (Table 1), participants’ civil status results showed
that 56.9% were single, 37.2% were married or had a stable partner, and 5.9% were sep-
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 6 of 18

arated, divorced, or widowed. Only 21.7% of participants had children. Concerning

education level, 68.6% had university studies, 11.7% high school studies, 11.1% middle-
grade studies, and 8.6% secondary school studies. It was necessary to have at least six
month seniority at the moment to participate in this study: 19.7% had been on their compa-
nies between 1 and 2 years, 31.1% between 2 and 5 years, 21.7% between 6 months and
1 year, and 27.5% more than 5 years. Regarding job position, 41.7% were sales assistants,
26.4% store managers, 14.7% area managers, 6.9% assistant store managers, 3.1% heads of
sales, 2.2% human resources technicians, 1.9% cashiers, 0.8% delivery drivers, 0.8% visual
merchandising, 0.8% key account managers, and 0.6% marketing assistants. Regarding the
type of contract, 78.9% had an indefinite contract, 20.8% had a fixed-term contract, and
0.3% were freelance. With respect to sick leaves, 32.8% had periods of sick leave in the
last year, reasons were: CoViD-19 (11.4%), stress and/or anxiety (5.8%), musculoskeletal
disorders (4.2%), gastric problems (2.5%), flu (1.9%), occupational accident (1.7%), surgery
(1.7%), cardiovascular disorders (0.6%), pneumonia (0.6%), pregnancy (0.6%), cancer (0.3%),
pharyngitis (0.3%), brain myelitis (0.3%), and traffic accident (0.3%).

Table 1. Characteristics of the participants.

Characteristic Value N %
Female 246 68.3
Gender
Male 114 31.7
Married/Stable partner 134 37.2
Civil Status Single 205 56.9
Separated/Divorced/Widowed 21 5.9
Yes 78 21.7
Children
No 282 78.3
University Studies 247 68.6
High School Studies 42 11.7
Education Level
Middle-Grade Studies 40 11.1
Secondary Studies 31 8.6
Between 6 months and 1 year 78 21.7
Between 1 and 2 years 71 19.7
Labor Seniority
Between 2 and 5 years 112 31.1
More than 5 years 99 27.5
Sales Assistant 150 41.7
Store Manager 95 26.4
Area Manager 53 14.7
Assistant Store Manager 25 6.9
Head of Sales 11 3.1
Job position Human Resources Technician 8 2.2
Cashiers 7 1.9
Delivery Drivers 3 0.8
Visual Merchandiser 3 0.8
Key Account Manager 3 0.8
Marketing Assistant 2 0.6
Yes 118 67.2
Sick leave
No 242 32.8
CoViD-19 41 11.4
Stress or Anxiety 21 5.8
Musculoskeletal Disorders 15 4.2
Gastric Problems 9 2.5
Sick leave cause
Occupational Accident 6 1.7
Cancer 1 0.3
Cardiovascular Disorders 2 0.6
Other 23 6.3

To explore the influence of the perception of CoViD-19 on mental workload and

burnout, we computed seven multiple regression analyses, using the 8 items of the CoViD-
19 questionnaire as predictors and each of the dimensions of workload and burnout as
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 7 of 18

a dependent variable. To check the compliance of the non-multicollinearity assumption

necessary to perform a multiple regression analysis, we calculated the tolerance and
inflation factor of variance (VIF). In all cases, tolerance was greater than 0.10 (between 0.52
and 0.95) and IVF less than 10 (between 1.02 and 1.95), which indicated compliance with this
assumption. The Durbin–Watson statistic reached values between 1.91 and 2.03, showing
compliance with the assumption of independence of the errors, since they were greater
than 1.5 and less than 2.5. Compliance with the homoscedasticity assumption was verified
by observing the scatter plot of the standardized forecasts (ZPRED) and the standardized
residuals (ZRESID). In all cases, compliance with the assumption of homoscedasticity was
verified since no association patterns were seen. The value of the Kolmogorov–Smirnov
statistic was not significant in all cases (p > 0.10), confirming compliance with the normality
assumption of the standardized residuals and the dependent variables.
Table 2 shows the mean and standard deviation for all measures. The scores for the
eight questions related to the influence of the current CoViD-19 pandemic denoted that
participants exhibited deep concern about the CoViD-19 pandemic and its influence at the
work level. It had created uncertainty in their jobs and some physical and psychological
changes. Scores for the four mental workload dimensions were near the middle point of
the scale (range from 0 to 3). Performance demands obtained the highest mean scores.
Participants exhibited moderate to high levels of burnout. It is necessary to highlight that
scores that denote the presence of high burnout were 26 or more for Emotional Exhaustion,
9 or more for Depersonalization, and 34 or less for Personal Accomplishment [45]. Thus,
we can assume that our sample was at risk of presenting high burnout levels as long as the
pandemic and its effects remain present.

Table 2. Mean, standard deviation (SD) and median for all measures.

Measure Item/Variable Mean SD Median

I am not worried about the CoViD-19 pandemic 1.74 1.25 1.00
The CoViD-19 pandemic creates uncertainty in my job 3.99 1.35 4.30
I have noticed physical changes (lack of sleep, muscle aches, irritability...) since the
3.46 1.49 3.90
CoViD-19 pandemic
CoViD-19
I fear that my work situation will be affected by the pandemic 4.25 1.15 4.60
The CoViD-19 pandemic has affected several aspects of my work activity 4.46 0.95 4.50
Now I work more than before the CoViD-19 pandemic 3.04 1.50 3.00
The work environment of my work is not the same since the CoViD-19 pandemic 3.74 1.35 3.90
I think my work situation is going to get worse due to the CoViD-19 pandemic 3.88 1.26 4.00
Cognitive Demands 1.59 0.63 1.65
Emotional Demands 1.44 0.74 1.43
Mental workload Temporal Demands 1.59 0.66 1.57
Performance Demands 1.94 0.61 2.00
Emotional Exhaustion 25.90 12.36 25.00
Burnout Depersonalization 8.06 6.20 7.00
Personal Accomplishment 35.45 6.98 36.00

Table 3 shows the results of multiple regression analysis. We obtained significant

results for all dependent variables (p < 0.01). Cognitive Demands were significantly
associated with the items “Now I work more than before the CoViD-19 pandemic” and
“The work environment of my work is not the same since the CoViD-19 pandemic”, showing
higher workload. Emotional Demands were significantly associated with several items,
especially with “I have noticed physical changes (lack of sleep, muscle aches, irritability...)
since the CoViD-19 pandemic”, “I fear that my work situation will be affected by the
pandemic,” and “Now I work more than before the CoViD-19 pandemic”. Temporal
Demands were significantly associated with the item “Now I work more than before the
CoViD-19 pandemic”. Performance Requirements were significantly associated with the
items “Now I work more than before the CoViD-19 pandemic” and “The work environment
of my work is not the same since the CoViD-19 pandemic”.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 8 of 18

Table 3. Results of multiple regression analysis of CoViD-19 perceptions on each dimension of mental workload and burnout.

Personal
Item Cognitive Demands Emotional Demands Temporal Demands Performance Demands Emotional Exhaustion Depersonalization
Accomplishment
β p β p β p β p β p β p β p
I am not worried about the
0.04 0.47 −0.04 0.43 −0.03 0.50 0.01 0.91 0.03 0.46 0.08 0.13 0.02 0.74
CoViD-19 pandemic
The CoViD-19 pandemic
0.05 0.40 0.11 0.03 0.11 0.06 0.16 0.01 0.04 0.45 −0.02 0.74 −0.05 0.47
creates uncertainty in my job
I have noticed physical
changes (lack of sleep, muscle
−0.01 0.86 0.34 0.00 0.07 0.22 −0.07 0.24 0.37 0.00 0.28 0.00 −0.14 0.02
aches, irritability...) since the
CoViD-19 pandemic
I fear that my work situation
will be affected by the 0.12 0.09 0.27 0.00 0.15 0.03 0.10 0.16 0.22 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.08 0.26
pandemic
The CoViD-19 pandemic has
affected several aspects of my 0.02 0.72 −0.01 0.92 0.02 0.74 0.04 0.49 −0.01 0.82 −0.03 0.62 0.11 0.10
work activity
Now I work more than before
0.26 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.35 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.07 0.20 0.11 0.04
the CoViD-19 pandemic
The work environment of my
work is not the same since the 0.20 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.09 0.12 0.21 0.00 0.02 0.71 0.03 0.65 0.07 0.25
CoViD-19 pandemic
I think my work situation is
going to get worse due to the −0.05 0.44 0.16 0.01 0.07 0.31 −0.02 0.72 0.24 0.00 0.19 0.01 −0.16 0.02
CoViD-19 pandemic
R 0.36 0.56 0.43 0.33 0.50 0.35 0.22
R2 0.13 0.31 0.19 0.11 0.25 0.12 0.05
F 6.55 19.95 10.08 5.37 14.58 6.03 2.17
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 9 of 18

The results indicate that because of CoViD-19 there has been an increase in workload,
which is associated with greater cognitive, emotional, temporal, and performance demands.
Environmental changes, somatic symptoms, insomnia, negative job expectations, and
uncertainty also constituted significant mental workload predictors. The participants’
perception of CoViD-19 influence on their jobs were most associated with Emotional
Demands (R2 = 0.31) compared to other workload dimensions.
Emotional Exhaustion was the burnout dimension most associated with the partici-
pants’ perception of CoViD-19 (R2 = 0.25). Emotional Exhaustion was principally associated
with the items “I have noticed physical changes (lack of sleep, muscle aches, irritability...)
since the CoViD-19 pandemic” and “I think my work situation is going to get worse
due to the CoViD-19 pandemic”. Depersonalization was significantly associated with the
items “I have noticed physical changes (lack of sleep, muscle aches, irritability...) since the
CoViD-19 pandemic”.
According to multiple regression analysis results, insomnia and somatic symptoms
constituted a strong predictor for burnout. They were associated with the two subscales
Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalization from the MBI. In general, negative job ex-
pectations constituted a significant predictor for mental workload and burnout, especially
regarding emotional issues.
To explore if there were statistical differences in mental workload and burnout due to
several sociodemographic characteristics, we performed ANOVAs with marital status, job
position, and gender as factors. No significant differences were found between married,
separated, divorced or widowed, and single (p > 0.1 in all cases).
Regarding job position, we found differences between job positions for the subscale
Personal Fulfillment from the MBI, which was significantly lower for sales assistants than
store managers (I-J = −4.06) and area managers (I-J = −4.40). No differences between job
positions were found for the subscales Emotional Fatigue and Depersonalization from
the MBI. We found differences between job positions for the subscale Cognitive Demands
from the CarMen-Q. Punctuations were significantly lower for sales assistants than for
store managers (I-J = −0.56), heads of sales (I-J = −0.78), human resources technicians
(I-J = −0.70), and area managers (I-J = −0.75). Secondly, area managers’ cognitive demands
were significantly higher than those of human resources technicians (I-J = 0.44) and as-
sistant store managers (I-J = 0.44). Differences between job positions were found for the
subscale Performance Requirements from the CarMen-Q, being significantly lower for
sales assistants than for store managers (I-J = −0.34) and area managers (I-J = −0.43) (see
Table 4).

Table 4. Results of comparison between job positions.

Variable (I) Job Position (J) Job Position Means Differences (I-J) Sig.
Store manager −4.06 0.000
Sales assistant
Personal Area manager −4.40 0.003
Fulfillment Store manager Sales assistant 4.06 0.000
Area manager Sales assistant 4.40 0.003
Store manager −0.56 0.000
Sales assistant Head of sales −0.78 0.000
Cognitive Area manager −0.75 0.000
Demands Store manager Sales assistant 0.56 0.000
Head of sales Sales assistant 0.78 0.000
Area manager Sales assistant 0.75 0.000
Store manager −0.34 0.001
Sales assistant
Performance Area manager −0.43 0.000
Requirements Store manager Sales assistant 0.34 0.001
Area manager Sales assistant 0.43 0.000

To explore the differences between men and women on burnout and mental work-
load, we computed a one-way ANOVA (Table 5). Comparison of the responses given
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 10 of 18

by gender showed that women had higher levels of Emotional Exhaustion (men = 22.11;
women = 27.65) (p ≤ 0.01) and higher levels of Emotional Demands (men = 1.25; women
= 1.52) (p ≤ 0.01). On the other hand, men had higher levels of Cognitive Demands
(men = 1.77; women = 1.51) (p ≤ 0.01) and Performance Requirements (men = 2.09; women
= 1.88) (p ≤ 0.01). It is necessary to highlight that even though the differences were not
significant for the three subscales, women met the criteria for severe burnout on Emotional
Exhaustion (≤26).

Table 5. Results of comparisons between men and women.

Variable Gender Mean SD T p

Female 1.51 0.63 13.23 0.000
Cognitive Demands
Male 1.77 0.60
Female 1.52 0.77 10.80 0.001
Emotional Demands
Male 1.25 0.65
Performance Female 1.88 0.63 9.36 0.002
Requirements Male 2.09 0.54
Female 27.65 12.74 16.32 0.000
Emotional Exhaustion
Male 22.11 10.62

Pearson correlation between age and mental workload and burnout were not signifi-
cant except for the Cognitive Demands dimension of mental workload (r = 0.27, p < 0.01).

4. Discussion
The present study strongly suggests that the CoViD-19 pandemic affects fashion
retailing employees’ mental workload and plays a vital role in the presence of burnout
syndrome. The current concern about the pandemic, the negative future expectations about
their job, the uncertainty it causes, and how it has changed employees’ daily work, physical
well-being, and work environment, leads to higher mental workload levels and correlates
with the presence of burnout syndrome. Even though the results showed that participants
exhibit moderated mental workload levels and indicated that participants were at high risk
of developing severe burnout syndrome shortly, these findings have important theoretical
and practical implications. They point out that the CoViD-19 pandemic is negatively
affecting fashion retailing employees’ mental well-being.
We found significant differences between job positions for some mental workload
components. The exposure was higher in some hierarchically superior positions, such as
store managers, area managers, and heads of sales, area managers being the most exposed
to high cognitive demands. On the other hand, store managers and area managers were the
most exposed to high-performance requirements. Also, we found significant differences
between job positions for some components of burnout. The exposure was higher in
some of the hierarchically lower positions, such as sales assistants: sales assistants had
significantly lower personal fulfillment levels than store managers and area managers. Due
to the lack of studies that differentiate between fashion retailing job positions, it has not
been possible to compare our results. However, our results allow future research to better
delve into this variable and its relationship with burnout and mental workload on fashion
retailing workers in the pandemic’s current context.
Recent studies show that women’s emotional burnout levels are higher in the pan-
demic context since they suffer from a higher financial impact and are more susceptible to
work–family role conflict [45–58]. Also, the emotional dimension of workload was more
affected in women. Thus, our results are consistent with previous literature.
Over the last year, several studies have analyzed healthcare workers’ mental workload
levels during the current pandemic. However, the literature that evaluates the differences
by gender in mental workload in the current pandemic context is scarce. These studies refer
to the fact that women would be more affected in this dimension. Thus, our study results
provide contrary conclusions: men working in fashion retailing had higher levels of mental
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 11 of 18

workload’s cognitive and performance dimensions [59–62]. Therefore, we propose further

research on gender differences on mental workload in fashion retailing to understand the
differences between our study in fashion retailing workers and the existing literature on
healthcare personnel.
Several studies this year have studied the impact of the CoViD-19 pandemic on
healthcare workers’ mental health [62]. This study shows that the current pandemic directly
impacts cognitive, emotional, performance, and temporal demands and the presence of
burnout syndrome in workers who carry out their work in close contact with people. Thus,
the case of customer-facing staff from fashion retailing is consistent with similar studies
on healthcare workers [24–28]. According to current literature, somatic symptoms and
insomnia constituted predictors of burnout [27–32]. However, environmental changes,
work overload, uncertainty, and negative job expectations also constituted predictors for
mental workload. These findings have a significant theoretical implication. This study
points out that the uncertainty and negative future expectations about their job caused by
the CoViD-19 pandemic can also predict burnout and mental workload.
It is also necessary to highlight that this study points out that the emotional dimension
was most affected by the participants’ perception of CoViD-19: emotional exhaustion
and emotional demands were associated with insomnia and somatic symptoms, negative
job expectations, uncertainty, and work overload. According to several studies, nega-
tive and passive emotions and emotional exhaustion predict lower in-role and extra-role
performance [63], productivity loss [64,65], and lower work attitudes [66]. They are also
associated with depression, anxiety, and impaired emotional functioning [27,67–70].
The present study has practical implications as well. One important recommendation
for fashion retailing companies is to monitor the levels of mental workload and burnout
in their employees and implement psychological prevention measures to avoid severe
burnout syndrome or the increase to alarming levels of mental workload: (1) control of work
organization, and the main elements that generate discomfort in the workforce, (2) involve
employees in decision-making, (3) promote motivation and a positive work environment,
(4) promote social support among the workforce, (5) avoid the perception of urgency
and pressure on employees, (6) properly organize tasks, (7) provide some autonomy to
workers, (8) avoid excesses or errors in the information transmitted to workers, (9) vary
the levels of complexity in the tasks and (10) schedule enriching tasks. Also, another
necessary recommendation for fashion retailing companies is to efficiently manage the
negative job expectations of their workforce by (1) renegotiating their contracts in case
of temporary closure, (2) ensure their permanence for a minimum period of 6 months
after the completion of the Record of Temporary Employment Regulation (RTER), and
(3) ensure the viability of a second RTER based on how sales evolve in the reopening
phase. More efficient management of the psychological, physical, and environmental
changes caused by the pandemic is essential since the exposure to these stressors has
been remarkable throughout these months. Thus, another recommendation for companies
is to improve the fit between the organization and the employees to better adapt to the
work environment: (1) make existing tasks and new demands more flexible among the
entire workforce, (2) make opening hours more flexible and (3) make working hours
more flexible. Furthermore, fashion retailing companies should implement emotional
protection measures: (1) encourage the management of emotions through training in
relaxation techniques and handling stressful situations, (2) facilitate common spaces for
communication, (3) promote motivation and a positive work environment, and (4) promote
social support among the workforce. Lastly, to mitigate gender-based differences in burnout
and job-concerns, we recommend retail companies to provide resources and flexibility
in the workplace to women in order to increase their success: (1) flexible work hours,
(2) family-friendly policies, (3) mentoring, and (4) peer support programs.
This study has limitations. Since we did not assess the baseline level of burnout before
the pandemic, we could not compare prevalence changes. Further studies focusing on both
identification and interventions for workers from sectors other than healthcare to prevent
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 12 of 18

and reduce the risk of burnout are needed. Also, since we did not assess the baseline
level of burnout on the first wave of the pandemic in Spain (March–June), we could
not compare prevalence changes. As the first and second waves impacted differently
on the country’s economy and health system, a comparative on burnout between both
waves would have provided a clear and global vision of the CoViD-19 pandemic’s entire
course in Spain. Even though we assessed participants’ health over the last months, we
did not take information about the level of exposure to the virus in their environment
(family and friends). As stress related to the pandemic seems to affect the experiences
of work-related well-being, it would be essential to assess the participants’ health status,
as well as their families’ and friends’. We propose further investigation assessing this
variable. Another limitation found is that we did not assess the level of perceived stigma
on participants. Recent studies [71] show that the stigma caused by being infected, in close
contact with people diagnosed positive or at risk of contagion affects mental and medical
health. Thus, we propose further investigation, including the assessment of this variable
on Spanish fashion retailing workers. Also, we did not assess the socioeconomic status.
As mentioned in the introduction, socioeconomic status is strongly associated with the
perceived severity of CoViD-19. Also, individuals with low incomes are more affected by
the pandemic. Thus, this variable could act as a mediating variable between the variables
analyzed in this study and burnout. Evaluation of this variable in future research could also
enrich our results [37,38]. Lastly, we did not assess the risk perception of CoViD-19 either.
Recent research has shown the link between several sociocultural and sociodemographic
variables (education level, gender, and values) and higher risk perception, which, in turn,
is associated with preventive behaviors [35–38]. Thus, this variable could also act as a
mediating variable between the variables analyzed in this study and burnout. Further
investigation assessing this variable could as well enrich our results.
Throughout December 2020, the European Commission (EC) authorized vaccines
from different laboratories to start vaccination against CoViD-19. On 21 December 2020,
the EC authorized Pfizer’s and BioNTech’s vaccines. On January 6, 2021, the European
Union authorized Moderna’s vaccine. Also, on 30 December 2020, the United Kingdom
authorized Oxford-AstraZeneca’s vaccine. By the time we started gathering information
for our study (October 2020), laboratories were still investigating their vaccines. Once
laboratories reported that their vaccines had high efficacy and that they were waiting for
authorization, anti-vaccine movements began to emerge with great strength. According
to the WHO, vaccine hesitancy has been a global threat since 2019, since it “threatens to
reverse progress made in tackling vaccine-preventable diseases” [72]. Due to the severity
of the current pandemic, vaccine hesitancy has become a controversial topic and a severe
problem for eradicating CoViD-19. Thus, further research assessing participants’ intentions
regarding getting vaccinated will help better understand the population’s perception of
the pandemic, such as their coping behaviors.

5. Conclusions
Multiple studies have analyzed the effects of CoViD-19 on healthcare personnel’s
mental health; however, there are no studies that analyze these effects in other professional
groups that, although in a less direct way than healthcare workers, are also being affected
by the pandemic. This study analyzed the levels of mental workload and burnout on
Spanish fashion retailing workers in the current context caused by the CoViD-19 pandemic.
This sector has great value in the Spanish economy, and most fashion retailing workers
are in direct contact with people. In general, we found mean scores of mental workload
near the middle point of the scale and moderate to high burnout levels, revealing that the
sample was at risk of experiencing higher burnout levels over time as the pandemic and
associated economic crisis continue. In this sense, it is convenient to gather more data in
the following months to monitor these workers’ mental health.
Insomnia, somatic symptoms, job uncertainty, and negative job expectations consti-
tuted significant predictors for burnout and mental workload, especially to both constructs’
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 13 of 18

emotional dimensions (emotional exhaustion of burnout and emotional demands of the

mental workload). As the main conclusion, the uncertainty at work derived from the
CoViD-19 pandemic harms the psychological well-being of fashion retailing workers in
Spain, like with healthcare personnel. So, fashion retail companies must monitor their
employees’ mental workload and burnout levels and implement prevention strategies to
avoid severe burnout syndrome or mental workload increase to alarming levels.

Author Contributions: A.M.R.-L.: Conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, resources,

investigation, data management, writing, project administration, visualization; S.R.-V.: conceptual-
ization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data management, supervision, visualization;
E.M.D.-R.: supervision, visualization. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the
Declaration of Helsinki and approved by Ethics Committee of Faculty of Psychology of Complutense
University of Madrid (protocol code 2019/20-022, September 2020).
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the
study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: We are grateful to the participants for taking part in this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interests.

Appendix A
Socio-Demographical Variables
1. Job position (open question)
2. Age (open question)
3. Gender
(a) Male
(b) Female
(c) Other
4. Level of studies
(a) University Studies
(b) High School Studies
(c) Middle-Grade Studies
(d) Secondary Studies
5. Civil status
(a) Single
(b) Married / Stable partner
(c) Separated / Divorced / Widowed
6. Do you have children?
(a) Yes
(b) No
7. How long have you been working at your current company?
(a) Between 6 months and 1 year
(b) Between 1 and 2 years
(c) Between 2 and 5 years
(d) More than 5 years
8. Type of contract you currently have.
(a) Fixed-term
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 14 of 18

(b) Indefinite
(c) Other
9. Have you suffered a sick leave in the last twelve months?
(a) Yes
(b) No
If so, indicate the reason for the absence from work:
(a) Stress or anxiety
(b) Depression
(c) CoViD-19
(d) Cardiovascular disorders
(e) Musculoskeletal disorders
(f) Occupational accident
(g) Carcinogenic processes
(h) Gastric problems
(i) Others

Appendix B
CarMen-Q. Mental Workload Questionnaire
This questionnaire is evaluated using a Likert scale with response options ranging
from “never” (0) to “always (3), therefore, the response options to all questions are (0)
never, (1) sometimes, (2) often or (3) always.
1. My job requires maintaining a high level of attention (Mi trabajo requiere mantener
un elevado nivel de atención)
2. My work involves the processing of complex information (Mi trabajo implica el
tratamiento de información compleja)
3. My job requires thinking and choosing between different alternatives (Mi trabajo
requiere pensar y elegir entre diferentes alternativas)
4. I have to make diffi cult decisions (Tengo que tomar decisiones difíciles)
5. My job requires handling a lot of knowledge(Mi trabajo requiere manejar muchos
conocimientos)
6. I have to work constantly, I cannot take breaks beyond strict regulations (Tengo
que trabajar constantemente, no puedo hacer pausas, más allá de las estrictamente
reglamentarias)
7. The pace of work is excessive, diffi cult to reach even by an experienced worker(El
ritmo de trabajo es excesivo, difícil de alcanzar incluso por un trabajador experimen-
tado)
8. I often work with annoying interruptions(Suelo trabajar con interrupciones molestas)
9. I cannot stop my work when I need it (No puedo parar o detener mi trabajo cuando
lo necesito)
10. The pace of work is imposed on me (El ritmo de trabajo me viene impuesto)
11. The accomplishment of my tasks demands a lot of speed (La realización de mis tareas
exige mucha rapidez)
12. It is normal for me to accumulate the tasks (Es normal que se me acumulen las tareas)
13. My job requires no mistakes (Mi trabajo requiere que no se cometa ningún error)
14. I have to give very precise responses (Tengo que dar respuestas muy precisas)
15. My mistakes can have serious consequences (Mis errores pueden tener consecuencias
graves)
16. My job requires dealing with information that is perceived with diffi culty (Mi trabajo
requiere tratar con información que se percibe con difi cultad)
17. I have trouble forgetting the problems of my job (Me cuesta olvidar los problemas de
mi trabajo)
18. My work makes me nervous (Mi trabajo me pone nervioso)
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 15 of 18

19. My work is affecting my personal relationships (family, friends...) (Mi trabajo está
afectando a mis relaciones personales (familia, amigos..))
20. My job involves a lot of responsibility (Mi trabajo implica mucha responsabilidad)
21. I feel very tired, physically fatigued (Me siento muy cansado, fatigado físicamente)
22. I have to deal with information that is not easily understood (Tengo que tratar con
información que no se entiende fácilmente)
23. My job requires a lot of information (Mi trabajo requiere el tratamiento de gran
cantidad de información)
24. My work affects me a lot emotionally (Mi trabajo me afecta mucho emocionalmente)
25. My job requires memorizing a high amount of data (Mi trabajo requiere memorizar
una cantidad elevada de datos)
26. My work is mentally intense (Mi trabajo es mentalmente intenso)
27. I have to do a great search and information gathering to carry out my tasks (He
de realizar una gran búsqueda y recopilación de información para llevar a cabo
mis tareas)
28. When I fi nish my workday I feel a lot of physical exhaustion (Al terminar mi jornada
laboral siento mucho agotamiento físico)
29. My work is affecting my health (Mi trabajo está afectando a mi salud)

Appendix C
MBI: Maslach Burnout Inventory
Indicate how frequently the following statements apply to you and add the points
indicated on top of the respective box:
0 = Never
1 = At least a few times a year
2 = At least once a month
3 = Several times a month
4 = Once a week
5 = Several times a week
6 = Every day
I feel emotionally exhausted because of my work
I feel worn out at the end of a working day
I feel tired as soon as I get up in the morning and see a new working day stretched
out in front of me
I can easily understand the actions of my colleagues/supervisors
I get the feeling that I treat some clients/colleagues impersonally, as if they were
objects
Working with people the whole day is stressful for me
I deal with other people’s problems successfully
I feel burned out because of my work
I feel that I influence other people positively through my work
I have become more callous to people since I have started doing this job
I’m afraid that my work makes me emotionally harder
I feel full of energy
I feel frustrated by my work
I get the feeling that I work too hard
I’m not really interested in what is going on with many of my colleagues
Being in direct contact with people at work is too stressful
I find it easy to build a relaxed atmosphere in my working environment
I feel stimulated when I been working closely with my colleagues
I have achieved many rewarding objectives in my work
I feel as if I’m at my wits’ end
In my work I am very relaxed when dealing with emotional problems
I have the feeling that my colleagues blame me for some of their problems
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 983 16 of 18

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