1.

INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS MEASUREMENT

PROCESS MEASUREMENT
It is the act, or the result of a quantitative comparison between a determined standard and
an unknown magnitude.

AIM OF MEASUREMENT
Main objective of the process industries like our steel plant is to achieve best quality of
product as well as maximum efficiency in production i.e. maximum productivity. For
this. Correct measurement and control of different parameters related to the process are
essential.
Different parameters are:
Pressure
Level
Flow
Temperature
Gas Analysis
Density
Water Quality, etc.
Measurement of process parameters helps in obtaining the requisite information
pertaining to fruitful completion of the processes. Also, the whole area of automation is
based on measurement. The concept of automatic process control is based on comparison
of actual condition (made available by the measurement system) and the desired
condition (called set point). The exactness of control achievements depend upon accuracy
and precision of the measurements being made.

ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

A measurement system consists of several elements. Appropriate combination of these
elements are essential to convert process condition into a suitable indication.
The elements are:

1. Sensing element
It consists of sensor and transducer. The sensor senses or detects the change in process
variable and converts the change into a mechanical motion or a physical change that is
proportional to the change in the process variable. As an example, diaphragm is a
pressure sensor which senses the change in pressure and converts it into the mechanical
motion. The mechanical motion is transmitted by a linkage mechanism to the next
element in the measurement system. Thermocouple is an example of other type of sensor
which senses the temperature and produces electrical voltage, proportional to the
temperature.
The sensor which produces electrical signal or change in electrical parameters (resistance
inductance or capacitance) at the output is commonly called a transducer.
A transducer is classified into two groups:
a. Active and
b. Passive
Active transducers generate output energy itself and may not need extra power supply.
Thermocouple is an example of active transducer because it generates electrical energy at
its output.
Passive transducers can not generate any energy but need external power supply for their
operation. Strain gauge, LVDT, potentiometer, RTD are the most commonly used
transducers.

2. Transmitter
The transmitter measures the change in output of the sensor and converts that into a
proportional signal. This proportional signal should be in such form which can be
accepted by the display and control elements. A transmitter normally converts sensor’s
output to a standard instrumentation signals like 4 to 20 mA electrical 3 to 15 psi
pneumatic.
Often the transmitter also contains the sensor in the same housing.

3. Display element
The display elements show the sensed value of the process variable in the form of
movement of pointer (analog indication) or as direct display in numerical form (digital
indication). Recorder is another display element which indicates as well as records the
sensed value over a selected period of time.
Sensed values can also be fed to a process control computer whereby the variation in
input parameters can be displayed in different forms and can be stored into its memory
also. This system is known as Data Acquisition System(DAS).
In automatic process control system the transmitter output is given to the controller which
initiates control operations to keep process variable at desired level.

Process variable SENSING TRANSMITTER DISPLAY

ELEMENT ELEMENT

ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Sensed values can also be fed to a process control computer whereby the variation in
input parameters can be displayed in different forms and can be stored in its memory
also. This system is known as Data Acquisition system (DAS). Computer can also be
used to initiate some supervisory control action depending upon the values stored in the
memory. This system is termed as Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System
(SCADA) EMC (fuel management) and LDC (electrical power management) are the
SCADA used in our steel plant.
The common Field Measurement and Control situation might be summarized in the
following way
Process Point of Measurement Primary Element
Transducer Transmitter Controller Converter Actuation
Element Correcting Element

Definitions that follow are:

Process - This is the series of continuous or regularly recurring steps or actions intended
to achieve a predetermined result, as in refining oil, heat treating metal, or manufacturing
paper.

Primary Element – The element or device which generates conditions in the measured
variable that may be detected by a sensing element. e.g. orifice plate (Note: a primary
element may also be a sensing element).

Transducer - An element or device which receives information and outputs in any other
physical quantity. e.g. differential capacitance pressure transducer.

Transmitter - A transducer which responds to a measured variable and converts it to a

standardized transmission signal which is a function only of the measurement. There are
typically 4 types: Pneumatic, Electrical Analogue, Electrical Digital, Hydraulic.

Controller - A device or program which operates automatically to regulate variable.

Converter - A transducer which responds to an instrument signal and changes its form
e.g. Current to Pressure (or I/P)

Actuating Element - That part which adjusts the correcting element in response to a
signal e.g. Actuator.

Correcting Element - The part of a correcting unit which directly adjust the value of the
operating conditions e.g. Valve.
An Instrument can be a combination of devices used to measure, display or control a
variable. This term does not apply to the internal components of the instrument. (e.g.
resistor, receiver bellows). Instruments can account for 2 – 10 % of Plant hardware.
An instrument will generally be given a Tag. This is a unique set of identifying letters
and numbers allocated to each functional element of a loop.
The correcting Unit comprises the Actuating and Correcting Elements.
A loop is a combination of one or more interconnected instruments arranged to measure
or control a process variable. It comprises the whole chain (above) from Primary Element
to Correcting Element.
The signal is the event or phenomena that conveys data from one point to another.
Typically it will be – Pneumatic, Electrical-analogue or digital & Hydraulic.
An Indicator is an instrument which visually (graphically, dial, scale or numerically)
show the value of the variable.
A Recorder is an instrument that makes and displays a continuous graphic, acoustic or
magnetic record of a measured variable.

2. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Pressure is one of the process variables most important to measurement and control.
There are several reasons for wanting to measure pressure. They include (1) product
quality, which frequently depends on certain pressure of vacuum being reached and
accurately maintained for specific lengths of time during a process; (2) Safety,
particularly where a furnace pressure should not exceed certain maximums; and (3)
efficiency, where, for example, a burner must be supplied gas and air at a fixed pressure.
At any place pressure may be expressed in three different forms: Gauge pressure,
Atmospheric pressure and Absolute pressure. Pressure taken with reference to
atmospheric pressure is called gauge pressure. Pressure taken with reference to absolute
zero of pressure (pressure at a place where air is absolutely absent) is called absolute
pressure. Summation of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure gives absolute pressure.
Absolute Pressure : Gauge Press. + Atmospheric Press.
In industries, when we refer pressure, it normally implies gauge pressure.

Units of pressure measurement:

Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Pressure above atmospheric is mostly measured
in pounds per square inch (PSI), or in kilo gram per square centimeter (kg/cm 2) gauge or
absolute. For lower pressure (below about 10 psi), inches or cms. of water or mercury
column are frequently used. For near atmospheric pressure, we refer more commonly to
millimeters of mercury column (or torr).
The SI unit of pressure is Newton per square meter, or PASCAL (Pa). One atmospheric
pressure (atm) is equal to 101325 Pa or 101.325 Kpa. More recently, bar is also being
used for higher ranges. A bar is 0.987 atm, or approximately 14.5 PSI. A conversion table
for more commonly used pressure units is given here.

Pressure Conversion Table:

From atmospheric Psi Bar mmHg (torr):
Atmospheric 1.000 14.696 1.0133 760.00
(1.033 kg/cm2)
Psi 0.068 1.000 0.0689 51.50
Bar 0.987 14.504 1.000 750.06
Kg/sq.cm 0.9678 14.223 0.9807 735.56
MmHg(torr) 0.0013 0.019 0.013 1.00
Mm(WC) 0.0001 0.0014 0.0001 0.0736

PRESSURE SENSORS
A) WET TYPE SENSORS
a. Manometers
b. Barometers
B) DRY TYPE OR ‘ELASTIC’ TYPE SENSORS
a. Bourdon tube upto 10,000 psig
b. Diaphragm and Capsules > 50 psig and < 90 psig
c. Bellows normally upto 50 psig

Manometers are frequently used in the field or lab to measure the pressure directly. It
shows the pressure of any medium by the variation of liquid column.

TYPES OF MANOMETERS
The U-Tube is the easiest to manufacture and most widely used type. Measurements are
taken from the topmost point of the curved surface (meniscus) of Hg and the lowest point
of H2O.
The Well manometer amplifies the smaller level movement in the larger reservoir by
using a narrower scaled tube. This increase sensitivity of measurement in the ratio of the
areas of the tubes.
In the Inclined manometer, the inclined leg further amplifies the small level fluctuations
of the larger well by the sine of the angle of inclination. The narrower tube can be
parabolically curved to extract the square root and read flow directly.
As the picture shows , the effect of the measured pressure is to increase the height of a
column and reference is proportional to the height of fluid supported.

Elastic Pressure Sensors:

Most commonly used pressure sensing elements are Elastic members like Diaphragm
Capsule, Bellow and Bourdon tube.
The action of these devices is based on the deformation brought about by the force
resulting from pressure variation. This deformation can be converted to electrical signal
by the transmitter.
In practice, pressure is measured by a pressure transmitter which houses the pressure
sensing element and transmitting element in one unit. A typical pressure transmitter uses
diaphragm as sensing element. Size and material of the diaphragm depend upon the range
of the pressure to be measured and the medium. For the measurement of furnace pressure,
diaphragm of bigger size is used. The mechanical actuation of the diaphragm, caused by
the pressure variation, is converted to an equivalent electrical signal in the range of 4 – 20
mA by the transmitter. This signal can be used for pressure measurement and control
purpose.

Bourdon tubes: Instruments using Bourdon Tubes are the most common industrial
pressure instruments. A Bourdon Tube is usually a metal tube into a C, a Spiral, A helix,
or a twisted shape. One end of the tube is sealed shut. The other end is open to the
process pressure. The C-shaped is used to measure pressure in various ranges, from 0- 15
psig to 0-10,000 psig. As the pressure increases, the Bourdon tube becomes straighter.
The open end of the tube cannot move, because it is attached to the pressure inlet. The
closed end remains free to move. This movement is transmitted to a pointer or other
indicating element. Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, chrome alloy and stainless steels
are commonly used.

Diaphragms: These are flexible disk that changes shape when the process pressure
changes. The disk is held firmly all around the outer edge. The process pressure pushed
on one side of the disk called the measuring side. The central portion of the disk moves in
or out as the process pressure changes. The natural spring of the diaphragm pushes back
against the process pressure. A special spring may be added if the diaphragm alone is too
weak. One side of the diaphragm sensor serves as the reference. The diaphragm measures
the difference in pressure between the measured side and the reference side. Besides the
material listed in making Bourdon tube, diaphragms may be made of rubber or other
natural materials. Two diaphragms are welded together around the edge to make the
diaphragm capsule. The inside of the diaphragm is then connected to the process
pressure, and the outside pressure is the reference. Due to pressure, the upper end moves
a distance equal to the combined expansion of all the diaphragms.

Bellow: These look like a small can with flexible sides and rigid top and bottom Process
pressure makes the unit expand or contract and results in the movement of the pointer
attached to the moving side. The bellows are usually limited to measurements from 0.5 to
70 psig.
The action of these devices is based on the elastic deformation brought about by the force
resulting from pressure variation. This deformation is converted to movement of pointer
over a dial graduated in terms of pressure or can be converted to electrical signal by the
secondary transducers like strain gauge or LVDT.

PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
A transmitter is the device that converts a change in output of primary detecting element
to a proportional electronic signal. An electronic transmitter performs four specific
functions:
1. provides an output voltage or current that can be used to operate a remotely
located device like indicator or controller.
2. provides an adjustable range output whose upper and lower range value can be
adjusted to suit application of the instruments.
3. provides electrical isolation between signals.
4. provides compensation against undesired signal like noise and temperature
variation.

WORKING PRINCIPLE
Primary element or the sensor detect the variation in the process variable and provide an
output signal to the detecting circuit. Depending upon the sensor used, this signal may be
electrical or mechanical in nature. Detecting circuit convert it into an appropriate
electrical signal, normally this is voltage or current. Output of detecting circuit is input to
the amplifier stages. Amplifier will increase the signal strength to a level sufficient to
drive an indicator or actuate some other type of output device. A part of signal from
amplifier may return to detector as part of a balancing or nulling system.
Other parts of the transmitter are power supply and oscillator circuits. Dotted lines
indicates that these connections may or may not exist depending upon the instrument in
question. External power source is necessary in order to provide a transmitter output and
signal isolation. Amplifier stage will always need power source. Depending upon the type
of sensor (active or passive) detector circuit may or may not need external power.
Additionally, some detectors require AC excitation which can be obtained from an
oscillator. Amplifier stage also utilizes an oscillator. Within the amplifier, it is needed to
modulate, transformer couple or demodulate the signal. Transformer coupling is used for
ground isolation of input and output.
Several other signal conditioning circuits can also be incorporated with the transmitter to
increase its utility.

SMART PRESSURE AND DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE (DP)

TRANSMITTERS

Looking back to the development of transmitters it would be recalled that in first stage
force balance type electromechanical transmitters were used. These required spanners
and screw drivers to alter pivotal points for range changes and had accuracy of 0.5% of
span. Then came the electronic type transmitters using screw driver adjustments of
potentiometers for fine zero / span changes and switches/links for coarse adjustments.
These had accuracy of 0.25% of span. The present trend is for smart transmitters which
are of digital type with push button settings, selectable linear / square – root
characterization, temperature compensation, built in diagnostics and simplified
calibration procedures. These have accuracy of 0.1% of span.
The first two stages of transmitters described above give 4 – 20 mA output on 2-wire
connection, corresponding to 0-100% of the measured variable range, and all electrical
power in the unit is derived from the mA line zero. These have limited adjustability for
pressure ranges. The performance is affected due to varying temperature and static
pressure and with time, thus calling for frequent calibration which is time consuming and
difficult.
In the case of smart transmitters, the output is same 4-20 mA on 2-wire but with the
added capability of digital communication from a hand-held interface connected any
where on 4-20 mA signal, the remote adjustment of the transmitter data base and
acquisition of diagnostic information to minimize loop down time is possible. It has high
rangeability and much better performance.
All the 3 parameters, differential pressure, static pressure and temperature are sensed by
the transmitter. The meter body is pre-programmed in manufacturing to characterize the
unit for linearity, static pressure and temperature effects, and it computes a highly
repeatable and accurate pressure measurement. These characteristics are held in PROM
memory and being specific to one meter are kept with the meter body. The combination
of characterized meter body and digital electronics has enabled a quantum leap forward
in performance.

Rangeability - The rangeability of smart pressure and differential pressure transmitters

could be as high as 400:1. Thus only 3 sensors would be required to cover the entire
range of 2.5 mbar to 700 bar. The greatly extended rangeability reduces cost of spares
stocking, increases interchangeability of units with plant alteration. The exact ranges
need not be defined while ordering the instruments. The range can be changed either
manually through the communicator for different plant operating conditions or
automatically via a dedicated flow computer package.

Remote Adjustability - The unit range, damping, etc. can be adjusted by

communication over the 4-20 mA signal line. The adjustment is made by connecting a
field communicator across the two signal lines at any point along their path. Then the unit
can be interrogated and adjusted within very wide limits like,
 output characterized as linear or square root,
 damping time constant adjusted in 10 steps,
 lower range value/upper range value adjustment to any value in the pressure
range,
 adjustments in engineering units,
 direct or reversal electrical output,
 electrical output may be held constant at any value in the 4-20 mA range for loop
integrity checks.

A typical field communicator has 86 character alpha-numeric LCD display with 32-key
membrane keyboard. The ability of re-range the transmitter without applying pressure is
possible because of the stable, accurately known pressure characteristics which are in
digital format. Thus the tranmitter can be instructed to change its range by specifying the
pressure equivalent to 4 mA and 20 mA and it will accurately obey this instruction.
Calibration corrections can be made for small error due to mounting angle effects or
variations between standards. The greatly improved stability of the sensing and
measurement approach means that zero checks, and corrections, if necessary, can be
performed from the control room when plant is shut down. Use of digital techniques also
gives improvements in stability because the digital memories, unlike resistors, do not
suffer form time drift or changes in value with temperature.

Reliability - Reliability is very high due to use of minimum number of components and
protection against all foreseeable damaging influences like radio frequency, reverse
polarity, over pressure, surge voltage and lighting. Diagnostic aids are included in
transmitters to avoid misuse and also to take earliest corrective action.

Sensor - Sensor is based on silicon ion implant technology and combines advantages in
silicon technology with the use a perfectly elastic drift free material to provide an
accurate and stable sensing element. The differential pressure across the silicon chip is
sensed by a Wheatstone bridge arrangement of four piezoresistive elements, two of which
increase in value with applied pressure and two decrease. With a constant voltage across
the bridge, this gives a quadrupling effect on the electrical change and hence a high
millivolt output. The static pressure is also sensed by a Wheatstone bridge network of
resistances suited on the section of silicon in close proximity to the bond to the
supporting tube of the glass. The different coefficients of compression of silicon and
glass result in a piezo-resistive measurement of applied static pressure. Temperature is
sensed by a single resistive element.

Signal Pulse Modulator (SPM) - It converts the analog signal from the sensor into a
pulse width modulated digital signal. The gain of SPM is automatically changed provide
the very high input resolution required i.e. 400 times turn down with better than 0.1%
accuracy. The SPM is time shared between the three variables sensed and two zero check
resistors. Since the temperature and static pressure values are slower moving than D.P.
and are only being used for compensation, they are sampled less frequently. The
sampling ratio may be 120:12:1 for DP, pressure and temperature. The microprocessor
carries out its task on less than 4 mA total power. Two hardware multiply/divide chips
are included to speed up some computations. The input is sampled 6 times per seconds
and a new output is computed at the same rate.

Universal Asynchronous Receiver / Transmitter (UART). It is the communication

module which looks for messages on the input wire and, if they are present and valid,
responds with the correct action. The response is given by overriding the normal 4-20
mA signal with 16 mA digitally coded pulses.

PROM RAM EEPROM

Ambient MUX
Micro
Temp. Sensor and DAC
Processor
DP Sensor ADC

Static Press.
Sensor
METER BODY SECTION
Digital I/O

TRANSMITTER SECTION

PROM : Stores meter body data (Input / output characteristic, temperature characteristic
Static Pressure characteristic, model data, usable range etc.)

EEPROM : Stores data on transmitter parameters (Tag number, measuring range, linear
or sq. root output selection, damping time selection, zero and span calibration) set with
SFC.

RAM : When instrument power is turned ON, back-up data stored in EEPROM is
automatically transferred to RAM.

PRESSURE SWITCH
These are the blind gauges with electrical contacts which may be utilized for alarm,
interlocking or protection purposes.
The most commonly used sensing element for pressure switches is the diaphragm, the
sealed piston or Bellevile disc also being used sometimes. The electrical switching
mechanism may be either snap-acting microswitches or mercury switches. Mercury
switches can be used only in vibration free location and mounted in horizontal plane.
Switches may either have their set point adjustable externally or these may be factory set
and not adjustable at site. The set point is that pressure at which the switch either opens
or closes and it my actuate either on increasing pressure or on decreasing pressure. The
adjustable range is the pressure range within which the set point can be adjusted.

3. TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Every chemical and metallurgical process must be controlled in some manner and this
often involves measuring temperature.
A diversity of temperature sensors are available. The choice of sensor to be used for
temperature measurement depends upon a number of factors such as temperature range,
accuracy, speed of response, cost and maintenance requirement. For our steel plant
applications, commonly used sensors are thermocouples, Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTD), thermistor, filled thermal systems (FTS) and radiation pyrometer.

TEMPERATURE SENSORS
ELECTRICAL
 THERMO – COUPLES (-2000 C TO + 17000 C)
 RTDs (-2500 C TO + 6500 C)
 THERMISTORS (-2000 C TO + 3600 C)
 CARBON RESISTORS
 DIODES
 TRANSISTORS
MECHANICAL
 FILLED THERMAL SYSTEM (-2700 C TO 7600 C)
 LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETERS ( -370 C TO 3200 C)
 BI-METALLIC THERMOMETERS ( -650 C TO 4300 C)

PYROMETERS upto 30000 C

 TOTAL RADIATION
 OPTICAL
 BAND – PASS (IR)

THERMOCOUPLES
A thermocouple consists of a pair of different metal or alloys joined together at both
ends. One end, measuring junction, is placed where temperature is to be measured. The
two conductors extend out of the measurement area to the reference junction. An
electromotive force (emp or mV) is produced which is function of temperature difference
between the two junctions and material of the wires.
E = k (T1 – T2)

Since the mV generated by the thermocouple is the function of temperature difference

between the two junctions, control or compensation of reference junction temperature is
required.

Standard Thermocouples
Seven types of thermocouples (TC) have been given letter designation by ISA
(Instrument Society of America). These are listed in table along with normal working
temperature measurement range. A brief description of important thermocouples, which
are extensively used in steel industries, is produced in the following paragraphs.
TABLE
TYPE COMPOSITION RANGE EMF WIRE
(Deg C) (mV) GAUGE
B Pt-6% Rh vs. 0 to 0 to 24
Pt-30% Rh 1820 13.81
R Pt vs . -50 to -0.226 to 24
Pt-13% Rh 1768 21.10
S Pt vs. -50 to -0.236 to 24
Pt-10% Rh 1768 18.69
J Iron vs. -210 to -8.096 to 8
constantan 760 42.92
K Chromel vs. -270 to -6.458 to 8
Alumel 1372 54.87
T Copper vs. -270 to -6.258 to 14
constantan 400 20.869
E Chromel -270 to -9.835 to 8
constantan 1000 76.358

A brief description of thermocouples commonly used in our steel plant is presented here:
Type B
Type B TCs are used in oxidizing or inert atmosphere at temp. upto 1860 deg C. The
advantages of type B TC over Type R and S are its ability to measure slightly higher
temperature, its greater stability and mechanical strength and its ability to be used without
reference junction compensation over normal ambient temperature fluctuation due to its
negligible slope in ambient temperature region. Its advantages are low voltage output and
unsuitability for reducing atmosphere. In our steel plant this type of TC is used in bath
temperature measurement.

Type S
Type S TCs are original Platinum (Pt) – Rhodium (Rh) thermocouples. It is international
standard (IPTS – 68) for determining temperature between the freezing point of antimony
(630.74 Deg C) and freezing point of gold (1064.43 Deg.C). It can be used continuously
in oxidizing or inert atmosphere at temp. upto 1760 deg C.

Type J
Type J TC uses iron as positive wire material and constantan (55% Cu, 45% Ni) as
negative wire material. Type J TCs can be used continuously in oxidising, reducing or
inert atmosphere at temperature up to 769 deg C. Above 540, iron oxidizes rapidly and
heavy gauge wire is required to extend its life.
Following limitations apply to type J TCs: They should not be used in sulfurous
atmosphere above 540 Deg C. Due to potential rusting and enbrittlement, they are not
suitable for sub zero temperature.

Type K
Type K TC uses chromel (90% Ni and 10% Chromium) as positive wire material and
alumel (95% Ni, rest Al, Si and Mn) as negative wire material. It is most commonly used
TC in industries due to its higher temperature capability than Type J.
Type K TC can be used continuously in oxidizing or inert atmosphere at temperature up
to 1260 deg C. However, it should not be used in reducing or sulfurous atmosphere.

Cold Junction Compensation

Variations in the reference junction temperature will produce changes in the milivolt
output. Resulting in temperature measurement errors. Therefore, for accurate
measurement, the reference junction must remain constant. Compensation for these
variations can be provided by placing the reference junction in an ice point bath (00 C).
Since it is not practical to maintain an ice bath for every thermocouple in use, most
instruments are installed with electronics circuitry that takes into account the variation of
the reference junction. The phenomenon is called the “ Cold junction compensation”.
In order to neutralize the effect of variation of ambient temperature of cold junction, the
output of thermocouple is transmitted to the receiver side.
Cold junction compensation at receiver end is accomplished by passing a current through
a temperature-responsive resistor (usually a thermistor) which measures these variations
in the reference temperature and automatically provides the necessary compensations.
Compensation is accomplished by using resistors whose combined temperature resistance
coefficient curves match those of the voltage temperature curves produced by
temperature variations.
Another type of electronic reference junction compensation uses the sensor voltage
converted to a digital equivalent in the measuring device and the compensation is done in
a software technique by the instrument. With this type of compensation the thermocouple
type being used can be changed easily by a few programming commands at the front
panel of the instrument. This is normally done in Smart Transmitters.
Yet another method is when reference temperature is assumed to be at 20 Deg C and emf
which would have generated is added to the voltage generated by the thermocouple, in
the electronic circuit provided. This is the cheapest method.

Temperature Measurement using Thermocouple:

A temperature measurement set-up using thermocouple will consist of following parts.
(i) Thermocouple
(ii) Compensating Lead Wire or extension wire and
(iii) Measuring instrument
TC Element Compensating Lead Wire
+

Hot Junction Cold Junction mV indicator calibrated in temp term

The output of thermocouple is measured by analog or digital mV indicator or recorder

calibrated in terms of temperature. Digital indicators directly display the numerical value
of thermocouple output in terms of temperature.
A mV to current converter (mV/I) is used to convert thermocouple’s mV output to 4 to 20
mA standard signal which can be transmitted over long distance. The arrangement is
shown in figure below.
Power Supply

4-20 mA

mV/I converter or Receiver

(Temp. Transmitter)
The output of thermocouple is measured by analog or digital mV indicator or recorder
calibrated in terms of temperature. Digital indicators directly display the numerical value
of thermocouple output in terms of temperature.

Thermocouple design
TCs are available in many designs for different diverse applications. In most common
design, wire ends are joined or welded to form measuring junction and the wires are
separated by ceramic of Teflon insulators. Although it can be used bare but usually it is
inserted into protective tubes or wells.
Metal Sheathed construction
Metal sheathed TCs are generally packed with magnesium oxide, although other
materials such as aluminum oxide can be used. Packed TCs are constructed by inserting
the insulation in powder form or as crushable beads strung on the wires, into a metallic
tube. The tube is then swaged (reduced in diameter) which crushes the insulators or
compress the powder, to form more dense mass. The unit is then heat treated to relieve
the stress and drive out any residual moisture.
The sheathed TCs are stronger than usual wire insulator type and can be bent or formed
on a radius as small as twice the sheath diameter.

Well and protection tube

Since many applications will expose the TC wire to adverse environmental condition
protection is usually required. Protection tubes are generally selected based on factors
like corrosion resistance, abrasion, vibration, porosity, fluid velocity, pressure, cost and
replacement and mounting requirements. Some common tube and well materials are
carbon steel, various grades of stainless steel, brass, copper, monel and titanium.

Thermal response
The response time with wells and tubes will be from three to ten times that of TC without
protection.

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)

RTD works on the principle that its resistance changes in proportion to change in input
temperature. The most commonly used RTDs are made from wire of platinum, nickel,
copper or tungsten supported by non conductive material and sealed within a
nonpermeable enclosure. The encapsulated element is then inserted into a metal sheath or
tube that is filled with an insulating powder and sealed with cement to prevent from being
absorbed.
The most commonly used material for making RTs is platinum as it can measure widest
range of temperature (-250 to 650 Deg C), is accurate, stable and has linear temperature
resistance characteristic.
RTDs are typically classified by ice point resistance (R), which is their resistance value at
0 deg. C. An approximation of the resistance vs. temperature (R vs T) relationship for an
RTD between 0 deg. C and 100:
R = Ro (1 +  t)
Where:
R = resistance (in ohms) at temperature (deg. C)
R0 = resistance at ice point (0 deg. C)
 = temperature coefficient of resistance

Platinum is the most linear and has the widest temperature range of the four, Nicket
offers the best sensitivity or change in resistance for a change in temperature (the highest
a, as indicated by the steep slope of the nickel curve. Because plate is a noble metal, it
offers the greatest stability and largest temperature range of the RTD metals. Its good
linearity combined with the high repeatability and stability make platinum the most
widely used metal for RTDs.
Most widely used R.T.D. is Pt-100 which is made of platinum and has 100 ohm
resistance at 0 Deg C. Thereafter its resistance increases linearly with temperature. This
R.T.D. is widely used in the plant for the measurement of gas and air temperature.
Platinum RTDs are used as international temperature standard in the range of 200 to 630
Deg C.
Copper wire RTD has most linear temperature resistance characteristic but has very
narrow measurement range: –200 to 150 Deg C and low resistively. Similarly Nickel wire
RTD has narrow measurement range: -195 to 360 Deg C.

RTD construction
Generally, the RTD element are in the form of the fine wire wrapped around an insulating
support of ceramic, mica or glass. The mounted element is then provided with protective
enclosure. When permanent installations are made, a well or socket is often use to house
the assembly.

2, 3, 4 wire RTDs
RTDs are made with a variety of connecting wire configuration. Most common is the two
wire connections, directly taken out from the RTD element. However, connecting wire
resistance will also be added with RTD and sensing instrument is large. The single
element 2-wire system provides no compensation of the leadwire resistance. This error is
apparent in the 2-wire bridge since the lead resistance L1 and L2 are in series with RTD
to from one arm of the bridge instead of being compensated for. This type of system is
actually used when the sensors resistance is so high that it masks any resistance due to the
leadwires.
Leadwire connections is adequate to operate an RTD, but does not provide any means for
compensating for the resistance of the leadwires themselves. The 3- and 4- leadwire
configurations, when used with an appropriate bridge circuit, can be used to compensate
for leadwire resistance and can provide accurate temperature measurement even when
long lengths of leadwire are used.
Most commonly, 3 wire RTDs are used. The wires connecting the RTD with the
measuring instrument have resistances whose effects tend to cancel each other if they are
of same length and are subjected to same temperature, and if Wheatstone bridge used for
measuring the resistance is balanced. The 3-wire system is the most commonly used
method in industrial use. One side of the power supply is taken to one side of the sensor
via a lead resistance L3. This places L1 and L2 in opposite arms of the bridge where there
effects tent to cancel each other. The resistance L3 alters the span of the bridge but any
changes in this resistance due to temperature variations are compensated and therefore
negligible.

Four wire RTDs provide better accuracy than other two. However additional cost of four
wire configuration is not justified by their performance. The 3 wire RTDs provide
sufficient accuracy and hence are mostly used.

THERMISTOR
A thermistor is THERMally sensitive resistor, whose primary function is to exhibit a
change in electrical resistance with a change in temperature. Its usual operating range is –
200 to 360 Deg C. The relationship between resistance, R and temperature T is given as
R = RR e(1/T-1/T/R)
Where:
  = constant
RR = resistance at temp. TR K
A thermistor is made of compressed and sintered oxides of metals like nickel, cobalt, iron
and copper etc. By changing the oxide property, resistance of thermistor can be changed.
Thermistor has very high resistance at low temperature and decreases exponentially as
temperature rises.
Thermistor are not used for wide span temperature measurement because the change in
resistance is too large to be handled by a single instrument. The resistance of typical
thermistor changes 156 Ohm for a temperature change from 0 to 1 deg C, whereas that of
PT only 0.385 Ohm.
The advantages of thermistor over RTD include its high sensitivity (making it more
suitable for use as sensing element in electronic thermostat or temperature switch), two
wire connections, narrow range temperature measurement, faster response and small size.
Its disadvantages are non linear characteristic and chances of self heating.
The thermistors are available in different shapes to suit any particular application. These
include beads, glass, probes, discs, washer and rods.

FILLED THERMAL SYSTEM(FTS)

A filled thermal system senses temperature by measuring fluid’s volume or pressure
change that accompanies a temperature change. The basic system includes a temperature
sensor (bulb), a Bourdon, diaphragm or bellow pressure element: a length of capillary
tube; and a fluid. The sensor is placed where the temperature is to be measured, and the
tubing connects the sensor to the elastic element. The element motion, caused by a
change in volume or pressure of the fluid in the sensor, is either converted to a motion of
pointer in an indicator or recorder, or converted to a pneumatic or electrical signal used to
control a process.
Main limitations of FTS are slow response, high cost and low accuracy. However, in
areas where presence of electrical signal may cause fire hazards, FTS is best choice.

RADIATION PYROMETERS
The measurement of temperature without contact, by measuring the thermal energy
radiated by an object, is known as radiation pyrometry. Usually used for high temperature
measurement, it can be used for low temperature measurement as well.
Principle:
Thermal radiation includes invisible infrared rays and visible light waves. As the
temperature of hot metal increases, a change in its colour is observed. This change in
colour corresponds to change in wavelength (hence frequency) and the wavelength of
maximum radiation decreases with increase in temperature. A decrease in wavelength
shifts the colour from red towards yellow. Steel at 540 Deg C has a deep red colour. At
815 deg C the colour is bright red and at the melting temperature (1430 to 1540 deg C) it
appears white. Human eye responds to wavelength in the visible range of spectrum from
0.4 to 0.75 microns. The infrared range is from 0.75 to 1000 microns. Human eye can not
see infrared radiation but an optical sensor can detect it.
The thermal energy radiated by a perfect radiating material is called black body radiation.
A black body is the surface that absorbs all the radiant energy that falls on it and radiates
the maximum thermal energy possible for a particular temperature. A real surface, will
however, differ from ideal black body. The ratio of thermal energy radiated by the
surface of a real object emissivity. The emissivity varies from 0 to 1 depending upon its
material and surface finish.
The basic principle of radiation pyrometer finds its source in Stefan-Botlzmann law
which states that radiant energy of an ideal black body is proportional to fourth power of
its absolute temperature.
A real source will differ from an ideal one so a thermal pyrometer will not receive all the
energy radiated by the surface. Thus indicated temperature will be less than actual.
Radiation pyrometers have emissivity or gain adjustments to take care of this. Each
application require emissivity to be sonstant and known for an accurate temperature
measurement to be obtained.

Types of Radiation Pyrometers

There are mainly four types of radiation pyrometers:
1. Total radiation or broad band
2. Optical
3. Bandpass or Infrared
4. Ratio
The broadband pyrometer can measure radiation of all wavelengths in both visible and
infrared region. It can measure temperature from 0 to 3000 deg C.
An optical pyrometer measures temperatures by comparing the brightness of visible
radiation emitted by an object of unknown temperature with the brightness of reference
source. It operates over a narrow range of wavelengths in the visible region and can
measure temperature in the range of 600 to 3000 deg C. It is used as international
standard for the temperature measurement in the range over 1064 deg C.
Bandpass pyrometers operates over a selected band of wavelengths; their special filters
eliminate certain wavelengths while allowing other to pass through. Infrared pyrometer is
an special type of bandpass pyrometer which uses photocells to detect the radiated
energy. The bandwidth are selected by employing proper type of photocell as well as
using filters. It can measure temperature al low as –50 deg C to higher than 3000 deg C.
A ratio pyrometer measures the intensities of radiation emitted by an object at two
wavelengths. Using the ratio of those intensities, it computes the temperature of the
object. If the emissivity of the radiating object is the same at both the wavelengths, its
effect cancels each other out in ratio. Also the effect of dust, smoke, steam and other
foreign subjects present in the medium can be eliminated.

Components of Pyrometers
A radiation pyrometer has four basic parts:
1. An optical system
2. A radiation detector
3. An electrical system and
4. A read out display

The optical system collects radiation from the radiating object and focuses it on the
detector; it can also provide optical filtering to eliminate radiation at undesired
wavelengths. Usually it in the form of mirror or lens made of glass, quartz, sapphire or
zinc sulphide.
The radiation detectors are of two types: thermal detectors like thermopile which
produces an output because their temperature changes with absorption of thermal energy
and photon detector like photocells which produces an output because the radiation
releases electric charge in the detector. Response of photocells are faster than thermopile.
Output of radiation pyrometers are non-linear unless electronic linearization methods are
used. Electronic circuits are used to signal condition the pyrometer output to a form
acceptable by the readout.

TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER
Output of the thermocouple or RTD can directly be given to display elements or
controllers. But in practice, it is converted to standard 4 – 20 mA signal by using,
electronic signal conditioning cards commonly referred as temperature transmitter or
converter. A mili volt to current converter senses the change in thermocouple output and
covert it in to 4 – 20 mA signal. The card is also used for other signal conditioning
operation like cold junction temperature compensation, linearization, sensor burn out
protection etc.
Output of RTD is connected to resistance to current (R/I) converter card which provides
standard 4 – 20 mA output current signal.
Now Smart Temperature Transmitters (STT) are available which uses a microprocessor
based circuit. Main advantage of STT is its configuration flexibility. A STT can be used
along with any temperature sensor in any range.
 4. FLOW MEASUREMENT
In process industries, measurement of rate of flow of solid, liquid or gas is required for
accounting and automatic control purpose. For example, in a gas fired furnace, flow rate
of gas is controlled to get desired temperature. For proper combustion of fuel it is also
required that correct ratio of gas and air flow rate should be maintained. This involves
accurate measurement of their flow rates.
Flow is generally measured inferentially by measuring velocity through a known area.
With this indirect method, the flow measured is the volume flow rate, Q v. Stated in its
simplest terms:
Qv = A x V
In this equation, A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe and V is fluid velocity.

Units of flow measurement:

Units used for the measurement of flow rate of gas and air is N Cubic meter per Minute
or Hour. ‘N’ symbolizes that flow is measured under normal temperature and pressure
conditions. Liquid flow rate can be measured in terms of volume (Liter or gallon or Cubic
meter). Steam flow is measured in tons or kg per unit time.
Methods of Measurement

A. VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE, CONSTANT AREA METHOD

There are several methods for the measurement of flow rate. However, this method is
most commonly used. In this method, a flow sensor is placed in the flow path of the fluid
which provides a restriction to its flow. Due to restriction a differential pressure or head
(P) is produced. Flow rate is proportional to square root of this differential pressure.

FLOW = x P

Basic Principle
Fluid velocity depends on the head pressure which is forcing the fluid through the pipe.
The greater the head pressure, the faster the fluid flow rate (all other factors remaining
constant), and consequently, the greater the volume of flow. Pipe size also affects the
flow rate. For example, doubling the diameter of a pipe increases the potential flow rate
by a factor of four times.
Variable differential pressure or Head meters measure fluid flow indirectly by creating
and measuring a differential pressure by means of an obstruction to the fluid flow. Using
well-established conversion coefficients which depend on the type of head meter used
and the diameter of the pipe, a measurement of the differential pressure may be translated
into a volume rate.
For the Equation of Continuity, assuming constant density (incompressible fluid) it can
be seen that::
Q = V1 A1 = V2 A2

The equation is one of the most important relationships in fluid mechanics. It

demonstrates that for steady, uniform flow, a decrease in pipe diameter results in an
increase in fluid velocity. In addition, from Bernoulli’s equation on the conservation of
energy, it is further seen that total head pressure must remain constant everywhere along
the flow or:
[ P/ ] + [ V2 / 2g ] = CONSTANT
The first term of this equation is called ‘potential head’ or ‘potential energy’. The second
term is known as the ‘velocity head’ or ‘kinetic energy’. Because potential and kinetic
energy together are constant, it is clear that an increase in velocity as described by the
Equation of Continuity must also be accompanied by a decrease in potential energy, or
line pressure. It is this relationship between velocity and pressure which provides the
basis for the operation of all head-type meters.
Head meters are generally simple, reliable, and offer more flexibility than other flow
measurement methods. The head-type flow meter almost always consists of two
components: the primary device and the secondary device. The primary device is that
device which is placed in the pipe to restrict the flow and develop a differential pressure.
The secondary device measures the differential pressure and provides a readout or signal
for transmission to a control system. With head meters, calibration of a primary
measuring device is not required in the field. The primary device can be selected for
compatibility with the specific fluid or application and the secondary device can be
selected for the type of readout or signal transmission desired.

Orifice Plates
A concentric, sharp-edged orifice plate is the simplest, least expensive and most widely
used primary flow sensor. The orifice plate constricts the flow of a fluid to produce a
differential pressure across the plate. The result is a high pressure upstream and a low
pressure downstream that is proportional to the square of the flow velocity. An orifice
plate usually produces a greater overall pressure loss than other primary devices. A
practical advantage of this device is that cost does not increase significantly with pipe
size. Since it is in use since a long time, a lot information in terms of published literature
are available to the instrument engineers.

Venturi Tubes
Venturi tubes exhibit a very low pressure loss compared to other differential pressure
head meters, but they are also the largest and most costly. They operate by gradually
narrowing the diameter of the pipe, and measuring the resultant drop in pressure. An
expanding section of the meter then returns the flow to very near its original pressure. As
with the orifice plate, the differential pressure measurement is converted into a
corresponding flow rate. Venturi tube applications are generally restricted to those
requiring a low pressure drop and a high accuracy reading. They are widely used in large
diameter pipes such as those found in waster treatment plants because their gradually
sloping shape will allow solids to flow through.

Flow Nozzle
Flow nozzles may be thought of as a variation on the venturi tube. The nozzle opening is
an elliptical restriction in the flow but with no outlet area for pressure recovery. Pressure
taps are located approximately ½ pipe diameter downstream and 1 pipe diameter
upstream. The flow nozzle is a high velocity flowmeter used where turbulence is high
(Reynolds numbers above 50,000) such as in steam flow at high temperatures. The
pressure drop of a flow nozzle falls between that of the venturi tube and the orifice plate.

Flow Measurement using DPT

Differential pressure created by primary element is sensed by a Differential Pressure
Transmitter (DPT) which acts as secondary element. Its 4 – 20 mA current output
represents the differential pressure. A separate square root extractor (SRE) is required to
make transmitter output proportional to the flow rate. However, this can also be done by
using proper software; should the transmitter output be given to a programmable device
like a process control computer. In case of smart DPT output option of SQUARE ROOT
can be selected to get current output proportional to flow.
 DPT SRE FIC

HIGH LOW

FLOW DIRECTION

ORIFICE PLATE

FLOW MEASUREMENT CHANNEL

Differential Pressure Flowmeters

S.NO. ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
1 Low cost Square root head/flow relationship
2 Easily installed/replaced High permanent pressure loss
3 No moving parts Low accuracy
4 Suitable for most gases and liquids Flow range limited to 4:1
5 Available in a wide range of sizes Accuracy affected by wear and / or
and models damage of the flow primary element
with corrosive fluids

B. CONSTANT DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE, VARIABLE AREA METHOD

Sometimes, to get direct display of flow rate, constant differential pressure, variable area
method is used in which case differential pressure remains constant while area changes
with change in the flow rate. Rotameter and areameter work on this principle.
Variable area flowmeters (also known as Rotameters) are typically made from a tapered
glass tube that is positioned vertically in the fluid flow. A float that is the same size as the
base of the glass tube rides upward in relation to the amount of flow. Because the tube is
larger in diameter at the top of the glass than at the bottom, the float resides at the point
where the differential pressure between the upper and lower surfaces balance the weight
of the float. In most rotameter applications, the flow rate is read directly from a scale
inscribed on the glass; in some cases, an automatic sensing device is used to sense the
level of the float and transmit a flow signal. These transmitting rotameters are often made
from stainless steel or other materials for various fluid applications and higher pressures.
VA meters may range in size from 0.5 cm to greater than 15 cm. They measure a wider
brand of flow (10 to 1) than an orifice plate with an accuracy of +2%, and maximum
operating pressure of 2000 kPa when constructed of glass. VA meters are commonly used
for purge flows and levels.
Variable Area Flowmeters
S.NO. ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
1 Low cost Must be mounted vertically
2 Low and constant pressure losses Glass tube types not suitable for high
pressure and temperature
3 Suitable for very flow rates VA:dirt sediment on glass can make
reading difficult
4 Rangeability 10:1 Clean fluids only
5 Capable of measuring fluids of Cost rises considerably with extras.
varying density and viscosity
(compensation given by float
design)

C. OTHER METHODS
In some typical applications, it becomes difficult to use above methods for flow
measurement. In such situations special methods are used which include:
1. Turbine flow meter
2. Magnetic flow meter
3. Ultrasonic flow meter
4. Vortex flow meter
5. Coriolis flow meter, etc.

Magnetic flowmeters are fast becoming popular world wide. It is explained here in some
more detail.

MAGNETIC FLOWMETERS
Magnetic flowmeters are most suitable for the application where pressure loss in the flow
line is not desirable. This is used with all aqueous solution with a minimum conductivity
value of 5 micro Siemens/cm at temperature up to a maximum of 1000 Deg C as
flowmeter upto 1130 Cu.mts/hr in closed pipe application.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The principle of operation is based on Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. The
liquid passing through the device represents a conductor moving through a magnetic fild.
It thereby induces a voltage perpendicular to both: the magnetic field and direction of
flow. The voltage is proportional to the mean flow velocity. The applicable formulae is
E=BxLxV Volts, where
E = Induced voltage
B = Magnetic induction
L = Length of conductor
V = Conductor velocity
The voltage induced in the liquid is detected by a pair of insulated electrodes.
The length of moving conductor (L) corresponds to the electrode separation distance
which remains constant, thus L is also constant.
The induced voltage gives a linear relationship between magnetic induction (B) and the
mean flow velocity.
For a pipe of given diameter, the flow velocity determines the volume rate of flow. This
applies only when pipe is completely full. Measurement may be inaccurate if this
condition is not fulfilled. The flowmeter provides input/output isolation.

NOVOMAG –MFI – 600 is a magnetic inductive flowmeter. This is used with all
aqueous solution with a minimum conductivity value of 5 micro Siemens/cm at
temperature up to a maximum of 1000 Deg C as flowmeter upto 1130 Cu.mts/hr in closed
pipe application. It consists of the sensor and transducer portions as mechanical entity.
The sensor and transducer are apart and can be installed upto 5 mts apart. Standard output
of this flowmeter is 0/4 …. 20 mA and pulsed frequency.

5. LEVEL MEASUREMENT
The vast amount of water used by industry, let alone all the solvents, chemicals, and other
liquids that are necessary for material processing makes the measurement of liquid level
essential to modern manufacturing.
There are two ways of measuring level: directly, by using the varying level of the liquid
as a means of obtaining the measurement ; and indirectly, by using a variable, which
changes with the liquid level, to actuate the measuring mechanism.

DIRECT LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Bob and Tape:-

The simplest of the direct devices for liquid level measurement is the bob and tape. All
you need is a bob (or weight) suspended from a tape marked in feet and inches. The bob
is lowered to the bottom of the vessel containing the liquid, and the level is determined
by noting the point on the tape reached by the liquid. The actual reading is made after the
tap is removed from the vessel. Obviously this method is not suited for continuous
measurement.

Sight Glass:-
Another direct means of liquid level measurement is the sight glass. This consists of a
graduated glass tube mounted on the side of the vessel. As the level of the liquid in the
vessel changes, so does the level of the liquid in the glass tube. Measurement is a simple
matter of reading the position of liquid level on the scale of sight glass tube.
Pully

Counter
Weight

Level Sight Glass Float

(With scale)
Floats:-
They are many kinds of float-operated mechanisms for continuous direct liquid level
measurement. The primary device is a float that by reason of its buoyancy will follow the
changing level of the liquid, and a mechanism that will transfer the float action to a
pointer. The float most familiar to is the hollow metal sphere; cylinder-shaped ceramic
floats or disc-shaped floats. The float is usually attached to a cable, which is wound
around a pulley or drum to which the indicating pointer is attached. The movement of the
float is thus transferred to the pointer, which indicates the liquid level on an appropriate
scale.
In another kind of float operated instrument, the float is attached to a shaft, which
transfers the motion of the float to an indicator. This type doesn’t permit a wide range of
level measurement, but it does have mechanical advantage that make it excellent for
control and transmitter applications. Another variation uses the float to move a magnet.
As this magnet moves, it attracts a follower magnet connected to the indicator, thus
providing a reading of liquid level measurement.

INDIRECT LIQUID MEASUREMENT

Differential Pressure Method:-

There are several types of indirect level measuring devices that are operated by pressure,
the simplest of these is the pressure gage located at the zero level of the liquid in vessel.
Any rise in the level causes an increase of pressure, which can be measured by gage. The
gage scale is marked in units of level measurement (feet or inches).
If the nature of the liquid prevents its being allowed to enter the pressure gage, a
transmitting fluid (such as air, which the cheapest and handiest) must be used between
the liquid and the gage.
The method described above can only be used when the vessel containing the liquid is
open to the atmosphere. When the liquid is in a closed pressure vessel, to balance the
vessel pressure, a DPT is used Connection of DPT are made to the vessel at top and
bottom. The top connection is made to the low pressure column of the meter, and the
bottom connection to the high column pressure. The difference in pressure detected by
the meter will be due then only to the changing level of the liquid. The well known
formula used in P=hpg
Where : h = liquid level, p = sp, density and g = acceleration due to gravity
Boiler drum level measurement is done using this technique.

TANK CURRENT OUTPUT

DPT
h
H L

Differential Pressure Method

Capactive Method:
The instrument work on the principle of change in capacitance of a capacitor.
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitors given by:
C = ( o A) / d
Where o = Dielectric constant of medium, A = cross sectional area of plates and D = gap
between the plates
A capacitive probe works in most liquids (and solids). The liquid or solid is the dielectric
constant between the two electrodes. As the liquid rises in the space between two
electrodes, which are in effect the two plates of a capacitor, there is a variation in
capacitance which can be monitored.
The nature of the liquid must be considered. If it is non-conductive then with the vessel
wall as the second plate, the primary electrode or first plate only should be insulated from
the vessel. However, if the liquid is conductive, the primary electrode must be fully
insulated from the vessel and the liquid, usually via a coating of some sort. In this case,
the liquid itself acts as the second plate of the capacitor, with the insulation of the
primary electrode acting as the dielectric. Problems often arise from incorrect installation,
buildup of conductive coatings, damage to insulation and false signals caused by foams.

CURRENT OUTPUT

CAPACITIVE PROBE
TRANSMITTER

CONDUCTING
PLATES

Capacitive Method

Ultrasonic Level Detectors:-

These instruments achieve accuracy of 1% of span. In this method, ultra-sonic level
transmitters are placed above the surface of the liquid which emit ultrasonic pulses at
high frequency through the air towards the liquid or solid. The pulse is reflected back
from the surface of the liquid or solid and is detected by the receiver part of the same
sensor. The true reflected echo pulse is converted into electrical signal and the time
interval “t” between transmission and reception is calculated. This time is directly
proportional to the distance between the sensor and the liquid surface, that is, liquid
height. The distance D is determined from the velocity of sound ‘c’ and time interval ‘t’
by the formula:

D = c x t/2
 Transmitted
pulse

Received pulse

t = time interval

With a velocity of sound ‘c’ = 340 m/s, time interval ‘t’ of 10ms corresponds to a
transmission path of 3.4 m and thus to a distance of 1.7m.
The measurement is independent of:
 Product characteristics such as specific weight, conductivity, viscosity and di-
electric constant.
 Temperature changes within the liquid
MEASURING RANGE:
Due to the ringing time characteristic of the sensor, there is a zone immediately below it
from which returning echoes cannot be detected. This is known as the BLOCKING
DISTANCE (B) and determines the minimum distance between the sensor diaphragm
and the maximum level in the silo. This is a function of type of sensor used.
The end of measuring range is determined by the attenuation of the ultrasonic pulse by
the air as well as by the strength of the reflection from the product surface.

APPLICATIONS (of E & H make FMU 860 system)

- Fresh and waste water
- Flow rates in fumes and weirs
- Water level
- To control the stream and pumps
- Volume calculation of solids and liquids

FEATURES – For field as well as control room applications

- Single or two channels with 3 – 5 relays and totalizer
- 0/4 – 20 mA output
- Linearization and totalization
- All calibrated values arranged in matrix
- Less commissioning time

ELECTRONIC UNIT
CURRENT OOUTPUT

TRX RX

TANK LIQUID SURFACE

Ultrasonic Method

Radiation Level Detectors:-

Radiation level detectors are used in difficult applications where other applications would
not survive. The mostly common reason for using this is that sensor does not come in
contact with the liquid being measured. This uses the principle that  - rays or  - rays are
absorbed differently by the varying thickness of the liquid. A rdio-active source is put on
one side of the tank and the detector on the opposite side. The gamma rays emitted from
the source are directed toward the detector in a thin band of radiation.
After the unit is setup, a reference measurement is taken of the empty tank. The amount
of radiation received by the detector will be that passed through air. Now suppose tank is
filled with liquid. This means that the radiation beam must pass through a path in the
liquid, as well as the tank walls. The liquid reduces the amount of radiation received by
the detector and is given by the formula:
I = Io e - d
Where Io is the radiation intensity at the detector when the intensity is absent, , the
absorption co-efficient of the liquid and the d the thickness of the liquid. The radiation
absorbed by the steel tank walls can be considered to be constant, whether the tank is full
or empty.

Receiver Scintillation Counter

Current Output

TANK

Radioactive
Source
Radioactive Method

FLOW SHEET SYMBOLS FOR P&I DIAGRAM

Letter Code for Identification of Instrument Function:

LETTER FIRST LETTER SUCCEEDING LETTER

A Analysis Alarm
B Burner, flame State or Status Display
C Conductivity Control
D Density -
E All electrical variables Sensing element
F Flow-rate -
G Gaging position or length Glass
H Hand operated High (alarm)
I - Indicating
K Time or time program Barrier
L Level Low (alarm)
M Moisture or Humidity -
P Pressure or Vacuum Test point connection
Q - Integrating or summating
R Radiation Recording
S Speed or frequency Switching
T Temperature Transmitter
U Multi-varibale II Multi-function unit
V Vibration Valve, damper , actuauing unit
W Weight or Force Wells
Y - Computing relay, relay
Z Position Emergency or safety acting
Instruments and Line Symbols:
SYMBOL MEANING

Process line, flow line of a process

Instrumentation connection to a process or instrument

supply

Pneumatic signal

Electric signal or undefined signal

Instrument locally mounted in the field

Instrument mounted on the front of the panel

Instrument mounted behind the panel

 1. PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

General
In pre-industrial revolution era measurement was performed by man himself by feel or
instinct using his five basic senses. Depending upon measurement being made, control
was performed manually, e.g. blacksmith making sword or spade from a piece of iron.
The iron piece had to be heated by a coal or charcoal based furnace upto a certain
temperature before hammering. The master blacksmith only knew ‘when’ the iron is
‘sufficiently hot’ to strike. Thus measurement was perfumed by master and he only knew
how to do it by seeing the colour of the iron piece. Although product quality was more or
less good, but production rate was very poor.
Industrial revolution shifted production centers from house of craftsman to Industries.
Production rate got increased. It required a measurement system which would give
consistent measurement independent of individual feel or instinct. Thermometers and
pressure indicators were some of the early instruments used in Industries. Control was
still manual.
First automatic controller- flyball governor was installed in Watt’s steam engine in 1775.
This led to other automatic controllers which were mostly mechanical. In industrial
processes, hydraulic regulators known as Askania regulators were used to control
parameters like pressure and flow. In these early controllers, sensing and control elements
were integrated. Initially, the indicators and regulators were scattered in the plant.
Operators had to move around the plant to take measurement through indicators and
make adjustments in the regulators.
One idea which brought about revolution in Industrial Process Control was transmission
of signal. Sensors were used to ‘measure’ the variable and ‘transmitter’ were used to
‘transmit’ the sensed signals to a centralized location giving birth to telemetry schemes.
In the centralized location i.e. the Control Room ‘Controllers’ were used to measure the
‘transmitted’ signal. This value is compared with desired value set by operator and
subsequently the difference between process variable (PV) and set point (SP) is
computed. A correcting signal is then sent back to the field to actuate the final control
devices like valves and actuators.

Control Principles
The essence of simple automatic control is:
i. The state of the process is measured (Measurement)
ii. This measurement is compared to the desired value or state in the controller
(Comparision)
iii. The controller responds in a pre-defined way to reduce any discrepancy
between (i) & (ii) (Computation)
iv. The output of the controller is translated by a correcting unit to alter the state
of the process (Correction)

Process Control System

It is combination of components by means of which the process variable are monitored
and controlled. To understand the process control system, one must be familiar with
different variables associated with a process.
The variables involved are:
 Controlled or Process variables (PV)
 Manipulated variables, and
 Disturbances
The Controlled Variables are the conditions we wish to control or maintain at some
desired level. These variables may be flow rates, temperature, pressure, level or
composition.
For each controlled variable there is an associated manipulated variable. In a typical
furnace temperature control system manipulated variables are the incoming flowing fuel
(oil or gas), flow rates of which are manipulated using control valves.
Disturbances enters the process and tends to drive the controlled variables away from it’s
desired value.
An example:
In a simple process of gas fired reheating furnace, PV is the temperature inside the
furnace. Manipulated variable is the flow of gas and air as well as its ratio. The
disturbances are initial temperature of material to be heated, initial temperature and
pressure of gas and air, Calorific value (CV) of gas etc.

TYPES OF PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

Manual Control
To understand more complex process control, it is better to start with simple manual
control. In this system, the manipulated variable are varied manually by the operator
according to the difference between the desired value he has in his mind and value of and
process variable (PV) made available to him by the temperature indicator.
This control scheme has following obvious limitations:
 For each control loop one or more operators are required.
 Control is not precise and consistent owing to obvious limitations of human
being.

Automatic Control
As the complexity of industrial processes has increased, there has been a consequent
increase in the number of process variables (such as temperature, pressure, flow, pH) to
be controlled, and it has become increasingly evident that further development would be
difficult or even impossible without the aid of devices which would automatically
measure and control these process variables.

Elements of automatic control system

Basic element of an automatic control system are
1. Measuring Unit (Sensor)
2. Transmitter
3. Controlling unit (Controller)
4. Correcting Unit (Final Control Element or Control Valve)
 FEED PRODUCT
Process

Correcting Measuring
Unit Unit

O/P PV
Controlling Operator or
Unit Computer

SP
Controller
A controller measures the signal received from the transmitter, compares it with desired
value or set point (SP), computes the difference between PV and SP and produces a
correcting signal that is transmitted to the final control element.

Controllers identification
A controller is identified by
 Its power source
 process variable it controls and
 the kind of control action it provides

Controllers identified by their power source are mainly of two types: electronic and
pneumatic. Pneumatic controller used compressed air as the source for its operation. It
receives PV in terms of 3 – 15 PSI pneumatic signal and produces controlling output in
terms of 3 – 15 PSI pneumatic signal.
Due to its accuracy and better response electronic controllers are mostly used. Depending
upon type of electronic components in the electronic controller, it may be of following
types:
Analog (single loop controller)
Microprocessor based (Single or dual loop programmable controller)
Computer based (Multiloop, multitasking Controller)
Frequently controller are identified by the parameters it controls viz. level controllers,
pressure controllers, flow controllers, and temperature controllers.
The third way that a controller can be identified is by the kind of controlling action it
provides. Accordingly, a controller may provide any one or combination of the following
actions:
ON – OFF
Proportional (P)
Reset or Integral (I)
Rate or Derivative (D)

Final Control Element

It is the device which receives the controller output and adjusts the manipulated variable
accordingly. In a process where material flow rate is the manipulated variable, the final
element may be a control valve connected in the flow path.
A control valve has two units:
- Actuator or motor
- Valve
An actuator receives the controller signal and accordingly changes the position of valve.
It may be an electrical motor or pneumatically operated diaphragm actuator.

CONTROLLER ACTIONS OR CONTROL MODES:

Proportional (P) Control
In P only controller, the output signal is directly proportional to the deviation between the
PV and SP also called error (e). As a result, the position of the final control element is
also proportional to the deviation.
P = K + Ps
Where, P = Output signal from controller, K = gain or sensitivity, Ps = a constant manual
bias; it is steady state output of the controller when error is zero. In commercial
controller, its value is usually 50% of the output range.
Proportional Gain = Output Change / Input Change
Sometimes the term Proportional Band (PB) is used.
PB is inverse of gain. It is defined as percentage change in input required to produce
100% change in output.
PB ( in %) = Input Change / Output Change
The two terms are related as
Gain = 100 / PB
Thus a proportional gain of 2 means that 2 units of output change are produced for every
one unit of input change. This gain of 2 will equal to a PB of 50%.
A PB of 100% will corresponds to gain of 1.
By changing the gain or PB, controller response to a deviation is determined. Proper
setting of gain or PB depends upon characteristic of process.
P, only controller causes a characteristic called OFFSET in response to a load change or
other disturbances. P only controller responds to the change in input. When the process
stabilizes, the changes in input stops so does the output. As a result, change in output
stops even if process has not returned to the set point. Offset is the deviation between PV
and SP when process has stabilized after an upset.
Proportional + Integral Control
This mode of control is described by the relationship.
P = K + K / Tio dt + Ps
Where, Ti = Integral Time in minutes
In this case, a term proportional to error is added with proportional action term.
I action is added to controller response to help eliminate the offset. I action responds to
the deviation and continues to increase the control action, based on the time, until the
error signal is zero and offset is eliminated.
Sometime reset rate is used in place of Integral time (Ti). The two are reciprocal to each
other.
I action adjustment basically repeats the corrective action of the controller at a fixed rate.
The adjustment may be expressed in one of two ways. In some case it is expressed as
number of times per minute the controller repeats the corrective action. It is called reset
rate and is expressed in Repeats Per Minute (RPM). The other type of adjustment is the
number of minutes for each time the controller repeats the corrective action and is
expressed in Minute Per Repeat (MPR).

RPM = 1/MPR

Proportional + Derivative control

The mode of this control is expressed as

P = K + K Td d / dt

Where, Td = Derivative time, in minutes

In this case, we have added to proportional term, another term which is proportional to
the derivative of the error.
Proportional + Integral + Derivative control
This mode of control is combination of the previous modes and is given by the relation
 P = K + I / Ti dt + KTd d / dt + Ps

P + I controller action may improve the control of some process but is not very effective
for control of a process having long lag time i.e. slow process. In temperature control
loop, for example, it may take a long time for the process to respond to the changes in the
position of the final control element. D action can be added to the controller to improve
speed of response. D action causes the controller to respond more rapidly to the initial
disturbance. As a result, process is returned to SP more quickly.
D action is expressed in terms of derivative time. Higher the derivative time, greater the
derivative action produced by the controller.

Selection Criterion for Control Mode for a particular application:

P only Control
This control action is able to arrest the rise of PV and ultimately brings this to rest at a
new steady state value which may be not at the set point. This steady state error is called
OFFSET. It is useful for simple 1st order system

P + I Control

The addition of Integral action eliminate the offset and PV ultimately returns to the set
point value. This advantage is balanced by disadvantage of slow action and oscillatory
behaviour. Integral action is, infact, recommended for the process dominated by dead
time very fast processes containing high level of noise and high order systems with all
time constants of same magnitude.
It is most widely used control mode.
P + D control

It is effective for system having large amount of time constants. It result in more rapid
response and less offset than is possible by pure proportional control.

P + I D Control

Addition of D action in PI improves the response. The rise of PV is arrested more rapidly
to set point with little or no oscillation.

Direct and reverse acting controller

Depending on the process or the control valve connected to the controller, the control
action of the controller can often be easily reversed. The behaviour between the measured
value and the output signal of a controller at a load change on the process determines the
controller action of the controller; i.e. whether it is direct acting or reverse acting.
The control action is:
Direct
By rising measured value and rising output signal (and vice-versa).
Reverse
By rising measured value and falling output signal (and vice-versa).
CONTROLLER TUNING
The tuning of controller refers to the proper selection of the values of Proportional Gain
(K), Integral time (Ti) and Derivative time (Td) so as to give desired loop performance
(i.e. stability, response time, overshoot etc.)
The major difficulty in selecting these parameters are that they are process dependent and
for the same process the optimum values change with operating point. In fact, there is no
unique rule for controller tuning and it depends much upon operator understanding of the
process characteristics.

Static Characteristic of Controller and Process

Controller Characteristic
When the ratio between output and input signal of a controller is graphically represented,
the result is graph below, called controller characteristic.

100%

50

Controller
Output

0 50 100%
Measured Value

Direct and reverse acting controller

Depending on the process or the control valve connected to the controller, the control
action of the controller can often be easily reversed. The behaviour between the measured
value and the output signal of a controller at a load change on the process determines the
controller action of the controller, i.e. whether it is direct or reverse acting.
The control action is:

Direct
By rising measured value and rising output signal (and vice-versa).

Reverse
By rising measured value and falling output signal (and vice-versa).

Process characteristics
The process characteristic gives the relation between the input signal (valve position)
and the corresponding output signal of the process. Unlike the control characteristic,
these characteristics are usually non-linear.
The static process characteristic is determined as follows. The control valve is set at a
specific position. This determine the supply of the medium to be controlled as
 100%

50

Valve
Position

0 50 100%
Measured Value
well as the output signal of the process (temperature, pressure, level, quantity of through-
flow, etc). When this test is carried out on a large number of valve positions and the
obtained the data graphically represented as shown above, the result is the static process
characteristic.

Controller and process characteristic

When the controller and the process characteristics are combined, we obtain the graphic
which is combination of both.
By combining the controller characteristic (CC) and the process characteristic (PC), it is
possible to predict the behaviour of the controller at different loads acting on the process.
For the control reaches equilibrium at the point of intersection of PC and CC. At this
point, following the RC line, the controller has an output signal of 50%. With a
corresponding valve position of 50%, the process reaches a measured value of 60%
according to the PC. If another measured value is desired, for example 40%, the CC has
to be shifted until it intersects the PC at 40%. The CC can be shifted by means of the
knob on the controller. In the latter situation, the measured value is no longer equal to the
set-point.

CONTROLLER TUNING
The tuning of controller refers to the proper selection of the values of Proportional Gain
(K), Integral time (Ti) and Derivative time (Td) so as to give desired loop performance
(i.e. stability, response time, overshoot etc.)
The major difficulty in selecting these parameters are that they are process dependent and
for the same process the optimum values change with operating point. In fact, there is no
unique rule for controller tuning and it depends much upon operator understanding of the
process characteristics.

PROCESS CONTROL STRATEGIES

Feedback Control System

This is conventional but most widely practiced method of process control. In this method
the sensor senses the actual value of controlled variables. A transmitter transmits this
signal to feedback controller which makes the comparison between the actual value and
the setpoint value and generates correcting error signals for the control valves that
reflects the needed value of manipulated variable.
The beauty of this control scheme is that the designer need not know in advance exactly
what disturbance will affect the process and what will the effect of these disturbance over
the controlled variable. Here the controller takes action only when there is some error in
the desired value of controlled variable.
In the example of the reheating furnace, a temperature transmitter continuously generates
a signal that represents the actual temperature of the furnace. At the controller, this signal
is subtracted from a set value that represents the desire temperature. If these values are
same, the current position of control valve is maintained, and controller doesn’t change
its output. However, if the actual value is less than the set point, the controller will
change its output in the direction that opens the control valve and raises the actual
temperature. Conversely, if the actual temperature is above the desire one, the controller
will change its output in the direction that closes the control valve, to lower the actual
temperature.
Such scheme is simple and effective. Controller hardware is of standard format and the
control loop is of general conceptual framework.
DISTURBANCE

SP - CONTROLLER FINAL PROCESS OUTPUT

CONTROL
+ ELEMENT

MEASURING
ELEMENT
FEEDBACK SIGNAL

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM

 CV
TC
TT

TY I/P FURNACE

AIR
SUPPLY FUEL
(20 PSI)

(SP)

TIC

OP ( 4 -20 mA) PV (+ 20 mA)

LEGEND
TC = THERMOCOUPLE
TT = TEMP TRANSMITTER
TIC = TEMP INDICATING CONTROLLER
TY = I/P CONVERTER (IF Pneumatic control valve is used)
CV = CONTROL VALVE
FURNACE TEMP CONTROL SYSTEM

Feedforward Control
As we have seen, the feedback control works to eliminate the error when it appears.
Contrary to this, Feed Forward Control operates to prevent the error from occurring
before it disturbs the process.
In this case transmitter measures the value of load variables and the calculation unit
compute the correct control signal for the existing load condition and setpoint. In this
way, change in load conditions cause a direct change in the control signal without waiting
for the control variable to be upset/change.
In general this technique is more complicated and expensive. It require greater process
understanding than feedback. Therefore, feedforward control is usually reserved for
difficult and critical application.

MEASURING
DISTURBANCE
UNIT

PV

SP CONTROLLER FINAL PROCESS

CONT. ELEMENT
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FEEDFORWARD CONTROL SYSTEM
Ratio and Cascade Control
Although conventional controllers satisfy most process control requirement,
improvements can be achieved in some situations by combining automatic controllers.
Ratio and cascade control are examples of such system.

Ratio Control
Assume a fixed ratio between two flow rates that are required to be controlled. This
would suggested a flow ratio control. Gas-to-air ratio (usually 1:4) for a gas fired furnace
would be typical. A gas-air-ratio control system for optimum consumption of fuel,
automatically controls the flow of gas and air in correct proportion. Usually gas flow is
assumed to be primary variable and depending upon set ratio, air flow if controlled.

Cascade Control
The general concept of cascade control is to nest one feedback loop inside another
feedback loop.
Cascade control exhibits its real value when a very slow process is involved. When this
happens, error can exist for very long periods of time, there may be a significant wait
before any corrective action is initiated. Also when corrective action is taken you may
have to wait a long time for results. Cascade control affords you the opportunity to find
intermediate controlled variable and to take corrective action on disturbances more
promptly.
Temperature of a gas fired furnace can be controlled using feedback control technique in
which a single loop controller will operate the control valve connected in the incoming
gas line. In case of disturbance in input side (change in gas supply pressure, for example),
the corrective action will be taken by controller only when temperature will be away from
set point. So temperature will not be at the set point for quite some period of time, a
situation which may not be acceptable in some cases. By incorporating cascade control
technique, this situation could be avoided.
In cascade control, output of temperature controller (acting as master controller) still
determined by the temperature error, is interpreted by flow controller (slave controller) as
a demand for change in gas flow, (set point for flow controller) which the flow controller
accomplishes irrespective of current upstream pressure. Should the pressure fluctuate,
flow controller will correct the flow before temperature begin to change since its flow
sensor feedback will generate an error signal even though its set point is constant.
It can be readily seen that cascaded secondary or inner loop responds much more quickly
to supply variations than if these required to go though the thermal inertia of the process
and act through the primary loop.
The use of cascade control appears to involve significant additional hardware
expenditures. As can be seen from the general layout, it requires an additional feedback
controller, and it appears to involve additional sensor and feedback transmission system.
There is no need of course, for an additional final control element such as control valve.
These general appearances are a bit misleading, however, usually hardware vendors
supply both the primary and secondary controller for the cascade arrangement with a
single controller case, and the total cost is not twice the cost of single controller. In case
of computer based control system, cascade control is implemented using software.
In general, cascade control has significant advantage to the user and is one of the most
underutilized feedback control techniques. Most plant could increase the usage of cascade
control to significant advantage.
Using a microprocessor based digital controller, both primary and secondary controller
functions can be implemented in one controller unit.
 CV
TC
3 – 15 PSI
TT

I/P
FURNACE
AIR
SUPPLY FUEL
(20 PSI)

FT
(LSP)

(RSP)
FIC TIC

OP (+- 20 Ma) PV (+- 20Ma)

SLAVE MASTER

LEGEND
TC = THERMOCOUPLE
TT = TEMP TRANSMITTER
FT = FLOW TRANSMITTER
TIC = TEMP INDICATING CONTROLLER
FIC = FLOW INDICATING CONTROLLER
LSP = LOCAL SET POINT
RSP = REMOTE SET POINT
CV = CONTROL VALVE

FURNACE CASCADE CONTROL SYSTEM

FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

CONTROL VALVE
A valve is a device for adjusting, or manipulating the flow rate of liquid or gas in a
pipeline. The valve contains a flow passage or port, whose flow area can be varied.
As seen in the figure, a control valve has two main element: valve actuator and valve or
plug. An actuator converts output of controller to movement of a rod. The actuator may
be electrically operated (electrical actuator) or pneumatically operated (diaphragm
actuator). Limitation of electrically actuated control valve is its slow speed and high cost.
Advantage is that it does not need air signal. Normally, pneumatic control valve is used.
Principle of diaphragm actuator is very simple. A diaphragm is bolted to a dished metal
head, forming a pressure tight compartment. The motion of diaphragm is opposed by a
spring. Attached to the diaphragm is the valve stem, so that any movement of the
diaphragm results in the same valve plug movement.
Generally the process piping material will be selected according to the pressure,
temperature and corrosive nature of the process fluid. A safe rule is to make the valve
body from the same material as the process piping.

VALVE SIZING : Traditionally valve sizing has been done by using the equation:
 Q = Cv  p/G

Where Q = U.S. gallons per minute

G = Specific gravity
Cv= Valve coefficient for liquid. It is defined as follows:

Cv is numerically equal to the number of US Gallons of water at 20 deg C that will flow
through the valve in one minute when pressure differential is one pound per square inch.
It varies with size and style of valve.

CURRENT TO PNEUMATIC (I/P) CONVERTER

An I/P converter is an important element of a control loop. Its function is to convert the
output of an electronic controller to the pneumatic signal necessary to operate the
diaphragm actuated control valve.

4 – 20 Ma 3 – 15 PSI
CONTROLLER I/P PNEUMATIC
CONVERTER ACTUATOR

AIR SUPPLY
(20 PSI) VALVE

I/P converter or transducer manufactured by different companies generally consists of

following three important unit:
a. A unit which converts electrical incoming signal (4-20 mA) to mechanical
movement. An armature bar assembly is usually for this purpose.
b. A flapper (baffle) – nozzle unit along with relay which converts mechanical
movement to pneumatic output signal in the range of 3 –15 psi.
c. A feedback mechanism to restore the balance.

a. Armature bar assembly

A simplified diagram of this unit is shown in figure. The coils are firmly attached to the
armature bar and surround the permanent magnet. They are wound in such a way that
when current is passed through them, one opposes the magnetic field of its permanent
magnet, the other is attracted by the magnetic filed of its permanent magnet. When
current is applied from the amplifier, we get movement of the bar in the direction by the
arrows. The amount of movement is directly proportional to the amount of current
applied.

b. A flapper (baffle) – nozzle unit:

The flapper/nozzle detector, is a sub assembly used to detect a mechanical motion. There
are three connections and two restrictions on every flapper/nozzle detector. The flapper
and the nozzle are the variable restriction, and an orifice is the fixed restriction. The
opening in the fixed restriction is smaller then in the nozzle so that air can escape through
the nozzle faster then it enters through the restriction.
An air supply of 20 psi is connected to the fixed restriction. If we examine the pressure
variation between the two restrictions, we see that as the flapper approaches the nozzle,
air flow is more restricted and the nozzle backpressure rises. A movement of the flapper
away from the nozzle decreases the nozzle backpressure.
Typically, if the flapper/nozzle clearance change from 0.0015 inch to 0.0010 inch, the
nozzle backpressure changes from 3 psig to 15 psig. For each flapper/nozzle position
there is a particular nozzle backpressure.
PNEUMATIC RELAYS:
Pneumatic relays are used to amplify pressure and/or volume of air output of flapper-
nozzle arrangement. The essential components of the relay are:
a. A pressure-to-displacement converter (bellows, diaphragm, etc.)
b. A pilot

Principle of operation
If the baffle covers the nozzle, the nozzle backpressure will build up almost to the supply
pressure. This backpressure applied to the pressure-to-displacement converter results in a
displacement proportional to the backpressure. This displacement, acting through the
stem of the relay positions the valve plug so that the exhaust port is closed and the supply
port is fully opened. Consequently, the relay backpressure will be equal to the supply
pressure. It may be recalled that the pilot backpressure is proportional to the stem
displacement. Since the stem displacement is proportional to the nozzle backpressure, the
relay backpressure is proportional to the baffle/nozzle displacement.
This arrangement makes it possible to use a baffle/nozzle with small restrictions. Further,
it makes it possible to reduce the blast effect by reducing the nozzle backpressure.
Typically, the nozzle backpressure will vary from 2 to 4 psig, which will cause full
stroking of the relay valve plug. This is made possible by making the range of the
pressure-to-displacement converter 2 to 3 psig rather than 3 to 15 psig. It is in this way
that the relay makes it possible to obtain fast response using a small restriction.
The device just described is direct acting in that as the nozzle backpressure increases, the
output air pressure increases. If we use a diamond-shaped valve plug (one with the valve
plug faces looking away from each other) rather than a dumbbell-shaped plug, the output
pressure will decrease as the nozzle backpressure increases, giving us a reverse acting
detector.

I/P CONVERSION
After understanding the basic concepts, let us see how an I/P converter developed by
FOXBORO works.
In this transducer, an increase in current to the coils moves the Armature bar such that the
flapper is closer to the nozzle. This action increases the backpressure in the line between
the nozzle and the fixed restriction. This higher pressure causes the diaphragm of the air
relay flex downward increasing the opening in the path from the Air supply to the Air
Output and decreasing the opening in the path to exhaust. The result of the increase in
signal current, therefore, is an increase in air output pressure. The relationship of input
signal current to output air pressure is linear. The bellows provides feedback to the
armature bar to reposition the flapper relative to the nozzle. Without this bellows, the
device would have an infinite gain, for a small input the output would go to maximum.
Remember, the motion needed by the flapper to create full (15 psi) output is
approximately 0.0005 inches. It is easy to see that even a small input signal current to the
coils would move the armature bar and flapper enough to obtain full output air pressure.
The bellows, however, senses the change in output pressure and opposes the motion of
the armature bar, thus, reducing the gain to some usable level. Therefore, although a
small current input would attempt to move the Armature Bar a large amount, the
counteraction of the bellows reduces that motion to the small amount required to produce
a proportional change in the output pressure.
VALVE POSITIONER
The primary function of a valve positioner is to maintain the control valve plug at a
position that is directly proportional to its controller output pressure. To perform this
function the stem motion of the valve actuator is compared to the signal from the
controller. Any deviation from the desired position produces an error signal that activates
a pneumatic relay. Air pressure to the valve actuator is the either increased or decreased
to drive the valve stem to the desired position.
A positioner can be used to reverse the signal to valve and to overcome frictional force
within a valve on high pressure drop applications. In addition, a positioner can be made
to alter the inherent characteristics of a control valve through the use of cams.
Positioners are usually mounted on the side of diaphragm actuators and on top of piston
and rotary actuators. Several designs are available in which the positioner is an integral
part of the actuator.
Because of the large volume of air required to operate the valve, the positioner must have
an independent regulated air supply.

WORKING OF “MOORE” VALVE POSITIONERS

This positioner consists of a position to force converter ( a spring) arranged to directly
load the input element (a bellows). The actuator position is fed from actuator to the top of
spring through a parallel lever gain mechanism. The thrust assembly is a disc of metal
mounted between spring and bellows.

OPERATION
Assume that the positioner is in balance, i.e. the input force is exactly balanced by a force
that is a function of the valve position. Let the input signal increase. The increased signal
will result in an increased force being applied to the thrust assembly (disc) leading to lift
it. The pilot valve (ball), responding to this lift, causes the supply port to open wider and
exhaust to be reduced. This increases the output pressure to the actuator moving it
downward. This downward movement is fed back through lever gain mechanism. The
output of gain mechanism is applied to the top of balancing spring. At the point two force
become equal, the thrust assembly will come to equilibrium. Equilibrium is reached when
air pressure drives the actuator to a position resulting in a force exactly equal to the input
signal force. The sealing bellows is used to provide a path for air to escape through
exhaust port.
TDC 3000

INTRODUCTION
Introduction of TDC 2000 (Total Distributed Control) by Honeywell in USA in 1975, is
generally considered as a landmark in the emergence of DCS. TDC 2000 offered at that
time a new level of distribution of control functions via intelligent process I/O modules
with, according to a range of built-in firmware, completely configurable control
functions. Each module was capable to handle up to eight loops, and these could be
distributed around the plant, along with field multiplexer modules using a Data Hiway.
The distribution brought about full digital control in a decentralized manner, providing a
high degree of programmability of the actual local control functions – a facility that today
is commonplace. In fact, the Hiway was a 250 kbps truncated bus with a Traffic Director
handling communication between the station nodes. The host computer was Honeywell
4500, and the traditional instrumentation faceplate was replaced by a CRT-based system
for operating display, which has extended process monitoring and control capabilities.
Over the years, TDC 2000 has been continuously evolving and the next level of
enhancement has come in the form of TDC 3000. At the early design stage of the system,
it was recognized that the problems of regulatory control were satisfactorily dealt with,
and the design effort was aimed at an integrated information and control for a total plant.
This meant bringing together many system levels, starting from process sensors and
actuators, via control and supervision level, up to the plant enterprise management, and
thus enabling the global real-time data access for control rooms and business operations
centers. TDC provides the single window facility upon which higher levels of automation
may be implemented effectively.
The four key elements of the TDC 3000 system include:
1. Distributed Process Control and Data Acquisition devices linked to Data Hiways
(DH) and Universal Control Network (UCN)
2. Gateways used to connect Data Hiways and Computers to Local Control
Networks (LCN).
3. Distributed History, Application, and Computing Modules connected to LCN.
4. Universal Station, (US) providing a single window to plant operations, system
maintenance and system implementation.

Process sensors and final control elements, located throughout the plant, are connected to
TDC 3000 distributed process interface boxes. These devices are microprocessor-based
and perform a wide range of signal conditioning, checking and control of process signals.
Data from these devices are carried by the Data Hiway to the Local Control Network via
Gateways that translate the data to a common format, making them available to all LCN
based modules.
This Universal Station comprises CRTs, which can be clustered into groups of two or
more. The displays are universal, catering the needs of the process engineer, the service
engineer, and the plant operator. Keyboards are operator proof and include softkeys
which can be configured to suit the plant, while the touch screens enable a fast and
effective interaction with the system. Displays can cover all data points, connected over
the LCN. Their selection can follow the normal hierarchical sequence, or via the touch
screen and softkeys, that permit multiple path linking and direct random access. In
normal operation, the user gets traditional overviews, plant mimics, groups, groups with
trends, unit trends, and batch displays. In process upset conditions the system is designed
to focus the operator’s attention on the problem areas with extensive alarm annunciation,
while system status displays warn against equipment malfunctions.
In 1988, more advanced, fast and powerful I/O modules were incorporated in the system
in place of the slow 250 kbps devices through Universal Control Network (UCN).
Through UCN, data communication can take place at much faster rate (5 mbps). Thus it
provides a distributed computing platform with sufficient performance to support large
scale, real- time process applications.
Main Features of TDC – 3000 system can be summarized as:
 A single window to the process
 Data acquisition
 Incremental level of control
 Histroy collection
 Reporting
 Communicaitng with non-Honeywell process sub computers and devices like
PLC, Analyzers etc.
 Storage in storage device for long term information
 The historic trend recording capacity of TDC-3000 could be as many as 999 hours
considering 100 nos. Analog input points with scan interval of 1 minute.
 US HM AM CG PLCG GUS

LCNA

LCNB
HG NIM

MC PM

AMC APM

DHP PLC HPM

DHP LM

DH1 DH2 UCNA UCNB

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS MODULES AND BOXES

TDC 3000 is based on 3 distinct communication networks namely Data Hiway, Local
control network (LCN) and Universal control network (UCN). Data Hiway was used by
Honeywell in TDC- 2000, which has a bus oriented structure, as a central communication
link via which the system operational modules are able to exchange data at the rate of 250
KB per Sec.
The LCN provides a communication channel for various nodes like Universal Station
9US), History module (HM) and Application module (AM). LCN is a broadcast type of
Local Area Network which uses bit serial communication using proprietary token passing
protocol based on IEEE 802.4 communication standard wherein data is transferred at the
rate of 5 MB per sec.
The UCN is similar to LCN and is used along with fast process connected modules like
Process Manager (PM) Advanced Process Manager (APM), Higher Performance Process
Manager (HPM) or Logic Manager (LM). Data Hiways are used for connecting process
related devices like Advanced Multifunction controller (A-MC) and Process Interface
Units (PIU).

1. Universal Station (US)

The US is the principal physical element of the man/machine interface (MMI), designed
to serve primarily as an operator console in a control room environment. It is a module on
the LCN and consists of a display monitor, operator’s keyboard, engineer’s keyboard and
peripheral devices like printer.
2. History Module (HM)
It is a module on the LCN that provides mass storage facility for process history, graphic
display configuration information, module personality images and other softwares. It uses
Motorola 68020 microprocessor and expandable dual 140 MB hard disc for data and
programme storage.

3. Application Module (AM)

It processes data points to provide level 2 control. Standard algorithms and custom
programme written in control language (CL) are used to process data points. It uses
Motorola 68020 microprocessor with 3 MW (mega word) or more memory.

4. Computing Module (CM)

It is a package of hardware and software available from Honeywell that enables a Digital
Equipment Corporation (DEC) VAX or micro VAX computer to function as part of
computing module. It is a module on the local control network that connects the Data
Hiway to the LCN and translated their communication protocol.

5. Processor Gateway (PG)

It provides a link between Honeywell model 45000 computer (with PMX or PMC
software) and TDC 3000 system

6. Hiway Gateway (HG)

It is a link between Local Control network and Data Hiway. It consists of necessary
hardware and software to felicitate data transfer between LCN and DII. It also stores
address of different point connected to DH.

7. Network Interface Module (NIM)

It is a link between Local Control network and Universal control network. Similar to HG,
it consists of necessary hardware and software to felicitate data transfer between LCN
and UCN. It also stores address of different point connected to UCN.

8. Process Interface Unit (PIU): It monitors large number of process variables.

9. Multifunction controller (MC) : PID Control Loops, Logic Operation, Sequence

Control Digital inputs and outputs are handled by this.

10. Advanced Multifunction controller (A-MC)

It performs the same function as MC but it takes less space and it’s scanning is faster than
MC. It is based on Motorola 68000 microprocessor and has scanning rate of 500 ms
(milliseconds). One AMC can handle 16 PID control loops and 128 digital inputs and
output points for interlocking and other functions. Depending upon the number of process
variables to be monitored and controlled, required number of A-MC can be connected to
TDC-3000 system.

11. Process Manager (PM)

It is a highly flexible data acquisition and control device. It consists of up-to-40
selectable I/O processors, coupled with powerful powerful control processor that
performs regulatory, logic and sequencing function. One PM module can control 160
regulatory points. Scanning time to be configured as 250 ms, 500 ms or 1000 ms.

12. Advanced Process Manager (APM): It is upgraded version of PM having more

memory capacity.

13. High Performance Process Manager (HPM): It is upgraded version of PAM which
can handle 800 regulatory points.

14. Logic Manager (LM)

It performs logic operations and interlock functions. It has a large capacity and operates
high speed. It is programmed through ladder logic.

15. Personal Computer Serial Interface: It is interface between TDC 3000 Data Hiway
and 3000 Hiway and any computer having general purpose I/O adapter. 16 bit parallel
communication is used here.

UNIVERSAL STATION
For the Process Engineers the Universal Station provides the means to set up the process
data base displays and reports, and to load system software form the History Module and
floppy diskettes.
For maintenance technicians the Universal Stations means to diagnose and maintain
equipment both in control room and near the process.
For the operator, the US provides a consistent set of operating procedure through which
he monitors and controls the process and handles process and system alarm.
All information supplied from any process connected device, instrumentation subsystem
at computer through LCN and Data Highway, can be seen and used at US, Information is
displayed a 19” high resolution Video Monitor and display can be called up either by
pressing one key on the keyboard or by touching the target area on the screen. These
touch screen targets can be associated with specific functions in any of the module. The
information on specific part of the graphic (or the target) display would indicate the
current situation and the type of corrective action to be performed (or will performed by
the system when the target is touched). Multi screen technology permits displays to be
lined or associated to provide panoramic views without the need to call up separate
displays on each station or page through multidisplay.
Universal Stations are normally grouped together to form an Operator Console. Console
consists of Floppy Disk Drive (FDD), CD Drive, Cartridge Drive and printers along with
US. A US can backup one-another in the event of failure. Database of one area is
normally assigned to one US. One console can have maximum of 10 USs.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

The system uses two types of software (or personality as Honeywell calls it):
Operator Personality : used for process operation
Engineer Personality : used for system development, implementation and loading.
At any time only one type of personality can be loaded in a system. If US has sufficient
memory space than Universal Personality can be loaded in US. Using this either of the
two softwares can be loaded in US directly.

SYSTEM ORGANISATION

In order to implement the control system, a plant can be divided in area, unit and data
points.
Data points are the identities of signal received either from plant equipment or sent to the
plant equipment. For example, 4-20 mA signal originating from a temperature transmitter
will be read into the TDC-3000 system as an analog input. This input will be one data
point. Similarly, an analog output signal generated by TDC-3000 to operate a control
valve will be considered as another point. A point may be analog or digital. Each point is
identified by a tag name. A CL programme is also considered as a point. All the data
points are assigned to a unit. We can assign as many data point to a unit but one data
point can not be assigned to more than one unit.
Units are in turn assigned to different areas. A plant can be divided into a maximum of 10
areas. 36 units can be assigned to one area. But maximum units in a plant can not be more
than 100. One unit can be assigned to more than one area of the plant.
Area data base is loaded into Universal Stations. An operator working on a US will be
able to exercise control over any data point defined under a unit assigned to the area
loaded in the US at that time.
An example will make this concept more clear. A power plant can be divided into several
area like boiler area, turbine area etc. A boiler area can have furnace unit or feedwater
unit assigned to it. Several points like a temperature transmitter having tag name TT101
will be assigned to a unit. Database related to boiler area will be loaded in to one US and
that of turbine area to other.

ORGANISATIONAL DIAGRAM

AREA_01 US1 AREA_02 US2

(BOILER AREA) (PROCESS AREA)

FR DR ST FU P1 P2
UNITS

POINTS OF A PROCESS

OPERATIONAL SECURITY
Access to US functions is restricted by a key switch. Three levels of access are
determined by the type of key inserted and the keyswitch position:
Operator Level – permits an operator to monitor and manipulate process parameters
during normal operation but does not permit changes to sensitive process parameters.

Supervisor Level – permits authorized person to alter sensitive process parameters and
permits all functions allowed at the operator level.

Engineer Level – permits a process engineer to perform process and system functions
that require access to entire database.
A fourth level of access: view only can also be configured wherein only process
monitoring can be done and no data entry or change is allowed.

PROCESS OPERATING FUNCTIONS:

When operator software is in use, the operator has access to all data he needs for normal
operations. Displays available is logically divided in to three type:

Plant Process Display : using this operator can monitor and change process parameters.
Monitor the trends, and handle process alarms. For easy handling, parameters are clubbed
into display groups. In one display group, one can see details of 8 parameters. 400 such
groups can be made. Group no 391 to 400 is operator control groups. Group 401 to 450 is
reserved for CL points. If details of a particular parameters are to be seen than detail
display can be called.

System Display: using this an operator can observe the status of different LCN modules
and handle system alarms.

System Function Displays allows the operator to select reports and histories for viewing
and printing and initiate other system functions.

ALARM HANDLING
Alarm status of individual point are detected by comparing values against limits, range or
other conditions specified by the engineer. Alarm can be generated for individual process
variables (PV) or deviation of PV from set point (SP). Following five types of priorities
can be assigned to different points:

 Emergency
 High
 Low
 Journal (only reporting of alarm will be done, no display or sound) and
 No action

In the area alarm summary, display lists upto 100 recent emergency and high priority
alarms that are detected in the area assigned to the universal station (which stores upto
600 such alarms). 20 such alarms can be displayed on five pages of such displays. In
addition, all units assigned to the station are represented at the bottom of the screen. By
choosing appropriate unit, unit alarm summary can be displayed.
Alarm Annunciator display
It is a user configured display that has 60 boxes that used to indicate upto 300 process
alarms assigned to it (maximum of 10 to each group). By using an annunciator box as
target, the user can call display associated with an alarm. On the top of this display, five
most recent emergency alarm conditions are shown.

HISTORIZATION
Following storage functions are performed by HM:
Historization – It stores continuous history of assigned entity in the snap shot
(instantaneous) and average form (Hourly, Shift, Daily, Weekly, Monthly or user
defined). Averages are calculated from snapshots that are already stored.
Bulk Storage – It stores the standard system software i.e. release software and also stores
graphics, area data base, network configuration files.
Historisation can be of two types:

Continuous history: Storage of process related values. For continuous history, data is
collected in the form of groups where each group can be configured upto 20 parameters.

Event history: Storage of system related as well as process related events i.e. alarms,
changes in controller modes etc.

LOG, JOURNAL AND REPORT

Using data stored in HM, we can generate reports of different types and forms. Report
could be in the form of log and journal.

LOG
It is a set of historised values of specified parameters at specified intervals. Log may be
of two types: Standard and Free Format
In standard log or fixed format log, report may come in two formats: Vertical and
Horizontal.
In vertical format, time appears in first column and values of selected parameters are
displayed in corresponding rows.

06/06/2001 LC101 TC101 LC201

00.00 30.0 1200 500.0
01.00 32.0 1210 498.0
02.00 35.0 1211 488.0

In horizontal format, parameters appear in first column and times is displayed in first
row.

06/06/2001 00.00 01.00 02.00

LC101 30.0 32.0 35.0
TC101 1200 1210 1211
LC201 500.0 498.0 488.0
Free format logs as the name implies, don’t have a set or fixed format and allow to access
any historised parameter. These are custom designed using engineering personality to
meet the specific needs. Editing area for the log is limited to 132 columns and 66 lines.
A log may be displayed either on demand or periodically.

JOURNAL
It is the list that records all significant events of a particular type. A journal may be of
two types

Process journal
1. Process alarms
2. Process changes (made by the operator to different point parameters)
3. Operator messages (during running of CL)

System journal
1. System status
2. System errors (software faults)
3. System maintenance (hardware faults)

All these journals are unit specific. It can be invoked automatically at given interval or on
demand. For making it periodic, day of the week, the time of the day and period at which
the invocation will take place need to be specified.

REPORT: It is combination of logs and journals.

Log, journal and reports can be called up on the screen using System Menu.

TRENDS
Trends of a particular point provides graphical representation of variation of its value
over a specified period of time. Print out of trends can be also be taken. Time period
varying from 1 minute to 96 hours can be selected. Three type of trends can be displayed.

Group Trend
Trend of a particular point can be observed on the screen by selecting it from the group
display. Time base of trend can be changed. Upto 8 parameters of the group can be
selected.

Unit Trend
Unit trend display provides either 2 or 8 hour time base trends of upto 24 points on a
screen. Upto 36 unit trends can be displayed per area.

Area Trend
It is similar to unit trend. But points of different units can be selected. Usually a button if
configured to call up area trend.
 INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
1785 PLC – 5 PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLER

OVERVIEW

Course objective
After completing this course, you will be ablt to
 Program a 1785 PLC – 5 Programmable controller using bit level, timer, counter
and element level instruction
 Document the program
 Print out reports

Course description:
This course covers the procedures to create and apply programs used by Allen Bradley
PLC-5 system processors to control industrial process.
The participants will become familiar with how to load, test and print program. They will
also learn to monitor operation.
This program will enable the participants to write program on the following processors:
PLC-5/10, PLC-5/12, PLC-5/15, PLC-5/25, PLC-5/30, PLC-5/40, PLC-5/60
Because this course focuses upon programming, you should attend a different course if
you need to maintain, troubleshoot or obtain a general knowledge of PLC-5 product.
Prerequisite: you must have:
 Experience with basic control and electrical principles.
 CHAPTER 1
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

A PLC-5 system consists of the following major components:

1. PLC-5 processor module
2. Power supplies
3. Programming Terminal
4. Programming Terminal software
5. I/O Hardware

(1)PLC-5 PROCESSOR MODULES: A PLC-5 processor module has the following

features:

**STATUS INDICATOR: The LED status indicator indicates normal operation and
error condition of processor system.

**FRONT PANEL KEYSWITCH: A 3 position key switch on the front panel of the
processor module selects three mode of operation:
a) RUN MODE:
In this mode, one can run program, force I/O and save program to a disk drive. Real
outputs are activated.
One cannot create or delete a ladder file, create or delete data files, modify data files or
change the modes of operation through the programming terminal or software while in
run mode.

b)PROGRAM MODE:
In this mode, outputs are disabled and processor does not scan the program. One can
create, modify and delete ladder programs or data files, download to an EEPROM
module, and save/restore ladder programs.
One cannot change the mode of operation through the programming terminal or software
while in PROGRAM mode.

c)REMOTE MODE:
In this mode, one can change between remote program, remote test and remote run modes
through the programming terminal or software. Remote run mode is selected by the
keyswitch or through the programming software. Real outputs are activated. Remote
program mode can again be selected by either a keyswitch or software. It is same as the
program mode.
Remote test mode is selected through software only. In this mode, program is executed
with outputs disabled. We cannot create or delete ladder programs or data files.

** FRONT PANEL CONNECTORS: The classic processors have three connectors:

a) PROGRAMMING TERMINAL CONNECTORS – It is a 9 pin, D-shell connector
labeled PEER COMM INTFC. It is a communication port between the processor and the
programming terminal.
b) PEER COMMUNICATION LINK CONNECTORS: This second connector labled
PEER COMM INTFC is the DATA HIGHWAY PLUS connector.
c) REMOTE I/O CONNECTOR: This connector is for remote I/O. It is not applicable to
5/10.

** BATTERY: The Processor includes an AA lithium battery. It retains the processor’s

memory and the memory in an optional CMOS RAM module, if the processor is not
powered. A holder on the front panel houses the battery.
**SWITCH ASSEMBLIES:A processor has three set of switches:

SWITCH ASSEMBLY ONE DETERMINES:

a) The station number of the processor when you configure it on a peer communication
link.
b) The mode of operation of the processor (adapter or scanner).

ADAPTER MODE:
As an Adapter mode the PLC-5 processor communicates with supervisory processor
capable of scanning remote I/O and controlling I/O in its local chassis.
To select adapter mode, set switch 8 of switch assembly SWI on the processor to the
closed position. The host processor communicates with PLC5 adapter with either eight or
four I/O image table words. See figure below:

Adapter Mode Communications

1 2 DL 40
Supervisory PLC-5 message
Processor Processor 1771 I/O display
In Adapter
Mode
Remote I/O link remote I/O link

SCANNER MODE:

As an Scanner mode, the PLC-5/15, PLC-5/25, PLC 5/40, PLC 5/60, PLC 4/40 AND
PLC 5/60L processors can scans and control its processor resident I/O and scans and
control its remote link I/O. It also act as a supervisory processor to other processors in
adapter mode. The processor scans its memory file to read input and control outputs. A
PLC 5 processor scans simultaneous to logic scan. It scans remote I/O asynchronously to
the program scan but updates the data table from the remote I/O buffer synchronously to
the logic scan. See figure below:

Typical PLC-5 scanner configurations are:

 1 local and upto 3 remote I/O racks (PLC – 5/15)
 1 local and upto 7 remote I/O racks (PLC-5/25)

SWITCH ASSEMBLY TWO DETERMINES:

a) The number of data table word reserved for communication between a host processor
and the PLC-5 processor when it is in adapter mode.
b) The beginning I/O group number assigned to the processor module when it is in
adapter mode.
c) The I/O rack number assigned to the processor when it is in adapter mode.

SWITCH ASSEMBLY THREE :

It lets one connect a terminator across the line at the processor when it is an end device
on the data highway plus or remote I/O link.

** MEMORY MODULES: There are four memory modules which can be used
Nonvolatile memory backup (EEPROM): 8K words and 16K words Ram Memory
(CMOS): 4K words and 8K words.
The memory organization within the program memory has been shown in the figure(2)
which consists of two files namely (1) Data files & (2) Program files.

Note:- The memory size can vary from 6 K to 64 K depending upon the classic or
enhanced processor.
VME series of processor have a ETHER net port available on the front panel to provide
direct connectivity to ether net.

(2) POWER SUPPLIES: There are two type of power supplies available. One that can
be mounted inside the chassis and other which can be external to the chassis.

(3)PROGRAMMING TERMINAL: PC-AT

(4) PROGRAMMING SOFTWARE: The 6200 series software package for the PLC-5
can create and edit ladder programs and sequential function chart, monitor data table,
processor status and I/O status and create reports. With the software, other devices can
also be attached on DH+ and view diagnostic information.

(5) I/O HARDWARE: I/O chassis assembly and various I/O modules are required to
interface with a machine or process. If remote I/O are required then its necessary to have
either a remote I/O adapter module of PLC-5 processor in adapter mode for each remote
chassis.

** I/O MODULES: I/O modules are grouped into four general types: Discrete, Analog,
Communication and General Purpose.

DISCRETE I/O MODULES: They interface with ON/OFF devices such as push
buttons, limit switches motor starters. They are available with 8, 16 or 32 input or output
terminals per module.

ANALOG I/O MODULES: They perform the required A/D and D/A conversions to
directly interface analog signals to a processor.

COMMUNICATION WITH I/O MODULES: They interface a processor with other

devices such as remote I/O chassis, loop controllers, DLI counter/ ratemeters and fibre
optic cables.
SPECIAL PURPOSE I/O MODULES: They provide more specific I/O functions such
as monitoring contacts and wire status, setting time/date information for time dependent
applications and detecting optical sensor pulses.

REMOTE I/O ADAPTER MODULE:

It provides communications between the processor and I/O modules contained in a
remote I/O chassis.

Processor details: The classic processors as shown in figure 1 has three connectors. The
processor communication can be configured to select scanner or adapter mode for PLC-5
either by setting switches (PLC-5/10, -5/12, -5/15, or –5/25 processors) or by configuring
through 6200 series PLC-5 programming software.
 Memory Organization

DATA FILES PROGRAM FILES

FILE TYPE FILE NO. FILE TYPE FILE NO.
Output Image 0 System 0
Input Image 1 SFC 1
reserved
Status 2
Program area
Bit 3 Ladder 2
Timer 4 *
Subroutine *
Counter 5 *
Control 6 Fault routine *
Integer 7 Selectable *
Time
Floating 8 interrupt *
Point
9
10
*
Assign Assign
As needed as needed
* *
* *
999 999

Convention for Organizing Program Files / Data files

 File 0 is a system file
 File 1 is for SFC if used
 File 2 is first ladder
 Number the files consecutively to conserve memory
 O/P, I/P and Status files are fixed but other data files can be configured as per
requirement
 I/O Maximum 1771 I/O Module Memory Memory Types
Capacity Number of Type Capacity
(any mix) 1771 I/O compatibility (words)
Racks
PLC-5/10, 512  1 resident I/O 8-point, 16-point, 6K  battery backed CMOS
PLC-5/12 (Cat rack 32-point RAM
No. 1785-  Up to 4 logical
LT4, LT3) I/O racks
PLC-5/15, 512  1 resident and 8-point, 16- Up to 14K  battery-backed CMOS
(Cat No. 1785- utp to 12 remote point,32-point RAM
LT) I/O racks  CMOS RAM expansion
 Up to 4 logical optionL 1785-MR module
I/O racks (4 Kwords); 1785-MS
module (8 Kwords)
 EEPROM program
backup option using
1785-MJ or 1785-MK
module
PLC-5/25 1024  1 resident and 8-point, 16-point, Up to 21K  battery-backed CMOS
(Cat No. 1785- up to 10 remote 32-point RAM
LT2) I/O racks  CMOS RAM expansion
 Up to 8 logical optionL 1785-MR module
I/O racks (4 Kwords); 1785-MS
module (8 Kwords)
 EEPROM program
backup option using
1785-MK module
PLC-5/VME 512 Up to 4 remote 8-point, 16-point, 14K  Battery backed CMOS
(Cat No. 6008- I/O racks 32-point RAM
LTV)  5K bytes VME global
memory
PLC-5/40 2048 16 (resident and 8-point, 16-point, 48K  Battery backed CMOS
(Cat No. 1785- remote) 32-point RAM (integral)
L40B)  EEPROM program
backup option using
1785-ME64
PLC-5/40L 2048 16 (local and 8-point, 16-point, 48K  Battery backed CMOS
(Cat No. 1785- remote) 32-point RAM (integral)
L40L)  EEPROM program
backup option using
1785-ME64
PLC-5/60 3072 24 (resident and 8-point, 16-point, 64K  Battery backed CMOS
(Cat No. 1785- remote) 32-point RAM (integral)
L60B)  EEPROM program
backup option using
1785-ME64
PLC-5/60l 3072 24 (local and 8-point, 16-point, 64K  Battery backed CMOS
(Cat No. 1785- remote) 32-point RAM (integral)
L60L)  EEPROM program
backup option using
1785-ME64
 CHAPTER 2
Assigning Addressing Mode, Racks and Groups

Objective: This chapter conveys basic hardware concepts and provides guidelines to
choose the addressing mode, racks and groups to use in your system.
Placing I/O modules in chassis: The following priority is recommended for placing I/O
modules in a chassis, dependent upon the electrical characteristics of the module. The
placement is made left to right with the left most position being closet in the chassis to
the PLC-5 processor or the I/O adapter module. The placement order is as follows:
1. Block transfer module (all types).
2. DC input modules, placed left to right from lowest to highest voltages
3. DC output modules, placed left to right from lowest to highest voltages.
4. AC input modules, placed left to right from lowest to highest voltages
5. AC output modules, placed left to right from lowest to highest voltages

The following guidelines are for placing block transfer modules.

1. Place as many modules as possible in your processor resident local I/O chassis for
which you need fast block transfer times.
2. Place modules that need fast block transfer times (but space is not available in
processor resident local I/O chassis) in an extended local I/O chassis.
3. Place modules that timing is not as critical as other block transfer modules in
remote I/O chassis.
4. AC output modules should always be the furthest I/O module from any block
transfer modules in the same chassis.

Understanding the terms:

I/O group is an addressing unit that corresponds to an input image table word (16 Bits)
and an output image table word (16 bits). An I/O group can contain up to 16 inputs or 16
outputs and can occupy 2-, 1-, or ½- module slots.
I/O Rack is an addressing unit that corresponds to 8 input image table words and 8 output
table words. A rack contains 8 I/O groups. Depending on the I/O chassis size and I/O
group size, an I/O rack can occupy a fraction of an I/O chassis, a full I/O chassis or
multiple I/O chassis.

Choosing the addressing mode: A PLC-5 processor (for its processor resident local I/O)
and a 1771-ASB or –ALX adapter module address I/O in 2 slot, 1-slot, or ½- slot I/O
groups. You can select an addressing mode for each chassis independently, based on the
type and density of the I/O modules contained therein.
When you select addressing mode, limit the number of remote I/O adapters and I/O
modules to the maximum number that the PLC-5 processor that you have selected can
support.

Using 2-slot addressing

When you select 2-slot addressing, the processor addresses two I/O module slot as one
I/O group. Each physical 2-slot I/O group corresponds to one word (16 Bits) in the input
image table or one word (16 bits) in the output image table.
The figure shown in next page show an 8-point input module and an 8-point output
module in a 2-slot I/O group. This I/O group uses 8 bits of the input image table and 8
bits of the output image table.

16-point I/O modules: Sixteen point digital discrete I/O modules have up to 16 inputs or
upto 16 outputs. A 16-point I/O module uses a full word in the input or output image
table. The I/O group shown in next page uses 16 bits of the input image table and 16 bits
of the output image table.
Because each 16-point module uses a full word in the image table, the only type of
module you can install in a 2-slot I/O group with 16-point input module is an 8- or 16-
point module that perform a complementary function (input and output complement each
other). Since all blocks transfer are bi-directional, they can not be used to complement
each input or output modules.

Using I-slot Addressing

When you select I-slot addressing, the processor addresses one I/O module slot as one
I/O group. Each physical slot in the chassis corresponds to an input and output image
table word. The figure below shows a 16-point module with I-slot addressing. Here you
can use any mix of 8-point and 16-point modules. However 32-point modules must be
installed in particular combination explained later.

16-point modules: The figure shown in next page shows a I-slot group with a 16-point
digital discrete I/O module. A single 16-point module uses an entire word of the
processor image table. You can place any mix of 8-point I/O modules (including bi-
directional modules) such as block transfer modules in any order.

Block transfer module addressing: To address a single block transfer module in a I-slot
I/O group, use the assigned I/O rack and group numbers of the slot (in which the module
reside) and 0 for the module number. To address a double slot block transfer module, use
the assigned rack number, the lower assigned I/O group number and 0 for the module
number.

32-point I/O modules: To use 32-point I/O modules with I-slot addressing, you must
install, as a pair, an input module and an output module in 2 adjacent slots (even/odd
pair) of the I/O slot, beginning with I/O slot 0. If pairing this way can not be done, then
one of the two slot of the pair must be empty. For example, if I/O slot 0 holds a 32-point
input module, I/O slot I must hold 8-16-or 32-point output module (or a module using the
backplane for power supply) otherwise the slot must be empty.
Thirty-two point I/O modules use 32 input or 32 output bits in the processor’s image
table. Because only 16 input bits are available for each I-slot I/O group, to address a 32-
point I/O module, the processor uses the address of the unused input or output word
associated with the adjacent I/O slot in an even-odd pair.

Using ½ slot addressing

When you select ½ slot addressing, the processor addresses one half or an I/O module
slot as one I/O group. Each physical slot in the chassis corresponds to two input and two
output image table words. You can mix 8-, 16-, or 32- point I/O module in any order in
the I/O chassis because 32 processor image table for each I/O slot. However when you
use 8-and 16-point I/O modules with ½ slot addressing, you use fewer total I/O bits in
your processor image table.
This figure illustrates ½ slot addressing concept with 32-point I/O modules. A 32-point
I/O module (with ½ -slot I/O group) uses two words of the I/O image table.
Summary for selecting Addressing Modes
The following table summarizes the guidelines for selecting an addressing an addressing
mode:

Addressing Guidelines:
Mode:
2-slot  When you use 16-point I/O modueles, you must install as a pair an input
module and an output module in an I/O group; if you use an input module
in slot 0, you must use an output module in slot 1 (or must be empty).
This configuration gives you the maximum usage of I/O.
 You cannot use a block transfer module and 16-point module in the
same I/O group because block transfer modules use 8 bits in both the
input and output table. Therefore, 8 bits of the 16-point module would
conflict with the block transfer module.
 You can use 32-point I/O modules.
1-slot  When you use 32-point I/O modules, you must install as a pair an input
module an output module in an even/odd pair of adjacent I/O group; If
you use an input module in slot 0, you must use an output module in slot
1 (or it must be empty). This configuration gives you the maximum usage
of I/O.
 Use any mix of 8-, and 16-point I/O modules, block transfer or
intelligent modules in a single I/O chassis. Using 8-point modules results
in fewer total I/O.
½-slot  Use any mix of 8-, 16-, and 32-point I/O or block-transfer and
intelligent modules. Using 8-point and 16-point I/O modules results in
fewer total I/O.
 With the processor resident local rack set or ½-slot addressing (PLC-
5/30, -5/40, -5/40L, -5/60, -5/60L processor only), you cannot force the
input bits for the upper word of any slot that is empty or that has an 8-
point or 16-point I/O modules. For example, if you have an 8-point or a
16-point I/O module in the first slot of your local rack (words 0 and 1 of
the I/O image table, 1/2 –slot addressing), you cannot force the input bits
for word 1 (L-001) on or off.

Assigning Rack Numbers

The numbers of racks in a chassis depends on the chassis size and the addressing mode.
The table below summarizes the relationship between chassis size and addressing mode
for number of racks possible.
One I/O rack number is eight I/O group, regardless of the addressing mode you select.
You can assign one (128 i/ps and 128 o/ps) to four racks in your processor-resident
chassis depending on the chassis size and addressing mode. You can not split a processor
resident – local I/O rack over two or more chassis or assign unused I/O processor-resident
I/O groups to remote I/O racks.
The default address of the processor – resident chassis rack is 0. you can change the
default to 1 when using a PLC-5/30, -5/40, OR-5/60 processor by setting bit 2 in the
processor control word (S:26) on the processor configuration screen.
An extended –local I/O and remote I/O chassis cannot be addressed by the same I/O rack
number. For example, if an 8-slot extended-local I/O chassis is configured as I/O groups
0-3 of I/O rack 2, and 8-slot remote I/O chassis cannot be configured as I/O groups 4-7 of
I/O rack 2.
Remote I/O racks you can assign a remote I/O rack to:
1. A fraction of a chassis
2. A single I/O chassis
3. Multiple I/O chassis

Guidelines for addressing remote I/O racks are as follows:

1. Limit the number of remote I/O rack numbers to the maximum rack limitations that
your PLC-5 can support.
2. PLC-5 processor and 1771-ASB adapter module automatically allocate the next higher
rack numbers (s) to the remaining I/O groups of the chassis. For example if you use ½
slot addressing, the processor will address racks 0,1,2 and 3 in this chassis.

Block transfer module racks using ½ slot addressing: To address a block transfer
module in a ½ slot I/O group, use the assigned rack number, the lower assigned I/O group
number of the slot(s) in which the module resides and 0 for the module number.

How Chassis Size and Addressing Determine the Quantity

If you using this With 2-slot With 1-slot With 1/2 –slot
Chassis size Addressing, addressing, addressing,
number of rack (s) number of rack (s) number of rack (s)
is: is: is:
4-slot ¼ ½ rack 1 rack
8-slot ½ rack 1 rack 2 racks
12-slot ¾ rack 1-1/2 racks 3 racks
16-slot 1 rack 2 racks 4 racks

ASSIGNMENT ON CHAPTER 2

A. Write the proper format for each address.

1. Terminal 13, Input, Rack 3, I/O Module Group 3
2. Terminal 4, Output, Rack 2, I/O Module Group 7
3. Timer 100, file 4, accumulated value ACC
4. File 22, element 5, preset sub element PRE, counter type data
5. Processor status, element 12
6. Input module, module group 3, terminal 5, rack 2
B. Obtain the addressees for the switches, tights, thumb wheels etc. for your workstation
and use this information to fill out your file, Element & Bit usage form. Assign symbolic
names for each input and output device.
Print out a copy using Printer.
 CHAPTER 3

BASIC INSTRUCTION
I/O Image Files in Data Storage: The input image file in the processor stores the status of
input. The input image file in the processor stores the status of the input devices
connected to input module terminals.
If the Input Device is: Then its Corresponding Input Image Bit is:
Closed (on) On (1)
Open (off) Off (0)

The output image controls the status of output devices wired to output module terminals.
If the Output Image Bit is: Then its Corresponding output Device
Image is:
On (1) Energized (on)
Off (0) De-energized (off)

Examine ON (XIC): This instruction tells the processor that if you find an ON condition
at bit I:012/07 in the input table, set this instruction true.

---------- --------------

This bit corresponds to input terminal 7 of a module in I/O group 2 of I/O rack 1. if the
I/P circuit is true, the instruction is true.
Examine OFF (XIO): This instruction tells the processor that if you find an OFF
condition at bit I:012/07 in the input table, set this instruction true.

---------- --------------

This bit corresponds to input terminal 7 of a module in I/O group 2 of I/O rack. If the I/P
circuit is false, the instruction is true.
Energize (OTE): This instruction tells the processor to turn ON bit O:013/01 of the
output image table if the ON O:013/01 of the output image table if the rung is true and
turns it OFF if the rung is false.

----------( )-------------

This bit corresponds to output terminal 1 of a module in I/O group 3 of I/O rack 1.
Latch (OTL): This instruction tells the processor to turn ON output image table bit
O:13/01 if the rung is true.
----------( L )---------------

This bit correspond to output terminal 1 of a module in I/O group 3 of I/O rack 1.
Unlatch (OUT): This instruction tells the processor to turn OFF output image table bit
O:13/01 if the rung is true.
-----------( U )----------------

This bit corresponds to output terminal 1 of a module in I/O group 3 of I/O rack 1.
Immediate INPUT (IIN): The immediate-input instruction is an output instruction that
when enabled, update a word of input image bits before the next normal input-image
update.
-------------( IIN )-----

For input on the local chassis the programme scan is interrupted while the inputs of the
addressed I/O group are scanned. This sets the input-image bits to the current states of the
inputs before the program scan continues. If the program reaches an enabled IIN
instruction while a block transfer with the local chassis is in progress, the processor
completes the block transfer before executing the IIN instruction.
Immediate Output (IOT): Immediate-output instruction is an output instruction that
when enabled, updates an I/O group of outputs before the next normal output-image
update.
-------------( IOT )----

For input in the local chassis the program scan is interrupted while the inputs of the
addressed I/O group are scanned. This sets the input-image bits to the current states of the
inputs before the program scan continues. If the program reaches an enabled IIN
instruction while a block transfer before executing the IIN instruction.

Assignment on Chapter 3
1. Write a program to control the movement of cylinder by operating solenoids.
Designate the input and output devices by appropriate address.
Required Operation:
When the push button is pressed, the piston shall move forward to open position. When it
touches L2, it should automatically start moving in and stop only when it touches L1.
Next cycle shall start only by pressing the button once again.
2. Write a program to control the movement of two cylinder by operating solenoids.
Required Operation: When the push button is pressed, the piston of cylinder 1 shall come
out and stop at maximum out position sensed by L2. At this moment piston of cylinder 2
shall start moving out and after touching L3 it should start coming back. As piston 2 has
come back and sensed by L4, the piston 1 should start moving in and stop when it is
completely sensed by L1. This completes one cycle of operation. Another cycle start only
when PB is pressed again.
 CHAPTER 4
TIMER AND COUNTER

Timer and counter Instructions: The time and counter controls the operation based on
time or number of events. Types includes:
Delay turning on an output TON
Delay turning off an output TOF
Times an event retentively RTO
Count Up CTU
Count down CTD
Reset a Timer, Counter or Counter RES
driven Instruction
Timers: Engineering parameters

T X : Y
:---------Timer number (0-999)

: :
: :-----Timer file number (3-999)
:---------------Timer (file type)
Status bit Preset Accumulated Value
TX:Y.sb TX:Y.PRE TX:Y.ACC

The default timer file number is 4. If one wants to specify a timer file number between 3
and 8 (other than default 4) one has to delete the entire default file for that number and
than create a timer file.
The status bit, preset and accumulated value are specified as follows. sb specifies a status
bit mnemonic such DN.
The processor stores status bits and the preset and accumulated values in a 48-bit storage
structure (three 16-bit words) in the timer area of data memory.

Available Time base values:

Enter This Time Base: The Accumulated Value Range is:
1 second To 32.767 time-base intervals (to 9.1 hours)
0.01 seconds (10ms) To 32.767 time-base intervals (5.5 minute)

Preset: specifies the value which the timer must reach before the processor sets the done
bit (DN).

Accumulated: value is the number of timer increments the instruction has counted.
When enabled, the timer updates this value continually.

Important: The accumulated value operates differently if a TOF is used.

Timer Accuracy: Timer accuracy refers only to the length of time between the moment
the processor enables a timer instruction and the moment the processor completes the
timed interval. Timer accuracy depends on the processor clock tolerance and the time
base. The clock tolerance is +/- 0.02%, then a timer could time out early or late by 0.01
seconds (10 ms) for 0.01 second time base or 1 second for a timer of 1 second time base.

TIMER ON DELAY: Use the TON instruction to turn to an output or or off after the
timer has been on for a preset time interval. The TON instruction starts accumulating
time when the rung goes true and continues until one of the following happes:
 The accumulated value equals its preset value
 The rung goes false
 A reset instruction resets the timer

ON

OFF

ON
Timer Enable
Bit OFF

Timer Timing ON
Bit
OFF

Timer Done ON
Bit
OFF

Output Device ON
(Controlled by
Done Bit ) OFF

TIMER OFF DELAY: Use the TOF instruction to turn an output on or off after the
timer has been on for a preset time interval. The TOF instruction starts accumulating time
interval. The TOF instruction starts accumulating time when the rung goes false and
continues until one of the following happens:
 The accumulated value equals its preset value
 The rung goes true
 A reset instruction resets the timer

RETENTIVE TIMER ON: Use the RTO instruction to turn to an output on or off after
the timer has been on for a preset time stop and start without resetting the accumulated
values.
The RTO instruction begins timing when the rung goes true. As long as rung remains
true, the timer, updates the accumulated value each program scan until it reaches the
preset value. The RTO instruction retains its accumulated value even if one of the
following occur.
  The rung goes false
 One change to program mode
 The processor faults mode
 The processor faults or looses power

The default counter file number is 5. If one wants to specify a counter file number
between 3 and 8 (other than default 5), one has to delete the entire default file for that
number and then create a counter file.
The status bit, preset and accumulated value are specified as follows. sb specifies a status
bit mnemonic such as DN.

The sb is a status bit mnemonic, such as DN.

The processor stores status bits and the preset and accumulated values in a 48-bit storage
structure (three 16-bit words) in the counter area of data memory.

Preset: specifies the value which the counter must reach before the processor sets the
done bit. The preset value can range from –32,768 to +32,768.

Accumulated Value is the current count based on the number of times the rung goes
from false to true. The accumulated value is stored as a 16-bit integer value. Negative
values are stored in two’s complement form.

COUNT UP: The CTU instruction count upward over a range of –32,768 to +32,768.
Each time the rung goes from false to true, the CTU instruction increments the
accumulated value by one count. When the accumulated equals or exceeds the preset
value, the CTU instruction sets a done bit.

The accumulated value of a counter is retentive. The counter retained until reset by a
reset instruction (RES) that has the same address as the counter.
Count up Enable bit is 15.
Count up done bit is bit 13.
Count up overflow bit is bit 1.

COUNT DOWN: The CTD instruction counts downwards over a range of -32,768 to
+32,768. Each time the rung goes from false to true, the CTD instruction decrements the
accumulated value by one count. The done bit DN is set as long as the accumulated value
is greater than or equal to the preset value. When the accumulated value is less than the
preset value, the done bit DN is reset, which can be used to initiate some action.
The accumulated value of a counter is retentive. The counter retained until reset by a
reset instruction (RES) that has the same address as the CTD instruction.
Count down Enable bit is bit 14.
Count down done bit is bit 13.
Count down overflow bit is bit 11.
TIMER AND COUNTER RESET: The RES instruction is an output instruction that is
entered to reset a timer or a counter. It executes when the rung is true. If the counter rung
is enabled, the CU or CD bit will be reset as long as the RES instruction is enabled.

ASSIGNMENT ON CHAPTER 4
Write enter and test the program to solve following:
1. Open valve 1 if switch 1 is closed for 12 seconds.
2. When switch 2 is closed, turn on lamps1, 2 and 3. Turn off lamps 1,2 and 3 at five
second interval, when switch 2 is opened.
3. The diagram below is a simple pumping station. The pump transfer a fluid from the
tank on the left to a tank on the right.

Write a program for following conditions;

 When the start PB is pressed, the pump start. The button can be released and the
pump continues to operate.
 When the stop button is pressed, the pump stops.
 Before starting, pressure switch one must be closed .
 Five seconds after the pump starts, pressure switch two and three must be closed.
If those switches are not closed, the pump will shut off and will not be able to
start again for another 14 seconds.

Exercise Applying Counter Instruction

1. Count the number of parts coming off the assembly line for final packaging. Each
package contains 10 parts. When the package is full, the machine seals the package. The
sealing process takes five seconds. Then rotate the work table for three seconds, so the
next package can be filled. You choose switches and lamps for the required inputs and
outputs.
2. Keep the count of the total number of packages from the previous problem completed
in an eight hour shift. A package takes two minutes to fill. An input will be used to
indicate the start of a new shift. (need to restart package count from zero).

CHAPTER 5
COMPARE INSTRUCTION

COMPARE INSTRUCTIONS : The compare instructions compare value using an

expression or using a specific comparison instruction.

Compare values based on an expression CMP

Test whether two values are equal EQU
Test whether one value is greater than GEQ
or equal to a second value
Test whether one value is greater than GRT
second value
Test whether one value is less than or LEQ
equal to the second value
Test whether one value is less than LES
second value
Test whether one value is within the LIM
limit range of two other values
Pass two values through a mask and MEQ
test whether they are equal
Test whether one value is not equal MEQ
to other value

Compare (CMP): The compare is an input instruction that performs the comparison or
arithmetic operation. When the processor finds the expression to be true, the rung goes
true.
This instruction tells the processor that if the sum of the values in N7:0 and N7:1 is
greater than the subtraction of the values in N7:2 and N&:3, set output bit O:013/01.
Valid operations for use in a CMP.

Equal to (EQU):
This instruction tells the processor that if the value in N7:5 is equal to the value in N7:10,
set output bit O:013/01.

Greater than or Equal to (GEQ):

This instruction tells the processor that if the value in N7:5 is greater than equal to the
value in N7:10, set output bit O:013/01.
Less than equal to (LEQ), Greater than (GRT), Less than (LES) etc. compare the two
sources and O/P is executed depending on rung condition.

Limit Test (LIM):

The LIM instruction is an input instruction that tests for values inside of or outside of a
specified range. The instruction is false until it detects that the test value is within certain
limits, the instruction goes true. When the instruction detects that the test value goes
outside certain limits, it goes false.
Range of values can be from –32767 to +32767

Mask compare Equal to (MEQ):

The MEQ instruction is an input instruction that compare a value from a source address
with data at a compare address and allows portion of it to be masked. If the data at a
source address matches bit by bit (less masked bit), the instruction is true. The instruction
goes false as soon as it matches a mismatch.
SOURCE 01010101 01011111
MASK 11111111 11110000
COMPARE 01010101 0101****
RESULT the instruction is true as
reference bits ****are not
compared.

ELECTRICITY
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS

To find that the current, which we obtain from such a simple generator, reverses its
direction after every revolution. Such a current undergoing periodic reversal is known as
alternating current (A.C).
Generation of the Alternating Voltage and Currents:
Consider a rectangular coil having N turns rotating in a uniform magnetic field with an
angular velocity of  radian/second as shown in fig. In time t seconds, this coil rotates
through an angle  = t.
In this deflected position, the component of the flux which perpendicular to the plane of
the coil is m cos t. Hence flux linkage of the coil in this deflected position are
N = Nm cos t
According to the Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction, the e.m.f. inducted in the
coil is given by the rate of change of flux linkages of the coil. Hence the value of the
induced e.m.f. at this instant (i.e. when  = t) or the instantaneous value of the induced
e.m.f. is
e = -d/dt (N) volt
= -N d/dt (m cos t) volt
= -Nm(-sin t) volt
= Nm sin  volt ----(1)

When the coil has turned through 900 i.e. when  = 900, then sin  = 1, hence e has
maximum value, say Em.

Therefore, from Eq.(1) we get Em = Nm volt -----(2). Substituting this value of Em in
Eq.(1) e = Em sin t. Similarly, the Eq. of induced alternating current is I = Imsin t.
It is seen that the induced e.m.f. varies as sine function of the time angle t and when
e.m.f. is plotted against time, a curve similar to one shown in fig. is obtained. This curve
is known as sine curve and the e.m.f. which varies in this manner, is known as sinusoidal
e.m.f.

Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is
known as a cycle.

Frequency: The number of complete cycle in one second is called frequency (f).
Time period: The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called
time period.

Amplitude: The maximum value, positive or negative of an alternating quantity is

known as its amplitude.

Phase and phase difference: By phase of an alternating current is meant the fraction of
the time period of the A.C. that has elapsed since it last passed through the zero position
of reference.

Now consider three similar single-turn coil displaced from each other by an angle  & 
and rotating in a uniform field with the same angular velocity.

In this case the value of induced e.m.f. in the three coils are the same, but there is an
important difference. The e.m.f. of these coils do not reach their maximum or zero vlues
simultaneously, but one after another. The three sinusoidal waves are shown in fig. It is
seen that curves B and C are displaced on curve A by angle  and ( + ) respectively.
Hence, it the phase difference between A and B is  and between B and C is  but
between A and C is ( + ).
Root Mean square (R.M.S.) Values:= The r.m.s. values of an alternating current is
given by that steady current (d.c.) which when flowing through a given circuit for a given
time produces the same heat produce by an alternating current when flowing through the
same circuit for the same time. This is equal to V(r.m.s.) = Vm / 2. R.M.S. value of current
= 0.707* max value of current.

Average value:- The average value Iav of an alternating current is given by that steady
current which transfers across any circuit the same charge as is transferred by that
alternating current.

Mathematically it is equal to 2Im / . Or average value of current = 0.637* max value.

Form factor:- It is defined as the ratio, r.m.s. value/average value = .707Im / .637Im=1.11
Peak or Amplitude Factor:- It is defined as the ratio,

max. value/r.m.s. value = Im/Im/2 =1.414

TRANSFORMER

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric

power in one circuit is transformed to another, circuit without any change in power and
frequency. It can rise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease
or increase in circuit.
The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuit linked by a
common magnetic flux. In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils that are
electrically separate but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance as shown in
fig.

The two coils posse’s high mutual inductance. It one coil is connected to a source of
alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of that is
linked with the other coil in which it produces mutually induced e.m.f. (according to the
Faraday’s law of electro magnetic induction i.e. (e=Mdi/dt). If the 2nd circuit is closed, a
current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred (entirely magnetically) from first
coil to the 2nd coil. The first coil in which electric energy is fed from the a.c. supply
mains, is called primary winding and the other, from which energy is drawn is called
secondary winding.

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Let N1 = No. of turns in primary

N2 = No. of turns in secondary
m = maximum flux in the core
f = frequency of a.c. input in Hertz (Hz)

As shown in fig. The core flux increases from its zero value to maximum value m in one
quarter of cycle i.e. 1/4f.
Average e.m.f. induced/turn = 4fm Volt.
If the flux varies sinusodially then r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by
multiplying average value with form factor.
r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. in the whole of primary winding E1 = 4.44fN1m
similarly r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. in secondary is E2 = 4.44fN2m
In an ideal transformer on load V1 = E1 and E2 = V2

Voltage transformation ratio (k)

From the above equation we get E2/E1 = V2/V1 = N2/N1 = K

The constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.
(1) If N2 > N1 i.e. K>1, then transformer is called “step up”
(2) If N2<N1 then K<1, then transformer is called “step down”.
Again for an ideal transformer
Input VA = output VA V1I1 = V2I2 or I2/I1 = V1V2 = I/K
Hence, current are in the inverse ratio of the voltage transformation ratio.

D.C. GENERATORS

Generator Principle:-
An electrical generator is a machine, which converts mechanical energy(or power) into
electrical energy (or power).
This energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of dynamically (or
motionally) induced e.m.f. As seen from Fig. (1).
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in it.
According to Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic induction this e.m.f. will cause a current
to flow if, the conductor circuit is closed.
Hence, the basic essential elements of an electrical generator are (i) magnetic field and
(ii) a conductor or conductors which can move so as to cut the flux.
Simple Loop Generator

Construction:- In fig. (2) is shown a single-turn angular copper coil ABCD rotating
about its own axis magnetic field provided by either permanent magnets or
electromagnets. The two ends of the coil are joined to sliprings or discs ‘a’ and ‘b’ which
are insulated from each other and from the central shaft. Two collecting brushes (or
carbon) press against the sliprings. Their intention is to collect the current induced in the
coil and to supply it to the external load resistance R. The rotating conductors may be
called armature and the magnets as field coils.

Working- Imagine the coil to be rotating in clockwise direction (Fig.3). As the coil
assumes successive positions in the field, the flux linked with it changes. Hence, an e.m.f.
is induced in it which is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages (e=Nd/dt).
When the plane of the coil is at right angles to the lines of flux i.e. when it is in position
1, the flux linked with the coil is maximum but rate of change of flux linkages is
minimum. This is so because in this position, the coil sides AB and CD do not cut or
shear the lines of flux, rather they slide along them i.e. they move parallel to them.
Hence, there is no induced e.m.f. in the coil.
As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change of flux linkages (and hence
induced e.m.f.) increases, till position 3 is reached where 0=90 0. Here, the coil plane is
horizontal i.e. parallel lines of flux. As seen, the flux linkages or rate of flux cutting is
maximum. Hence, maximum e.m.f. induced in the coil when in this position as shown in
(Fig.4)

In the next quarter revolution i.e. from 900 to the flux linked with the coil gradually
increases rate of change of flux decreases. Hence, the induced e.m.f. decreases gradually
till in position 5 of the negative half cycle. it is reduced to zero value (Fig. 4)
The direction of this induced e.m.f. can be found by applying Fleming’s Right-hand rule
which give direction from A to B and C to D. Hence, the direction of current flow is
ABMLCD (Fig.2) The current through the load resistance R flows from M to L during
the first half revolution of the coil. In the half revolution i.e. from 180 0, the variations in
the magnitude of e.m.f. are similar to those in the first revolution. Its value is maximum
when coil is in position 7 and minimum when it is in position 1 will be found that the
direction of the induced current is from D to C and B to A. Hence, the path of current
flow is along DCLMBA which is just the reverse of the previous direction of flow.
Therefore, we find that the current which we obtain from such a simple generator
reverses its direction after every half revolution. Such a current undergoing periodic
reversal is known as alternating current (A.C.).
For making the flow of current unidirectional in the external circuit, the slip-rings are
replaced split-rings . The split-rings are made out of a conducting cylinder which is cut
into two halves segments insulated from each other by a thin sheet mica or some other
insulating material (Fig.5). Before, the coil ends are joined to these segment which rest
the carbon brushes.

It is seen [Fig. 6(a)] that in the first half revolution, current flows along ABLMCD i.e.
brush which is in contact with segment ‘a’, acts as the positive end of the supply and
brush No.2 and brush negative end. In the next half revolution [Fig. 6(b)], the direction of
the induced current in the coil is reversed. But at the same time, the positions of segments
‘a’ and ‘b’ are also reversed with the reset brush No.1 comes in touch with that segment
which is positive i.e. segment ‘b’. Hence the current in load resistance again flows from L
to M. This current is unidirectional but not continuous like pure direct current.
Another important point to remember is that even now the current induced in the coil
sides is alternating as before. It is only due to the rectifying action of the split-rings (also
called commutator) that it becomes unidirectional in the external circuit. Hence, it should
be understood that even in the armature of a d.c. Generator, the induced current is
alternating.

MAGNETISM

Magnet is a substance which possesses the property of attracting small pieces of iron and
sets itself in North-South direction when suspended freely. The magnetism is a
phenomenon by which action takes place.
Magnetic and Non-Magnetic substance:-
Those materials that can be magnetized are called magnetic substances. These can be
further divided as under-
(1) Ferromagnetic substance:- Which can be strongly magnetized by magnetic field. Such
as iron, cobalt, steel, nickel and alloy such as Alnico.

(2) Paramagnetic substances:- Which are only slightly attracted by a magnetic field. Such
as Aluminium, chromium and oxygen.

(3) Diamagnetic substance:- Which are slightly repelled by magnetic field. Such as
bismuth, zinc, silver, gold, water

The soft magnetic materials like low-carbon electrical steel have high permeability, low
coercivity and small hysteresis loss, which make them measuring devices.
The hard magnetic materials have high coercivity, low permeability and large hysteresis
loss and are suitable for making permanent magnetc.

Magnetic field:- The space or region around a magnet which is permitted by the line of
force and within which a electric current carrying conductor are perceptibly is called
magnetic field. It is assumed that line force emanate from a N-pole, pas through the
sounding medium re-enter the S pole and complete their form S-pole to N-pole through
body of the magnet. every line of force must have complete circuit. It is possible to get a
magnet having only one pole. These of force complete their path independently and never
merge into each other.

Magnetic Poles:- The places in a magnet where the resultant attractive force appears to
be concentrated called the poles. This appears near the ends of bar. The pole which points
towards the north is called North Pole and other one is called South Pole.
Magnetic Force:- This was first determine by coulomb experimentally. The force
between two magnetic poles placed in a medium is:

Directly proportional to their pole strength

Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them,
Inversely proportional to the absolute permeability of the surrounding medium

F  m1 * m2 /  d2 or F = k m1 * m2 / d2 where k is a constant

The value of K in S.I. system is 1/4
F = m1 * m2 / 4   d2 = m1 * m2 / 4  01d2
Two poles are placed in vacuum or air, then F = m1*m2 / 4  0 d2
From above equation, m1 = m2 = m (say); d = 1 metre F = m 2/4 0 N; Then m2=1. Hence
a unit pole may be defined as the pole which when placed in air at a distance of one metre
from a and equal pole repels it with a force of 1/4 0 Newton.
'
Field intensity or field strength or magnetizing force (II):-
Field strength at any point within a magnetic field is measured by the force experienced
pole of one weber placed at that point. Hence, unit of II is N/Wb.

Magnetic Potential (M):-

The magnetic potential at any point within a magnetic field is measured by the work done
in pole of one weber from infinity to that point against the force of magnetic field.
FLUX DENSITY:- Flux density at a point is given by the magnetic flux passing per unit
cross that point. It is usually designated by the capital letter (B) and is measured in
weber/m2. The recommended name for the unit Weber/m2 is tesla (T).
If  is the total flux passing through an area of Am2, then B = /A wb/m2 or (T).

MAGNETIC INDUCTION:-An un magnetized piece of soft iron becomes magnetized

if the field of magnet. This phenomenon is called magnetic induction. Iron piece is
induced both magnet is called inducing body.

ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY () AND RELATIVE PERMEABILITY(r)

The absolute permeability () of a medium is given by the ratio

 = B /II = flux density / magnetizing force
therefore B = I I
Now flux density in vacuum Bo = o I I ……………. (i)
And flux density in a medium B = or H ………….. (ii)
Dividing equation (ii) by (i) we get
r = B/Bo = Flux density in the medium/Flux density in vacuum – for same II
has no unit, because it is a ratio. It is found that for ferromagnetic materials r is
considerably an unit, for paramagnetic materials it is slightly greater than unity, and for
diamagnetic material slightly less than unit.

INTENSITY OF MAGNETISATION:- (J or I)It is defined as the pole strength

developed of the bar, [ i.e. I = m/a wb/m2]
(K) :- It is ratio of intensity of magnetization I to the magnetizing force H.
therefore, K = I/H

MAGNETIC SCREENING:-

There is known substance, which will insulate against magnetic flux. in other word
magnetic flux is through all substances including even glass, rubber, wood etc. Hence,
watches, compasses and instruments get adversely affected by earth’s field and form
stray magnetic fields produced and current carrying conductors in their vicinity.
Obviously, it is desirable to protect them from such fields.
Shown in fi., it can be done by enclosing the instruments in a soft iron case or shell. Since
soft iron high permeability, magnetic flux prefers to pass through it instead of the
instruments. The shell magnetic shield or screen.
Point:- While heating a magnetic substances at certain temp is reached when it losses all
it . this temp is called curi point. Its value is about 7500 c.

ELECTROMAGNETISM

It is well known that a magnet can be made by stroking an iron piece with a permanent
magnet or by placing a iron bar inside a long coil of insulated wire (i.e. a solenoid)
carrying a strong current. It is found that the magnet made by the electrical method
(known as electromagnet) is capable of raising a heavier load than the magnet made by
stroking.
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS:-
An electric current is always accompanied by a magnetic field. The field strength
decreases with current. Magnetic field is right angles to the conductors and it consists of
lines of force, which form complete, circle round the conductor. There exists a definite
relation between the direction of the current flowing in a conductor and the direction of
the magnetic field surrounding it. This relationship may be obtained by R.H. grip Rule.
FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR LAYING INA MAGNETING
FIELD:-
It is found that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a force, which acts in a direction perpendicular both to the direction of
current and the field.
In fig. Shown a conductor XY, lying at an angle  with a field of flux density B. then B
can be resolved into two components, B Cos  parallel and B sin  perpendicular to the
conductor. The former produces no effect where s the later is responsible for the motion.
Let 1 ampere current is passing through it and its length is ‘l’ then the magnitude of the
force exerted on the conductor is F = B I I Sin  N. Its direction is obtained by Fleming’s
left hand rule.
Hold out your left hand with force-finger, second finger and thumb at right angle to one
another. If the forefinger represents the direction of the field and the second finger that of
the current, then the thumb gives the direction of the motion.
DEFINITION
(i) Magneto motive force (m.m.f.)
drives or tends to drives flux through a magnetic circuit and corresponds to electromotive
force (e.m.f.) on electric circuit. It is given by the product ‘Nl’
M.M.F. is equal to the work done in joules in carrying a unit magnetic pole ones through
the entire circuit, it is measured in ampere-turns.
As p.d. between any to points is measured by the work done in carrying a unit charge
from one to another, similarly, m.m.f. between two points is measured by work done in
joules in carrying a magnetic pole from one point to another.
It is unit of magneto motive force. (m.m.f.)
Reluctance:- It is the name given to that property of a material which opposes the
creation of magnetic flux in it. It, in fact, measures the resistance offered to the passage
of magnetic flux material and is analogous to resistance in an electric circuit. Its unit is
AT/Wb(=m.m.
Reluctance = I/or or I/A
In other words, the reluctance of a magnetic circuit is the number of ampere-turn required
per magnetic flux in the circuit. Since 1 AT/Wb –1/henry, hence unit of reluctance is also
reciprocal
Flux:- it is equal to the total number of lines of induction existing in a magnetic circuit
and analogous to current in an electric circuit. It is measured in webers.
Permeance:- It is reciprocal of reluctance and implies the case or readiness with which
magnet developed. It is analogous to conductance in electricity. It is measured in terms of
Wb/AT or
Comparision between Magnetic and Electric Circuit.
Flux = m.m.f. / reluctance Current = e.m.f./resistance
M.M.F. (ampere-turn) E.M.F. (in volts)
Flux ( in webers) Current (in amperes)
2
Flux density B (in Wb/m ) Current density (A/m2)
Reluctance S = I/A Resistance R = pI/A
Permeability ( = I/reluctivity) Conductivity (= I/resistivity)
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
It is well known whenever an electric flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is
immersed into existence in the space surrounding the conductor. We can say that when
electrons and they produce a magnetic field. The conserve of this is also true i.e. when a
magnetic field a conductor moves relative to the conductor, it produces a flow of
electrons, this phenomenon here by an e.m.f. and hence, current is induced in any
conductor that is cut across or is cut by magnet is known as “electro magnetic induction”
FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:-
First law:- “When the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f is always
induced in it”
OR
“Whenever a conductor cuts across magnetic line of flux, an e.m.f is induced in that
conductor “
Second law:- “ The magnitude of induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux
linkages”
i.e. e= -d/dt(N) or e=-Nd/dt volt
Usually, a minus sign is given to the right hand side expression to signify the fact that
e.m.f sets up current in such a direction that magnetic effect produced by it opposes the
very producing it. This is known as LENS’S LAW.
INDUCED EMF AND CURRENT:- It is found easily by applying Fleming’s right rule.
Hold out the right hand with force-finger (point), second (middle) finger and thumb at
right angle each other.
If point finger represents the direction of line of flux, the thumb point the direction of
motion of the finger represents the direction of current.
INDUCED E.M.F.:-
The conductor moves at an angle  with the line of flux then the induced e.m.f. is
E = B l v Sin 0 volt.
Where B = flux density; l = length of the conductor, v = velocity of the conductor
Direction of the induced e.m.f is given by the Fleming’s Right hand rule.
OHM’S LAW
According to this law the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference across its ends if the temperature and other physical condition
remain unchanged. This law is expressed as
V  I or V = I R
Where V = potential difference across the ends
I = current flowing through the conductor
R = resistance or opposition of the current
This law has following limitations:-
(1) only small current should be allowed to flow through circuit, so that temp. should
remain constant
(2) The conductor should not be subjected to any kind of stress, strain or tension
Relation derived from Ohm’s law:-
(1) Resistance R = V/I (2) Current I = V/R (3) Power W = VI
Resistance in series:-
When some conductor having resistance of R1, R2 & R3 etc., are joined end-on end as
shown in fig. They are said to be connected in series. Then its equivalent resistance will
the sum of three individual resistances, R = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistance in paralle:-
The three resistance or joined in fig are said to be connected in parallel. The equivalent
resistance will be fined as I/R = I/R1 + I/R2 + I/R3
Voltage Divider Formula:-
It is used for finding voltage drops across different resisters connected in series. Since in
a series circuit, same current will flow each resister, voltage drops are directly
proportional to their ohmic value. If in fig. R2 is twice R1, then V2 = 2V1 and so on.
Now total resistance of the series circuit is R =
R1 + R2 + R3 = I2
According to the voltage divider formula the
Various voltage drops are
V1 = V*R1/R = 24*2/12 = 4V
V2 = V*R2/R = 24*4/12 = 8V
V3 = V*R3/R = 24*6/12 = 12V
As expected, V1+V2+V3 = 24V
Voltage is always relative i.e. voltage at any point in a circuit is always measured relative
to another point called the reference point. It is usually called ground. The term ground is
derived from the method used in ac power lines in which one side of the line neutralized
by connecting it to a water pipe or a metal rod driven deep in to the ground. This method
of grounding is called earth grounding.
However in electronic circuit, the metal chassis or frame or cabinet that houses the
assembly is used as common or reference point and is called chassis or circuit ground.
However, the chassis ground has not to be necessarily connected to the earth ground,
though it is mostly earth-ground in order to prevent shock hazard due to potential
difference between the chassis and earth ground.
Q.1. A bulb is rated 110-V, 60W is connected with another bulb 110V, 100W across a
220V mains. Calculated the resistance, which should be joined in parallel with the first
bulb so that both the bulbs may taken then rated power?

Kirchhoff’s Law
Kirchhoff’s first law or point law or current law (KCL) “in any network of conductors,
sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction) is zero”. Put in another way, it simply
that the total current leaving a junction is equal to the total current entering the junction.
Explanation
Consider the case of a few conductors meeting at a point A shown in fig. Some
conductors leading to point A, where have current leading away from point A, assuming
becoming currents to be positive and the outgoing current negative we hav,
I1 + (-I2) + (-I3) + I4 + (-I5) = 0
I1 + I 4 = I 2 + I 3 + I 5
In coming current = outgoing current
Kirchhoff’s 2nd law or mesh law or voltage law(KVL):- It states that “the algebraic
sum of product of current and resistance in each of the conductors in any closed mesh ( or
path) in a net work the algebraic sum of the E.M.Fs. in that path is zero.
i.e.  IR +  e.m.f. = 0
Determination of sign: A rise in voltage should be given a +ve sign and a fall in voltage a
–ve sign. Keeping this in mind, it is clear that as we go from –ve terminal of a battery to
its +ve terminal, there I in potential, hence this voltage should be given as +ve sign, and
vice versa.
Now take the case of a resistor. If we go through resistor in same direction as current,
then there is in potential, because current flows from higher to lower potential. Hence,
this voltage fall should be –VE and vice versa.
Consider the closed path ABCDA as shown in fig.
I1R1 is –VE
I2R2 is –VE
I3R3 is –VE
I4R4 is +VE
I5R5 is +VE
I6R6 is +VE
Taking kirchhoff’s 2nd law, we get
I1R1 – I2R2 – I3R3 + I4R4 + E1 – E2 = 0
I1R1 + I2R2 + I3R3 – I4R4 = E1 – E2
Star Transformation
Suppose we are given three resistances R 12, R23 and R31 connected in delta fashion
between terminals 1, and 3 as shown in fig. So far as the respective terminals are
connected. These three terminals can be replaced by three resistances R 1, R2 and R3
connected in star as shown in fig.
Hence resistance of each arm of the star is given by the product of the resistance of the
two delta as that meet at its ends divided by the sum of the three-delta resistance.
Delta Transformation
Hence equivalent delta resistance between any two terminals is given by the sum of star
resistances between those terminals plus the product of these two star resistances divided
by the third star resistance.
Cell and Battery
The word “cell” means one unit or combination of materials, for converting chemical
energy into electrical energy. A “Battery” means a combination of these unit or cells.
Primary Cell:-
It essentially consists of two dissimilar conducting electrodes (one anode and other
cathode) immersed in a liquid called electrolyte. By chemical reaction electrons are
shifted from one electrode to another, thereby creating a potential difference between the
two electrodes. Primary cell can not be charged.
E.M.F. and Terminal Potential Difference:-
The e.m.f. of the cell the total potential difference established within the cell between
electrodes, when the cell is not supplying any current. (So that there is no internal voltage
drop).
But the terminal potential difference is equal to the e.m.f. minus the internal voltage drop
“i” is the current supplied by the cell and “r” its internal resistance then
Terminal potential difference available for external circuit,
V = e.m.f. – ir or V = E – ir
Where V = terminal potential difference and
E = e.m.f. generated within the cell.
It should be noted that where as e.m.f. “E” is constant, the terminal potential difference
“V” is not, as it depends on load current supplied by the cell.
Standard cell
A standard cell is one whose e.m.f. varies very little with time and temperature. It is not
as a source of energy but for use as a secondary standard of voltage in potentiometer
circuit for calibration of voltmeter, ammeter etc. Most commonly used standard cell is
saturated Weston cell. If the current ever drawn from it does not exceed 0.1mA, then its
e.m.f. is about 1.01trusted to remain constant to about 1 part in 1,00,000.
Simple Potentiometer
A simple potentiometer or it is some time called, a potential divider, is used for obtaining
variable voltage, from a constant- voltage supply. The whole of supply voltage is dropped
across a resistance AB as shown in fig. and by changing the position of the sliding
contact C over potentiometer resistance. AB. Any voltage from zero up to that of the
supply can be obtained for applying it across the load. The volume control of radio or TV
receiver is a common application of a potentiometer used as a voltage divider.
Q.2. Calculate the combined resistance of four conductors 6,9,12 and 18 ohm connected
in parallel current flowing through the circuit is 2A. find the current flowing in the 9 ohm
resister.
Q.3. A 150 ohm resistance coil AB is connected to terminals at 240V dc. Calculate the
value of the resistance coil which connected between the mid point of AB and the end A,
will carry current of 0.8A.
Q.4. Two lamps are connected in parallel to a constant dc supply of 110V. The resistance
of the as 11:9. The current flowing in the circuit is 4.5A. Find the resistance of each
lamp.
Q.5. Two coils A and B of 11 ohm and 14 ohm resistance are connected in series.
Calculate the ohms of a resistance C to be placed in parallel with B so that the total
combination will pass a current of 10A when connected to a dc supply of 230 V.
Work, Power and Energy
Effect of electric current:-
It is matter of common experience that a conductor, when carrying current becomes hot
at the same time. The current is flow of electrons. The moving electrons, as they pas
“through” the nucleus or atoms of that substance, collide with other electrons. This
electronic collision results in the function of heat.
Of heat:-
The unit generally employed in known as calorie. The calorie is defined as the amount
that raise the lamp of 1 gram of water through 1 de. C. In S.I. system the unit of heat is
kilo (k cal). The standard rising of temp, is from 14.5 degree C to 15.5 deg. C.
Law of electric heating:-
The amount of work required to maintenance current of 1 amperes through a resistance of
R ohm for seconds is
W.D. = I2 RT Joules
= VI t Joules
= Wt Joules
= V2 t/ R Joules
work is converted into heat and dissipated away. Heat produced is-
H = WD/j [ where j=4.2 Joules/cal or 4200 Joules/Kcl]
H = j2 Rt/ 4.2 cal. OR I2 Rt / 4200 kcl.
Of Electricity
Total quantity of electricity or charge is given by the product of current strength and time.
Q=I*t
1 ampere and it flows for 1 second, then
1 ampere *1 second = 1 A* s = 1 coulomb
one coulomb is that quantity of electricity which flows per second pass any point in a
conductor.
Current of one ampere is flows through it.
Power
It is the rate of doing work and is independent of the total amount of work to be done.
Electric power = electric work done / time [Vit / t = VI]
[W = VI] its unit is watt 1 watt = 1 joules / second
3 6
1000 W or 10 W, 1MW = 10 W
energy
it is defined as efficiency of work done. It means W. D multiplied by time gives total
energy consumption.
Watt – hour (WH) = 1 Watt * 1 hour 1 Kilo watt – hour = 1000 * 1 hour
Of electric charge is based on the number of KWH consumed and popularly known as
“UNIT”.
A house there are ten no. of bulbs of 100 W is glowing for ten hours; five no. of fan of
200 W is 8 for twenty hours; an air-condition of 1500 W is working for eighteen hours.
Find out total power consumption in one month. What will be the charge of electricity
when it is Rs. 4.5 per unit?
ELECTROSTATICS
StaticElectricity:
It is that branch of engineering which deals with the phenomenon associated with
electricity at rest. Positive electrification of a body results from a deficiency of electron
whereas negative electrification result from an excess of electrons. The total deficiency or
excess of electron in a body is known as charge.
Absolute (ε) and Relative Permitivities(εr) of a Medium:
While discussing electrostatic phenomenon, a certain property of a medium called its
permitivity play very important role. Every medium is supposed to posses two
permitivities.
(1) absolute permitivity (ε) (2) relative permitivity (εr)
for measuring relative permitivity, vacuum or free space is chosen as the reference
medium. It is allowed in absolute permitivity of 8.854 * 10 -12 farade/metre (F/m). Its
symbol is ε0. obviously, the relative permitivity of vacuum with reference to itself is unit.
Hence for free space
Absolute permitivity = 8.854 * 10-12 farade / metre (F/m).
Relative permitivity = 1
Now take any other medium. If its permitivity, as compared to vacuum is ε 0 then its
absolute permitivity

Laws of electrostatics:
This law is known as coulomb’s law.
First law: Like charges of electricity repel each other, whereas unlike charges attract each
other.
Second law: The force exerted between two point charges (i) is directly proportional to
the product of air strength (ii) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them and (iii) inversely proportional to the absolute permittivity (ε) of the
surrounding medium.
It can be expressed mathematically as

Where k is the constant of proportionality whose values depends upon the system of unit
employed system the unit, k =I/4
F = Q1 * Q2 / 4 εd2 its unit will be newtons.
Above equation may be written as
F = Q1 * Q2 / 4 ε 0 ε r d2 N- in a medium
/ 4 ε 0= 1/4 ε 0 * 8.854 * 10-12 = 9 * 109 (approx)
9 * 109 Q1* Q2 / εrd2 N --- in a medium
9 * 109 Q1* Q2 / d2 N --- in air.
Relative parmittivity of air = 1 water = 81 teflon = 2 mica = 6
Electric field:-
The region around a charge, in which it acts force on another charge body is called
electric field.
Electric Induction:
It is found that when an unchanged body is brought near a charge body, then unchanged
body opposite charge and opposite face will acquire similar charge. This phenomenon is
called electric induction.
Potential at a point:-
Potential at any point within the filed of +ve point charge is numerically equal to the
work done in one coulomb +ve charge from infinity to that point against the electric
force.
Potential Difference:-
It is the amount of work done bringing unit positive charge from one point to another
point within electric field. It may be expressed as-
The potential difference (p.d.) of one volt exists between two points, if one joule of work
is done in a charge of one coulomb from one point to another point.
Electric Strength of the Medium:-
It is measured in terms of potential difference which when applied across 1meter
thickness of a medium or insulating medium will break down its insulation. It is also
expressed in V/m for when we say, the break down. Potential of air is 3 * 10 6 V/m, it
means the maximum p.d. which thickness of air can with stand across it is 3 * 10 6 volt. If
the voltage exceed this value then air breaks down, a spark is produced which puncture
the medium.
Capacitance
Capacitor essentially consist of two conducting surface separated by a layer of an
insulating called “dielectric”. The conducting surfaces may be in the form of either
circular (or rectangular) of spherical or cylindrical shape. The purpose of a capacitor is to
store electrical of energy by stress in the dielectric.
Property of a capacitor is store electricity may be called its capacitance. The capacitance
of a may be defined as.
Amount of charge required to create a unit potential difference between its plates.
We give Q coulombs of charge one of the two plates of a capacitor and a p.d of V volt is
between the two, then its capacitance is given by
C = Q / V coulomb / volt
Coulomb / volt is called “ farad”
1 micro farad = 10-6 farad
1 micro micro farad = 10-12 farad
Capacitor:
Plate capacitor consisting of two plates M and N A m2 separated by a thickness d meters
of a relative permittivity εr is shown in fig. capacitance established between the two
plates is proportional to area of the plate and relative and inversely proportional to the
distance of two plate i.e.
εr A / dF ………. In a medium
ε0 A / dF ………. In air
series:-
capacitance C will be:- I/C = I/C1 + I/C2 + I/C3
parallel:
equivalent capacitance will be C = C1 + C2 + C3
in a capacitor:
E = ½ CV2 joules
Type of capacitor:
(1) Mica capacitor:- Usually, they are multiplate types consisting of a series of plates,
alternate being connected together and separated by a dielectric. Mica capacitor has very
low power on alternating current and hence are very suitable for use at radio frequency.
(2) Ceramic capacitor:- These consists of a discs of ceramic material whose opposite
faces are with metallic silver. It is very suitable for short wave work in radio.
(3) Paper capacitor:- These consists of sheets of metal foil usually aluminum interleaved
with paper impregnated with oil or wax. It is suitable for use in audio frequency (A.F.).
(4) Eelctrolytic capacitor:- These are either wet or dry type. The dry type consists of
positive and negative electrodes of aluminum foil which are separated from each other by
a porous paper gauge. Due to their high capacitance, such capacitors are generally used in
smoothing circuit radio.

Constant may be defined as the time during changing of a capacitor voltage rises to 0.632
or 63.20 final steady value. The value of time constant is given by = CR second.
Capacitor of 100 micro farad is charged through a 500 ohm resistance from a d.c. supply
of 1000v period after switching on will elapse before the capacitors acquire 50% of its
final charge? 34.6ms
Charging of a capacitor:

In capacitor:
Capacitor is one whose dielectric medium is a perfect insulator i.e. has infinite resistance.
Once it remains in this full charged forever. Actually, no insulating medium is perfect.
Hence, of every capacitor conducts a small amount of current is called leakage current.
That is why the of an actual or non-ideal capacitor leaks off after some time.
Constituent of Matter
Modern research has established that all matter whether solid, liquid or gaseous, consists
of minute particles is called “ molecules” which are themselves made up of still minute
particles known as “atom”. Those substances whose molecules consists of similar atoms
are known as “elements” and those molecules consists of dissimilar atoms are called
“compounds”. The atoms are composed by atomic particles electron, proton and
neutrons. The proton and neutrons live in neucleus and it is very closely held together
with tremendous nuclear force, electron moves around the neucleus in fixed orbit. The
proton carries a positive charge of electricity. The electron carries a negative charge of
electricity and neutron has no charge. The atom is electrically neutral as the neucleus of
the atom carries positive charge and surrounding electrons carry an equal amount of
negative charge.
The charge of electron = -1.6 * 10-19 coulomb
The charge of proton = +1.6 * 10-19 coulomb
Coulomb charge = 6.26 * 1018 electron
The mass of proton = 1.6 * 10-27 kg
The mass of neutron = 1.6 * 10-27 kg
The mass of electron = 1/1840 mas of proton
The combined total no. of proton and neutron within the atom is called the atomic weight.
The no. of proton or electron is called atomic number. The chemical behviours of atom
depend upon the atomic number.
Conductor:- The substance in which electric flows are called conductor, such as human
body, silver, copper, graphite normal water etc.
Insulator:- The substance in which electric charges do not flow is called insulator, such as
distilled water, wood, dry air, glass, mica etc.
Resistance
It may be defined as the property of substance due to which it opposes the flow o
electricity (i.e. electrons) through it. The practical unit or resistance is ohm(). A
conductor is said to have resistance of one ohm, if it permits one ampere current to flow
through it when one volt is impressed across its terminals.
106 = 1 mega ohm 103= 1 kilo ohm
Law’s of resistance:- The resistance R is offered by a conductor depends on the
following factor:
1. It varies directly as its length
2. It varies inversely as the cross section of the conductor
3. It depends on the nature of the material
4. It also depends on the temperature of the conductor

Neglecting the last (N0.4) for the time being we can say
R  I/A or R = pI/A
Where, I = length of the conductor
A = cross section area of conductor
P = constant is known us specific resistance or resistivity.
A = Im2 the R= p
Hence specific resistance of a material may be defined as-
Resistance between the opposite faces of a meter cube of that material. Its unit is ohm
Conductance (G) and conductivity ():-
Reciprocal of resistance is conductance (I/r). Its unit is mho. The new unit of conductance
is (S). Reciprocal of specific resistance (I/p) is called conductivity. Its unit I
siemens/meter (S/m).
Effect of Temperature on Resistance:-
The effect of rise in temperature is –
(1) Increase the resistance of pure metals. This increase is large and fairly regular for
normal ranges temperature. The temperature – resistance graph is a straight line. It means
metals have a positive temperature – coefficient of resistance.
(2) Increase the resistance of alloys, but increase is relatively small and irregular.
(3) Decrease the resistance of insulators. Hence insulators are said to have a negative
temperature – coefficient of resistane.
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE:-
Let a metallic conductor having resistance of R0 at 00C be heated to t0C and let its
resistance at temperature be R1. Then considering normal range of temperature, it is
found that the increase in resistance Δ R = Rt – R0 depends
(1) Directly on its initial resistance
(2) Directly on the rise in temp.
(3) on the nature of material of conductor
or Rt – R0  R0 t or Rt – R0 =  R0 t
where  = is a constant and is known as temp. coefficient of resistance of that conductor
Rt = R0 (1 +  t) - (1)
Rearranging equation _ (1) we get
 = (Rt – R0) / (R0 8 t) = Δ R/ R0 * t
if R0 = 1 ohm and t = 10C then  = Δ R
Hence temperature coefficient at 00C may be defined as-
The change in resistance per ohm per degree change in temperature from 00C.
RESISTOR
Different resistors, whether fixed or variable are commonly made of metals and alloys.
The small-size color-banded resisters employed in radio and TV use a carbon
composition as the material.
Variable Types of Resisters:-
(1) A rheostat is in a variable wire resistance having two connections, one fixed and the
other movable.
(2) Those variable resistors, which have three terminals, two at the ends and one
moveable contact are called potentiometers.
(3) The other type of variable resisters is decade resistance
(4) And P.O. box.

ELECTRONICS
It is defined as that field of science and engineering which deals with electron devices
and their utilization. Here the term electronic device is a device in which conduction
takes place by the movement of electrons through a vacuum, a gas or a semi conductor.
Semi Conductor:- Some materials are neither good conductor nor good insulator. Their
resistivity lies in lies in between copper and glass. It has negative temp. co-efficient of
resistance.
Classification in terms of resistively:- R = p 1/A where p = Resistivity ( - m)

Semi conductor material:- Germanium, Selenium, Silicon and Carbon.

Bonds in semi conductor:- There is co-valent bond in semi conductor. All four electrons
of lastorbit share four electron of neighboring atom of same material and complete its
octed. In fig. shows a bond structure of semi conductor.
Type of semi conductor:- There are two type of semi conductor.
1. Intinsic
2. Extrinsic
1. Intrinsic:- A semi conductor in purest form is known as intrinsic semi conductor.
It behaves like a insulator at normal temp, but it works like a conductor at 850c for
Ge and at 2000c for Si.
2. Extrinsic:- At room temp. the conduction capability of intrinsic semi conductor is
small. To make it is a useful electronic device a small amount of suitable impurity
is added to a pure semi conductor.
Addition of impurity with semi conductor is known as dopping. 106 atom of pure semi
conductor dropped by 1(one) atom of pentevalent impurity like arsenic (As) or Antimony
(Sb) to from N-type semi conductor.
And to form p-type semi conductor, pure semi conductor dropped by trivalent like
Galium (Ga) and iridium (In) impurity.
Bond Structure of N-type and P-type:-
In N-type all four electron of semiconductor share four electron of pentavelent impurity
and rest one electron of impurity does not take part in combining with bond. This electron
is known as free electron. Due to this semi conductor conducts.
In p-type all four electron of semi conductor share three electron of trivalent impurity
(Ga) one electron short to complete octet. This short place of electron creates holes. Due
to this holes semi conductor conduct and provide (+)ve charge.
P-N Junction:- when a P-type semi conductor is suitably joined to N-type semi
conductor, a contact surface is formed which is called a P-N Junction. It is formed by the
process of following.

Explained with help of fig. The left side of the material is P-type semiconductor
containing negative acceptor ions and positive charged holes. The right side of the
material is N-type semi conductor positive donor ions and negatively charged free
electrons. At the Junction, there is dependency for the highly concentrated electrons in N-
type to diffuse over to P-side and reversly hole diffuse to the N-side.
This process is called diffusions and it is due to random motion of charge moves to
thermal agitation. When a sufficient number of donor and acceptor ions are uncovered,
they form a barrier to prevent further diffusion. Now positive charge on N-side repels
holes to cross from P-side to N-side. The negative charge on P-side repeles electron to
cross from N-side to to P-side. This is called Junction barrier and in terms of potential it
is called potential barrier. Barrier potential for Ge is .2 to .3 v and for Si it is .7 volt.
Drift:- The movement of charge due to applied electric field is called Drift.
Note:-
Changed carriers:-

P-N Junction under voltage:- Potential difference across the P-N Junction can be
applied in following two ways.
When voltage is applied across the Junction in such a direction that reduces the effect of
potential barrier to permit the current flow, the process is called forward biasing.
When the voltage is applied to the Junction in such a way that potential barrier is
increased, it is called reverse bias.
Characteristics of P-N-Junction:-
When we applied voltage across the P-N- Junction, the variation in current plotted of the
variation in voltage is called its V-I characteristics.
In forward bias the barrier potential is reduced. Initially negligible current flows up to
barrier potential due to minority carrier and beyond this value, there is sharp increase in
the current and P-N- Junction acts likes a conductor to give linear V-I characteristics.
In reverse bias the potential barrier increased and offers very high resistance. So the
reverse current is of the micro amperes due to minority carriers. When the reverse voltage
is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of the minority carriers electrons becomes
high enough to knock out electrons form the atoms of the semi conductor. At this stage
breakdown of the Junction occurs and sudden rise in reverse current and sudden fall in
resistance of the barrier region. This break down may destroy the Junction completely.
Voltage:- Forward voltage at which current starts increasing. For Si it is 0.7 and for it is
0.2 to 0.3 volt.
Inverse voltage:- P.I.V is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the P-
Junction without damaging the Junction.
Break Down:- When the P-N diode is in reverse bias, its voltage increased up to down the
covalent bond, which generates electron hot pair. The range of voltage is . at this voltage
the current increase sharply up to very high value.
Break Down:- This occurs when minority carriers gain sufficient energy due to reverse
voltage and it breaks the co-valent bond. Range of voltage in between 5 to 7v.
SEMI CONDUCTOR DIODE
Symbol ofdiode

Direction of arrow indicates the flow of current (+ve to –ve). Cathode is always marked.

Diode:- An ideal diode behaves like a perfect conductor in forward direction and
insulator in reverse direction.
Of diode:- connect the probe red and black to the diode’s terminal and set the total
multimeter at diode and it displays digit then probe terminal will be anode and black
probe terminal in cathode. Displayed digit shows forward voltage cathode.
DIODE AS A RECTIFIER:- Conversion of alternating current (or voltage) in to direct
current is called rectification. A diode is well suited for this job because it conducts only
in one direction i.e. only when forward biased. It is of two type:- 1. half wave uses one
diode. 2. full wave:- Center tap (two diode) & Bridge rectifier (four diode).
Every electronic equipment includes a circuit which provides it with a stabilized d.c.
output voltage from the input a.c. voltage. In fact, this circuit forms the power supply of
the equipment and consists of:-
1. a transformer – for either stepping up down the a.c. supply voltage.
2. rectifier – for converting a.c. into d.c.
3. smoothing filter – for removing ripples in the d.c. output voltage.
4. stabilizer – for keeping output voltage constant.

A block diagram is shown in fig.

Half wave rectifier:-
In half wave rectifier circuit diode conducts during positive half cycle of the input supply
voltage only. It needs larger filtering circuit for obtain D.C output.
1. Vdc = Vm/ 2. Idc = Im/ 3. Vrm5 = Vm/2 4. Ir.m.s. = Im/2
5. Ripple factor = 1.21 = R.M.S. value of ac component / value of D.C. component
6. Efficiency = 40.6%
7. Transformer utilization factor (TUF) = D.C. Power deliver to load / A.C. rending of
transformersecondary = 28.6%
9. Ripple frequency = f(input)
10. Pick inverse voltage (p.j.v) = Vm.
Adv- simple and low cost
Dis-low efficiency, half ripple factor, harmonic output, low TUF.
Use – CRT anode supply mainly.
Full wave rectifier:- when the rectifier provides d.c. current to the load in both positive
and negative half cycle of a.c input supply, it called full wave rectifier. It is of two type:
1. Centre tap full wave rectifier:- The full wave circuit use two diode D1 & D2,
connected to a center tapped secondary winding of transformer. During positive half
cycle D1 in forward bins and thus it conduct. In the next negative cycle of a.c. input
supply diode. In the next negative cycle of a.c. input supply diode D1 will be reverse
bins, D2 will be forward bias to conduct power in the same direction in load. Thus it acts
as well as a full wave rectifier.
1. Vde -= 2 Vm/ 2. Ide = 2Im/ 3. Vrms = Vm/2 4. Ir.m.s. = Im/2
5. Ripple factor = .48
6. Efficiency = 81.2
7. Transformer utilization factor (TUF) = 67%
8. Ripple frequency = 2f(input)
pick inverse voltage (p.j.v.) = 2 Vm.
Full wave Bridge rectifier:-
To this rectifier, four diode are connected in the form of a bridge across the secondary
whose secondary winding us used. The diode are DI; D2; D3; D4 is shown in fig.

During the positive half cycle, the end P is at the positive potential and N is at negative.
Therefore diode D1 & D2 conducts to allow current flow in the load from A to B. During
the next halt cycle, the end N is at positive potential w.r.t. to end P. So diode D3 & D4
conducts to allow current in load from A to B. Thus the current in the load remains in the
same direction. Thus rectified D.C. supply is obtained in both the half cycles.
Advantage:- As compare to center tapped full wave rectifier.
Two time the output is obtained from center tapped 2. PIV is half (=Vm)
No need of center tapped transformer.
Circuit:- To remove the a.c. component, a filter circuit is used. A filter circuit is a device
to remove the a.c. component of the rectified output but allows the d.c. component to the
load. A filter circuit is generally combined with inductor (L) and cpacitor (C) L.C. Filter
circuit. A capacitor allows a.c only indicator allows d.c. only to pass.
Using capacitor across load we reduce the ripple. Capacitor offers low resistance path to
component but offers high resistance path to the d.c. component which appears across
the. Further during rise of the voltage cycle it gets charged and this charged voltage is
supply to the load during the fall in voltage cycle. This process is repeated for each cycle
and simples is reduced across the load. It is useful for load upto 50 m.a. as in transistor
radio very eliminators.

Diode as a voltage stabilizer circuit:-

Break down region the voltage across zener will always become constant only current . It
is obtain by a crystal diode having proper dopping to have sharp zener voltage. Voltage
across the load remain fairly constant as long as the input voltage does not fall Vz(V0-
V2) always.
TRANSISTOR
Transistor:- When a third dropped element is added to a crystal diode, in such a way that
low P-N-Junction are formed, the resulting device is known as a transistor. A transistor
consists of two P-N-Junction formed by sandwiching either P type or N-type
semiconductor between a pair of opposite type. Accordingly, there are two type of
transistors namely.
 1. n-p-n transistor
2. p-n-p transistor

There are three terminates, taken from each type of semiconductor. The middle section is
very thin layer. This is most important factor in the function of a transistor.
A transistor transfers a signal from low resistance region to high resistance region.
Naming the transistor terminates:-
Emitter:- The section on one side supplies charge carriers (electrons or holes) is called
the emitter. It is more heavily doped than any of the other region. The emitter is always
forward biased w.s. base, so that it can supply a large number of majority carriers. In fig-
1 the emitter of p-n-p transistor is forward bias.
Similarly in fi-2 the emitter of n-p-n transistor has a forward bias and supplies free
electron to its junction with the base.
Collector:- The section on other side that collects the majority charge carrier coming
from the emitter and passing through the base is called collector. In most transistor,
collector region is made physically larger than the emitter region because it has to
dissipate much greater power. The collector is always reverse bias. Its function is to
remove charges from its junction with the base. Fig-1 the collector of the p-n-p transistor
has reverse biased and receives hole charges that flow in the output circuit. In fig-2 the
collector of n-p-n transistor has reverse bias and receives electrons.
Base:- The middle section which forms two P-N Junction between the emitter and
collector is called the base. It is very thin (10 to the power –6) as compare to either the
emitter or collector and is very lightly doped. The base emitter Junction is forward bias
allow low resistance for the emitter circuit. The base collector junction is reverse biased
and provide high resistance in collector circuit.

TRANSISTOR ACTION
Working of n-p-n transistor: Fig-3 shows the n-p-n transistor with forward bias to emitter
base junction and reverse bias to collector base junction. The forward bias enuses the
electron in the emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current I E. As
these electron flows through the p-type base they tend to combined with holes. Since the
base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore only a few electrons (less than 5%) combine
with hole to constitute base current IB. The reminder (more than 95%) cross over into
collector region to constitute collector current IC. In this way, almost the entire emitter
current flows in the collector circuit. It is clear that emitter current is sum of the collector
current and base current. That is IE = IB + IC
This statement is true regardless of transistor or transistor configuration.

Fig-4 shows the basic connection of p-n-p transistor. The forward bias, cause the holes in
the p-type emitter to flow towards the base. This constitute the emitter current IE. As
these holes cross into n-type base, they tend to combine with the electrons. As the base is
lightly koped and very thin, therefore only a few holes (less than 5%) combine with
electrons. The reminder (more than 95%) cross into collector region to constitute
collector current IC. In this way almost the entire current flows in the collector circuit. It
may be noted that current conduction within p-n-p transistor is by holes. However, in the
external connecting wires the current is still be electron.
Importance of Transistor Action:- The input circuit (i.e. emitter base junction) has low
resistance because of forward bias, where as output circuit (i.e., collector base junction)
has very high resistance due to reverse bias. As we have seen the input emitter current
almost entirely flows in the collector circuit. Therefore, a transistor transfer the input
signal current from a low resistance circuit to a high resistance circuit. This is key factor
responsible for the amplifying capability of a transistor.
TRANSISTOR CONNECTION:-
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between emitter and base, and output is taken
from collector and base. Here base of the transistor is common to both input and output
circuit and hence named common-base connection.
Current amplification factor ():- The ratio of change in collector current to the change
in current at constant collector base voltage (Vcb) is known as current amplification for
that is  = ∆ Ic / ∆ Ic at constant Vcb
It is clear that current amplification factor is less than unity. This value can be increased
by decreasing the base current. This is achieved by making the base thin and doping
lightly. Practical values of  in commercial transistor range from 0.90 to 0.99.
2. Common – Emitter – Connection:- In this circuit arrangement, input is applied
between base and emitter, and output is taken from collector and emitter. Here emitter of
the transistor is common to both input and output circuit and hence the named common
emitter connection. Fig shows the common emitter (n-p-n) transistor circuit.
Base current amplification factor ():- The ratio of change in collector current (∆ic) to
the change in base current (∆Ib) is known as base current amplification factor i.e.  =
∆Ic/ ∆ Ib
In almost any transistor, less than 5% of emitter current flows as the base current.
Therefore the value of  is generally greater than 20. Usually its value range from 20 to
500. This type of connection is frequently use as it gives appreciable current gain as well
as voltage gain.
Relation between  and : A simple relation exists between  and . This can be
derived as follows:-
 = ∆ Ic / ∆Ib ………..(1)
 = ∆ Ic / ∆ Ic ……….(2)
Now Ic = Ib + Ic or ∆Ib = ∆Ic-∆Ic
Substituting the value of ∆Ib in equation (1) we get
 = ∆Ic / ∆ Ic - ∆Ic ……….(3)
dividing the numerator and denominator by R.H.S of equation (3) by ∆Ic we get
=

3. Common – collector – connection:- In this circuit arrangement, input is applied

between base and collector, while O/P is taken from the emitter. Here collector of the
transistor is common to both input and output circuit and hence the named given common
collector connection. Fig. shows the common collector connection of n-p-n transistor.
Current amplification factor (): The ratio of change in emitter current (∆Ie) to the
change in base current (∆Ib) is knows as current amplification factor in common collector
arrangement i.e.  = ∆Ie / ∆IB
Relation between in  and 
 = ∆ Ie / ∆ IB ……… (1)
 = ∆ Ic / ∆Ie………. (2)
we know Ie = Ic + IB or ∆IB = ∆Ie - ∆Ic …… (3)
substituting the value of ∆IB in equation (1) we get
 = ∆Ie / ∆ Ie - ∆Ic …….. (4)
dividing numerator and denominator by ∆Ie we get
 = (∆ Ie / ∆Ie) / (∆Ic/∆Ie) – (∆Ic/∆Ie) = 1 / 1 -  [ as ∆Ic / ∆Ie = ]
  = 1/ 1-
AMPLIFIER:-
It is a device which increase the amplitude of the input signal without changing frequency
and phase with the help of active device and a d.c. source is must for biasing.
Classification of amplifier:-
(1) As per frequency:- radio, audio, video
(2) As per coupling :- direct, R-C, Transformer
(3) As per power:- voltage, current, power
(4) As per configuration:- CE, CB, CC
(5) As per bias:- Class A, Class B, Class C
R-C couple amplifier:-
R2- For base biasing. To select base to emitter volt and to select base current Ib. To limit
maximum collector current or convert collector current into volt.
And CC2- To block dc and allow ac.
To improve the thermal stability.
To improve ac gain of amplifier.

FIELD-EFFECT-TRANSISTOR
In a transistor both holes and electrons contribute to the process of its conduction. So they
are called Bipolar Transistor. They have following disadvantages:-
Due to forward biased emitter junction, they have low input impedance.
Large noise level.
These draw backs are reduced by use of field-effect-transistor (FET)
FET:- it is a three terminal semi conductor device, in which current is conducted either
by electrons or holes. The conduction is controlled by use of electric field between the
gate and source or conducting level of the device. The noise level of FET is low while its
input impedance is high.
FET consists of a P-type or N-type silicon bar containing 2 P-N-Junction at the either
side of the bar. The conducting channel for the charge carries. Depending upon the bar it
can be P-channel or channel FET. Form the bar two terminals source (S) and drain (D)
are taken out. The two P-N-Junction internally connected and one common external
terminal gate (G) is taken out. So FET is three terminal gates (G), Source (S) drain (D)
device.
Working:- When no voltage is applied to the gate i.e. switch (Sw) is kept open, the
electron flows in N-channel to contribute the current. By applying Vgs i.e. closing the Sw
the width of depletion will increase. This reduces the width of the channel. Reduction in
the width of the channel increases the bar and resulting reduction in drain current. Here
the gate-source is reverse biased the source in forward bias.
When the reverse bias is sufficiently large, the depletion layer extends to meet. This
pinch off the current flow. The magnitude of the gate-source voltage Vgs at which pinch
off occurs is called off voltage Vr. Here we seen we can control the drain source current
by varying the gate-source. There fore it is called voltage device.
Symbol of FET
Advantage of FET:- A FET is a Voltage Controlled Constant current device. It has the
following advantages:-
Its input resistance is very high i.e. about 100 M. So it permits high degree of isolation
between input and output circuit.
In FET the current is through only one channel. So they permit less noise in the output
circuit.
It has small size, long life, less maintenance and higher efficiency.
Its temperature co-efficient of resistance is negative. So no risk of thermal runaway.
Its power gain is very high, so for normal amplifier circuit the device stage is not
required.
Comparision with B.J. T:

FET (UJT) BJT

1. Input impedance high 1. Input impedance low
2. Gate is reverse bias 2. Base is forward bias
3. Flow of current due to only majority 3. Flow of electron due to both types of
carriers (electrons or hole) carriers (majority and minority).
4.It is voltage –operated device 4. It is current operated device.
5. It offers low noise level 5. It offers high-level noise
6. Arrowhead represents gate 6. Arrow represents emitter
7. Normally ON device 7. Normally OFF device
8. Inter electrodes capacitor negligible 8. Inter electrode capacitor effective.
FET As An Amplifier:- One of the applications of FET is as an amplifier amplifies the
weak signal connected in the gate circuit the output or shown in fig. a small change in the
reverse bias on the gate produces a large change in the drain current. This fact makes the
FET capable of amplifying the weak signal. During the positive half cycle of the signal
the reverse bias on the gate decreases. These increase channel width and hence drain
current increase. During negative half cycle of the signal the reverse bias on gate
increases. This results in decreases of drain current. The result is that the small change in
voltage at the produces a large change in the drain current. These variations in the drain
current produce large output and the load RL and thus FET acts are an amplifier.
Buffer Amplifier:-
A buffer amplifier is a stage of amplification to isolate the previous stage from next stage.
Due to high input impedance and low output impedance it acts an excellent buffer
amplifier. The high input impedance of FET means light loading of the previous stage.
Thus the from first stage appears at the buffer input. The low output impedance of FET
can drive for small load resistance. Thus all the output from buffer reaches the input of
the driver stage.

ELECTRICITY
TATICALLY INDUCED EMF:-
This is the e.m.f. induced in a coil due to the change if its own flux inked with it. If
current through the coil is changed then the flux linked with its own turns will also
change, which will produce in it what is called self induced e.m.f.. The direction of this
induced e.m.f. would be such as to oppose any change of flux which is, in fact the very
cause of its production. Hence it is also known as the opposing or counter e.m.f. of self-
induction. The property of coil due to which it opposes any increases or decreases of
current (or flux) though it is known as self-inductance. It is quantitatively measured in
terms of self-inductance.
Efficient of Self Inductance and value of Self Induced e.m.f.
It is defined as – “ The weber turns per ampere in the coil”. Consider a solenoid having N
turns and carrying a current of I amperes. If the flux produced is  webers, then weber
turns are NI.
By definition L = N / Henry. Now L = N / I N = LI or -N = -LI
Differentiating both sides, we get,
-d/dt N = -d/dt LI -N d / dt = -L dt / dt
as -Nd / dt = self induced e.m.f. el el = -L dI/dt
stored in a magnetic field E = ½ LI2 joules
Induced E.M.F.:- Two parallel conductors A & B lying close to but not touching
each other. Conductor A is connected to a battery through a key K, where as B is
connected incross a voltmeter. It is found that at the instant of closing or opening K, there
is a momentary deflection in the voltmeter. It is due to the production of mutually
induced e.m.f. in B which is produced because of change in flux linked with it.
Mutual inductance may, therefore, be defined as the ability of one coil (or circuit) to
produce an e.m.f. in a nearby coil by induction when the current in the first coil changes.
This action being reciprocal. There ability of reciprocal induction is measured in terms of
the coefficient of mutual inductance M.
CO-EFFICIENT OF MUTUAL INDUCTANCE (M) AND VALUE OF MUTUALLY
INDUCED e.m.f.
M it is defined as, “ the weber turns in one coil due to one ampere current in the
other”. Let a current of I1 amperes flowing in first coil, and produce a flux of 1 weber in
it. It is supposed that whole of this flux links with the turns of second coil. Then total no.
of flux linkage = N21.
Hence by definition
M= N21 / I1 Henry;
Now MI1 = N21 or - N21 = -MI1
Differentiating both side, we get,
-d/dt (N21) = -M dI1/dt -N2 d1/dt – mutually induced e.m.f. in the second coil.
Therefore Em = -MdI1/dt
Coefficient of magnetic coupling:-
Two coil are said to be magnetically coupled if full or part of the flux produced links with
the other. Let L1 and L2 be the self inductances of the two coil and M their mutual then k
= M/ L1 L2
When all the flux produced by one coil links with the other, then mutual inductance
between maximum and in this case M=  L1 L2 Hence k = I.
Magnetic Hysteresis:-
It may be defined as the lagging of magnetization or induction flux density (B) behind the
magnetizing force (H). Alternatively, it may be defined as that quantity of a magnetic
substance due to which energy is dissipated in it on the reversal of its magnetism. Let us
taken an unmagnetised bar of iron AB and magnetise it by placing it within the field of
solenoid. The field H produced by the solenoid is called the magnetizing field or force.
The value of this magnetizing force H can be increased or decreased by current through
it. Let H be increased in step from zero up to a certain maximum value, and the
corresponding values of induction flux density (B) be noted. If we plot the relation
between H and B; a curve like OA is obtained as shown in fig. If H is now decreased
gradually (by decreasing solenoid current) flux density B will not decreased along OA (as
might be expected) but will decreased less rapidly, along AC. When H is Zero, B is not
has a definite value = OC. It means that on removing the magnetizing force H, the iron
bar is not completely demagnetized. This value of B (=oc) measures retentivity the
material. To demagnetized the iron bar we have to apply the magnetizing force H in the
reverse direction. When H is reversed by reversing current through the solenoid, then B
is reduced to zero at point D where H = D. This Value of H is required to wipe off
residual magnetism is known as Coercive force and is a measure of coercivity of
material. If after the magnetization has been reduced to zero, value of H is further
increased in the reverse direction, the flux density noted. If we plot relation between B
and H a curve like DE is obtained. Now from this point if we back H to forward
direction, a similar curve GA is obtained; if we again start from G, the same curve
CDEFG is obtained once again.
It is seen that B is always lags behind H. The two never attain zero value simultaneously.
This B behind H is given the name “ Hysteresis” which literally means, “to lag behind”.
The close look DEFGA that is obtained when iron bar is taken through one complete
cycle of reversal of magnetization is known as “hysteresis loop”.
Alloys of aluminum, nickel, and steel called alnico have been found extremely suitable
for making permanent magnets because they have high Coercivity and high magnetic
stability against the effected vibration and demagnetizing field.

APPLICATION
The pressure switch (type PS & PSU) is designed for automatic control of air compressor
and pressurized water plant. Type PS & PSU is fitted with an unloader valve and is used
where pressure relief for starting of compressor is desired. The switch breaks the circuit
on increase in the pressure to the set value and remakes it when pressure falls to pre-set
value.
TEMPERATURE
Maximum permissible temperature of media is 2120F (1000C)
ELECTRICAL DATA
TPST switch that breaks the circuit on increase in pressure and remakes the circuit on fall
in pressure.
(SPST switch is provided with model PS/PSU-125 & -PS/PSU-215)
I=9A at V=500 V AC (Maximum)
I=6A at V=200 V DC (Maximum)
SWITCH ELEMENT & WORKING INSTRUCTIONS
1. ENCLOSURE
The switch enclosure is as per IEC: 144 (IP:144) splash proof. During installation, ensure
that cover is firmly in place, except when actually working on the control.
2. PIPE CONNECTION
The pressure switch is designed for fitting to the air receiver by means of ½” BSP
connection. It is recommended to use. Teflon tape/paste for leak proof joint. For
tightening of switch, hold hex on flange with spanner and apply tightening torque at the
end of the spanner. In no case the enclosure is to be used for tightening. It is
recommended to connect the switch to the air reservoir to avoid effect of air supply
fluctuation from compressor.
3. RELIEF VALVE (FOR MODELS ONLY)
The relief valve has a connection ¼” soft copper tubing. Connect to delivery line between
compressor and check valve See- Fig.(2).
4. CONTACT SYSTEM
The contact system is TPST (Triple pole single throw) type. Use standard thimble for
wiring the terminals. The contact system is suitable for switching 3 Induction Motor of
Compressor upto 1 HP, direct on line. See Fig –(4).
For 3 motor above 1HP & 1 Induction Motor of Compressor, use Motor Starter with
pressure switch and connect as shown in Fig. (3) in PS/PSU-125 & PS/PSU-215 models,
the pressure switch has SPST (Single pole Single Throw) contact system. Use motor
starter with these models, Fig. (3).
5. CABLE ENTRY
Pressure switch is provided with two cable entries (only one with model PS/PSU-125 &
PS/PSU-215). Tighten the cable gland firmly after wiring the switch.
6. RANGE REGULATING NUT
The stopping pressure is controlled by range regulating nut. If the control is desired to
stop the compressor at a pressure higher than the pre-set value, turn the nut clockwise
(towards +ve, as shown on tag under the nut) and vice-versa.
Clockwise rotation (towards +) - Higher Stopping Pressure
Anticlockwise rotation towards +) - Lower Stopping Pressure
7. REGULATING SCREW FOR DIFFERENTIAL
The starting pressure is regulated by this screw.
Anticlockwise rotation (towards -) - Increase Starting Pressure
Clockwise rotation (towards +) - Decrease Starting Pressure
Stopping pressure-Starting pressure - Differential
8. HAND SWITCH
Hand Switch is provided to lock the contacts in the “OFF” position, When set to “ON”
position, the switch resumes normal operation.
ADJUSTMENT
Having completed the fitting, start the plant/compressor and let it run until desired
stopping pressure has been reached. The control is then made to cut-out by turning the
regulating nut (6) counter clockwise. The control cuts out before the desired pressure is
reached set to a higher pressure by turning the nut (6) clockwise.
Adjust starting pressure with the aid of regulating screw (7). Turning the regulating screw
(7) towards (-), reduces the differential (increases the starting pressure). While turning
towards (+), increases the differential (reduces the starting pressure). Set the control in
the shaded portion of the Nomogram.

INSTRUMENTATION
MEASUREMENT
What is instrumentation
It is that branch of science and engineering that deals with measurement and control of
different related to a process. An Instrumentation system is a physical system. Physical
system is a section of physical objects connected in such a way to give the desired output
response. An instrumentation system thus will be an assembly of various instruments and
components interconnected to, analyze and control the electrical, thermal and hydraulic
system.
What is transducer?
It is defined as a device that converts a physical quantity (or physical condition) into an
electrical
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS
Primary transducers are detectors that sense a physical phenomenon. The example of
primary transducers is thermocouples that sense the radiant energy and directly convert it
into an analogous output that is a voltage.
Secondary transducers convert the analogous output into a standard electrical signal.
DETECTORS OR SENSORS:- It is sense the information and convert it into a
convenient form for by the latter stage of the system.
DETECTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS:-
Transducers that have self-generating output signal are known as active transducers. Such
as thermocouple or piezoelectric crystal. They develop their own voltage or current.
Transducer that is externally powered to give output signal is called passive transducers.
Such as tiometer.
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS:-
The standard electrical output produced by secondary transducers to be a current, a
voltage, or a frequency, production of these outputs are achieved by resistance,
capacitance, inductance, reluctance transducers, acting as secondary transducers. Thus
secondary transducers are invariably electrical transducers.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS:-
Analog transducers convert the input physical phenomenon into an analogous output that
is a continuous action of time. Thus thermocouple and thermister.
Digital transducers convert input physical phenomenon into an electrical output that is in
the form of that has only two states zero or maximum. No intermediate position.
Characteristics of a transducers:-
(1) Small size and weight (2) Reliability and accuracy (3) Ability to measure faster
response (4) High sensitivity – change in output / change in input (5) Linearity (6) Ability
to work under specified environmental condition, (7) low cost.
Specification of transducers:-
While ordering the transducers or selecting the proper transducers for any application, the
following specification should be consider-
(1) Range of the transducers (2) sensing system (3) linearity and hystresis (4)
output for zero input (5) sensitivity and accuracy (6) maximum working
temperature (7) mounting details (8) maximum depth and weight (9)
method of cooling employed (10) natural frequency

Instrument Terminology:-
Measurement:- It is the compassion of thing with standard of scale.
Accuracy:- It is the degree of correctness with a measuring means yields the true value
referred to the accepted engineering standard such as the Standard meter, grams etc. It is
assured then the true value always exist even through it may be possible to determined.
Accuracy is determined as the maximum amount by which the result differs from the true
value.
Range:- It present the highest possible value that can be measured by an instrument.
The region between the limits within which a quantity is measured, expressed by setting
the lower and upper range value.
Sensitivity:- The ratio of change in output magnitude to the change in input, which
causes it after such state, has been reached.
Resolution sensitivity:- It is the minimum change in the measured variable which
produces an effect response of the instrument. It may be express in unit of the measured
variable or as of fraction or percentage of full-scale value.
Threshold sensitivity:- It is the lowest level of the measured variable which produces
effect responses with instrument.
Precision:- It is the degree of reproducibility among several independent measurements
of the same value under specified condition. It is usually expressed in terms of deviation
in measurement.
Reproducibility:- The closeness of agreement among repeated measurement of the
output for the same value of input made under same operative condition over a period of
time approaching from both direction.
Uncertainty:- It denotes the range of error i.e. reason in which one guesses the error to
be.
True or actual value:- It is the actual magnitude of a signal input through measuring
system. Which only be approached and never evaluated.
Hystresis:- It is the difference between the increasing input value and decreasing input
value, which affect the same output values.
Errors:- The algebraic difference between indicated value and ideal value or turn value
of the measured signal.
Backlash:- Relative movement between interacting mechanical parts resulting looseness.
Drift:- An undesired change in input and output over a period of time.
Noise:- An unwanted component of a signal.
Linearity:- The closeness to which a curve should be a straight line.
Offset:- The steady state error is called offset.
Damping:- The progressive reduction of oscillation in a device.
ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
(i) Assembly error (ii) Environmental error (iii) Random error
Source of Error:-
i) Noise
ii) Response time
iii) Design limitation
iv) Effect of frictions
v) Resolution power
vi) Energy exchange by interaction
vii) Transmission
viii) Direction of measuring system
ix) Ambient influence
x) Observation and interpreter

Measurement Standard
Primary Standards:- Length, mass and time

LENGTH I. Bar standard

II. End standard
III. Light wave standard
I. Bar Standard:- The United States standard of length is a meter bar, made of
platinum alloy. The distance between two lines ruled on the bar defines the
meter.
II. End Standard:- Standard of this type is made of fused quartz one decimeter
long.
 III. Light wave standard:- The red line emitted by cadmium vapor having a wave
length of in air of standard composition is considered 4696 standard and
according meter bar is 1553164.13 wave length of cadmium line.
Mass:- The U.S. standard of mass is a cylinder made of platinum iridium weighing 1
kilogram.
Time:- Mean solar second is equal to 86,400 part of a day.
Measuring System:-
I. Safety Classification
II. Various types of inputs
III. Dynamic response of measuring system.

In a measuring system there are:-

I. Sensor
II. Transducers
III. Signaling
IV. Final Indication
There are three or four phases in most of the measuring system. Each phase being made
of component or grouping of component, which performs the required and definite steps
in measurement.
In electrical Transmitters the advantages are:-
I. Transmission of signal becomes very easy.
II. Time response is less and the cost is less.
III. The processing of signals are easily possible.
Signaling:- In case of instruments is provided with signaling contacts which can be set at
any through out the scale of the instruments. When indicating needle shows the reading
correspond value at which the signaling contact has been set, the contact is made or
broken which can be initiating audible, are visual alarm or for taking some correcting
action in the plant automatically. Signaling can be done also in terms of 4-20 mA or 1 to
5 volt (electrical).
Indicators:- The value of the quantity can be read by the moment of the needle on the
scale. Can be broken to any fraction within the limitation of instruments scale or human
capability. Now digital display are also available for indication purpose for accurate
indication..
For final indication we can use recorders. In recorders there is a pen, which marks on the
also moves with respect to time. Now days micro-processor based recorders is used, in
which pen we use thermal printing head or dot matrix printing head.
Transmitting:- In certain instances transmitters are also provided in the instrument that
provide corresponding to the value of the quantity being measured. This signal can be
used either for some other place or for automatic control.
Intrinsic Safety:-
According to national electrical code, hazardous location are classified by three parts.
I. Class
II. Division
III. Group
Class 1.:- Location are those in which the inflammable gases or vapors may be present
in the air in sufficient quantity to produce explosive or ignitable mixture.
Class 2:- Location are those which are hazardous due to presence of combustible dust.
Class 3:- Location are those which are hazardous because of presence of easily ignitable
fibers and flyins these are not likely to be in suspension in air in quantity, sufficient to
produce ignitable mixture.
Provision 1:- location are those in which the hazardous concertration exist in the air
either continuously or intermittently or periodically under normal operating condition.
Provision 2:- Location are those in which hazardous concentration are handled,
processed or used but are normally confined within closed containers from which they
can escape in case of accident or break down.
Group a:- containing acetylene
Group b:- containing hydrogen or gasses or vapor of equivalent hazardous
Group c:- Ethyl gas vapor or cyclopropen
Group d:- gasoline, naphthalene, benzene, butane, alcohol, Ethan, natural gas
Group e:- metal dust
Group f:- carbon block, coal or coal dust
Group g:- flour, starch, grain dust

1. Sensor
2. Transmitter
3. Controller and
4. Final Control Element
As already discussed, sensor and transmitter measure the process variable and generate
an equivalent signal (PV).
Controller
A controller measures the signal received from the transmitter, compares it with the
desired value or set point (SP), computes the difference between PV and SP and produces
a correcting signal that is transmitted to the final control element.
Controllers identification
A controller is identified by
- its power source
- process variable it controls and
- the kind of control action it provides
Controllers identified by their power source are mainly of two types: electronic and
pneumatic. Pneumatic controller used compressed air as the source for its operation. It
receives PV in terms of 3-15 PSI pneumatic signal and produces controlling output in
terms of 3-15 PSI pneumatic signal.
Due to its accuracy and better response electronic controllers are mostly used. Depending
upon type of electronic components in the electronic controller, it may be of following
types:
a. Analog (single loop controller)
b. Microprocessor based (single or dual loop programmable controller)
c. Computer based (Multiloop, multitasking controller)
Frequently controllers are identified by the parameters it control viz. level controllers,
pressure controllers, flow controllers, and temperature controllers.
PROCESS CONTROL
PROCESS
A process is the system in which the inputs given are processed or manipulated by some
procedure and the result is a new output or product.
PROCESS CONTROL :
To achieve the desired output from a process, we will have to control the physical
conditions such as temperature, pressure, material flow or level within the process. These
physical conditions are called process variable. The act of maintaining these variables at
desired value or set point is called process control.
Objectives of Process Control
Process control is primarily done for:
 Better product quality
 Productivity
 Operational safety
PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
It is combination of components by means of which the process variable are monitored
and controlled.
To understand the process control system, one must be familiar with different variables
associated with a process.
The variables involved are:
- Controlled or Process variables (PV)
- Manipulated variables, and
- Disturbances
The Controlled Variables are those conditions which we wish to control or maintain at
some desired level. These variables may be flow rates, temperature, pressure, level or
composition.
For each controlled variable there is an associated manipulated variable. In a typical
furnace temperature control system manipulated varies.
Thus a proportional gain of 2 means that 2 units of output change are produced for every
one unit of input change. This gain of 2 will equal to a PB of 50 %.
A PB of 100 % will corresponds to gain of 1.
By changing the gain or PB, controller response to a deviation is determined. Proper
setting of gain or PB depends upon characteristic of process.
P only controller causes a characteristic called OFFSET in response to a load change or
other disturbances. P only controller responds to the change in input. When the process
stabilizes, the changes in input stops so does the output. As a result, change in output
stops even if process has not returned to the set point. Offset is the deviation between PV
and SP when process has stabilized after an upset.
Integral (I) Control
I action is added to controller response to help eliminate the offset. I action responds to
the deviation and continues to increase the control action, based on the time, until the
error signal is zero and offset is eliminated.
I action adjustment basically repeats the corrective action of the controller at a fixed rate.
The adjustment may be expressed in one of two ways. In some case it is expressed as
number of times per minute the controller repeats the corrective action. It is called reset
rate and is expressed in Repeats Per Minute (RPM). The other type of adjustment is the
number of minutes for each time the controller repeats the corrective action and is
expressed in Minutes Per Repeat (MPR).
RPM = 1/MPR
Derivative (D) Control
P + I controller action may improve the control of some process but is not very effective
for control of a process having long lag time i.e. slow process. In temperature control
loop, for example, it may take a long time for the process to respond to the changes in the
position of the final control element. D action can be added to the controller to improve
speed of response. D action causes the controller to respond more rapidly to the initial
disturbance. As a result, process is returned to SP more quickly.
D action is expressed in terms of derivative time. Higher the derivative time, greater the
derivative action produced by the controller.
The third way that a controller can be identified is by the kind of controlling action it
provides. Accordingly, a controller may provide any one or combination of the following
actions:
a. ON-OFF
b. Proportional (P)
c. Reset or Integral (I)
d. Rate or Derivative (D)
Final Control Element
It is the device which receives ;the controller output and adjusts the manipulated variable
accordingly.
In a process where material flow rate is the manipulated variable, the final control
element may be a control valve connected in the flow path.
A control valve has two units:
- Actuator or motor
- Valve
An actuator receives the controller signal and accordingly changes the position of valve.
It may be an electrical motor or pneumatically operated diaphragm actuator.
CONTROLLER ACTIONS OR CONTROL MODES:
Proportional (P) Control
In P only controller, the output signal is directly proportional to the deviation between the
PV and SP. As a result, the position of the final control element is also proportional to the
deviation.
The terms commonly used to describe proportional control action are proportional gain
(K) or proportional band (PB).
Proportional Gain = Output Change / Input Change
PB is inverse of gain. It is defined as percentage change in input required to produce 100
% change in output.
PB (in %) = Input Change/ Output Change
The two terms are related as
Gain = 100 / PB
Ables are the incoming flowing fuel (oil or gas) flow rates of which are manipulated
using control valves.
Disturbances enters the process and tends to drive the controlled variables away from it’s
desired value.
An example:
In a simple process of gas fired reheating furnace, PV is the temperature inside the
furnace. Manipulated variable is the flow of gas and air as well as its ratio. The
disturbances are initial temperature of material to be heated, initial temperature and
pressure of gas and air, Calorific Value (CV) of gas etc.
TYPES OF PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS
Manual Control
To understand more complex process control, it is better to start with simple manual
control. In this system, the manipulated variable are varied manually by the operator
according to the difference between the desired value he has in his mind and value of and
process variable (PV) made available to him by the temperature indicator.
This control scheme has following obvious limitations:
 For each control loop one or more operators are required.
 Control is not precise and consistent owing to obvious limitations of human
being.

Automatic Control
In automatic control system, the process variable are controlled automatically by a
mechanism ratio than manually by an operator. Degree of actual control achieved depend
upon type of mechanism used.
Elements of automatic control system
Basic element of an automatic control system are
CONTROLLER TUNING
The primary function of a controller is to keep the controlled variable as close as possible
to the setpoint. No process is absolutely constant. These are factors in every process that
can cause the control variable to deviate from set point. These factors are called
disturbance and load changes.
A disturbance is usually a unintentional temporary change in a process parameter. The
term load change in other hand, generally implies an intentional change in process
parameter. In either case, the controller must respond properly to keep the controlled
variable at the set point when a change in operating parameter occurs.
Each process has specific characteristics that affect the value of the controlled variable
and, therefore, the response actions necessary from the controller. To get the best possible
control in a particular process control loop, the controller a response needs to be adapted
to the specific characteristics of the loop. The process of adjusting or adapting the
controller’s response in this manner is called tuning. Tuning of controller helps to ensure
that it produces the best possible control of the process it controlling.
Controllers tuning is accomplished by measuring certain control loop characteristics. The
techniques for these initial measurement are critical they are the basis for subsequent
controller settings.
A generalized tuning guide for determining controller settings requires the use of a
model. The model usually chosen representative of many processes and their control
system is one having a first order lag with dead time. The control modes that we will
consider are the most frequently encountered combination of proportional, integral and
derivative actions. Our discussion will focus on procedure for determining the final
settings for each mode, based on fundamental process control characteristics of
capacitance, dead time and natural period.
Typical disturbance or load changes will vary from one process to another.
How to Determine when a controller properly tuned
A controller takes action to compensate for the disturbances or load changes in the
system. If the controller is properly tuned, the process response to this action by returning
to the set point. These is an interval of time between initiation of an input change and
start of the resulting response for each instrument in the system. Because of dead time in
the response of the instruments, some lag will occur and process will not respond
instantaneously to the control action. As a result the process will oscillate around the set
point slightly as the controller tries to bring the process back to set point.
Process response to a disturbance and resulting controller action can be shown on process
reaction curve. A process reaction curve shows changes in the value of the control
variable over a period of time.
Analyzing a process reaction curve can provide a valuable information about process
response and controller action. If the controller is properly tuned, the process reaction
curve will be ¼ decay ratio curve. That is each oscillation will be ¼ size of the previous
oscillation as the process return to the set point. In this diagram for example, the peak ‘B’
in ¼ size of Peak ‘B’. The process returns to set point with minimum oscillation.
The process reaction curve will show the oscillation of the process as it returns to the set
point.
1. Sensor
2. Transmitter
3. Controller and
4. Final Control Element

As already discussed, sensor and transmitter measure the process variable and generate
an equivalent signal (PV).
Controller
A controller measures the signal received from the transmitter, compares it with the
desired value or set point (SP), computes the difference between PV and SP and produces
a correcting signal that is transmitted to the final control element.
Controllers identification
A controller is identified by
- its power source
- process variable it controls and
- the kind of control action it provides

Controllers identified by their power source are mainly of two types: electronic and
pneumatic. Pneumatic controller used compressed air as the source for its operation. It
receives PV in terms of 3-15 PSI pneumatic signal and produces controlling output in
terms of 3-15 PSI pneumatic signal.
Due to its accuracy and better response electronic controllers are mostly used. Depending
upon type of electronic components in the electronic controller, it may be of following
types:
a. Analog (single loop controller)
b. Microprocessor based (Single or dual loop programmable controller)
c. Computer based (Multiloop, multitasking controller)

Frequently controller are identified by the parameters it controls viz. level controller,
pressure controllers, flow controllers, and temperature controllers.
Tuning the Proportional Mode
The amount of control action in a proportional controller is adjustable. When the
proportional mode of the controller is tuned, the proper amount of proportional control
for that controller in that particular loop is determined. That is, the amount of
proportional action is set so that the process respond to a change in controller output with
a ¼ decay ratio curve.
Manufacturers use different terms to describe the proportional control adjustment on
theirs controllers. Some refers to the proportional adjustment as proportional band, while
others refer to it as again.
It is extremely important to know whether the controllers used in your facility express
their proportional action terms of proportional band or again. For the some controller, the
proportional adjustment is a proportional band adjustment. So the minimum amount of
control action is the maximum proportional band setting. To increase the proportional
action, the proportional band setting is decreased.
On common method of tuning a controller is called the trial and error method. Using this
method involves analyzing process reaction curves and making appropriate adjustments
in the controller action settings until a ¼ decay ratio curve is produced. Despite its name,
trial & error tuning is not a random process, but follows a logical procedure. Each
successive adjustment come closer to the correct setting. Only one control mode should
be adjusted at a time. The following steps may be used to adjust the proportional mode.
 Set the proportional mode at a setting that provides minimum control action. For
proportional band, the would be setting slightly below the maximum value. For
proportional this would be a setting slightly above the minimum value.
 Put the controller in the automatic mode
 Make a small change in the set point and observe the resulting process reaction
curve.
 Analyse the curve to see whether the proportional mode setting is too high or too
low. If the setting is too high, decrease the setting by half. If it is too low, increase
the setting by half.
 Make another small set point change and, observe the response on the chart
recorder.
 Analyse the curve to see whether the setting is too high or too low.
 Adjust the proportional mode setting by half.
 Continue to check each successive setting by analyzing the curve produced by a
small set point change & adjusting the setting each time by half.
 Stop adjusting the proportional mode when a ¼ decay ratio curve is produced.

It is important to properly analyse the curves when tuning a controller. This diagram
(Figure 2) shows a process reaction curve where the amount of proportional control,
action is too high ( the proportional band is too low or the gain is too high) Notice that
the curve oscillates excessively before it returns to the set point and that each peak is
larger than ¼ the size of the previous peak. If the proportional action is much too high,
the curve may not stabilize at all. It may continue to oscillate instead of returning to the
set point.
This diagram (Figure 3) shows a process reaction curve where the proportional control
action is set too low (the proportional band is too high or the gain is too low). In this case,
the curve has a large initial peak & returns to a stable vale without oscillation.
This diagram (Figure 4) shows the correct ¼ decay ratio curve that indicates the
proportional control action is set correctly. The period between the peaks of the curve is
fairly constant.
Properly tuned proportional only controller may shown some offset in this response. That
is, the process will return to a stable value, but that value may be offset slightly from the
set point.
Interpreting Curves with Derivative & Integral Action
The trials & error method can also be used to tune the derivative and integral modes of a
controller. In order to do this, it is necessary to analyse process reaction curves that
include integral & derivative action. Analysing these curves requires careful examination
because the modes can interact. That is some adjustments to the derivative mode may
affect the process reaction curve the same way as affect the process reaction curve the
same way as adjustments to the proportional mode. This is one reason why it is important
to tune only one mode of a controller at a time.
Derivative action produces certain characteristics in a process reaction curve. Identifying
these characteristics on a curve will help to determine whether the derivative setting is
too high or too low.
If the derivative setting is correct, the controller will produce a ¼ decay ratio curve, as it
is did with a properly adjusted proportional mode. When the derivative is properly
adjusted, however, the process reaction curve should stabilize faster than with a
proportional only controller. There should be less oscillation before the process stabilize.
In addition, the size of initial peak on the curve should be smaller with the derivative
action added.
In this diagram (Figure 5) the solid line represents the general characteristics of the
properly tuned proportional plus derivative controller. The dotted line represents the
general characteristics of properly tuned proportional only controller.
A derivative setting that is too high will produces a process reaction curve (Figure 6) that
oscillates excessively. That is, the process will be unstable and will not return to set point
as quickly as it should if at all. This occurs because a derivative setting that is too high
makes the controller over correct to the disturbance.
A derivative setting that is too low will produce a curve (Figure 7) that resembles one
produced by a proportional control. The response will not be improved significantly and
size of the initial peak will not be noticeable reduced.
In properly tuned proportional plus integral controller, the process reaction curve will
again be a ¼ decay ratio curve. In proportional only controller, some offset may exist
when the process stabilizes following a disturbance. When integral action added to the
controller’s response, this offset will be eliminated if the controller is adjusted properly
and the process will stabilizes at the set point.
Too little integral action produces a curve (Figure 8) that returns to the set point too
slowly. The end of the may appear to trail towards the set point after it stop oscillating.
This type of curve would be produced by the reset time setting was too high, or a reset
ratio setting that was too low.
Too much integral action produce a curve (Figure 9) that oscillated excessively before
becoming to stable. This curve will not have a ¼ decay ratio because of the excessive
oscillations. This type of the curve would be produce by a reset time setting that was too
low, or reset rate setting that is too high.
In some control (Figure 10) applications, it is desirable to have both integral and
derivative control action in addition to the basic proportional control. These controllers
should still create a ¼ decay response in the process when they are properly tuned. But
the curve should exhibit characteristic of both derivative and integral curve. That is, the
curve should show the quick response and small initial peak of derivative control. And it
should stabilize at the set point (without offset) as a result of the integral action.
Tuning the Integral and Derivative Modes
The procedures for the trial and error tuning of the derivative and integral modes are
similar to those for proportional action. It is very important to tune each mode separately,
however, otherwise, the interaction between the modes may produce an inaccurate
tuning. Derivative is often tuned before integral on a three-mode controller. This is
because derivative interacts less with proportional control than integral does.
The step in the procedure for tuning integral and derivative are the same. Only the
location of the adjustment is different. Be careful to use the proper adjustment for each
procedure.
 properly tune proportional mode of a controller with integral and derivative action
eliminated.
 Set the derivative adjustment for minimum derivative control action.
 Put the controller in the automatic mode.
 Make a small set point change and observe the process response on the chart
recorder. Examine the resulting curve to see whether the derivative setting is too
high or too low.
 Read just the derivative setting by half.
 Continue to make a set point change at each setting and examine the curve to see
whether the derivative setting is too high or too low.
 Stop adjusting derivative mode when process response to set point change
produces a curve with a ¼ decay ratio. The curve should show an improve
responses time and a smaller initial peak.
 Set the integral adjustment at a value that minimize integral control action.
 Make a small change in the set point and observe the resulting process reaction
curve whether the integral mode setting is too high or too low.
 Adjust the integral mode setting by half.
 Continue to make a set point change at each setting and examine the curve to see
whether the integral setting is too high or too low.
 Stop adjusting integral mode when the process response to set point change
produces a curve with a ¼ decay ratio curve that has no offset.

MATHEMATICAL MODELING
To determine controller settings two methods open loop step response and close loop
cycling are used to measure their characteristics. The former will yield the capacitance, it
and dead time ‘Tit’ ; latter, the natural period ‘To’.
OPEN LOOP METHOD
To determine capacitance and dead time via open-loop response (also knows as reaction
method) a recording device having fast chart-speed (approx 1 in /min) in connected to
measure the signal. The test is performed by:
1. Placing the recorder in high speed mode, with the controller in manual position
and the measurement lined out at constant value.
2. Making a step change to the controller’s output at some fixed value, such as 5 to
10%; and, at the same time mark on the recorder chart so that dead time can be
determined.
3. Remove the chart from recorder when the measurement has reached a final value.

A typical response from the process having dead time and a first order lag is shown in
Fig. 1. The elapsed time from the point where the step change was made until the
measurement begins to rise in the dead time. It can be calculated by measuring the
distance (in) on the chart and dividing it by chart speed (in/min).
The measurement (Figure 11) rises to a final value that is new steady state, which result
from the step change made in controller output. From this curve (approx response having
a first ordering for a single capacitance system), the time constant, dead time and the
process response ratio or slope of the control loop can be measured.
The unit of measurement for calculating the slope are the controller settings-usually
expressed as percent or time. The slope of the response curve should be in units of
percent/time and is expressed as:
Where Rr is responses rate, 1/min;
M is the change in measurement, %
t is time, min and
O is the change in output, %
The controller settings for obtaining a specific closed loop response can be predicted for
the results of this method by using algorithms developed by Ziegler and Nichols, Cohen
and coon, ahinsky.
As an example of the open-loop method, let us consider temperature control of the heat-
exchanger process shown in Figure 12. Assume that the temperature of the water leaving
the exchanger is 100 deg F, the temperature transmitter has a span ranging from 0 to 200
deg. F, and the steam pressure remains constant. A chart recorder is attached to the
measurement signal. The measurement before and after the step change would appear on
the recorder as shown on the figure 13.
The unit of measurement for calculating the slope are the controller settings-usually
expressed as percent or time. The slope of the response curve should be in units of
percent/time, and is expressed as:
Where Rr response rate, 1/min;
M is the change in measurement, %
t is time, min, and
O is the change in output, %
The controller settings for obtaining specific closed loop response can be predicted for
the results of this method by using algorithms developed by Ziegler and Nichols, Cohen
and coon, ashinsky.
As an example of the open-loop method, let us consider temperature control of the heat-
exchanger process shown in Figure 12. Assume that the temperature of the water leaving
the exchanger is 100 deg. F, the temperature transmitter has a span ranging from 0 to 200
deg F, and the steam pressure remains constant. A chart recorder is attached to the
measurement signal. The measurement before and after the step change would appear on
the recorder as shown on the figure 13.
For the example the recorder has a chart speed of ¾ in/min. At point A (Figure 13), a step
change of +20% is made to the output of the controller, and at the same time a mark for
measurement signal is made on the chart. At point B, the measurement begins to rise, and
reaches a final value of 150 degree F. This temp. increase corresponds to the increase in
steam flow. The chart travel through the recorder (after the step change is made and
before the measurement rises) is ½ inch. Since the chart moves at ¾ inch/min, the
deadtime is calculated from:
Tit= 0.5/0.75 = 2/3 min = 40 sec.
The next step is to locate the point at which 63.2% of the rise between the initial and final
measurements occurs. This corresponds to a temp. of 131.6 degree F. At this temp. draw
a horizontal line on the chart to intersect the measurement curve at point C. Next, drop
down to the line extenuated from the initial measurement to locate point D. Measure the
distance between points B and D (which is ¼ inch). Then, the time constant for
capacitance is calculated as:
It = 0.25/0.75 = 1/3 min = 20 sec.Example:
Consider the heat exchanger and control loop in Figure 12. The temperature controller
(TC) was to the automatic mode, and the proportional reduced until the measurement
cycles continuously, as shown in Figure 14. The distance is measured as 1:65 inch.
Therefore natural period for this cycling
To = 1.65 inch / 0.75 in./min. = 2.2 min.
Proportional band that produced the cycling 140%; and will be referred as (PB).
1. (PB) = 140 %

After measuring the natural period and / or dead time and capacity time constant,
controller settings can be determine by using relationships develop by:
Ziegler and Nichols
Cohen and Coon
Shinskey
The method for deriving such relationship are highly analytical and therefore, difficult to
use. In general the response that result from an tuned controller will be that of quarter
amplitude damping (QAD).
The formulas develop by Ziegler and Nichols predicting controller settings to produce
QAD based on a process model having capacity that is purely integrating However it is
recommended that the Ziegler and Nichols relationship be used either than those of
Cohen Coon, unless the ratio of Tit/T1 becomes greater than 0.1.
Proportional Control Mode only
The proportional only controller find application in process that require a fast response
and that at the same time, can tolerate a constant deviation from set point. The amount of
thin deviation is a function of proportional band and bias.
It has only one adjustment for tuning therefore is an acceptable criterion.
The recommended setting are:
Ziegler and Nichols
PB = 2(PB)*
Proportional plus integral Control Mode
Ziegler and Nichols
PB = 2(PB)*
I = To/1/2
Cohen and Coon
100 / PB = (1 + U/1) / Tit * Rr
I = 3.33 Tit (1 + u/1) / (1 + 11u/5)
Shinskey
PB = 2(PB)*
I = 0.43 To
Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Mode
Ziegler and Nichols
PB = 1.66 (PB)*
I = 0.5 To
D = To / 8
Cohen and Coon
100 / PB = 1.35 (1 + U/5) / Tit * Rr
I = 2.5 Tit (1 + u/5) / (1+ 3u/5)
D = 0.37 Tit / (1 + u/5)
Shinskey
PB = 4.0 (PB)*
I = 0.5 To
D = 0.12 To
CONTROL VALVES
The end point of measuring and controlling instruments is the final control element. The
final element is usually a diaphragm actuator driving a control valve. In the work on
positioner it has been shown that the actuator is part of the positioner. If satisfactory
control is to be obtained, the control valve must be in good operating condition. The
control valve is subject to damage wear, corrosion (externally as well as internally) and
erosion. Therefore, control valves requires a fair amount of maintenance . A great deal of
process control difficulty could be eliminated by better care of the final elements.
While many of the advances in process control in recent years have been devoted to
improving distributed control systems, the performance of any center loop is still limited
by the control valve itself. No matter how sophisticated the DCS, if the valve and its top
works are not performing up to par, then the plant will not be getting every thing it can
out of its process control system.

COMPONENTS:
The control valve consists of two major components:
1. The actuator
2. The valve
The actuator is made up of a:
1. Flexible diaphragm.
2. Spring (usually), and spring tension adjustment (range location adjustment)
3. Plate, stem and locknut.
4. Housing
The valve is made up of a:
1. Body
2. Plug
3. Stem
4. Pressure tight connection
ACTUATOR
Actuators are the primary energy force used to move and position the flow control
element within the valve body. A variety of types are available including pneumatic,
electric, hydraulic.
Hydraulic and manual. This article will focus on pneumatic actuators, since are the most
widely used for throttling applications.
Considered the standard for automatic control for more than a century, three types of
pneumatic actuators are available: Piston, spring and diaphragm and rotary vane. The first
two can be adapted for use on either rotary or sliding stem valves: the later is used only
on rotary valves.
Spring-and-diaphragm actuators:
The spring is one of the distinguishing characteristics of this type of actuator, which
come in either spring-to-open or spring-to-close version (Figure 1-1). The spring provides
a positive fail safe action in the event of a loss of supply air.

The diaphragm forms a pressure chamber in which the pressure of the compressed air can
be regulated to adjust the force, output of the actuator. The diaphragm itself is a flexible
element trapped between the two casings and is normally made of a fabric reinforced
elastomer to make air tight and strong. Unlike a piston whose O-ring seal is susceptible to
wear the diaphragm provides a static seal that does not wear out. To determine the force
output, air pressure is multiplied by the effective area of the diaphragm.
Because the effective area of a diaphragm is relatively large, the available actuator force
can be significant, even with low air pressure. This means that in practice a spring-and-
diaphragm actuator can be selected so that its stroking range corresponds to a standard air
signal output directly from any pneumatic device, including a controller or transducer.
With standard outputs of either 3-15 or 6-30 lb/in2. If actuator is selected to work within
these ranges, then no intermediate positioner is required. This approach can save money,
and is important if the local air supply pressure is limited.
Piston actuators. In this design, an O-ring provides a seal between a piston and the
cylinder it slides in. Air pressure, regulated on one or both sides of the piston, provides an
actuator force that manipulates the vale (Figure 1-2).
In a single sided piston one side of the piston is open to the atmosphere in this case,
some type of restoring force is needed to allow the valve to stroke in both directions. If a
spring is used to provide the restoring force, then the piston actuator operates in much the
same way as a spring and diaphragm actuator.
Double sided piston actuator are more common since air pressure is regulated on both
sides of the piston. This calls for a more complicated, double acting positioner, and
eliminates the possibility of working directly with a controller or an I/P transducer.
In general, piston actuators are rated for higher pressure than their spring and diaphragm
counterparts. They also use a smaller portion of the total force to over come the restoring
spring, if one is present.
The higher the stiffness of the control system the easier it is to overcome control
problems that result from variations in flow force. In general the piston actuators stiffness
is higher than that of the spring and diaphragm actuator.
Another advantage associated with pistons is the fact that their travel is virtually
unlimited because the seal is dynamic. However, the longer the travel, the lower the
actuator stiffness, due to the increased actuator volume.
Also, because of their higher pressure rating piston, actuators can be used directly with
shop air without a reducing regulator. Table 1 summarizes the factors that must be
considered when choosing between piston-based and spring-and-diaphragm actuators.
Rotary vane actuators with the exception of the electromechanical actuator (discussed in
details in 1), all of the actuators types discussed here provides a linear motion that must
be converted to a rotary action through a lever arrangement. By comparision, the rotary
vane actuator converts air pressure directly into torque, which is used to position a rotary
valve. This is accomplished through the build-up of pressure on one or both sides of a
vane in a pressure chamber (Figure 1-3).
An D-ring or similar device provides the seal between the vane and the chamber. The
pressure difference acts on the effective area of the vane creating a force that is converted
to torque through the action of the bearings holding the actuators shaft in place.
Actuators for rotary valves. As stated above most of the actuators discussed here provides
a linear output. They can be used on rotary valves if the proper adaptations are made.
There are several ways to convert linear to rotary motion.
However two factors should be considered when making the selection. The first is how
much “positioning error” is added in the linkage making the conversion. Pay close
attention to rotary valves with linear actuators, because the link between them is complex
and could potentially add hysteresis and deadband to the control loop (deadband is the
range through which an input can be varied, upon reversal of direction, without initiating
a change in the output signal).
The second factor is the force to torque conversion, which is needed to relate the actuator
forces required to the amount of torque that is available.
The plug may be attached to the stem so that a lifting stem closes or opens the valve.
Some plugs are reversible on the stem other are not.
The determination of the valve action desired is usually based on what position the valve
should take on an air failure. One process it may be desirable to have the valve go wide
open when the air fails, as, for example, in a cooling process on other process it may be
better to have the valve close, as in a heating process. When this is decided and the type
plug is established, then the actuator action may be specified.
OPERATION
The controller output serves as the input to the control valve if no positioner is used. The
actuator converts the controller output to a valve opening.
Suppose the controller output increases. This increases in pressure will compress the
spring, allowing the diaphragm to move. The diaphragm movement is relayed to the
valve plug through the stem.
Some control valves are designed so that the change in flow is a percentage of the amount
flowing at that particular valve position. For example, suppose the valve is ¾ open and 35
gpm are flowing. Then, if the valve stem moves open an additional 1 percent of its travel,
the flow should increase 10 percent of 35, or to 38.5 gallons. Now suppose the vale is ¼
open and the flow is 5 gpm and suppose the stem moved open the same 10 percent. In
this case, the change in flow would be 10 percent of 5, or .5 gal.
The characteristics just described is called an equal percentage characteristics. This is
frequently desirable because the controller output should result in a change in flow that
is proportional to the amount flowing at the time the change occurred. Control valve
plugs are designed to give the percentage characteristic just described. See Figs. 1-5, 1-6
and 1-7 for some formed plugs.
Other valve characteristics are also used. The most common is the linear plug which is
designed so that the opening changes linearly with the stem position. The valve plug can
be either parabolic or piston. The parabolic plug is designed to get the percentage
characteristic. The piston plug has V notches cut into the piston walls to obtain the
percentage response.
ARRANGEMENTS:
The actuator is arranged as follows:
The diaphragm is bolted to a dished metal head forming a pressure tight compartment.
The controller output pressure is connected to this compartment. (See Fig. 1-4).
The motion of the diaphragm is opposed by a spring.
The valve stem is attached to the diaphragm so that any diaphragm movement results in
the same valve plug movement.
Both the motor and plug can be direct or indirect. The action of the actuator may be such
that either an increase or a decrease in air may lift the stem. The design of some actuators
permits the to be reversed.
ALTERNATE ARRANGEMENTS:
Some control valves use a piston instead of the rubber diaphragm.
Instead of a spring the valve can be arranged to use an air pressure that acts as a spring.
The pressure tight connection may be a bellows that expands and contracts with valve
stem travel.
I/P CONVERTERS AND VALVE POSITIONERS
CURRENT OT PNEUMATIC (I/P) CONVERTER
An I/P converter is an important element of a control loop. Its function is to convert the
output of an electronic controller to the pneumatic signal necessary to operate the
diaphragm actuated control valve.
I/P converter or transducer manufactured by different companies generally consists of
following two important units:
a. A unit, which converts electrical incoming signals (4-20 mA) to
mechanical movement. An armature bar assembly is usually used for this
purpose.
b. A flapper (baffle) – nozzle unit along with relay, which converts
mechanical movement into pneumatic output signal in the range of 3-15
PSI.
A. Armature bar assembly:
A simplified diagram of this unit is shown in figure 1. The coils are firmly attached to
armature bar and surround the permanent magnet. They are wound in such a way that
when current is passed through them, one opposes the magnetic field of its permanent
magnet, the other is attracted by the magnetic field of its permanent magnet. When
current is applied from the amplifier, we get movement of the bar in the direction
indicated by the arrows. The amount of movement is directly proportional to the amount
of current applied.
b. A flapper (baffle) – nozzle unit:
The flapper/nozzle detector shown schematically in figure 2, is a subassembly used to
detect a mechanical motion. There are three connections and two restrictions on every
flapper/nozzle detector. The flapper and the nozzle are the variable restriction, and an
orifice is the fixed restriction. The opening in the fixed restriction is smaller then in the
nozzle so that air can escape through the nozzle faster than it enters through the
restriction.
Suppose that an air supply of 20 psi is connected to the fixed restriction. The nozzle is
essentially open to atmosphere. Because of this difference in pressure, air will flow
through the fixed restriction in to the nozzle back pressure compartment then through the
nozzle to atmosphere. Since the uncovered nozzle offers some restriction to the air flow
we have a system of two restriction in series, with 20 psi applied to one end and 0 psi, or
atmospheric pressure, at the other end. Hence we can conclude that the pressure between
the two restrictions is some where between 20 psi and 0 psi. If the nozzle opening is
larger than the fixed restriction and all uncapped nozzles are, the nozzle back pressure is
closed to 0 psi than to 20 psi.
Consider this case. Move the flapper toward the nozzle unit the nozzle is covered. This
means that there is no flow from the nozzle back pressure compartment to atmosphere.
Air flows from the air supply through the fixed restriction in to the nozzle back pressure
compartment. The nozzle back pressure continues to rise unit it reaches 20 psi. All of the
20 psi pressure appears across the flapper and none appears across the restrictions.
If we examine the pressure variation between the two restrictions, as illustrated in Figure
3, we see that as the flapper approaches the nozzle, air flow is more restricted and the
nozzle back pressure rises. A movement of the flapper away from the nozzle decreases
the nozzle backpressure.
The whole purpose of the flapper/nozzle is to detect motion and to convert that motion in
to a pressure change. How much does the typical flapper move with respect to the
nozzle? Typically, if the flapper/nozzle clearance change from 0.0015 inch to 0.0010
inch, the nozzle back pressure changes from 3 psig to 15 psig. This is an “ordinary”
mechanical pneumatic detector. “ordinary “ means that the flapper / nozzle output
changes ½ psi when the input changes 1/48,000 inch and the results are repeatable. For
each flapper/nozzle position there is a particular nozzle back pressure.
PNEUMATIC RELAYS:
By far the most widely used detector consists of a baffle/nozzle detector mechanism
combined with a pilot. A pilot so arranged is called a relay. You will recall that the
baffle/nozzle mechanism had some serious limitation. First was the fact that if the
restrictions were made large enough to mae possible to rapidly change back pressure,
excessive amounts of air would be required. If on the other hand the restrictions were
kept small to reduce the air consumption, the time it would take to change the
backpressure would become excessively long. The second limitation with the
baffle/nozzle is its blast effect. That is, air blast from the nozzle force the baffle, making
it necessary for the input mechanism to drive against this blast force. If the restriction is
large, the forcing effect is large. If the restriction can be made small, the forcing effect
will remain small, if we can lower the supply pressure to the baffle/nozzle mechanism we
lower the blast effect for given restriction. The relay makes it possible to do these things.
A word of caution : What we shall call a relay is also called a pilot valve, relay pilot, and
relay valve by some people.
Components:
The essential components of the relay are:
a. A pilot
b. A pressure-to-displacement converter (bellows, diaphragm etc.)
Arrangement
The pressure-to-displacement converter is arranged to drive the pilot stem. The nozzle
back pressure is connected to the pressure-to-displacement converter. The pressure-to-
displacement converter appears in various forms; it may be a bellows, a diaphragm
capsule, or a relay diaphragm. The relay valve plug may be one of there types. The seats
on the plug either “look” at each other as in Fig. 4, away from each other as in Fig. 5, or
in the same direction as in Fig. 6. Also relays are said to be bleed type or non-bleed type.
The non-bleed relay will be discussed in detail later. The baffle/nozzle back pressure is
connected to the nozzle backpressure compartment of the relay valve (see Fig. 4).
Principle of operation
If the baffle covers the nozzle, the nozzle backpressure will build up almost to the supply
pressure. This backpressure applied to the pressure-to-displacement converter results in
displacement proportional to the backpressure. This displacement, acting through the
stem of the relay positions the valve plug so that the exhaust port is closed and the supply
port is fully open. Consequently, the relay backpressure will be equal to the supply
pressure. You will recall that the pilot backpressure is proportional to the stem
displacement. Since the stem displacement is proportional to the nozzle backpressure, the
relay backpressure is proportional to the baffle/nozzle displacement.
Does this then meet our definition of an error detector? In other words, does this
mechanism convert a small baffle/nozzle displacement to a proportional pressure? The
answer is clearly yes. But notice in this mechanism the conversion takes place in two
stages. The baffle/nozzle clearance is converted to a proper pressure. This proportional
pressure is converted to a displacement, and this proportional displacement is reconverted
back to a proportional pressure we have two stages of amplification. Notice, too that the
output of each stage is that pressure between the two restrictions. This output of
baffle/nozzle detector is the pressure between baffle/nozzle and the fixed restriction. It is
the input to the relay. The output of the relay is the pressure between the two restrictions
again.
This arrangement makes it possible to use a baffle/nozzle with small restriction. Further it
makes it possible to reduce the blast effect by reducing the nozzle backpressure.
Typically nozzle backpressure will vary from 2 to 3 psig, which will cause full stroking
of the relay valve plug. This is made possible by making the range of the pressure-to-
displacement converter 2 to 3 psig rather than 3 to 15 psig. It is in this way that the relay
makes it possible to obtain fast response using a small restriction.
The device just described is direct acting in that as the nozzle backpressure increases. The
output air pressure increases. If we use a diamond-shaped valve plug (one with the valve
plug faces looking away from each other) rather than a dumble shaped plug, the output
pressure will decreases as the nozzle backpressure increases, giving us a reverse acting
detector.
Alternate Arrangements
Although the relay valve makes it possible to reduce the size of the restriction, thereby
reducing the blast effect, it does not, in the example just cited, reduce air consumption in
as much as the supply port of the pilot needs to be large if the relay backpressure is to be
changed rapidly. Notice that when the nozzle backpressure is in its midposition, the valve
plug is positioned so that the exhaust port and the supply port are half open. This of
course results in large amounts of air bleeding through the valve, even though the relay
backpressure is held constant.
There is a valve arrangement that makes it possible to maintain a fixed relay backpressure
without simultaneously exhausting large amounts of air to atmosphere. Examine Fig.
Notice that the exhaust port is mounted so that it can move as the nozzle backpressure
changes. As the nozzle backpressure increases, the exhaust port moves down. If it
continues to move down, it will seal against the valve plug, closing off the exhaust port.
Notice that at the point where the exhaust port is just closed off, the supply port is also
closed. If both of the ports are closed, the relay back pressure will stay constant. Hence,
for a balanced condition, there is no air consumption. Let the nozzle backpressure
continue to increase, then the exhaust port will continue to move downward, but now it
also moves the valve plug downward opening the supply port. The exhaust port is still
closed but the supply port is opened. Consequently the relay backpressure will increase.
If the nozzle backpressure continues to build up the supply port will fully open and the
relay backpressure will equal the supply pressure.

Let us follow the operation of this relay as the nozzle backpressure decreases. As it
decreases, the diaphragm will move upward, permitting the exhaust port to move upward,
which in turn less the valve plug move upward, starting to close the supply port. As the
nozzle backpressure continues to decrease, the valve plug continues to rise until it closes
the supply port, if the nozzle backpressure drops off further, the exhaust port will start to
open because the valve plug, seated against the inlet, cannot rise any further. The opened
exhaust port will permit the relay backpressure to reduce to atmospheric pressure.
To summarize, notice that the only time the relay uses air is when the supply port is open.
The only time the supply port is open is when the exhaust port is closed, hence no air
exhausts from the relay when it is balanced. When the relay is balanced the nozzle
backpressure and the relay backpressure are constant.
A relay so constructed is called non-bleed. The key idea in the non-bleed relay is the
movable exhaust seat. In a valve plug wherein the two seating surfaces “look” in the
same direction the movable exhaust seat makes it necessary to use two pressure-to-force
converters. One of these converts the nozzle backpressure to a proportional force the
second has a double function: to convert the relay backpressure to a proportional force,
and to seal the exhaust port in a way that makes it possible for the exhaust seat to move.
Notice that these two pressure-to-force converters are arranged so that the force oppose
each other. If these two force are equal, the exhaust seat takes a fixed position if, on the
other hand, there is a difference in force, the exhaust seat will move up or down,
depending on which force is greater. If the upper diaphragm has six times the area of the
lower, the upper, for a given pressure changes, will cause a downward force six times as
great as the upward force of the lower diaphragm for the same pressure change. In other
words, a 6-psi change on the lower would balance a 1-psi change on the upper. A 1-psi
change in nozzle back pressure has caused a six psi change in relay output. So it can be
seen that changing the ratio of the areas makes it possible for a small nozzle backpressure
to required a much larger relay backpressure. It is in this way that it is possible to operate
with a reduced nozzle backpressure and still obtain a standard 3 to 15 psig output air
pressure. The mechanism just described is our first example of a force balance
mechanism.
After understanding these two basic concepts, we can understand the operation of a basic
I/P converter based on I/P converter manufactured by Foxboro.
In this transducer, an increase in current to the coils moves the Armature bar such that the
flapper is closer to the nozzle. This action increases the backpressure in the line between
the nozzle and the fixed restriction. This higher pressure causes the diaphragm of the air
relay flex downward increasing the opening in the path from the Air supply to the Air
output and decreasing the opening in the path to exhaust. The result of the increase in
signal current, therefore, is an increase in air output pressure. The relationship of input
signal current to output air pressure is linear. The bellows provides feedback to the
Armature Bar to reposition the flapper relative to the nozzle. Without, this bellows, the
device would have an infinite gain, for a small input the output would go to maximum.
Remember, the motion needed by the flapper to create full (15 psi) output is
approximately 0.0005 inches. It is easy to see that even a small input signal current to the
coils would move the armature bar and flapper enough to obtain full output air pressure.
The bellows, however, senses the change in output pressure and opposes the motion of
the armature bar, thus, reducing the gain to some usable level. Therefore, although a
small current input would attempt to move the Armature Bar a large amount, the
counteraction of the bellows reduces that motion to the small amount required to produce
a proportional change in the output pressure.
So far, we have been discussing the operation of an electronic to pressure transducer with
the coils actuated by a current signal. This transducer is called an I/P or Current to
pressure transducer. To develop an E/P or Voltage to pressure transducer.
The input signal voltage would be applied to an operational amplifier, the output of
which would control a current Driver output stage. This current would then be applied to
the coils of the Armature Bar.
Although the Transducer in Figure will work and provides a fairly accurate pneumatic
output signal for a given input, it has some disadvantages. The worst being that vibration
will also move the flapper and cause output changes. In addition, the Armature Bar must
be carefully balanced. The weight of the moving parts would work against the device,
slowing its response and reducing its response and reducing its accuracy at the low and
high ends of output range.
 BELLS BCE69F I/P SIGNAL CONVERTER
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A dc mA input signal is converted to a proportional pneumatic output signal in the
following manner. A coil positioned in the field of permanent magnet reacts to the
current by producing a tangential thrust proportional to the input signal flowing through
it. The thrust acting through the flexure, varies the gap between the flapper and nozzle.
This causes a change in the output pressure of the relay, which is also the converter
output pressure. This pressure is fed to the feedback bellows which exerts a force on a
feedback flexure to move the nozzle and establish a throttling relationship between the
flapper and nozzle.
STANDARD SPECIFICATION
Input : 4 – 20 mA (10 – 50 mA optional)
Output: 3 – 15 PSI
Input impedance : 170 ohm ( 4 – 20 mA input)
Air consumption : 0.5 Cum/Hr (0.30 scfm) at standard conditions
Temperature Limit : -30 to +60 Deg. C.
Calibration accuracy : +-0.5% of span
Supply pressure: 20 PSI (Limit – 19 to 23 PSI)
CALIBRATION PROCEDURE
1. Set-up the equipment for calibration
2. Apply 12 mA input and adjust output to 9 PSI using ZERO screw.
3. Apply 20 mA input and note amount of error above or below 15 PSI. If error is
greater than +-2%, perform step 4. If it is less than that proceed to step 5.
4a. Loosen 5/16” bellows locknut. Note reference line on the bellows. Rotate bellows
so that reference line moves towards motor to decrease span or away from motor to
increase span until the error is within +-2%.
4b. Repeat step 2 and 3.
5. Loosen the 5/16” span locknut and turn 5/16” span adjustments nut a proportional
amount (noted in step 3) based on the following: 1/6 of a turn (point to point on a
hexagonal nut) will correct the error by 0.5%.
CAUTION: The span locknut must be loosened prior to span adjustment. Do not force
nut against each other to make small span changes.
Disregard output changes which occur when span adjustment is made. Tighten locknut.
Don’t overtighten span locknut when locking in place.
6. Apply 12 mA input and adjust output to 9 psi using ZERO screw.
7. Apply 20 mA input and check output to 15 PSI. If output is not acceptable, repeat steps
5 through 7.
8. Apply 4 mA input and check output to 3 PSI.
9. Adjust ZERO and SPAN until optimum output is achieved.
TIPL I/P SIGNAL CONVERTER (IT86)
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The converter consists of the plunger type coil system (1), balanced beam system (16),
the nozzle (9), restrictor (7) and flow amplifier (20). It operates on torque compression
principle, i.e. the torque, which is proportional to the input current acting on the balanced
beam is counteracted by the torque of feedback system. The output pressure of the
feedback system is passed to the booster which provides high air capacity at its output.
The spring (6) is used for coarse adjustments of the zero point while spring (2) is used for
fine adjustment. The span is adjusted by a lateral displacement of the nozzle (9) and
adjusting the output span adjusting sector (5).
CONSTRUCTION
Measuring Mechanism:
This mechanism holds the following components:
a. Permanent Magnet
b. The braced balanced beam with plunger coil and flapper
c. The slewable span adjustment lever with nozzle.
d. The spiral and tension springs for zero point adjustment as well as terminals.
Bottom section of the case and Booster Unit:
In this, there are cast in air conduits which establish the connections between the supply
air input restrictor, booster and signal output.
The booster converts the nozzle pressure (PE) into an increased output pressure (PA). PE
is passed to a chamber (22) which is sealed with a partition diaphragm (23). Centrally
fitted to this diaphragm is a pipe section, which at PE > PA lifts the flapper (25) off the
nozzle (26). Air can now enter until PE = PA. If PE < PA, the pipe section lifts off the
cone (27) of the flapper and air can now escape into the open until PE = PA.
MAINTENANCE
No regular maintenance is required by the I/P converter. Sinterred bronze filters, if fitted
should be occasionally be checked and cleaned.
STANDARD SPECIFICATION
Input : 0,4 – 20 mA
Output : 3 – 15 PSI
Input impedance : 170/250 Ohm (4 – 20 mA input)
Air consumption : 0.3 Cum / Hr at standard conditions
Temperature Limit : -20 to + 60 Deg C.
Calibration accuracy : +- 1% of span
Supply pressure : 20 PSI +- 1 PSI
CALIBRATION PROCEDURE: The manufacturer has not recommended any specific
procedure. General procedure, as mentioned in next page, can be used for this purpose.
CALIBRATION PROCEDURE FOR COMMON I/P CONVERTER
1. Check following points before attempting calibration
a. Whether the output is direct or reverse or range
b. Air supply (20 PSI) is available
c. Read the operating manual and check the Makes Model No. of the I/P
Converter
2. connect 20 PSI air supply to supply port.
3. Connect 3 to 15 PSI output receiver gauge to output port.
4. Connect current source to I/P converter input terminal with correct polarity
5. Apply 4 mA and adjust Zero screw to get 3
6. Apply 20 mA and adjust span screw to get 15 PSI. Repeat step 5 & 6 to get
accurate result
7. Check 25%, 50%, and 75% for linearity of converter.
VALVE POSITIONER
The primary function of a valve positioner is to maintain the control valve plug at a
position that is directly proportional to its controller output pressure. To perform this
function the stem motion of the valve actuator is compared to the signal from the
controller. Any deviation from the desired position produces an error signal that activates
a pneumatic relay. Air pressure to the valve actuator is the either increased or decreased
to drive the valve stem to the desired position.
A position can be used to reverse the signal to valve and to overcome frictional force
within a valve on high pressure drop applications.
In addition, a positioner can be made to alter the inherent characteristics of a control
valve through the use of cams.
Positioners are usually mounted on the side of diaphragm actuators and on top of piston
and rotary actuators. Several designs are available in which the positioner is an integral
part of the actuator.
Because of the large volume of air required to operate the valve, the positioner must have
an independent regulated air supply.
Pneumatic vale position are categorized the same as other pneumatic instruments as
either feedforward or feedback instruments. Feedback type positioners are further
classified as moment balance feedback true force – balance feedback, angle motion –
balance feedback or linear-motion feedback type devices.
Commercially available positioners operate in much the same way. Let us discuss some
important type of side mounted valve positioners.
Fisher 3580 Positioners
The Fisher 3580 uses an angle motion-balance feedback mechanism to accurately
position a control valve in response to changes in controller output.
The positioner is side mounted. It includes three gauges: one indicates controller output
pressure the second indicates supply air pressure and the third indicates positioner output
pressure.
The positioner is also equipped with a bypass valve which blocks the positioner output
pressure and allows the controller output to flow directly to the valve actuator. If the
valve required an actuating pressure that is greater than the controller output pressure,
then this bypass valve should not be used.
The major components of the positioner are the input bellow, the flapper/nozzle position
detector, the feedback lever and cam and the output relay. A constant air pressure is
supplied to the relay fixed restriction. The signal from the controller is applied to the
input bellows, and valve position feedback is provided by the cam and feedback lever via
feedback extension.
To explain the operation of the device, we start by assuming the positioner is balanced.
When the control signal increases, the input bellows expands. As a result of this
expansion, the flapper is moved towards the nozzle. Backpressure then increases. The
increased backpressure applies a force to the relay diaphragm causing it to move toward
the left. This action closes the exhaust port and opens the supply port of the relay
allowing the output pressure of the relay to increase. The increased output of the
positioner relay is applied to the diaphragm actuator to produce a downward stroking of
the valve stem. This is the feedforward path of the positioner. When the valve stem
moves downward the feedback extension is moved downward. The feedback extension
rotates the feedback lever clockwise, which in turn repositions the cam. The cam is
shaped so that when it is rotated upward, the rise or length of the cam decreases allowing
the flapper to move away from the nozzle. This action restores positioner equilibrium.
The resulting change in valve position is dependent on the change in controller signal and
the shape of the cam.
CALIBRATION
Calibration of the Fisher positioner involves a procedure very similar to the calibration
procedure of transmitters. For this discussion, we are calibrating the instrument to
position a direct acting valve.
To begin the calibration rotates the span adjustment to move the flapper assembly to
position 5, on the DIRECT side of the beam. The span adjustment is a gear as shown in
the figure. When the span adjustment gear is rotated, the flapper assembly gear turns
about the nozzle. The flapper assembly is mounted on the flapper assembly gear so when
the gear turns the flapper assembly is positioned along the beam.
Now, apply an instrument signal of 3 psi, the low range valve of the 3-15 psi signal.
Adjust the nozzle unit the actuator strokes the valve to the closed end of its travel. The
nozzle is screwed on to a threaded connection from the relay. By rotating the nozzle it
can be positioned closer to or farther away from the flapper. When we change
flapper/nozzle clearance the output pressure from the positioner changes accordingly.
This change in positioner pressure results in a repositioning of the valve actuator. The
new position of the valve actuator is feedback to the positioner to restore equilibrium
within the instrument. Therefore, nozzle positioning provides the means for adjusting the
positioner zero.
When the zero is properly set, increase the instrument signal pressure to 15 psi. the
positioner should stroke the vale fully open. If the valve does not stroke fully open,
increase the travel by moving the flapper to a higher number position on the beam. If the
valve strokes open before the instrument signal 15 psi, decrease the travel by moving the
flapper assembly toward a lower number position. Repeat the zero and span adjustments
until valve strokes properly.
SUMMARY
In many cases the vale positioner greatly improves the performance of a process control
loop. In other case the control loop would be more stable without the positioner. In these
cases, a properly sized spring and diaphragm actuator alone would provide satisfactory
process control.
Studies have shown that the use of positioners is clearly beneficial in relatively slow
processes, and clearly detrimental in relatively fast process. Applications in which
positioner should be used include temperature control, liquid level control, gas flow
control, mixing and blending. These studies also showed that the use of positioners is
required where it is necessary to split-range the controller output to more than one valve.
An example of this situation is a temperature control loop where the output of the
controller from 3-9 psi operates a valve controlling cooling liquid flow to the process
while the 9-15 psi signal span operates a valve controlling steam flow that heats the
process.
A positioner is also required when the controller output single pressure of 3-15 psi is
insufficient to actuate the control valve. In this situation the positioner would be used to
amplify the controller output to a range of higher pressure in order to provide increased
actuator thrust.
Finally, the use of a positioner should be considered for systems where it is necessary to
provide control of the process with minimum overshoot and the fastest possible recovery
flowing a disturbance in a control loop where long transmission line between the
controller and actuator are involved. For this situation, a booster relay may be more
suitable. The determination as to whether a positioner or booster relay should be used is
dependent upon the speed of response of the process. If the response of the process is
relatively fast, such as in systems where liquid pressure, flow or gas pressure are
controlled, the proper choice is a booster relay. If the process response is relatively slow,
such as is liquid level, blending temperature or some reactor control loop, the proper
choice is a positioner.
 “DEMBLA” VALVE POSITIONERS
These are single acting, single stage, force balance type control device, side mounted on a
control valve. It utilizes an auxiliary air supply and feedback cam to position the valve
stem in accordance with control signal.
Major components of the positioner are:
a. Pilot assembly
b. Lever mechanism
c. Feedback Cam
d. Feedback spring
e. Housing
f. Manifold.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Schematic diagram shows a direct acting positioner mounted on a direct acting valve.
The instruments signal is applied to the signal diaphragm and increasing signal will drive
the diaphragm and flapper connecting stem to the right. The flapper connecting stem will
then open the supply flapper admitting supply pressure into the output which is connected
to the actuator diaphragm. The exhaust flapper remains closed when the flapper
connecting stem is deflected to right.
The effect of increasing signal is to increase the pressure in the actuator. This increased
pressure in the actuator drives the valve stem downwards and rotates the positioner lever
clockwise. This clockwise rotation of the lever results in compression of the spring
through cam. When the valve stem reaches the position called for by the controller, the
compression in the range spring will give a force equal to the force when this force
balance exists. The flapper connecting stem moves back to the left and both flappers are
closed.
If the control signal is decreased, the force exerted by the signal diaphragm will also
decreased and the force from the range spring will push the flapper connecting stem to
the left, opening the exhaust flapper. This causes a decreased actuator diaphragm pressure
and allows the valve stem to move upward until a new force balance is established.
CALIBRATION PROCEDURE:
1. Apply regulated air pressure to the actuator and adjust pressure until stem is
positioned at the midstroke.
2. Adjust motion connector assembly until positioner lever and motion connector are
parallel and horizontal at midstroke.
3. Disconnect regulated air supply to diaphragm and connect tubing from output port
of positioner to diaphragm.
4. Check numbers stamped on the positioner lever and move stroke adjusting pin to
the desired stroke and tighten.
5. To set positioner’s start point, apply desired starting pressure (usually 3 psi) and
adjust the spring adjuster until valve stem starts moving.
6. Set desired maximum pressure of signal range (15 psi) and check for the stem
stroke. If stroke is less, move stroke adjusting pin to the higher value i.e. right. If
stroke is achieved at pressure lesser than desired pressure, move to lower value
i.e. left.
7. Recheck the start point.
8. Repeat step 5 and 6 until travel is found within acceptable limits.

CHANGING POSITIONER ACTION

1. Release feedback spring and remove travel pin.
 2. Remove the 3 nos. screws which fasten the pilot assembly to the housing.
3. Rotate the pilot by 180 degree and remount it to the housing. Make sure that DA
and RA marking is properly lined with the arrow marked.
4. Remove the cam and fasten it in the opposite direction.
5. Readjust the travel pin and feedback spring.
6. Recalibrate the positioner.

CHANGING POSITIONER RANGE:

Four different springs are available to operate with different input signal ranges. When
the linear characteristic cam is used, simply by adjusting the starting point and stroke,
limited change can be done in the range.
To change the signal range, follow the steps given below:
1. Release the feedback spring and remove the
2. Replace the spring suitable for desired signal range.
3. Recalibrate the positioner
BY PASSING THE POSITIONER
To bypass the positioner:
1. Unscrew the bypass knob fixing screw which is normally 3/16” allen screw.
2. Rotate selector knob clockwise and set to bypass position.
3. Now the valve can be operated irrespective of cam characteristic and positioner
action.
SMART TRANSMITTER
Microprocessor based technology has reached every area of process control just over ten
years have transpired since microprocessor were first mated to transmitters. In that length
of time, smart transmitter usage has risen, due in part of their improved performance and
falling costs. Inspite of the advantage that intelligent transmitter offer widespread usage
of these instrument has been less than expected.
Transmitter technology
There are 3 types of transmitters on the market today analog, programmable and
intelligent. Analog instruments basically provide a 4-20 mA output signal for a sensor
input. For most temperature applications, for example one transmitter is required for
every sensor type and required temperature range.
Since the variety of temperature sensors is vast, transmitters are required in many types.
Most are provided for the predetermined resistance temperature, detector or
thermocouple type with a specific range, so there is little or no adjustability. A similar
situation exists for analog pressure transmitters. Most of these instruments have either a
fixed pressure range or very limited adjustability. Therefore a wide variety of sensors is
required to accommodate various pressure ranges.
Analog transmitters that incorporate variable resistance for adjustability are susceptible to
drift because the resistive element’s characteristics change has the ambient environment
changes. Consequently implementing control strategies with analog devices usually
required multiple transmitters as well as constant monitoring and recalibration. This
increases both equipment and maintenance costs.
Programmable transmitters are generally microprocessor-based. Because they lack the
capability for bi-directional communication they are not true intelligent devices. Yet they
do have configurable ranges. An instrument technician must still be dispatched into the
field to monitor and configure each transmitter.
Intelligent or “smart” transmitters offer configuration flexibility and provide bi-
directional communication capability. If a user needs to reconfigured or check
configuration of an intelligent transmitter, a digital signal can be used to perform the task.
Smart transmitter also feature temperature compensation for increased accuracy,
stability, and self-diagnostic capability.
Smart transmitter advantages
According to a survey of transmitter users conducted by Sensycon Inc. some of the
reasons for using the intelligent type-where available-were as follows. Remote calibration
and diagnostic capability.
 Greater measurement accuracy/stability
 Improved calibration capabilities
 Reduced lower start up costs,
 Reduced maintenance costs,
 Quality control and lower designs costs,
 Flexibility of configuration
 Self-monitoring/self diagnostic capabilities
 Digital communication capability

With flexibility of configuration input range, type and characteristics can be configured
and then monitored by the microprocessor. Once configured, the intelligent transmitter is
dependent only on the accuracy of the sensor. These flexibility reduces the number of
additional devices required to meet the ever changing demands of newer control systems.
This capability also reduces the amount of transmitter inventory required for replacement
and repair.
For example, with the conventional temperature transmitters, separate devices usually are
needed for RTD or thermocouple input or when different thermocouple types (J K T etc)
are required. Separate transmitters are also needed for different input ranges (0-100 deg
C, 0-200 deg F etc.)
With intelligent transmitters, on the other hand, input is completely configurable.
Additionally, with the more advanced models, the user can choose existing standard or
self-configured characteristics, curves. Ease and flexibility of configuration can lower
installation and maintenance costs substantially when there is uncertainty at start up about
the type or range of sensor that may be best suited for a particular application.
The self-monitoring/self-diagnostic capability is an important feature of intelligent
transmitters because early detection and identification of sensing problem means
corrective action can be taken before they lead to a major breakdown. Advanced models
of intelligent transmitters have the capability of storing multiple measured values around
a setpoint, maintaining maximum and minimum values, and providing differentiation
between overrange and default outputs. These values can be monitored from a central
control room via bi-directional communication capabilities. Self-monitoring and
diagnostic capabilities also increase instrument stability and accuracy, eliminating the
need for ongoing manual calibration checking. This reduces downtime and improved
system performance and quality control.
Digital communication capability allows users to configure and monitor these
instruments, either by personal computer (PC) or by a handheld terminal. Doing these
functions, remotely-when possible- saves time and money since a technician may not
have to go into the field to check a transmitter.
With Highway Addressable Remote Transducer (HART) field communication protocol,
bi-directional communication is accomplished by superimposing the digital signal over
the 4-20 mA signal on the same pair of wires. Communication in both directions can be
accomplished without interrupting or disturbing the standard 4-20 mA signal.
Utilization roadblocks
Limited use of intelligent transmitters can be blamed on several factors. Among them are
lack of hardware variety, and microprocessor and bi-directional communication
limitations..
Fewer choices in available digital devices have prolonged the presence of analog units in
the marketplace. However, as new product offerings become available, this will change.
Products with PC-based communication capability and multiunits and multiunit bus
design have been introduced.
Slow evolution of the intelligent transmitter-has hampered progress. User demand is
constantly changing. Although microprocessor capability has been greatly enhanced,
transmitter technology has not kept pace. Some manufacturers are waiting for the new
fieldbus protocol before investing in redesign. Any manufacturer who keeps up with
technology that can accommodate whatever fieldbus becomes the industry standard and
meets customer product demands-will help the process industry to become more efficient
and cost effective.
The need for bi-directional communication
Another major hurdle to full usage of intelligent transmitter capabilities is the present
limitations for bi-directional communication via multiunit buses. Full capability digital
communication will be accomplished when users can communicate bi-directionally with
all intelligent transmitters from a single remote location and through a single
communication device.
In applications where intelligent devices are being used, they have-for the most part-
simply replaced conventional analog transmitters. Full communication capabilities have
not been utilized because of the need to maintain existing control strategies that relay on
conventional 4-20 signals. Most plants have a substantial investment in cabling for 4-20
mA signals. Plant rewiring to accommodate a field bus standard will require considerable
i.e. time expenses and engineering effort. The question of two-wire bus reliability is an
important one. Many potential users are fearful that with a two-wire control bus, a break
can cause the loss of an entire loop.
In addition, users are apprehensive about slow data-transfer speed. In multidrop bus
applications, more units on the bus means longer data sampling times are required since
the devices are polled in sequence. With excessively long loop sampling times,
catastrophic occurrences –overpressures, explosions etc. could take place before the
control room gets a change in data on which to react. Based on this scenario, it is easy to
see that there exists a great sense of security and integrity in utilizing 4-20 mA control
signals for providing fast real time response.
Communication System (The role of HART Protocol)
Today’s de facto standard for transmitter communications appears to be the HART
protocol, which allows for simultaneous 4-20 mA output interruption or interference
between the two. However, when using HART in multiple drop applications, all analog
outputs are driven to 4 mA and the measured value must be conveyed digitally. There is
no way that an individual 4-20 mA analog signal can be maintained.
Additionally, with a baud rate of 1,200 the data transfer for a control, bus is to slow for
many critical applications. Distributed control systems (DCSs) that use other
communication protocols have transfer rates that are even slower. Consequently, the
majority of intelligent transmitters using HART digital communications are used in point
to point mode only.
If the intelligent devices do not terminate in the control room, then they must be accessed
one at a time, usually via a handheld terminal of keypad. If the field transmitter to be
accessed is an explosion hazard before the cover can be removed for connection to the
keypad. Even from the control room, each transmitters must be identified and
individually connected to the keypad one at a time. This makes communication in the
field or from the control room-costly and time-consuming.
The purpose of most communication interfaces is calibration and configuration.
However, when it comes to diagnostics, monitoring, and documentation that may be
necessary for a company’s ISO 9000 certification process, keypads do not provide
memory for extracting information or providing a configuration reference. In these cases,
even more time and expenses are required to transcribe the data manually or load the data
into another device.
Technical Data of HART protocol
Type of transmission: Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) in accordance with Bell relating to
the transfer rate and frequency for bit information 0 and 1.
Transfer rate: 1200 bps
0 bit information frequency: 2200 Hz
1 bit information frequency : 1200 Hz
Signal Structure: 1 start bit, 8 data bit, 1 bit for odd parity, 1 stop bit
Transfer rate for simple variable: 2 per sec.
Maximum no. of unit in bus mode: 15 (with central power supply)
Multiple variable specification: Maximum no. of variable per field unit (one modem):
256 maximum no. of variable per message: 4
Maximum no. of master system:2
PC-based multiunit systems
Use of PC based systems for remotely configuring and monitoring intelligent devices-
mixed with existing analog devices-is the one solution for interdevice communication.
Configuration software allows control engineers to take full advantage of intelligent
transmitter of upcoming filedbus technology.
PC-base systems allow users to communicate in a standard format with a familiar
viewing screen. This larger format allows more information to be viewed at one time
than with a handheld terminal. PC based device configuration is said to be easirer, and its
file-management capabilities allow for off-line configuration and downloading to the
transmitter files can be stored for later retrieval. In batch-processing systems-where
reconfiguration could be an every day occurrence-this saves both time and expenses. The
software system also incorporates a logical bus structure for setting up communication
buses, and works with any type of transmitter as long as it is HART compatible.
Configuration, monitoring, diagnostics, and documentation can be achieved in one step.
In order to provide multidrop digital communication bus capabilities while maintaining
individual 4-20 mA control signals, isolating power supplies are used. The devices isolate
the HART FSK communication signals from the “smart devices” and the remaining
analog output signals. Using these devices, 4-20 mA signal capability can be maintained
within a single two-wire bus for multidrop digital communications. With this technology,
a communication bus can be built with as few as 2 devices-to eliminate the cost of
unneeded capacity-but up to 10,000 devices when needed.
TERMINOLOGY
There is lack of consistency in the terminology used to describe various attributes and
features of these new transmitters. In this context, following interpretation may be used.
Sensor
A device which converts one physical parameter
Primary Sensor
The sensor which responds principally to the physically parameter to be measured.
Secondary Sensor
The sensor mounted adjacent to the primary sensor to measure the physical parameter
which adversely affects the basic characteristic of the primary sensor. (e.g. the effect of
temperature on a pressure sensor)
Transmitter
A field mounted device used to sense the physical parameter at the point where it is
mounted and to provide a signal in 4-20 mA circuit which is the function of parameter
being measured.
Smart Transmitter
A transmitter in which a microprocessor system is used to correct non-linearity errors of
the primary sensor through interpolation of calibration data held in memory, or to
compensate for the effect of secondary influences on the primary sensor by incorporating
a secondary sensor adjacent to the primary sensor and interpolating stored data for both
primary and secondary sensors.
Intelligent Transmitter
A transmitter in which the functions of a microprocessor system are shared between: (i)
deriving the primary measurement signal (ii) storing information regarding transmitter
itself, its application data and its location, and (iii) managing a communication system
which enables two way communication to be superimposed on the same circuit that
carries the measurement, the communication being between the transmitter and either an
interface unit connected at any access point in the measurement loop or at the control
room.
Fieldbus
A single communication medium such as twisted pair of copper conductor, coaxial cable
etc. which carries information such as address, control data and process parameter data
between a number of transmitters, actuators, controller etc.
Summary of Smart and intelligent feature of the transmitters:
Smart Features:
 Linearization, characterization and correction of primary sensor characteristics
 Inclusion of control functions and other algorithms
 Expression of measurement in Engineering units

Adjustment of 4-20 mA signal

Digital Communication
Pulse output for totalization
Failsafe features (sensor burnout protection)
Intelligent features:
 Adjustment of span and zero
 Adjustment of damping, time constant or response time
 Diagnostic routines and status information

Transmitter model and Sl. No.

Primary variable and unit of measure
Transmitter range
Primary variable corresponding to 4-20 mA
Material of construction and wetted parts
Software revision number
Date of calibration
SMART PRESSURE AND DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE (DP) TRANSMITTERS
Introduction:
Looking back to the development of transmitter it would be recalled that in first stage
force balance type electromechanical transmitters were used. These required spanners
and screw drivers to alter pivotal points for range changes and had accuracy of 0.5% of
span. Then came the electronic type transmitters using screw driver adjustments of
potentiometers for fine zero / span changes and switches/links for coarse adjustments.
These had accuracy of 0.25% of span. The present trend is for smart transmitters which
are of digital type with push button settings, selectable linear/square-root
characterization, temperature compensation, built in diagnostics and simplified
calibration procedures. These have accuracy of 0.1% of span.
The first two stages of transmitters described above give 4-20 mA output on 2 wire
connection, corresponding to 0-100% of the measured variable range, and all electrical
power in the unit is derived from the mA line zero. These have limited adjustability for
pressure ranges. The performance is affected due to varying temperature and static
pressure and with time, thus calling for frequent calibration which is time consuming and
difficult.
In the case of smart transmitters, the output is same 4-20 mA on 2-wire but with the
added capability of digital communication from a hand-held interface connected any
where on 4-20 mA signal, the remote adjustment of the transmitter data base and
acquisition of diagnostic information to minimize loop down time is possible. It has high
rangeability and much better performance.
All the 3 parameters, differential pressure, static pressure and temperature are sensed by
the transmitter. The meter body is pre-programmed in manufacturing to characterise the
unit for linearity, static pressure and temperature effects, and it computes a highly
repeatable and accurate pressure measurement. These characteristics are held in PROM
memory and being specific to one meter are kept with the meter body. The combination
of characterized meter body and digital electronics has enabled a quantum leap forward
in performance.
Rangeability: The rangeability of smart pressure and differential pressure transmitters
could be as high as 400:1. Thus only 3 sensors would be required to cover the entire
range of 2.5 mbar to 700 bar. The greatly extended rangeability reduces cost of spares
stocking, increases interchangeability of units with plant alteration. The exact ranges
need not be defined while ordering the instruments.
The range can be changed either manually through the communicator for different plant
operating conditions or automatically vi a dedicated flow computer package.
Remote Adjustability: The unit range, damping etc. can be adjusted by communication
over the 4-20 mA signal line. The adjustment is made by connecting a field
communicator across the two signal lines at any point along their path. For control
security, the first message in any communication is verification of identity. Then the unit
can be interrogated and adjusted within very wide limits like.
 output characterized as linear or square root,
 damping time constant adjusted in 10 steps,
 lower range value/upper range value adjustment to any value in the pressure range
 adjustment in engineering units,
 direct or reversal electrical output,
 electrical output may be held constant at any value in the 4-20 mA range for loop
integrity checks.
A typical field communicator has 86 character alpha-numeric LCD display with 32-key
membrane keyboard. The ability of re-range the transmitter without applying pressure is
possible because of the stable, accurately known pressure characteristics which are in
digital format. Thus the transmitter can be instructed to change its range by specifying the
pressure equivalent to 4 mA and 20 mA and it will accurately obey this instruction.
Calibration corrections can be made for small error due to mounting angle effect or
variations between standards. The greatly improved stability of the sensing and
measurement approach means that zero checks, and corrections, if necessary, can be
performed from the control room when plant is shut down. Use of digital techniques also
gives improvements in stability because the digital memories unlike resistors, do not
suffer from time drift or changes in value with temperature.
Reliability: Reliability is very high due to use of minimum number of components and
protection against all foreseeable damaging influences like radio frequency, reverse
polarity, over pressure, surge voltage and lighting. Diagnostic aids are included in
transmitters to avoid misuse and also to take earliest corrective action.
Sensor: Sensor is based on silicon ion implant technology and combines advantages in
silicon technology with the use a perfectly elastic drift free material to provide an
accurate and stable sensing element. The differential pressure across the silicon chip is
sensed by a Wheatstone bridge arrangement of piezoresistive elements, two of which
increase in value with applied pressure two decrease. With a constant voltage across the
bridge, this gives a quadrum effect on the electrical change and hence a high millivolt
output. The pressure is also sensed by a Wheatstone bridge network of resistances the
section of silicon in close proximity to the bond to the supporting tube of glass. The
different coefficients of compression of silicon and glass result piezoresistive
measurement of applied static pressure. Temperature is sensed by a single resistive
element.
Signal Pulse Modulator (SPM): It converts the analog signal from the into a pulse width
modulated digital signal. The gain of SPM is automatically changed to provide the very
high input resolution required i.e. 400 times down with better than 0.1% accuracy. The
SPM is time shared between the variables sensed and two zero check resistors. Since the
temperature and pressure values are slower moving than D.P. and are only being used
compensation, they are sampled less frequently. The sampling ratio may be 12 or 12:1 for
DP, pressure and temperature. The microprocessor carries out its last less than 4 mA total
power. Two hardware multiply/divide chips are included speed up some computations.
The input is sampled 6 times per seconds and output value is computed at the same rate.
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART): It is communication module
which looks for messages on the input wire and if are present and valid, responds with
the correct action. The response is given overriding the normal 4-20 mA signal with 16
mA digitally coded pulses.
PROM: Stores meter body data (input/output characteristic, temperature characteristic
Static Pressure characteristic, model data, usable range etc.)
EEPROM: Stores data on transmitters parameters (Tag number, measuring range, linear
or sq. root output selection, damping time selection, zero and span calibration etc) set
with SFC.
RAM: When instrument power is turned ON, back-up data stored in EEPROM is
automatically transferred to RAM.
FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF C-G H&B ASK-800 MODEL
TRANSMITTERS
It consists of DP measuring element (1) with microprocessor controlled electronics (2)
and housing (3) with control elements accessible from outside. The measuring
mechanism is a two chamber system with internal pick-up system (4) and internal sensing
diaphragm (5). Applied DP is transferred to the sensing diaphragm via the isolating
diaphragm (6) and filling liquid (7). A small deflection of the measuring diaphragm
changes the output voltage of the pick-up system (4). The output voltage proportional to
measured DP is temperature compensated, linearised and converted to a load independent
dc current by the microprocessor controlled electronics in accordance with the selected
transfer function. So that one sided overload up to the full nominal pressure does not
cause the measuring element to be damaged, the measuring element is equipped with an
overload diaphragm (8) for measuring ranges 2.5 bar. For DP within the measuring
limits, the overload diaphragm has no influence on the measuring characteristic. Not until
the measuring limits are exceeded does the overload diaphragm move with the measuring
capsule out of central position until the pressure acting on the measuring diaphragm. For
measuring ranges  16 bar overload protection takes place by the measuring diaphragm
contacting the backing piece.
The transmitter operates with a 2-wire system. The same wires are used for the operating
voltage (12 to 45 V dc), the output signal (4-20 mA) and the digital communication. The
electrical terminal compartment is located behind the lateral enclosure cover and is
hermetically sealed from the remainder of the circuitry. In the electrical connection
housing test sockets are available for measuring output signal without disturbing the
signal input circuit.
Following additional functions can be configured using PC:
 Digital indication of process pressure, temperature, percentage value, current,
arbitrary process variables.
 Transfer functions: Linear, Sq. root, free form
 Alarm signaling: Imin / Imax
 PID controller adjustment with five parameters
Set point
Proportional Gain
Integral time
Derivative gain
Derivative action time

1. Measuring Mechanism
2. Electronics with Microprocessor
3. Enclosure with operational control
4. Measuring capsule with pick-up system
5. Sensing diaphragm
6. Isolating diaphragm
7. Filling liquid
8. Overload diaphragm
9. Measuring Chamber
10. Flange
11. Measuring Cell
12. Digital Indicating instruments

In addition, upper and lower values and damping time constant can be set in this way.
These parameters can also be set with push buttons outside the transmitter. Stored data
are retained in case of power failure. Overwriting of parameters can be prevented by
means of sealable write-over protection switch directly on the unit.
ROSEMOUNT MODEL 3151C SMART PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
Figure shows the functional diagram of the transmitter unit. In the sensor the process
pressure is transmitted through isolated diaphragm and fill fluid sensing diaphragm in the
centre of capacitive cell. Electrodes on both sides of diaphragm detect its position and the
differential capacitance between the diaphragm and the electrodes is directly proportional
to the differential. The signal from a temperature sensor incorporated in the cell is
compensate for temperature effects.
During the characterization process in the factory, all sensors are run pressure and
temperature cycle over the entire range. Data from these used to generate correction
coefficients which are then stored in the memory module to ensure precise signal
correction during operation. Also in the sensor are electronics to convert the differential
capacitance temperature input signals directly into digital formats for further processing
electronics module.
Electronics module consists of a single board incorporating ASIC (App Specific
Integrated Circuit) and other surface mounted components. This accepts digital signal
from the sensor module along with correction and then corrects and linearise the signal.
Output section converts digital 4-20 mA analog signal and handle the communication
with hand held
Configurations are stored in non-volatile EEPROM. The process variable as digital as
digital data enabling precise corrections and engineering unit conversion made. Sensor
signal can be directly accessed by the hand held terminal.
The transmitter communicates via the HART protocol, which uses standard Bell, 202
FSK technique.
CONFIGURATION
It consists of two parts. First three operation parameters are set which indicates 1.4-20
mA points 2. Damping Time 3. Selection of Engineering
Second, informational data can be entered into the transmitters to allow identification and
physical description of the transmitter. These include
1. Tag 2. Descriptor (15 alphanumeric characters)
3. Message (32 characters) 4. Date 5. Integral meter installation
6. Flange type/material 7. Remote seal information

SMART TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTERS

For temperature transmitters it is the data regarding the characteristics curves for various
thermocouples, platinum resistance and other temperature detectors that have to be
embedded in memory for interpolation by the microprocessor through out the selected
range of the transmitters.
Honeywell’s STT350 Smart Temperature Transmitters
Honeywell’s microprocessor based STT350 Smart Temperature Transmitters converts a
primary sensor input into an output signal for a conventional 4 to 20 mA, two wire loop.
This universal temperature input model readily accepts signals from a wide variety of
industry standard thermocouples or resistance temperature detector (RTD’s) as well as
straight millivolt or Ohms sensor. Its output signal is either proportional to the measured
variables or linearised to temperature, and is transmitted in either an analogue 4-20 mA
format or a digital DE protocol format for direct digital integration to the TDC 3000
control system.
User can easily select the analogue or digital format for the output signal transmission
through the Smart Field communicator (SFC) which is the common hand-held operator
interface for all Smartline Transmitters. All configurations, operation and communication
functions are under the control of the STT350’s microprocessors and are implemented
through the SFC.
DESCRIPTION
The STT350 transmitter is suitable as a direct replacement for any conventional
temperature transmitter in use today. Its memory contains the characteristics of most
commonly used temperature sensors. Thus one can use SFC to configure the transmitter
for any of these sensors and it will automatically correct for their associated non-
linearities.
User make all transmitter adjustments and diagnostic checks through an SFC connected
anywhere across the 4 – 20 mA wire route. This lets you initiate configuration and
maintenance functions at itself. The SFC is also fully compatible with all other
Honeywell Smartline Transmitters.
The transmitter module can also be installed on a standard DIN rail (to EN 5002) or
remotely mounted in a flameproof housing designed for two-inch pipe-stand mounting.
Transmitter can be preconfigured at the factory to your exact specifications or they will
be shipped with factory default configuration ready accept your own configuration.
FEATURES
 Single model accepts input signals from a choice of primary sensor to satisfy
varying application requirements with minimum transmitter inventory.
 Standard digital cold-junction compensation function provides accurate and
reliable temperature measurement over a wide ambient operating range.
 Direct digital integration with TDC 3000 system provides local measurement
accuracy to the system level without adding typical A/D and D/A converter
inaccuracies.
 Added Smart features include reading of the highest and lowest inputs, external
cold junction compensation temperature at an isothermal block and engineering
unit displayed in degrees C,F,K, or R plus millivolts and Ohms.
 Suitable for DIN rail mounting or remote field mounting in a flameproof housing.
 Smart transmitter personality with local or remote interfacing means singnificant
manpower efficiency improvements in commissioning start-up, and analog
maintenance function.
 Provides two differential temperature measurement of thermocouple or RTD
inputs by individual linearisation of each sensor reading and then computing the
difference.
 Suitable for true 4-wire Pt 100 measurement (or 3 – or 2-wire).
 Write protect link included to safeguard configuration settings.
 Includes sensor break detection on all input wire.
 Post read validation of the measured signal before providing fresh output.
 Supports dual thermocouple sensor inputs for redundant sensor operation.
 Integral analogue or digital indicating meter option.

USER EXPERIENCE WITH SMART AND INTELLIGENT TRANSMITTERS

Reports of users experience are dominated by references to differential pressure
measurement used for flow measurement. This arises not only because of the large
number in use but also because these were the first smart and intelligent transmitters to
became available. The ability to set the range of an instrument before or at the time of
installation was one of the earliest and still is one the most valuable benefits of the new
technology. From the user’s viewpoint, orders for instrumentation can be released earlier
because there is no penalty for ordering the wrong range and the holding of spares is
greatly reduced. Perhaps the most dramatic change has been in temperature transmitters,
some of which can accommodate virtually any type and range of thermocouple or
resistance temperature detector likely to be used in a plant.
There are fewer reports of the benefits delivered from the ability to re-range transmitter
during plant operation except for some batch processes where a large turn-down is
involved and one transmitter can be used instead of two. In such instances, the use of a
single instrument not only saves the cost of an instrument but also reduces the cost and
complication of the installation.
The most significant benefit arising from the use of intelligent transmitter is the
commissioning time. In some instances this more than compensates for additional cost of
the transmitters compared with their analogue counterparts. Improvements arises from
the ability to address the instrument from the room or the marshaling cabinet, to confirm
that the correct type and range has been installed and that the system responds correctly
when the transmitter output is forced to 4 or 20 mA. With analogue instrumentation, this
would involve obtaining access to the transmitter, perhaps with a ladder, and making
adjustments while using a radio link with the control room. The difference can be even
marked for transmitters involved in a complex calibration sequence, which now be
controlled without anyone being present at the point of measurement.
Although one might except these more complex instruments to be less reliable than the
older simpler ones, user perceptions indicate the opposite. This may due to fact that the
built-in diagnostic routines provide an immediate warning faults and also that the status
of the transmitter can be checked without having go to its installed position, take off its
cover and carry out tests, or disconnect it and take it to a workshop for maintenance.
Even having disconnected it and found no fault, the transmitter will have been identified
as or that requires attention. More seriously, it is quite likely that a fault is introduces by
the unnecessary handling.
In general, users have recognized a reduced need for repair and maintenance. This may
be due in part to the communication facility of the intelligent transmitters, which
facilitates the keeping of better maintenance record.
FUTURE TRENDS
i. FIELD MOUNTED CONTROL
It seems likely that the inclusion of control algorithms, already offered by some
manufacturers in either flow transmitters or valve actuator, will become common. This
could be useful in the event of a partial failure of the principle control system and it has
some advantages from a reliability viewpoint. However widespread adoption may have to
wait for further standardization of field bus and protocols and there may be a need for
some complex safeguards to prevent changes in range or damping of the transmitter from
upsetting the tuning of the control loop.
There is some doubt whether in safety-critical applications communication between
transmitter controller and final control element via a shared field bus is acceptable. It may
be that direct local communication is preferred with the fieldbus only being used for
tuning and communication of status information.
ii. FUTURE OF ANALOGUE INSTRUMENTS
Although the number of smart and intelligent transmitters being installed is rising
steadily, it will be a long time before the transition is complete, because of the large
installed base of traditional instruments. There is also some concern regarding the use of
software based instruments in safety critical applications because of the possibility that
they may fail in some unexpected manner.
iii. SENSOR VALIDATION
Much of the diagnostic routines applied in smart and intelligent transmitters concerns the
electronics rather than the primary sensor. It is likely that, in future, greater emphasis will
be placed on in-situ validation of the performance of the primary sensor.
iv. PLANT DIAGNOSTICS
A considerable amount of potentially useful information regarding the process, beyond
the value of the process parameter being measured, is available at the interface between
the process and the primary sensor. This information can be recovered by spectral and
statistical analysis of the measurement signal if the frequency response of the transmitter
is adequate. In effect, it provides a window through which the status of the associated
process can be assessed and changes detected to provide warning of incipient failures.
However, as most of the transmitters at present in use have been designed to operate in a
process control loop, and as it is generally accepted that there is no useful information in
those components of the measurement signal having frequencies greater than about 5 Hz,
the amount of useful information which can be recovered using currently available
transmitters is very restricted.
v. HAND-HELD INTERFACES
At present, there are no standards for fieldbuses or protocols, with the result that the
hand-held interfaces are not interchangeable between vendors. This is very inconvenient
for users.
vi. MEASURING DIRECTIVES
It is likely that many process measurements which at present are not subject weights and
measures surveillance will become so in future. Directives, requiring further integration
of diagnostic routines into these instruments, data back etc. are to be expected.
vii. FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF SMART TRANSMITTERS
The accuracy and versatility achieved by the present generation of smart intelligent
transmitters its such that there is little real advantage to be gained from further
improvement in these respects. For temperature and differential pressure transmitters
were accuracies of 0.1% of the measured variable are claimed, point has been reached
where it is necessary to question whether the transmitter signal has the significance
implied by the number of digits in the displayed values.
For most process measurements the noise components can range from 1% to 30% of the
min value and the damping applied may be any thing from 1 to 60 s. it is than necessary
to consider how realistically the displayed value represents the process variable.

PRACTICE ON THE SMART PRESSURE / DP TRANSMITTER

A. TRANSMITTER CONFIGURATION
ASSIGNMENT FOR DPT:
Configure the transmitters as per the following requirements:
TAG Name : FT 101
LRV : 0 mm WC
URV : 2540 mm WC
TYPE : LINEAR (LIN), SQUR ROOT
Damping Time: 4 Seconds,
Make electrical and mechanical connections of given transmitter. Check the loop
resistance. It should not be less than 250 OHM.
1. Key-in the I.D. (Tag no.) and load the Database:
1.1. Inform operator and change controllers action from ‘auto’ mode to ‘manual’
mode.
1.2. Switch on the SFC (Display ‘ PUT LOOP IN MANUAL’ will appear)
1.3. Press ID switch. TRIPS SECURED? Will be displayed. Press ENTER (YES)
key. (Not applicable for old version of SFC)
1.4. Press ALPHA key and type FT.
1.5. Depress ALPHA key and type 101. Tag no. of the transmitter is now set as
FT101.
2. Setting LRV, URV and unit.
2.1. Check unit of measurement selected by pressing UNITS key. Select mmWc.
2.2. Press LRV key to read lower range value. Make it 0 mmWC.
2.3. Press URV key to read upper range value. Change it to 2540 mmWc.
3. Selecting the type of transmitter (SQ.ROOT or LINEAR)
3.1. Press CONF and MENUITEM keys and select LIN as option. Press (LIN/ ) key
in old version of SFC and select LIN.
4. Setting the damping time = 4 sec.
Press DAMP key. Make it 4 sec (Range 0.48 – 32 seconds) or keep on pressing NEXT or
PREV keys until 4 sec appear as display.
5. Saving the configured data in Transmitter non volatile memory
Press SHIFT followed by ENTER key. Now the configuration data from SFC memory
will transfer to transmitter memory.
(Note: Configured data is transferred from SFC to transmitter after 30 sec. However
above operation can be performed before finally disconnecting the SFC from transmitter)
6. Setting the transmitter range using externally applied pressure.
6.1 To set LRV: Apply press to transmitter input. Make is minimum.
6.2 Press SHIFT and OUTPUT keys. Input value will be displayed.
6.3 Press LRV and SET keys. SET LRV? Will appear. Press ENTER. LRV is now set
to applied input pressure.
6.4 To set URV: Apply maximum pressure to the transmitter input. Read the input by
pressing SHIFT and OUTPUT keys.
6.5 Press URV followed by SET key. SET URV? Will appear. Press ENTER key.
URV will be set to the applied pressure.
B. OUTPUT CALIBRATION:
To calibrate analog output of the transmitter, connect a precision ammeter at the
appropriate connection point on the system or use the control room display at monitor the
output signal.
If 0 or 100% output is not correct, Digital to Analog Current output signal calibration is
required.
STEPS
1. Press OUTPUT and feed 0% value. Press ENTER (# indicates that transmitter is
in output mode) Check multimeter. If output is not 4 mA, press CORRECT key.
CORRECT DAC ZERO will appear.
2. Press NEXT or PREV key until output is 4 mA.
3. To adjust SPAN, press OUTPUT AND FEED 100%. Press ENTER. If output is
not 20 mA, press CORRECT. CORRECT DAC ZERO will appear. Press NEXT
or PREV key until output is 20 mA.
C. CHECKING INPUT %
1. Apply pressure impulse at the manifold.
 2. Press SHIFT key (Display ‘SHIFT’ will appear).
3. Press INPUT key. Read % input. Check corresponding mA input by multimeter or
integral indicator connected to the transmitter.
D. ZERO CORRECTION
1. Press SHIFT, OUTPUT and CORRECT keys. ZERO INPUT? Will appear. Press
ENTER key. Output will show 4 mA corresponding to applied unit.
EXERCISE FOR PRACTICE
1. Changing the communication mode: ANALOG to DE and vice versa.
2. Displaying, setting, and calibrating the lower range value.
3. Displaying, setting and calibrating the upper range value
4. Displaying and changing the span of the device.
5. Displaying and changing the upper range limit of the device.
6. Resetting the SFI
7. Displaying, setting, and clearing the current output.
8. Displaying and calibrating the current input value.
9. Displaying the SFI diagnostic status
10. Writing data in the scratch pad area
11. Read the software version of SFC and Transmitter.
12. Check the fail-safe direction (upscale/downscale)
13. Check currently running span
14. Perform display and keyboard test.

Appendix – A: Description of Smart Field Configuration

About the Smart Field The model STS 102 Smart Field Communication is a hand-
Communication SFC held operator interface that lets you “talk” with any one of
Smart Transmitters. These include the ST 3000 Smart
Pressure Transmitters, the STT 3000 Smart, Temperature
Transmitters and the MagneW 3000 Smart Magnetic
Flowmeters.
Communicating Communicating with a transmitter means sending and
To a Transmitter receiving data from the transmitter over a communication
link. This link consists of digital signals traveling over the
transmitter’s 4-20 mA wires. We call this type of
communicating a Data-Exchange. It occurs when you
connect an SFC to a transmitter and press a key, and
receive a response on the SFC display. Note that the SFC
determines what type of transmitter it is talking to
automatically. When you press a key you’re sending a
request to the transmitter. The transmitter receives the
request, identifies it, and sends a response message back to
the SFC.
The way the message request and response are actually
handled differs depending upon whether the transmitter is
an analog only model or an analog/digital model which is
configured for the analog or digital communications mode.
While the message handling occurs without operator
 intervention, the following data describes the various
message (communication) formats for reference.
About the Smart Field The model STS 102 Smart Field Communicator is a hand
Communicator SFC held operator into that lets you “talk” with any one of our
Smart Transmitters. These include the ST 3000 Smart
Pressure Transmitters. The STT 3000 Smart Temperature
Transmitters and the MagneW 3000 Smart Magnetic
Flowmeters.

Communicating Communicating with a transmitter means sending and

Talking to a Transmitter receiving data from transmitter over a communication link.
This link consists of digital signals traveling over the
transmitter’s 4-20 mA wires. We call this type of
communicating Data-Exchange. It occurs when you
connect an SFC to a transmitter and press key, and receive
a response on the SFC display. Note that the SFC
determine what type of transmitter it is talking to
automatically. When you press a key you’re sending a
request to the transmitter. The transmitter receives the
request, identifies it, and sends a response message back to
the SFC.
The way the message request and response are actually
handled differs depending upon whether the transmitter is
an analog only model or an analog/digital model which is
configured for the analog or digital communications model
the message handling occurs without operator intervention,
the following data describes the various message
(communication) formats for reference.

Communication Analog Only-Transmitter or Transmitter in Analog

Formats Communication Mode: Communications between an SFC
and a transmitter communicating in an analog format
features a half-duplex, variable-length message with a
wake-up pulse for on-demand requests/responses. While
message travel back and forth, the transmitter’s output
varies between 4 and 20 mA. For this reason, your control
loop must be in manual mode during communications so
the data exchange does not interfere with the control loop.
Transmitter in Digital Enhanced (DE) Communication
Mode:
Communication between an SFC and a transmitter
communicating in the digital mode features one of the
following message formats depending upon the operation
being performed.
Half Duplex Format:
This format is used for on-demand requests/responses,
except database uploads. It features a variable-length
message without a wake-up pulse. While this message
format is similar to the one for analog transmitters, it
appends the transmitter response to process variable (PV)
data which is being broadcast continuously during SFC/
transmitter communications. Thus, this format minimizes
process signal interruption in the control loop.
Broadcast 4-Byte Format (PV):
This format is normally used for reading the transmitter’s
process variable data and establishing transmitter type at
start-up. It features one byte for “flags” which includes
transmitter status and some configuration data and three
bytes for process variable data.
Broadcast 6-Byte Format (PV and Database):
This format is used for uploading a transmitter’s database
to the SFC Hold memory. It is similar to the 4-byte format,
but it includes two additional bytes of transmitter database
information.
 PROCEDURE FOR INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this document is to give the details of the calibration procedure for
field instrument to KS, KMPS, FN and FS, in line with Costain/QGPC specification.
2.0 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
(3.1) KC 3655/0.0/CMDT/695 (Costain’s Spec. for Inst. Contractor Installation,
Testing & Calibration requirements.
(3.2) Instrument Data sheets
3.0 RESPONSIBILITY
It shall be the responsibility of Mecon Instrument supervisor to ensure that all
works related with calibration of Instruments is being carried out as per procedure and
safe working method in accordance with Costain/QGPC requirement and Mecon project
safety plan.
4.0 Calibration / Testing of field mounted Instrument General note
4.1 Costain’s Instrument data shall be compiled and kept as basis required for
calibration. Mecon Instrument Engineer shall ensure that lastest revision of
Spec. /data sheets are available prior commencing the calibration.
4.2 The operation/maintenance manuals for all types of Instruments shall be
referred before starting calibration. This is to ensure contact operation and so
damage to instrument.
4.3 Loose instruments shall be tagged with label and stored properly till the time
of installation.
4.4 Testing medium shall be suitable for service conditions.
4.5 Costain/QGPC personnel shall be intimated to witness the calibration of
Instrument.
4.6 Instruments shall be thoroughly drained after calibration.
4.7 Instruments shall be properly marked and kept in safe place in stores before
transporting them to respective sites. It shall be ‘MECON’

I/P CONVERTER & VALVE POSITIONER AND

CONTROL VALVES HAVE BEEN CHECKED.
 PROCEDURE FOR INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this document is to give the details of the calibration procedure for field
instruments related to KS, KMPS, FN and FS, in line with Costain / QGPC
specifications.

2.0 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

(3.1) KC 3655/0.0/CMDT/695 (Costain’s Spec. for Inst. Contractor Installation, Testing
& Calibration requirements)
(3.2) Instrument Data sheets

3.0 RESPONSIBILITY
It shall be the responsibility of Mecon Instrument supervisor to ensure that all works
related with calibration of Instruments is being carried out as per procedure and safe
working method in accordance with Costain/QGPC requirement and Mecon project
safely plan.

4.0 Calibration / Testing of field mounted Instrument General note

4.1 Costain’s Instrument data sheet shall be compiled and captured as basic assure
required for calibration. Mecon Instrument Engineer shall ensure that latest revision of
Spec / data sheets are available prior commencing the calibration
4.2 The Operation / maintenance manuals per all types of Instruments shall in referred
before starting calibration. This is to ensure contest operation and so damage to
instrument.

4.3 Loose instruments shall be tagged with label and steered properly till the time of
installation.

4.4 Testing medium shall be suitable for service conditions

4.5 Costain / QGPC personnel shall be intimated to witness the calibration of
instrument.
4.6 Instruments shall be thoroughly drained after calibration
4.7 Instruments shall be properly marked and kept in safe place in stores before
transporting them to respective sites. He shall be ‘MLCON’s PIS N ability and are there
is to damage to instrument.

PRESSURE GAUGE / DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE GAUGE CALIBRATION

PROCEDURE:-
1) The PG/ or HP side of DPI shall be connected as shown above.
2) With no pressure applied, the gauge shall be adjusted to read zero
3) The pressure shall be raised from 0 to the required calibrated range and span shall be
adjusted
4) Zero and span shall be checked again and readjusted if required
5) After final adjustment, pressure shall be increased from 0 to 100% in steps of 25% and
readings shall be noted.
6) The pressure shall then be reduced from 100% to 0% in steps of 25% and reading shall
be noted
7) The accuracy of Inst. shall be calculated and compared with instrument specification
for conformity.
8) The calibrated Inst. shall be marked and stored.
9) Proper tools shall be used to remove the pointer
10) Testing medium shall be suitable for service conditions
11) Result of Calibration test shall be recorded on calibration sheet. WICS 14

VACUUM GAUGE CALIBRATION

PROCEDURE:-
1) The PG shall be connected as shown above
2) With no vacuum pressure applied. The gauge shall be adjusted to read zero
3) The vacuum pressure shall be raised from 0 to the required calibration range and span
shall be adjusted
4) Zero and span shall be checked again and re-adjusted if required
5) After final adjustment, pressure shall be increased from 0 to 100% in steps 25% and
reading shall be noted
6) The pressure shall then be reduced from 100% to 0% in steps of 25% and reading shall
be noted
7) The accuracy of instrument shall be calculated and compared with for specification for
conformity
8) The calibrated instrument shall be marked and stored
9) Result of calibration and test shall be recorded on Wics from NO. 14
10) Proper tools shall be used to remove the pointer

PRESSURE TRANSMITTER (ELECTRONIC) CALIBRATION

PROCEDURE:-
1) Set-up calibration equipment as shown above
2) With no pressure applied, adjust zero for output value of 4 mA
3) Apply pressure equivalent to calibrated range and adjust shan for output value of 20
mA
4) Zero and span shall be checked again and re-adjusted if required
5) After adjustment, pressure shall be increased from 0 to 100% in steps of 25% and
corresponding readings shall be noted
6) The pressure shall be increased from 100% to 110% and then reduced to 100% to
check for Hysteresis
7) The pressure shall then be reduced from 100% to 0% in steps of 25% and readings
shall be noted
8) The accuracy shall be calculated and checked with specified value
9) The calibrated Inst. shall be marked and stored
10) Result of calibration and test shall be recorded on (WICS FROM 14)
11) Instrument shall be thoroughly drained after calibration
12) Testing medium shall be suitable for service conditions.

PRESSURE SWITCH CALIBRATION

PROCEDURE:-
1) Set-up Calibration Fig. As above.
2) The switching element shall be checked with continuity tester / Multimeter in
resistance mode.
3) (A) For PSH
Apply pressure of increasing magnitude till change-over of contact takes place. Repeat
the step and adjust till it is equal to set point.
(B) For PSL
Apply initial pressure greater than the set point pressure of the switch decrease the
applied pressure till contact change over of switch takes place. Repeat the step and adjust
till it is equal to set point.
4) The actuation point and resetting point readings shall be noted on Wics form no. 14.
5) The instrument shall be marked and kept ready fro installation.

FLOW TRANSMITTER D/P TRANSMITTER (ELECTRONIC) CALIBRATION

PROCEDURE:-
1) Set-up calibration as shown above and ensure the set up is leak proof.
2) With no pressure applied, adjust zero for output value of 1 mA.
3) Apply pressure on the HP side of transmitter equivalent to calibrated range and adjust
span for output value of 20 mA. Ensure equalizer valve is closed.
4) After adjustment, pressure shall be increased from 0 to 100% in steps of 25% and
corresponding readings shall be noted.
6) The pressure shall be increased from 100% to 110% and then reduced to 100% to
check for hysterisis.
7) The pressure shall then be reduced from 100% to 0% in steps of 25% and reading shall
be noted.
8) The accuracy shall be calculated and checked with specified value.
9) The calibrated instrument shall be marked and stored.
10) Result of calibration and test shall be recorded on Wics form 14.

LEVEL TRANSMITTER (ELECTRONIC) DISPLACER TYPE CO

PROCEDURE:-
1) Set-up calibration Rig as shown above.
2) The level transmitter S.G. Compensation shall be marked for water calibration.
3) (A) Level Measurement
A.1) With no water filled, adjust transmitter to show 4 mA on Multimeter.
A.2) Fill water to a level L1 = S.G. (Liquid) x span
A.3) Adjust transmitter to show 20 mA on Multimeter.
3B) Interface level Measurement
B.1) Fill water through the tube upto the level L1 = S.G. (Lighter Liq.) x span
B.2) Adjust transmitter to show 4 mA on Multimeter.
B.3) Fill water through the tube upto the level L2 = S.G. (Heavier Liq.) x span
B.4) Adjust transmitter to show 20 mA on Multimeter.
4) After adjustment, level shall be increased from 0% to 100% in steps of 25% and
corresponding readings shall be noted.
5) The level shall then be reduced 1010 M 100% to 0% in steps of 25% and reading shall
be noted.
6) The calibrated instrument shall be marked and stored.
7) The calibrated readings shall be recorded on Wics Form 14.

LEVEL SWITCH CALIBRATION

PROCEDURE:-
1) Set-up calibration Rig as shown above.
2) Switching element shall be checked with continuity tester / Multimeter in resistance
mode.
3) The level switch S.G. Compensation shall be marked for water calibration.
4) Apply signal up to set point by filling water through the tube upto the required level
and check actuation (NO/NO) of switch if not actuated. Adjust for the same.
5) the calibrated instrument shall be marked and stored.
6) The actuation point and resetting point reading shall be recorded on Wics.

TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER CALIBRATION

PROCEDURE:-
1) Set-up the calibration Rig as shown above.
2) A variable precision resistance box shall be connected to the input terminals to feed
the signal.
3) A digital Multimeter shall be connected to the output terminals to monitor the mA
output.
4) The zero and span of the transmitter shall be adjusted by applying appropriate input
signal in terms of resistance in Ohms.
5) After adjusting the zero and span. The input signal shall be raised from 0% to 100% in
steps of 25% and corresponding output shall be monitors.
6) The signal shall be then be raised to 110% and brought back to 100% to check the
inherent hysteresis.
7) The input signal shall then be reduced from 100% to 0% in steps of 25% and the
corresponding output shall be noted.
8) The actual accuracy of the transmitter shall be calculated and compared with the
specified accuracy.
9) The calibrated instrument shall be marked and stored.
10) Result of calibration and test shall be recorded on Wics form 14.

TEMPERATURE GAUGE CALIBRATION

PROCEDURE:-
1) Set-up the calibration Rig as above
2) Check temperature Gauge at room temperature and adjust needle.
3) Switch on power supply be sand bath / oil bath / heat source.
4) Check the temperature gauge reading against mercury glass thermometer while
increasing, if necessary adjust.
5) Switch off sand bath supply, check temperature gauge reading with respected mercury
glass thermometer while decreasing the temperature if necessary, adjust.
6) The calibrated instrument shall be marked and stored.
7) The actuation point and resetting point reading shall be recorded on Wics form 14.

I/P CONVERTER CALIBRATION

PROCEDURE:-
1) Set-up calibration Rig as shown above. Ensure the test set up is leak proof.
2) With no mA signal supplied, the I/P convertors shal be adjusted to read zero bar.
3) With 4 mA signal, the convertor shall be adjusted to read 0.2 KG/M2G.
4) The mA supply shall be raised from 4 mA to 20 mA and span shall be adjusted to
display 0.2 to 1.0 KG/CM2G.
5) Zero and span shall be checked again and re-adjusted if required.
6) After final adjustment, supply (mA) shall be increased from 0 to 100% in steps of 25%
and reading shall be noted.
7) The supply (mA) shall then be reduced from 100% to 0%, in steps of 25% and reading
shall be noted.
8) The accuracy of instrument shall be calculated and checked as per the specified values.
9) The calibrated instrument shall be marked and stored.
10) Record of calibration and result of test shall be on.

PROCEDURE:-
1) Set up calibration Rig as shown above & ensure the test set up is leak proof.
2) Open / close check
(i) Connect air supply and adjust pressure equal to that mentioned in instrument spec.
sheet.
(ii) Connect 24 VDC Supply to solenoid through a switch and the switch shall be made
ON.
(iii) Check that AFC / AFO valve shall start opening / closing. Wait till vale is fully
open/close.
(iv) When valve is fully open/close, switch, shall be made OFF, check that valve shall
start open/close as per data sheet.
(v) Record time taken for vale to fully open/close and check the operating time.
(vi) Check that limit switches are operating correctly.
(vii) Record the results on Wics form.

SOLENOID VALVE TEST

PROCEDURE:-
1) Set up calibration Rig as shown above & ensure the test set up is leak proof.
2) Apply 24 VDC power supply to the coil through a switch.
3) Appropriate ports shall be connected to air supply.
4) The switch shall be made ON and OFF and the change over of ports shall be observed
and recorded.
5) Where applicable electrical / manual reset manual actuator shall be tested.
6) The tested instrument shall be marked and kept ready for installation.
7) The test result shall be recorded on Wics form 15.

DIAPHRAGM ACTIVATED CONTROL VALVE

PROCEDURE:-
1) Set up calibration Fig. As shown above & ensure the test set up is leak proof.
2) Apply 3 PSI signal pressure though an air filter regulator if necessary adjust to attain
the correct starting position.
3) The signal shall then be raised from 0 to 100 % in steps of 25% and corresponding
valve position shall be noted stem coupler, if necessary shall be adjusted to required
stroke length.
4) The signal shall then be reduced from 100% to 0% in steps of 25% and corresponding
valve position shall be noted.
5) The hysteresis shall be less than or equal to plus or minus 5% Max 5%.
6) The air failure position of control valve shall be checked with that mentioned in the
spec. sheet.
7) The seat tightness for tight shut of valve shall be tested.
8) The test result shall be recorded on Wics form 15.
9) The calibrated instrument shall be marked and kept ready for installation.
 INDUSTRIAL PNEUMATIC FOR JET
1. SAFETY
General safety and guidelines for working with PNEUMATIC system:
 Maintain cleanliness around working place.
 Any air leakage and noise must be attended immediately.
 Unloader and safety valve setting must be checked frequently to keep the system
safe and fool proof.
 Reservoir and filler bowl in FRL unit must be drained out, off and on.
 All the hose connection must be disconnected and cleaned after completion of
experiment.
 Air pressure and lubricator must be set properly.
 Hands must be kept away from the actuators as the fast drive mechanism will not
give any chance to escape.

2. INTRODUCTION TO PNEUMATICS

Modern industrial equipment makes use of many FLUID POWER SYSTEMS. These are
systems that transmit force through fluid to perform work. The fluid can be either liquid,
such as Oil or Water, or gas. Such as Compressed Air, Nitrogen or Carbon dioxide.
Pneumatics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the properties and
application of gaseous fluids particularly Air.
The term Pneumatics has come for Greek work Pneuma that means breath.
In Hydraulics, working medium is hydraulic fluid and constant flow of fluid is
responsible for speed, force and time sequence.
In Pneumatics, working medium is air or gas and the constant pressure of air or gas is
responsible for speed, force and time sequence.
Study of Pneumatics is not new to science and technology. It ranks amongst the earliest
perception of mankind. Real application dates back to abot 1950, when the need for
rationalization of operational sequence continued to increase world wide.
Most of the modern plant of Cosmetics, Foundries, Bio-chemic, Breveries, Steel plants,
Power plants etc. employ pneumatics as a major source of Energy Transmission System.
The typical industrial application of Pneumatic system are:
 Grinding  Air brakes
 Spray painting  Riveting
 Conveying & Transfer  Emergency lancing
 Rock drilling  Mine ventilation
 Laddle gear operation  Damper operation
 Atomizing  Air horn
 Screw driving  Ramming etc.

Classification of Pneumatics (based on working pressure):

1. Low Pressure Pneumatics----- 0 to 15 bar
2. Medium Pressure Pneumatics ----- 1.5 to 16 bar
3. High Pressure Pneumatics --- 16 bar

Advantages of Pneumatics
1. Quick response
 2. Explosion proof
3. Simple in construction
4. Clean surroundings
5. Easy transportation
6. Ease of maintenance

Limitations:
1. Good preparation of working fluid is needed
2. Noise is exhausting
3. Force output limitations – 3000 kgf. Max.
4. Limited stroke length
5. Constant and uniform speed is not possible

Different control system in Pneumatic system are:

 Will dependent control
 Travel dependent control
 Time dependent control
 Sequential and program control
Basic Units
Pressure:- Units of measurements are:
Kgf/cm2
meter of water or m H2O
meter water gauge or m WG
mm of mercury or mm Hg
Atmosphere or ata, atm
Standard atmospheric pressure = 1.0332 kgf/cm2
= 760 mm of Hg
In S.I. unit, pressure is expressed as N/m2 or bar.
1 atm = 760 mm of Hg
= 760 / 25.4 inches of Hg
= 29.92 inches of Hg
= 33.9 ft. of water
1 bar = 10 5 N/m2 = 750 mm of Hg
1 Kgf / cm2 is also termed as Technical atmosphere and denoted by 1 ata.
1 ata = 736 mm of Hg
1 Kgf/cm2 = 0.981 bar
1 bar = 1.02 Kgf/cm2 = 10  5 pascals
Vacuum pressure:-
It is a pressure less than ambient atmospheric and measured in mm of Hg.
1 Torr = 1 mm of Hg
Force:- The derived unit of force is Newton (N)
1 Newton is equal to a force which imparts to a mass of 1 Kg an acceleration of 1 m/sec2.
1 Newton = 1 Kgm sec2
1 Kgf = 9.81 N
Work:-
The derived SI unit is Joule.
1 Jole = 1 N-m
1 Kgf-m = 9.81 N
Power:-
The SI unit is Watt.
1 Watt = 1 N-m / sec
CUBIC METER AIR STANDARD:-
A standard cubic meter of free air is a meter cube of air at normal atmospheric pressure
(760 mm of Hg) and at normal temperature of 150 C and has a mass of 1.255 Kg
temperature remains constant.
CONTINUITY EQUATION FOR GASES
In a compressive fluid flow, the mass of a fluid flowing through any section remains
constant.
a1 a2 a3
vi v2 v3
p1 p2 p3
M1 M2 M3

M1 = M2 = M3 or
a1.v1.p1 = a2.v2.p2 = a3.v3.p3
a1.v1.w1 = a2.v2.w2 = a3.v3.w3

Water absorption capacity of air:-

At 1000C one cubic meter of air absorbs 0.5 litre of water when the relative humidity is
100%.
Water absorption capacity is proportional to fluid temperature and volume.
3. COMPRESSOR
Function of a compressor is to suck large volume of air or gas, compress it to a high
pressure level and carry it to a receiver or users through pipings.
For the use of air/ gas as motive power we need to energize if which may be either a
pressure or a kinetic energy or a combination of the two.
Fans, blowers and compressors serve to energize air or gas. Compressors basically adds
to the pressure energy with a sufficiently high compression ratio. When the ratio is less
than 1.25; volumetric machine is a Fan. Blowers gives us a compression ratio less than
3.50 and the compression ratio achieved by a compressor is generally between 2.5 to 5.0.
Compression ratio is defined as a ratio of absolute pressure to atmospheric pressure.
C.R. = (1.0332 + Gauge pressure in Kg/cm2) / 1.0332
Application of Compressed Air
1. Direct use in operating devices e.g. Inflation of tyres, Blowing of glass, Blast
furnace applications, Material handling etc.
2. As motive power in operating machines, such as grinder, drill machines, operating
engines, spray painting etc.
3. In control machineries such as Pneumatic brakes, Pneumatic clutches, operating
gates or doors etc.
4. In risk free operations, such as Mines and ammunition industries.
5. In manufacturing industries such as Steel plant operation, Food and
pharmaceutical industries, Foundries etc.
Elements of compressor:-
1. Compression system elements
2. Driving units
3. Cooling system
4. Lubricating system
5. Regulating system
 6. Unloading system etc.
The main quantities characterizing the performance of a compressor are Volumetric
capacity Q (usually calculated under suction conditions) Intake Pressure p1 and final
pressure p2 and compression ratio ‘r’ Rotating speed and shaft power are also to be
counted.
Typical Compressor parameter:-
TYPE FUNCTION CAPACITY COMP. R.P.M.
RATIO
Reciprocating Compressor 0 – 500 25 – 1000 100 – 300
Blowers 0 – 500 1.15 – 3.5 300 – 15000
Rotary Compressor 0 – 500 3.0 – 12 300 – 15000
Centrifugal Fans 0 – 6000 1.0 – 1.15 300 – 30000
Blowers 0 – 5000 1.15 – 3.5 300 – 3000
Compressor 100 – 4000 3 – 20 500 – 45000
Axial Fans 50 – 10000 1 – 1.04 750 – 10000
Compressor 100 – 15000 2 – 20 500 – 20000

In axial compressors, air flow is not slowed down in a diffuser and a volute; instead the
non-moving stator blades provide a resistance to flow that causes the air to slow down.
Since rotor blades and stator blades alternate down the length of casing, the air is
accelerated and slowed down several times before it leaves the compressor. Pressure is
increased each time the air flow meets a set of rotors.
Both axial and centrifugal compressors are relatively high flow, low pressure machines
when compared to most positive displacement compressors.
4. AIR PREPARATION
Contaminant free compressed air at required pressure is required for proper functioning
of a Pneumatic system. No matter how well a system is designed or how expensive or
sophisticated a particular system may be, contaminated air will interfere with components
and system operation. Hence air must be conditioned.
Conditioning of air means:-
 Ensuring supply of compressed air free from moisture, dust, scale etc.
 Adjustment of pressure as per the requirement of the system
 Allowing lubricant into the compressed air in mist form.
Contaminant in a pneumatic system come from three basic sources:
Built-in occurs in newly fabricated systems where components or piping are dirty or
where installation practices are below standard.
The second source of dirt is that generated within the working system itself. As a system
operates moving parts in contact with other surfaces naturally begin to wear, generating
wear particles.
The third source of contaminants are those ingested to the system. If a valve breaks
down, the maintenance man may replace the components or repair it on the sport. In
either case, he will more than likely be working in a dirty environments, which may
allow contamination of the system as soon as a line is disassembled.
Contaminant Type:
Hard Dirt may come from inside or outside the plant. Grinding compounds and foundry
are examples of hard dirt. These dirts are abrasive in nature and can wedge into clearance
between moving parts causing faulty operation and failure of components.
Soft Dirt includes soft dust, dried paint or some types of threaded pipe joint compound.
This type of contaminants can cause orifices to plug or ports to cake, and is usually larger
than clearances which could cause faulty operation of components.
Entrained liquids usually enter the pneumatic system through entrainment in the air.
Moisture in large quantity can wash away lubricant layer from the rubbing surfaces.
Moisture in any quantity will cause rust to form. Also oil carried over from top end
compressor lubrication can cause resilient seals to deteriorate. This is especially true if
synthetic lubricants are used with standard seals.
STAGES OF AIR TREATMENT:
Air in a pneumatic system must be clean and dry to reduce wear and extend maintenance
periods. Atmospheric air contains many harmful impurities (smoke, dust, water vapour)
and needs treatment before it can be used.
In general, the treatment falls into three distinct stages, shown in the following figure.
First, inlet filter removes particles which can damage the air compressor. Next, there is
the need to dry the air to reduce humidity and lower the dew point. This is normally
performed between the compressor and the receiver and is termed primary air treatment.
The final treatment is performed local to the duties to be performed, and consists of
further steps to remove moisture and dirt and the introduction of a fine oil mist to aid
lubrication. Not surprisingly this is generally termed secondary air treatment.
1. Dryer: Moisture in compressed air adversely affects all elements of a compressed air
system. Dryer is used to remove moisture.
Absorber type dryer: in this type two chambers are filled with humidity binding
material. Compressed Air passes through one chamber containing Silica Gel while other
is being regenerated (either cool or hot drying). Regular switch over is essential.
Refrigerant type dryer: In this compressed air is allowed to pass through cooling coils.
The moisture condenses and dry air is obtained.
2. F.R.L. (Filter, Regulator & Lubricator) unit: This is also called service unit.
F(Filter): An air line filter is a device that removes excess moisture (water particles) as
well as solid contaminants from the air passing through it.
R(Regulator): This is normally open type valve. The pressure regulating valve reduces
high input pressure of compressed aid down to a lower outlet pressure. The outlet
pressure can be adjusted and maintained constant.
L(Lubricator): This introduces oil droplets into the flowing air stream for the purpose of
lubrication of various elements.
5. Pneumatic Elements
Basic pneumatic components are divided into following groups.
1. Working elements
2. Control and Signal elements
3. Air conditioning elements
Working Elements (Actuators):
Two types:
1. Linear Actuator
2. Rotary Actuator
Linear Actuator
1. Single acting cylinders
a. Diaphragm type
b. Rolling diaphragm type
c. Piston type
2. Double acting cylinder
 a. Non-cushioned or cushioned type
b. Tandem cylinder
c. Double ended piston rod cylinder
d. Multiposition cylinder
e. Impact cylinder
f. Rodless cylinder
Rotary Actuator
1. Unidirectional
a. Vane type
b. Piston type
2. Bi-directional
a. Vane type
b. Piston type
Note: In a circuit working elements are represented by 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and so on
irrespective of any design, type and construction.
1.0 + means cylinder 1.0 is moving out.
1.0 – means cylinder 1.0 is retracting.
Classification and selection of cylinder is based on:
 Diameter of cylinder
 Stroke length
 Port size
 Mounting
 Cushioning / Non-cushioning
 Action
 Special design
 Pressure rating
Cushioning:
End caps have to withstand shock loads at extremes of piston travel. These loads arise
from kinetic energy of moving parts of the cylinder and load. This end travel shock loads
can be reduced by the use of end cushioning of cylinder consisting of a flow control and a
restrictor. Exhaust fluid is unrestricted until the plunger enters the cap. The exhaust route
is now via a deacceleration valve, which reduces the speed. The valve allows to bypass
the deacceleration valve during return stroke. Cushioning allow the speed to be reduced
to around 12 mm per second.
Mounting of Cylinders:
The mounting facility is determined by way a cylinder should be attached to a device or
machine.
A, B - Threaded connection to end cap or bearing cap.
C, D - Bracket mounting
E - One bracket mounting
F, G - Flange mounting
H - Swivel connection
Special Cylinders:
1. Tandem cylinder: Tandem cylinders are two separate cylinders arranged in-line in one
cylinder body so that the power generated by the two is combined together, thereby
approximately doubling the piston output.
2. Impact cylinder: Impact cylinder give high piston velocity. This has a pre-pressuring
chamber. Only when the inlet air has built up a certain pressure in this chamber will a
seat open, resulting in high pressure acting suddenly on the piston to produce a powerful
impact stroke, which is effective in only one direction. Return stroke is a normal stroke.
Impact cylinders are used in punching, shearing, embossing, stamping etc.
PNEUMATIC MOTOR
Pneumatic motor convert the kinetic and pressure energies of a system of compressed air
into a continuous rotating force or movement.
Pressure of the compressed air admitted to motor determines its force or torque output.
Flow rate determines the speed and Mechanical Horse Power output.
Mechanical efficiency of motor is usually higher than the volumetric efficiency, which
means that the motor will put out a lot of work or Torque output, but only at the cost of
using more air.
To operate properly Pneumatic motor need a starting or break away force commonly
called the Torque. The motor need a higher starting torque to overcome starting friction
and inertia.
There may be Vane, Piston or Geared type pneumatic motor. All motors are of positive
displacement type and operate effectively at a pressure between 60 to 100 psi. Speed
range vary from 600 to 6,000 rpm normally. For some air operated tools the speed may
be even more as high as 60,000 rpm.
At low speed the torque is high. At high speed the torque is low. Low speed combined
with high torque is obtained by Gearing down the motors.
Motor Torque is divided into three separate groups.
(a) Starting torque (b) Stalling torque and
(c) Running torque
Starting torque is 75% of stalling torque in case of vane motors and 50% in Piston
motors.
Horse Power Curve:-
Maximum HP is at medium speed and at medium Torque output.
It has been found that a motor need around 30 cfm of air at 90 psi per HP required for
effective operation of motor.
Vane type Pneumatic motor:-
6. Control & Signal Elements
Control and signal elements are valves and defined as the devices to control or regulate –
 Commencement, termination and direction to motion.
 Speed of actuation, and
 Force output
They act as information processor to working elements.
Valves available for pneumatic control are classified in four basic groups according to
their function.
1. Direction control valves
2. Non-returns valves
3. Pressure control valves
4. Flow control valves
5. Shut up vale
Direction Control Valve: These valves control the way the air passes and are used
principally for commencement, termination and direction to air flow. Depending upon
number of positions and number of port connections a valve may be 2/2 way, 3/2 way,
4/2 way, 5/2 way or a 4/3 way or 5/3 way valves. The first number indicates the number
of ports and, the second number of positions.
2/2 way direction control valve: It has one inlet and one outlet port. This is used as shut
off valve. This may be either normally closed or normally open type.
3/2 way direction control valve: It has one inlet, one outlet and one exhaust port. This
kind of valve is used for controlling a single acting cylinder or used as signal element.
This may be either normally closed or normally open type.
5/2 way direction control valves: This valve is used for controlling a double acting
cylinder. This valve has two outlet ports, two exhaust ports and one pressure (input) port.
Various Modes of Actuation of Direction Control Valves

SOLENOID OPERATION
One of the most common means of actuation of a directional control valve is with a
solenoid. A solenoid is an electrical device which consists of a plunger, a copper wire
coil and a fixed magnetic assembly (frame) in which the plunger moves. The coil is
usually wound on a bobbin which is then installed in a magnetic frame. The plunger is
force to move inside the coil and outside the fixed magnetic frame. When an electric
current passes through the coil of wire, a magnetic field is generated. This magnetic field
attracts the plunger and pulls it into the coil, usually towards a seat to close the magnetic
path. The plunger acts against a movable member of a pilot operated valve.
Check Valve: The simplest type of non-return valve is called a Check valve which
blocks the air flow completely in one direction and permits free flow in opposite direction
with a minimum pressure loss across the valve. Check valves are installed where different
components need to be isolated so as to rule out mutual interference or where the safety
consideration necessitates restriction of flow through component to one set direction.
A Shuttle Valve has two inlets and outlet. A shuttle valve is installed in places where a
cylinder or a valve is to be actuated from either of the two points, which may be remote
from one another. At any one time, flow is shut off in the direction of whichever inlet is
unloaded and is open from the loaded inlet to the outlet.
Quick Exhaust Valve: This valve is designed to increase piston speed in the cylinder.
When air enters the inlet port, it forces the cup seal against the exhaust port and air flows
to the cylinder. The exhaust air forces the cup seal against inlet port and air flows from
the cylinder to exhaust.
Two Pressure Valve (“AND” valve) : Main uses of two pressure valves are in
interlocking controls and for safe guard or monitoring purposes. These valves have two
inlet ports and one outlet port. An outlet signal will only be obtained when input signals
are applied at both inlets.
Pressure Limiting Valve (Relief valve): This valve prevents the system pressure from
rising above a permissible maximum limit. It is a standard feature of compressed air
production plant. It is used for exhaust unloading of compressor.
Sequence Valve: A sequence valve is used in a pneumatic control system where
operational sequence is desired or where we need that no air with less to a desired
pressure energy should reach the actuator for a given function. In some of design it is
equipped with a check valve.
Time Delay Valve: The time delay valve consists of a one way flow control valve, a
small reservoir and an air operated 3/2 way directional control valve. Controlled air
through the variable flow control valve reaches the reservoir in which pressure is built up.
This air now acts on the actuating piston and allows the pressure port to be exposed to the
working port. Pneumatic time delay valve are used to maintain precise and adjustable
time intervals with high accuracy of repetition. They are available with either normally
closed or normally open 3/2 way valve and with either delayed energizing or delayed de-
energizing configuration.
Flow Control Valve: Flow control or restrictor valve control the flow of air through it. It
may be fixed or variable type. In some design a check valve is also attached to the
restrictor so that combination may give a controlled flow in one direction and free flow in
other direction.
EXERCISE ON PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT
1. Draw a pneumatic circuit for the actuation of a Double Acting cylinder which is used
to swivel a roller track.
 The signals to extend and retract are to be given by two separate push button
switches.
 The cylinder is to remain in the position indicated by last signal until an opposing
signal is given.
2. Draw a pneumatic circuit for the actuation of a Double acting cylinder vertically
placed which is used for lowering and lifting of the ladle.
 When the piston extends up, the ladle is lowered and when retract down the ladle
is lifted.
 When a push button is pressed the piston extends up and the piston retracts down
automatically.
 Lowering and lifting of the ladle must be slow.
3. Draw a pneumatic circuit to actuate a Double Acting cylinder under following
condition.
 When a push button valve is pressed, the piston extends.
 The advance stroke must be possible only when the piston is in rear end position.
 Return stroke must be initiated by the piston rod end after reaching to its forward
end position.
 The speed of forward stroke must be slow while return stroke must be quick.
4. Draw a Pneumatic circuit for the actuation of a Double acting cylinder with the
following conditions.
 Cylinder should move out by the actuation of either of any 3 push buttons.
 After reaching its forward end position cylinder should return automatically.
 Return speed should be fast
 Outward movement should be slow.
5. A double acting cylinder is used to emboss slide rules. The cylinder should only extend
when the slide rule is present and either a push button switch or a pedal switch is
actuated. The return stroke of the cylinder is to occur automatically after the forward end
position and preset pressure have been reached.
LOGIC CIRCUIT
When there are more than one cylinder in a pneumatic system, they are to be moved in a
desired logical sequence. Method of designing circuit varies from logic to logic. The
cylinders may sometimes required to operate with repeat cycles such as A+ B+ A- B- (for
two cylinders) or A+ B+ C+ A- B- C- (for three cylinders)
Here cylinders are designated by alphabets
+ve sign followed by a cylinder designation means extension
-ve sign followed by a cylinder designation means retraction
e.g. A+ -- means Extension of cylinder A
A- -- means Retraction of cylinder A
Sometimes may be required to operate with a reversed sequence such as A+ B+ B- A-
(for two cylinders) or A+ B+ C+ C- B- A- (for three cylinders)
The method of designing circuit for repeat cycle is very simple. The signal valves are
positioned as per the travel sequence.
While designing with a reversed sequence pattern we go for CASCADING, because any
first principle method of designing such circuits may lead to a signal conflict conditions
(two signals fed simultaneously for piloting a direction control valve from both the sides).
CASCADING may be defined as dividing main supply line into two or more branch lines
(group of supply) such that only one group is kept energized at a time and others are kept
in exhausted condition.
Steps in cascading:
 Check whether cascading is needed or not, which is evident from the sequence, it
should be reverse logical sequence.
 Divide the logic into groups such that:-
(a) Each group contain maximum permissible number of cylinders
(b) No group contain a cylinder twice.
Splitting of the logic is done from the front side first and then from the backwards. Last
part may grouped with the first if the above two conditions are fulfilled.
Ex:
A+ B+ C+ B- D+ D- A- E+ E- C-
Gr-1 Gr-2 Gr-3 Gr-4
When splitting from front end
A+ B+ C+ B- D+ D- A- E+ E- C-
Gr-1 Gr-2 Gr-3 Gr-4
When splitting from backwards
 Number of groups selected should be minimum
 Number of groups selected corresponds to the number of branch lines for
cascading
 The cascade valve requirement is N-1 where N is the number of groups needed
 Valves which changes the groups are supplied with main air and located below
cascade valve in the circuit.
 Valve that changes the cylinders in a group are supplied with air prevailing within the
group.
8. HYDRO-PNEUMATICS
As the name implies hydro-pneumatics involves the application of both hydraulic fluid
and a gaseous fluid combinely used in power – transmission, the compressed air of gas
acting as motive power and the energy conversion through hydraulic fluid. Pure
pneumatics has many limitations:-
a) It can not give us a constant and uniform speed and feed particularly under condition
of variable loads.
b) It can not provide damping to allow smooth movement at very slow speed
c) Maximum force output is limited to 3,000 kgf.
d) It can not permit accurate inching strikes.
e) It can not allow locking of cylinder at part stroke to restrict any movement due lead
change.
So whenever steady motion and constant feed is required and especially under the
condition of variable loads. We go for the use of Hydro-Pneumatics.
Advantages:
a) Steady motion on variable load condition
b) For slow speed and inching stroke controls
c) To lock piston at part stroke
d) To load and off-load a cylinder in any stroke position
e) To maintain the position, even if the air supply fails.

Application of Hydro-Pneumatics
 Presses
 Car service lifting in a garage
 Pressure Amplification
 Machine Tool application
 Clamping Fixtures etc.
Hydro-Pneumatics incorporates the use of three basic elements:
Pressure converter,
Pressure intensifier, and
Hydraulic check unit
PRESSURE CONVERTER / AIR HYDRAULIC CYLINDER:
The pressure converter is a service which operates on a combination of oil and
compressed air or gas. By applying pressure to the surface of oil in a container,
compressed air causes displacement of oil.
TYPES:-
a) Air bladdor
b) Piston
BAFFLE TYPE: This type of pressure converter is a cheaper one and has no moving
part. Baffle is so arranged that in exhausting from the converter any oil trapped in the air
is thrown out by centrifugal action and drain back. A baffle is also employed at the oil
port in order to reduce turbulence and foaming, which occurs if oil is allowed to steam
back into the reservoir at very high velocity.
OPERATION OF PRESSURE CONVERTER
The oil flows through an adjustable throttle relief valve into the work cylinder. This
causes the piston rod to move out with uniform speed. The return stroke is effected by
applying compressed air to the rod side of the cylinder. The pressure converter is vented
and oil flows rapidly back. Pressure in air is practically equal to the pressure in oil.
PRESSURE INTENSIFIER:
It has surge chambers differing in surface and volume. The idea of pressure intensifier is
to transducer an existing low pressure into a higher working pressure. This is made
possible by a pneumatic and a hydraulic piston, the surface of which differ in size.
Air enters the air cylinder at the large cross sectional area, pushing the piston downwards
and displacing the oil in the second pressure chamber. The oil passes through the lower
cross section to the working element, sometimes through a restrictor check valve. This
pressure amplification may vary from 1:4 to 1:80. Theoretically there may not be any
limit to this magnification.
Advantages:-
Small working cylinders with relatively high power. Moderate in cost.
Disadvantages:-
Maintenance, heating of oil, large air volume.
HYDRAULIC CHECK CYLINDER:
In a hydraulic check cylinder an oil reserve tank has been provided to compensate for
leakage loss of oil through the piston rod guide, to hold the immersed rod volume and the
oil volume which increases as a result of thermal expansion.
Oil is conducted from one side of piston to the other side of piston. The speed to
controlled via a non-return valve.
Free passage in opposite direction means maximum speed. These cylinders are used as a
trailing cylinder i.e. they are pulled of drawn and do not have their own drives.
Shell tellus oil of various grades of their equivalents are used.
SHELL TELLUS OIL NO. –5, 10, 19, 37 etc.
9. ELECTRO-PNEUMATICS
Electro-pneumatics is a combination of Electrical and Pneumatic Control System.
The combination may be either:-
Electrical Control of Pneumatic System
Or
Pneumatic Control of Electrical System. Or a combination of both of them.
ADVANTAGES:
 FAST SIGNAL SPEED (3,00,000 KM/Sec.)
 CHEAPER ENERGY SOURCE
 OCCUPY LESS SPACE
ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
There are five basic types of electric switches used in electrically controlled fluid power
circuits: push button, limit, pressure, temperature and relay switches.
1. Push button switches: Following figure shows the four common types of push button
switches. Figure (a) and (b) show the single-pole, single throw type. These single-circuit
switches can be wired either normally open or closed. Figure (c) depicts the double pole,
single-throw type. This double-contact type has one normally open and one normally
closed pair of contacts. Depressing the push button opens the normally closed pair and
closes the normally open pair of contact. Figure(d) illustrates the double-pole, double-
throw arrangement. This switches has two pairs of normally open and two pairs of
normally closed contact to allow the inverting of two circuits with one input.
2. Limit switches: In following figure we see the various types of limit switches.
Basically, limit switches perform the same functions as push button switches. The
difference is that they are mechanically actuated rather than manually. Figure (a) shows a
normally open limit switch, which is abbreviated LS-NO. Figure (b) shows a normally
open switch that is held closed. In Fig(c) we see the normally closed type, whereas Fig
(d) depicts a normally closed type that is held upon. There are a large number of different
operators available for limit switches. Among these are cams, levers, rollers and plungers.
However, the symbols used for limit switches do not indicate the type of operator used
3. Pressure switches: The symbols used for pressure switches are given in the following
figure. Figure (a) gives the normally open type, whereas Figure (b) depicts the normally
closed symbol.
4. Temperature Switches: This type of switch is depicted symbolically in following
figure. Figure (a) gives the symbol for a normally closed type, where Fig. (b) provides the
normally open symbol.
5. Electrical relays: A relay is an electrically actuated switch. As shown schematically in
following Fig. (a), when switch 1-SW is closed, the coil (electromagnet) is energized.
This pulls on the spring-loaded relay arm to open the upper set of normally closed
contacts and close the lower set of normally open contacts. Figure (b) shows the symbol
for the relay coil and the symbols for the normally open and closed contacts.
6. Timers are used in electrical circuits when a time delay from the instant of actuation to
the closing of contacts is required. Following figure gives the symbol used for timers.
Figure (a) shows the symbol for the normally open switch that is time closed when
energized. This type is one that is normally open but that when energized closes after a
predetermined time interval. Figure (b) gives the normally closed switch that is time
opened when energized. Figure (c) depicts the normally open type that is timed open
when de-energized. Thus it is normally open and when the signal to close is removed (de-
energized), it reopens after a predetermined time interval. Figure (d) gives the symbol for
the normally closed type that is time closed when de-energized.
The symbol used to represent a solenoid, which is used to actuate valves, is shown in
Following figure (a). Figure (b) gives the symbol used to represent indicator lamps. An
indicator lamp is often used to indicate the state of a specific circuit component. For
example: indicator lamps are used to determine which solenoid operator of a directional
control valve is energized. They are also used to indicate whether a hydraulic or
pneumatic cylinder is extending or retracting. An indicator lamp wired across each
solenoid operated valve provides the trouble shooter with a quick means of pinpointing
trouble in case of an electrical malfunction. If they are mounted on an operator’s display
panel, they should be mounted in the same order as they are actuated. Since indicator
lamps are not a functional part of the electrical system, their inclusion in the ladder
diagram is left to the discretion of the designer.
 ELECTRONICS LAB. INTRODUCTION

The following pages contain a brief notes on Pragrammable Logic Controller (PLC). This
notes consists of:-
1) Understanding of PLC.
2) Development of PLC from conventional Relay Logic and it’s
advantages
3) What LOGIC is?
4) Brief about architecture and working.
5) Applications of PLC.
6) Introduction to Programming.

This discussion is based on the common features. The objective of this note is to give a
concept so that the people can justify the application of PLC in their area and make
because of it. The programming part will come latter, which will make the people self
sufficient in the area of uses.

WHAT IS A PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER? (P.L.C.)

A programmable controller is defined as a digitally operating electronic apparatus which
uses a programmable memory for the internal storage of instructions for implementing
specific functions such as logic sequencing, timing, counting & arithmetic control
through digital & analog o/p modules, various types of machines or processes.
Basic function of a P.L.C. is to provide output commands to a machine or process based
on some of a set of input conditions to that machine or process.
The P.L.C. is similar to the familiar relay/logic panel but with extended capabilities.
The internal wiring of a P.L.C. is fixed and the logical function that it must perform are
programmed into a “memory”, Hence the name “ Programmable Controller”.
A Processor, with built in routines scans the input signals and accordance with the
“stored programme in memory” initiates the required output signals.
The P.L.C. may perform timing, counting and other functions dependant on the design of
the P.L.C.
A BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS
The basic functions of a PLC, is to provide output commands to a machine or process
based on some combination of a set of input conditions to that machine or process.
The origin of programmable controller was in relay logic. For any sequencing and
controlling operation electromechanical-relays were used. These were subjected to
environmental conditions and were very slow (speed in the order of seconds were very
common).
Hardwared logic replaced electromechanical relays and even though they offered
significant improvement in speed and reliability, yet once introduced in a particular
circuitory, they reduced the flexibility of reordering to nil.
Then micro-processor based Programmable Logic Controllers were introduced which had
limitations of performing only logic operations, though they could overcome all other
problems. The terminal wiring of a PLC is fixed and logic function that it must perform
are programmed into a the name programmable Controller. A
processor with built in routine scans the and accordance with the stored program in
memory initiates the required output signals. Control operator become more and more
complex. Programmable controllers (P.Cs) were developed which besides performing
logic operations could also perform arithmetic operations (timing, counting, comparing,
adding, subtracting) etc. Now Programmable Controllers because of increasing
sophistication and advanced features are merging into process control computers.
In the steel company, various processes are being controlled by PLC’s. These controllers
are mostly being used whenever the latest equipment has been installed, for example in
the LD shop for continuous casting machine and gas cleaning system, in Bar and Rod
Mill for the various interlockings of the looper, shear box, in the BFTM for the GFM
machine, Banning hot saw, and Hydel copying lathe.
PLC’s beside offering the advantage of flexibility of operation, fast response time,
ruggedness and accuracy. It also reduces to a great deal the biggest headache of the
maintenance engineer, which in trouble shooting and repairs. PLC’s have a modular
assembly and thus maintenance in affected by detaching that particular module from the
frame or chasses without affecting the operation of the controller. Programming of PLC
can be done by means of simple ladder diagram or symbol and . These are
very simple and easy to understand and require no previous knowledge of computer
programming.
The industrial terminal offers the programmer a visual display as well as debugging
facilities and a very good documentation can also be achieved with details of
informations. Some terminal are so intelligent you can write program off the line and can
be used as Personal Computer with proper operating system (In Siemens PC 675
programming unit). In the following description these features have been elaborated for
the various PLC’s.
CAPABILITIES OF A PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLER
Leaving aside effectively handling the basic function of sequential operation, timing,
counting, data logging etc. programmable controllers can also add, subtract, multiply,
divide, monitor equipment for good parts run, rejects produced, up time and efficiency.
PC capabilities include operators communication facilities, addition of analog signals,
interfaces and analog control functions, addition of positioning control function and
addition of machine fault diagnosis operations. The addition of printing of CRT terminals
permit the programmable controller prepare intensive operating information including
alarm messages, production summary data, machine status or product change
information. In combination with machine fault detection capability, the programmable
controller can also provide machine malfunction information thereby indicating the
nature and location of a machine problem.
By virtue of its ability to handle analog function, PC also performs alarm limit detection,
data acquisition and direct control of analog process variables. In the instances of control
of analog variables, the PC complements use of conventional analog instrumentation by
handling the sequential control operations of the process and calculating adjustments to
the set points of critical analog loops. Programmable controller controls number of three
mode (PID) control loops.

EXAMPLE:
In an Automobile industry, programmable controllers are used to monitor 66 production
machines. The total parts rejected, parts produced, machine efficiency and machine cycle
time are reported to a central location namely LED display and at the end of each shift,
the programmable controller prints out a summary of operations.
PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS FOR RELAY REPLACEMENT AND
WHAT IT COSTS
The changeover to programmable controller represents (represents) a change in
maintenance philosophy as well as a change in control technology. From the initial
concept maintenance has been an important part of the development of the PCs. Present
generation of PC offers many more maintenance features and diagnostic tools than their
relay counter part. Programmable controllers are two to three times more reliable than
Electro-mechanical relays. PCs reduce downtime due to electrical malfunctioning by
30% and can be installed in 1/5th the time it takes to wire a relay panel. They provide
instant identification and can be programmed and reprogrammed much faster and less
expensively. Still after knowing the advantages of programmable controller, a common
approach is to compare the cost of a PC system with that of a relay panel or a
conventional analog controller. Though the cost of PC has come down considerably and
is comparable with that of a system which is using 15 to 20 relays still sometimes PC
hardwares will cost more. The approach to compare the costs is not justified since this
approach ignores the engineering design time and costs that goes into developing relay
ladder diagram which dictates how the panel has to be wired up.

ALSO CONSIDER WIRING

With large amounts of wiring, both internal and external and wiring labour involved with
relay panels, errors are likely to occur and time consuming debugging is a must. With a
PC no internal wiring is required since they are soft-wired in the memory. External
wiring is also greatly simplified. With a simple twin crore co-axial cable you can connect
various machines at remote places and thereby eliminate the maze of control cables
allowing you to save a good amount of money in cable laying, trenching and cable
termination cost.
Normally no extra room is available in a relay panel for expansion needs which really
keeps you tied-eown. In a programmable control system you can go on expanding the
system on your own will. Added to the reliability and above PLUS points if one takes
into account the space saving, panel cost and civil work cost for the same, programmable
controllers is obviously much cheaper solution than that of a conventional system.
ADVANTAGES
The advantages of programmable controllers over other types of control systems:
Ease of Programming
The ability to relate the plant level in a jargon the plant is familiar with (relay ladder
diagram).
Ease of Maintenance
The ability to observe your changing process on a real time basis on a CRT, is of
immense value. In addition, the built in diagnostics and self checking features identify
problems at the board level. Replacement of modules is straight forward. No rewiring of
terminations are necessary.

Designed for Industrial Environment

Programmable controllers are designed, tested and packaged for industrial environment.
They do not normally require air conditioned surroundings.

Quick Installation
The ability to minimize wire runs, the portability and reliability of the equipment add to
quick start-ups. The built-in features of being able to monitor actual sensors in the plant
on a real time basis easily identifies inputs or output devices in the plant that are not
working according to specification, and of course the contact histogram is another
powerful installation aid.

Adaptability to change
The programmable controller is a totally flexible device, if decisions or conditions in a
process change, the PC can be reprogrammed right in the plant by the plant by the plant
technician to accommodate those changes. If additional I/O points are needed they can
easily be added to the system. If more memory is needed or a processor of greater
capability is needed, it can be readily adapted with minimal reprogramming on the user’s
part.
 Reliable due to absence of moving parts
 Low power consumption
 Good documentation facilities
 Easy operator interface due to colour graphic & advisory system introduction
 Timer, counter & complicated arithmetic operations can be programmed.
 GLOSSARY OF TERMINOLOGY

Access Time
A characteristic of a storage device, which indicates the elapsed time between the instant
when a communication has begun to the instant when a communication has ended. The
information may be transmitted or received.
Address
A unique identification assigned to a particular location, where data may be deposited or
retrieved.
B.C.D
A convenient method of grouping a digital code when it is required to display a number
in its decimal form. Four bits required for each digit. e.g. S = 0101
Binary
A numbering system based upon successive integral powers of two
Bit
Binary digit 0 character used to represent one of two states eg ‘0’ or ‘1’ state in binary
numbering system.
Byte
Part of a word (equivalent of a Syllable) eg a 16 bit word may be considered as a two 8
bit byte consisting of a High order byte and a Low order byte.
Central Processing Unit
The primary control device in a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) which provides
the capability to address a storage location and retrieve or deposit information, perform
arithmetic and logical operations and to monitor and sequence instructions. Also to direct
the flow of data to and from the other elements of the system.
Data
A group of characters to which a specific meaning may be assigned.
Digit
A symbol representing one of the elements of a positional number systems.
E.E.R.O.M
(Electrically Erasable Read Only Memory) Exposure to U.V. light not required, the
device is electrically erasable.
E.P.R.O.M
(Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
May be programmed by the user. Exposure to the Ultra-violent light of the correct
intensity will erase the contents of the memory. The device then be completely re-
programmed.
Enable
Permits a device to operate.
Flag (F)
A control relay or memory internal to the system which may be set or reset.
Flow Chart
A block diagram displaying the logical flow of a system or process. From this chart, a
programme can be written.
Format List
The pre-determined arrangement of items within a group of programme
Gate
A logic device having one output, where the output state is determined by the state of one
or more inputs.
Input (1)
Data or signal to be processed.
Instruction List
A statement which specifies an operation and the values and/or the location of the
elements to be used in the operation.
Multiplexing
Method of a sequential processing of random information.
None-Remanent Module
A device which will not retain its status in the event of a supply failure.
Peripheral Equipment (Hardware)
Input and output devices that operate in conjunction with the processor controlling a
machine or process. Also equipment which is external to the process eg. Keyboard
programmer, printer, floppy discs.
Photo-isolation (Opto-isolator)
A technique for transmitting signals between two circuits which are electrically isolated
from one another. This is achieved by the use of a light emitting diode in one circuit
which is optically coupled to a photo-transistor in the other circuit.
Programme (Software)
A plan devised for solving a problem.
P.R.O.M. (Programmable Read Only Method)
Manufactured such that the user (or distributor) may programme the desired bit pattern,
usually by blowing fuse links within the device.
Note: Limited modifications are possible by blowing some of the remaining links.
Read
To acquire information, usually from some type of storage device.
R.O.M. (Read Only Memory)
The device is programmed during manufacture and may not be written into by the Central
Processor Unit (CPU). Ideal for quantity production and used only for storing a well
proven programme.
Read out
A visual display, usually in numerical form, which enables ‘Read’ to be achieved.
R.A.M. (Random Access Memory)
The device can be written into or read from. The Central Processor Unit (CPU) requires
R.A.M. for temporary storage. R.A.M. may be also used for porogramme development.
Remanent Module
A device which will retain its status in the event of a supply failure.
Scan
The sequential examination of devices or lists of information under programme control.
Scan Rate
The rate at which the sequential inspection of devices or list of information taken place
Status
The condition of a device i.e. on or off, energized or de-energised.
Word
A sequence of bits handled simultaneously as a unit.
Note: Usually a word is the largest number of bits that can be treated as one unit.
Write
To deposit data into a storage device.
Interface
A boundary between two or more systems which may have different functions but
required to communicate.
Interrupt
A break in the normal flow of a system, usually to allow another function to be
performed such that the normal flow can be resumed on conclusion of the interrupt.
Dump
An instruction which alters the normal sequence control of the processor and
conditionally or unconditionally specifies the next location.
Ladder Diagram
(Symbolic Programme)
A circuit diagram with an imposed sequence.
Location
A storage position in memory uniquely specified by an address.
Hexadecimal Code
This code provides a shorthand method of expressing a binary number. Hexadecimal is a
number to the base 16 i.e. you can count 15 before you need to carry 1.
One Hexadecimal digit represents four binary digits.
Conversion Table
Decimal Hex Binary Decimal Hex Binary
0 0 0000 9 9 1001
1 1 0001 10 A 1010
2 2 0010 11 B 1011
3 3 0011 12 C 1100
4 4 0100 13 D 1101
5 5 0101 14 E 1110
6 6 0110 15 F 1111
7 7 0111 16 O 0000
8 8 1000

Example : 12 bit binary number

Binary

0011 1010 0100

11 10 98 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 222 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0011 1010 0100

Decimal 768 + 160 + 4 = 932

Memory
Any device in which information can be stored.
Memory Capacity
Shorthand Decimal (Valid Address) Hexadecimal
4K (Byte) 4096 0000-OFFF
1K (Byte) 1024 0000-03FF
2K (Byte) 2048 0000-07FF
Millisecond
10-3 seconds (mS)
Microsecond
10-6 seconds (pS)
Nanosecond
10-9 seconds (nS)

SEQUENCIAL LOGIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

In a sequential logic control system, the control point is automatically adjusted to follow
a predetermined pattern with respect to time and process conditions. In this system, a
PLC is used to automate adjustments of analogue set points, as well as check the inhibit
actions of interlock logic. The synchronized starts and stops of process equipments are
also completely automated. This system brings the gap between mechanical programmers
and process computers.
The sequential logic control program is designed with an easily understood ladder logic
language. The logic operation is created by push buttons, without wiring and stored in the
memory of a PLC. This PLC is capable of operating several completely independent
process units at the same time.
In addition to start-ups and shut-downs of continuous processes, batch processes are also
controlled by PLCs. A stored program is used to repeat all the events in an operation step
by step, through a production cycle. The program elements consist of on/off relay logic,
time delay and elapsed time periods, predetermined counts of pulses and pulsed outputs
for set point controls.
To ensure that all data received by the PLC is correct, various checks are continuously
executed and a failure of any of these will cause the PLC to trip.
Sequencing logic control systems are best suited to improve a variety of applications
including process control, material handling, energy management, machine monitoring,
data gathering and reporting.

LOGIC
The simplest and most reliable logic system is one based on two states e.g a switch is
either “ON” or “OFF”. In positive logic we represent an “ON” state by the digit”1” and
an “OFF” state by the digit “0”.
Consider two normal open switches A and B placed in series as shown below. This may
be considered as an “AND” function in that if we put a signal in at p this signal may be
recorded at Q if that both A and B are in the on state i.e. closed.

P A B Q

If either A or B is OFF i.e. open the signal will be prevented from reaching Q.
This information may be represented in a table, known as a truth table.
TRUTH TABLE FOR “AND” GATE SYMBOL FOR “AND” GATE
A B O/P
0 0 0

0 1 0 A &
P O/P
1 1 0

1 0 1

A similar table may be drawn up for two switches placed in parallel, these may be
considered as an “OR” function.

TRUTH TABLE FOR “OR” GATE

A
P A B O/P
B Q 0 0 0 A >=1 O/P
0 1 1 P
1 0 1
1 1 1
SYMBOL FOR “OR” GATE

The inverse of “OR” and “AND” functions are “NOR” and “NAND” functions
respectively. Thinking in term of switches these functions are represented by normally
closed switches.

]/[ ( ) -- A O/P A
0 1
NOT OPERATION 1 0

TRUTH TABLE SYMBOL

Signals status at the inputs

It is irrelevant for the programmable Sensor No contact NC contact
controller whether the input is connected to I/P -- : -- I/P
Actuated Signal “1” Signal “0”
a sensor with an NC contact or a sensor with Not actuated Signal “0” Signal “1”
an NO contact. When writing the Not
actuated Signal “0” Signal “1” program,
only the resultant signal state at the input
should be considered, i.e. “0” or “1” signal.
Logic
The programmable controller examines the signal at its input and executes the necessary
logic operations in accordance with the statement list. The result is the RLO (result of
logic operation). Total logic is made by AND operation, OR operation and NOT
operation.
PLC ARCHITECTURE
PLCs manufactured by different manufacturers have various levels of capabilities and
complexities. Essentially PLC consists of memory, a processor, a programmer, a power
supply, input/output modules and input/output devices. Architecture of a typical PLC
system is shown in Fig.

1.
MAINS MAINS

5V 24V

P -] [--] / [- - () - P BBK
I I
I I PROGRAM MEMORY O O
N U
P MEMORIES FOR FLAGES T
U TIMERS AND COUNTERS P
T U
T
M
O M
D O
U D
P R O C E S S O R
L U
(C P U)
E L
S E
S

VDU H F
D D EP-ROM
PRINTER PROGRA
MMER
KEY BOARD

Programming Unit

PII Process Image Input PIO Process Image Output

CPU Central Processing Unit VDU Video Display Unit
HD Hard Disk FD Floppy Drive
BBK Battery back up
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PLC
MEMORY:
Memory of a PLC is the storage area which is used to hold the program to be executed by
the processor. It stores information until it is needed. It is passive in that it merely
receives data, stores it, and gives it on demand. A memory device must be immune to
noise, versatile and economical. The size of PLC’s memory is a function of the total
number of inputs and outputs to be controlled.
The memory devices normally used are semi conductor devices such as RAM, ROM,
EPROM, EEPROM and for long time storage Floppy Disk, Cassette Tape, or Paper tape
drive can be coupled with the programming unit.
The internal program memory is a RAM whose contents can be quickly modified over
and over again, e.g. on system startup. However, it losses its data (program) in the events
of power failure. To prevent this, a backup battery is used.
Use of EPROM or EEPROM sub modules will retain memory contents independent of
the back up battery. These memory type can also be modified. The contents of EPROM
first be erased by UV radiation before modification, whereas the contents of the
EEPROM can simply be overwritten.
PROCESSOR:
The processor is the heart of a PLC. It receives instructions from the memory and
generates commands to the output modules. Input commands, devices status and
instructions are converted to logic signals. These logic signals are then processed by the
processor.
Available PLCs are based on various microprocessor chips which are programmed with a
main executive program (operating system). The executive program enables the
processor to understand input command instructions and status signals, besides providing
logic processing capability. These capabilities include simple AND OR logic, timing,
sequencing, routing, counting, arithmetic functions, decision making, manipulation and
structuring of data in arrays, logging functions and even PIC control on analogue inputs.
These capabilities offer more sophisticated control systems, such as control of critical
process variables like pressure, temperature, level, flow rate etc, calculation of motion
profile, blending, error correction, schedule distribution and machine monitoring.

The signals generated by the processor are used either to turn on/off heaters, solenoid
valves, motors and other loads, lights of communication displays or to adjust set points of
analogue controllers.
The processor solves each network of interconnected logic elements in their numerical
sequence in the order in which these are programmed. The first network is scanned from
the time the power is applied, first from top left to bottom left, and then continuing to the
next vertical column to the right. Within a network, the logic elements are solved during
the scan and then the coils are appropriately energized or de-energised to complete the
scan. Since the scanning rate is of the order of a few milliseconds, all logic appears to get
solved simultaneously. The result of each network scan is then available to all subsequent
networks. Thus all inputs and outputs are updated once per scan. To communicate these
input and output signals, storage registers act as bridges between the signals at field
levels and the high speed circuit of the processor.
PROGRAMMER:
The programmer transforms the control scheme into useful PLC logic. The logic program
is then stored in memory, where it is available for the processor for logic operation.
Various types of programmers are available from manufacturers. LCD and CRT
programmers are very popular. Programs can also be stored on cassette tapes, floppy
disk, and loaded into the PLC through a special interface unit. A PLC can also be hooked
up to critical computer for programming. Some PLC manufacturers offer factory written
programs which can be loaded into the PLC via a telephone interface.
The functions are listed below
1) Programming, adding, deleting and altering,
2) Supervising
3) Readout
4) Simulation
5) Debugging
6) Storing and readout of programs
7) Recording, loading and verifying the program
8) Off line programming
9) Program print out
POWER SUPPLY:
Power supply is an integral part of the PLC and is generally mounted in the mainframe
enclosure. Line power at 230v 50Hz or 115V 60Hz is converted to the appropriate DC
voltage required by the solid state circuitry and memory. It is designed to operate both the
processor and the basic number of inputs and outputs. For expanded input/outputs, an
additional heavy duty power supply is required.
INPUT / OUTPUT INTERFACE:
One of the main characteristics that has made PLCs extremely attractive is that the
input/output modules are designed to interface directly with industrial equipments. In
some models of PLCs the input/output modules are directly connected to the mainframe,
while in others these can be remotely located if the processor is kept in a central control
room.
For programming all input/outputs are addressed by unique numbers and the addressing
system varies depending on the type of operation system used.
INPUT DEVICES:
Input devices include transducers of various kinds operated by changes of conditions
such as temperature, flow, level, pH and conductivity of controlled medium.
Alternatively, these are devices operated directly by human or mechanical action, such as
push buttons, toggle switches and limit switches.
Input devices are generally located in the plant environments which are much harder to
control. For example, input devices such as pressure switches, level switches and limit
switches may be physically located in the field near equipment such as boilers, cooling
towers, and compressors where extremes of temperature or humidity may be present. In
general the input devices are very robustly constructed and resistant to temperature
extremes and accidental physical damage.
OUTPUT DEVICES:
Output devices converts commands into decisive action. Technical requirements for
output devices may vary widely. They can be summarized as (1) mechanical load to
power availability or requirements; (2) accurate response and repeatability; (3) maximum
reliability of wearing parts; and (4) compliance with relevant standard specification.
Output devices frequently take the forms of rotary motors, linear actuators and thermal
converters such as heater and lamps. There has been emphasis on the transmission of
power by fluid means using either pneumatics or hydraulic media, which are well suited
to simple on/off valve, controlled by an electrical solenoid and have minimum moving
parts.
 PLC PROCESSOR OPERATIONS
The PCs are operating cyclically, i.e. when a complete program has been scanned, it
starts again at the beginning of the program. At the beginning of each cycle, the processor
examines the signals states at all inputs as well as the external counters and are stored in a
process image input (PII). During subsequent program scanning, the processor then
accesses this process image.
To execute the program, the processor fetches one statement after the other from the
program memory and executes it. That is, the processor performs logic gating operations
and calculations with the data from the process image input, allowing for the
instantaneous states of the internal timers, counters and flags. The results are
continuously stored in the process image output (PIO) during the cycle.
The processor does not transfer the contents (signal states) from the process image output
to the output modules and the external counters until a program has been completed, i.e.
at the end of a scanning cycle. The processor then begins a new program scan.

Program
memory

PII Processor PII Processor Timers

Counter

Flags

Inputs, external
counters

1. Update PII 2. Execute the Program

 PIO Processor PIO Processor

Outputs,
External
counters

3. Generating PIO 4. Transferring PIO to Output Module

1. Update PII
2. Execute the program
3. Generating PIO
4. Transferring PIO to output module
Scan Time: Time taken by CPU to complete one cycle of operation is known as Scan
Time. For example AB PLC-4 has a scan time of 25ms for 4 KB memory.

APPLLICATIONS OF PLCs
Proper application of a PLC begins with an economical justification analysis. The batch
process in chemical, cement, food and paper industries are sequential in nature, requiring
time or event based decisions. PLCs are being used more and more as total solutions to a
batch problem in these industries rather than just a tool.
In batch process savings are developed principally from reduced cycle time and
scheduling. Cycle automation provides rigid control enforcement to eliminate human
errors and to minimize manual interventions. Increased efficiency in scheduling is to be
expected with maximum utilization of equipment and reduction of fluctuating demands
on critical equipment.
In large process plants PLCs are being increasingly used for automatic start up and
shutdown of critical equipments. A PLC ensures that an equipment can not be started
unless all the permissive conditions for safe start have been established. It also monitors
the conditions necessary for safe running of the equipment and trip the equipment
whenever any abnormality in the system is detected.
The PLC can be programmed to function as an energy management system for boiler
control for maximum efficiency and safety. In the burner management system it can be
used to control the process of purging, pilot light off, flame safety checks, main burner
light off and valve switching for changeover of fuels.

ADVANTAGES OF PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLER

1. Very fast
2. Easy to change logic i.e. flexibility
3. Reliable due to absence of moving parts
 4. Low power consumption
5. Easy maintenance due to modular assembly
6. Facilities in fault finding and diagnostic
7. Capable of handling of very complicated logic operations
8. Good documentation facilities
9. Easy to couple with the process computers
10. Analog signal handling and close loop control programming
11. Counter, timer and comparator can be programmed
12. Ease operator interface due to colourographic and advisory system introduction

PROGRAMMING
The programming is generally written down before it is loaded into the programmable
controller. This can be done in the form of a
 Statement list (STL)
 Control system flow chart (CSF)
 Ladder diagram (LDA)

The subsequent loading of the program into the PC can take place in two ways: on-line
(direct to internal RAM) or off-line (to EEPROM or EPROM or floppy disk), i.e. with the
programmer connected or not connected to the programmable controller.

ON-LINE PROGRAMMING
Here the programmer is connected directly to the CPU of the PC. The program is first
keyed into the internal memory of the programmer step by step. The program is then
transferred to the internal RAM of the programmable controller.
To dump the program on a memory submodule, this is also possible without a
programmer. Simply press the “Copy” switch on the CPU (as in S5-100U).
It is naturally also possible to dump and load a program on and from a memory
submodule plugged into the CPU, using the programmer.

OFF-LINE PROGRAMMING
The program is first keyed into the internal memory of the programmer and then
transferred to a memory submodule (EPROM, EEPROM, FLOPPY DIST).
The memory submodule is then plugged into its receptable on the CPU and the program
loaded from the submodule into the internal RAM of the programmable controller. This
is accomplished by pressing down the “Copy” switch when powering up the PC.
If there is no valid program in the internal RAM of the PC, the program is loaded
automatically from the memory submodule at power-up.