PREFACE

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The study material covers the syllabus of the Joint Entrance Examinations. It has been designed
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 INDEX

Unit No. Topic Page No.

Unit–17 Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations 01

Unit-18 Atoms & Nuclei 85

Unit-19 Electronic Devices 191

Unit-20 Communication System 302

Unit-21 Experimental Skills 368

UNIT–17 : DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATIONS

Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to understand, appreciate and apply the following concepts:
 Discovery of the phenomenon of photoelectricity.
 The importance of the experiments of Hallwache, Elster, Gaitel and Leonard.
 The failure of the classical e.m. theory in explaining the experimental results of photoelectricity.
 The introduction of the ‘photon theory’ of light, by Einstein.
 The mechanism of interaction of light, with the free electrons of the metal, in terms of the photon
theory of light.
 Einstein’s photoelectric equation and its success in explaining the experimental results on
photoelectricity.
 The concept of the threshold frequency / wavelength, for a given photosensitive surface.
 The “dual nature of light”.
 The extension of the concept of “dual nature” to matter.
 The concept of “matter waves”, or “deBroglie waves”.
 The basic expression for the wavelength (the deBroglie wavelength) associated with a particle.
 The dependence, of the deBroglie wavelength, for a charged particle (like the electron), on the
‘potential’ used to accelerate it.
 The Davisson and Germer experiment and its role in providing the required (experimental) support
to the concept of matter waves.

1
2
The Photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon of photoelectricity was accidently discovered by Hertz. He was performing an experiment
to test Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory. He by means of a spark dischange, was investigating production
of electromagnetic waves. Hertz observed that high voltage spark across the detector loop were enhanced
when the emitter plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light. It was prabably due to emission of charged
particles from the plate due to incidence of ultraviolet radiction. Leonard then determined the e/m value of
these particles and showed that they were electrons. Hallwachs, Elster and Giatel then experimentally
established that photoemission depend upon.
(i) the nature of the emitter
(ii) the quality of the light used.
By a simple experimental arrangement shown in the figure the following sailent
features of the phenomenon of photoelectric emission was established.
Sailent Features of Phenomenon of Photoelectricity
1. Photoelectric emission is an instanteous phenomenon.
2. A photoemitter shows the photoelectric effect only if the incident radiation
has a frequency above a certain value called the threshold frequency.
This frequency is a characterstics of the photoemitter. Below threshold
frequency no emission is possible whatever may be the intensity of light
or whatever be the time span for which the light is incident on
the photoemitter.
3. For a given frequency (above threshold) the number of photo
electrons emitted is directly proportional to the intensity of
light.
4. The maximum energy of the emitted photoelectrons is directly
proportional to the frequency of incident light and has nothing
to do with the intensity of light.

3
 The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons from a photoemitter is measured by
determining the stopping or retarding potential.

Variation of photoelectric current with collector plate potential for different

frequencies of incident radictions (for same intensity)

5. There exists a energy distribution among the emitted photoelectrons from a photoemitter.

Failure of Electromagnetic Theory of Light

The above mentioned features of the phenonmenon of photoelectriciy were attempted to be explained by
electromagnetic theory. However except fot the fact that electric and magnetic field associated with an
electromagnetic wave can cause the emission of photoelectrons, the electromagnetic theory could not
explain even a single fact concerning the observed features of the phenomenon.
It is natural to expect that the energy transmitted by light should smoothly and evenly distritube itself in the
space. If it is so than each electron would intercept only an significant small amount of energy and would
require a long time (may be days or years) to accumulate enough energy to escaope from the metal.
Experimentally however it is observed that the photoemission is instantaneous.
Again on the basis of electromagnetic theory there should not be any thing like threshold frequency existing.
There seemed to be no reason why sufficiently intense beam of low frequency liget would not be able to
produce photoelectricity if low intensity radiation of higher frequency can produce it.
On classical theory we expect that light of high intensity, consisting of strong electric and magnetic fields,
would give higher kinetic energy to the liberated electrons. This however does not happen. Also the
electron’s energy should not depend particularly on the light frequency but it does.
Thus classical electromagnetic theory is not able to explain all the sailent features of the phenonmenon of
photoelectricity.

Einstein’s Theory
The challange passed by photoelectricity was met by Einstein. Einstein’s took his clue from Planck’s
explanation of black body spectrum. Einstein’s assumed that light consists of quantum packets of energy,

4
the energy of a packet is hv where h is the Planck’s constant and v is the frequency of light. These
quantums of energy are called photons and travel with the velocity of light. According to Einstein
when a photon of energy is incident on a metal surface the energy of the photon is absorbed by a free
electron in the metal. A part of this energy of quantum hv is used by the free electron to overcome
the binding influence of the nucleous (represented by the work function of emitter) and the remaining
part of the energy is given to the emitted electron as its kinetic energy. Hence we can write

1 1
hv  0  mv 2 or mv2  hv  0
2 2
The above equation is known as Einstein’s equation and is fundamental in explaining the facts of the
phenomenon of photoelectricity.
1. According to Einstein’s theory the emission of electrons from a photoemitter is concieved as a
collision process between a photon and electron and hence is a instantaneous phenomenon.
2. According to Einstein’s theory a more intense beam incident on a metal surface implies that more
photons are being incident on the metal surface per unit area per unit time. Each photon involves
itself a collision with an electron and consequently is emitted. The more is the number of
incident photons the more will the number of collisions occuring and more is the number of
photoelectrons emitted. Hence at a given appropriate frequency the photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the intensity of light.
3. There exists a threshold frequency. We know that the quantum of energy of a photon is equal to hv.
Increasing or decreasing v accordingly will increase or decreases this value of quanta of energy. If
we decrease v, then consquently the energy of the emitted electron will decreases because 0 is a
fixed parameter for a given emitter. Ultimately a stage will be reached when hv0 is just equal to 0
(v0 is the frequency when this happens). If we decreases this frequency further hv0 will becomes less
than 0 . Hence for frequencies less than v0, the energy of the incident photon will not be able to
liberate electron from its binding Influence. Hence there cannot be any emission for a frequency less
than v0. Since 0 is a characterstics of a given emitter threshold frequency is also a characterstics of
the emitter.

1
4. According to Einstein’s equation mv 2max  hv  0
2
it is obvious that the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron with depend linealy on the
frequency of incidence light and has nothing to do with the intensity of light.
1
In terms of concept of stopping potential. we can also write mv 2max  eV
2
5. The existance of energy distribution among the emitted electrons is explained as follows. In writing
1
the relation mv2  hv – 0
2

5
 we assume that the emission take place at the surface of the emitter. However if a photon electron
collision take place inside a emitter, the emitted electron will lose some energy due to collisions with
the atoms in the lattice of the emitter and hence in this case Einstein’s equation will become
1
mv 2  hv – 0  c
2
1
where c represent the energy loss due to collisions. Since c can vary from zero to mv 2 , there
2
would exist a energy distribution among the emitted electrons.

Dual Nature of Light

The classical electromagnetic theory of light is very successful in explaining the phenomenon of
interference. diffraction, polarisation etc. In fact these phenomenon can only be explained by this theory.
However the electromagnetic theory was a complete failure in explaining the experimental facts of
photoelectricity. Later on it was found that electromagnetic theory cannot explain the phenomenon of
“Compton scattering” and “specific heat of solids”. One has to introduce the concept of photons
(particles) to explain the above mentioned phenomenon. Naturally the questions arieses What is Light?
Is it a wave entity or Is it a particle.The answer to this question is either or neither. We now regard
light to have a dual nature. It mainfest itself as a wave in phenomenon like interference, diffraction, polarisation
etc. while it shows photon (particle) behaviour in the phenomenon of photoelectricity
and Compton scattering. However light can never exhibit both wave and particle behaviour simulataneously.
These facts are further developed with astonishing results in the studies of Quantum Mechanics.
Example–1:
Ultraviolet light of wavelength 280 nm is used in a experiment on photoelectric effect with lithium
(work function 2.5 eV) cathode. Find
(i) the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
(ii) the stopping potential
Solution:
(i) Maximum kinetic energy is given by

hc 1242 eV
 K.E max   0   2.5eV = 4.4 – 2.5 = 1.9 eV
 280 nm

(ii) Stopping potential V is given by eV = (K.E)max

 K.E max 1.9 eV

V   1.9 V
e e

6
Example–2:
Monochromatic radiation of wave length 640.2 nm from a neon lamp irridate a photosensitive
material made of tungsten. The stopping voltage is found to be 0.541. The source is replaced by
an iron source and its 427.2 nm lines irridate the same photocell. What is the stopping potential
now? (Work function for iron is 2.236 eV)
Solution:

hc hc
We have eVS   0 therefore 0   eVS
 
6.63  10 34  3  108
For neon; 0  9
 1.6  1019  0.54 = 1.4 eV
640.2  10

hc
Again using the relation eVS   0 for iron we have


6.631034 3108
eVS  9
 2.236  1.61019 = 2.413×10–19 J
427.210

2.413  1019 2.413  1019

VS   = 1.55 V
e 1.6 1019
Example–3:
The work function for different metals given, below is
Na = 2.75 eV
K = 2.30 eV
Mo = 4.17 eV
Ni = 5.15 eV
Which of these metals will not give photoelectric emission for a radiation of 3300Å from a
laser beam placed at 1m away from the photocell. What would happen if laser is brought
nearer and nearer.
Solution:
Energy of incident radiation E in electron volt is

hc 6.63  1034  3  108

E   3.75eV
 3300  1010  1.6  1019

7
From the values given in question it is obvious that photoemission will take place from Na and K but no
emission can take place from Mo and Ni .
Bringing laser beam nearer and nearer will only increases the intensity of incident radiation. So the
photoelectric current from Na and K will increase but no emission will take place from Mo and Ni .
Example–4:
The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV. Find (a) the threshold frequency for caesium and
(b) the wavelength of incident light if the photocurrent is brought to zero by a stopping
potential of 0.60 V.
Solution:

(a) Let v0 be the threshold frequency. Then hv0  0

0 2.14 eV
or v0    5.16  1014 Hz
h 6.63  1034
hc
(b) eVS  hv  0   0

hc
or 
eVS  0

6.63  1034  3  108 19.89  

 
 0.60 eV  2.14 eV  2.74 1.6 1019
= 454 nm
Example–5:

λ  2536Å 3132Å 3550Å

v  1.18×1015 Hz 0.958×1015 Hz 0.822×1015 Hz
VS  1.95 V 0.98 V 0.50 V

The above table gives the values of stopping potential which were obtained in a photoelectric
experiment which was performed using calcium as emitter.
From this data, obtain the value of the Plank’s constant.
Solution:
The plot of v against VS is a straight line and the slope of this straight line graph is equal to h/e
 h = e × (slope of the graph)

8
 1.95  0.50  1015
Slope of the graph is
1.18  0.822 
1.45
 h  1.6  1019
0.358  1015
= 6.48×10–34 J.S

Matter Waves
The phenomenon of black body radiations could not be explained satisfactarly on the basis of classical
theories of radiations till Max Planck’s introduced the radically, new concept of Quantisation. Later on the
study of the phenomenon of photoelectricity and the failure of the classical electromagnetic theory in
explanning the various features once again forced the scientists to take resort to the newly introduced
Photon theory of light. Close to the heels of these phenomeon came a number of other discoveries which
also required one to adopt the photon theory of radiations (X–ray scottering is a prominentexample).
However the well established phenomeon of interference diffraction, polarisation etc. required one to
adopt a wave picture of light. Ultimately light was given a sort of Dual Nature which sometimes manifest
itself as waves and sometimes as particles i.e. photons.
Following the dual nature of light deBroglie suggested to think in terms of the same dual nature for Matter
or particles. Arguing that nature would prefer symmatery, he made the bold assertion that just as radiation
can sometime behave like particle, the matter should also sometimes behave as waves. Thus the idea of
matter waves was born.

The deBroglie Formula

The deBroglie formula for calculating the wavelength to be associated with any material particle is analogous
to the one for radiations. A photon of light frequency v has an energy hv. But if we consider it as a particle
of mass moving with a velocity c its energy is mc2 and the momentum (p) is mc. Equating the formulae for
the energy we have
mc2 = hv
hv h h
mc   
c  cv 

h h
Hence P  or 
 p
deBroglie asserted that the same formula holds for matter also. Thus the wave length that must be
associated with a material particle of momentum p is given by
h

p

9
It is obvions that since the value of h is very small, the wave properties of matter are likely to manifest
themselves in the domain of the elementary particles.
Some important considerations regarding beBrogeli waves:
1. If we take into consideration relevestic variation of mass with velocity v
m0
m 2
1 v c2

The modified deBroglie formula for  becomes

h  2Ve 
 1  2 
2m 0 eV  m 0c 
2. Concept of Group Velocity
In our discussion so far we associated a single well defined wavelength (monochromatic)
with a given particle. However we know that a monochromatic wave is infinite in extent and
hence cannot be localized in a well defined region of space. This is contradictory to the observed
behaviour of particles which are always well localized. To overcome this diffculty we introduce
the idea of a wave packet. This wave packed is formed by superposition of a number of
waves situated on and around the central wavelength given by the deBroglie relation. We assume
that such a wave packet should have a resultant amplitude which is appreciable different from
zero only in a small region of space having the dimensions of particle. The velocity of the
component monochromatic waves making up the wave packet is known as Phase velocity
(can be > c) whereas the speed which with a wave packet of deBroglie wave travel is known as
Goup velocity Experimentally it is the group velocity that is always measured.
3. Probability Interpretation to Matter Waves
Max Born suggested a probability interpretatation of the matter waves amplitudes. According to this
interpretation the intensity (square of amplitude) of the matter wave at a point is determined
by the probability density of the particle at that point (probability per unit volume).
4. Davission and Germer Experiment
Davission and Germer experiment was originally desinged to be a study of the scattering of electrons
by a nickel crystal.Bascially the experiment consisted in directing a well defined beam of electrons on
a nickel crystal and obeserving the scattered electron intensity as a function of the angle with the
direction of incidence. As was to be expected they found the intensity to decrease continuously as
the angle of scattering increased. However in the course of their experiment, the vaccum system
broke drown and the nickel crystal acquired a coat of the oxide. To remove the oxide, the nickel
crystal was reduced slowly in a hot oven. The whole system was reset and the experiment repeated.
To the utter surprise of everyone, it was found that the scattered electron intensity now went through
Maxima and Minima i.e. the electron were being diffracted.

10
The experimental arrangment used by Davission and Germer is
shown in the figure. It consist of an electron gun. The electron
gun is a tungsten filament coated with barium oxide. This is
heated by a low voltage power supply. The accelerated emitted
electrons fall upon a nickel target which is capable of
rotation about an axis perpendicular to the plane of page.The
scattered electrons are recieved by a moveable Faraday cylinder
which had a sat in front of it. One could therefore measure the
scattered electron intensity as a function of angle between the
incident and scattered beam. From the developments in the field
of X–ray diffraction one would expect that corresponding to a
set of crystal plane the scattered electron intensity reach a
maximum at a particular accelerating potential and at a particular
angle of scattering. The polar graphs shown below, confirmed
this observation.

The electron diffractions by (111) face of the nickel crystal. These graph show a clear and sharpen
defined ‘ HUMP’ at an accelerations potential of 54 volt at an angle of 500.

The deBroglie wavelength  associated with electron for 54 volt is given

h 1.227
  nm  0.167 nm
p v

We can also calculate  by using Bragg’s technique (2d sin    ) and the result obtained is in very good
agreement with the experimental value.
Example–6:
X–rays of wavelength 0.82 Å fall on a metal plate. Find the wavelength associated with the
photoelectron emitted (neglact the work function of the metal).
Solution:
Wave length of X–ray used to eject photoelectrons = 0.82 Å

11
 c 3 
Frequency v   8
 3.544  1012
 0.82  10
Energy of emitted photoelectron = hv = 6.6×10–34×0.354×1012 J

1
 mv 2  6.6×3.54×10–16
2
m2v2 = 2×6.6×3.54×10–16×9.1×10–31

mv  2  6.6  3.54 1016  9.11031  66   

h 6.6 1034
   24
mv 6.6  7.08  9.1 10
= 0.1012Å
Example–7:
The first order Bragg maximum of electron diffraction in a nickel crystal (d = 0.9086 Å);
occured at a glancing angle of 650. Calculate the deBroglie wavelength of the electrons and
their velocity.
Solution:
From Bragg’s law we have 2d sin   n 

   sin 650  

   = 1.65 Å

h 6.6 1034
Now, v  
m  9.1 1031 1.65 1010

= 4.3×106 m/s

12
 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
1. A photo sensitive material emits electrons whose maximum velocity is 3×107 ms. Calculate the
stopping potential.
[Ans: 2.559 volt]
2. The work function for an emitter is 4.2 eV. How much potential difference will be required to stop
photoemission of maximum energy electrons emitted by light of wavelength 2000 Å. For what
wavelength of incident light, the stopping potential would be zero.
[Ans: 2 volt; 2955 Å]
3. If the photocurrent of a photocell is cut off by a retarding potential of 0.92 volt for monochromatic
radiations of 2500 Å, what is the work function of the material?
[Ans: 4.03 eV]
4. The stopping potential for the fastest electrons from a tantalum surface is 1.59 eV. If the photoelectric
work function is 4.12 eV, estimate the threshold frequency for tantalum and the frequency and
wavelength of the radiation which caused the emission of above electrons.
[Ans: 0.994×1015 s–1, 1.38×1015 s–1, 2.18×10–7 m]
5. When potasium is radiated with light of wavelength 5.89×10–7 m the stopping potential is 0.36 V;
when the wavelength of the incident radiation is 0.254×10–6 m the stopping potential is 3.13 V
Use this data to calculate the value of the Planck’s constant.
[Ans: 6.60×10–34 J-s]
6. The ionisation energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. A photon of wavelength of 600×10–10 m is
absorbed by the hydrogen atom. Calculate the kinetic energy of the ejected electron.
[Ans: 11.36×10–19J]
7. The most energetic electrons emitted from a surface by 3500 Å photons are found to be bent in a
0.18 m circle by a magnetic field of 1.5×10–5 wb/m2. Calculate the wave function of the material.
[Ans: 2.90 eV]
8. Photoelectrons of charge e and constant mass m are liberated in vaccum with negligible velocities
from the plate of a parallel place capacitor. A magnetic field is applied parallel to the plates.
The seperation between the plates is x. Show that a potential difference

1 2  e  2
V x  
2 m
when applied across the capacitor will enable the electrons to just reach the positive plate.
9. Find the maximum magnitude of the linear momentum of a photoelectron emitted when a light of
wavelength 400 nm falls on a metal having awork function 2.5 eV.
[Ans: 4.2×10–25 Kg ms–1]
10. Figure show the plot of the stopping potential versus the frequency of light used in an experiment on
photo electric effect. Find (i) the ratio h/e and (ii) the work function

13
 [Ans: (i) 4.14×10–15 eVS; (ii) 0.414 eV]
11. Calculate the deBroglie wavelength associated with an  particle accelerated by a p.d of 25000
volt.
[Ans: 6.390×10–14 m]

1
12. Calcualte the deBroglie wavelength associated with an electron moving with velocity of light.
10th
[Ans: 0.24×10–10 m]
13. The equivalent wavelength of a moving electron is 0.24×10–10 m. What voltage applied between two
grids will bring it to rest.
[Ans: 2597 volt]
14. When 400 volt electrons are diffracted by a crystal the angular diffraction pattern is identical with
that produced by X–rays of wavelength 0.61Å. Calculate the Planck’s constant.
[Ans: 6.59×10–34 J–s]
15. The wavelength of a 1 KeV photon is 1.24×10–9 m. What is the frequency of 1 MeV photon.
[Ans: 2.4×1020 Hz]
16. Calculate the deBroglie wavelength associated with a sphere of mass 1 kg travelling with a speed of
1 ms–1.
[Ans: 6.62×10–34 m]
17. Show that the deBroglie wavlength of an electron.
h
(i) of energy E is given by  
2mE

12.27
and (ii) accelerated through a potential of V is given by   Å
V

14
QUESTION BANK

15
 Key Learning Points
1. The phenomenon of photoelectricity was discovered during Hertz’s experiment designed to
demonstrate the existance electromagnetic waves.
2. On the basis of experimental studies photoelectricity has the following sailent features.
 Photoelectric emission is an instantneous phenomenon.
 There exists a threshold frequency below which no emission is possible no matter what may
be intensity of illumination.
 The number of photoelectrons emitted per unit area, per unit time from a emitter is directly
proportional to intencity of light.
 The maximum energy with which electrons are emitted from a emitter is directly proportional
to the frequency of incident light but is independent of the intencity of light used.
 There exists a energy distribution among emitted electrons.
3. The classical electromagnetic theory failed to explain all the above mentioned features of photoelectricity.
4. However one cannot discard electromagnetic theory because then there is noway by which one
could explain the phenomenon of interference, diffraction, polarisation dispersion etc.
5. Einstein’s introduced the idea of photons according to which light consists of photons of energy hv.
Photons are endavoured as particles moving with velocity of light and having a rest mass of zero.
6. According to Einstein when a photon of energy hv is incident on a metal surface the energy of the
photon is absorbed by a free electron in the metal. A part of this energy of quantum hv is used by
the free electron to overcome the binding influence of the nucleus and remaining part of this energy
is given to the emitted electron as its kinetic energy. Hence
1
hv  0  mv 2
2
1
or mv 2  hv  0
2
This equation is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation and this successfully explain the sailent
features of photoelectricity.
7. In terms of the concept of stopping potential Einstein’s photoequation can be written as
eVS  hv  0
8. Light is assigned a dual character.
9. Since it is a well known fact that nature love symmetery deBroglie argued that if light has to has a duel
character, matter particles should also exhibit wave characterstics. He also assigned a wavelength 

16
 to a moving particle given by the relation
h h
 
mv p

and predicted that wave characterstics should be found with elementary particles.
10. Davision and Germer accidently obtained a diffraction pattern for accelerated electrons in an
experiment designed to study the scattering of electrons by a Nickel crystal in vacuum.

17
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Average Photons
1. A 1000 W source of light is emitting light of wavelength 6000 Å. The number of photons
emitted per second by the source is
(1) 6×1020 photons/s (Incorrect)
(2) 3×1010 photons/s (Incorrect)
(3) 1020 photons/s (Incorrect)
(4) 3×1020 photons/s (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:

E
The number of photons emitted by per second by the source is given by n 
hc
100  6 10 7
or n = 3×1020
6.62  10 34  3 08
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photons
2. A photon of 3×10–7 wavelength will
(1) have a energy 4.14 eV and will lie near the ultra violet region (correct)
(2) have a energy of 4.14×10–19 J and would lie in the deep red region (Incorrect)
(3) have a energy of 4.414 eV and would lie in the deep yellow region (Incorrect)
(4) will have a energy of 4.14 eV and would lie in the infra red region (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:

Wave length of the photon is 3  10 7 m  3000 Å

The electromagnetic wave is near the ultra violet region
Energy of the photon = hv

18
 34 3 108 6.63  1019
 6.63  10  = 6.63×10 J 
–19 eV  4.144eV
3 107 1.6 10 19
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Photoelectricity
3. Which one of the follownig graphs represent the variation of maximum kinetic energy of
photo electrons emitted from a photoemitter with frequency?
(1) A (Incorrect)
(2) B (Correct)
(3) C (Incorrect)
(4) D (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
1
Einstein’s photoelectric equation is mv 2max  hv  0
2
This is of the form y=mx, the equation of a straight line with a negative y intercept t and slope h. To come
out from a photo emitter a electron needs energy equal to the work function of the emitter and gets this
energy from the energy hv of the photons incident on the emitter. When the frequency of the incident
photons is decreased the energy of the incident photons also decreases as 0 is a constant.
Hence option (4) is correct.

19
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Average Photoelectricity
4. Which one of the following graphs represent correctly variation of photoelectric current
with the applied voltage?
(1) A (Incorrect)
(2) B (Incorrect)
(3) C (Incorrect)
(4) D (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
The circuit diagram to study the variation of the photoelectric current
with voltage is shown. When the applied potential difference is large all
the photo electron emitted by the emitter are collected on the collector.
As we decrease the potential difference to zero and then negative values
the number of emitted electrons collected by the collector starts decreasing
and corresponding to limiting value, called stopping potential the collector
is not able to collect anyone of the emitted electrons and photoelectric
current tends to become zero. Graph (4) represents this variation.
Hence option (4) is correct.

20
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Average Photoelectricity

2 1
5. For three differenct metal P, Q and R photoemission is observed one by one;   mvmax
2
 
(K.E) versus v is plotted. Which one of the following represent the curves correctly?
(1) A (Incorrect)
(2) B (Incorrect)
(3) C (Correct)
(4) D (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
As explained in previous question the metal P, Q and R will have their own threshold frequncies. This fact
is correctly represented by graph in option (3).

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Photoelectricity
1 2
6. Which one of the following graphs represent correctly the variation of mv max (k) with the
2
intensity of incident radiations (I)

21
 (1) A (Incorrect)
(2) B (Incorrect)
(3) C (Correct)
(4) D (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
It is an experimental observed fact that the maximum energy with which photoelectrons are emitted does
not depend on the intensity of light but depends only on the frequency of the incident light.
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Photoelectricity
7. Which one of the following graphs represent correctly the variation of photoelectric current
(i) with the intensity (I) of incident radiations?
(1) A (Incorrect)
(2) B (Correct)
(3) C (Incorrect)
(4) D (Incorrect)

22
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
With the increase of intensity of incident light, the number of photons striking the emitter surface per unit
area per unit time increases. As each photon colliding and emitting one electron, the number of emitted
electrons increases with increase in the increase of intensity of light. The graph in option (2) is representing
this fact and therefore is the correct answer.
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Photoelectricity
8. Incident radiation, of a given frequency, (but variable intenstiy) is incident on a given
photosensitive surface. The graph, that represents the variation of the photoelectric current,
with the potential (applied across the photoelectric tube), is the graph numbered as graph.
(1) A (Incorrect)
(2) B (Correct)
(3) C (Incorrect)
(4) D (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (2)

23
Solution:
Option (2) is correct graph. We know that stopping potential is inpendent of intensity of the incident
radiation.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photoelectricity
9. Photoelectric effect experiment are performed using three different metal plates (x, y, z)
having work function equal to 2.0 eV, 2.5 eV and 3.0 eV, respectively. A light beam, containing
wave length of 550 nm, 450 nm and 350 nm, having equal intensity of illumination, is incident
on each of the three plates. The correct I–V graph, of the three cases, is the graph numbered
as graph.
(1) A (Incorrect)
(2) B (Incorrect)
(3) C (Incorrect)
(4) D (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

24
Solution:

 1240 
We have: Energy of a photon (in eV) =  
 wavelength  in nm  

1240
 E1  eV  2.25 eV
500

1240
E2  eV  2.75eV
450

1240
E3  eV  3.54 eV
350
Thus it is clear E1 cannot emit photoelectrons from y and z plates E2 cannot emit photoelectrons from z
plate.
Also work function of x is least and it can emit photoelectrons for all the three wavelengths. Hence magnitude
of the stopping potential, and saturation current both, will be maximum, for metal plate x.
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Photoelectricity
10. Which one of the following statement is not a part of the quantum theory of light?
(1) There is a minimum frequency of light below which no photoelectrons are emitted
(Incorrect)
(2) The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron depends only on the frequency of light
and not on the intensity (Incorrect)
(3) Photoemission occurs when light of appropriate frequency but minimum intensity is
incident (Incorrect)
(4) The charge of photoelectrons is quantized (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
Option (1), (2) and (3) are experimentally observed facts of the phenomenon of photoelectricity and are
explained by Einstein’s theory of the photoelectricity. Option (4) refers to quantization of charge in general
and is not a part of Einstein’s theory of photoelectric emission.
Hence option (4) is correct.

25
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Difficult Photoelectricity
11. The graph between stopping potential versus frequency for a photoemitter is shwon in
figure. Then

(1) The slope of the graph enable us to determine the work function of the emitter
(Incorrect)
(2) The slope of the graph is equal to Planck constant h (Incorrect)
(3) The product of the slope of the graph and electronic change is equal to Planck’s
constant ‘h’ (Correct)
(4) The slope of the graph enables us to determine threshold wavelength of the emitter
(Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
1 v2
According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation we have mmax  h  h0
2
1 v2
If VS is the stopping potential, then m max  eVS
2
 eVS  hv  hv0

Differenciating we get eVS  hv

VS
or h  e
v
VS
But represents the slope of the graph
v
Hence h = eV slope of  versus V graph.
Hence option (2) is correct.

26
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Average Photoelectricity
12. Light of two different frequencies whose photons have energies 1 eV and 2.5 eV respectively;
successively illumminate a metal whose work function is 0.5 eV. The ratio of the maximum
speed of the emitted electrons will be
(1) 1:1 (Incorrect)
(2) 1:2 (Correct)
(3) 2:1 (Incorrect)
(4) 1:4 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:

1
We have
2
mv2  hv  0 or E = hυ - w 0  12 mV = E 
2

Thus E1 = (1–0.5) = 0.5 eV E2 = (2.5–0.5) = 2 eV

1 2
E1 2 mv1 0.5
 
E 2 1 mv 2 2
2
2

v12 1 v1 1
or   
v 22 4 v2 2
This option (2) is correct anser.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Photoelectricity
13. The work function for sodium is 2.0 volt. Then the longest wavelength of light that will eject
photoelectrons from the surface is
(1) 6000 Å (Correct)
(2) 7000 Å (Incorrect)
(3) 5900 Å (Incorrect)
(4) 6100 Å (Incorrect)

27
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
hc
The work function 0  where  0 is the wavelength that can cause emission
0

hc 6.6 10 34  3 108

Hence  0   m
0 2  1.6  109

or  0 = 6000 Å

Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Photoelectricity
14. A photo electric cell using caesium as the sensitive element is illuminated with light of
wavelength of 4.2×10–7 m. The work function of caesium is 1.90 V. The reverse potential
which will supress the electron emission is
(1) 1.5 V (Incorrect)
(2) 1.9 V (Incorrect)
(3) 1.05 V (Correct)
(4) 1V (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:

From Einstein’s photoelectric equation we have eVS  hv  0

hv 0 hc  0
or VS   =
e e e e

6.6  1034  3  108

VS   1.9 (Work function of caesium is 1.9 eV)
1.6  1019  4.2  107

= (2.95–1.9) V = 1.05 V
Alternately;
 = 4.2×10–7 m = 420 nm

28
 1240
The energy of the photon in eV is E  eV  2.5eV
420
eVS  hv  0  E  0

= 2.95 eV – 1.90 eV = 1.05 eV

1.05 eV
 VS   1.05 V
e
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Photoelectricity
15. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron emitted from a surface when photons of
energy 6 eV fall on it is 4 eV. The stopping potential is
(1) 2 eV (Incorrect)
(2) 4 eV (Correct)
(3) 6 eV (Incorrect)
(4) 0.4 eV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Stopping potential is defined as the negative potential applied to a photoemitting surface as the negative
potential which will stop the emission of the electrons from the surface even with maximum kinetic energy.
Therefore stopping potential will be 4 eV.
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photoelectricity
16. The energy of photoelectrons emitted from a metal surface is 1.6 eV. If the threshoold
wavelength is 3000 Å, then the wavelength of incident light is
(1) 2164 Å (Correct)
(2) 216.4 Å (Incorrect)
(3) 21.64×10–12 m (Incorrect)
(4) 0.2164 Å (Incorrect)

29
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
We are given the energy of emitted photoelectrons 1.6 eV = 1.6×1.6×10–19 = 2.56×10–19 J
1
Hence mv 2  2.56  10 19 J
2

1 1 1 
Also mv 2  hc   
2    
1
mv 2
1 1 2 2.56 10 19
or    34 8
= 128.9×1010
 0 hc 6.62 10  3 10

1 1
 128.9  1010    0  3000Å 
 3  107
Solving we get

 = 2164 Å
Hence option (1) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photoelectricity
17. The minimum light intensity that can be percieved by the eye is about 10–10 Wm–2. The area
of the pupil of eye is 10–4 m2. Photons of wavelength 5.84×10–7 enter the eye. Their number
for the vision is
(1) 3×104 (Correct)
(2) 3×102 (Incorrect)
(3) 3×106 (Incorrect)
(4) 3×103 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
n hc
Let n be the number of required photons. Then their energy is n hv = and this must be equal to

intensity of light  area of the pupil of eye and is given by 10–10×10–4

30
n hc
 1010  104

104  10 10   
or n = 3×104
 6.6  10 34
  3  108

Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photoelectricity

18. When a piece of metal is illuminated by monochoromatic light of wavelength λ , then the
stopping potential for photoelectric current is 2.5 eV. When the same surface is illuminated
by light of wavelength 1.5 λ , then the stopping potential is observed to have a value VS.
From this data the threshold wavelength of photoelectric emission is

(1) 2.5 λ (Incorrect)

(2) 2.25 λ (Correct)

(3) 2.75 λ (Incorrect)

(4) 2.00 λ (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (2)
Solution:

hc
From Einstein’s photoelectric equation we have eVS  hv  0   0

so that we can write from the data given in the question
hc hc 
eVS  2.5    0 or eVS   0
 2.5  2.5
hc
eVS   0
1.5 
From above equations
hc hc 
 0   0
1.5  2.5  2.5

hc  1 1   1  3
    1    0
 1.5 2.5 
0
 2.5  5
31
 3 hc hc  1 1  4 hc
  
5  0  1.5 2.5  15 
9
Hence  0    2.25 
4
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photoelectricity
19. The retarding potential for a given photoelectric emitter is 3.0 V. The photoelectric effect
of this emitter begins at a frequency of 6×1014 Hz. Which frequency will eject electrons
from this emitter?
(1) 6×1014 Hz (Incorrect)
(2) 1.32×1015 Hz (Correct)
(3) 132×1020 Hz (Incorrect)
(4) 13.2×1018 Hz (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
From Einstein’s photoelectric equation we

eVS  hv  hv0 where VS is the stopping potential

eVS
 hv  eVS  hv0 or v   v0
h
1.6 1019  3
v 34
 6 1014
6.62  10
= 7.2×1014 + 6×1014 = 13.2×1014 = 1.32×1015 Hz
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photoelectricity
20. The threshold wavelength of metallic silver is 3800Å. Ultroviolet light of wavelength
2600Å is allowed to fall on silver. The maximum velocity of the emitted photoelectrons is

32
 (1)  0.73×106 m/s (Correct)
(2)  0.73×108 m/s (Incorrect)
(3)  0.73×105 m/s (Incorrect)
(4)  0.73×107 m/s (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
hc 6.63  1034  3  108
0   = 5.23×10–19 J
 3800  1010
1
Now mv 2max  hv  0
2
6.631034  3108
 hv   7.651019 J
26001010
1 2
 mvmax   7.65  5.23 1019 = 2.42×10–19 J
2

2  2.42  1019
v max   0.73×106 m/s
9.11 1031

Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Very Difficult Photoelectricity
21. A beam of light has three wavelenghs 4144Å, 4972Å and 6216Å wth a total intensity of
3.6×10–3 W equally distributed among the three wavelengths. This beam is incident on a
area of 1 cm2 on a clean metal surface of work function 2.3 eV. It is given that each capable
photon ejects one electron. The number of phoelectrons liberacted in (Assume there is no
loss of light due to reflection).
(1) 5.5×1011 (Correct)
(2) 11×1011 (Incorrect)
(3) 11×1012 (Incorrect)
(4) 11×1010 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)

33
Solution:
The threshold wavelength will be given by

hc 6.62 1034  3 108

  = 5.396×10–7 m = 5396 Å
0 2.3  1.6  1019

Hence light of wavelength 6216Å will not emit photoelectrons from the metal surface. Since the total
intensity of light is equally distributed among the wavelengths, the intensity which each wavelength will have
3.6 103
is  1.2  Wm 2
3
Power incident on the surface due to each wavelength is
1.2×10–3×10–4 J/s (A = 10–4)

hC 6.62 × 10-34 × 3 × 108J

Energy of one photon of 1  4144 Å is 
λ1 4144 × 10-10
Power incident on 1 cm2 = P1 = 1.2×10–3×10–4 = 1.2×10–7 J/s

 The number of electrons emitted by 1 = number of photon incident

P1 1.2  10  7
or n1    4144  1016 = 2.50393×1011
E1 6.62  3

Energy of one photon of  2  4972 Å is

hc 6.62 1034  3 108

E2   J
2 4972 1010

Power incident of 1 cm2 = P2 = 1.2×10–7 J/s

The number electrons emitted by  2 = number of photons of  2

P2 1.2  10  7
or n2    4972  1016 = 3.00423×1011
E2 6.62  3
Hence total number of e– emitted = n1 + n2
= (2.50393 + 3.00423)×1011 s–1 = 5.5×1011
Hence option (1) is correct.

34
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Difficult Photoelectricity
22. The electric field associated with a light wave is given by E = E0 sin [1.57×107 m–1(ct–x)].
This light is used to emit photoelectron from a surface having a work function of 2.1 eV.
The stopping potential is
(1) 0.1 volt (Incorrect)
(2) 1 volt (Correct)
(3) 11 volt (Incorrect)
(4) 1.1 volt (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:

2
The equation of a harmonic wave is given by E  E 0 sin  vt  x 

The electric field associated with incident light is given by E0 sin1.57 107 ms 1  ct  x 
has the same form as of a harmonic wave.
2 2
Comparing the two we get  1.57  107 or   m
 1.57  107
hc
Further eVS  h  0   0

hc 0
or VS  
e e
6.63  1034  3  108
VS   2.1 = 1.0 volt
1.6 109  2  3.142
Hence option (2) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photoelectricity
23. The work function of potassium is 2.24 eV. The region of the elctro spectrum which liberates
the electron from potassium is
(1) 5.5×10–7 to 8×10–7 m (Incorrect)

35
 (2) 6×10–7 to 7×10–7 m (Incorrect)
(3) wavelengths longer than 5.52×10–7 m (Incorrect)
–7
(4) wavelengths shorter than 5.52×10 m (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
1
The Einstein’s photoelectric equation is given by hv  mv 2  0
2
When the electrons are just liberated v = 0 and the corresponding frequency is
 2.24 1.6  1019
v  Hz = 5.43×1014 Hz
h 6.6 1034
c 3 108
Also  =  14
 5.52  107 m
v 5.43  10
Hence wavelengths shorter than 5.52×10–7 m can cause the emission of photoelectrons from potassium.
Hence option (1) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photoelectricity
24. A 100 watt light bulb giving monochromatic light of wavelength 6000 Å is placed at the
centre of a spherical chamber of radius 0.20 m. It is given that only 50% energy supplied to
the bulb is converted into energy. Assuming that the surface of the chamber is perfectly
absorbing, the number of photons per second (average) arriving at the surface of spherical
chamber is
(1) 1.51×1020 (Correct)
(2) 0.15×1020 (Incorrect)
(3) 15×1023 (Incorrect)
(4) 15×1018 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
hc 6.6  1034  3  108
Energy of each photon =  7
= 3.3×10–19 J
 6 10
100  50
Energy of light emitted by the bulb per second E is   50 watt
100

36
Number of photons reaching the surface per second

light energy incident per second 50 Js 1

  = 1.51×1020 s–1
energy of each photon 3.3 019 J

Hence option (1) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photoelectricity
25. An image of the sun is formed on the metal surface of a photocell and it produces a
photoelectric current I. The lens forming the image is then replaced by another of the same
diameter but only half the focal length. The photoelectric current in this case will be
I
(1) (Incorrect)
2

(2) I (Incorrect)
12
(3) 2I (Incorrect)
(4) I (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
The number of photoelectrons emitted from a metal surface is directly proportional to the intensity of light.
When we replace the original lens with a lens of half the focal length but diameter of the lens remaining
unchnaged, the intensity of light incident on metal surface remain unchanged and hence the value of the
current will remain unchanged.
Hence option (4) is the correct answer.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photoelectricity
26. A caesium cell with a steady potential difference of 90 volt across it, is illuminated by a
small light placed one meter away. When the same light is placed to two meter away, the
electrons crossing the photo cell, will
(1) each carry one quarter of their previous energy (Incorrect)
(2) each carry one quarter of their previous momentum (Incorrect)
(3) are half as numerous (Incorrect)

37
 (4) one quarter as numerous (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
Since the intensity of light varies inversely as the square of the distance; increasing the distance twice of the
previous value the intensity of light incident on photocell will be reduced by a factor of 4. Now the number
of electrons emitted from a photo surface is directly proportional to the intensity of light, the number of
photo electrons emitted will decrease by a factor of 4. Hence they will be one quarter as numerous.
Hence option (4) is the correct answer.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photoelectricity
27. A monochromatic light of wavelength λ is incident on an isolated metallic sphere of radius
a. The threshold wavelength is λ 0 which is larger than λ . Before the emission of
photoelectrons stops the number of photoelectrons emitted are (V is the stoping potential)
ahc  1 1 
(1)  -  (Incorrect)
4π ε 0e 2  λ λ 0 

4π ε 0aV  1 1 
(2)  -  (Incorrect)
e2  λ λ0 

4π ε 0ahc  1 1 
(3)  -  (Correct)
e2  λ λ0 

e 2ahc  1 1 
(4)  -  (Incorrect)
4π ε 0  λ λ 0 

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
The metallic sphere becomes positive charged as the electron are emitted from it (sphere is isolated).
Hence the electrons are subjected to an extra force. If the potential of sphere is raised to V, the energy the
electrons should possess (minimum) so that photoemission is possible is eV + 0 . The emission of
photoeelctron will stop when
hc hc
 eV  0   eV
 0

38
 hc 1 1 
V   
e   0 

The charge on the sphere which will raise the sphere potential to V is Q   40 a  V
Q 4   aV
Hence the number of electrons emitted will be n  
e e
40 ahc  1 1 
or n   
e2   0 
Hence option (3) is the correct answer.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average deBroglie Waves
28. An electron accelerated by a p.d of V possess a deBroglie wavelength λ . If the accelerating
potential is increased by a factor 4. The deBroglie wavelength of the electron will
(1) remain unchanged (Incorrect)
(2) becomes 4 times (Incorrect)
(3) become double (Incorrect)
(4) become halved (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
1
When an electron is accelerated through a potential V its energy becomes eV and hence mv 2  eV
2

2eV
v
m
h h h h
   
p mv 2eV 2meV
m
m
1
Thus  
V
Hence whenever V is increased by a factor of 4  will get halved.
Hence option (4) is the correct answer.

39
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Average deBroglie Waves

29. Relative to the original photon the photon that emerges after a collision with an electron
has

(1) more energy (Incorrect)

(2) more momentum (Incorrect)
(3) higher frequency (Incorrect)
(4) longer wavelength (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)

Solution:

When the photon collides with an electron it share the energy with electron according to laws of conservation
of energy and momentum. Hence its energy and verocity consequently will decrease and therefore in
h
accordance with relation   it will have a longer wavelength.
mv
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average deBroglie Waves
30. Which of the following graphs, represents the correct variation of the deBroglie wavelength
with potential through which the electron is accelerated from rest?
(1) A (Incorrect)
(2) B (Incorrect)
(3) C (Incorrect)
(4) D (Correct)

40
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
h 1
We know that   or we can say that  
2m eV V
Thus variation of  and V will be a curve shown in option (4).
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average deBroglie Waves
31. An electron, proton and an alpha particle all have the same kinetic energy. The deBroglie
wavelength is
(1) shortest for the electron (Incorrect)
(2) shortest for the proton (Incorrect)
(3) shortest for the alpha particle (Correct)
(4) are in the ratio of masses of electron proton and alpha particle (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
2
1 2 1  mv  1 p2
The kinetic energy of a particle is E K  mv  
2 2 m 2m
where p = mv, the momentum of the particle and is given by p  2mE
h h
deBroglie wavelength   
p 2mE

41
So that we can conclude that   1
m
From the electron, proton and alpha particle, the alpha particle is the heaviest. Hence it will have the
shortest deBroglie wavelength.
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average deBroglie Waves
32. A particle is moving three time as fast as an electron. The ratio of the deBroglie wavelength
of the particle to that of the electron is 1.813×10–4. Indentify the particle
(1) decutron (Incorrect)
(2) α particle (Incorrect)
(3) a protonor a neutron (Correct)
(4) particle cannot be identified from the given data (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:

Let  p and  e denote the deBroglie wavelength of the particle and electron

h h
p  and  e 
m p vp me ve

p me ve m e 1  ve 1 
      given  
e mp vp mp 3  v p 3 
me 9.11 1031
mp   = 1.675×10–27 Kg
3  
p
e
3  1.813 4
This could be the mass of a proton or a neutron.
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult deBroglie Waves
33. The energy of a proton is equal to the kinetic energy of a photon. The energy of the photon

42
 is E. Let λ 1 be deBroglie wavelength of proton and λ 2 the wavelength of photon. Then we
have
λ1
(1) = E0 (Incorrect)
λ2

λ1
(2) = E -2 (Incorrect)
λ2

λ1
(3) = E -1 (Incorrect)
λ2
λ1 1
(4) =E 2 (Correct)
λ2

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
h hc
We will have 1  and  2 
2mE E
1 h hc
 
2 2mE E
1 1
or E 2
2
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult deBroglie Waves
34. An electron of mass m and charge e initially at rest gets accelerated by a constant field E.
The rate of change of a deBroglie wavelength of the electron with time is given by (relativistic
variation of mass with time is to be ignored).
cht
(1) (Incorrect)
m
h
(2) (Incorrect)
eE2
h
(3) (Incorrect)
eEt

43
 -mh
(4) (Correct)
eEt 2
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:

When an electrons is accelerated through a electric field we have F = eE

eE
and the acceleration of the electron is given by a 
m
e Et
Hence the velocity of the electron after it has remained in the field for a time t is given v 
m
h h
The wavelength of the deBroglie wave associated with this electron is   
mv eE t
d  mh
 
dt eEt 2
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult deBroglie Waves
35. Which of the following statements is correct? (you are given the value of Boltzman’s constant)
(1) The deBroglie wavelength of thermal neutrons (at 510C) is of the order of the distance
between the atoms in a crystal (Correct)
(2) The deBroglie wavelength of thermal neutrons is much larger than the distance
between the atoms in a crystal (Incorrect)
(3) The deBroglie wavelength of thermal neutrons is much smaller than the distance
between the atoms in a crystal (Incorrect)
(4) A beam of thermal neutrons cannot be used for investigating lattice structure by
diffraction techniques (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
h
The wavelength of neutrons of mass m and moving with a velocity v is  
mv
1
Also mv  2mE where E  mv 2 is the kinetic energy of neutrons
2
Also E = kT where k is the Boltzman’s constant and T is the absolute temperature

44
 h h
  
2mE 2mkT
Now kB = 1.38×10 JK–1 and T = 510
–23

Putting the values of the constants and solving we get  = 1.7Å

Thus the wavelength of thermal neutrons is of the order of few angstron units which is same as the order of
distance beween the atoms in a crystal.
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult deBroglie Waves
36. The deBroglie wavelength of electron in ground state of hydrogen atom is (given that the
radius ofthe first orbit of hydrogen atom’s 0.53 Å)
(1) 0.53 Å (Incorrect)
(2) 3.33 Å (Correct)
(3) 1.67 Å (Incorrect)
–6
(4) 3.33×10 m (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Since the electron is in ground state which implies that electron is in the first orbit of hydrogen atom with
radius 0.53 Å. For first orbit the circumference of the orbit 2 r is the deBroglie wavelength. Hence
  2 r  2  0.53    3.33Å
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Photoelectricity
37. The kinetic energy of electron is E when the incident light has wavelength λ . To increase
the kinetic energy to 2E, the incident light must have wavelength
Eλ - hc
(1) (Incorrect)
Eλ + hc
hcλ
(2) (Correct)
Eλ + hc

45
 hc
(3) (Incorrect)
Eλ + hc
hcλ
(4) (Incorrect)
Eλ - hc
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
hc hc
We have E   0 and 2E   0
 
hc hc
2E  E  
 

or hc hc
E 
 '
hc 
or ' 
E  hc
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult deBroglie Waves
38. An electron is moving will an initial velocity V = V0i and is in a magnetic field B = B0j. Then
its deBroglie wavelength
(1) remains constant (Correct)
(2) increases as the electron moves round a circular path (Incorrect)
(3) decreases as the electron moves round a circular path (Incorrect)
(4) increases and decreases periodically (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
When a particle moving in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the applied field the force acting on
the electron is perpendicular to both the direction of moving particle and the field direction [F = –ce(V×B)].
Hence the magnitude of the velocity of the moving particle will not change and so its momentum remains
h
constant. As   , therefore  will remain constant.
p
Hence option (1) is correct.

46
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Difficult deBroglie Waves
39. A particle moves in a closed orbit across the origin due to a force which is directed towards
the origin. The deBroglie wavelengh of the particle varies cyclically between two values
λ 1 and λ 2 with λ1 > λ 2 . Which of the following statement is correct?
(1) The particle could be moving in a circular path with origin as centre (Incorrect)
(2) The particle could be moving in an elliptical orbit with origin as it focus (Correct)
(3) When the particle is having deBroglie wavelength to λ1 the particle is nearer the
origin than when it value has λ 2 of its deBroglie wavelength (Incorrect)
(4) The particle is at the same distance from the origin whether having deBroglie length
λ1 or λ 2 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:

Since it is given that 1 and  2 are varying cyclically the particle would be moving in a elliptically orbit with
origin as its one focus as shown
h h
1  and  2 
m v1 m v2

Since 1   2 therefore v2 > v1

It can also be seen from the figure that O is close to P than A.

Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult deBroglie Waves
40. Which of the following statement is correct?
(1) The wave properties of matter can mainfest themselves with a moving particle of any
size and mass (Incorrect)
(2) The matter waves hypothesis contradicts the theory of relativily (Incorrect)
(3) We associate a single well defined wavelength with a moving particle localized in a
well defined region of space (Incorrect)
(4) It is deBroglie wave group associated with a moving particle travelling with the same
velocity as the moving particle (correct)

47
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
The deBroglie wave associated with a moving particle cannot be a monochromatic wave as a wave train is
infinite in extent and cannot be locarized in a well defined region of space. However a particle is well
localized in space. According to detailed analysis, we associate a wave packet formed by the superposition
of a number of waves situated on and around the central wavelength. The velocity of the component
monochromatic waves making up the wave packet is known as PHASE velocity whereas the speed with
which a wave packet of deBroglie waves travel is known as group velocity. It can be shown that it is the
group velocity of wave packet with which a moving particle travel.
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Photoelectricity
41. The work function for aluminium surface is 4.2 eV. The cut off wavelength for photoelectric
effect is
(1) 2955 Å (Correct)
(2) 4200 Å (Incorrect)
(3) 2000 Å (Incorrect)
(4) 1000 Å (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:

The cut off wavelength is given by hv0 = 0

hc
or  0
0
hc 6.6  1034  3 108
0   = 2955 Å
0 4.2  1.6  1019
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Photoelectricity
42. A metal surface ejects electrons when green light is incident on it but no emission take
place when yellow light is incident onit. The electrons will be emitted when the surface has

48
 (1) Red light (Incorrect)
(2) Blue light (Correct)
(3) Heat rays (Incorrect)
(4) Infrared light (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Green light ejects electrons but yellow does not. The only option out of given four only blue light can cause
emission (VIGB YOUR).
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Photoelectricity
43. X–rays of frequency v are used to iridate sodium and aluminium surfaces in two seperate
experiments and the stopping potential determined
(1) The value of stopping potential is same for both sodium and aluminium surfaces
(Incorrect)
(2) The value of stopping potential is more for aluminium than for sodium (Incorrect)
(3) The stopping potential is more for sodium than for aluminium (Correct)
(4) The stopping potential also depends on the intensity of light used which is not specified
in the question so, one cannot say which of the two metals will have a greater value
for stopping potential (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
From the relation eVS  hv – 0

it is clear that the value of stopping potential for a given metal depend upon 0 when a light of frequency
v is incident on a metal surface.
Now 0 for sodium is 2.0 and 0 for aluminum is 4.2
The metal surface having lower value of work function will have a larger value of stopping potential.
Hence option (3) is correct.

49
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Average Photoelectricity
44. The photoelectrons emitted from a metal surface are such that
(1) They all have same energy (Incorrect)
(2) Their energies varies from zero to infinity (Incorrect)
(3) Their energies vary from zero to a finite maximum (Correct)
(4) Their energies vary randomly (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
When incident photon liberates a electron not from the surface but inside the emitter the photoelectric
1
equation becomes mv 2max  hv  0  C
2
where C is energy lost by the emitted electron in collision with lattice ions. When wC = 0 the
emitted electron has the maximum energy and when hv is just equal to  0  C  , the electron is emitted
with zero energy.
Hence the option (3) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average deBroglie Waves
45. deBroglie wavelength of a photon is 2Å. To have this wavelength associated with a proton,
it must have a kinetic energy
(1) 2 eV (Incorrect)
(2) 0.2 eV (Incorrect)
(3) 0.02 eV (Correct)
(4) 2 Joules (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
h h
From deBroglie relation we have   or v 
mv m
2
1 1  h 
Now K.E = mv 2  m  
2 2  m 

50
 2 2
1  hm 2  1  hm 
Thus K.E =     
2  m  2  
Subsituting the values of h and  we have
K.E = 0.02 eV
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult deBroglie Waves
46. X rays of wavelength 0.82 Å are incident of a metal plate. The photoelectrons emitted from
the metal surface will have a wavelength (neglect the work function of the metal)
(1) 0.01 Å (Incorrect)
(2) 0.01×107 m/s (Incorrect)
(3) 0.1012 Å (Correct)
(4) 0.82 Å (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
c 31010
Frequency of incident X rays v  v
 0.82108
34 3 1010
Energy of emitted electron = hv  6.6  10 
0.82  108
1
Now mv 2  E or mv2 = 2E or m2v2 = 2mE
2
6.6  10 34  3  1010
mv  2mE  2  9.1  10 31 
0.82 10 8
mv  6.6  7.08  9.1  10  34

h 6.6 1034
  1034
mv 6.6  7.08  9.1
= 0.1012 Å
Hence option (3) is correct

51
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Difficult deBroglie Waves
47. The deBroglie wavelength at which the relevastic correction becomes important for an
electron is
(1) 10–6 m (Incorrect)
(2) 10–8 m (Incorrect)
(3) 10–10 m (Incorrect)
(4) 10–13 m (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:

h  v h
Since  
mv m
6.6  1034
when   106 m then v  31 6
 103 m / s
9.1 10  10
6.6 10 34
when   10 m then v 
8
31 8
 105 m / s
9.1 10  10
6.6  1034
when   1010 m then v  31 10
 107 m / s
9.1 10  10
6.6  1034
when   10 13
m then v  31 13
 1010 m / s
9.1 10 10
As in option (4), we find that when a electron has a wavelength of 10–13 m then the velocity with which
electron has to move is 1010 m/s which is greater than velocity of light. Hence relevestic correction is
required in option (4).
Hence option (4) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Davisson and Germer Experiment

48. If a strong diffraction peak is observed when electrons are incident at an angle  from the
normal to a crystal, with a lattice distance d between its the planes, the deBroglie length of
electron is obtained from the relation

52
 (1) 2dsinθ = n λ (Correct)
(2) dsinθ = n λ (Incorrect)
(3) 2dcosθ = n λ (Incorrect)

(4) 2dsinθ =  n + 1 λ (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:

The option (1) is based on Bragg’s law of diffraction from a crystal planes on the basis which  is
calculated from Davisson’s and Germer’s experiment.
Hence option (1) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Davisson and Germer Experiment
49. The first order Bragg maximum of electron diffraction in a nickel crystal (d = 0.9086Å)
occured at a glancing agnle of 650. The velocity of the electrons undergoing diffraction is
(1) 4.3×106 m/s (Correct)
(2) 2.15×106 m/s (Incorrect)
(3) 4.3×103 m/s (Incorrect)
(4) 2.15×107 m/s (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:

From Bragg’s law we have 2d sin   n 

or    sin 650  
or       Å
h
Also from deBroglie’s relation v 
m

6.6 10 34

v = 4.3×106 m/s
9.1 1031  1.65  1010
Hence option (1) is correct

53
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Difficult Davisson and Germer Experiment
50. In a Davisson and Germer experiment it was observed that when a beam of 54 eV electron
was diffracted by the (1, 1, 1) planes of nickel crystal, (having d = 0.91 Å) a sharp maximum
occured at an angle of incidence and scattering (relative to this family of Bragg planes) of
650. The deBroglie wavelength λ obtained from these observations and calculated by
h
relation λ = are given by
p

(1) 1.65 Å and 1.65 Å (Incorrect)

(2) 1.65 Å and 1.66 Å (Correct)
(3) 1.67 Å and 1.65 Å (Incorrect)
(4) 1.65 Å and 1.67 Å (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
From Bragg’s relation 2d sin   

    sin 650  1.65 Å

From deBroglie relation

h 6.627 1034
 
2mE  2  9.1 1034  54 1.6 1019  2 = 1.66 Å
1

 

Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Threshoold Frequency
51. For a constant frequency of the incident light, the graph between frequency ( ν ) of the
incident light, and the magnitude (Vs ), of the stopping potential, for metal A, is as shown.
Light of frequency  nν  (n > 1), is now made to fall, one by one, on metal A and another
metal B. The magnitude of stopping potential, for this frequency for metal B, equal V0. The
(corresponding) magnitude of the stopping potential, for metal A, and the threshold frequency,
for metal B, are equal, respectively, to

54
  hν 0   eV0 
 n - 1  e  and  n - 1  ν 0 - h 
(1) (Incorrect)
   

 hν 0   eV0 
(2)  n - 1  e  and  nν 0 - h  (Correct)
   

 hν 0   eV0 
(3)  n e  and nν 0 - h  (Incorrect)
   

 hν 0   eV0 
(4) n e  and   n - 1  ν 0 - h  (Incorrect)
   

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:

From the graph for metal A, we see that its threhold frequency equals  0 . Hence when light of frequency

n  0 falls on it, the maximum energy, of the emitted electrons, would equal  h  n  1  0  . The corresponding
  n  1 h 0 
magnitude, of the stopping potential would be  .
 e 
For metal B, the stopping potential being V0, the work function of this metal would equal  n.h0  eV0  .

This implies that the threshold frequency, for this metal would be
 n h0  eV0    n  eV0 
 0  .
h  h 
Hence option (2) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
52. Lights, of frequencies ν1i and ν 2i (i = 1, 2, 3,.....n) are made to fall, one by one, on a given
photosensitive surface. The corresponding magnitudes, of the stopping potential in the two
cases, are V1i and V2i (i = 1, 2, 3,.....n) respectively. Keeping the difference  ν 2i – ν 1i  as
constant  = Δν  , a graph is plotted between V2i (on the y–axis) and V1i (on the x–axis).
The slope of this graph, and its intercept, on the y–axis, would then equal, respectively

h  Δν 
(1) 1 and (Correct)
e
e  Δν 
(2) 1 and (Incorrect)
h

55
 h h  Δν 
(3) and (Incorrect)
e e
h e  Δν 
(4) and (Incorrect)
e h

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
Let W be the work function of the given photosensitive surface. We than have, from Einstein’s photoelectric
equation,
e V1i  h1i  W and e V2i  h 2i  W
 eV2i  eVi2  h  2i  1i 
h
 V2i  V1i  
e
Comparing this with the standard equation, y = mx +c,
we find that the slope, and intercept, of the given graph, are
h
1 and    , respectively
e
Hence option (1) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Combination of Concepts of Particle Nature
of Radiation and Wave Nature of Particles
53. The photons, of light of wavelength λ , have the same momentum as that of electrons
(mass = 9.31×10–31 kg) moving with a speed of 1.6×103 m/s. If this light (of wavelength λ )
is made to fall on a photosensitive surface of work function 1.793 eV, the ‘stopping potential’,
needed to make the ‘photo current’ zero, is
(1) 2.5 V (Incorrect)
(2) 2.0 V (Incorrect)
(3) 1.5 V (Incorrect)
(4) 1.0 V (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)

56
Solution:

Momentum of photon = h  = momentum of electron = mv

h
 
mv
hc hc.mv 3 108  9.31 1031  1.6  103
 Energy of the photon =   c.mv  eV
 h 1.6  1019
= 27.93×10–1 eV = 2.793 eV
Work function = 1.793 eV
 Energy of the most energatic emitted photoelectric = (2.793–1.793) eV = 1 eV

 Stopping potential = 1 V
Hence option (4) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Using de–Broglie Reltion for Photons
54. A beam of photons of light of wavelength, λ strike a surface at an anle of incidence θ
Assuming all the incident photons (N photons per second) to get reflected back in a perfect
elastic way, the force exerted, by the incident light beam, on the surface, is

 Nh 
(1) 2 cosθ  ; directed normally downwords (Incorrect)
 λ 
 Nh 
(2) 2 sinθ  ; directed normally downwords (Incorrect)
 λ 
 Nh 
(3) 2 sinθ  ; directed normally upwords (Correct)
 λ 
 Nh 
(4) 2 cosθ  ; directed normally upwords (Incorrect)
 λ 
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
h
The momentum of each photon, p = p 

Its change in momentum, after getting reflected back, is

57
 p  p cos  i  psin j  p cos  i  psin j
   
2h
 2p sin  j  sin  j

Rate of change of momentum = Total change in momentum of all photons,
2N h
incident on the surface, in one second = Np  sin  j

2N h
 Force exerted = Rate of change of momentum  sin  j

 2N h 
 sin   , directed normally upwards
  
Hence option (3) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

55. When light, of wave length λ 1 , in incident on a given photosensitive surface, the ‘stopping
potential’, for the emitted photoelectrons, equals V1. On changing the wave length of incident
light to λ 2 , the new stopping potential, V2, equals 2V1. We would then have

λ2 1
(1) = (Incorrect)
λ1 2

λ 2  hc - eλ 1 V1 
(2) = (Incorrect)
λ1 hc

λ2 hc
(3) = (Correct)
λ1  hc + eλ1V1 

λ 2  hc - eλ 1 V1 
(4) = (Incorrect)
λ 1  hc + eλ 1 V1 

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
hc
We have, as per Einstein’s photoelectric equation:   K1  W
1

hc
 K1   eV1   W
1

58
  hc   hc 
 W    K1 or W    eV1 
 1   1 
hc  hc  hc hc
Also  K2  W  K 2    K 1   K 2  K 1   e  V2  V1  
2  1  1 1
hc  1 1 
  V2  Vl     
e   2 1 
Since V2 = 2V1, we have
e 1 1
V1   
hc 1  2

hc 1
 2 
 e1V1  hc 
2 hc
 
1 hc  e1V1

Hence option (3) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Einestein’s Photoelectric Equation
56. When light, of frequency ν1 , is incident on a given photosensitive surface, the ‘stopping
potential’ needed, equals V1. On changing the frequency of incident light to 3 ν1 , the new
value, of the stopping potential needed, equals V2. We would then have
(1) V2 = 3V1 (Incorrect)
 2h 
(2) V2 =  V1 + ν1  (Correct)
 e 

 3h 
(3) V2 =  V1 + ν1  (Incorrect)
 e 
4h
(4) V2 = V1 + ν1 (Incorrect)
e
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
We have, as per Einstein’s photoelectric equation,

59
 h1  eV1  W and h 2  eV2  W

 e  V2  V1   h   2  1   h.  21 
2h
 V2  V1  1
e
 2h 
or V2   V1  1 
 e 

Hence option (2) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Graph between ‘v’ and ‘V’
57. The intercepts, on the ‘v’ and ‘V’ axes, of the graph [between ‘frequency of incident radiation’
and ‘corresponding stopping potential’, (for a given photosensitive sufface)], equal,
respectively,
 -1 
(1) (The threshold frequency) and   times the work function), of the given photosensitive
e  
surface (Correct)
(2) (The threshold frequency) and (‘e’) times the work function), of the given photosensitive
surface (Incorrect)
(3) (h times the threshold frequency) and (e) times the work function), of the given
photosensitive surface (Incorrect)

1  -1 
(4)   times the threshold frequency) and   times the work function), of the given
h e
photosensitive surface (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:

We have, from Einstein’s photoelectric equation, hv  eV  W

Intercept (v0) on the v axis, (For V = 0), is given by hv0  0  W

The corresponding frequency, therefore, equals v0, the threshold frequency.

Intercept (V0) on the V–axis (for v = 0), is given by 0 = eV0 + W

60
  1 
 V0    W 
 e 
Hence option (1) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult ‘Stopping Potential’
58. The path of an electron beam, moving in a uniform (and normal) magnetic field of 10–4 T,
th
gets bent into a circle of radius 18.2 cm. A beam of light, having photons of energy  1 10  of
the kinetic energy of the above beam of electrons, is incident on a photosensitive surface
of work function 1.912 eV. The ‘stopping potential’, needed to stop the emission of
photoelectrons, would then equal
(1) 0.5 V (Incorrect)
(2) 1.0 V (Correct)
(3) 1.5 V (Incorrect)
(4) 2.0 V (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
mv 2
For the electron beam, moving in a normal magnetic field, we have  evB
r
mv
 r
eB
2 2
1
 K.E. of the electron beam  mv 2 
 mv    r eB 
2 2m 2m
2
1  r eB 
 Energy of the incident photons 
10 2m
2
1 18.2  18.2 10  1.6 10  10
4 19 8

  
J  29.12  101 eV = 2.912 eV
20 9.1
Work function = 1.912 eV
 Max. kinetic energy of emitted photoelectron = 1 eV
 ‘stopping’ potential = 1V
Hence option (2) is correct

61
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Difficult deBroglie Reltion + ‘Stopping Potential’
59. The wave length, of a monochromatic beam of light, is n times the deBroglie wave length of
a beam of electrons, accelerated through a p.d of V volts. When this light beam is incident
on a photosensitive surface, (whose work function is 0.75 times the energy of a photon of
the incident light), the ‘stopping potential’, for the emitted photoelectrons, equals VS.
The slope of the graph, between VS (on the y–axis and V , (on the x–axis), would equal
1
 m c2 
2

(1)  2  (Correct)
 8n e 
1
 8n 2e 2 
2

(2)  2 
(Incorrect)
 mc 
1
 16m c 2 
2

(3)  2  (Incorrect)
 en 
1
 ne2 
2

(4)  2 
(Incorrect)
 16m c 
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
h
The deBroglie wavelength,  B 
2meV
nh
 Wavelength of light beam    n  B 
2meV
hc hc c 2meV
 Energy of a photon   2meV 
 nh n
2meV
 Work function  0.75 c
n
2meV
 Max. energy of the emitted photoelectrons = 0.25 c
n
2meV 
2 
mc
 Stopping potential, VS  0.25c  . V
n.e  8n 2 e 
1

 m c2 
2

 Slope of the required graph =  2 

 8n e 
Hence option (1) is correct

62
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Average deBrogli Wavelength
60. The short wavelength limit of the X–rays produced, through the ‘complete coversion’ of
the energy of a beam of electrons, accelerated through a potential, V, is 0.4125 Å. Taking
h = 6.6×10–34 J–s. The value of V, and the deBroglie wavelength, associated with a beam of
electrons, accelerated through a potential of V volts, are (nearly) equal, respectively, to
(1) 30 kV and 0.7 Å (Incorrect)
(2) 30 kV and 0.07 Å (Correct)
(3) 3 kV and 0.007 nm (Incorrect)
(4) 3 kV and 0.7 nm (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The energy of the accelerated beam of electrons = eV. When this energy is completely converted into
X–rays of wavelength 0.4125Å , we have
hc
eV 
0.4125  1010
6.6  1034  3 108
 V  30 keV
0.4125 1010 1.6 1019
h
The corresponding deBroglie wavelength is  B 
2meV

6.6  1034
 1

 2  9.110 31
1.6 1019  30 103 
2
 0.07Å

Hence option (2) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Photoelectric Emission and deBroglie Wavelength
61. A monochromatic beam of light, of wavelength λ , is incident on a photosensitive surface.
The work function of the surface is 1 n (where n > 1) times the energy of a photon of the
incident light. Let λ B be the deBroglie wavelength, associated with the most energatic of
the emitted photoelectrons. The slope of the graph, between λ B (on the y–axis) and λ
(on the x–axis), would equal

63
  nh 
(1)   (Incorrect)
 2  n - 1  mc 
1
2
 nh 
(2)   (Correct)
 2  n - 1  mc 
 2  n - 1  mc 2 
(3)   (Incorrect)
 nh 
1
2
 nh 
(4)  2 
 (Incorrect)
 2  n - 1 mc 

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
hc
Energy of a photon of the incident radiation =

1 hc
Work function =
n 
 h c 1 h c  h c  n  1
 Max. K.E. of the emitted photoelectrons  K max    
  n   n
Let  B be the corresponding deBroglie wavelength
1 1 1
h h  n  2  n h 
2
 nh 
2

 B   1    
1
 2
2mK max  2m.h c  n  1   2  n  1 m c   2  n  1 m c 
2

1
2
 nh 
 Slope of the required graph   
 2  n  1 m c 

Hence option (2) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult deBroglie Wavelength; Photon Energy
62. The resolving power, of an electron microscope (using on electron beam acelerated through
a potential V) is n times that of a given optical microscope. Given that the resolving power
of (any) microscople is inversely proportional to the wavelength, (used by it) the energy of
a photon, of the e.m. radiation, used in the given optical microscope, is

64
  n eV 
(1)  2  (Incorrect)
 2mc 
1
 mc 2eV 
2

(2)   (Incorrect)
 2n 

 2mc 2 
(3)   (Incorrect)
 n eV 
1
 2 mc 2 eV 
2

(4)  2  (Correct)
 n 
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
h
The (deBrogli) wavelength, associated with the electron beam, in the electron microscope, is  B 
2m eV
  1 
The resolving power of the      of the electron microscope being n times that of the
  wavelength  
em waves (used in the optical microscope) the wavelength,  , used in the optical microscope, is   n  B

hc hc
 Energy of a photon = 
 n B
1

hc 2me V  2mc 2 eV 
2

 .  2 
m h  n 
Hence option (4) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult deBroglie Wavelength and Energy of a Photon

63. The K.E. (K), of the electrons, having an associated deBroglie wavelength, λ B , is
1
2 (n > 1) times the energy of a photon of an e.m. radiation, of wavelength λ . The graph,
that correctly depicts the relation between (appropriate functions), of λ B and λ , is graph
labelled as graph
(1) A (Incorrect)
(2) B (Incorrect)

65
 (3) C (Incorrect)
(4) D (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
The deBroglie wavelength     is related to the kinetic energy (K), of the electron beam, through the

h h
relation:    
p 2m K

 h2 
 K   2 
  B  2m  
hc
Energy (E) of the a photon of e.m. radiation, of wavelength, is given by E 

1 h2 hc
Since K  E (given), we have  2 2m  n 
n B 
 nh 
  2B   
 2 mc 
The graph (D), is the only graph that correctly shows this relation between  2B and  .

Hence option (4) is correct

66
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Average Threshold Wavelength, deBroglie Relation

64. The threshold wavelength of a given photosensitive suface is λ 0 . When light of wavelength
λ0
λ  = 
 2  is incident on this photosensitive surface, the ‘stopping potential’, needed to
‘stop’ the most energatic emitted photoelectrons, is V.

If λ B denotes the deBroglie wavelength, associated with an electron, accelerated through

 
a potential V, the ratio  λ B  equals
 λ 
1
2
 0
 2eh 
(1)   (Incorrect)
 mc 
1
2
 2mc 
(2)   (Incorrect)
 eh 
1
2
 eh 
(3)   (Correct)
 2mc 
1
2
 mc 
(4)   (Incorrect)
 2eh 

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
hc
Energy of a photon of the incident light =

hc
Work function = Energy of a photon of light, of wavelength equal to the threshold wavelength   0  
0
 1 1  hc   0   
 If V be the stopping potential, we have eV  hc    
  0   0
 hc 1    
 V     0
 e 0   2 

The deBroglie wavelength, associated with an electron, accelerated through a potential

1 1
h h  e 0  2  he  2 1 2
V  B   .    0
2meV 2me  hc   2mc 

67
 1
2
  he 
  
 0  2mc 

Hence option (3) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average deBroglie Relation + Photon Energy Relation
65. The deBroglie wavelength, associated with an electron, and the wavelength, associated
with a γ –ray photon, are both equal to 1 pm. The ratio, of the energy of the γ –ray photon,
to the kinetic energy, of the electron, is then euqal (nealry) to
(1) 0.82 (Correct)
(2) 1.64 (Incorrect)
(3) 8.2 (Incorrect)
(4) 16.4 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
h h
For the electron,  B   1
p  2m K  2
h2
 K
2m  2B
hc
For the  –ray photon, energy = E =

E hc 2m  2B 2mc 
      B   
K  h2 h
2     3  10 8  10 12

6.63  10 34
 0.82     pm  10 12 m 

Hence option (3) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average deBroglie Relation + Photon Energy Relation

66. It is known that the average kinetic energy of a free electron, in a metal, is 3 2 kT. The
(average) deBroglie wavelength, associtaed with the free electrons in a metal, maintained

68
 at a temperature T, is equal to the wavelength of a photon of energy E. The graph that
correctly depicts the relation, between T and E, is the graph labelled as graph
(1) A (Incorrect)
(2) B (Incorrect)
(3) C (Correct)
(4) D (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:

The (average) deBroglie wavelength, associated with the free electrons, in a metal, at a temperature T, is
h h
  
given by: B  3 
1
2

1
3 mkT  2
 2m kT 
 2  hc
The wavelength,  , associated with a photon of energy E, is given by E 

hc
 
E
h hc
Since  B   (given), we have 3m kT  E

E
This gives T 
3m kc2
 1  2
or T  2 
E
 3m kc 
It is graph C that corresponds to this relation.
Hence option (3) is correct

69
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Difficult Photon Energy and Power of the Source
67. A monochromatic point source, of power P, radiates e.m. waves of wavelength λ . The
number of photons, of this e.m. wave, that get transmitted, per second, through an aperture
of radius r, located at a distance, ‘d’, from the point source, is
2
Pλ  d 
(1) (Incorrect)
4 πhc  r 
2
Pλ  r 
(2) (Correct)
4hc  d 
2
4 πhc r
(3)   (Incorrect)
Pλ d
2
4 hc  d 
(4)   (Incorrect)
Pλ  r 
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
hc
The energy of each photon = and the power of the source = P = No. of photons emitted by the source,

in one second,
 hc  P
 N  P   
   hc
The aperture is at a distance d from the point source. Hence the number of photons reaching a unit area, in
N P
one second, at the position of the aperture, is 2

4d 4 h cd 2
The aperture area is πr 2 . Hence the number of photons transmitted, per second, through the aperture, is
2
 P  P  r 
2  
n   r  
2

 4 h cd  4 hc  d 
Hence option (2) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Einstein’s Photoelectrons Equation

68. When monochromatic light radiations, of wavelength λ 1 and λ 2 , fall (one by one), on a
given photosensitive surface (of work function W), the ‘stopping potential’, needed inthe

70
 two cases, are V1 and V2, respectively. The value of Planck’s constant, can, then, be
determined from the formula:
e  V1 - V2  . λ 1 λ 2
(1) h= (Correct)
c  λ 2 - λ1 

e  V2 - V1  . λ 1 λ 2
(2) h= (Incorrect)
c  λ 2  λ1 

c  λ 2 - λ1 
(3) h= (Incorrect)
e  V2 - V1  . λ 1 λ 2

c  λ 2 - λ1 
(4) h= (Incorrect)
e  V1 - V2  . λ 1 λ 2

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
From Einstein’s photoelectric equation, we have
hc hc
eV1   W and eV2  W
1 2

1 1     1 
 e  V1  V2   hc     hc  2 
 1  2   1 2 

 e  V1  V2  1 2 
 h 
 c   2  1  
Hence option (1) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Einstein’s Photoelectric Euqation
69. A uniform (normal) magnetic field, B, bends the path of the most energatic photoelectrons,
(emitted from a given photosensitive surface due to the action of monochromatic radiations
of wave length λ ) into a circle of radius r. The work function, W, for the given photosensitive
surface, equals
 hc e Br 
(1)  λ + 2m  (Incorrect)
 

71
  hc e Br 
(2)  λ - 2m  (Incorrect)
 

 hc e 2 B 2r 2 
(3)  λ - 2m  (Correct)
 

 hc e2B 2r 2 
(4)  λ + 2m  (Incorrect)
 

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:

Let W be the work function of the given photosensitive surface. The K.E. (K), of the most energatic
 hc 
emitted photoelectrons, is then given by K    W 
  
1 2
Now K  mv . The radius, r, of the path into which these electrons get bent by a uniform (normal)
2
mv 2
magnetic field, is given by  evB
r
mv 2mK
 r 
eB eB
e 2 B2 r 2
 K
2m
2 2 2
 hc  eBr
   W 
  2m

 hc e 2 B2 r 2 
or W 
 2m 

Hence option (3) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult No. of Photons Emitted by a Source of a Given Power
70. A light source, of power P, gives x 0 0 of its emitted energy, in the form of a monochromatic
radiation of wavelength λ . This wavelength is less than the threshold wavelength  λ 0  of
a given photosensitive material.

72
 A circular lamina, of radius r, (made from this given photosensitive material) is kept at a
distance d from the given light source. Assuming each incident photon (of radiation of
wavelengh λ ), to cause the emission of one photoelectron, the total charge Q, carried by
all the photoelectrons, emitted in t seconds, is
 2.5×10-3 x teλP  r d  2 
(1) Q=  (Correct)
 hc 

 10-2 x teλP  d r  2 
(2) Q=  (Incorrect)
 hc 

 10-2 x teλP  r d  2 
(3) Q=  (Incorrect)
 hc 

 2.5×10-3 x teλP  d r  2 
(4) Q=  (Incorrect)
 hc 

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
P x x P
The power, associtaed with the radiation of wavelength  , equals   0.01 xP
100 100
hc
Energy of one photon =

hc 0.01 x P 
 Number of photons emitted per second = N = 0.01 xP  
 hc
 N 
At a distance d, the number of these photons, per unit area, is  2  . Hence the number of photons,
 4d 
striking the circular lamina, in one second, is
2
N N r 
n 2
  r2   
4 d 4 d
In a time of t seconds, the number of emitted photoelectrons would be nt. The charges carried by them,
equals nte. Hence
2 2
N r2 0.01 xP r 2 0.0025 xP ter 3 xteP  r 
Q  nte  .te  .te 
4 d2 4 hc d 2  hc d 2   2.5 10 hc  d 
Hence option (1) is correct

73
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Average Threhold Frequency
71. The ‘stopping potential’, needed to reduce the ‘photocurrent’ to zero, in a given set up, is
1.99 V. The given ‘set–up’, has a photosensitive surface being irradiated by a monochromatic
radiation of wavelength 5000 Å. The treshhoold frequency, for the given photosensitive
surface, is (nearly)
(1) 2.4×1015 Hz (Incorrect)
(2) 1.2×1015 Hz (Correct)
(3) 6×1014 Hz (Incorrect)
(4) 3×1014 Hz (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
34
Energy of a photon, of the incident radiation,  hc  6.63  10  3  108
eV  2.49 eV
 5000  10 10 1.6  1019
Let W be the work function of the given photosensitive surface. We then have W = 2.49 eV – 1.99
eV = 0.5 eV
 If v0 is the threshold frequency, we have hv0 = W = 0.5×1.6×10–19 J

8 1019
 v 34
Hz  1.2  1015 Hz
6.63  10
Hence option (2) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult Threshold Wavelength; deBroglie Relation
72. A given photosensitive surface is being irradiated by a monochromatic radiation of
wavelength λ . The stopping potential, needed in this set up, is VS.
The deBroglie wavelength, associated with a beam of electrons, accelerated through a
potential V, equals the threshold wavelength for the above given photosensitive surface.
The relation, between VS and V, is then
c  1
(1) V= h +  2meVS  2  (Incorrect)
e  

74
 c  1
(2) VS = h + λ  2meV  2  (Incorrect)
e  
c  1
(3) V= h - λ  2 meVS  2  (Incorrect)
e  
c  1
(4) VS = h - λ  2 meV  2  (Correct)
e  

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
hc
Let W be the work function for the given photosensitive surface. We then have  eVS  W

 hc 
 W    eVS 
  
hc  hc 
If  0 be the threshold wavelength, for the given photosensitive surface, we have   W     eVS 
0  
1 1 eVS  hc  eVS 
    
 0  hc  hc  
 hc 
 0   
  hc  eVS  
h
Also, the deBroglie wavelength,   , associated with the electron beam, is given by    1
 2 meV  2

Since  B   0 , we have
h hc 
1 
 2 meV  2
 hc  eVS 
1
or hc  eVS   2 meV  2 . c
1 1
eVS  hc   2 meV  2 c  c  h   2 meV   
2
or

c  1
 VS  h     meV  2 
e  

Hence option (4) is correct

75
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Average Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
73. When monochromatic radiations, of frequencies v1 and v2, are made to fall (one by one) on
a given photosensitive surface, the maximum kinetic energies, of the emitted photoelectrons,
are K1 and K2, respectively. The value of Planck’s constant (h) and the threshold frequency
(v0), (of the given photosensitive surface) are then given by

 K + K2  K12 - K 2 1
(1) h= 1  and 0 = (Correct)
 1 - 2   K1 - K 2 
 K + K2  K12 + K 21
(2) h= 1  and 0 = (Incorrect)
 1 + 2   K1 + K 2 
 K + K2  K12 - K 2 1
(3) h= 1  and 0 = (Incorrect)
 1 + 2   K1 - K 2 
 K -K  K  + K 21
(4) h =  1 2  and 0 = 1 2 (Incorrect)
 1 - 2   K1 + K 2 
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
From Einstein’s photoelectric equation, we get
hv1 = K1 + W and hv2 = K2 + W
where W is the work function of the given photosensitive surface.

We then have h (v1–v2) = (K1–K2)

 h
 K1  K 2 
 v1  v2 
This gives W  hv1  K1  
K1  K 2 
v1  K1
 v1  v2 
K 2v1   K1v2 K1v2  K 2v1
 
 v1  v2   v1  v2 
W K1v2  K 2v1
 Threshold frequency v 0  
h  K1  K 2 
Hence option (1) is correct

76
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Average deBroglie Relation

74. The (average) kinetic energy of the free electrons (mass = m, |charged| = e), in a metal, at
a temperature T in kelvin, equals (k = Boltzmann’s constant). If a graph were to be plotted
between the (average) deBroglie wavelength  λ B  , associated with these free electrons,
1
and , the slope (s) of the graph, can be used to calculate the Boltzmann constant, k,
T
through the relation

 h 
(1) k = 2 
(Incorrect)
 3ms 

 h2 
(2) k =  (Incorrect)
 3ms 

 h2 
(3) k = 2 
(Correct)
 3ms 

 h2 
(4) k = 2 
(Incorrect)
 2ms 

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
The deBroglie wavelength,  , is give by

h h
B   1 (K = Kinetic energy of free of electrons)
p  2 mK  2
h h h 1
 (Average)      .
 3 2
1
3mk T 3 mk T
 2m. kT 
 2 
h
 Slope (s) of the graph =
3 mk
2
h
 k
3 ms 2

Hence option (3) is correct

77
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Difficult deBroglie Relation; Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
75. The deBroglie wavelength, associated with electrons, accelerated through a potential V,
equals λ B . The threshold wavelength, for a given photosensitive surface is n λ B  n > 1 . If
this photosensitive surface is irradiated with monochromatic radiation of wavelength  λ B n  ,
the stopping potential needed is VS.
The relation, between VS and V, can be expressed as
  n 2 - 1 c 2m 
(1) VS =   V (Correct)
 n e 


 nc 2m 
(2) V= 2  VS (Incorrect)
  n - 1 e 

 nc 2m 
(3) VS =  2  V (Incorrect)
  n - 1 e 

  n 2 - 1 c 2m 
(4) V=  VS (Incorrect)
 n e 


Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
h h
We can write  B as  B  
p 2me V
The work function, of the photosensitive surface = energy of a photon of its ‘threshold wavelength’
hc
radiation =
n B
hc n hc
Energy of a photon of the incident radiation  
 
B
n B

n hc hc  n  1 hc
2

 As per Einstein’s photoelectric equation, we have eVS   

 B n B n B

 VS 
n 2
 1 hc 1  n 2  1 hc 2meV

  n 2  1 c 2m 
 .  V
 .
ne B ne h  n e 


78
This is the required relation between VS and V.
Hence option (1) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average deBroglie Wavelength
76. It may be assumed that the average kinetic energy, of a free particle, at a temperature T,
equals 3 2 kT (k = Boltzmann constant). The (average) deBroglie wavelength, associated
with a free electron (mass = m) at a temperature T1, equals the (average) deBroglie
wavelength, associated with a free α –particle (mass = M) at a temperature T2. Similarly,
the deBroglie wavelength, associated with an electron, accelerated through a potential V1,
equals the deBroglie wavelength, associated with an α –particle, accelerated through a
potential V2. The temperatures, (T1 and T2) and the potentials, (V1 and V2), would then be
related as
(1) T2V1 = 2T1V2 (Correct)
(2) 2T2V1 = T1V2 (Incorrect)
(3) 2T2V2 = T1V1 (Incorrect)
(4) T2V2 = 2T1V1 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
h h h
For the electron, we have  e    1
p 2m K  3 mkT1  2
h
For the  –particle, we similarly, have    1
 3Mk T2  2

Since     e , we have MT2 = mT1

T1 M
or 
T2 m
h
Again, we have, for the electron  'e 
2meV1
h
and for the  particle, we have  ' 
2M  2e  V2
' '
Since    , we have
 e

4 MV2 = 2 mV1

79
 V1 4M 2M
or  
V2 2m m

V1 2 T1
Comparing the two ratios, we get 
V2 T2
or T2V1 = 2 T1V2
Hence option (1) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average Graphs Related to Photoelectric Effect
77. For a constant intensity of the incident radiation, the graphs between the frequency (v) of
the incident, and the magnitude (VS) of the corresponding stopping pontential, for different
photosensitive surfaces, have the form shown here.
Let the intercepts, of these graphs, on the ‘potential’ and the ‘frequency’ axes, be denoted
by yi and xi (i = 1, 2, 3,.....n) for different photosensitive surfaces. The graph, between yi
and xi, would then have the form of the graph, labelled as graph
(1) A (Incorrect)
(2) B (Correct)
(3) C (Incorrect)
(4) D (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (2)

80
Solution:
As per Einstein’s photoelectric equation, we have
1
mv 2max  e VS  hv  W (e = magnitude of electronic charge)
2
 Intercept on the v–axis (= v0) is given by (taking VS = 0) 0 = hv0 – W
W
 v0 
h
Similarly, the intercept on the VS axis (= VSO, say) is given by (taking v = 0)
eVSO = 0 – W

or VSO =  W e

 The relation between (yi) and (xi) is  e yi  h xi (= W, each)

 h 
or yi    xi 
 e 
The required graph is therefore, a straight line passing through the origin and having a negative slope
(slope   h / e  .
These requirement are met only by the graph labelled as graph B.
Hence option (2) is correct

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Difficult deBroglie Wavelength
78. An α –particle (mass = M), having an initial kinetic energy K, approaches ‘head–on’, towards
a (for–off) stationary nucleus, having an atomic number z. It comes up to a distance, a0, of
the nucleus before (momentarily) coming to rest, and then turning back.
The deBroglie wavelengths, associated with this α –particle, in its initial position (when its
kinetic energy is K) equals λ 0 . The relation, between λ 0 and a0, is
 Mz e 2  2
(1) λ0 =  a
2  0 (Incorrect)
 π ε 0h 
 Mz e 2  2
(2) a0 =  2 
λ0 (Correct)
 π ε 0h 
 π ε h2 
(3) a 0 =  0 2  λ 02 (Incorrect)
 Mz e 

81
  π ε h2 
(4) λ 0 =  0 2  a02 (Incorrect)
 Mz e 

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
As the [positively charged,  –particle having a charge (+ 2e)] approaches the stationary (positively
charged) nucleus (having a charge + ze), its kinetic energy keeps on decreasing and becomes (momentarily)
zero when it is at a distance a0 from the nucleus. At this position, K equals the potential energy of the
‘nucleus alpha particle’ system. We, therefore, have
1  ze  2e 
 .
4 0 a0

1 2ze 2
 a0 
4 0 K

The deBroglie wavelength, associated with the  –particle, when its kinetic energy is K, is given by
h
0  (M = mass of  –particle)
2MK
h2
 K
2M  20

h2 1 2 ze 2
We thus have K  
2M  02 4 a 0

1 2 ze 2 2M 2  Mze 2  2
 a0  0   
2  0
4 h2   0 h 
This is the required relation.
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations

Average deBroglie Relation; Photon Energy Relation
79. The kinetic energy, of an electron, having an associated deBroglie wavelength λ B , equals
K. The energy of a photon, of a radiation of wavelength λ P , equals nK. The graph that is in
accord with the relation between λ B and λ P , is the graph labelled as graph.

82
 (1) A (Incorrect)
(2) B (Incorrect)
(3) C (Correct)
(4) D (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
h h
For the electron, having a kinetic energy K, we have, as per deBroglie relation,     1
p  2 mK  2
h2
 K
2m  2B
hc
Also, photon energy =
P
hc hc
 nK  or K 
P n P
hc h2
We this have 
n  P 2 m B2
nh  nh 
 2m  2B  P or  2B    P
c  2m c 
The graph, between  2B and  P , would, therefore, a straight line, passing through the origin. It is only
graph C that is in accord with these requirements.
Hence option (3) is correct.

83
 Unit–17 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations
Average Relating deBroglie Wavelength with Photon Wavelengths
80. Three charged particles, having charges (q1, q2, q3) and masses (m1, m2, m3), are accelerated
(from rest) through potential V1, V2 and V3, respectively. Their associated deBroglie
wavelengths are equal, respectively, to the wavelengths of photons, having energies E1, E2
and E3. We would then have:
(1) E1 : E2 : E3 = q1m1V1 : q2m2V2 : q3m3V3 (Incorrect)

(2) E1 : E2 : E3 = q3m3V3 : q2m2V2 : q1m1V1 (Incorrect)

(3) E1 : E2 : E3 = m1V1q1 : m2 V2q2 : m3V3q3 (Correct)

(4) E1 : E2 : E3 = m3 V3q3 : m2 V2q2 : m1V1q1 (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
The kinetic energy, acquired by a particle of charge q, when accelerated (from rest), through a potential V,
is K = qV
h h h
Also deBroglie wavelength,    
p 2mK 2m qV
hc
The wavelength   '  , associated with a photon of energy E, is given by hv '  E
'
hc
 ' 
E
As per the statement given, we have
h hc h hc h hc
  
2 m1q1V1 E1 2 m 2 q 2 V2 E 2 2 m3q 3 V3 E 3

c 1
  or E1  c 2m1q1V1
E1 2 m1q1V1

Similarly E 2  c 2 m 2q 2 V2 and E 3  c 2 m3 q3 V3

 E1 : E 2 : E 3  m1q1V1 : m 2q 2 V2 : m 3q 3V3

Hence option (3) is correct.

84
 UNIT–18 : ATOMS & NUCLEI

Learning Objectives
After going through thin unit, you will be able to understand, appreciate and apply the following concepts:
 The significance and basic details of the alpha particle scattering experiment.
 Rutherford’s model of the atom.
 Bohr’s model; its basic postulates.
 ‘Energy Levels’ and their significance.
 Hydrogen spectrum; its basic details.
 The atomic nucleus.
 Composition and size of the nucleus.
 Atomic masses.
 Isotopes, isobars and isotones.
 The phenomenon of radioactivity.
 The nature and basic properties of alpha, beta and gamma rays.
 Radioactive decay law.
 Mass energy relation.
 Mass defect.
 Binding energy per nucleon and its variation with mass number.
 Nuclear fission.
 Nuclear Fusion.

85
86
The Models of the Atom
Introduction: The discovery of the electron and the fact that electron is a common constituent of all matter
established the fact that atom has a structure. To assign a model to the atom we have to picture the relative
arrangement of positive and negative charges in the atom. In addition a viable model of atom must also
explain the neutrality and stability of the atom. Further developments in this field established that under
proper conditions, every atom emits a characterstic spectrum. Hence a successful model of the atom
should also be able to explain this basic property of the atom.

The Thomson Model

Thomson proposed a first viable model of the atom in 1904. In this model he visualized the positive charge
of the atom to be distributed uniformly over the entire atom. The negative electrons were imagined as
embedded in this continuous charge. This arrangment is somewhat similar to the arrangement of seeds in a
watermelon. Figure shows the arrangement of electrons in atoms with atomic number z = 1 to z = 4.

Rutherford’s α –Particle Scattering

To experimentally test the viability of Thomson’s hypothesis, Rutherford proposed a historic experiment;
the scattering of  particles by thin metal foils.
Rutherford argued that if positive charge is uniformal distributed in atom, then  particles should be able
to pass through thin foils with small deviations in their direction of motion.  –particles will undergo small
angle scattering. Geiger and Marsden then performed the historic experiments to check the basic ideas
suggested by Rutherford. Gerger and Marsden used a radioactive element as the source of  particles. A
very fine beam of  –particles was selected with the help of a lead screen with a small hole in it as shown
in the figure. A ZnS screen was placed on the other side of a thin gold foil. Whenever an  –particle strikes
the screen it produces a flash of light.

87
Geiger and Marsden discovered that most of a particles passed through
gold foil with small deviation. But there were fews  –particles that
were scattered through very large angles. Very few were even sent
backwards! Since  –particles are relatively heavy and are travelling
with large speeds, it is evident that only very strong force could send
them backwards. To explain the results of Geiger and Marsden
experiment. Rutherford pictured an atom as follows:
(1) The atom has a small positively charged nucleus. The entire mass
and positive charge of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
(2) The electrons move around the nucleus.
(3) Since the entire mass of the atom is concentrated in small nucleus most of the atom is empty.
(4) The fact that a very small number of  –particles are scattered through large angles futher suggests
that the size of atomic nucleus is very small (estimated value: 10–15 m)

Rutherford Scattering Formula

(1) The distance of closet approach (rc) is given by the relation

Ze  2e 
rc 
4 0  1 2 mv 2 

where 1 2 mv2 is initial K.E of incident  –particle. It is obvious from the above relation that the
radius of nucleus must be smaller than the calculated value of rc as an alpha particle cannot touch the
periphery of the nucleus on account of strong repulsive force.
(2) Impact Parameter
Impact parameter is defined as the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector of the  particle
from the central line of the nucleus when the  –particle is far away from the nucleus of the atom as
shown in Fig. (a).

Fig. (b) shows three  –particle 1, 2 and 3 fired towards the nucleus N. Impact parameter is least

88
 for particle 1. The angle of scattering of 1 is more than that of 2 and 3. This is because particle 1 is
coming more close to nucleus N and therefore experiences more replusive force.

It can be shown that the number of  –particle scattered through an angle  , is

(1) directly proportional to thickness (t) of the gold foil.
(2) directly proportional to atomic number (z) of scattering nuclei.
(3) inversly proportional to kinetic energy (K) of incident  –particle.
(4) inversly proportional to sin4   2  .

Rutherford Atomic Model

According to Rutherford the electrons are revolving around the nucleus in circular orbits (now we postulate
eliptical orbits). This is very similar to the planetary model of the universe where planets are revolving
round the sun in circular orbits. The attraction between the positively changed nucleus and negative electron
provide the centripetal force acting on the electron moving in circular orbit.
For an electron of mass m, moving in a circular orbit of radius r, with spee v;

mv 2 1  Ze.e 
  
r 4  r 2 
In the Rutherford model all value of r and v are permitted.

 1  Ze2
Also rv 2     const .
 4  m
1
K = K.E of electron in orbit = mv 2
2

 1  Ze.e
U = P.E of electron in orbit =    = – mv2
 4  0  r

89
 1 2
E = T.E of electron in orbit = K + U =  mv
2
Obviously,
K.E = |T.E| and P.E = 2 T.E
Since r and v are continuous variables, E is also a continuous variable. In other words all values of energy
of electron in orbit are possible.

Limitations of the Rutherford Model

(1) Rutherford model faced some serious problems when subjected to the demands of electromagnetic
theory. According to classical electromagnetic theory an accelerated charge particle must emit
electromagnetic radiation. Now an electron moving in a circular orbit around the nucleus must
experience centripetal acceleration and hence in accordance with
the demands of electromagnetic radiation will lose energy in the
form of electromagnetic radiation. This energy loss will come
from the atomic system itself. As a consequence the electron
will be continuously pulled towards the nucleus. Hence an
electron can not remain in an orbit of radius r but moves along a
spiral path as shown in figure.
As the electron goes nearer the nucleus, its speed increases
continuously, the centripetal acceleration it experience also
becomes more and it must emit more radiations. The net result
of all this is that the electron crashes into nucleus after following
a spiral path (in about 10–8 s). Hence Rutherford model cannot
give us a stable atom.
(2) Since electron in orbit losses energy continuously the spectrum of the atom should be a continuous
spectrum. However atoms exhibit a characterstic line spectrum. This fact is also ‘not in tune’ with the
Rutherford model.
However the idea of a planetary atom was hard to discard. Efforts were made to overcome this difficulty
which was ultimately successfully explained by Neil Bohr in 1913. However before Bohr’s published his
theory a lot of experimental work was already available in the field of spectroscopy. It was established that
emission of electromagnetic radiations in the form of spectral lines was the fundamental characterstics of
the atoms. With the development in the experimental techniques, the wavelength of emitted spectral lines
could be determined very accurately.

Spectrum of Hydrogen Atom

Carefull analysis of the experimental observatinos of the line spectrum emitted by hydrogen showed that it
can be described in terms of empirical formulae. The hydrogen spectrum consists of the following series
each named after it discoverer.

90
(1) The Lymann Series
1
The wave number   for Lymann series is given by


 1 1
R  2  2; n = 2, 3, 4,......
 1 n 

R is a constant known as Rydberg’s constant. The series lies in the ultra–violet region.
(2) For the Balmer Series

 1 1
R  2  2; n = 3, 4, 5,......
  2 n 

The Balmer series lies in the visible part of spectrum. The line for transition from n = 3, 4, 5,....... to
n = 2 are known as H  ; H  and H  lines respectively..

(3) For the Paschen Series

 1 1
 R  2  2; n = 4, 5, 6,......
  3 n 

The Paschen series lies in the infrared region.

(4) For the Brackett Series

 1 1
R  2  2; n = 5, 6,......
  4  n 

 1 1
(5) For the Pfund series we have υ = R  2 - 2  ; n = 6,7, ......
  5 n 

The Brackett and the Pfund series lie in far infrared region.

The Bohr Atom

The postulate of Bohr’s theory are as follows:
(1) Bohr’s First Postulate: An electron revolving around the nucleus is not permitted to move in every
possible orbit. It can move only in some “special orbits”. These orbits are known as stationary
orbits. An electrons in a stationary orbit cannot lose energy according to the demands of classical
electromagnetic theory.

91
 To define these special orbits Bohr further postulated that the angular momentum of an electron in a
stationary orbit is always an integral multiple of h 2 where h is Plancks constant. For an electron of
mass m moving with a velocity v in an orbit of radius r, we must have
h
m vr  n
2
where n is an integer having permitted values 1, 2, 3,...... n is known as the principal quantum
number. Each value of n corresponds to a stationary orbit.
(2) Bohr’s second postulate is designed to explain the emission of radiations by atoms. This postulate
state that whenever an electron jumps from one stationary orbit to another the energy difference
between the two is either emitted or absorbed as a quantum of radiation. Expressed mathematically
E n 2  E n1  hv

where E n1 and E n 2 are the energy of electron in the n1th and n2th orbit and v is the frequency of
radiation emitted when electron makes a transition from n2th orbit to n1th orbit.

Bohr Formule
Let the charge of atomic nucleus be Ze (for hydrogen z = 1). When the electron is moving in an orbit of
radius rn, the centripetal force maintaining it in this orbit is coulomb electrostatic force

mv2n Ze e 1
 K 2 ; K
rn rn 4

Multiplyaing both sides of this equation by rn2 .

2 2 2 2
We have m v n rn  K m Ze rn
Squarring Bohr’s condition of Ist postutate we have
h2
m 2 v 2n rn2  n 2
4 2
Comparing above two equations we have
h2
km Ze 2 rn  n 2
4 2

1 n 2h 2
or rn  .....(1)
K 4  m Ze 2
Also we have

nh nh k  42 m Ze 2
vn   
2 m rn 2m n 2h 2

92
 2 Ze 2
or vn  K .....(2)
nh
To calculate the energy of the electron in nth permitted orbit we notice that this energy will comprise the
potential as well kinetic energy of the electron.

Ze2 K Ze2  K Ze 2 
Now P.E =  k 2 dr    mv 2n   mv 2n 
r
r rn  rn 
1
and K.E = mv 2n
2
Hence the energy of the electron in the nth orbit is
1 1
En  mv n2  mv n2   mv n2
2 2
2
1  K2Ze2  2
2 2 mZ e
2 4
E m     K .....(3)
2  nh  n2h 2
Using Bohr’s second postulate we can write
 2 2 m Z 2 e 4   1 1 
hv  E 2  E1  K 2  2  2 2
 h   n 2 n1 

22 m Z2e 4  1 1 
2
vK  2 2
h2  n1 n 2 

22m Z2e4  1 1   RZ2  1  1 

2
or K  2 2  n 2 n 2  .....(4)
ch 3  n1 n 2  1 2

Z2  me4
where R  K and is known as Rydberg constant
ch3
Putting the value of constants we get the value of R as 1.099×107 m–1
The experimental determined value of R from spectroscopic measurement is 1.097×107 which remarkably
well agrees with the value of R obtained on the basis of Bohr’s posulates.

Energy Level Diagrams

Energy level diagrams are a very useful and convenient way of representing various series of hydrogen
spectra.

93
The energy expression of the electron in nth Bohr orbit given by Eqn (3). After substituting the values of
constants, in terms of electron volts the energy En is
13.6 z 2
En   eV
n2
For hydrogen z = 1. Fig. shows energy level diagram of hydrogen atom. To construct the energy level
diagrams we represents a particular state by a horizontal line. The distance between any two lines on the
same scale represent the energy difference between two levels considered. The atom is normally in the
unexcited or ground state corresponding to n = 1. Whenever absorption of energy take place, it is in an
excited state. The atom than makes a transition to lower permitted level with the emission of energy in the
form of electromagnetic radiation (a spectral line). The energy level diagram depecits various lines in the
Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series.
Limitations of Bohr atom
Bohr model can also be used for the studies of spectra of hydrogen like elements . Inspite of its tremendous
success the Bohr model could not explain the observed fine structure of spectral lines in the hydrogen
spectrum.

94
Example–1:
Which state of a triply ionized beryllium atom has the same orbital radius as that of the ground
state of hydrogen.
Solution:
The expression for the radius of hydrogen and hydrogen like atoms is given by

n 2h2 1 n2h 2
rn  and rn´ 
4 2 kme 2 z 42 kme 2
z = 1 for hydrogen and hydrogen like atom for ground state. Also it is given that
r1  rn´
 we must have
h2 1 n 2h2

4 2 k me 2 4 42 kme 2
or n2 = 4  n=2
Thus second orbit of triply ionized beryllium atom has the same radius as the ground state of hydrogen
atom.
Example–2:
Find the first excitation potential of He+ ion.
Solution:
13.6
The energy of a hydrogen atom in the nth excited state is given by  eV
n2
Hence the energy of a ionised helium atom would be given by
 13.6  4 13.6 54.4
 z2   2    2
  2 eV
 n  n n
for first excited state, the transition is from n = 1 to n = 2 state.
Now for n = 1
E H  13.6  4  54.4 eV
e

and for n = 2
13.6  4
E H    13.6 eV
e
4
Hence the excitation energy of the H e ion is –13.6 – (-54.4) = 40.8 eV

95
If V1 is the first excitation potential for H e
Then, eV1 = 40.8 eV
40.8
or V1  eV  40.8 Volt
e
Example–3:
The Rydberg constant for hydrogen is 10967700 m–1. Find short and long wavelength limit for
Lyman series.
Solution:
For Lyman series we have
1 1 1 
v R  2  2
 1 n 
For short wavelength limit we must have n = 
1 1 1 
Hence R     R
S 1 

1 1
S   m  911.6 Å
R 10967700
and for long wavelength limit we must have n = 2
1 1 1  3
 R  2  2 R
L 1 2  4

4 1 4 1
or L    m = 1215 Å
3 R 3 10967700
Example–4:

n n - 1
Show that different wavelength are observed in the hydrogen spectra if the atoms are
2
excited to states with principal quantum numbers.
Solution:
The Possible states when transition occur from nth state are (n–1)th...... 2nd state or 1st state, so there are
(n–1) possible transitions starting from nth state.
Further the atoms reaching the (n–1)th state will make (n–2) different transitions. We can extend this
reasoning further to other lower states.

96
Hence the possible number of transitions
(n–1) + (n–2) + (n–3) + ........... + 2 + 1
n  n  1

2

Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the phenomenon in which we have spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of
one or more atoms with the emission of highly pentrating radiations. The phenomenon of
radioactivity is confined entirely to heavier elements in the periodic table having atomic number ranging
from 83 to 102.
The phenomenon of radioactivity was accidently discovered by Becquerel. The phenomenon is
independent of the external agents like temperature, pressure, electric or magnetic field and the
‘physical’ or chemical state of the specimen. It was M. Curie who gave the name raioactive to all
substances capable of emitting these rays. A simple experiment by Rutherford established that the
radioactive radiations consists of three components known as  , particles  rays and  rays.  particles
are nothing but doubley ionized helium atoms,  rays are electrons moving with velocities
compariable to the velocity of light and  rays are electromagnetic radiations of very short
wavelengths. We now discuss in some details the properties of each of these three components.

Alpha Particles
1.  particle produce flourescene in zinc sulphide over a thin glass disc. A significant point was that the
floursent disc does not show emission of light uniformly but only a series of scintillations, showing that
 rays consists of particles which can be counted.
2.  particles are doubely ionized helium atoms. The speed of  particles is about c/100;
c (= speed of light).
3.  particles ionize heavily the gases through which they travel.
4. They are easily absorbed by matter.
5. They are scattered while passing through metal sheets.
6. They can produce artificial disintegration of an atom.
7.  particles are chaaracterized by the fact that after they have proceeded a certain distance in air,,
they are no longer able to ionize the air. This is expressed by saying that they have a well defined
range. The range, R is related with the velocity ‘v’ of the  particle by the relation
v 3 = kR (empirical relation)

The range represents the distance  particles travel before their velocities are reduces by numerous
collisions to such a low value that they are no longer capable of ionizing the atoms of the gas concerned.
The range ‘R’ of  particles can be very easily and accurately determined experimentally..

97
Beta Particle
1.  particles are negatively charged particles. There e/m values determinations show that they are
very fast moving electrons. Speed of  –particles is less thatn c but comparable to c.
2.  particles are emitted with a range of velocities whose maximum is a characterstics of the isotope
from which they emanate.
3. They have less ionizing power as compared to  particles.
4. They originate from the nucleus of disintegrating atom.
5. They do not show any definite range.
6. Their penetrating power is greater than that of  particles
7.  particles coming out of a radioactive substance strike against the outer electrons of atom to
produce  rays.
8. Nucleus showing  emission decay spontaneously by emitting either an electron or a positron. For
example
32 32 0
P  S e v
15 15 1

22 22 6
and Na  Ne  e  v
11 10 1

v and v represent antineutrions and neutrions. It is believed that they are emitted by the following
conversion.
0 0
n  p  e  v and p  n  e1  v
1

Gamma Rays
1. Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength. Speed of  –rays equals c.
2. Gamma rays are often emitted in conjunction with  particles.
3. They produced flourescene and affect photographic plates.
4. They are reflected from the surface of a crystal. This property of  rays is used to measure their
wavelength.
5. They ionize gases very slightly.
6.  rays have greater pentrating power than α or  rays.

According to the development in the field of nuclear models it is now known that there are energy levels in
the nucleus just like atoms (of the order of  eV). When the nucleus is in an excited satte it can make a
transition to a lower state by the emission of electromagnetic radiations.

98
Most radioactive nucleus after an alpha or beta emission leave the resultant nucleus in an excited state. This
nucleus known as daughter nucleus reaches the ground state by a single or sometimes successive transition
by emitting one or more gamma rays.

Laws of Radioactive Disintegration

The laws of radioactivity are brodally divided into two parts
(1) the qualitative law
and (2) the quantitative law
1. The Rutherford – Soddy’s Law
is the qualitative law. It tells the nature of daughter nucleus obtained in a ratioactive transformation.
(a) A particular radioactive nuecleus can emit either an  or a  particle but both can never be
emitted simuitaneously.
(b) When a radioactive nucleus AZ X emits an  –particle its mass number decreases by 4 and
atomic number by 2; i.e.
A
Z X  AZ 24 Y  24 He

When a radioactive nucleus emits a  –particle, the mass number remains same and atomic
number increases or decreases by one depending on whether the  –particle emitted is an
electron or a positron.
A
Z X  AZ1Y  01e   particle 
A
or Z X  AZ1Y  01e  Positron 

2. The Exponential Law

This is quantative law. It relates the number of radioactive atoms initially with the number of atoms
present at t = t.
Hence it becomes obvions that radioactive disintegration are governed by the laws of probability.
The phenomenon can only be described statistically.
Let N0 be the number of radioactive atoms at the instant t = 0 and let N be their number at a latter
instant t. Let λ represent the probability that one of these atoms will disintegrete in a unit time.  is
known as disintegration constant. Hence the probable number of disintegration per unit time is λ N.
Thus we have
dN dN
  N ( is representing the rate of disintegration )
dt dt

99
 dN
Hence   t
N
Integrating we have
N t
dN
N N   0 dt
0

 N 
or n    t
 N0 
 N  N 0  e t

which means that radioactive disintegrations are governed by an exponential law as illustrated in the
figure.  the disintegration constant, is a characterstics of a particular radioactive material.

The Half Life and the Mean Life

It is clear that a radioactive element will lose its activity after a infinite time and all radioactive element are
identical in this respect. To distinguish one radioactive element from other as far as its activity is concerned
we use the concept of half life. Half life T of a radioactive element is the time in which the initial number of
N
radioactive atoms is reduced to half, i.e. N  0 ; t = T. Therefore
N0 0.693 2
 N 0 e T or T 
2 
We define the concept of mean life to represent the above mentioned facts from a statistical point of view.
We have already seen that it it only after an infinite time that the radioactivity of an element disappear
completely. Hence out of disintergrating atoms some will disintegrate almost immediately and some other
will disintegrate after an infinite time.
Thus actual life of a disintagrating atom can vary from 0 to  . Wee
thus introduce the numerical average of the ages of the atoms as
the number of atoms decreases from N0 to 0. Mean life is then the
ratio of the combined ages of all the atoms and the total number of
the atoms in the disintegratinng atom. Refering to figure we can
write ,  , the mean life of a radioactive element as
 
1 1
 t dN  N 0 et dt
N 0 0
 
N 0 0
or

1
on inegrating above expression we have  

We thus have T = 0.693 
The curie is the unit of radioactive disintegration. We have
1 curie = 3.7×1010 disintegration per second

100
Example–5:
A radioactive sample has 6×1018 active nuclei at a certain instant of time. How many of these
nuclei will still be in the same active state after four half lives?
Solution:
By the definction of half life we know that it represents the time after which the number of original atoms is
reduced to half. Hence after one half life the number remaining is ½ of the original number. Thus after two
half lives, the active remaining number will be (½) × ½ of the original number. Proceeding with the same
argument the active remaining number of atoms after four half lives will be ½ × ½ × ½ × ½ of the original
number i.e.
1
6.0  1018   0.375  1018
16
Example–6:
The half life of is 198Au is 2.7 days. Calculate the activity of 1.00 mg of 198Au. (Atomic weight of
Au = 198 mol–1)
Solution:
The number of atoms in 1.00 mg of 198Au is given by
1.00 mg
N  6   3.03  1018
198 g
Since half life of 198Au is 2.7 days, we have
0.693
  2.9  106 s 1
2.7  24  

dN
Now we know that  N
dt
Hence activity of 1.00 mg of 198Au will be given by
(2.9×10–6) × (3.03×1018) disintegration per second

2.9 10 6  3.03  1018

 curie = 240 curie
3.7 010

Example–7:
One gram of radon has an activity of one curie.What activity of radon will accumulate from one
milligram of pure radon in 3.825 day which is the half life of radon.

101
Solution:
23
No. of atoms in 1 mg of pure radion  6.023  10  103
222
Half life of radon = 3.825 days
0.693
 s 1
3.825  24  60  60
dN
Activity of 1 mg of radon is  N
dt

dN 0.693  6.02  10 23
 disintegration
dt 3.825  24  60  60  222

0.693  6.02 1023

=
3.825  24  60  60  222  3.7  1010
= 153.7 curie
Example–8:
The activity of a radioactive sample is 4750 per minute. Five minutes later the activity is 2700
per minute. Find the half life of radioactive substance.
Solution:
Activity of the sample in the begining = 4750
Activity of the samle after 5 minutes = 2700
 2700  4750 e 5 
4750
or e 5   1.76
2700
0.5654
  0.1131m 1
5
0.693 0.6931
T   6.1 minute
 0.1131
Example–9:
Calculate the weight of one curie of RaB from its half life of 26.8 minute.
Solution:

102
 dN
Activity of RaB = = 1 curie = 3.7×1010
dt
Half life of RaB = 26.8 minute
0.693 1
 s
26.8  60
Let N be the number of atoms of RaB having an activity of 1 curie, then
dN
 N
dt
3.7 1010  26.8  60
N
0.693
We know that 6.02×1023 atom = 1 gram atom = 214 g
Weight of RaB having an activity of 1 curie
214  3.7  1010  26.8  60
N g = 30.52×10–7  g
6.02  1023  0.693
Example–10:
When the nucleus of copper (A = 65, Z = 29) is bombarded with neutrons,  rays are emitted and
the resultant nucleus is radioactive emitting  rays. If the disintegration constant  is 0.00231
s–1, calculate the half life and average life of the radioactive product.
Solution:
0.693 0.693
Half life T =   300 s  λ = 0.00231 s 1 
 0.00231
1 1
Mean life     432.95 s
 0.00231

Atomic Nucleus
We know nucleus of an atom has the entire mass and positive charge of atom. The size of nucleus is about
10–15 m. Careful experimental measurements showed that mass of different nuclei is nearly an integral
multiple of mass of a proton. We also now that  –particle emitted by a radioactive nucleus originate from
the nuclei. Prout proposed “proton electron model” of atomic nucleus.

The Proton–electron Model

According to Prout a nucleus AZ X ; (A = mass number; Z = atomic number) consists of A protons and
(A–Z) electrons, i.e.

103
 A
Z X  A  11 H    A  Z  01e
The hypothesis had to be rejected because the theoretical and experimental values of (1) nuclear spin and
(2) nuclear magnetic moment are not in accord with theoretical calculated values and experimental values.
Also uncertaintity principle is violated if electrons exist inside nucleus.

Nuclear Reactions
With the development of high energy particle accelerators, proton and  –particle having very high energy
were used as bullets to bombared a nucleus. In an experiment Rutherford bombard 14 7 N with a proton

 1 H  and obtained an isotopes of oxygen. The reaction is represented as

1

14
7 N  11H  15
8 O

This is known as a nuclear–reaction. This is also known as transmutation of elements. We can now represent
a general nuclear reaction as:
A1
Z1 X  AZ22 Y  ZA33 C  AZ44 D  Q
In any nuclear reaction mass number and atomic number are conserved i.e.
A1 + A2 = A3 + A4
and Z1 + Z2 = Z3 + Z4
Q is energy released or absorbed in the reaction. It is known as Q–factor of reaction. In the above reaction
X and Y are reactants and C and D are the products. Let M and M’ be sum of masses of reactants and
products respectively. If M´<M; there is release of energy in reaction and Q is a positive number, given by
Q = (M–M´) × c2
If however M´ > M; energy is absorbed in the reaction Q is a negative number.

Atomic Mass Unit

 
One atomic mass unit; 1u; is 112 of mass of an atom of 12 6 C . 1u  1.667×10
2
–27
Kg.
In accordance with Eintesin’s mass–energy equivalence relation E =   m   c
Energy equivalent to 1 a.m.u of mass = 1.667×10–27×(3×108)2 J
2
1.667  1027   3  108 
 MeV  931 MeV
1.6  1013

The Discovery of Neutron

Bathe and Becker carried out a nuclear reaction by bombarding Brylium  94 Be  by  –particles  42 He  .
Highly penetrating radiations were emitted. Assuming these radiations to be  –rays; Bathe and Becker
represented nuclear reaction as
9
4 Be  42 He  13
6 C    rays

Applying the “mass–energy” conservation principle the theoretical energy of emitted  –rays works out to

104
be  5 MeV. However contradictions were obtained when these radiations were used to bombard a
hydrogeneous material and the energy of emitted protons was measured experimentally. Apparently law of
conservation of mass–energy was violated! Chodwick overcame all contradictions by predicting that highly
penteration radiations observed are not  –rays. He proposed to existence of a new particle having almost
same mass as proton but no charge. The particle was named as Neutron  10 n  . According to Chadwick;
the correct reaction is
9
4 Be  42 He  12 1
6 C  0n

The Proton–Neutron Hypothesis

Immediately after the existence of neutron was experimentally confirmed physicst proposed the proton–
meutron hypothesis of atomic nucleus. Protons and neutrons taken together are referred to as nucleons.
According to this hypothesis a nucleus AZ X is made up of z protons and (A-Z) neutrons
A
Z X  Z  11 H    A  Z  10 n
The theoretical and experimental values of (1) nuclear spin and (2) nuclear magnetic moment are in agreement
with theortical calculated and experimental values. Also the uncertaintity principle is not violated. The
hypothesis also easily explains existance of isotopes; isobars etc. It is the presently accepted model of
atomic nucleus.

Size of the Nucleus

We have already discussed the “parameter” the distance of closeset approach in Rutherford scattering
formula. The value of r0 varies from 1.2 to 1.5 fermi depending upon the nature of bombarding particle. In
Rutherford model of the atom we visulize that the most of the space in atom is empty and the size of the
nucleous is small (estimated to be about 10–15 m).
We assume nucleus to be spherical in shape and its size increases with the increase of number of nucleons.
Thus the volume of a nucleus increases with its mass number A. Being a sphere of radius A, the volume of
the nucleus viz. 4 3 r 3 , so that radius is proportional to the cube root of its volume, which is proportional
to its mass number A. It is found that very approximately
1
r  r0 A 3

where r0 is the distance of nearest approach to the nucleus and is sometimes referred as the nuclear unit
radius.
Example–11:

Find the maximum energy that a  –particle can have in the following reaction.
176 0
Lu176 H + e + υ
F -1

Acomic mass of Lu176 is 175.942694 u and that of Hf is 175.941420 u.

105
Solution:
Mass defect m  175.942694  175.941420  amu
Kinetic energy available in the given reaction is
(175.942694 – 175.941420) × 931 MeV
= 1.182 MeV
This energy available is to be shared between emitted  –particle and υ . However υ will not practically
have any energy and practically whole energy i.e. 1.182 MeV goes to  –particle.

Example–12:
A nucleus with A = 235 splits into two new nuclei whose mass numbers are in the ratio of 2:1. Find
the radii of the new nuclei.
Solution:
We know that
r  r0 A 1 3 where r0 = 1.4 fermi
Let r1 and r2 denote the radii of new nuclei formed and A1 and A2 denote their mass number.
1
A1   235 
3
1
3
 235 
 r1  1.4 fm     5.99 fm
 3 
2
and A2   235 
3
1
3
 2 
 r2  1.4 fm     7.55 fm
 3  235 

Example–13:
There is a stream of neutrons with a kinetic energy of 0.0327 eV. If the half life of neutron is
700 s, what fraction of neutrons will decay before they travel a distance of 10 m?
(mass of neutron = 1.675×10–27 Kg)
Solution:
Let m and v denote the mass and speed of neutron. Let N be the initial number of neutrons in the beam.
1
Then mv 2  0.0327 eV = 0.0327×1.6×10–19 J
2

106
 1
 2  3.27  1.6  1021 
2
1
 v 27  ms = 2.5×103 ms–1
 1675  10 
The time dt taken by neutrons to travel a distance of 10 m is
10
dt  
 4 10 3 s
2.5 
Since dt is very small as compared to half life of neutrons
dN
  dt
N
dN 0.693
or   4  10 3
N 700
= 8.96×10–4

Mass Defect and Binding Energy

Very accurate measurements of mass of atomic nuclei showed that the experimental mass (M) is slighly less
than the sum of masses of nucleons (M´) in free state;
M '  Z mp   A  Z mn
mp and mn denote mass of proton and neutron respectively. The difference between the two masses in
known as the mass defect  M  , i.e.

M = Mass defect = M´ – M
An important question that arises is : what happens to mass M ? According to our present knowledge let
us consider that seperate neutrons and protons are availabe. We form a nucleus by putting appropriate
number of neutrons and proton within the size of the nucleus. In the process work has to be done to
overcome replusive force protons exert on one another. Work is nothing but energy. Where from this
energy comes to form a nucleus? We consider that the required energy comes from the system itself. In
terms of mass–energy equivalence this energy is due to conversion of mass M into energy. This energy
is known as the binding energy of the nucleus. Therefore
Binding energy = mass defect × c2   M   c 2
We can also say an energy equivalent to the binding energy will have to be given to break a nucleus into its
constituent nucleous lying very far off from one another.

Binding Energy of A Deutron

Mass of a proton = 1.007276 amu

107
Mass of a neutron = 1.008665 amu
Mass of a proton + Mass of a neutron = 2.015941 amu
Experimental mass of a deutron nucleus = 2.013553 amu
M = (the mass defect) = 0.002388 amu
Binding Energy = 0.002388×931  2.2 MeV
The above result has been verified from a direct experiment. On bombarding a hydrogen nucleus with
neutron, a neutron is captured in accordance with the reaction.

0 n1  1H1  1H 2  
The energy of emitted  ray truns out to be 2.2 MeV in accordance with above predication. Also to carry
out reverse reaction

1 H 2    1H1  0 n1
The energy released has to be 2.2 MeV

Stability of Nucleus and Binding Energy

A great deal of information about nuclei and their stability can be obtained from the studies of binding
energy. However the calculation are in general, made for atoms rather than atomic nuclei. Calculation for
binding energy per nucleon has been worked out for the various atoms in the periodic table. Figure shows
the plot of binding energy per nuleon against the mass number. From the graph the following sailent features
are observed.
(1) As a first approximation binding energy per nucleon starts with a low value of deutron and than
increases rapidly.
(2) Some nuclei like 2 He 4 , 6 C12 and O16 have exceptionally high values as compared with their
neighbours.
(3) After the rapid increase the binding energy per nucleon
is found to decrease slowly as the number of nucleons
increases beyond 60.
(4) The nuclei in the region of the low to middle of peridic
table are most tigetly bound. For example iron cobalt,
nickel belong to this catagery.
(5) The analysis of curve shows that higher is the binding
energy per nucleon, the more stable is the atom and
vice versa.
The graph also gives us a very vital information. The shape

108
of this average binding energy curve indicate that there are two general processes which can release energy
from nuclei.
(a) Combining light nuclei into a more massive nucleus.
(b) Spilting up heavy nuclei of into nuclei medium mass.
This is because in both cases, the total binding energy of the products exceeds that of reactants. These two
cases corresponds to phenomenon of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
Example–14:
Calculate the energy liberated when a single helium nucleus is formed by the fusion of two
deuterium nuclei. Given
Mass of H2 = 2.01478 u
Mass of 2He4 = 4.00388 u
Solution:
The reaction can be written as

1 H 2  1H 2  2 He 4  Energy

Mass defect AM = [2×2.01478 – 4.00388] amu = 0.02568 u

Hence energy released is = 0.2568×931 MeV  24 MeV

Nuclear Fission
When a uranium nucleus was bombared by neutrons, it was found that the products of the reaction were
having a number of different half lives. It was assumed that in these reactions, we are producing trans
uranium elements. If we attribute these different half lives to the successive disintegration of the same atom,
one can explain the possibility of a single nucleus emitting several  –particles one after another. Obviousely
each  emission increases the atomic number of resultant nucleus by one and a series of new transuranium
elements can be stipulated. These result aroused tremendous interest in the physical world.
O. Hahn and F. Strassmann then tried to identify the products of the reaction when uranium was barbarded
will neutrons chemically and found to surprise of every one that these products were a number of different
elements nearly all of which are in the centre of periodic table. They thus concluded that the uranium
nucleus after the capture of a neutron seemed to be spilting apart into two nearly equal fragments as
illustrated in the figure. These results were supported by Miss Lise Meitner and S. Frisch.
They suggested that the neutron initiated a decomposition of the uranium nucleus into two nuclei of roughly
equal size. The phenomenon was termed as nuclear fission.

109
Fission
In general, fission fragments are not stable but contain an excess number of neutrons. Hence they either
ejects neutrons or convert them into protons by ejecting  –particles. We list below some examples

141 0 141 141 0 0 141

1. 56Ba e
57 La
e Ce e
59 Pr
 1
  1
 58  1

Barium Lanthanum Cerium Prosendymium
92 92 092 0
92 0 92 0 92 0 92
2. Kr
36 1e0 Rb e Sr e Y e Zr e Nb e
42 Mo
  37 
1
 38 
1
 39 
1
 40 
1
 41 
1

Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yitnum Zirconium Nibium Molybdenum

Further experiment showed that uranium after neutron capture divides itself into many possible fragments
each corresponding to elements near the centre of periodic table. We list below some of the possible
fragment pairs.
235
1. 92 U  10 n  144 89 1
56 Ba  36 Kr  3 0 n  Q

133
92
235 1 Sb Nb
2. 92 U n 
0
51
 41  3 10 n  Q
Antimoney Niobium
140 94
235 Xe 38Sr
3. 92 U  10 n  54
  2 10 n  Q
Xenon Strontium
118 115
235 Cd 44 Ru
4. 92 U  10 n  98
  3 10 n  Q
Cadmium Ruthenium

110
 113 110
235 1 Ag Ru
5. 92 U n 
0
47
 45  2 10 n  Q
Silver Rhodium
87 146
235 1 Br 57 La
6. 92 U n 
0
35
  3 10 n  Q
Bromine Lanthanum

Q in all the above reactions represents the energy released in the fission reaction. The value of Q in the
fission reaction is about 200 MeV. This energy release from a single atom is formidable contribution.
Hence the energy release can be enormous if a very large number of atoms undergo fission.
This is the underlying principal of a fission bomb. We illustrate a chain reaction in the following diagram.

The explosive release of nuclear energy by fission is used in the design of bombs. In a bomb, the material
is chosen and arranged in such a way that each neutron has the greatest possible probability of producing
another fission. The arrangment ensures that on the average one fission leads to more than one subsequent
fission, a rapidly increasing number of fissions occur each acompained by the release of about 200 MeV
energy. This heats the bomb and causes an explosion of infamous violence.

Nuclear Reactor
We design a nuclear reactor on the basis of a controlled fission reaction by the arrangement of reactor
material. A steady reaction is maintained, in which each fission produces on an average of one new fission.
We try to achieve a critical balance for the production of controlled nuclear energy.

111
The fission of uranium by neutrons is self sustaining chain reaction in which 2.5 neutrons per fission are
produced on the average. The reaction can therefore proceed in a sustained and controlled way if one of
these neutrons is able to cause further fission and remaining 1.5 neutron are allowed to escape. To meet
these requireements the nuclear reactor is made sufficiently large to increase the (surface / volume) to the
desired optimum level. Further if need be the fuel is also surrounded by a neutron reflecting material. This
helps to decrease the ‘neutron loss’ if it is sufficiently fast. The essential parts of a nuclear reactor are
shown in the figure.
1. Fissionable fuel (like enriched uranium) taken usually
in the form of rods.
2. Control rods are made of some suitable neutron
absorbing material like cadium. They are pushed in
and out to control the rate of neutron absorption and
hence the rate of further fission.
3. Moderator (like graphile, heavy water) that helps to
slow down the fast neutrons and thus increasing the
probability of their capture by uranium. It shares the
energy of the fast moving nuetrons without actually
absorbing them. The moderator is prefeably a material
whose atomic mass is comparable to that of a neutron
and which therefore causes a large energy exchange
on each collision. The moderator is suitably mixed with
the uranium fuel.
The nuclear reactor goes into operation when some stray neutrons initiate fission in the enriched uranium
fuel. The moderator and control rods are then suitably adjused to sustain the chain reaction at a controlled
rate. The energy released is used to produce steam in a steam generator. The steam then drives the turbines
connected to the electric generator and thus help to produce electricity.

Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear energy can also possibly be obtained by the fusion process of light nuclei. The basic underlying
principle to obtain fusion nuclear energy is to fuse two or more light nuclei of combined mass ‘m’ to
produce a single nucleus of mass less than m.
Some typical fusion reactions had been produced in the labortary by bombarding (of appropriate targets)
particles, accelerated to very high energies with suitable particle accerlators. Some typical fusion reactions
are listed below:
1 H 2  1H 2  1H 3  4 MeV

1 H 2  1H 2  2 He3  0 n1  3.3 MeV

1 H 2  1H 3  2 He 4  0 n1  17.5 MeV

1 H 2  2 He3  2 He 4  1H1  1H1  18.3MeV

112
One main reason the fusion energy release is becoming significantly important is the fact that theoretically
there is a large scale possibility of obtaining energies from the fusion of deuterium and deuterium can be
obtain in abudence at a significantlly low cost from the sea water. However there are numerous practical
difficulties which are to be overcome before using fusion reactions as a source of nuclear energy.
The first and forcemost difficulty in bringing about fusion is that the nuclei to be fused are usually positive
charged and so they tend to push apart because of very strong electrostatic repulsive forces. The only way
out to overcome this difficulty is that nuclei must be raised to excessively high temperatures (estimated to
be about 100 million degree). At such high temperature the random internal motion of particles would bring
them within the range of nuclear forces for fusion to occur. This has been achieved in an uncontrolled way
in so called fusion bomb.
However a fusion reactor is a distant future possiblity. First we have to develop techniques to achieve
fantastic temperatures of 100 million degrees. Then we have to keep fusing nuclei in that region long
enough to produce enough energy from the reaction to make it self sustained. The most serious difficulty is
however to find suitable containers to confine the material while it is reacting at such high temperatures.
Developments in Plasma Physcis has developed so called Magnetic Bottles. At temperature of 100 million
degrees the nuclei of fusing nuclei are in an ionized state and behave like a swirring mass of electric charges.
One can therefore hope that the under influence of specially designed configuration magnetic fields or
electric fields, the reacting material in the form of “Plasma” can be confined within the field bounderies.
Magnetic bottles can force the plasma to stay in the region bounded only by magnetic lines of force.
Fusion reactors, (when fully developed) will have the following distinct advantages viz. the nuclear fuel is
usually obtained from water which would always be available. More over the products are free from
radioactive waste and quite harmless.

Nuclear Forces
The three basic characterstics of nuclear forces are as follows:
1. Nuclear forces are very strong attractive forces.
2. Nuclear forces are short range forces.
3. Heavy nuclei for their stability must also have a repulsive component such that the nuclear forces are
on the whole attractive.
We now proceed to discuss these points one by one.
Our studies of nuclear reactions shows that the energies involved in unclear reactions are tremendously
large as compared to the corresponding energy changes involved in chemical reaction. This shows that the
force which are responsible for holding of its nucleons must be very strong. Another clue about the fact that
the nuclear forces are very strong is obtained from the enormously large value of nuclear densities. The fact
that atomic nuclei are stable and contain protons within nuclear volumes provide another support to the
strong nature of nuclear forces. The presence of protons within nucleus must involve enormously large
electrostatic repulsive force. The only way one can explain the stability of the nucleus, is to assume the
existance of very strong attractive forces between nucleons. These strong (and short range) nuclear forces

113
must overcome the electrostatic repulsive forces. We have seen that the binding energy per nucleon
(exception light nuclei) has the same value (~ 8 MeV) for all nuclei. Thus we can conclude that binding
energy of a nucleus is proportional the number of nucleons constituting the nucleus. Assuming that every
nucleon in a nucleus of mass number A interacts with every other nucleon, the number of interacting pairs
A  A  1
would be . Hence the total interaction energy and therefore the binding energy would the
2
proportinoal to A2. However this is not the case in the least.
A clear deduction is that every nucleon in the nucleus does not interact with every other nucleon. Hence a
nucleon is only intteracting with its immediate nearest neighbour. Thus nuclear forces must have a short
range. Nuclear forces falls of very rapidly with the distance between two nucleons, the decrease has to be
1
much more rapid than .
r2
Experimental studies show that if the nuclear forces holding the nucleons
were entirely attractive, heavy nuclei would collapse. This is so because in
heavy nuclei, the nucleon’s are so closed logether so that each one is within
the range of attractive forces of every other nulceon. This would ultimately
mean that within the same nuclear dimensions the attractive energy acting on
each particle would grow with the total number of nucleons. This contradicts
the facts observed in reality. Thus we all are led to unescaple conclusion that
nuclear force must also have a repulsive component that saves the nuclei
from collapsing. Thus nuclear forces only on the balance are attractive.
Example–15:
Calculate the force between two fission fragments of equal masses and sizes that are produced
by the fission of Pu239 by a thermal neutron in which four neutrons are emitted.
Solution:
Total mass number of 94Pu239 and a neutron = 246
240  4
Mass number of each fragment =  118
2
94
Charge on each fragment =  47
2
Radius of nucleus so formed = 1.2×10–14 A 13 where A is the mass number
1
 r = 1.2×10–15×(118) 3 = 5.886×10–15
Distance between the centres of two fragments = 2×5.886×10–14 = 11.77×10–15
1 47  47
 Force between two fragment
15 2
40 11.77 10 
114
 = 3.763×102 N
Example–16:
A nuclear explosion is required to deliver 1 MeV of heat energy. How many fission events must
be required to attain this power level. If this explosion is designed with a nuclear fuel consisting
of U235 to run a reactor at this power level for one year then calculate the amount of fuel needed.
It is given that energy released per fission event is 200 MeV.
Solution:
Energy required by nuclear explosion = 1 MW = 106 Js–1
Energy released by fission = 200 MeV
= 200×1.6×10–13 = 3.2×10–11 J
106
No. of fission required per second  11
 3.125 106
3.2  10
Number of fission required per year by 1MW energy release
= 3.125×1016×365×24×60×60 = 9.9×1023
23
Hence amount of uranium fuel needed is  9.9  10  23
235
6.02  10
= 386.46 g
Example–17:
20 MeV energy is released per fusion of reaction
1 H 2 + 1H 2  2 He4 + 0n1
Calculate the mass of 1H2 consumed in a fusion reaction of power 10 MW in 100 days.
Solution:

10 MW of power is to be produced by the fusion reactor for 100 days which means that 10×106 = 107
energy is required in 100×24×60×60 = 8640000 s.

Now energy released per fusion is 20 MeV = 20×1.6×10–13 = 3.2×10–12 J

Mass of 1H2 consumed in one fusion = 4 amu = 4×1.66×10–24 Kg = 6.64×10–27 K

6.64  1027
Hence required mass 1H2 is given by 12
 8640000  106
3.2 10
= 17.9×10–4 kg

115
Example–18:
The volume of water in the Great Lakes is 5000 cubic mile. Calculate the amount of energy
released if all the deutorium atoms in water are used up in fusion. Given that the abudence of
deutorium is 0.0156% and the fusion of 6 deutorium atoms gives an energy of 43 MeV. Given
1 mile = 1.6 Km
Solution:
The volume of water in the Great Lakes = 5000 cubic mile
The mass of water = 5000 × (1.6×103)3×103 Kg = 2.13×1016 kg
Since molecular weight of water is 18, the total number of molecules in water having a mass of 2.13×1016 kg
2.13  1016  6.023  1023
  7.13  1041
18
Since the abudance of deutorium is 0.0156%, we have total number of deutorium atoms is
= 7.13×1041×2×0.0156×1016 = 2.22×1028
Now the fusion of 6 deutorium atoms gives an energy of 43 MeV, therefore the energy release per atom is
43
 7.17 MeV
6
Hence the total release of energy of 2.22×1028×7.17 MeV = 1.6×1029 MeV

116
 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
1. With what energy an  particle be directed towards the gold nucleus (z = 79) so that if may retrace
its path from a point which is 3×10–14 m away from the gold nucleus?
[Ans: 6.9 MeV]
2. The number of alpha particle scattered at 600 is 100 per minute in an  particle scattering experiment.
What would be the number of alpha particles scattered per minute at 900.
[Ans: 25]
3. If the first member of the Lyman’s series is 1215Å calculate the wavelength of the first member of
Paschen and Brackett series
[Ans: 18752Å, 54000×10–18 m]
4. The wave number of a spectral series are 4857, 19932, 25215, 27663 and 27997 show that the
limit of this seires is approximately 32033.
5. A 10 kg satellite circles the earth every 2 hour in an orbit having a radius of 8000 kg. Assuming that
the Bohr’s angular momentum applies to the satellite as it does to an electron in the hydrogen atom,
find the quantum number of the orbit of the satellite.
[Ans: 5.18×1045]
6. Which level of the doubly ionized litium has the same energy as the ground state energy of the
hydrogen atom.
[Ans: 3rd level]
7. The energy needed to detach the electron of a hydrogen like ion in ground state is equal to 4R. What
is the wavelength of the radiation emitted with a transition from first excited state to a ground state?
[Ans: 30.4 nm]
8. A positive ion having just one electron ejects it when a photon of wavelength 228×10–10 m or less is
absorbed by it. Name the ion
[Ans: He+]
9. What is the energy of a hydrogen atom in the first exicted state if the potential energy is taken to zero
in the ground state.
[Ans: 23.8 eV]
10. Calculate the weight of RaB showing radioactivity of 1 curie. [Ans: 3.1×108 g]
11. Calculate the time required for 10% of a sample of thorium to disintegrate. Assume the half-life of
thorium to be 1.4×1010 year.
[Ans: 2.1×109 year]

117
12. 10 milligram of a radioactive material of half life period of two years are kept in a store for four years.
How much of the matter remain unchanged.
[Ans: 2.501 mg]
13. One milligram of thorium emits 22  particle per unit solid angle per minute. Calculate the half life of
thorium.
[Ans: 1236×1010 year]
14. The half life of radium is 1500 year. In how many year will 1 g of radium (a) lose 1 mg (b) be reduced
to one centigram.
[Ans: 1.995 year; 9.972×103 year]
15. The activity, of a radioactive sample falls from 400 s–1 to 200 s–1 in a minute. Calculate the half life of
radioactive sample.
[Ans: 40 minute]
16. For every 106 atoms of radium in a sample today, find the number of radium atoms that will be left
after 3200 years. Half life of radium = 1600 year.
[Ans: 2.5×105 atom]
17. A certain radioaction substance has a half life of 5 years. What will be the probability of decay of this
substance in 10 years.
[Ans: 75%]
18. Plutonium decays by the following reaction with a half life of 2400 years

94 P 239  92 U 235  2 He 4

If Plutonium is stored for 7200 years what fraction of it remains?

[Ans: 1/8]
19. An isolated rock was found to contain m1 g of U238 and m2 g of Pb206. If the half life of U235 is
4.6×109 years calculate the age of the rock.

  m 2 238  
 T log 1   
  m 1 206  
[Ans: ]
 log 2 
 
 

20. Obtain approximately the ratio of the nuclear radii of the gold isotope 78Au197 and silver isotope
47
Ag107. What is the approximate ratio of their nuclear mass densities.
[Ans: 1.23, of the order of one]

118
 20
21. The total binding energy of 10 N is 160.6 MeV. Find its atomic mass.
[Ans: 19.19 u]

22. Find the mass of 14

6 C
in the following reaction
14
7 N  0 n1  14 1
6 C  1H  0.55 MeV

14
The atomic mass of 7 N, 10 n  and 11H are 14.03074, 1.008665 and 1.007825 respecitvely..
[Ans: 14.003323]
23. Calculate the energy required to remove an alpha particle from 016 to produce C12. Binding energy
per nuleon.
16 12 4
O = 7.97 MeV, C = 7.68 MeV, He = 7.97 MeV
[Ans: 7.12 MeV]
24. Calculate the energy released when a thermal neutron enters the nucleus of Pu239. Given masses
of Pu239 and Pu240 are 239.1270 amu and 240.1291 amu.
[Ans: 6.349 MeV]

25. Find the binding energy per nucleon of 37 Li . Given mass of proton = 1.00782 amu, mass of a
neutron = 1.00866 amu and mass of 37 Li = 7.01599 amu.
[Ans: 5.6 MeV]
26. The masses of 11C and 11B are respectively 11.011 u and 11.0093 u. Find the maximum energy of a
poistron can have in the β decay of C11 to B11.
[Ans: 933.6 KeV]
27. How much energy will be produced on complete fission of one gram of uranum taking that only
0.1% of mass is converted into energy.
[Ans: 8.97×107 J]
235
28. Calculate the power output of a 92 U reactor if it takes one month to use up 2 kg of uranium fuel.
[Ans: 62.5 MeV]
235 235
29. The fission of 92 U produces a mean energy of 185 MeV. If 92 U in a reactor is continuously
genrating 100 MeV of power how long will take for 1 kg of uranium to be used up?
[Ans: 8.78 day]
235
30. In the fission of a single nucleus of 92 U , 200 MeV energy is released. What is the number of fissions
which must occur per second so as to generate a power of 4 kW.
[Ans: 12.5×1013]

119
31. When a atom of U235 undergoes fission in a reaction about 200 MeV energy is released. Suppose
that a reactor using U235 has an ouput of 70 MW and is 20% efficient. How many uranium atoms
does it consume in one day? What mass of uranium does it consume each day?
[Ans: 9.5×1024 and 3.7 kg]
32. Calculate the energy released in the fusion reaction
4
2 He  42 He  42 He  12
6 C

Given the mass of an  particle is 4.002603 amu

[Ans: 25]
33. Calculate the amount of energy released when two deuterium nuclei fuse into an  particle.
Mass of deuterium = 2.014102 amu and mass of  particle = 4.00263 amu
[Ans: 23.8 MeV]
34. It is proposed to use nuclear fusion reaction
2
1 H  12 H  24 He
in a nuclear reactor of 200 MW rating. If the energy from above reaction is used with a 25%
efficiency in the reactor, how many grams of deuterium will be needed per day? Given masses of,
1
H2 and 2H4 are 2.0141 u and 4.0026 u respectively.
[Ans: 121.39]
35. Calculate the energy that can be obtained from 1 kg of water through fusion reaction.
2
H  2 H  3H  p
It is given that of natural water is heavy water (by number of molecules) and all the deuterium is used
for fusion.
[Ans: 3200 MJ]
6 6
36. The count rate from a radioactive sample falls from 4.0×10 per second to 1.0×10 per second in 20
hours. What will be the count rate 100 hours after the begining?
[Ans: 2.8×106 distegrations per second]
37. The decay constant of U238 is 4.9×10–18 s–1. By what factor does the activity of a U238 decrease in
9×109 years.
[Ans: 4]

120
QUESTION BANK

121
 Key Learning Points
1. The discovery of the electron and the fact that electron is a common constituent of all matter established
the fact that atom has a structure.
2. Any model of the atomic structure must explain the stability and the spectra of atoms.
3. According to Thomson’s model, the atoms consist of positively charged entities distributed uniformly
over the entire body of the atom with negative electrons embeded in this continuous positive charge.
4. Geriger and Mardsen in their classic experiments on scattering of  particles found that most of the
 particles emerged without deviation but some of them were scattered through very large angles.
5. Rutherford concluded from the results of Gerger and Madsen experiment that atoms contain a tiny
nucleus in which positive charge and nearly all of its mass is concentrated.
6. The electrons in Rutherford model are assumed to be moving around the nucleus in circular orbits.
7. Rutherford atomic model could not explain the stability of the atoms when subjected to the demand
of classical electromagnetic theory that any accelerated charged particle must emit energy in the form
of electromagnetic radiation.
8. Bohr modified Rutherrod atomic model by introducing quantisation of angular momentum of electron
orbits in which electron can revolve around the nucleus.
9. According to first postulate of Bohr’s theory the electron can move only in certain privileged orbits
which are not sujbected to the demand of electromagnetic theory. These privileged orbits known as
stationary orbits are the ones in which the angular momentum of the electron is an integral multiple of
h
.
2
10. According to Bohr’s theory any emission or absorption of radiation correspond to a transition between
two stationary orbits.
If an electron transition take place from an allowed orbit with energy E1 to an allowed orbit with
energy E2 the frequency of the emitted radiation is given by the relation
hv  E1  E 2
13.6
The energy of an electron with quantum number n is given by E n   eV
n2
11. Bohr’s theory could successfully explain the spectra of various series in the hydrogen and hydrogen
like atoms. However Bohr’s theory could not explain the fine structure of spectral lines.
12. The phenomenon of radioactivity is defined as the spontaneous disintegration of nuclei (with atomic
number greater than that of lead) of one or more atoms with the emission of highy penetrating
radiations.

122
13. The radioactive radiation consist of three distinct parts known as  rays,  rays and  rays.
 particles are nothing but doubly ionized helium nuclei.
 particles are negatively charged electrons moving with speeds comparable with the velocity of
light.
 rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength.
14. According to Rutherford and Soddy theory whenever a radio disintegration occurs, it does so with
the emission of a  particle or a  particle.
15. In radioactive transformations, it is observed that the daughter from a given parent is also usually
radioactive. The daughter nucleus changes to a new nucleus by an  or  emission. The chain
continue until a stable element usually a stable isotope of lead is reached. Such a change of radioactive
transformation consitutues a radioactive series.
16. Radioactive series occuring in nature are the uranium series, the actinum series, the thorium series
and the neptunium series.
17. Radioactive disintegrations are governed by the laws of probabilily.
18. The mathematical relation representing the radioactive disintegration is expressed by the relation
N  N 0 e t
where N0 represents the number of radioactive atoms at t = 0 and N represents the number of
radioactive atoms at a later instant t.  is known as the disintegration constant.
19. Radioactivity in a radioactive element completely disappear only in an infinite time and all radioactive
elements are identical in this respect.
20. To distinguish the activity of one radioactive element from another we introduce the concept of half
and mean life.
21. The half life of a radioactive element is defined as the time in which the number of radioactive atoms
0.693
is reduced to half of its initial value. The half life T is given by the relation : T  .

22. The mean life is defined as the ratio of combined age of all the atoms and the number of atoms in the
1
concerned sample. Mean life is given by the relation.   .

23. A curie is equal to 3.7×1010 disintegration per second.
24. Radio isotopes can be used in tracer technique in agriculture, in industry and in radio carbon dating.
25. According to Rutherford atom has a small positively charged nucleus. Practically the whole mass of
the atoms is concentrated in the nucleus.
The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. Neutron were discovered by Chadwick.

123
26. It is found that radius of a nucleus varies as cube root of its mass number. It is found that very
approximately
1
r  r0 A 3
where r0 is the distance of nearest approach to the nucleus. r0 is referred to as nuclear unit radius
and is nearly equal to 1.4 fm.
27. The energy changes encountered in nuclear reactions are due to conversion of mass into energy in
accordance with Einstein relation
E = mc2
28. A detailed survey of all atoms reveal that atomic mass is always less than the sum of the masses of the
constituent particles in free state. Thus the formation of an atom from its constituent particles always
results in the appearance of mass defect.
29. The energy needed to break a nucleus into its constituent particles is known as binding energy.
30. The anlysis of the studies of binding energy shows that higher is the binding energy per nucleon the
more stable is the atom and vice versa.
31. When uranium was bombarded with neutrons Fermi found that a compound nucleus is formed due
to capture of neutron along with the emission of  particles with a number of different half lives. He
interpreted the phenomenon as the formation of trans uranium elements.
32. Hahn and Strassman after a series of careful chemical analysis of the products formed when uranium
was bombarded with neutrons established that uramum nucleus after the capture of neutron seemed
to be spliting apart into two nearly equal fragments.
33. Lise Meitner and R. Frisch suggested that neutrons iniated a decomposition of the uranium nucleus
into two nuclei of roughly equal size. The phenomenon was termed as nuclear fission.
34. Due to fission a uranium nucleus split up into a large number of pairs of fission fragments with an
average number of 2.5 nuetrons as the products of the reaction. The reaction is accomplished with a
release of large amount of energy.
35. The average energy released per fission of uranium nucleus is of the order of 200 MeV.
36. The neutron released in the fission process promotes further fission and set up a self sustained chain
reaction.
37. The uncontrolled self sustained reaction can result in explosive release of energy. This is the underlying
principle of fission bomb.
38. Nuclear reactor is designed to achieve a controlled release of energy. By the arrangment of the
reactor material a study chain reaction is maintained in which each fission produces an average of
one new fission.
39. Nuclear fusion is the phenonmenon in which two light nuclei are fused together to form a single new
nucleus. These reactions are accompanied by the release of nuclear energy.

124
40. It is now believed that fusion process is primarly responsible for the release of energy by the sun and
stars.
41. The forces that are responsible for holding of the nucleon together in a nucleus are very strong
nuclear forces.
42. Nuclear forces are very stong short range attractive forces.
43. Studies of nuclei with higher values of atomic number reveal that in addition to very
strong attractive interactions nuclear forces also have a repulsive component that saves
the nuclei from collapsing.

125
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Average Bohr’s Model of the Atom
1. An electron makes a transition from an excited state to the ground state of a hydrogen like
atom / ion. During this transition of the electron, its
(1) kinetic energy; potential energy and total energy all decrease (Incorrect)
(2) kinetic energy decreases, potential energy increases and total energy remains same (Incorrect)
(3) kinetic energy and total energy decrease but potential energy increases (Incorrect)
(4) kinetic energy increases, but potential energy and total energy both decrease (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
In the given transition, principal quantum number (n) decreases. Now the speed of the electron in the nth
orbit, (vn), is inversly proportional to n. Hence, when n decreases, vn and, therefore, the kinetic energy of
the electron, increases. We also know
Total energy = – K.E
and Potential energy = –2 K.E
Due to –ve sign, in the expression for T.E and P.E; both these energies decrease when n decreases.
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Bohr’s Model of the Atom

2. Hydrogen  H  ; deuterium  H  , singly ionised helium  H  and doubly ionised lithium

1
1
2
1
4
2
++
 8
2 Li  , all have only one electron orbiting around the nucleus. Consider an electron
transition from n = 2 to n = 1. If the wavelengths emitted are λ1 , λ 2 , λ 3 and λ 4 , respectively,,
for these four atoms / ions. Then (approximately) which one of the followings is correct?

(1) 41  2 2  2 3   4 (Incorrect)

(2) 1  2 2  2 3   4 (Incorrect)
(3) 1   2  4 3  9 4 (Correct)
(4) 1  2 2  3 3  4 4 (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

126
Solution:
For a hydrogen like atom, of atomic number z; for the given transition, we have
1 1 1 
 Rz 2  2  2 
 1 2 
Here R is Rydberg’s constant, for hydrogen. For the given four atoms z1 = 1, z2 = 1, z3 = 2, and z4 = 3.
Therefore,
1 1 1 1 2 2
: : : : :1:1:  2  :  3
1  2  3  4
1 1
 1 :  2 :  3 :  4 : :1:1: :
4 9
or 1   2  4 3  9 4

Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Model of the Atom
3. A photon colloides with a stationary hydrogen atom, in its ground state, inelastically. Energy
of the colloiding photon is 10.2 eV. After a time interval, of the order of a microsecond,
another photon colloides with the same hydrogen atom, inelastically, with an energy of 15
eV. A detector observes:
(1) 2 photons of energy 10.2 eV (Incorrect)
(2) 2 photons of energy 10.4 eV (Incorrect)
(3) 1 photons of energy 10.2 eV and an electron of energy 1.4 eV (Correct)
(4) 1 photons of energy 10.2 eV and another photon of energy 1.4 eV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The hydrogen atom, in its ground state, absorbs the incident photon of energy 10.2 eV and goes to its first
excited state.

 E 2  E1   3.4   13.6   eV  10.2 eV 

The atom remains in the excited state for a time of the order of 10–8 s. In one microsecond, it returns to its
ground state, emitting a photon of energy 10.2 eV. Now the second photon, of (incident) energy 15 eV
undergoes an inelastic collision with the same hydrogen atom. Out of 15 eV of energy, the atom recieves

127
13.6 eV are absorbed to knock out the electron from its ground state. The electron becomes free, i.e.,
hydrogen atom is ionised. The remaining energy, (15–13.6) = 1.4 eV is the kinetic energy of the electron
knocked out of the hydrogen atom.
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Model of the Atom

4. In a hypothetical hydrogen like atom; the electric potential between a proton and an electron,
 
distant r apart, is given by V = V0 n  r 
 r0 
where V0 and r0 are constants. Assuming that the atom still obeys Bohr’s postulates, the
dependence of the radius of the nth allowed orbit, rn, on the principal quantum number (n) is
as

(1) rn  n (Correct)
(2) rn  n 1 (Incorrect)
(3) rn  n 2 (Incorrect)
(4) rn  n 2 (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
r
U = The electrostatic P.E of the electrons, at a distance r from the proton, = eV  eV0 n  
 r0 
dU eV0 r0
 F = The magnitude of the force between the electron and proton =  
dr r
The force, F, provides the centeripetal force for the electron, orbiting in its nth allowed orbit of radius rn.

mv 2n eV0 r0
  .....(1)
rn rn
h
From Bohr’s postulate, we also have mv n rn  n .....(2)
2
From Eqn. (1) and (2), we get, rn  n
Hence option (1) is correct.

128
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Difficult Bohr’s Model of the Atom
5. A hydrogen atom, and a doubly ionised lithium (Li)++ atom, are in their first excerted state
and the second excited state, respectively. If  H and  Li are the respective angular momenta,
and KH, KLi are the, respective, kinetic energies, of the electron, in the two atoms, we can
say that

 H 1 KH 4
(1)  ;  (Incorrect)
 Li 2 K Li 1

 H 2 KH 2
(2)  ;  (Incorrect)
 Li 3 K Li 3

 H 2 KH 1
(3)  ;  (Correct)
 Li 3 K Li 4

 H 1 KH 9
(4)  ;  (Incorrect)
 Li 2 K Li 4

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
For the hydrogen atom nH = 2 and zH = 1
For the doubly ionised lithium atom, we have nLi = 3; and zLi = 3
According to Bohr’s first postulate, the angular momentum of electron, in an orbit, is directly proportional
to n; therefore;
H nH 2
  
 Li n Li 3

z2
The K.E of the electron, is an orbit, equals the |T.E.| and T.E  ; therefore
n2
2 2 2 2
K  z   n  1  3 1
 H   H    Li        
K Li  z Li   n H   3   2  4

 H 2 KH 1 
We thus have    3 and K  4 
 Li Li 
Hence option (3) is correct.

129
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Average Bohr’s Model of the Atom
6. A hydrogen atom emits a photon of wavelength λ , in returning from the first excited state
to ground state. Another hydrogen like ion of an atomic number z, emits a photon of
wavelength  α λ  ; in returning from its second excited state to its first excited state. The
valueof z, then equals

3
(1) (Incorrect)
5

9
(2) (Incorrect)
2

27
(3) (Correct)
5

5
(4) (Incorrect)
27

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
For hydrogen atom, the given transition, corresponds to an electron moving from n2 = 2, to n1 = 1.
Therefore,
1  1 1  3R
R 2  2  .....(1)
 1 2  4
For the given ion; the electron jumps from n2 = 3, to n1 = 2. Therefore,
2
1  1 1  5 Rz
 Rz 2  2  2   .....(2)
 2 3  36

3R 5 Rz 2
From equations (1) and (2), we have 
4 36

27
 z
5

Hence option (3) is correct.

130
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Average Bohr’s Model of the Atom
7. A diatomic molecules has a moment of inertia I. By Bohr’s quantisation condition, its
rotational energy in the nth level (n  0) is
h2
(1) (Incorrect)
82 In 2
h2
(2) (Incorrect)
82 In
nh 2
(3) (Incorrect)
82 I
n 2h2
(4) (Correct)
82 I
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
Let n be the angular speed of molecule in nth allowed state. Its angular momentum is Ln  In .
From Bohr’s postulate, we have
nh nh
L n   In    n 
2 2I
2
1 2  1 I  nh  n2h 2
The rotational energy of the molecule  In   
2 2  2I  82 I
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Using Bohr’s Postulates
8. A molecule of, CO, a diatomic molecule, is made up of a carbon atom (mass = 12u) and an
oxygen atom (mass = 16u), separated by a distance r. It is assumed that the rotational K.E,
of the molecule, about its centre of mass, is quantized as per Bohr’s postulates for the
hydrogen atom. If the frequency of the photon, that can excite the molecule from its
 
(rotational kinetic energy) ground state to its first excited state is 4 π ×10 Hz (and the
11

Planck’s constant equals 2π ×10 –34 J – s ), the distance r, and the moment of inertia, I, of the
molecule, about its centre of mass, are (nearly) equal, respectively, to

131
 (1) 1.28 1010 m and 1.88 10 46 kg  m 2 (Correct)
(2) 2.4  1010 m and 2.76 1046 kg  m 2 (Incorrect)
(3) 4.4  1011 m and 4.67 1047 kg  m 2 (Incorrect)
(4) 1.9  10 10 m and 1.17 1047 kg  m 2 (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:

Let  be the angular frequency of rotation. The angular momentum L   I is then given, as per Bohr’s
’s
nh nh
postulate, by L n  In  , hence n 
2 2 I
1 2
The rotational, K.E., (K), equals I . Hence the rotational kinetic energy levels are given by
2
1 n 2h 2
K n  In2  2
2 8 I
We, therefore, have
 n 2 h 2 I2 h 2  4 11 
 82 I  82 I   h    10 
8I 10
  1011
3h 4
 3  2  1011  2
 I  kg  m = 1.88×10–46 kg–m2
 4  8 
 m1m 2  2
Now I  m1r12  m 2 r22   m  m  r
 1 2 
1
 28  1.88  10 46 
2

 R  27 
m = 1.28×10–10 m
 192  1.67  10 
Hence option (1) is correct

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Model of the Atom

9. A hydrogen atom, at rest, emits the β –line of its Balmer series. The recoil energy of the
hydrogen atom, in terms of R (= Rydbreg’s constant for hydrogen), h (= Planck’s constant)
and M (= Mass of hydrogen atom), would be

132
 9 h 2R 2
(1) (Incorrect)
256 M
9 h 2R 2
(2) (Correct)
512 M
25 h 2 R 2
(3) (Incorrect)
1296 M

25 h 2 R 2
(4) (Incorrect)
512 M

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
The  –line, in the Balmer series, corresponds to a transition from n2 = 4 to n1 = 2. The wavelength,  , of
this  –line, is given by
1  1 1  3R
R  2 2 

   2   4   16
h 3 hR
The linear momentum of the emitted photon = p  or p 
 16
The hydrogen atom is initially at rest. To conserve linear momentum, the recoil momentum of the hydrogen
atom, is also p, directed in a direction opposite to the direction of motion of the photon. Hence the recoil
p2 9 h 2R 2
energy of the hydrogen atom = 
2M 512 M
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Model of the Atom
 α 
10. A hydrogen like atom has the energy (En) in its nth allowed orbit, given by En =  2 
n 
where α is a constant. The atom is in its mth excited state. It emits rediations in coming to
ground state directly from the excited state. The emitted radiations are incident on a
photosensitive material of threshold wavelength λ 0 . The maximum K.E, of the emitted
photoelectrons, equals twice the photoelectric work function of the material. The quantum
number m equals

133
 1
2
  0 
(1)   1 (Incorrect)
  0  hc 
1
2
  0 
(2)   1 (Incorrect)
  0  hc 
1
2
  0 
(3)   1 (Incorrect)
  0  hc 
1
2
 0 
(4)   1 (Correct)
  0   hc 

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
hc
We have w0 = work function of photosensitive material = . Let E = h υ , be the energy of photon
0
incident on the photosensitive material. From Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect, we have

2w 0  E  w 0  E  3 w 0  3hc .....(1)
0

 1 
From Bohr’s theory, E   E m 1  E1      1  2 .....(2)
  m  1 
From Eqn. (1) and (2) we have,

3hc  1  1  3 hc 
  1  2
or 2
 1  
0   m  1   m  1   0 
1
2
  0 
 m  1
  0  3hc 

Hence option (4) is correct.

134
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Difficult Bohr’s Model of the Atom
11. A particle is restricted to move along the x–axis between x = 0 and x = a where x is a given
distance, of the order of a nanometer. The allowed energies of the particle, correspond to
formation of stationary waves, with nodes at x = 0 and x = a. The wavelength, of the standing
waves, is related to the linear momentum, p; of the particle, by the deBroglie relation. The
2
energy, E, of the particle, is given by; E = p 2m . The quantised energy values (En), of the
particle, (where n = quantum number; (n = 1, 2, 3,.......)) and its velocity (vn), then vary,
respectively, as

(1) E n  a  ; vn  n (Correct)
 3
(2) En  a 2 ; vn 2
(Incorrect)
(3) E n  a 1 ; v  n 1 (Incorrect)
(4) En  a 2; vn (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
Figure shows the alternate nodes and antinodes in the region between x = 0 and x = a. In the nth mode,
there are n nodal points. The wavelength,  n , of the stationary waves, formed is, therefore, given by
  2a
n n   a;  n 
 2  n
h h
Let pn be the linear momentum of the particle. We are given that  n  p  2mE
n n

2a h
 
n 2mE n
n 2h2
 En 
8 ma 2
For a given value of m; E n  a 2
hn nh
Also mv n  p n   vn 
2a 2ma
 vn  n
Hence option (1) is correct.

135
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Difficult Bohr’s Model of the Atom
12. The radius of an orbit of the electron, in a hydrogen like atom, is 4.5 a0, where a0 is the
3h
Bohr’s radius for hydrogen. Its corresponding orbital angular momentum is . (h = Planck’ss
2π
constant; R = Rydberg’s constant). The wave length, this atom would not be emitting, as it
de–exites itself, is

9
(1) (Incorrect)
32 R
9
(2) (Correct)
16 R
9
(3) (Incorrect)
5R
1
(4) (Incorrect)
3R

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
3h h
Since we are given that angular momentum = n , hence n = 3
2 2
n2
The radius, rn, of the nth allowed orbit, is given by rn 
z
2

 4.5 
 3  z2
z
The wavelength,  , of the emitted radiation, is

1 1 1
 Rz 2  2  2 
  n1 n 2 

The three different ways, the atom can de–excute itself (from the state with n = 3) are
(i) n2 = 3  n1 = 1; (ii) n2 = 3  n1 = 2; and (iii) n2 = 2  n1 = 1.
The corresponding wavelengths are

136
 1 2 1 1  32 R 9
  2 R 1  9   9  1 
1 32 R

1 2  1 1  5R 9
  2 R  22  32   9  2 
2 5R

1 2 1 1  1
and   2  R  2  2   3R  3 
3 1 2  3R
9
It follows that, out of the given values   , is the value , that the atom would not emit.
16 R
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Model of the Atom
13. A hydrogen like atom, of atomic number z is in its (2n)th state. From this state, the atom can
emit a photon of maximum energy 204 eV. It makes a transction, from this excited state, to
a state of quantum number n, emitting a photon of energy 40.8 eV. For the atom
(1) z = 4; n = 2 (Correct)
(2) z = 3; n = 3 (Incorrect)
(3) z = 4; n = 4 (Incorrect)
(4) z = 3; n = 4 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
 E 
Let E1 be the energy of the atom in its ground state. For atom in (2n)th state E 2n   1 2  . The maximum
  2n  
energy photon is emitted when electron jumps from this state to the ground state, i.e.,

 E1 
 2  E1   204 eV
 4n 
 1 
 E1  2  1  204 .....(1)
 4n 
When electron jumps, from n2 (= 2n) to n1 (= n) state, the energy of emitted photon is 40.8 eV. Therefore
 1 1
E1  2  2   40.8 or  3 E1  40.8 .....(2)
 4n n  4n 2

137
From Eqns. (1) and (2), we have

 1 
1  2  204
 4n   5
 3  40.8
 2
 4n 
 n2 .....(3)
Substituting this value of n, in Eqn. (2), we get
2
4   2   
En   eV  217.6 eV .....(4)
3
But E1 = E1 (hydrogen) z2 = [–(13.6) z2] eV
217.6
 z2   16
 13.6 
 z4
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Model of the Atom
14. A mixture, of hydrogen (H) and singly ionised helium (He+), has the H and He+ ions excited
to their respective first excited states. Due to collosions, H atoms transfer their entire
excitation energy to the He+ ion. Applying Bohr’s model, the quantum number, n, of the
finally populated state of He+ ions, is
(1) 2 (Incorrect)
(2) 3 (Incorrect)
(3) 4 (Correct)
(4) 5 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
13.6
For hydrogen atom; En  eV
n2
13.6
Hence E2  eV  3.4eV
4

138
Excitation energy gained by the H–atom, in the first excited state (i.e. n = 2), is
E2 – E1 = (13.6 – 3.4) eV = 10.2 eV
For He+ ion, (z = 2); therefore, its energy, in an, excited state (n = n), is
2

E '

13.6  2  
54.4
eV
n
n 2
n2
'
 The energy, of He+ ion, is the first excited state (i.e., n = 2), is  2  13.6 eV

The energy E" , of the He+ ion, after collosion with H–atoms;

E" E '2  10.2 eV  3.4 eV

Let n be the quantum number of state, corresponding to an energy of –3.4 eV, in the He+ ion. Then
54.4
3.4  
n2
54.4
 n2   16
3.4
 n4

Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Bohr’s Model of the Atom
15. A single electron revolves around a stationary nucleus of charge ze; (e = magnitude of
charge on electron). A photon, of energy 47.2 eV, can excite this atom from its first excited
state to its second excited state. The kinetic energy, K; the potential energy U, and the
total energy, E, of this atom, in its ground state, are:
(1) K = 340 eV, U = –170 eV, E = –340 eV (Incorrect)
(2) K = 340 eV, U = –680 eV, E = –340 eV (Correct)
(3) K = 85 eV, U = –170 eV, E = –85 eV (Incorrect)
(4) K = 170 eV, U = –340 eV, E = –170 eV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
13.6  z 2
The energy, En, of this atom, in its n allowed state, is E n
th  eV
n2

139
When this atom goes, from its first excited to its second excited state; n1 = 2 and n2 = 3. We are given that
E3 – E2 = 47.2 eV
 1 1 
  z  13.6 
2
2
 2 
 47.2
  2   3 
47.2  36
 z2   25
5  13.6
 z5
 For the given atom,
2
13.6  5 340
En   2
eV   2 eV
n n
For the ground state of atom, n = 1. Therefore,
E = – 340 eV; K = |E| = 340 eV
and U = 2E = – 680 eV
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Model of the Atom
16. In a hypothetical atom, the potential energy (U), of an electron and a proton, distance r
ke 2
apart, is given by U = – where k is a constant. Applying Bohr’s theory to this atom,
3 r3
the speed vn, and the total energy, En, of the electron, in its nth allowed orbit, would depend
on ‘n’, as:

(1) vn  n3 ; En  n6 (Correct)
5
(2) vn  n 2 ; En  n5 (Incorrect)

(3) vn  n 2 ; En  n 4 (Incorrect)

(4) v n  n 3 ; E n  n 6 (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (1)

140
Solution:
ke2
Given U   . The force, F, between the electron and the proton, distant r apart, is
3 r3

dU ke 2
F  4 .....(1)
dr r
For an electron, in its circular orbit of radius rn, the speed vn (is the nth allowed orbit), would be given by
mv 2n ke 2
F 4 .....(2)
rn r
nh
From Bohr’s first postulate mv n rn  .....(3)
2
n 3h 3
From Eqn. (2) and (3), we get v n 
83km 2 e2
i.e. v n  n 3
1
The total energy, En, in the nth allowed orbit, is E n   K n   mv n2
2
 En  n6

Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Radioactivity
17. The (radio) activities, of two materials X and Y, when they are having N1 and N2 atoms, are
R1 and R2, respectively. It is observed that R2 = 3R1, when N1 = 2N2. If the half life of X is
1 month, that of Y would be
(1) 6 months (Incorrect)
(2) 3 months (Incorrect)
(3) 1/3 months (Incorrect)
(4) 1/6 months (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:

Let λ1 and λ 2 and be the disintegration constants of X and Y. N1 and N2 are their number of atoms, at the
given instant. Then

141
 R1  1 N1 and R 2  2N2

R1  1   N1 
    
R 2  2   N2 

1  1 
    2
3  2 

1 1
  .....(1)
2 6
Let 1 and 2 be the half–life of X and Y, respectively. We know that half–life is inversly proportional to
the disintegration constant. Therefore
2 1 1
 
1  2 6
1
Given 1 = 1 month. Therefore, 2  month
6
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Radioactivity
18. Two radioactive materials x1 and x2, have decay constants 10 λ and λ , respectively. It
initially they have the same number of nuclie then the ratio of number of nuclei of x1 to that

 
of x2 would equal 1 e after a time.

1
(1) (Incorrect)
10 
1
(2) (Incorrect)
11
11
(3) (Incorrect)
10 
1
(4) (Correct)
9

Correct answer: (4)

142
Solution:
We assume that the given condition gets satisfied at t = t.
Let N0 be the number of nuclei of x1 and x2 at t = 0. Let the number of nuclei of x1 and x2, present at
t = t, be N1 and N2, respectively. From the law of radioactive disintegration, we have

N1  N 0 e 10 t and N 2  N 0 et

N1 1
  e 9 T   e 1
N2 e
 9 t  1
1
 t
9
Hence option (4) is correct

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Radioactivity
19. A radioactive material, having a mean life of 109 s, has an activity of 1010 disintegrations
per second, at a given instant. If the mass of one atom of this material is 10–25 kg, the total
mass (in mg) of this material, present at the given instant, is
(1) One (Correct)
(2) Half (Incorrect)
(3) Two (Incorrect)
(4) One and a half (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:

Let N be the number of radioactive nuclei present in the sample, at the given instant and let  be its
disintegration constant. Then
dN
Activity =  N
dt
1 N
Since τ = we have activity =  
λ  τ

143
 N
Substituting given values, we get 1010 
109 
 N  1019 atoms

 Mass of sample = N × mass of one atom

= 1019 × 10–25 kg = 10–6 kg = 1 mg
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Radioactivity
20. A radioactive nucleus has a half–life of one day. Starting with N0 atoms, at t = 0; N1 is
number of radioactive atoms present at t1 = 2.886 days and N2 the is number of atoms
present at t2 = 4.329 days. The number of atoms decaying, in the time interval (t 2–t1),
expressed as a fraction of N0, is

 e 1 
(1)  2  (Incorrect)
 e 
 e  1 
(2)  3  (Correct)
 e 

 e2  1 
(3)  2  (Incorrect)
 e 1 

 e2  1 
(4)  3  (Incorrect)
 e 

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
0.693
Given,  12 = Half–life = 1 day = where  is the desintegration constant.

    day 1
N, the number of radioactive atoms present at t = t, is given by N = N0e–0.693×t
At t = t1 = 2.886 days
N = N e–0.693×2.886  N 0 e
2
1 0

144
 N2 = N0e–0.693×4.329 = N0 e-3

The number of atom, N , that have disintegrated in time interval (t2 – t1), is
N   N 2  N1   N 0  e 3  e 2 

N  1  e   e  1 
  e 3  e 2   3    3 
N0  e   e 

Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Radioactivity

21. A radioactive element decays by β –emission. A β –counter shows a count of (X) in a time
equal to one mean life of the element. The same counter shows Y counts in a time equal to
three times the mean life. The percentage change, in the number of counts, in the time
interval  τ to  3 τ  ( τ = mean life), is
 e  1
(1)  e 2   100 (Incorrect)
 
 e  1
(2)  e2  100 (Correct)
 

 e2  1 
(3)  2  100 (Incorrect)
 e 1 

 e 1 
(4)    100 (Incorrect)
 2e  1 

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
The total number of counts at any time is the number of nuclei that have disintegrated in that time. Therefore,
if  is the mean life of the element, we have
1
X  N0 1  e   N0 1  e1  (   , where  = decay constant)


and Y  N 0 1  e 3    N 0 1  e 3 

145
 YX
Percentage change in counts in the time interval  t1   to  t2  3 , is     100 %
X 

 e 1  e 3   e3  e 1  e 3  
 1 
 100%   3 
 e 1  e  
1
 1 e 


e 2
 1  e 1 
100 %   2   100 %
2
e  e  1  e 
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Radioactivity
22. N1 is number of radioactive atoms of an element (of mean life 10 days), present at the end
of 10 days. N2 is the total number of atoms that have disintegrated in a time of 30 days. The
N 
ratio  1 N  , is
 2

(1) e2 (Incorrect)
 e2 
(2)  2  (Incorrect)
 e 1 

 e2 
(3)  3  (Correct)
 e 1

 e2  1 
(4)  3  (Incorrect)
 e 1 

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
Let N0 be number of atoms at t = 0

The disintegration constant   110 day–1. Then if (N = N1), at (t1 =  = 10 day), we have

N 1  N 0  e 1  .....(1)
At t2 (= 30 days), the total number of atoms, that have disintegrated, is

146
 N2 = N0 [1–e–3] .....(2)
N1 e 1 e2
  
N 2 1  e 3 e 3  1

Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Radioactivity

23. A radioactive nucleus AZ X undergoes successive disintegrations, emitting x α –particles

followed by (posit ive) β –particles. The mass number (A1), and atomic number (z1), of the
final daughter nucleus, are:
(1) A1 = (A–2x); z1 = (z–2x+y) (Incorrect)
(2) A1 = (A–4x); z1 = (z–2x–y) (Correct)
(3) A1 = (A–4x); z1 = (z–2x+y) (Incorrect)
(4) A1 = (A–2x); z1 = (z–x+y) (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The emission of an  –particle decreases mass number by 4 and atomic number by 2. Therefore; after
emission of x,  –particles
A '  A  4x , z '   z  2x
The emission of a positive  –particle does not change the mass number but the atomic number decreases
by one. Therefore, after emission of y positive  –particles, we have

A1  A '   A  4 x 

z1   z ' y    z  2 x  y 
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Radioactivity
24. A radioactive nucleus (of mass number A and atomic number z) has 84 protons and 136
neutrons. The nucleus undergoes successive disintegrations emittnig 3 ( α particles); 4

147
 ( β particles) and 2 ( γ ray photons). The percentage change, in the (A/z) ratio, after all
these disintegrations is (nearly)
(1) – 3.05 (Correct)
(2) + 1.91 (Incorrect)
(3) – 0.38 (Incorrect)
(4) + 7.25 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
The mass number of given nucleus = A = number of protons + number of neutrons = (84 + 136) = 220
The atomic number of the nucleus = z = number of protons = 84

   220
 Initial value of =     2.62
 z  84
We know that mass number decreases by 4, and atomic number by 2, when one  –particle in emitted.
The emission of a  –particle does not change the mass number but atomic number increases by one.
There is no change in mass number, and atomic number, due to emission of a  –ray photon. Let A1 and z1
be the mass number and atomic number, of the final nucleus, obtained after the given disintegrations. Then
A1 = (220) – (4×3) = 208
z1 = [(84) – (4×3)] + (4×1) = 82
A1 208
 Final value of   2.54
z1 82

A  2.54  2.62 

Percentage change in   ratio =    100 % = – 3.05 %
z  2.62 
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Radioactivity
25. A radioactive nucleus, X, disintegrates into another nucleus Y, which in turn, disintegrates
to form a nucles z. The disintegration constants, of X and Y, are λ 1 and λ 2 respectively. At
t = 0; st ar t ing wit h N 0 atoms of X, the number of atoms of X and Y, present at t = t, are N1
and N2, respectively. The ratio, of the instantaneous rates of disintegration, of X and Y, is

148
 1
(1) (Incorrect)
2
1 N1
(2) (Incorrect)
2 N2
1
 2 N2 
(3)   1 (Correct)
 1 N1 
1
 1 N1 
(4)   1 (Incorrect)
 2N2 

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:

RX = The instantaneous rate of disintegration of X  1 N1 .....(1)

When one atom of X disintegrates, one atom of Y is produced. At t = t; the rate of production Y, equals the
rate of disintegration of X   1 N1  . The instantaneous rate of decrease of Y, due to its own decay into Z,
is   2 N 2  . The net rate of change of the number of along of Y, is
dN 2
RY    N1    N 2 .....(2)
dt
1
RX 1 N1 1  N 
     2 2  1
R Y 1 N1   2 N 2   2 N 2   1 N1 
  1
 1 N1 
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Easy Nucleus
26. A star can convert all its helium (He) nuclei completely into oxygen nuclei. The energy
released, per oxygen nuclei formation, is (Mass of nucleus He = 4.0026 u; mass of oxygen
nucleus = 15.9994 u)
(1) 7.6 meV (Incorrect)
(2) 56.12 meV (Incorrect)
(3) 10.24 meV (Correct)
(4) 23.4 meV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
149
Solution:
The nuclear reaction is 4  42 He   16
8 O

 Mass defect =  = [–15.9994 + 4×(4.0026)] u = 0.0111

 Energy released (per oxygen nucleus) = 0.011×931 meV = 10.24 meV
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Nucleus
27. The only correct statement is:
(1) The nucleus 37 Li can emit an  –particle (Incorrect)
206
(2) The nucleus of 82 Pb can emit a proton (Incorrect)
(3) Deutron and alpha particle can undergo complete fusion (Correct)
70 82
(4) The nuclei 30 Zn and Sn can undergo complete fusion
34 (Incorrect)

[Given; mass of = 11 H = 1.007825 u; 12 H = 2.014102 u; 63 Li = 6.01513 u; 37 Li = 7.016004 u;

152 206 3 4
64 Gd = 151.919803 u ; 82 Pb = 205.974455 u; 1 H = 3.016050 u; 2 He = 4.002603 u;
70 82 205
30 Zn = 69.925325 u; 34 Se = 81.919709 u; 81 Be = 204.974454 u]

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
Two light nuclei, of mass m1 and m2, can undergo fusion, to produce a nucleus of mass M, if
m1 + m2 > M
A heavy nucleus, of mass M1, can break up into two nuclei of mass m3 and m4, if
m3 + m4 < M1
7
(1) 3 Li  24 He  13 H

Mass of 37 Li = M1 = 7.016004 u

Sum of masses of 42 He  13 H = m3 + m4
= 4.002603 + 3.016050 = 7.018653 u
Since (m3 + m4) > M1; the reaction is not possible
206 205
(2) 82 Pb  81 Be  11H
206
Mass of 82 Pb = M1 = 205.974454 u

150
 205
Sum of masses of 81 Be  11H = m3 + m4
= 204.974454 + 1.007825 = 205.982279 u
Since m3 + m4 > m1; reaction is not possible
2
(3) 1 H  42 He  36 Li

Sum of mass of 12 H  42 He = m1 + m2
= 2.014102 + 4.002603 = 6.016705 u
Mass of 63 Li = M1 = 6.01513 u
Since m1 + m2 > M, this reaction is possible
70 82
(4) 30 Zn  34 Se  152
64 Gd

70 82
Sum of mass of 30 Zn  34 Se = m1 + m2
= 69.925325 + 81.916709 = 151.842034 u
152
Mass of 64 Gd = M = 151.919803 u
Since (m1 + m2) < M, this reaction is not possible
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Nucleus
28. Figure shows a hypotetical binding energy per nucleon (B.E/A); versus (mass number)
A curve. Which of the following statements is correct?

(1) Fusion of nuclei, having mass number in the range 20 < A < 50, will release energy (Incorrect)
(2) Fission of nuclei, having mass number in the range 50 < A < 100, will release energy (Incorrect)
(3) Fusion of nuclei, having mass number in the range 60 < A < 100, will release energy (Correct)

151
(4) Fission of nuclei, having mass number in the range 125 < A < 175, will release energy, if the two
fragments are identical (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
Energy is released in a nuclear (fission or fusion) reaction, if the binding energy per nucleon of the products,
is more than that for reactants. This is so only far statement (3). In all the other statements, B.E/nucleon, of
products, is less than that of the reactants. In such a process energy, has to be absorbed.
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Nuclear Energy
29. In a process known as “pair–production” a γ –ray photon gets converted into an electron–
position pair. The minimum frequency of the photon, for pair production to take place, is:
(m = mass of electron = mass of position = 9.1×10–31 kg, Planck’s constant = 6.6×10–34 J-s)
(1)  2.5×1018 Hz (Incorrect)
(2)  2×1019 Hz (Incorrect)
(3)  2.5×1020 Hz (Correct)
(4) 4×1020 Hz (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The process of “pair production” is hv    ray   01e  01e
The total mass energy of electron position pair
= 2 (mc2) = 2×9.1×10–31×(3×108)2 J = 163.8×10–15 J
For “pair production”, this must be the minimum energy of the  –ray photon. Let vm be the minimum
frequency of such a  –ray photon. Then
hvm = 163.8×10–15 J
163.8  1015
 vm  Hz  2.482 × 1020 Hz  2.5 × 1020 Hz
6.6  10 34
Hence option (3) is correct.

152
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Difficult Nuclear Energy
235
30. In a nuclear power generating station, 92 U is used as “the fuel”. Fission of one atom of
235
92 U releases 200 MeV of energy. The efficiency of generating plant is 80%. The (reactor)
plant consumes 256 mg of uranium fuel in 4 hours. Its power output, in MW is (nearly),
(1) 142 (Incorrect)
(2) 178 (Correct)
(3) 221 (Incorrect)
(4) 276 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
235
Energy produced due to fission of one atom of 92 U = 200 MeV

6.023  1023
235
The number of atoms, in 256 mg of 92 U  1022
0.256  235
235
 Total energy produced due to fission of the given mass of 92 U  200  10 22 MeV  2  10 24 MeV
= 2×1.6×10–13×1024 J = 3.2×1011 J
E out
The efficiency,    0.8
E in
 Eout = 0.8×3.2×1011 J  2.56×1011 J
Time taken = 4 hr = 4×3600 s

2.56  1011
 Power output = 2
J / s 1.78  109 W = 178 MW
4  36  10
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Rutherford Scattering
31. In a Rutherfod scattering experiment when a projectile of charge z1 and mass m1 approaches
a target nucleus of charge z2 and mass m2, the distance of closet approach is r0. The energy
of the projectile is

153
 (1) directly proportional to m1 (Incorrect)
(2) directly proportional to m1m2 (Incorrect)
(3) directly proportional to z1z2 (Correct)
(4) inversely proportional to z1z2 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
When an particle is very far off it has only K.E (K). As it approaches the target its K.E decreases and
electrostate P.E increases. At distance of closet approach (r0) the K.E. is zero. The entire energy is now
electrostatic P.E. From law of conservation of energy
z1z2
K.E 
40 r0
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Rutherford Scattering

 
32. An alpha nucleus of energy 1 2 mv bombards a heavy nuclear target of charge Ze. Then
2

the distance of closeset appraoch for the alpha to the nucleus is proportional to

(1)  1ze  (Incorrect)

(2) v2 (Incorrect)
1
(3) (Correct)
m
(4) m (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
We know that the kinetic energy of alpha nucleus is equal to potential energy of alpha nucleus and target
nucleus at the distance of closeset approach
1 q  Ze 
mv 2  
2 4 0 r0

2q   Ze 
r0 
4 0 mv2

154
 1
Hence r0 
m
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Bohr’s Theory
33. The binding energy of a hydrogen like atom in ground state is 217.6 eV. The atomic number
of the atom is
(1) 4 (Correct)
(2) 8 (Incorrect)
(3) 16 (Incorrect)
(4) 32 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
The energy in ground state of a hydrogen like atom (atomic number z) is proportional to z2. For the
hydrogen atom this energy is 13.6 eV and z = 1
217.6 z 2
Hence 
13.6 1
2
or z = 16
Hence z = 4
Hence option (1) is correct

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
34. In an atom two electrons move around the nucleus in circular orbits of radii r and 4r. The
ratio of the time taken by then to complete one revolution around the nucleus is

1
(1) (Incorrect)
16
1
(2) (Correct)
8

155
 1
(3) (Incorrect)
2
(4) 8 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
If the electron is moving with a velocity v around the nucleus the time taken by it to complete one revolution
2r
would be given by T 
v
Now from Bohr’s theory we have
1
r  n 2 and v 
n
Hence T  n  T 2  n 6 or T 2  r 3
Hence we write
2 3
 T1   R  1 T1 1
     or T  8
 T2   4R  64 2

Hence option (2) is correct

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Bohr’s Theory
35. According to Bohr’s theory, the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the
ground state of doubly ionized Li atom (Z = 3) is
(1) 1.51 (Incorrect)
(2) 13.6 (Incorrect)
(3) 40.8 (Incorrect)
(4) 122.4 (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
According to Bohr’s theory for hydrogen and hydrogen like atoms, the energy in electron volts is given by
the relation.

156
 z2
E  13.6 2
n
For doublly ionised Li atom z = 3 and it will behave like a hydrogen atom. For ground state.
n = 1 and hence we have
2
13.6   3
E 2
eV = 122.4 eV
1
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
36. The wavelength of the first spectral line in the Balmer series of hydrogen atom is 6561 A.
The wave length of the second spectral line in the Balmer series of singly ionized helium
atom is
(1) 1215 Å (Correct)
(2) 1640 Å (Incorrect)
(3) 2430 Å (Incorrect)
(4) 4687 Å (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
We know that Balmer series terminates at n = 2. Hence the first spectral line of Balmer series corresponds
to transition from n1 = 3 to n2 = 2. Hence we have
1  1 1  1 1
 R  12  2  2   R   
  2 3  4 9

36
 H1 
5R
36
or 6561 
5R
The second line of Balmer series of ionzied helium atom corresponds to transition from n1 = 4 to n2 = 2
1  1 1 
Hence  R  22  2  2 
 e  2  2 4 

157
 1 1  3  3R
 4R     4R   
4 6  16  4
4
 e (2) 
3R

 e ( 2 ) 4 5R 5
  
 H1 3R 36 27

6561  5
 e ( 2)   1215 Å
27
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
37. Imagine an atom made up of a proton and a hypotheticle particle of double the mass of
electron but having the same charge as that of the electron. Apply the Bohr atom model
and consider all possible transition of the hypothetical particle to the first excited level. R
is the Rydberg constant. The longest wavelength photon that will be emitted has wavelength
λ . In terms of R the value of λ will be
(1) 1.8 R (Incorrect)
(2) 7.2 R (Incorrect)
(3) 3.6 R (Correct)
(4) 4/R (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
Rhc
The energy expression corresponding to nth permitted level is given by E n  
n2
where R = Rydberg’s constant is directly proportional to mass m of electron.
Hence m will get replaced by 2m
Rhc
Also the energy expression can be written as E n   2
n
2 Rhc
Energy of the hypothetical particle will be E n   2
n
The longest wavelength  max will be corresponding to minimum energy. This will happen when the
hypothetical particle makes a transition from n = 3 to n = 2.

158
 hc  1 1
  2 Rhc  2  2 
 max 2 3 
18
which gives  max   3.6 R
5R
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Bohr’s Theory
38. A muonic hydrogen atom is a bound state of a negatively charged muon of mass 207 mg
and a proton and the meuon orbit around the proton. Then the ground state energy of
mounic hydrogen atom is
(1) – 0.65 eV (Incorrect)
(2) – 2.8×103 eV (Correct)
(3) – 13.6 eV (Incorrect)
2
(4) – 2.8×10 eV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
22K2me e4
We known that the ground state energy of the hydrogen atom is gien by E1  
h2
Since the mass of muonic hydrogen atom is 207 times the mass of the electron, the ground state energy of
this mounic atom would be given by

22K2me e4
E (mounic) = E1    207 = –13.6×207 eV
h2
= –2.8×103 eV
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Bohr’s Thoery
39. The first excitation potential of hydrogen is

159
 (1) 13.6 V (Incorrect)
(2) 10.22 V (Correct)
(3) 12.1 V (Incorrect)
(4) 1.89 V (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The first excitation potential of hydrogen atom is the potential for transition from Ist Bohr’s orbit to the
second Bohr orbit.
E 2  E1 hc  1 1 
Hence V   R  
e e  12 22 

6.63  10 34  3  108

V = 10.22 V
1.6 10 19
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Thoery
40. The transition from the state n = 4 to n = 3 in a hydrogen atom results in ultraviolet radiation.
Infrared radiation will be obtained in transition.
(1) 2 1 (Incorrect)
(2) 32 (Incorrect)
(3) 42 (Incorrect)
(4) 54 (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
Energy of infrared radiation is less than the energy of ultraviolet radiation. As shown below the energy
released will be less in option (4) while the energy released will be more in option (1), (2) and (3). Hence
option (4) is correct.
1 1
For transition 4  3  E 2  E1  R  2  2  ultraviolet
2 4 

160
 1 1  7
 R    R   0.0546  R
 9 16  128
 1 3
For transition 2  1   E 2  E1   R  1    R  0.75 R
 4 4
1 1 5
For transition 3  2   E 2  E1   R     R  0.088 R
 4 9  36
1 1 3
For transition 4  2  R     R  0.1875 R
 4 16  16

For transition 5  4  R  1  1   9 R  0.225 R

 16 25  400
From this data we find that option (4) is the correct option.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Bohr’s Theory
41. An excited hydrogen atom emits a photon of wavelength λ when it jumps to ground state
from the excited state say of quantum number n. If R is the Rydberg constant the value of
n is given by

R
(1) (Correct)
  R  1


(2) (Incorrect)
 R  1

(3)  R  1 (Incorrect)
R

(4)  R  1 (Incorrect)
R

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:

161
 1 1 1 
According to Bohr’s theory we have    R 2  2 
 1 n 
R  1  R  1
or 2
 R   
n   
R
n2 
 R  1
R
n
 R  1
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
42. Hydrogen atom is excited from ground state to a state corresponding to principal quantum
number 4. The number of spectral lines obtained in the emission spectra is given by
(1) 2 (Incorrect)
(2) 3 (Incorrect)
(3) 5 (Incorrect)
(4) 6 (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:

The number of lines emitted in an emission spectra of Hydrogen corresponding to a transition from a state
n  n  1
of quantum number n to ground state is given by
2
 The number of lines that would be emitted when a transition take place from n = 4 to ground state is
4  4  1
given by 6
2
Hence option (4) is correct.

162
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Average Bohr’s Theory
43. In a hydrogen like atom, electron makes transition from an energy level with quantum
number n to another quantum number (n–1). If n >> 1, the frequency of the radiation emitted
is proportional to
1
(1) (Incorrect)
n
1
(2) (Incorrect)
n2
1
(3) 3 (Incorrect)
n2
1
(4) (Correct)
n3
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
According to Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom, frequency of radiation emitted is given by relation
 1 1
hv  R  2
 2

  n  1 n 
where R is Rydberg like constant for hydrogen like atom
2
1  n   n  1 
2

v R 2 
h  n  n  1 2 

R   n  n  1 n  n  1 
or v  2 
h  n 2  n  1 

R  2n  1 
v  
h  n 2  n  12 

R  2n  R  1 
Since n >>1 we have v     
h  n 4  h  n3 
1
or v
n3
Hence option (4) is correct.

163
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Difficult Bohr’s Theory
44. Electrons in hydrogen atom first jump from third excited state to second excited state and
then from second excited state to the first excited state. The ratio of λ 1 and λ 2 emitted in
the two cases is
7
(1) (Incorrect)
5
27
(2) (Incorrect)
20
27
(3) (Incorrect)
5
20
(4) (Correct)
7
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
For transition n2 = 3 to n1 =2 we have
hc 1 1 1
 E3  E 4  13.6  32  42   13.6  44
1
For transitionto n2 = 2 to n1 = 1 we similarly have
hc 1 1
 E 2  E 3  13.6  2  2 
2 2 3 
From above two equations we have
1 5
36 20
 
2 7
144 7
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
45. The binding energy of a hydrogen like atom in ground state is 217.6 eV. An electron having
energy of 130 eV is incident on the atom. Then the energy of the electron emerging after
interacting with this atom is
(1) 217.6 eV (Incorrect)

164
 (2) 87.6 eV (Incorrect)
(3) 130 eV (Correct)
(4) 347.6 eV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The electron undergoes an elastic collision with the concerned atom. Since 130 eV cannot raise the electron
from ground state to the first excited stae, the electron does not accept any energy from the electron.
Hence the electron will emerge after interaction with the atom with 130 eV.
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
46. The different lines in Lyman’s series have their wavelength lying between
(1) 0 to  (Incorrect)
(2) 911 Å to 1215 Å (Correct)
(3) 1000 Å to 1500 Å (Incorrect)
(4) 915 Å to 1211 Å (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
1 1 1 
For Lyman series, the wavelength of lines is obtained from the relation   R  2  2
 1 n 
We will get a line with shortest wavelength corresponding to transition from n =  to n = 1
1 1 1 
Hence R   2 R
S 1 n 
1 1010
S    911Å
R 10967700
For longest wavelength we will have n = 2
 1 3
Hence  L  R 1    R
 4 4
4 4 1010
 R  1215 Å
3 3 10967700
Hence option (2) is correct.

165
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Difficult Bohr’s Theory

47. The ratio of wavelength Hα and H β lines of Paschen’s series is of the order of

(1) 10 (Incorrect)
(2) 0.1 (Incorrect)
(3) 1.5 (Correct)
(4) 100 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:

The Pachen’s series is generated when transition from higher energy levels terminates at n1 = 3. Now H 
line of Paschen’s series will correspond to a transition for 4th to 3rd energy level. Hence
1 1 1 1 1 
  R  2  2 R   
 3 4   9 16 
144
or  
7R
Similarly H  line will be obtained corresponding to n1 = 3 and n2 = 5

1 1 1  1 1  16
  R  32  52   R  9  25   225 R
    
225
 
16 R

  144 16 R
   1.5
  7 R 225
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
48. The ratio of minimum to maximum wavelength in Balmer series is
(1) 5 : 36 (Incorrect)
(2) 36 : 5 (Incorrect)

166
 (3) 9:5 (Incorrect)
(4) 5:9 (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
Since the series involved is Balmer series, the transition terminates at n = 2
1  1 1 
   2 2
  n1 n 2 
It is clear that  will have maximum value corresponding to transition from n2 = 3 to n1 = 2
1  1 1  5 
 R  2  2 R  
 max 2 3   36 
For minimum value of  the transition has to be from  to n1 = 2
1  1 1 1
R  2  R
 min 2  4

 m in 4 5R 5
  
 m ax R 36 9
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
49. The ratio of the longest wavelengths corresponding to Lyman and Balmer series in hydrogen
spectrum is
9
(1) (Incorrect)
31
5
(2) (Correct)
27
3
(3) (Incorrect)
23
7
(4) (Incorrect)
29
Correct answer: (2)

167
Solution:
1  1 1 
According to the relation     R  n 2  n 2  the longest wavelength is obtained when the transition
 1 2 

take place from a quantum state one higher than the quantum state where the series terminates. Hence for
Lyman series
1 1 1 3
R  2  2 R  
L 1 2  4
and for Balmer series
1  1 1  5 
R  22  32   R  36 
B    
L 5 R 4 5
  
 B 36 3 R 27
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
50. An electron of a stationary hydrogen atom passes from the fifth energy level to the ground
level. The velocity that the electron acquired as a result of photon emission will be
24 m
(1) (Incorrect)
25 hR
24 hR
(2) (Correct)
25 m
25m
(3) (Incorrect)
24hR
24m
(4) (Incorrect)
25hR

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
The wavelength of the emitted radiation when the transition take place from n2 = 5 to n1 = 1 is given by the
relation
1  1 1 
 R  2 2
  n1 n 2 

168
 1  1 1  24 R 25
R 2  2  or   24 R
 1 5  25
h h  24 R
Linear momentum of photon emitted is p  
 25
Now p = mv ( hydrogen atom is stationary)
24 Rh v  24 hR
mv 
25 25 M
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
51. A diatomic molecule is made up of two masses m1 and m2 which are seperated by a distance
r. If we calculate the rotational energy by applying Bohr’ hypothesis of angular momentum
quantization its energy will be given by

(1)
 m1  m 2  n 2 h 2 (Incorrect)
2m12 m 22 r 2
2
n2 h
(2) (Incorrect)
2 m1  m 2  r 2

2n 2 h 2
(3) (Incorrect)
 m1  m 2  r 2
2

(4)
 m1  m 2  n 2 h (Correct)
2m1m 2 r 2

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
nh
Bohr’s condition for quantization of angular momentum is mvr 
2
m1  m 2
where m is the reduced mass of diatomic molecule and is  m 1m 2
If v denotes linear velocity and  the angular velocity we have v  r
n
 m  r r  n or  
mr 2
The rotational energy of the given diatomic molecule is given by

169
 2
1 2 1  n 
I   mr 2   2 
2 2  mr 

n 22 n 2  2  m1  m 2 
 Rotational energy is =
2 mr 2 2m1m 2 r 2
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
52. The electron in the hydrogen atom jumps from excited state n = 3 to ground state n = 1. The
photon thus emitted radiate a photosensitive material. If the work function of the material
is 5.1 eV the stopping potential of the photosensitive material is given by
(1) 5.1 V (Incorrect)
(2) 17.2 V (Incorrect)
(3) 7V (Correct)
(4) 12.1 V (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
When a transition take place from state n = 3 to n = 1, the energy of photon emitted is
13.6  13.6 
E = E2 – E1 =   2   12.1 eV which equals to hυ
32  1 
Let Vs be the stopping potential of the photo sensitive material. Then according to Einstein’s photoelectric
equation we must have
eVS  hv  0 = (12.1–5.1) = 7.0 eV
or VS = 7V
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
53. A doubly ionized lithium atom can be considered as a hydrogen like atom with atomic number
3. An electron is to be excited from the first to third Bohr’s orbit (ionizon energy of hydrogen
atom is 13.6 eV). The wavelength of the radiation required to achieve this excitation is

170
 (1) 0.114×10–6 m (Incorrect)
(2) 114.26 A (Correct)
(3) 0.114 A (Incorrect)
(4) 1142 A (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Th energy of the electron in nth Bohr’s orbit with atomic number z is given by z2 (En of hydrogen)
Energy E1 for lithium++ in Ist Bohr orbit is – (13.6)×9 eV
13.6  9
Energy E3 for lithium++ in 3rd Bohr orbit is  2
eV  13.6eV
 3
 Energy required for excitation from n = 1 to n = 3 for lithium++
E3 – E1 = 13.6(9–1) = 13.6×8 eV = 13.6×8×1.6×10–19 J
The wavelength  of radiation requird for this excitation to happen is

hc 6.63  1034  3  108

  = 0.11426×10–7 m = 114.26 A
E3  E1 13.6  8  1.6  1019
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
54. The ionisation energy of the hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. A photon is incident on a hydrogen
atom which is intially in the ground state and excite it to the n = 4 state. Then the wavelength
of the photon is (Given h = 4.14×10–15 eV)
(1) 974 Å (Correct)
(2) 974×10–6 m (Incorrect)
–7
(3) 974×10 m (Incorrect)
(4) 974×10–3 m (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
13.6
We know the energy of an electron in th nth orbit of hydrogen atom is given by E n   eV
n2
for n = 1 (the ground state) E1 = –13.6 eV

171
 13.6
for n = 4 E4    0.85eV
16
hc
Energy of photon = E4 - E1 = -0.85 - (-13.6) = 12.75 eV and this must be equal to

hc
= 12.75 eV

hc 4.14  1015  3  108
  = 974 A
12.75 12.75
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
55. A gas of identical hydrogen like atoms has some atoms in the lowest ground energy level A
and some in a particular upper (excited) energy level and there are no atoms in any other
energy level. The atoms of the gas move by transition to a higher energy level by absorbing
monochromatic light of photon energy 2.7 eV. Subsequently the atoms emit radiation of
only six different photon energy. Some of the emitted photons have energy 2.7 eV. Some
have energy more and some have less than 2.7 eV. This data is used to find the principal
quantum number of the initially excited level B. This qunatum number is
(1) 3 (Correct)
(2) 4 (Incorrect)
(3) 1 (Incorrect)
(4) 2 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Let z be the atomic number of hydrogen like atom. Refering
to figure we find that
E2 – E1 = z2 (10.2 eV)
E3 – E1 = z2 (12.1 eV)
E4 – E1 = z2 (12.75 eV)
Also E3 – E2 = z2 (1.89 eV)
E4 – E3 = z2 (0.66 eV)

172
If the 2.7 eV photon circle the atom, then state of quantum number 1 and 2 have to be excluded because
2.7 < z2 = (E2–E1) < z2 = (E3–E2)
It is possible that 2.7 eV photon may excite the atom from 3rd to 4th orbit. Then 2.7 eV = z2 (0.66 eV)
which gives z = 2
Hence the quantum number of intially excited state B is n = 3
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Critical Potential
56. A critical potential for hydrogen is 13.05 V. A hydrogen atom is bombarded by an electron
of corresponding energy. Then the wavelength of radiation emitted by the hydrogen atom
is
(1) 9515 Å (Correct)
(2) 95.15×10–6 m (Incorrect)
–12
(3) 9515×10 m (Incorrect)
(4) 9515×10–4 m (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Let  be required wavlength
hc
Then we have eV  where V denotes the corresponding critical potential

hc 6.6110 34  3  108
   = 9515 A
eV 1.6  1019  13.05
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Radioactivity
57. Beta rays emitted by a radioactive material are
(1) electromagnetic radiations (Incorrect)
(2) the electrons orbiting around the nucleus (Incorrect)
(3) charged particles emitted by the nucleus (Correct)
(4) neutral particle (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)

173
Solution:

From the basic studies of the phenomenon of radioactivity, it is known that  particles are fast moving
electrons emitted by the nucleus. One can confirm this by determing the e/m values of these particles.
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Radioactivity
58. Which of the follwing processes represent a γ decay
A
(1) Z X    AZ X  a  b (Incorrect)
A
(2) Z X  10 n  AZ 23 X  c (Incorrect)
A
(3) Z X  ZA X  f (Correct)
A
(4) Z X  01e  AZ 1X  g (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
During γ decay atomic number (z) and mass number A does not change. In option (3), this is the case. In
other options, either A or z, or both, are changing.
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Radioactivity
59. Half life of a radioactive substance A is 4 day.s The probability that a nucleus will decay in
two half lives is
1
(1) (Incorrect)
4
3
(2) (Correct)
4
1
(3) (Incorrect)
16
(4) 1 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)

174
Solution:
th th
 
After two half lives 1 4 fraction of nuclei will remain unchanged. Hence 3 4   fraction will decay..
3
Hence the probability that a nucleus decays in two half lives is .
4
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Radioactivity
60. A radioactive nucleus can decay by two difficient modes. The half life for the first mode is
T1 and that for the second mode is T2. The effective half life T of the nucleus would be
(1) T = T1 + T2 (Incorrect)
1 1 1
(2)   (Correct)
T T1 T2
1 1 1 
(3) n    n    n   (Incorrect)
T  T1   T2 
1 1
(4)  (Incorrect)
T  T1  T2 
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Denoting by 1 and  2 the decay constants of the two modes by which nucleus can decay we have
0.693 0.693
1  and  2 
T1 T2
The probability that an active nucleus decay by first mode in a small time dt is 1 dt and that for the second
mode is  2 dt. Then the probability that it decays either by first process or second process is  1dt   2dt  .
Now we can say that  is the effective decay constant. Hence the probability that the nucleus decay by
effective value of  in small time dt is  dt.
Hence we must have
dt  1dt   2dt or   1   2

0.693 0.693 0.693

or  
T T1 T2

1 1 1
or  
T T1 T2
Hence option (2) is correct.
175
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Difficult
Radioactivity
61. To determine the half life of radioactive element,
dN dN
a graph is plotted between n versus t
dt dt
representing the rate of radioactive decay at time
t. If the number of radioactive nuclei of this element
decreases by a factor of p after 4.15 years, the
value of p is
(1) 2 (Incorrect)
(2) 4 (Incorrect)
(3) 6 (Incorrect)
(4) 8 (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
dN
 N  N 0 e t hence   N 0e t
dt
 dN 
n   n e  N 0   t
 dt 
dN
n  t  log e  N 0 
dt
3 4
which is of the form of a straight line y = mx + c whose slope is  
64

or 1
    year 1
2
0.693
Half life T   2  0.693  1.386 years

t t
T

Now N  N 0  1  N 1 T
or 
2 N 0  2 
3
1  1  4.16  1  1
    
p  2  1.386  2  8
or p=8

176
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Easy Radioactivity
62. 10 milligrams of a radioactive material of half life two years are kept in a store for four
years. Then the amount of the material remaining unchanged is
(1) ~ 7.5 mg (Incorrect)
(2) ~ 2.5 mg (Correct)
(3) ~ 0.25 mg (Incorrect)
(4) ~0 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Half life of the given material =  1 2  2 yr
The time interval = t = 4 yr. (given)  2  1 2
10 mg
The amount of mass remaining = 2 = 2.5 mg
 2
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Radioactivity
63. For a given sample, the counting rate is 47.5 α particle/min. After 5 minutes the count is
reduced to 27 α particles/min. Then the half life of the sample is
(1) 11 minute (Incorrect)
(2) 5.99 minute (Correct)
(3) 0.59 minute (Incorrect)
(4) 0.11 minute (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Initial counting rate = 47.5 a particles/min
Final counting rate after 5 minutes 27  particles/min

177
 47.5 
 27  47.5 e or e
27
2.303  0.2455
or   0.1157 min 1
5
0.693  0.693 min
Half life of sample T1 2  = 5.989 min  5.99 minute
 0.1157
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Radioactivity
64. One milligram of thorium emits 22 α particlea per unit solid angle per minute. The half life
of thorium is of the order of
(1) ~ 100 years (Incorrect)
(2) ~ 1000 years (Incorrect)
(3) ~ 10000 years (Incorrect)
(4) ~ 1010 years (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
22  4  22 
Number of  particle per sec in all direction is given by 
60 15
23
0.001 6.02  10
No. of atoms in 1 milligram of thorium =
232
22 
Decay rate per second =
15
22    0.001 6.02  1023
  
15 232
232  22 
 23
 1.775  1012
15  0.001 6.023  10
0.693
T1 2   1.23  1010 year

Hence option (4) is correct.

178
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Difficult Radioactivity
30
65. A does of 5 mc of 15 P is administred intraenously to a patient whose blood volume is 3.5
litre. At the end of one hour it is assumed that the phosporous is uniformly distributed.
Then the count rate after per ml of withdrawn blood ofter one hour is (assume that the
counter had an efficiency of only 10%). Given 1 mc = 3.7×107 dis/s and half life of
phosphorous is 14 day.
(1) 5.3×102 dis/s (Correct)
3
(2) 5.0×10 dis/s (Incorrect)
(3) 5.3×107 dis/s (Incorrect)
(4) 530 dis/s (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
5
Dose per ml = mc
3500
1
Number of disintegration  3.7×107 per sec. in blood
700
After one hour we can assume no decay.
1 1
Disintegration counted =   3.7  107 = 5.3×102 dis/s
10 700
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Radioactivity
66. Masses of two isobars 29Cu64 and 30Zn64 are 63.9298 u and 63.9292 u. It can be concluded
from this
(1) Both isobars are stable (Incorrect)
(2) Zn64 is radioactive decaying to Cu64 through  decay (Incorrect)
(3) Cu64 is radioactive decaying to Zn64 through  decay (Incorrect)
(4) Cu64 is radioactive decaying to Zn64 through  decay (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

179
Solution:
In  decay process atomic number increases by 1 whereas mass number remains same. Hence the
possible nuclear reaction is

29 Cu 64  30 Zn 64  1e0
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Radioactivity
67. A radioactive sample consist of two distinct spices having equal number of atoms intially.
The mean life one spices is τ and that ofother 5 τ . The decay products in both cases are
stable. The following figure shows graphs P, Q, R, S the plot of the total number of radioactive
nuclei as a function of time. Which of the graphs P, Q, R and S represent the best form of
the plot?

(1) P (Incorrect)
(2) Q (Incorrect)
(3) R (Incorrect)
(4) S (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)

180
Solution:
Since it is the process of radioactivity decay the total number of atoms cannot remains constant (as in
option 1). Also the total number of atoms cannot ever increase (as in option 2 and 3). The total number of
atoms can only decrease with time. Hence option (4) is the best plot.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Radioactivity
68. An accident occurs in a laboratory in which a large amount of radioactive material with a
known half life of 30 day becomes embedded on the floor walls etc. Tests show that the
level of radiation is 32 times the permissible level of normal occupancy of the room. Assuming
that the last statement is corerct, after how many days the laboratory can be safety occupied
after.
(1) 32 days (Incorrect)
(2) 100 days (Correct)
(3) 20 days (Incorrect)
(4) Lab can safety be reoccupied after an infinite time (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Since the initial value of radiation is 32 times the permissible level we have to find t after which the activity
drops to 132 of its initial value which implies that we must have

N 1 1
 
N 0 32  2 5
Since the half life is 20 days, the lab will be safe for use after 5 half–lives i.e., t = 20×5 = 100 days
Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Radioactivity
69. 10 mg of carbon from living material produce 200 counts per minute due to a small proportion
of radioactive isotope carbon 14. A piece of ancient wood of mass 10 mg is found to give 50
counts per minute. Assuming that carbon 14 content of the atomsphere has remained
unchanged the estimated age of the wood sample is (Given half life of carbon is 5700
years)

181
 (1) 1.41×107 years (Incorrect)
(2) 1.41×1010 years (Incorrect)
4
(3) 1.41×10 years (Correct)
(4) 1.41×1014 years (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
Since the amount of carbon–14 in atomsphere remain constant and a living matter acquires carbon from
atmosphere, the count from a living matter represent the amount of carbon–14 present in atmosphere. The
ancient wood which has now 50 counts per minute from 10 mg in the begining must have the same count
rate as from the living matter that is 200 count per minute from 10 mg. Thus the age of the ancient wood is
the time in which the carbon–14 count has decreased from the initial value of 200 counts per minute from
10 mg to the find value of 50 counts per minute from 10 mg. Then  the disintegration constants of C14 is
given by
0.693
  year 1 ( T12 = 5700 years)
5700
Representing by t the age of ancient wood we have
 0.693  0.693
 t t
50  200 e  5700  or 4  e 5700

2.302  6021 5700

t  1.41 104 years
0.693
Hence option (3) is coorect.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Easy Nucleus

70. The total kinetic energy, of the electron antineutrinos pair, in the β –decay process, equals
8.10×106 eV. The antineutrinos, formed in this decay, could escape with a maximum kinetic
energy of
(1) zero (Incorrect)
6
(2) Much less than 8.0×10 eV (Incorrect)
(3) Nearly 0.8×106 eV (Correct)
(4) Much larger than 0.8×106 eV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)

182
Solution:
The following reaction represents  decay process
n  pe
In this decay process the kinetic energy of the pair of electron and antineutrons is constant. When K.E of
electron is maximum, K.E. of υ is zero. The antineutrinos will have maximum energy when K.E of electron
is zero.
Maximum K.E of antineutron will be nearly 0.8×106 eV.
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Bohr’s Theory
71. Out of the following which one is not a possible energy for a photon to be emitted by a
hydrogen atom.
(1) 1.9 eV (Incorrect)
(2) 11.1 eV (Correct)
(3) 13.6 eV (Incorrect)
(4) 0.65 eV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
According to Bohr’s theory the energy of a photon emitted when it makes a transition from a quantum state
n2 to n1 is given by
 1 1 
E  hv  E n 2  E n1  R  2  2 
 n1 n 2 
13.6
Also the value of E corresponding to quantum number n is given by E n   eV
n2
From above we get
E1 = –13.6 eV E2 = –3.4 eV
E3 = 0.85 eV E4 = 0.58 eV
It is clear that 11.1 eV is not obtainable for the difference of any one of the above given values.
Hence option (2) is correct.

183
 Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei
Easy Nucleus
72. During a negative beta decay
(1) an atomic electron is ejected (Incorrect)
(2) an electron which is already present within the nucleus is ejected (Incorrect)
(3) A neutron in the nucleus decays emitting an electron (Ccorrect)
(4) A part of the binding energy of the nucleus is converted into an electron (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
During a negative beta decay, the reaction which takes place is
1
0 n  11 p  01e  

Here υ is an anti neutrinos

Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Binding Energy
73. In the photo disintegration equation for the deutron the reaction energy is 2.227 ± 0.003
MeV is
γ  hv  + 1H 2  1H 2 + 0n1 + 2.27 MeV
From the mass spectrometer the mass differences between the doublet 2 (1H2) and D (1H2)
is 1.5380 ± 0.0021×10–2 amu. If the mass of hydrogen atom is 1.008145 ± 0.000003 amu.
Then the mass of neutron is given by
(1) 1.0089992 + 0.0000021 amu (Incorrect)
(2) 1.0089992 + 0.000003 amu (Incorrect)
(3) 1.0089992 + 0.000008 amu (Correct)
(4) 1.0089992 + 0.003 amu (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The mass of neutron is given by
2.27
M  1 H 2   M  1 H1   amu
931

184
 = –0015380 + 1.008145 – 0.002392 = 1.0089999 amu
Errors:
(i) Energy 2.27  0.003 MeV equivalent of an error of 0.000003
(ii) Doublet error =  0.0000021 amu
(iii) Hydrogen atom = 0.00003 amu
Total maximum error is  0.000008 amu
Hence the mass of neutron is 1.0089992  0.000008 amu
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Binding Energy
74. The binding energy per nucleon for deuteron and helium are 1.1 MeV and 7.0 MeV
respectively. The two deutrons fuse to form a helium nucleus. The energy released in this
fusion reaction is
(1) 23.6 MeV (Correct)
(2) 32.6 MeV (Incorrect)
(3) 9.2 MeV (Incorrect)
(4) 26.9 MeV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Binding energy per nucleon for deutron = 1.1 MeV
Total binding energy of deutron = 4×1.1 = 4.4 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon for helium = 7.0 MeV
Total binding of helium 14 × 7 = 28.0 MeV
Energy released = 28  4.4 = 23.6 MeV
Hence option (1) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Binding Energy
75. The curve in the figure shows the binding energy per nucleon versus mass number for four
nuclei W, X, Y and Z. The process that would release energy is

185
(1) Y  2Z (Incorrect)
(2) W  X+Z (Incorrect)
(3) W  2Y (Correct)
(4) X  Y+Z (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
We know that energy is released when the total binding energy
of products is more than the rectants.
In option (3) we find that.
Binding energy of reactants = 120×7.5 = 900 MeV
Binding energy of products = 260×8.5 = 1020 MeV
Thus 1020 MeV > 900 MeV and this process would release energy.
In option 1
B.E of reactants = 60×7.5 = 450
B.E of products = 2 (30×50) = 300
Not possible
Similar is the case for process (2) and (4).
Hence option (3) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Nuclear Nuclear Reactions
22
76. 10 Ne nucleus after absorbing energy decays into two α particles and an unknown nucleus.
The unknown nucleus is
(1) nitrogen (Incorrect)
(2) carbon (Correct)
(3) boron (Incorrect)
(4) oxygen (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
In a nuclear reaction, the mass number and atomic number of reactants and products are conserved.

186
Hence
22
Ne10  energy  2He 42  X
22
Ne10  2He 42  X14
6

Obvisouly X is carbon with mass number 14 and atomic number 6.

Hence option (2) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Nuclear Reactions
77. The nucleus of Pu238 decays to U234 by emitting a α particle. The kinetic energy of the
emitted α particle is given by [you are given that atomic mass of Pu238 is 238.04954 amu
that of U234 is 234.040969 amu].
(1) 0059 MeV (Incorrect)
(2) 5.57 amu (Incorrect)
(3) 2.76 MeV (Incorrect)
(4) 5.57 MeV (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
The reaction
P 238  U 234  2 He 4  Q
Represents the decay process of Pu238
Here Q is representing the energy of nuclear reaction
Q = m (Pu238) – [m (U234) + m (2He4)]
Q = 238.04954 – [234.04096 + 4.002603] = 0.00598 amu = 0.00598×931 = 5.57 MeV
This energy would have to shared by U234 and  particle. However U234 is very massive as compared to
the mass of the  particles. Hence this energy of 5.57 MeV can be taken as the kinetic energy of the
emitted  particle.
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Atoms and Nuclei
78. In the options given below, let E denotes the rest mass energy of a nucleus and n represent

187
 a neutron. The correct option is

(1) E  92
236
U   E  137
53 I   E  39 Y   2E  n 
97
(Correct)

(2) E  92
236
U   E  137
43 I   E  29 X   2E  n 
97
(Incorrect)

(3) E 239
92  
U E 140
56  
Ba  E 94
36 
Kr  2E  n  (Incorrect)

(4) E 235
92 U  E  140
56 Ba   E  94
36 Kr   E  n  (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
Rest mass of parent nucleus should be greater than the rest mass of daughter nuclei. Hence option (1) is
correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Nuclear Fusion
79. T he fusion r eaction 21H2  2He4 + energy is proposed to use for the production of industrial
power. Assuming the efficiency of the process to be 30%, the number of deutrons atoms
per second required to produce an output of 50000 kW is of the order of [Given mass of
1
H2 = 2.01478 amu and mass of 1He2 = 4.00388 amu].
(1) ~ 1017 (Incorrect)
(2) ~ 1018 (Incorrect)
19
(3) ~ 10 (Incorrect)
(4) ~ 1020 (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
The reaction is represented by 21H2  2He4 + energy
Mass defect m [2×2.04178  4.00388] = 0.02568 amuu
Energy released = 0.02568 × 931 MeV = 23.91 MeV
30
Since efficiency of the process is 30% actual output is 23.91  7.173MeV
100
7.173
Actual output per deutron atom is  3.587 MeV = 3.587×1.6×10–12 J
2

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Output required = 50000 kW = 5×107 J = 5×107 J
No. of deutron atomsrequired to produce this output
5 107
 12
 871.4  1017  1020 atoms / s
3.587  1.6 10
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Average Nuclear Fusion
80. A certain mass of hydrogen is changed to helium by the process of fusion. The mass defect
in fusion reaction is 0.02866 u. The energy liberated per u is (1u = 931 MeV)
(1) 13.35 MeV (Incorrect)
(2) 2.67 MeV (Incorrect)
(3) 26.7 MeV (Incorrect)
(4) 6.67 MeV (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:

Total mass defect  m in the fusion reaction is 0.02866 u

Total energy released = 0.02866×931 MeV
Since 4 nuclei of hydrogen fuse to form a helium nucleus.
0.02866  931
 Energy realeased per nucleus = = 6.67 MeV
4
Hence option (4) is correct.

Unit–18 : Atoms & Nuclei

Difficult Nuclear Fusion
81. A star initially has 1040 deutrons. It produces energy via the process 1H2 + 1H2 + p and
1
H2 + 1H3  2He4 + n. If the average power radiated by the star is 1016 W, the deutron
supply of the star is exhaused in a time of the order of
(1) 106 s (Incorrect)
8
(2) 10 s (Correct)
(3) 1012 s (Incorrect)

189
 (4) 1016 s (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The given reactions are
2
1 H  12 H  13 H  p
2
1 H  13 H  24 He  n

3  12 H   42 He  n  p
Mass defect  m = (3×2.014 – 4.001 – 1.007–1.0008) = 0.026 amu
Energy released = 0.026×931 MeV
= 0.026×931×1.6×10–13 = 3.87×10–13 J
This is the energy produced by the consumption of 3 deutron atoms.

1040  3.87  1012

The energy released by 1040 deutrons = = 1.29×1028 J
3
The average power radiated is 1016W = 1016 J/s
1.29  10 28
 Time required to exhaust all the deutron of the star will be given by 16
 1.29  1012 s  1012
10
Hence option (3) is correct.

190
 UNIT–19 : ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to understand, appreciate and apply the following concepts:
 Distinguish between conductors, semi-conductors and insulators.
 Discuss the intrinsic semi-conductor, its conductivity and factors affecting its conductivity.
 Appreciate the fact of delibrate addition of impurity in a pure semi-conductor to enhance its conductivity,
that is ‘doping process’.
 Distinguish between p-type and n-type semi-conductor on the basis of nature of dopant (impurity)
atom.
 Discuss the formation of a p-n junction and semi-conductor diode.
 Discribe the working of a p-n finction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.
 Discribe the characterstics of an ideal p-n junction diode and sketch its current-voltage relation.
 Outline the use of several forms of special purpose diodes, including zener diode, LED, photodiode
and solar cell.
 Design a circuit which explains the action of p-n junction diode as rectifier.
 Explain the basic theory and operation of junction transition (npn configuration as well as pnp
configuration).
 Describe the characterstics of a junction transistor - input characterstics, output characterstics and
transfer characterstics.
 Calculate the input resistance, output resistance and current gains in CE and CB configurations by
solving Kirchaff’s loop equations for input and output circuits.
 Describe the switching action of npn transistor in CE configuration by making reference to its voltage
(input / output) transfer / mutual characterstics.
 Describe the amplification or amplifier action of transistor in CE configuration by making reference
to output characterstics (a small change in base current leading to comparitvely large change in
collector current).
 Derive the voltage gain, ac current gain and power gain of an amplifier.
 Describe the action of transistor as an oscillator by making reference to feadback process and tank
/ oscillatory LC circuit.
 Distinguish between analogue and digital circuits.
 Define and describe the basic logic gates OR, AND, NOT, NAND and NOR.

191
192
Semiconductor and Electronic Devices
Semiconductors: The semiconductors and solids whose electrical conductivity lies between very high
conductivity of metals and very low conductivity of insulators. The pure seminconductors are insulators at
very low temperature. Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases, which is a behaviour
opposite to that of a metal. The most common semiconductors are elemental semiconductors, example
silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) and compound semiconductors example inorganic CdS, GaAs, CdSe,
InP etc.
Classifiction of solids inot conductors, insulators and semiconductors on the basis of energy
band diagram

Energy Band
According to Bohr’s theory in an isolated
atom; the allowed energy state of an electron
depends on the principle quantum number
(n).For a particular value of n there is only one
allowed energy state. The allowed energy
states are seprated from one another by a
forbidden region or energy gap. Fig. shows
energy state for n = 1 (ground state) and n = 2
(the first excited state). We say energy state of
an isolated atom are singlets i.e. there is one
value of allowed energy for a particular value
of n.
In a solid we have a large number of atoms/molecules very closely packed. The electron in one atom
experience a force due to neighbouring atoms/molecules also. We say we have intracting atoms. To consider
the effect of interaction we confine our attention on electrons in the outermost orbit around the atoms

193
(i.e. valency electrons). For “two interacting atoms” we find that for one value of n there are two nearly
allowed energy states i.e. energy states become doublets. The allowed energy states are triplets (i.e. three
nearby energy states for one value of n) for three interacting atoms. Generallising the result; in a solid
number of interacting atoms is very large (~ 1020). For one value of n we have about 1020 allowed energy
states in a small energy range. The energy is continuous variable within this small rnge. This is known as an
energy band. The energy band corresponding to valence electrons is known as valence band. The energy
band for next value of n is known as the conduction band. In general there is a forbidden region (where
here is no allowed energy state) between the valency and the conduction band. This is known as the energy
gap (Eg) as shown in Fig 1. This is known as band theory of solids.
With no external energy available the valency electrons reside in valence band i.e. energy states in valency
band are filled. There are no electrons in conduction band i.e. the conduction band is empty as shown in
Fig. 1.
The energy gap Eg may be zero, small or large. This leads to classification of materials as conductors;
semiconductor or insulators.

Case–I : Conductors
When the conductioin band is partically filled and valence band is
partially empty or when the conduction band and valence band overlap
each other (Eg = 0). The electron can easily more from valence to
conduction band i.e. are mobile. This makes large number of free
electrons available for electrical conduction. Thereore, the resistance
of such materials is very low and conductivity very high. These materials
are referred as metals.

Case–II : Insulators
In this case a large energy gap (Eg) exists [Eg >3eV]. There are no free electrons in the conduction band.
As the energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be excited from the valence band to the conduction
band by thermal excitation. This is the case of insulators.

Case–III : Semi-conductors
In this case, there is a finite and a small energy gap [Eg > 3eV] exists. Because of this small Eg, at room
temperature some electrons cross the energy gap and enter the conductor band. The electrons that jump to

194
cnoduction band are mobile. The valency created in valence band is also mobile in valence band. They
behave as positive changes and are also responsible for conduction in a semi-conductor. Hence its resistance
is not as high as that of insulators. There conductivity can be increased with rise in the temperature, as due
to thermal excitation, more and more electrons can cross the energy gap (Eg). These materials are referred
as semiconductors.

Intrinsic Semiconductor
A pure semiconductor, free from any inpurity is called ‘intrinsic’ semiconductor. Its electrical conductivity,
which arises by thermal excitation of electrons from the valence band to the conduction band is known as
intrinsic conductivity. Most commonly known intrinsic semiconductors are cryslats of Ge and Si. We know
that an atom of Si or Ge has four valence electrons. In its crystalline structure, energy Si or Ge atom tends
to share one of its four valence electrons with each of its four nearest neighbour atoms and also to take
share of one electron from each such neighbour. These shared electron pairs are referred to as forming a
covalent bond or valence bond.
At very low temperature, all the valence electrons are tightly bound (all bonds are intact). As the temperature
increases, due to thermal excitation, some of there electrons may break–away and cross over to the
conduction bond (becomes free electron and available for conduction). This creates a vacancy in the
bond. The neighbourhood from which the free electrons (–q) has come out leaves a vacancy with an
effective change (+q). This vacancy with effective change +q is called a ‘hole’.
In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons ne is equal to the number of holes nh. That is
ne = nh = ni, where ni is called intrinsic charge carrier concentration.

195
When an electric field is applied to the pure semiconductor, the free elctrons in the conduction band move
in a direction opposite to the field, and the holes in the valence band move in the direction of field both
giving rise to electric current. (The motion of holes is however, the motion of bounded electrons from one
vacancy to the next within the valence band in a direction opposite to the applied field).
Hence, under the action of an electric field, the holes move towards negative potential giving rise to hole
current Ih and free electrons move towards positive polential giving rise to conduction curret Ie. The total
current, I is this the sum of conduction (electron) current Ie and the hole current Ih
I = Ie + Ih
Fig. (5) shows free electrons in conduction band and holes in valence band in the energy–band diagram.

It may be noted that, at equilibrium, the rate of generation of electron–hole pair is equal to the rate of
recombination of electron–hole pair.

Extrinic Semiconductor
The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor depends on its temperature, and very small at room temperature.
If, however a small amount of suitable impurity is deliberately added to the pure semiconductor, then the
conductivity is significantaly increased. Such materials are known as ‘extrinsic’ or ‘doped’ semiconductors.
The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the impurity atoms are called dopants.
The dopant has to be such taht it does not distort the original physical and chemical properties of pure
crystal.Forthis a small amout say, a few parts per million (impurity atoms per 108 pure atoms) of approximately
same size of original atom is added.
There are two types of dopants used in doping the letravalent Si or Ge.
(i) Pentavalent – Like Assenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P) etc.
(ii) Trivalent – Like Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al) etc.

n–type Semiconductor
When a pentavalent impurity (Valency 5) atom is added pure Si or Ge, four of the five valence electrons of
the impurity atom form covalent bonds with one each valence electrons of four Ge or Si atoms surrounding

196
it; while the fifth remains very weakly bound to the parent atom. As a result inonisation energy required to
set this electron free is very small and even at room temperature it will be free to move about in the crystal.
[For example, the energy required is 0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si]. Thus, the pentravalent dopant is
donating one extra electron for conduction and hence is konwn as donor impurity.
In a doped semiconductor the total number of conduction electrons ne is due to electrons contributed by
donors and those generated intrinsically, while the total number of holes nh, is only due to the holes intrinscially.
Hence electrons become the majority charge carriers and holes the minority carriers. These semiconductros
are therefore known as n–type semiconductors. For n–type semiconductor, we have
ne >> nh

p–type Semiconductor
When a trivalent inpurity (valency 3) atom is added to pure Si or Ge, as the dopant has one valence
electron less than Si or Ge, therefore thin impurity atoms can form covalent bonds with neighbouring three
origincal atoms but does not have any fourth electron to offer to original fourth atom. So the bond between
fourth atom and trivalent impurity atom has a valency or hole. When an external electric field is applied, an
electron bound to neighbouring Ge or Si atom may jump to fill this vacancy, leaving a vacancy or hole at its
own stie.
This phenomenon continuous, these holes are in addition
to the intrinsically generated hole, while the source of
conduction (free) electrons is only intrinsic generation.
Thus, for such a material, the holes are the majority carriers
and electrons are minority carriers. Therefore, extrinsic
semiconductor doped with privalent impurity is called p–
type semiconductor. For p–type semiconductor we have,
nh >> ne

197
Important Conclusion
(i) Extrinsic semiconductor (n–type or p–type) maintains an overall charge neutrality as the charge of
additional charge carriers is just equal and opposite to that of ionised cores in the lattice (Crystal).
(ii) The electron hole concentration in an extrinsic semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by
nenh = ni2
(iii) The semiconductors energy band structure is affected by doping. In case of exterinsic semiconductors
additional energy states due to donor impurities and acceptor impurities also exist. In the energy
band diagram of n–type semiconductor, the donor energy level ED is slightly below the bottom of
conduction band and electrons from this level move to conduction band with a very small supply of
energy as shown in figure 8(a). Similarly, for p–type semiconductor the acceptor energy level EA is
slightly above the top of the valence band as shown with a very small suplly of energy an electron
from the valence band can jump to the level of EA as shown in figure 8(b).

(iv) Distinction between intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

1. It is a pure, natural semiconductor, such It is prepared by adding a small quantity of
as pure Ge and pure Si. impurity to a pure semiconductor, such as
n – and p – type semiconductors.
2. In it the concentrations of electrons and In it the two concentrations are unequal.
and holes are equal. There is an excess of electrons in n–type
semiconductor and an excess of holes in
p–type semiconductors.
3. Its electrical conductivity is very low. Its electrical conductivity is significantly high.
4. Its conductivity cannot be controlled. Its conductivity can be controlled by adjusting
the quantity of the impurity added.
5. Its conductivity increases exponentially Its conductivity also increases with temperature,
with temperature. but not exponentially.

198
(v) Distinction between n–type and p–type Semiconductors

n–type Semiconductor p–type Semiconductor

1. It is an extrinsic semiconductor obtained It is also an extrinsic semiconductor obtained
by adding a pentavelent impurity to a by adding a trivalent impurity to a pure intrinsic
pure intrinsic semiconductor. semiconductor.
2. The impurity atoms added provide extra The impurity atoms added create holes in the
free electrons to the crystal lattice and crystal lattice and are impurity to a pure intrinsic
are called donor atoms. semiconductor.
3. The electrons are majority carriers and The holes are majority carriers and the
the holes minority carriers. electron are minority carreris.
4. The electrons concentration is much more The hole concentration is much more than the
than the hole concentration (ne >> nh). electron concentration (nh >> ne).

Example–1:
The number of silicon atoms per m3 is 5×1028. This is doped simultaneously with 5×1022 atoms per m3 of
Assenic and 5×1020 per m3 atoms of Indium. Calculate the number of electrons and holes. Given that ni =
1.5×1016 m–3. Is the material n–type or p–type?
Solution:
Given ni = 1.5×1016 m–3
ND = 5×1022 atoms m3
NA = 5×1020 atoms m3
as nenh = ni2 .....(1)
For charge neutrality
ND–NA = ne–nh .....(2)
From (1) & (2), we get

1 2
ne   N D  NA    N D  NA   4n i 2
2

1 2 2
   5  1022  5 10 20    5 10 22
 5 10 20   4  1.5  1016 
2
= 4.95×1022 atoms per m3

199
 2
n i 2 1.5  10 
16

 nh   22
 4.75 109 atoms per m3
ne 4.95 10

as ne >> nh
Semiconductor material is n–type.
Example–2:
Why does the electrical conductivity of a pure semiconductor increases on heating?
Solution:
As the temperature increases, more and more of the electrons in the valence band gain energy to cross the
energy gap and enter the conduction band. This results in an increase in the number of charge carriers.
Hence conductivity increases.
Example–3:
Are the mobilities of electron and hole equal in semiconductor.
Solution:
No, the electron mobility is higher than hole mobility because hole mobility is due to bounded electron
movement in valence band.

Electrical Conductivity of a Semiconductor Crystal

We now know that when an external electric field is applied, the free electrons move opposite to the field
and the holes in the direction of the field, thus constituting current in same direction.
Let us consider a cylinderical semiconductor of length  , area of cross–section ceoncentration nh. When
V
an electric field E is applied across the ends of a semiconductor then E  , a potential gradient is set up

across the length of semiconductor.

Also total current in the circuit, I will be

I = Ie + In

200
 = (neeA Ve + nheA Vh)

I
or  e  n e Ve  n h Vh 
A

V
or  e  n e Ve  n h Vh 
RA

VA
or  e  n e Ve  n h Vh 
A

1  V V 
   e  n e e  nh h 
  E E 

   e  n eu e  n h u h 

 e and  h denote mobility of electron and hole respectively..

With rise in temperature charge carrier concentration increases exponentially whereas mobility (  e and
 h ) decreases slightly. Hence, the conductivity of a semiconductor increases with rise in temperature.

p–n Junction
A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor material, p–type and n–
type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. It is the basic building block of many semiconductor devices
like diodes, transistor etc.
Formation of p–n junction – consider a thin slice (wafer) of p–type semiconductor. By adding a small
quantity of pentavalent impurity, a part of p–type wafer can be converted into n–type. The wafer now
contains p–region and n–region and a interface or boundary between p and n–region as shown figure (9).

As soon as junction is formed two important processes occur: diffusion and drift. As we already know that

201
in n–type semiconductors concentration of electrons (free) is more than holes and in p–type concentration
of holes is more than electrons. Hence due to the concentration gradient across p and n sides, holes diffuse
from p–side to n–side and electrons diffuse from n–side to p–side.
This motion of charge carriers give rise to diffusion current across the junction. The diffused charge–
carriers combine with their counterparts in the vicinity of the junction and neutralise each other. Thus, in the
vicinity of the junction, positive charge (in the form of fixed donor ions) is built on the n–side and negative
charge (in the form of fixed accepter ions) on the p–side. Due to this accumulation of charge near the
junction, an internal electric field directed from positive charge towards negative charge develops. Due to
this field, an electron on p–side of the junction moves to n–side and a hole on n-side of junction moves to
p–side. The motion of charge carriers to this field in called drift. Thus a drift current, which is opposite to
the direction of diffusion current starts. As the accumulation of charge near junction increases, drift current
increases. The process continues till the diffusion current equals drift current. Thus a p–n junction is formed.
In a p–n junction under equilibrium these is no current. But a net potential difference across the junction
with n–side at higher potential. Since this junction potential tends to prevent the movement of electron from
n–side into p–side, it is often called a barrier potential ‘VB’ as shown in figure (10).
The region on either side of the junction which becomes depleted of the mobile charge carriers in called the
‘deplation layer’ or depletion ‘region’. The width of deplation layer is of the order of 10–6 m. The barrier
potential developed across the junction ‘VB’ is about 0.3 V for Ge and about 0.7 for Si. The width of
depletion layer decreases with rise in doping concentration as well as with rise in temperature.

Semiconductor Diode
A semiconductor diode is basically a p–n junction metallic contacts provided at the ends for the application
of an external voltage. It is a two terminal device as shown in figure 11(a) and 11(b).
The equilibrium barrier potential ‘VB’ can be altered by applying an external voltage ‘V’ across the diode
in two ways:
(i) By applying external field in the direction opposite to the barrier field (Forward bias).
(ii) By applying external fied in the direction of the barrier field (Reverse bias).

202
p–n Junction under Forward Bias
When an external voltage is applied across the diode
opposite the inbuilt barrier potential VB, it is said to be forward
biased. That is forward bias means p–side of the diode at
higher potential with respect to the n–side of the diode as
shown in Fig. 12(a). To apply forward bias we connect p–
side to the positive terminal of the battery and n–side to the
negative terminal. As a result, the depletion layer width
decreases and the barrier height is reduced as shown in the
figure 12(b). The effective barrier width under forward bias
is (V0–V).

203
If the applied voltage is small, the barrier potential will be reduced only slightly below the equilibrium (VB)
value, so the current will be small. If we increase the applied voltage significantally, the barrier is ultimately
eliminated and current increases exponentially. It is due to this reason that junction resistance is very low
for the forward bias. For an ideal diode it should be zero forward bias resistance.
Hence in forward based junction, the applied electric field E dominates the barrier field EB. As a result, the
majority charge carriers (holes in p–side and electrons in n–side) are pulled towards the junction. This
motion of charge carriers on either side give rise to the current. The total forward current is sum of hole
diffusion current and current due to free electron diffusion. The magnitude of this current is usually in mA.
Example–4:
A p–n junction diode is forward biased, what is the effect on the width of the depletion layer if the forward
voltage is further increased?
Solution:
As the forward voltage ‘V’ increases, the barrier (VB–V) further decreases. Hence depletion width decreases
further. When VB = V then barrier is completely eliminated. The deplection layer width tends to zero.

pn Junction diode under Reverse Bias

When a external voltage is applied across the diode in the direction of the inbuilt barrier potential VB, it is
said to be reverse biased. That is reverse biased means p–side of the diode at lower potential with respect
to the n–side of the diode. To apply reverse bias, we connect negative terminal of the battery to the p–side
and positive terminal of the battery to the n–side of the diode as shown in Fig. 13(a). As the direction of
applied voltage in same as the directions of barrier potential, the barrier height increases and depletion
layer width willdens as shown in Fig. 13(b) effective barrier height under reverse bias becomes (VB + V).
This supresses the diffiustion current i.e. flow of electrons from n–side to p–side and holes from p–side to
n–side. Thus, there is almost no current due to majority carriers. Hence resistance at junction in reverse
bias in very hight. For an ideal diode, reverse bias resistance is considered to be infinite.
However, when the junction is reverse biased, a very small reverse current (uA) flows across the junction.
This current is carried by few thermally generated minority carriers (electrons in p–side and holes in n–
side) which move across the junction under applied field E. This diode reverse current is not much dependent
on the applied voltage but depends upon the temperature.
The current under reverse bias is essentially voltage independent upto a critical reverse bias voltage,
known as breakdown voltage (Vbr). When V = Vbr, the diode reverse current increases sharply. If the
reverse/forward current exceeds the specified rated value (by the manufacturer), the diode gets destroyed
due to overheating.

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Example–5:
Indicate which of the following p–n junction diodes are forward biased and which are reverse biased?

Solution:
a) R.B as p–side at lower potential
b) R.B as p–side at lower potential
c) F.B as p–side at higher potential
d) F.B as p–side at higher potential

V–I Characterstatics of a Diode

The current voltage characterstic curve of a p–n junction diode is a graph showing the variation of current
as a junction of applied voltage as shown in the figure 14(a) and (b).

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The battery is connected to the diode through rehostat so that the applied voltage to the diode can be
changed. For different values of V, the value of I is noted. Note that in forward bias measurement, we use
milliammeter while we use microammeter in reverse bias, as current in reverse bias is significantly very
small (due to drift of majority charge carriers).
As one can see in the graph above, the forward bias current increases very slowly, till the voltage across
the diode crosses a certain value ‘Vth’. After this characteristic voltage ‘Vth’, the current increases
exponentailly, even for a small increase in the forward bias voltage. This voltage is called threshold voltage
or cut in voltage or Knee voltage (is 0.3 V for Ge diode and in 0.7 V for Si diode). The threshold voltage
is numerically equal to barrier potential VB, as at this point effect of barrier is completely elimination and
junction resistance tends to zero.

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For diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (  A) and almost remains constant with change in
bias. It is called as reverse saturation current. However, for special cases, at very high reverse voltage
(break down), the current suddenly increases.

Dynamic Resistance of a Junction Diode

The current voltage curve of a p–n junction diode shows that current does not vary linearly with voltage,
that is ohm’s law is not obeyed. It is a non–linear device. In this case, we define, a quantity known as
‘dynamic resistance’ (or a.c. resistance) of p–n junction diode. Dynamic resistance of a diode is defined as
the ratio of small change in voltage V to a small change in current I .

V
rd 
I
The dynamic resistance is not constant. It depends on the operating voltage.

Important Conclusion
The above discussion shows that p–n junction diode offers a very low resistance for the current to flow,
when forward biased, but a very high resistances when reverse biased. We can say that an ideal p–n
junction diode has zero forward biased resistance and infinite reverse biased resistance. It thus passes
current only in one direction (i.e. when forward bias). Hence an ideal p–n junction diode has a unidirectional
property. This property is used for rectification of a.c voltages.
Example-6:
The V-I characteristic of a silicon diode is shown the fig. 14.17. Calculate the resistance of the diode at
(a) ID = 15 and (b) VD = -10V.

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Solution:
Considering the diode characteristics as a straight line between I = 10 mA to I = 20 mA passing through
the origin, we can calculate the resistance using Ohm’s law.
(a) From the cure, at I = 20 mA, V = 0.8 V, I = 10 mA, V = 0.7V

rfb =  V/  I = 0.IV/10 mA = 10 
(b) From the curve at V = -10 V, I = -1  A,
Therefore,

rrb = 10V/1  A = 1.0 x 107 

Example–7:
When the voltage drop across a p–n junction diode increased from 0.65 V to 0.7 V, the change in the
diode current is 5 mA. Find the value of dynamic resistance of diode.
Solution:

V  0.7  0.65  V
rd  
I 5 103 A

 10 

p–n Junction Diode as a Rectifier

Case–I: Half Wave Rectifier
From the V–I characterstic of a junction diode we known that is allows current to pass only when it is
forward biased. So if an alternating voltage is applied across a diode the current flows only in that part of
the cycle when the diode is forward biased. This property is used to rectify alternating voltages and the
circuit used for this purpose is called a rectifier.
If an alternating voltage is applied across a diode in series with a load, a pulsating voltage will appear
across the load only during the half cycles of the ac input during which the diode is forward biased. Such
rectifier circuit, as shown in Fig. 17(a) is called a half–wave rectifier. The secondary of a transformer
supplies the desired ac voltage across terminals A and B. When the voltage at A is positive, the diode is
forward biased and it conducts. When a is negative, the diode is reverse–biased and it does not conduct.
The reverse saturation current of a diode is negligible and can be considered equal to zero for practical
purposes. (The reverse breakdown voltage of the diode must be sufficiently higher than the peak ac
voltage at the secondary of the transformer to protect the diode from reverse breakdown).
Therefore, in the positive half–cycle of ac there is a current through the load resistor RL and we get an
ouput voltage, as shown in Fig. 17(b) whereas there is no current in the negative half–cycle. In the next

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positive half–cycle, again we get the output voltage. Thus, the output voltage, though still varying, is restricted
to only one direction and is said to the rectified. Since the rectified output of this circuit is only for half of the
input ac wave it is called as half–wave rectifier.

Case–II: Full–Wave Rectifier

The circuit using two diodes, shown in Fig. 18(a) gives output rectified voltage corresponding to both the
positive as well as negative half of the ac cycle. Hence, it is known as full–wave rectifier. Here the p–side
of the two diodes are connected to the ends of the secondary of the transformer. The n–side of the diodes
are connected together and the output is taken between this common point of diodes and the midpoint of
the secondary of the transformer. So for a full–wave rectifier the secondary of the transformer is provided
with a centre tapping and so it is called centre–tap transformer. As can be seen from Fig. 18(b) the voltage
rectified by each diode is only half the total secondary voltage. Each diode rectifies only for half the cycle,
but the two diodes do so for alternate cycles. Thus, the output between their common terminals and the
centre–tap of the transformer becomes a full–wave rectifier output.

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Example–8:
A square wave is applied to a p–n junction diode, as shown.
Draw the ouput wave form across the diode which is assumed
to be ideal.

Solution:
The p–side of the diode is at zero potential (grounded). Therefore diode
conducts only when negative half appears across the terminals (F.B) and does
not conduct during positive half (R.B). Hence the output will be either 0V or
– 1V as shown.

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Special Purpose p–n Junction Diodes
(i) Zener Diode
It is a voltage–regulating device based upon the phenomenon of avalanche breakdown in reverse
biased p–n junction diode.
When the reverse bias voltage is increased, there is an abrupt rise in reverse saturation current.
When the reverse bias voltage reaches a certain value, known as ‘breakdown’ or ‘zerner’ voltage.
Thus, in this region of the curve, the voltage across the diode remains constant for very large range of
currents. We can use this region for the purpose of voltage stablizer or regulator at a pre–determined
value, (used this manner, it is known as ‘zener diode’).

In the above circuit zener diode is selected with a zener voltage VZ equal the voltage desired across
the load as shown in the above figure (19). Any change in the input d.c voltage is conducted by zener
diode, maintaining the current through the load constant and hence output voltage remains constant.
Thus the zener diode acts as a voltage regulator. Note that we have to select the zener diode according
to the required ouput voltage and accordingly the series resistance RS.
(ii) Photodiode
A photodiode is a special purpose p–n junction diode fabricated with a transparent window to allow
light to fall on the diode. It is operated under reverse bias. The circuit is shown in the figure 20(a).
When no light is falling on the junction, reverse saturation current (  A) flows. When light of appropriate
frequency (i.e. energy of photon (hv) greater than the energy gap (Eg) is made incident on the
junction, additional electron–hole pairs are generated near the junction. These light generated charge
carriers cross the junction and contribute to reverse saturation current.

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 The magnitude of the photoelectric current depends on the intensity of the incident light (number of
photons of light incident per second).
The p–n junction photodiodes can operate at frequencies of order of 1 MHz. hence they are used as
photodectors to detect optical signals, light operated switched, computer punched cards and electronic
counters etc.

I–V characterstic curves of a photodiode for different illumination intensities in reverse bias Fig.
20(c).
(iii) Light Emitting Diode
It is a heavily doped p–n junction which under forward bias emits spontanteous radiation.
When a p–n junction is forward biased, both the electrons and holes move towards junction. As they
cross the junction, electron–hole pair recombination takes place. On recombination, the energy is
released in the form of photons with energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap energy are
emitted. In case of Ge or Si diodes, the energy released is infra–red radiation. If however special
diodes are used for example gallium arsenide or indium phosphide, then energy released is visible
light. The diode is then called light emitting diode.
The semiconductors used for fabrication of visible LED’s must have a band gap of 1.8 eV (as
spectral range of visible light is from 3 eV to 1.8 eV). These LED’s are commonly used in remote
controls, burgular alarm systems, optical communication etc.

I–V characterstic curve of a LED (similar to Si diode).

LED’s have following advantages over conventional in candescent lamps:

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 (a) low operational voltage and less power
(b) fast action and no warm up time required
(c) nearly monochromatic light
(d) fast on–off switching capability
(v) Solar Cell
A solar cell is a p–n junction diode that converts solar energy directly into electrical energy. It is
bascially a p–n junction diode which generates emf when solar radiation falls on the p–n junction. It
works on the same principle as that of photodiode, except that no external bias voltage is applied
and junction area is kept much larger for proper absorption of incident solar radiation.
A p–Si wafer of about 300 um of n–Si is over on which a thin layer of 0.3 um of n–Si is grown over
on side by diffusion process. The other side of p–Si in coated with a metal (back contact). On the
top of n–Si layer a metal finger electrode (grid) is deposited. This acts as front contact.
The generation of emf by a solar cell, when light falls on, it is due to the following three processes:
(a) Generation of electron–hole pair due to light (with photon energy hv > Eg) near junction.
(b) Separation of electron and hole due to barrier field at the junction.
(c) Electron reaching the n–side collected by front contact and hole reaching the p–side collected
by back contact.
Thus p–side becomes positive and n–side becomes negative giving rise to photo voltage (emf).
When an external resistance ‘R’ is connected, a photoelectric current I flows through it.

Semiconductors with band gap close to 1.5 eV are ideal materials for solar cell fabrication. The importantt
criteria for solar cell fabrication are (i) band gap between 1 eV to 1.8 eV (ii) high optical absorption (iii)
electrical conductivity (iv) availability of the raw material and (v) cost.
The solar cells are used to power electronic devices in satellites and space vehicles and also as power
supply to some calculators.

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The I–V characterstic curve of solar cell is drawn in the fourth quadrant of the co–ordinate exes. This is
because a solar cell does not draw current but supplies the same to load as shown in Fig. 22(c).

Example–9:
In half wave rectification, what is the output frequency if the input frequency is 60 Hz. What is the output
frequency of a full wave rectifier for the same input frequency?
Solution:
(i) 60 Hz for half wave and
(ii) 120 Hz for full wave, as each half of cycle in full wave rectifier is conducted twice, one by each
diode.
Example–10:
A p–n photodiode is fabricated from a semiconductor with a band gap of 2.8 eV. Can it detect a wavelength
of 6000 nm?
Solution:

hc
Energy of photon E = hv =
λ

6.63  1034  3  108

 J
6000

6.63  1034  3  108

 eV
6000  1.6  1019
No, it can not detect a wavelength of 6000 nm. Because E = hv has to be grater than Eg.

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Example–11:
In case of p–n junction diode at high reverse bias, the current rises sharply. The value of reverse bias
voltage in known as
(a) Cut of voltage (b) Knee voltage
(c) Critical voltage (d) Zener voltage
Solution:
(d) Zener voltage
Example–12:
For detecting light intensity, we use
(a) Photodiode in reverse bias (b) Zener diode in reverse bias
(c) LED in forward bias (d) Solar cell
Solution:
(a) Photodiode in reverse bias

Junction Transistor
A transistor has three doped regions forming two p–n junctions between them. Accordingly, there are two
types of junction transistors:
(i) n–p–n transistor: Here two segments of n–type semiconductor (termed as emitter and collector)
are separated by a segment of p–type semiconductor (base).

(ii) p–n–p Transsistor: Here two segments of p–type semiconductor (turned as emitter and collector)
are separated by a segment on n–type semiconductor (base).

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All the three segments in n–p–n/p–n–p transistor have different thickness and different doping levels as
discussed below.
Emitter: This segment of transistor is of moderate size and heavily doped. It supplies large number of
majority charge carriers for the current flow through transistor.
Base: This is the central segment. It is very thin and lightly doped, as it controls the passage of charge
carriers from emitter to collector. So that not more than 5% recombination takes place at base and majority
of charge carriers move towards collector region.
Collector: This segment collects a major position of the majority charge carriers supplied by the emitter.
For this purpose, collector side is moderately doped and larger in size compared to emitter.
Transistor can be used two ways:
(i) Transistor as an amplifier and
(ii) As a switch
Depending upon its usage, biasing of transistor is done.
First we consider transistor ability to amplify the input signal (Amplification means strengthening the weak
input a.c signal). For amplification, emitter base junction is forward biased and the base collector junction
reverse biased.

Action of a Transistor
Under the forward bias, the majority charge carriers (electron in npn/holes in pnp) in emitters enter the
base region in large numbers. The base in thin and lightly doped, most of majority charge carriers entering
it pass on to the collector as it is reversed biased. A few of them recombine with minority at base as shown
in the figure 23 (a) and (b).
It is intersting to note taht due to forward bias, a large current enters the emitter base junction, but most of
it is diverted to adjacent reverse biased base–collector junction and the current coming out of the base
becomes a very small fraction of the current that entered the junction.
The current entering into the emitter from outside in equal to the emitter current IE similarly the current
emerging from the base terminal is IB and that from collector terminal IC. According to Kirchoff’s law.
I E = IC + IB
where IC  IE

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When the transistor is biased this way, emitter base junction forward biased and base–collector junction
reverse biased it is said to be in active state.
The current gain  ; in common–base configuration is

IC

I E

Since I E  IC ;  is less than one. This means there is no current gain in common–base configuration.
This is one important factor for limited use of transistor in common base configuration.
The input resistance, ri is

 V 
ri   EB 
 I E  VCB  constant

The output resistance r0 is

 V 
r0   CB 
 I C  IE  constant

The input resistance ri is low whereas output resistance r0 is high.

Transistor in Common–Emitter Configuration

The graph showing the variation of current with voltage in a transistor is called transistor characterstics.
The most widely used transistor is in common emitter configuration (CE).
When transistor is used in CE, congifuration, the input is between the base and emitter and output is
between the collector and emitter. The circuit used to obtain the characterstics curves in shown in Fig. 24.

217
(i) Input Characterstics
A curve is plotted between the base current IB against base emitter voltage VBE keeping collector–
emitter voltage VCE fixed. The VCE is kept large enough to make the base collector junction reverse
biased. Therefore, for Si transistor input characterstics may be obtained for VCE somewhere in range
of 3 V to 20 V. Since increase in VCE appears as increase in VCB, its effect on IB is negligible. As a
consequences for different values of VCE, we get identical curves. The input characterstics of a
transistor are shown in the Fig. 25(a).
We define a term called input resistance ‘ri’.

Input resistance ri – This is defined as the ratio of change in base emitter voltage VBE to the resulting
change in base current IB at constant collector – emiter voltage VCE.

 V 
ri   BE 
 I B  VCE

(ii) Ouput Characterstics

A curve is plotted between collector current IC and collector–emitter voltage VCE keeping base
current IB constant. As IB increases, IC will increase proportionality. Hence plot of IC versus VCE will
be different output curves correspoinding to different values of IB as shown in the Fig. 25(b)

218
 Output resistance – This is defined as the ratio of change in collector emitter voltage (VCE) to the
change in collector current  IC  at a constant base current (IB)

 V 
r0   CE 
 I C  I B

The linear segment of output characterstics can be used to calculate this parameter.
(iii) Mutual or Transfer Characterstics Curve
If base voltage VBE is increased by a small amount, both IB and IC will increase. Hence we defined a
term called amplification factor    . This is defined as the ratio of change in collector curernt to the
change in base current at a constant collector emitter voltage.

 I 
ac   C 
 I B VCE

 is a large positive number. i.e. there is a large current gain. This is one of the reasons why common–
emitter configuration is used more frequently.

The transconductance gm is the ratio of change in output current  IC  to the change in input voltage

 VBE  . Expressed mathematically

IC
gm 
VBE

Relation Between Transistor Parameters

By definition

VBE I
ri  ;  C
IB I B

I C
and gm 
VBE

 IC IB I
    C  gm
ri I B VBE IB

219
 I C
Also   and IE  IC  IB
I B

ΔI C
 IC ΔI B
  
I C  I B ΔI C
1
ΔI B


or 
 1

Rearranging we get



1 

Transistor as an Amplifier
For using the transistor as an amplifier, we use
active region of the transistor as shown in Fig.
25(c). As amplifier is used to amplify small and
weak alternating signals (V i). Now let us
superimpose an a.c signal Vi (to be amplified)
on the bias voltage VBB (d.c) as shown in the
circuit diagram Fig. 26. The output signal is taken
across collector and grounded emitter as shown
in the Fig. 26.
First consider input a.c signal Vi = 0; then
VCC + VCE + ICRL .....(1)
and VBB = VBE + IBRB .....(2)
As VCC is fixed d.c source, this implies from equation (1)

VCC  0  VCE  IC R L

That is change in IC due to change in IB causes a change in VCE.

VCE  IC R L

The change in VCE is the output a.c voltage V0.

220
  IC 
 V0  VCE  a.c I B R L  a.c  
 I B 

Hence voltage gain of the amplifier is

V0 VCE
AV  
Vi rI B

a.c R L

r
The negative sign represents that output voltage is opposite with phase with the imput voltage.

The power gain / amplification of a transistor is given as A P  A V a.c

It must be noted that transistor is not a power generating device. The energy for the higher a.c power at the
output is supplied by the input battery VBB.

Transistor as an Oscillator
In the above discussion, we realize that an input a.c given to transistor appears as amplified output a.c
signal. This means that an external input is necessary to sustain a.c signal in the ouput for an amplifier.
In an oscillator, we get an a.c output without any external input signal. In other words, an oscillator is a
device that generates electric oscillations of constant amplitude and of a desired frequency, without any
external inputs, the oscillations are self sustained.
To attain this, an amplifier is taken. A portion of the output power is returned back (feedback) to the input
in same phase (positive feedback) with the starting power as shown in the Fig. 27 (a). The feedback can
be achieved by inductive coupling (through mutual inductance) or LC or RC networks. Different types of
oscillators essentially use different methods of coupling the output to input (feedback network). In the
circuit given below Fig. 27(b) feedback is accomplished by inductive coupling from one coil (T1) to another
coil (T2). The resonant frequency v of this tuned or tank (LC) circuit determines the frequency at which the
oscillator oscillates.

1
v
2 LC

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Transistor as a Switch
When the transistor is used in the cut off or saturation state it act as a swith as shown in the Fig. 25(c).
Let us try to analyse the behaviour of Si transistor as switch using CE configuration. For input Vi less than
0.6 V, the transistor will be in cut off state and current IC will be zero.
I B = IC = 0
Hence V0 = VCC
(Using Kirchoff’s law in output circuit, V0 = VCC = VCE + ICRL)
When Vi becomes greater than 0.6 V the transistor is in active state. With increase in Vi, As ICRL term
increases V0 decreases, and tends towards zero. Transistor in this state goes into saturation.
We can conclude that as long as Vi is law and unable to forward bias the transistor, V0 is high (= VCC). If
Vi is high enough to derive the transistor into saturation, thenV0 is low (near to zero). When the transistor
is not conducting it is said to be switched off and when it is driven into saturation it is said to be switched
on.
Alternatively, we can say that a low input to transistor gives a high output and a high input gives a low
output. The switching circuits are designed in a way that transistor does not remain in active state.
Example–13:
In a silicon transistor, a change of 7.89 mA in the emitter current produces a change of 7.8 mA in the
collector current. Find the required change in the base current to produce an equivalent change in the
collector current?
Solution:

IC 7.8
Given     0.98
I E 7.89

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  0.98
As    86.7
1   1  0.98

I C
a.c 
I B

IC 7.8
 I B    90 A
 a.c 86.9

Example–14:

The input resistance of transistor is 665  . Its base current when changed by 15  A, results in a change
of 2 mA in the collector current. The transistor is used as CE amplifier with load of 5 k  . Find the voltage
gain of the amplified.
Solution:

RL
Voltage gain A V  a.c
ri

IC R L 2 103  5000

  = 1000
I B ri 15 106  665

Analogue Circuits and Digital Circuits

There are two types of electronic circuits analogue circuits and digital circuits.
In analogue circuits, the voltage orcurrent varries continuously with time. Such a signal is called ‘analogue
signal’. This is in the form of typical sinusoidal walleform.

223
In digital electronics we use only two levels are called digital signals. This signal is represented by pulse
waveform or square waveform. In digital circuits only two values (represented by 0 and 1) of the input and
output voltage are permissible.

Logic Gates
A gate is a digitcal circuit which follows certain logical relationship between input and output voltage.
Therefore, they are generally known as ‘logic gate’, gates because they central the flow of information.
Logic gates are used in calculators, digital watches, computers, robots, industrial control system and
telecommunication etc.
The five common logic gates used are OR, AND, NOT, NAND and NOR.
(i) OR Gate
An OR gate has two inputs related by one output. The truth table and logic symbol (circuit symbol)
are shown below. The output Y is 1 when either input A or B or both are 1. That is if any of the input
voltage is high input is high.
The Booliean representation of OR gate is
Y=A+ B

(ii) AND Gate

An AND gate has two inputs related by one output. The output Y is 1 only when both inputs A and
B are 1. That is if both the input voltages are high, then only output voltage is high. The logic symbol
and truth table are given as below.
The Booliean representation of AND gate is
Y = A.B or Y =A×B

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(iii) NOT Gate
This is the most basic gate with one input related to one output. It gives inverted version of input
voltage as output voltage. This is the reason it is also known as inverter. The logic symbol and truth
table are given as below:
The Booliean representation of NOT gate is

Y= A

(iv) NAND Gate

This is an AND gate followed by a NOTgate as shown in
Fig. 32. If the inputs A and B are both1 the output Y is not
1.
NAND gates are also called universal gates since by using
these gates we can realize other basic gates like OR, AND
and NOT. The logic symbol and truth table are given below:
The Booliean representation of NAND gate is
Y = A.B

(v) NOR Gate

This is an OR gate followed by a NOT gate as shown in
Fig. 34. Its output Y is only 1, when both inputs one 0.
Thelogic symbol and truth table are given below:
The Booliean representation of NOR gate is

225
 Y = A+B

Example–15:
Write the truth table for a NAND gate connected as given in figure.

Solution:
The above operation represent one input connected to one output through NOT gate.

Y= A, NOT gate

Example–16:
The output of an OR gate is connected to both the inputs of a NAND gate. Draw the logic circuit of this
combination and the truth table.
Solution:
When two inputs of NAND are joined together, it works as NOT gates. The OR gate connected to NOT
gate results in NOR gate.

226
Example–17:
Write the truth table for the following combination of gates.

Solution:

Example–18:
Justify the output waveform (Y) of the OR gate for the following inputs A and B given in figure below
Solution:
Note the following:
At t < t1; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
For t1 < t2; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 1
For t2 < t3; A = 1, B = 1; Hence Y = 1
For t3 < t4; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1
For t4 < t5; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
For t5 < t6; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 1
For t < t6; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1
Therefore the waveform Y will be as shown in the figure.
Example–19:
Sketch the output wavelength Y for NAND gate having inputs A and B as shown below:
Solution:

227
Example–20:
Why are NAND and NOR gates called digital building blocks?
Solution:
The repeated use of NAND or NOR gate can produce all the three basic gates (OR AND and NOT)
whose different combinations provide us large number of digital circuits. Hence NAND and NOR are
called digital building blocks.

228
 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
1. A sample of pure Ge has a hole density of 1013cm–3 at room temperature. When doped with antimony,
the hole density falls to 1011cm–3. Calculate the electron density of the doped Ge.
[Ans: 1015cm–3]
2. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases when radiation of wavelength shorter than
2480 nm is incident on it. Find the band gap of the semiconductor.
[Ans: 0.5 eV]
3. When the voltage drop across a p–n junction diode is increased from 0.65 V to 0.7 V, the change in
the diode current is 5 mA. What is the dynamic resistance of the diode?

[Ans: 10  ]
4. A square wave as shown below is applied to a p–n junction diode. Draw the output wave form
across the diode assuming it to be ideal.

5. In a p–n junction diode, the current I can be expressed as:

 eV 
I  I0 exp  1
 2 k BT 
where I0 is reverse saturation current, V is applied voltage for forward bias positive and reverse bias
negative. I is the current through diode.
kB is the Boltzmann constant (8.6×105 eV/k) and T is the absolute temperature. If for a given diode
I0 = 5×10–12 A and T = 300 k, then
(i) Find the forward current at forward voltage 0.6 V.
(ii) What will be the increase in current if voltage across the diode is increased to 0.7 V.
(iii) What is the dynamic resistance?

[Ans: (i) 0.629 A, (ii) 2.97 A, (iii) 0.336  ]

229
6. The circuit given below shows two diodes each with a forward bias resistance of 50 ohm and with
infinite backward resistance. If the battery voltage is 6V. Find the current through 100 ohm resistance.

[Ans: 0.02 A]
7. The V–I characterstics of silicon diode are shown above. Calculate the diode resistance at I = 20
mA and V = – 10 V.

[Ans: 10  , 107  ]
8. In a common emitter amlifier an increase of 50  A in the base current causes an increase of 1 mA in
the collector current. Calculate the current gain  . What will be the change in the emitter current?
Calculate  from the obtained value of  .
[Ans: 20, 1050  A, 0.95]
9. In a npn transistor 1010 electrons enter the emitter in 10–6S. 2% of the electrons are lost in the base.
Calculate the current amplification factor.
[Ans: 49]
10. An npn transistor is connected in common emitter configuration in which collector supply is 8V and
the voltage drop across the load resistance of 800  connected in the collector circuit is 0.8 V. If the
current amplification factor is 25; determine the collector emitter voltage VCE and base current IB. It
the input resistance of transition is 200  . Calculate the voltage gain AV and power gain AP.
[Ans: VCE = 7.2 V, IB = 40  A, AV = 100, AP = 2500]

230
11. In the given circuit below,  = 100, VCC = 24 V, RC = 4.7 k  , RB = 220 k  .

Find VCE,VBE and VBE, when IC = 1.5 mA.

[Ans: VCE = 16.95 V, VBE = 20.7 V, VBC = 3.75 V]
12. Write the truth table for the following combination of gates.

[Ans: ]
13. Write the truth table for the following circuit. Identify the logic operation performed.

[Ans: ]
14. Two amplifiers are connected one after other in series. The first amplifier has a voltage gain of 10 and
second has voltage gain of 20. If the input signal is 0.01 V, then calculate theinput a.c signal.
[Ans: 2V]
15. Out of the following combinations of gates given, identify the circuit, which performs the logic operation
‘AND’.

231
 [Ans: (ii)]

232
QUESTION BANK

233
 Key Learning Points
1. The large number of energy levels confined in a small region of energy range of a given solid, consitute,
a band known as ‘Energy Band’.
2. The upper energy levels are called conduction band and lower energy levels are called valence band.
3. In some solids, there is an energy gap in between conduction band and valence band; known as
forbiddengap.
4. In metals, the conduction band and valence band partly overlap each other and there is no forbidden
gap.
5. In isulators, forbidden gap is quite large (  3eV). Probability of electron moving to conduction band
at room temeprature is negligible, even if electric field is applied. Hence there is no conductivity of
the insulators.
6. In semiconductor, the forbidden gap is small (1 to 2 eV). These are perfect insulators at OK. With
the rise in temperature, their conductivity increases, because some of the electrons accquire thermal
energy and cross over to the conduction band from valence band and act as free electrons, available
for conductor.
7. A pure semiconductor which is free from every impurity is called intrinsic semiconductor. In intrinsic
semiconductor ne = nh = ni. Where ne and nh are number density of holes in valence band, ni the
number density of intrinsic carriers and ne the number density of electrons in the conduction band.
8. The process of delibrate addition of a desirable impurity to a pure semiconductor to modify its
conductivity in a controlled manner; is called dopoing. The semiconductor so obtained is called
extrinsic semiconductor. The impurity atoms added are called dopants.
9. When a pure semiconductor of Ge or Si is doped with a controlled amount of pentavelent impurity
atom like assenic, antimony or bismuth etc. we obtain a n–type semiconductor with electrons as
majority change carriers (ne >> nh) and impurity is called donor.
10. When a pure semiconductor of Ge or Si is doped with a controlled amount of trivalent impurity like
induium, boron or aluminium etc. We obtain a p–type semiconductor with holes as majority change
carriers (nh >> ne) and in this case impurity is called acceptor.
11. Energy band diagram for extrinsic semiconductor is modified. In n–type, there is additional donor
level just below conductor band and in p–type there is additional acceptor level just above valence
band.
12. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor crystal is given by

1
  e  n ee  n h  h 


234
13. When a semiconductor is heated, its resistance decreases, specific resistance decreases and electrical
conductivity increases.
14. A thin layer formed on both sides of the p–n junction, caused by the diffusion of charge carriers,
which is devoid of the free charge carriers but has immobile ions is called depletion layer. The
thickness of depletion layer is of the order of  m.
15. The potential barrier or electric field set up across the junction depends upon the amount of doping
of the semiconductor crystal and temperature.
16. During forward bias (p–side at higher potential than n–side), the width of depletion layer becomes
thin and diode offers very low resistance. An ideal p–n junction diode in forward bias has zero
resistance.
17. During reverse bias (n–side at higher potential than p–side), the width of depletion layer widens and
diode offers very high resistance. An ideal p–n junction diode in reverse bias has infinite resistance.
18. Voltage drop across the p–n junction diode in forward bias is zero, whereas in reverse bias it is equal
to the voltage applied.
19. The potential barrier at p–n junction opposes the forward current. The kinetic energy required by the
majority charge carriers to diffuse decreases [q VB–V]; whereas it aids the reverse current. The
kinetic energy required by the majority charge carriers to drift increases [q (VB+V)].
20. An ideal p–n junction diode has unidirectional property. It conducts only in one direction, when
forward biased.

21. The ratio of change in applied (junction) voltage  V  to change in forward current  I  is called
V
a dynamic resistance rd  .
I
22. The unidirectional property of an ideal p–n junction diode is used in a device called rectifier.
23. In p–n junction as a half wave rectifier, the frequency of the output signal is equal to the frequency of
a.c to be rectified.
24. In p–n junction as a full wave rectifier, the frequency of the output signal is equal to twice the
frequency of a.c to be rectified.
25. There are special purpose p–n junction diodes like zener diode, solar cell, photodiode and LED.
26. Zener diode is just like an ordinary p–n junction diode except that is is heavily doped in order to have
a sharp reverse bias break down voltage. It is always connected in reverse bias and is used as
voltage regulating device.
27. Photodiodes are the special type of diodes working in a reverse bias. These diodes work on the
principle that change in the intensity of radiation results in change in reverse saturation current. For

235
 this to happen, energy of incident photon must be greater than or equal to the barrier energy of the
semiconductor. The photodiodes can be used as a photodector to detect optical signal.
28. Solar cell is a device in which light energy is converted into electrical energy. Semiconductors with
band gap close to 1.5 eV are ideal materials for solar cell fabrication. Solar cells are used to power
electronic devices in sateliltes and space vehicle, calculators etc.
29. Light emitting diode, commonly known as ‘LED’ is a heavily doped p–n junction which under forward
bias emits spantaneous radiation. The semiconductor used for fabrication of visible LED’s must at
least have a band gap of 1.8 eV (as range of visible light is 3 eV to 1.8 eV). The LED’s find extensive
use in remote controls, buglar alarm systems and optical communication etc.
30. A junction transistor is a semiconductor device which obtained by growing a thinlayer of one type of
semiconductor in between the two thick layers of other type of semiconductor. The most common
configuration are pnp and npn transistor.
31. The junction transistor has three segments–emitter, base and collector. The function of emitter is to
emit the majority charge carriers. Function of collector is to collect the majority charge carriers and
base provides the proper bias for the collection of charge carriers.
32. The base region is very thin and lightly doped. The emitter is heavily doped.
33. During the action / working of a transistor.
I E = IC + IB
where IE is the emitter current, IC is the collector current and IB is the base current.
34. The transistor can be used as an amplifier in CE configuration. During amplification, input and output
signal are 1800 out of phase. There is amplification of current, voltage and power of the given signal.

IC
35. Current gain in CE configuration is given by   and is greater than one.
IB

IC
36. Current gain in common base configuration is   and is slightly less than one.
IE

Ro
37. A.C voltage gain in CE amplifier is given by A V  a.c
Ri

where Ro is output resistance of the transistor, Ri is the input resistance of the transistor. a.c is
IC
known as a.c current gain given by a.c  . Negative sign indicates the phase of 1800 between
I B
output and input signal.

236
38. A.C power gain in CE amplifier is given by

IC VC
AP  
IB Ii

 a.c A V

Ro
 2a.c
Ri

39. In the transistor as an oscillator, a positive feedback is provided from on output tank circuit (LC) to
the input circuit (transistor as amplifier) to obtain the sustain oscillations with constant amplitude.
Hence oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback.
40. Transistor is used as an amplifier only in active state. That is emitter base junction forward bias and
base emitter junction reverse bias.
41. Transistor can be used as a switch in the cutoff or saturation state.
42. There are some special circuits which handle the digital data consisting of 0 and 1 levels. This forms
digital circuits.
43. The digital circuit having logic relationship between input and output signal are called ‘logic gates’.
44. The important basic logic gates are OR, AND, NOT, NAND and NOR gates.
45. NAND and NOR gates are considered as universal gates as these gates are building blocks of OR,
AND and NOT gates.

237
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Average Semiconductors
1. Semiconductors are fourth group elements in periodic table. Silicon (Si), Carbon (C) and
Germanium (Ge) att are fourth group elements in periodic talbe. Which of the following
statement is correct?
(1) All are semiconductors (Incorrect)
(2) Only Si and Ge are semiconductors (Correct)
(3) Only carbon is semiconductor (Incorrect)
(4) Carbon (C) and Germanium are semiconductors (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Only Si and Ge are semiconductors carbon is an insulator. The energy gap for Si and Ge is nearly 1.1 eV
and 0.7 eV respectively. However energy gap in carbon is nearly 5.5 eV. This difference arises because
electrons (valency) in carbon are present in second orbit. The attractive force on them due to nucleus is
quite strong. The valenay electrons in Si and Ge are present is thered and forth orbit. Their binding to
nucleus is therefore less stong as compared to carbon. This reflects itself in a law value of energy gap as
compared to carbon.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Semiconductors
2. Most of currently available semiconductor are elemental semiconductors Si or Ge and
compound inorganic semiconductors. From 1990 onwards devices using organic
semiconductors and semiconducting polymers have been developed. These are futuristic
technology in gradients. The (a) in organic (b) organic and (c) organic polymer semiconductors
are:
(1) (a) GaAs (b) CdSe (c) anthracene (Incorrect)
(2) (a) GaAs (b) anthracene (c) polyanline (Correct)
(3) (a) anthracene (b) GaAs (c) polyanline (Incorrect)
(4) (a) CdSe (b) polyanline (a) anthracene (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)

238
Solution:
Factual knowledge.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Easy Semiconductors
3. A “Hole” in a semiconductor is produced when an electron breaks away from a covalent
bond in a semiconductors. Which of the following statements regarding a hole is incorrect?
(1) A hole has same magnitude of charge as on an electron (Incorrect)
(2) In an external eletric field a hole moves in a direction opposite to that of free electron
(Incorrect)
(3) The energy of a hole is less as compared to that of an electron (Correct)
(4) In same external applied electric field the drift speed accquired by a hole is less than the drift
speed accquired by a free electron (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The energy of hole is less than the energy of an electron.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Easy Semiconductors
4. An intrinsic semiconductor is at a temperature of 270C. The probability of an electron
jumping from valence band to conduction band
(1) does not vary as temeperature rises to 400C (Incorrect)
(2) decreases linearly with rise in temperature (Incorrect)
(3) increases exponentially as the energy gap increases (Incorrect)
(4) decreases exponentially as the energy gap increases (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
As energy gap increases the probability of electron jump from conduction to valency band decreases
exponentially.

239
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Easy Semiconductors
5. An electric field of 40 V cm–1 is applied to a semiconductor crystal. A small amount of
minority carriers are also injected into the crystal at one point. Due to the electric field,
minority carriers move a through a disance of 2 cm in 40 μs . The mobility of the carriers
will be,
(1) 500 cm2 V–1 sec–1 (Incorrect)
(2) 1000 cm2 V–1 sec–1 (Incorrect)
(3) 1250 cm2 V–1 sec–1 (Correct)
(4) 2500 cm2 V–1 sec–1 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:

distance travelled 2
Velocity of the carriers = v   6
 50000 cm s 1
time taken 40 10

Velocity is also given by, v  E

v 50000
Mobility      1250 cm 2 V 1 sec 1
E 40

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Conductivity of Semiconductors
6. Mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intransic germanium at room temperature
are 0.36 m2/Vs and 0.17 m2/Vs. The electron and hole densities are each equal to 2.5×1019
m–3. The electrical conductivity of germanium is
(1) 0.47 S/m (Incorrect)
(2) 1.09 S/m (Incorrect)
(3) 2.12 S/m (Correct)
(4) 5.18 S/m (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)

240
Solution:
The conductivity of a semiconductive in terms of number density and mobility is

1
  e  e n e  n h h 


where  e and  n denote mobility of electron and hole, ne and nh is the number density of electron and hole
respectively. Substituting given values, we have
 = 1.6×10–19 (0.36+0.17) (2.5×1019)
= 2.12 S/m

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Easy Extrinsic Semiconductors
7. The impurity atoms with which pure silicon should be doped to make a n–type semiconductor
are those
(1) Boron (Incorrect)
(2) Indium (Incorrect)
(3) Antomony (Correct)
(4) Aluminium (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
As n–type semiconductor is obtained by adding pentavalent impurity atom. Hence impurity should be of
antomony out of all the four choices given.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Semiconductors
8. For the same dopant concentration, the n–type silicon semiconductor has _____________
as compared to a p–type silicon semiconductor.
(1) Higher conductivity (Correct)
(2) Higher resistivity (Incorrect)

241
 (3) Lower mobility (Incorrect)
(4) Lower net charge (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
For the silicon semiconductor,

Mobility of electrons =  e = 1350 cm2 V–1 sec–1

Mobility of holes =  n = 480 cm2 V–1 sec–1

Conductivity of electrons =   n  q  e

Conductivity of holes =   p  q   n

Now, since dopant concentration is same,

Concentration of electrons (n) = concentration of holes (p)
Conductivity of n–type sample is more than p–type sample.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Semiconductors
9. At thermal equilibrium, the concentration of majority carriers in an n-type extrinsic
semiconductor, is
(1) Inversely proportional to the intrinsic carrier concentration (Incorrect)
(2) Directly proportional to the intrinsic carrier concentration (Incorrect)
(3) Inversely proportional to the majority carrier concentration (Correct)
(4) Directly proportional to the majority carrier concentration (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
If nh is the concentration of holes (miniority carriers), ne is concentration of electrons (majority carriers) and
nt is the intrinsic carrier concentration, then at thermal equilibrium, we have the relation,

n h  n e  n12

242
 n i2
 nh 
ne

1
or nh 
ne

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Semiconductors
10. In a p–type semiconductor, the concentration ofholes is 2×1015 cm–3. The intrinsic carrier
concentration is 2×1010 cm–3. The concentration of electrons will be.
(1) 1×105 cm–3 (Incorrect)
(2) 2×105 cm–3 (Correct)
(3) 2×1015 cm–3 (Incorrect)
(4) 2×1020 cm–3 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
If nh is the concentration of holes, ne is concentration of electrons and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration,
then we have the relation,

n h  n e  n i2

n i2
 ne   2  105 cm3
nh

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Semiconductors

atoms atoms
11. A silicon sample is uniformly doped with 2×1015 Phosporous 3
and 1015 Indium .
cm cm 3
Assuming that the dopants are fully ionized, the sample will be
(1) n–type with carrier concentration of 1015 cm–3 (Correct)
(2) p–type with carrier concentration of 1015 cm–3 (Incorrect)

243
 (3) n–type with carrier concentration of 2×1015 cm–3 (Incorrect)
(4) p–type with carrier concentration of 2×1015 cm–3 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Phosphorous is pentavalent impurity and will make the silicon sample n–type. Since the donor atoms are
fully ionized.
Number of electrons = ND = 2×1015 cm–3
Indium is trivalent impurity and will make the silicon sample p–type. Since the acceptor atoms are fully
ionized.
Number of holes = NA = 1015 cm–3
Therefore, the sample will be n–type and the net carrier concentration will be 1015 cm–3

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Semiconductors
12. In an intrinsic semiconductors number density of electrons and holes is same and is n. The
relaxation time of electrons and holes is τ e and τ h respectively. As temperature of
semiconductor rises its conductivity increases. Which of the following statements is correct?
(1) Increase in conductivity is due to increase in n only (Incorrect)

(2) Increase in conductivity is due to increase in relaxation time e and h only (Incorrect)

(3) The increase in n and decrease in relaxation time are equal contributes for increase in conductivity
(Incorrect)

(4) n increases, e and h decrease. Effect of increase in n is much more than the effect of decrease
in e and h . (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
Facturial knowledge about semiconductors.

244
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Easy Semiconductors
13. Pure Si and 500 K has an equal number of electron and holes of concentration 1.5×1016.
Doping by indium increases hole concentration (nh) to 4.5×1022 m–3. The doped semiconductor
is
(1) n–type; with electron concentration of 5×1022 m–3 (Incorrect)
(2) p–type; with electron concentration of 2.5×1010 m–3 (Incorrect)
(3) n–type; with electron concentration of 2.5×1023 m–3 (Incorrect)
(4) p–type; with electron concentration of 5×109 m–3 (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
Given ne = 1.5×1016 m–3, nh = 4.5×1022 m–3
Let ne be the concentration of electrons we know
nenh = ne2

2
n 2e 1.5  10 
16

 ne   22
 0.5  1010 m 3
nh 4.5  10

Since nh > ne; the material as a p–type semiconductor. The electron concentration = ne = 5×109 m–3.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Semiconductors
14. A pure siliconn sample has ne = 1.3×1016 m–3. The material is doped with
(a) 1019 atoms m–3 of phosporous
(b) 2×1019 atoms m–3 of boron
one by one. What is ratio of resistivity of doped sample in (a) and (b) due to majority charge
carriers? Given:
Mobility of electrons = 0.125 m2V–1s–1, Mobility of holes = 0.0426 m2V–1s–1.
(1) 1 (Incorrect)
(2) 2 (Incorrect)

245
 (3) 1/2 (Incorrect)
(4) 2/3 (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:

(a) The majority charge carriers are electrons. ne = Number of free electrons = 109 m–3;  e =
1
0.125 m2V–1 s–1, e = Resistivity of material =
n ee e
1
  5 m
10  1.6 1019  0.125
19

(b) The majority charge carriers are holes nh = Number of holes = 2×1019 m–3,  n = 0.426 m2V–1s–1
1
R = Resistivity of material =
n h e h
1
  7.5 m
2.10  1.6  1019  0.0416
19

e 5 2
  
h 7.5 3

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Semiconductors
15. A pure silicon semiconductor has a size of 10 mm×10 mm×1 mm. There are 5×1028 atoms
per cubic metere in silicon. It is doped simultaneously with 1 part in one million of arsenic
and one part per hundred million of Indium. The number density of intrinsic carriers in pure
silicon is 1.5×1016 m3. The number of electrons, ne; and number of hole nh in semiconductor
is
(1) ne = 5×1015; nh = 5×104 (Incorrect)
(2) ne = 5×102; nh = 5×1013 (Incorrect)
(3) ne = 5.5×1015; nh = 4.54×104 (Incorrect)
(4) ne = 4.95×1015; nh = 4.54×102 (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)

246
Solution:
Volume of given sample = 100×10–9m3 = 10–7m3
The extent of doping of assenic is more than that of indium.
The net extent of doping = (10–6–10–8) = 0.99×10–6
= 5×1023×0.99×10–6 = 4.95×1022 m–3

16 2
ni 
2
1.5 10 
nh = Number of holes  
ne 4.95 1022

= 4.54×109 m–3
The number of electrons in given sample = 4.95×1022×10–7 = 4.95×1015
The numbe of holes in given sample = 4.54×109×10–7 = 4.54×102

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Semiconductors
16. A pure germanium rod has a radius of 1cm and length 4cm. A p.d of 4V is applied across the
ends of rod. The concentration of holes in the rod is 2.5×1019 m–3. The mobility of electrons
and holes is 0.36 m2 V–1 s–1 and 0.18 m2 V–1 s–1 respectively. The current in rod is
(1) 45.2 mA (Incorrect)
(2) 22.6 mA (Incorrect)
(3) 67.8 mA (Correct)
(4) 56.3 mA (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:

V 4V
The electric field in rod =   10 2 Vm 1
L 4  102 m

Let ve and vh be the average drift speed accquired by electron and holes respectively under the applied
electric field. Let  e and  n be mobility of electron and hole. Then

v e  e E and v n   h E

The current, Ie; due to motion of electrons is

247
 Ie = ne aeve
Given ne = 2.5×1019 m–3; e = 1.6×10–19 C; a = 3.14×10–4 m2

 e = 0.36 m2V–1s–l; E = 102 Vm–1

 Ie = 2.5×1019×3.14×10–4×1.6×10–19×0.36×102 A
= 4.52×10–2 A = 45.2 mA
Similarly the current Ih due to holes is

Ih  n h e av h  n h e a h E
 22.6 mA
The total current I = Ie + Ih = 67.8 mA

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Easy Semiconductors
17. In a semiconductor doped with phospohrous the Fermi–level is 0.3 eV below condition band
270C. The temperature is raised by 300C. The new Fermi–level is
(1) 0.14 eV below conduction band (Incorrect)
(2) 0.27 eV below conduction band (Incorrect)
(3) 0.63 eV below conduction band (Correct)
(4) 0.3 eV below conduction band (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The doped semiconductive is a n–type semiconductor. The position of Fermi–level below conduction
band is inversly proportional to the temperature of material on Kelvin scale. Given
E1 = 0.3 eV, T1 = 273+27 = 300 K
E2 = ? T2 = 273+57 = 330 K
Now,

E1 T2

E 2 T1

0.3 330 0.3  300

  or E2  eV  0.27 eV
E 2 300 320

248
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Average Junction Diode
18. The barrier potential of a p–n junction depends on
(a) type of semiconductor
(b) amount of doping
(c) temperature.
Which one of the followings is correct?
(1) (a) and (b) only (Incorrect)
(2) (b) only (Incorrect)
(3) (b) and (c) only (Incorrect)
(4) (a), (b) and (c) (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
Factual knowledge about junction diode.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Easy p–n Junction
19. The width of depletion region in a p–n junction diode is 500 nm and an internse electric field
of 6×105 V/m is also found to exist. The height of potential barrier is
(1) 0.30 V (Correct)
(2) 0.40 V (Incorrect)
(3) 3V (Incorrect)
(4) 4V (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Let V be potential barrier across depletion layer of width d. E the electric field in the |E| = V/d or V = |E|.d
 V = 6×105×500×10–9
= 0.30 V

249
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Difficult p–n Junction
20. A potential barrier of 0.5 V exists across a p–n junction and width of the depletion layer is
0.3 μ m. An electron with a speed 5×105 m/s enters p–side from n–side. The velocity of
electron in p–side will be (me = 9.1×10–31 Kg, e = 1.6×10–19 C)
(1) 2.5×105 m/s (Incorrect)
(2) 2.7×105 m/s (Correct)
(3) 3.7×105 m/s (Incorrect)
(4) 5×105 m/s (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
In a junction diode; due to depeltion layer p–region is at a lower potential than n–region. The electron
enters depletion layer from n–region and emerges and from p–region. The electrode is retarded. Let V1
and V2 the speed of electron as it enters n–region and emerges out of p–region. Then

1 1
m V22  m V12  e V
2 2
where V is barier potential. Substituting given values.

1 1 2
  9.1 10 –31 V22  9.1 10 31  5  10 2   1.6  10 19  0.5
2 2
On solving we get

 V2  2.7 105 m / s

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult p–n Junction
21. In a p–n junction a potential barrier of 300 meV exists across the junction. A hole with a
kinetic energy of 400 meV approaches the junction. The K.E of the hole when it crosses the
junction (i) from p to n–side and (ii) from n to p–side will be
(1) 100 eV, 700 eV (Correct)
(2) 100 eV, 100 eV (Incorrect)

250
 (3) 700 eV, 700 eV (Incorrect)
(4) 700 eV, 100 eV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
The p–region is at a lower potential than n–region in depletion layer when hole crosses depletion layer from
n– to p–side; it (hole) is accelelrated. Therefore
K = Kinetic energy of hole
= Ki + |e| V
= (400 + 300) meV = 700 meV
When hole crosses depletion layer from p– to n–side, it is retarded. Therefore
K’ = Ke – |e| V
= (400–300) meV = 100 meV
The correction choice is (1)

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult p–n Junction Diode
22. In a p–n junction there exists a barrier potential. Fig. (a) shows the three barrier potential
of a p–n junction marked as I, II and III.

Fig. (b) shows a junction diode biased as.

The correct commbination of biasing and barrier potential is

251
 (1) I and IV; II and V; III and VI (Incorrect)
(2) II and IV; III and V; I and VI (Correct)
(3) I and V; II and VI; III and IV (Incorrect)
(4) I and VI; II and V; III and IV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
I and II and III show barrier potential of an unbiased; forward biased and reverse biased junction diode
respectively. In Fig. (b); IV is a forward biased; V is a reverse biased and VI is forward biased; V is a
reverse biased and Vi is unbiased junction diode. The correct commbination of biasing and junction potential
is (2).

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Diode
23. In a junction diode the current is zero if applied forward bias voltage is 0 < V < 0.7 V. An
electron experiences a force of 0.112 pN inside the depletion layer. The thickness of
depletion layer is
(1) 0.5 m (Incorrect)
(2) 0.7 m (Incorrect)
(3) 1 m (Correct)
(4) 1.5 m (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
Let E be electric field inside depletion layer due to junction potential, V, across it. x is thickness of depletion
layer. Given
F = Force experienced by electron inside depletion layer
= 0.112×10–12 N = |e| E

1.12  1013
 E 19
Vm 1  7 105 Vm 1
1.6  10

V
Also E  . Given junction potential = V = 0.7 V
x

252
The current in junction diode; in forward bias is zero is applied p.d is less than or equal to junction
potential.

V 0.7
 x  5
 10 6 m  1m
E 7  10

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Diode
24. In a junction diode I is current when applied forward bias voltage is V at a temperature T
on Kelvin scale. Then

V
(1) I  I0 (Incorrect)
T
1
V2
(2) I  I0 (Incorrect)
T

 eV 
(3) I  I 0 exp   (Correct)
 kT 

 eV 
(4) I  I 0 exp    (Incorrect)
 kT 

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
The current I; in general; in a junction diode is

  eV  
I  I0  exp    1
  kT  

eV
Under forward bias conditions V is low and a positive number; exp    1 ; therefore
 kT 

 eV 
I  I 0 exp  
 kT 

 eV 
Under reverse bias conditions for high value of V; exp    1 ; because V is high and a negative
 kT 

253
number. Therefore

I  I0

I0 is magnitude of reverse saturation current.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average p–n Junction Diode
25. For a p–n junction diode which of the following statement is correct
(1) In forward biasing there is a diffusion and in reverse bias there is drifting of charge carriers
across the junction. (Correct)
(2) In forward bias there is drifting and in reverse bias there is diffusion of charge carriers across
the junction. (Incorrect)
(3) In both forward and reverse biasing the current is due to diffusion of charge carriers across the
junction. (Incorrect)
(4) In both forward and reverse bias there is current due to drifting of charge carriers across the
junction. (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Factual knowledge about moment of charge carriers in a p–n junction diode.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average p–n Junction Diode
26. The current through an ideal p–n junction shown in the circuit diagram will be

(1) zero (Correct)

(2) 1 mA (Incorrect)

254
 (3) 10 mA (Incorrect)
(4) 30 mA (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
As p is at lower potential with respect to n–side. Hence diode is in reverse bias. In reverse bias diode does
not conduct. i.e. current through diode is zero.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average p–n Junction Diode
27. In the circuit diagram shown below; the potential difference between the pionts A and B will
be (assume diode is ideal)

(1) 0V (Incorrect)
(2) 0.6 V (Incorrect)
(3) 3V (Incorrect)
(4) 6V (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
As the diode is in reversebias, (p–side at lower potential). The reverse biased resistance of an ideal diode
is infinite. There is no current in circuit. There is no p.d across resistance R = 2  . Hence p.d between
points A and B is 6 V.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Diode
28. In Fig. (a) the forward bias ideal diode is D. The applied voltage at anode varies with time
as shwon in FIg. (b). The variation of current in circuit as a function of time is (knee voltage
of diode = 0.5 V)

255
(1) (Correct)

(2) (Incorrect)

(3) (Incorrect)

256
 (4) (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
From 0 to 1 ms anode A is at a higher potential than C as time increase. Diode is forward biased. Since
knee voltage of diode is 0.5 when applied p.d is less than or equal to 0.05 V there is no current in circuit.
The applied p.d is 0.5 V at t = 0.5 ms. Therefore current I in circuit is zero in time interval 0 < to < 0.5 ms.
From 0.5 ms to 1 ms p.d of point increases from 0.5 to 1 V. There is a current in circuit. Imax at t = 1 ms is

1  05
I m ax  A  5 mA
100
In time interval 1 < t < 2 ms anode A is at a lower potential than cathode C. Diode is reverse biased. There
is no current in circuit. This pattern repeats itself. The described variation of I with time are shown in (1).

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Diode
29. Fig. shows forward bias characterstics of a junction diode. The knee voltage and resistance
of dide are:

(1) 0.5 V; 2  (Incorrect)

257
 (2) 0.5 V; 20  (Correct)

(3) 0 V; 2  (Incorrect)

(4) 0.5 V; 5  (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The knee voltage of diode = 0.5 V
Consider points P and Q on characterstics curve from graph;

V = 1.1–0.9 = 0.2 V
I = 16–6 = 10 mA

V
The resistance of diode = ri 
I

0.2
   20 
10  103

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average p–n Junction Diode
30. In the circuit given below, the value of the current is

(1) Zero (Incorrect)

(2) 10–2 A (Correct)
(3) 10–3 A (Incorrect)
(4) 102 A (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
As p–side is at higher potential than n–side, the diode is forward biased. Hence

V
The forward current = i f 
R

258
  1   4  
  102 A
300

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Semiconductor Diode

31. A silicon PN diode has a reverse saturation current of 20 μA at a temperature of 200 C.

The reverse saturation current of the same diode at a temperature of 400 C will be,

(1) 10 A (Incorrect)

(2) 20 A (Incorrect)

(3) 40 A (Incorrect)

(4) 80 A (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
For a silicon pn junction, for every 100 C rise in temperature, the reverse saturation current gets doubled.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average p–n Junction Diode
32. In the given circuit, the junction diodes are ideal. The current through battery is

(1) 1A (Incorrect)
(2) 2A (Correct)
(3) 2.5 A (Incorrect)

259
 (4) 3A (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
In circuit, D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased. The current through D1 is zero. As diode D2 is
ideal, its resistance is zero. The equivalent circuit of the given arrangment is shown in Fig.
The current drawn from battery

E 20 V
= i 
R  r  2  3  4  10  

20
  2A
10

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult p–n Junction Diode

33. In the circuit given below, the junction diode D is ideal. The p.d across 4 Ω and D respectively
is:

(1) 0V, 6V (Correct)

(2) 2V, 4V (Incorrect)
(3) 4V, 2V (Incorrect)
(4) 6V, 0V (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
As junction diode is reverse biased, it offers infinite resistance in the circuit. Due to it, the current in the
circuit is zero. Therefore p.d across 4  is zero. As a junction diode acts like open circuits, hence p.d
across D = voltage of battery = 6V.

260
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Difficult Diode
34.

Fig. (a) shows a “black–box” with three connecting terminals P, Q and R. Three components
two diodes and one resistance is connected across the three terminals in same unknown
arrangement. Fig. (b) shows black–box connected as shown in circuit. In I vs V graph
obtained when P is negative and Q is positive are shown in Fig. (c). The arrangment of
components between P, Q and R is

(1) (Correct)

(2) (Incorrect)

(3) (Incorrect)

261
 (4) (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
The characterstics curve shown in Fig. (c) is forward bias characterstic of a diode with a knee voltage of
0.7 V. Since P is connected to negative terminal and Q to positive terminal diode D1 is forward biased and
has a series resistance R. Due to series resistance R, I vs V graph is a straight line. The forward bias
resistance of diode is very small. This is shown in (1). In (2) diode between P and Q is forward biased but
there is no series resistance. I vs V graph would be a almost vertical straight line. In (3) diode between P
and Q is reverse biased therefore I = 0. Same is true for (4).
Hence correct answer is (1).

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Zener Diode
35. For a zener diode; which of the following statements is correct?
(1) n region is heavily doped only (Incorrect)
(2) p region is heavily doped only (Incorrect)
(3) Both n– and p–region is heavily doped (Correct)
(4) A zener diode in a working circuit is always forward biased (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
In a zener diode both n– and p–regions are heavily doped.
For proper working in any circuit zener diode is always reverse biased.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Zener Diode
36. From the zener diode circuit shown in the figure given below, the current through zener is

262
 (1) 2.5 mA (Incorrect)
(2) 30 mA (Incorrect)
(3) 31.5 mA (Correct)
(4) 36.5 mA (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:

Given, R L  20  103 

VR  220 V

R  5  103 

VZ = 50 V = Voltage drop across load RL

VZ 50
 IL = The load current = 
R L 20  103

= 2.5×10–3A

220  50
I = The current through R 
5  103
= 34×20–3A
From Kirchoff’s current law,
I = IZ + IL
 IZ = I–IL = (34–2.5)×10–3A
= 31.5 mA

263
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Average p–n Junction DIode
37. Silicon diode has a barrier potential of 0.7 V. In the circuit given below, the value of voltage
V0 and current I are:

(1) 0.7 V, 2.65 mA (Correct)

(2) 0.7 V, 1.325 mA (Incorrect)
(3) 0 V, 2.30 mA (Incorrect)
(4) 0 V, 1.325 mA (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Both the Si diodes are in F.B and are in parallel.
Hence V0 = p.d across either D1 or D2 in F.B
= 0.7 V (Barrier potential)

V  V0
Current I in the circuit =
R

6  0.7

2  103
= 2.65 mA

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average LED
38. For a Light–Emitting–Diode (LED) which of following statements is wrong?
(1) It is a heavily doped p–n junction emitting spontaneous radiations when forward biased
(Incorrect)

264
 (2) When forward biased the concentration of minority charge carriers increases rapidly on the
sides of the junction boundary (Incorrect)
(3) The energy released due to recommbination of electrons and holes is mostly transferred into
the thermal energy of lattice vibrations (Incorrect)
(4) LED emits light when it is reverse biased (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
LED emitts light when it is forward biased. As forward current increases intensity of light emitted by LED
also increases. When LED is reverse biased it emits no light. The LED is damaged when it is reverse
biased.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Diode
39.

Fig. (a) shows a half–wave rectifier. Fib. (b) is the V is I graph of diode used in half wave
rectifier. The output of transformer is an A.C of amplitude 4 V, 50 Hz. The output V0 is
(1) (Incorrect)

(2) (Incorrect)

265
 (3) (Correct)

(4) (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
The knee voltage of given diode, from Fig. (b) is 0.5 V. When input voltage varies from 0 to 4V; diode
conducts in voltage range 0.5 < V < 35 V. The amplitude of output voltage is 3.5 V and not 4 V. The
frequency of output is same as input i.e. 50 Hz. For output shown in (4) amplitude of oscillations is correct
but frequency is 100 Hz. Hence (4) is not correct.
The correct output is given in (3).

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average p–n Junction Diode as Rectifier
40. A full wave rectifier circuit alongwith the output is shown in the figure. The contribution
from diode ‘1’ is

266
 (1) C, D (Incorrect)
(2) A, C (Incorrect)
(3) B, D (Correct)
(4) A, D (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
At t = 0, positive half appears across ‘2’ and negative half appears across ‘1’. Diode ‘1’ conducts and ‘2’
is in reverse bias, does not conduct at t = T/2 same positive half appears across ‘1’. Diode ‘1’ conducts
this half again as it is in forward bias. Hence each positive half is conducted time first by diode ‘2’ and then
by diode ‘1’.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Diode
41. An a.c voltage of peak value 10 V is connected in series with a silicon diode a load resistance
of 100 Ω . The forward resistance of the diode to 20 Ω . The peak output voltage across the
load resistance will be:
(1) 5V (Incorrect)
(2) 7.75 V (Correct)
(3) 9.3 V (Incorrect)
(4) 10 V (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Barrier potential of silicon diode = 0.7 V

10  0.7
Peak current through the diode in the circuit =
100  20

= 77.5 mA
Peak output voltage = 77.5 mA × 100 
= 7.75 V

267
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Difficult Zener Diode
42. In the circuit shown inFig. the breakdown voltage and current of zener diode is 6.0 V and 35
mA respectively. The load current is 5 mA. What is R and RL?

(1) R = 100  , RL = 3k  (Correct)

(2) R = 25  , RL = 3k  (Incorrect)

(3) R = 100  , RL = 2k  (Incorrect)

(4) R = 25  , RL = 2k  (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
In Fig. ID and IL are zener breakdown current and load current respectively. Given
ID = 35 mA; IL = 5 mA
 I = ID + IL

= 35+5 = 40 mA
The zener voltage drop = VD = 6.0 V.
Therefore VR = P.D across resistance R = 10–6.0 = 4.0 V

4
Obviously, I  V or 40  103 
R R

 R  100 

VL 6.0
Also, R L     3k 
IL 5  103

268
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Difficult Zener Diode
43. In the circuit shown in Fig. the zener diode draws a current of 6 mA at breakdown voltage of
12 V. The zener diode is rated an 12 V, 0.36 W. The load resistance RL has a range of

(1) 2 K  < RL   (Incorrect)

(2) 1 K   RL < 100 K  (Incorrect)

(3) 0.5 K   RL   (Correct)

(4) 1.5 K   RL   (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
In loop ABEF; p.d across zener diode = 12 V. Therefore p.d across
resistance R = 15–12 = 3 V.
The current, I; as shown in Fig.; is

3
I A  30 mA
100
At branch point B; current I divides, I1 = current in zener diode = 6 mA (given); therefore
IL = current in load RL = 30–6 = 24 mA

12 12
 RL     0.5 k
IL 24  103

0.36
Since zener diode is rated as 12 V, 0.36 W, the maximum current it can with stand = A  30 mA
12
when RL increases, IL decreases and I, increases. At RL =  ; the zener diode gap burnt because across it
is 15 V which is more than its rated value.

269
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Average Diode
44. In Fig. shown D1 and D2 are ideal diodes. A battery of p.d 4V is connected between points
X and Y. Current drawn from battery is I1 and I2 when point X is connected to positive and
negative terminal of battery; respectively. I1/I2 is

(1) 1 (Incorrect)
(2) 2 (Correct)
(3) 1/2 (Incorrect)
(4) 2/3 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
WhenX is connected to positive terminal of battery; diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased.
There is no current in R2 and D2. The current drawn; I1, from battery flows via diode D1 and R1. Since
diode is ideal its forward biased resistance is zero. Therefore

4
I1   0.8 A
5
When X is connected to negative terminal of battery; diode D1 is reversed biased and D2 is forward
biased. Now current drawn from battery, I2 flows via diode D2 and resistance R2. Obviously

4
I2   0.4 A
10

I1 0.8
  2
I 2 0.4

270
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Difficult Diode
45. In Fig. shown D1 is germanium and D2 is a silicon diode.Knee voltage of D1 and D2 is 0.3 V
and 0.7 V respectively. RL = 5 K Ω . A current flows in circuit. The potential of point P is

(1) 6V (Incorrect)
(2) 5.7 V (Correct)
(3) 5.3 V (Incorrect)
(4) 5V (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Diode D1 and D2 are connected in parallel hence p.d across the two is same. The knee voltage of D1 is
0.3V. D1 starts conducting when p.d across it is 0.3 V under this condition diode D2 does not conduct.
Due to conduction of D1 there is a current in circuit. The p.d across load RL = 6–0.3 = 5.7 V. This end of
RL is connected to point P, hence p.d at P = 5.7 V.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average LED
46. The semiconductor used for fabrication of visible LEDs must atleast have a band gap of
(1) 1.1 eV (Incorrect)
(2) 1.8 eV (Correct)
(3) 2.1 eV (Incorrect)
(4) 3.0 eV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:

271
Spectral range of visible light is from 0.4  m to 0.7  m. i.e. from about 3 eV to 1.8 eV. Hence semiconductor
used for fabrication of visible LEDs must have at least a gap of 1.8 eV.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Photodiode
47. I–V characterstics of a photodiode for different illumination intensity I3 > I2 > I1 is represented
by the sketch.
(1) (Correct)

(2) (Incorrect)

(3) (Incorrect)

(4) (Incorrect)

272
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
In photodiode, change in the current is directly proportional to the change in the light intensity. It is operated
in reverse bias.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Solar Cell
48. The I–V characterstics of a solar cell is best represented by
(1) (Incorrect)

(2) (Correct)

(3) (Incorrect)

273
 (4) (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
I–V characterstics of a solar cell is drawn in the fourth quadrant of the coordinate axes. This is shown in
Fig. (2).
______________________________________________________________________________

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average LED
49. Intensity of light emitted by LED depends on
(1) Forward bias voltage (Incorrect)
(2) Forward current (Correct)
(3) Forward resistance (Incorrect)
(4) Nature of semiconductor crystal (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Intensity of light emitted by LED depended on the forward current flowing in LED, with increase in forward
current, intensity of light emitted increases.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average LED
50. Colour of the light emitted by LED depends on
(1) Forward bias voltage (Incorrect)
(2) Reverse bias voltage (Incorrect)

274
 (3) Nature of semiconductor crystal (Correct)
(4) Forward resistance (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
Colour of the light emitted by LED depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor crystal. Hence the
nature of the semiconductor crystal.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Easy Semiconductors
51. Fig. shows V–I characterstic of semi–conductor devide. Which of the following statements
is correct?

(1) It is V–I characterstics of a solar cell, where point A represents open circuit voltage and point
B short circuit current (Correct)
(2) It is a solar cell and points A and B represent open circuit voltage and current respectively
(Incorrect)
(3) It is a photodiode and points A and B represent open circuit voltage and current respectively
(Incorrect)
(4) It is a LED and points Aand B represent open circuit voltage and short circuit current respectively
(Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
The given graph is V–I characterstic of a solar cell. For open circuit I = 0; potential V equals applied e.m.f.
This corresponds to point A on characterstics curve. For short circuit I = –I and potential V = V = 0. This
is point B on given characterstic.

275
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Easy Transistor
52. If x, y and z are lengths of the emitter, base and collector of a transistor then:
(1) z>x>y (Correct)
(2) z<x <y (Incorrect)
(3) z<y<x (Incorrect)
(4) x =y=z (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
In a transistor area of collector > area of emitter > area of base for proper collection of majority charge
carriers.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Easy Transistor
53. In Fig. shown what is nature of biasing of emitter and collector. What is VEB and VCB?

(1) E–forward biased, C–reverse biased, VEB = 1.5 V; VCB = 3.0 V (Correct)
(2) E–forward biased, C–forward biased, VEB = 1.5 V; VCB = 4.5 V (Incorrect)
(3) E–reverse biased, C–reverse biased, VEB = 4.5 V; VCB = 3.0 V (Incorrect)
(4) E–forward biased, C–forward biased, VEB = 1.5 V; VCB = 3.0 V (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)

276
Solution:
In the emitter base loop there is battery of p.d 1.5 V. E is connected to positive terminal and B to –ve
terminal. Since it is a p–n–p transistor, emitter is forward biased and VEB = 1.5 V. In the collector base
loop.
VCB = 1.5 + 4.5 = 3.0 V
The collector C is at a lower potential than base B. The collector is reverse biased.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Junction Transistor
54. In a junction transistor, the current gain in CB configuration is 0.99. If input resistance is
2k Ω and load connected to collector is 10 k Ω , then voltage gain in CE configuration will
be:
(1) 99 (Incorrect)
(2) 198 (Incorrect)
(3) 495 (Correct)
(4) 594 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:

RL
Av, voltage gain in CE configuration = 
ri

   RL
Av   
 1    ri

As given  = 0.99
ri = 2×103
RL = 10×103
3
 0.99  10 10
 Av     3
 1  0.99  2 10

= 495

277
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Average Electronic Devices
55. In a n–p–n transistor circuit, the collector current is 10 mA. If 90% of the electrons emitted
reach the collector then:
(1) Emitter current will be 9 mA and base current will be 1 mA (Incorrect)
(2) Emitter current will be 11 mA and base current will be 1 mA (Correct)
(3) Emitter current will be 11 mA and base current will be –1 mA (Incorrect)
(4) Emitter current will be 9 mA and base current 1 mA (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
As IE = IB + IC

90
IC  I E (given)
100
As IC = 10 mA  IE = 11.1 mA
 IE  11 mA
and IB = IE – IC
= (11–10) = 1 mA

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Easy Junction Transistor
56. In a transistor the current amplification ‘ α ’ is 0.9. The change in collector current when
base current changes by 4 mA is
(1) 4 mA (Incorrect)
(2) 12 mA (Incorrect)
(3) 24 mA (Incorrect)
(4) 36 mA (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
By definition, current gain  is

278
 I C
  0.9
IE

Also, IE = IC + IB or IE  IC  IB .

Therefore IC  IB  0.9

 IC  0.9 IC  0.9 I B

 0.1 IC  0.9  4 mA

= 0.1 IC = 36. mA

= IC = 36 mA

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Transistor
57. Is an n–p–n transistor 1012 electrons enter emitter in 80 μ s. The current gain α of transistor
is 0.95. The number of electrons flowing in the base expressed as a percentage of electrons
entering emitter is
(1) 2 (Incorrect)
(2) 3 (Incorrect)
(3) 4 (Incorrect)
(4) 5 (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
IE = The emitter current = Charge flowing per unit time in emitter

1012 1.6 1019

 c / s  3 103 A
80 106

IE
IC = The collector current = 

= 2×10–3×0.95 = 1.9×10–3 A
IB =The base current = IE–IC = 1.1×10–3 A

279
 IB
 The percentage of emitter electrons flowing the base =  100%
IE

0.1 103
  100%  5%
2 103

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Transistor
58. Fig. shows common–emitter characterstic curve of a transistor. For VCE = 10 V; IB = 30
μ A; the current gain β AC and α is

(1) 150; 1 (Incorrect)

(2) 100; 0.99 (Incorrect)
(3) 150; 0.993 (Correct)
(4) 150; 1.01 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:

The current gain;  AC in common emitter configuration is

IC
 AC 
IB

For VCE = 10 V, IB = 30  A; the point on characterstics curve is P. Consider two points P and Q as shown

280
in Fig. For VCE = 10 V;

 IC = (4.5–3) mA = 1.5 mA

 IB = (30–20)  A = 1.5  A

1.5 103
  AC   150
10 106


We know   ; therefore
1 


150  or   0.993
1 

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Junction Transistor

59. The transfer ratio β of a transistor is 50. The input resistance of the transistor when used
in the common emitter configuration is 1k Ω . The value of collector current for a peak
value of input a.c voltage of 0.01 is
(1) 0.01  A (Incorrect)
(2) 0.25  A (Incorrect)
(3) 100  A (Incorrect)
(4) 500  A (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:

I C
Given    50 .....(1)
I B

R i  1k   103 

Vi 0.01
as I B   3
Ri 10

= 10–5 A .....(2)

281
From Eqns. (1) and (2) we have

I C  50  10 5 A

= 500  A

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Electronic Devices
60. A signal of 30 mV is applied to a common emitter transistor amplifier circuit. Due tothis the
change in base current and the change in the collector current are 20 μ A and 2 mA
respectively. The load resistance is 15 k Ω . The transconductance of the transistor is
(1) 0.032 mho (Incorrect)
(2) 0.067 mho (Correct)
(3) 0.15 mho (Incorrect)
(4) 15 mho (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:

IC
Transconductance = gm 
VC

2 103
  0.067 mho
30 103

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Transistor
61. A n–p–n transistor is used as an amplifier in (a) common–base (b) common–emitter
configuration. The voltage gain in two cases is A1 and A2 respectively. The phase difference
between input and output in the two cases is δ1 and δ 2 respectively which of the following
is correct?

(1) 1  2   ; A1  A 2 (Incorrect)

(2) 1  0; 2   ; A1  A2 (Correct)

282
 (3) 1   ; 2  0; A1  A 2 (Incorrect)

(4) 1  0;  2    ; A1  A 2 (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:

The common base configuration in an amplifier, the output and input are in phase i.e. 1 = 0. However in
common–emitter amplifier output is out of phase with input and output lags behind input i.e. 2   .

The voltage gain in common–emitter configuration is more than in common–base configuration i.e. A1 > A2.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Transistor
62. In the circuit shown in Fig. Vi = 5V. VBE = 0 and VCE = 0. What is IB and IC?

(1) IB = 25  A; IC = 2 mA (Correct)
(2) IB = 2.5  A; IC = 20 mA (Incorrect)
(3) IB = 0; IC = 2 mA (Incorrect)
(4) IB = 25  A; IC = 20 mA (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
For base–emitter loop; using Kirchoff’s law
IBRB + VBE = Vi

where IB is base current. Given VBE = 0; RB = 2×105 

 IB×2×105 = 5

283
or IB = 2.5×10–5A = 25  A

For the collector–emitter loop; using Kirchoff’s law

ICRL + VCE = 10

Given VCE = 0 and RL = 5 k  ; therefore

10
IC   2 mA
5  103

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Transistor

63. Fig. shows a common–emitter amplifier circuit. RL = 2 k Ω ; RB = 150 k Ω ; β = 200 VCE =

0 and VBB = 1V. Under saturation condition IC and IB are:

(1) 3 mA; 15  A (Correct)

(2) 2 mA; 15  A (Incorrect)
(3) 3 mA; 10  A (Incorrect)
(4) 2 mA; 10  A (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Let IC be saturation collector current. Applying Kirchoff’s law to collector emitter loop; we have
ICRL + VCE = VCC
Under saturation condition VCE = 0 (Given); therefore

VCC 6
IC   A  3mA
R L 2  103

284
Let IB be the base current under saturation conditions. By definition
IC

IB
IC 3
 IB   mA  1.5 10 5 A
 200
 15 A

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Transistor
64. In the circuit shown; resistance R1 is decreased; the reading of voltmeter V1 and V2.

(1) Remains same (Incorrect)

(2) V1 increases V2 decreases (Correct)
(3) V1 and V2 both increases (Incorrect)
(4) V1 decreases and V2 increases (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
When R1 decreases; the base current IB increases. Due to increase in IB; the collector current IC also
increases. Reading of voltmeter V1 measures p.d across resistance R2 which is IC.R2. Since IC increases
reading of V1 increases. Voltmeter V2 measures VCE. In collector emitter loop; using Kirchoffs law
V1 + VCE = VCC
or VCE = VCC – V1
As V1 increases VCE decreases. Therefore reading of voltmeter V2 decreases.

285
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Average Transistor as Amplifier
65. Fig. shows a common–emitter amplifier. The current gain α of transistor is 100/101. For an
input signal voltage Vi = 2 mV; the output voltage V0 is

(1) 50 mV (Incorrect)
(2) 50 mV (Incorrect)
(3) 1V (Correct)
(4) 5V (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:


The voltage gain =   RL
 Ri 
where  is current gain in common emitter configuration.
100
 101  100
 
1   1 100
101
In given circuit,
R L  5 k, R i  1k
5
 Voltage gain = 100   500
1
V
Also voltage gain = 0 ; therefore
Vi

V0 = 500 Vi = 500×2×10–3V = 1V

286
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Average Transistor
66. Fig. shows VCE vs Vi characterstics of a transistor, known as transfer characterstics. The
curve is divided into three regions as shown in Fig. The transistor is to be used as
(a) an amplifier (b) a switch. The part of transfer–characterstics used is

(1) (a) and (c) any of I, II or II (Incorrect)

(2) (a) – region I, (b) – region II (Incorrect)

(3) (a) – region II; (b) region I and III (Correct)

(4) (b) region I and II (b) region II (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
In a transistor if Vi is low so that t emitter–base junction is NOT FORWARD biased V0 is high. If Vi is high
the transistor is driven into saturation region and V0 is low. One of these two positions can be used as “off”
and other as “on” state of transistor. The transistor works as a switch.
Region II is the “active region” of a transistor. In this region transistor is used as an amplifier. A small
variation in Vi produces a small change in input current IB. This produces a large change in output current
IC and therefore a large change in output voltage V0. This is amplification.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Logic Gates
67. The combination of the gates as shown in the figure represents:

287
 (1) NOR (Incorrect)
(2) OR (Correct)
(3) AND (Incorrect)
(4) XOR (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The boolean expression of given combination of gates is written as:

Y  A. B  A  B  A  B

So, given combination represents OR gate.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Logic Gates
68. The booliean expression for the circuit given in figure is:

(1) Y  A.B  C (Incorrect)

(2) 
Y  A. B  C  (Incorrect)

(3) 
Y  A. B  C  (Incorrect)

(4) Y  A.  B  C  (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

288
Solution:

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Logic Gates
69. Figure shows combination of gates. For Y = 1 which of the following options is correct.

(1) A = 0, B = 1 (Incorrect)
(2) A = 1, B = 1 (Incorrect)
(3) A = 1, B = 0 (Correct)
(4) A = 0, B = 0 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
For A = 1, B = 0; the output of gate 1 (i.e. OR gate) C1 = 0. The output of gate C2 (i.e. NAND gate) C2
= 0. C1 = 0 and C2 = 0 are input of gate 3 which is NOR gate, hence outout Y = 1.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Binary Numbers
70. In binary system the decimal numbers are represented in terms of 0 and 1. We use a low
voltage pluse to represent binary 0 and a high voltage pluse to represent binary 1. Fig. (a)
and (b) give the pluse representation of decimal number X and Y respectively. The pluse
representation decimal number (X + Y) is:

289
(1) (Incorrect)

(2) (Incorrect)

(3) (Correct)

(4) (Incorrect)

290
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The binary representation of X is 1001. The decimal number X = 1(2)3 + 0(2)1 + 1(2)0 = 9
The binary representation of Y is 10101
The decimal number Y = 1(2)4 + 0(2)3 + 1(2)2 + 0(2)1 + 1(2)0 = 21
The decimal number X + Y = 9+21 = 30. The binary representation of (X+Y) is 11110. The pluse
representation of this number is as shown in (3).

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Logic Gates
71. To get the output Y = 1 from the circuit given below, the input must be:

A B C
(1) 0 1 0 (Incorrect)
(2) 1 0 0 (Incorrect)
(3) 1 0 1 (Correct)
(4) 1 1 1 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
Gate 1 is OR gate. For A = 1, B = 0 the output C1 = 1. C1 = 1 and C = 1 are input of gate 2 which is an
AND gate. The output Y = 1.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Logic Gates
72. The logic circuit shown in the circuit below yeilds the truth table as given below. The gate
‘p’ in the circuit is:

291
 (1) OR gate (Incorrect)

(2) AND gate (Correct)

(3) NAND gate (Incorrect)

(4) NOR gate (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:

From the above circuit Y = A + B.

i.e. it is for OR gate:

 A+ P=A+ B
or A + P = A + B . (A + A )
= A + B.A + B.A
= A + A .B
 P = A . B which is AND gate or

Let A and B be input of unknown gate Pand C2 output of P. C2 and A are input of on OR gate. Therefore

For gate P

This is truth table of AND gate. Therefore P is AND gate.

292
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Average Logic Gate
73. For the circutal arrangement shown the TRUTH table is

(1) (Incorrect)

(2) (Incorrect)

(3) (Incorrect)

(4) (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

293
Solution:
Gate I and II are NOR gates with the two inputs joined together. Each gate acts as a NOT gate. The inputs
of gate III are A and B gate III is a OR gate. The truth table is as shown below:

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Logic Gates
74. The signals A and B shown in Fig. (a) are the used as inputs in circuit shown in FIg. (b). The
output signal C is

(1) (Correct)

(2) (Incorrect)

294
 (3) (Incorrect)

(4) (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
Gate I is a NOR gate with the two input terminals shorted. It acts as a NOT gate. Gate II is NAND gate
with input A and B. The binary representation of inputs A, B and C are:
The pluse representation of C is

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Logic Gates
75. The Booliean representation of a logic cate circuit using two inputs A and B having output
C is

 
C = A.B . A + B 
The correct circuit is:

295
 (1) (Incorrect)

(2) (Incorrect)

(3) (Correct)

(4) (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:

Let C1 = A. B and C2 = A +B. C1 is output of a AND gate using A and B as inputs. C2 is output of a OR
gate using A and B as input. C1 and C2 are inputs of a NAND gate. This is shown correctly in (3).

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Logic Gates
76. Four NAND gates are connected as shown in Fig. The arrangment is equivalent to

296
 (1) One NAND gate (Correct)
(2) One OR gate (Incorrect)
(3) One NOR gate (Incorrect)
(4) One NOT gate (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Gate I and II are used as NAND gates.Let their output be C1 and C2 respectively. C1 and C2 are inputs of
gate III used as a NAND gate. Its output is C3. C3 is input of gate IV used as a NOT gate. The final output
C. The truth–table of the arrangement is

From the truth–table we can make truth–table showing A, B and C only. This is truth–table of a NAND
gate. The arrangment therefore is equivalent to a single NAND gate.

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Average Logic Gates
77. In the circuit shown in Fig. the output Y is zero for inputs

(1) A = 1; B = 0; C = 0 (Incorrect)
(2) A = 0; B = 0; C = 0 (Incorrect)
(3) A = 0; B = 1; C = 0 (Incorrect)
(4) A = 1; B = 1; C = 0 (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
Gate I is AND gate; gate II is NOR gate used as a NOT gate and gate III is NAND gate.

297
1) A = 1; B = 1; C1 = 0; C2 = 1; Y = 1; C = 0
2) A = 0; B = 0; C1 = 0; C2 = 1; Y = 1; C = 0
3) A = 0; B = 1; C1 = 0; C2 = 0; Y = 1; C = 0
4) A = 1; B = 1; C1 = 1; C2 = 1; Y = 1; C = 0
The correct choice is (4).

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Logic Gates
78. Fig. shows a logic commbination with P, Q, R, S are inputs. When P, Q, R and S all are 1;
the outputs X, Y and Z are 1, 1 and 0 respectively. When input P and R are changed to state
0 with inputs Q and S still in state 1; the output X, Y, Z change to:

(1) X = 1; Y = 0; Z = 0 (Incorrect)
(2) X = 1; Y = 1; Z = 1 (Incorrect)
(3) X = 0; Y = 1; Z = 0 (Correct)
(4) X = 0; Y = 0; Z = 1 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
P and Q are inputs of a AND gate. When P = 0; Q = 1; X = 0. R and S are inputs of a NOR gate and its
output is input of a NOT gate. Obvisouly with R = 0 and S = 1; the output of NOR gate is 0. This is input
of NOT gate. Therefore Y = 1. Now X = 0 and Y = 1 are inputs of a NOR gate; the output Z = 0. This is
correctly representation in (3).

Unit–19 : Electronic Devices

Difficult Logic Gates
79. Four NAND gates are joined together as shown in Fig; then the correct Truth–table of the
arrangement is

298
 (1) (Correct)

(2) (Incorrect)

(3) (Incorrect)

(4) (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:

299
 Unit–19 : Electronic Devices
Difficult Logic Gate
80. For the arrangment of logic gates shown in Fig. the Truth–table is

(1) (Incorrect)

(2) (Incorrect)

(3) (Incorrect)

(4) (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

300
Solution:
Gate I, II and III are NOR gates and gate IV is NAND gate. Using the truth tables of gate involved we
have

In Fig. the gates have been numbered as I, II, III and IV. Their outputs are labled as Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y
respetively. Using the Truth–table of NAND gate we have

In terms A, B and Y the correct Truth–table is given in (1).

301
 UNIT–20 : COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to understand, appreciate and apply the following concepts:
 Concept of communication system.
 Propagation of em–waves.
 Different modes of (wireless) propagation of em–waves–ground wave, sky wave and space wave
propagation.
 Basic idea of modulation.
 Need for modulation.
 Different types of modulation – AM, FM and PM.
 Advantages and disadvantages of FM over AM.

302
303
Communication System
Communication is the process of transmission of information from one point and it reception at another
point. The set up used to achieve this goal, is termed as ‘communication system’. The purpose of a
communication system, therefore, is to transmit information from a source, located at one place, to a
receiver, located at another place.

Elements of a Communication System

A communication system consists of three basic parts (i) transmitter (ii) communication channel and (iii)
reciever. The block diagram given below depicts the general form of a communication system.

In a communication system, the transmitter transmits the message signal. The purpose of the transmitter is
to convert the message signal, produced by the source of information, into a form suitable for transmission
through the relevant communication channel. This modification is often achieved by means of a process
known as ‘modulation’.
The communication channel carriers the modulated wave, form, from the transmitter to the receiver. This
‘channel’ can be a transmission line (as in telephony), an optical fibre (as in optical communication) or
merely ‘free space’ in which the signal is radiated as an electromagnetic wave (wireless communication).
The main purpose of a receiver is to reconstruct the original message from the ‘signal received by it, after
propagation through the channel. This is accomplished by using a process known as ‘demodulation’; this
process is the reverse of the ‘modulation’ process, used in the transmitter.

Modes of Communication
There are two basic modes of communication: ‘point to point and ‘broadcast mode.
In the ‘point to point’ communication mode, communication takes place over a link between a single
transmitter and a receive. ‘Telephony’ is the most familiar example of this mode of communication. In
contrast, in the broadcast mode, there are a large number of receivers, corresponding to a single transmitter.
Radio and television are two of the well known examples of this mode of communication.

Basic Terminology used in Communication System

We now familiarize ourselves with the basic terms used in communication systems.

304
1. Transducer: This is any device which converts one form of energy into another form. An electrical
transducer may be defined as a device that converts the variations in some physical variable (pressure,
displacement, force, temperature) into corresponding variations in an electrical signal given out at its
output. For example microphone and loudspeakers act as transducers. They convert sound signals
into electrical signal and vice–versa.
2. Message Signal: It is a time varying electrical signal, generated from some original signal, using an
appropriate transducer. These signals can be analogue or digital in nature.
3. Attenuation: The loss of strength (or energy) of a signal, while propagating through a medium, is
known as attenuation.
4. Range: It is the largest distance between source and a distination, upto which the transmitted signal
can be received with sufficient strength.
5. Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the frequency range over which the equipment, of a channel,
operates. It may also be viewed as (i) the position of the (e.m.) spectrum occupied by the signal, or
(ii) as the difference of the highest frequency to the lowest frequency, within which transmission is
taking place.
6. Repeater: A ‘repeater’ is the combination of a receiver and a transmitter. A repeater picks up the
signal from the transmitter, amplifies it and retransmits it to the receiver. Repeaters are used to extend
the range of a communication system. A communication satellite is essentially a repeater station in a
space.

Bandwidth of a Signal
In a communication system,the message signal can be voice, music, picture or computer data. All of these
‘signals’, have ‘different ranges of frequencies’. For example speech signals require a bandwidth of 2800
Hz, for commercial telephonic communication. To transmit music, an approximate bandwidth of 20 KHz is
required video signals, for transmisstion of pictures, require 4.2 MHz of bandwidth. A T.V. signal (having
both video and audio parts) usually has 6 MHz of bandwidth for transmission.

Some Important Wireless Communication

Nature of Service/Broadcast Frequency Band
FM Radio 88–108 MHz
VHF TV 54–88 MHz
UHF TV 420–890 MHz
Cellular Mobile Phone 896–901 MHz (Mobile to Base Station)
840–935 MHz (Base Station to Mobile)

305
Bandwidth of Transmission Medium
The commonly used transmission medium (communication channel) are wireless (radio communication)
free space, coaxial cables and fibre optic cables. Coaxial cables are widely used ‘wire based medium’,
which offers a bandwidth of approximately 750 MHz. Communication through free space, using radio
waves, takes place over a very wide range of frequencies, from few KHz to a few GHz. Optical
communication, using optical fibres, is performed over the frequency range of 1 THz to 1000 THz. An
optical fibre can offer a transmission bandwidth in excess of 100 GHz.

Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves

In communication using radio waves, an antenna, at the transmitter end, radiates, the em–waves, which
propagate through free space and reach the receiving antenna at the other end. An electromagnetic wave
(em–wave), may be divided into various parts. The part, which propagates along the surface of earth is
called surface wave (ground wave propagation). The remainder part moves towards the ionosphere and
gets reflected by this ionosphere. Such type of propagation is called sky wave. Sky wave propagation can
takes place for frequency up to about 30 MHz. Above this frequency, electromagnetic waves essentially
propagate as space waves. Space waves are used for line of sight communication and satellite
communication.

Ground Wave
This mode of propagation is also called surface wave propagation as the wave glides over the surface of
the earth. A wave induces current in the ground over which it passes; it is attenuated as a result of absorption
of energy by the earth. The attenuation of surface wave increases very rapidly with increases in frequency.
Hence this mode of propagation is limited to freqeuncy as up to few MHz.

Sky Wave
In the frequency range, from few MHz to 30 MHz, long distance communication can be achieved by
ionospheric reflection of radiowaves back towards earth. The ionospheric layer acts as a reflector over the
range of frequencies ranging from about 3 MHz to about 30 MHz.The critical frequency, for reflection is
given by fC = 9 (Nmax)½, where Nmax is the maximum electron density in the concerned layer of ionosphere.
As different layers of the ionosphere act as gets reflectors, any wave directed at a certain angle, gets
reflected and returns to the earth. There may exist a distance, from the transmitter, measured along the
surface of earth, to the point where the wave return to earth after reflection from ionosphere; this distance
is known as ‘skip distance’; this is shown in the figure (2) below.

306
Using multiple loops, in which the wave is reflected between the ionosphere and earth’s surface several
times the propagation range can be increased.

Space Wave
A space wave propagates along a straight line; from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna.
Space waves are used for line of sight (LOS) communication as well as satellite communication. At
frequencies above 40 MHz, communication is essentially limited to LOS. Because of their ‘line of sight’
nature of propagation, direct waves get blocked at some point by the
curvature of earth, this is shown in the figure (3).
The distance, d, is known as the radio horizon of the transmitting antenna.
The value of d is (approximately) proportional to the square root of its
height of the transmitting antenna. This can be seen as follows
We have,
(OQ)2 = (OR)2 + (QR)2
 (R + h)2 = R2 + d2

 d  2Rh (as R >> h)

Here h is the height of the transmitting antenna and ‘d’ is the radio horizon.
If the signal is to be received beyond the
horizon then the receiving anteena must be
high enough to intercept the ‘line of sight’
waves.

307
The maximum ‘line of sight’ distance, dm, between the two antenna, having heights hT and hR above earth’s
surface, is given by

d m  2Rh T  2Rh R

An Interesting Feature of ‘Space Wave Propagation’

The propagation of e.m. waves, from the transmitter to the receiver, via space wave propagation, can take
place in two ways:
(i) direct ‘line of sight’ propagation from the transmitter to the receiver.
(ii) transmission from the transmitter towards the earth’s surface; reflection from the earth’s surface and
receiving of the reflected waves by the receiver.
The two waves, at the reveiver, will in general, arrive with a certain phase difference between them. We
can easily calculate this phase difference and see its affect on the ‘resultant field strength’ received at the
receiver, under the assumption that the reflecting point, on the earth, is mid–way between the transmitter
and receiver. Let a transmitter, of height HT and a receiver, of height HR, be located a distance d apart from
each other.
We than have
Direct path = AB
1

  d 2   H T  H R  
2

1
  H  HR
2

 d 1   T 
  d 

 1  H T  H R 2 
 d 1    
 2  d  

(If HT and HR are both small compared to d)

The reflected wave’s path = (AC + CB)
1 1
2 2 2 2
  x   H T    d  x   H R 2 
   

1 1
2 2
  HT 2  2   HR  
 x 1       d  x    
  x    d  x  

308
  1  H 2   1  H 2 
 x 1   T     d  x  1   R  
 2  x    2  d  x  

1 HT 2 1 H R 2
d 
2 x 2 d  x

2 2
1 HT  d  x   HR  x 
d
2  x  d  x  

d
For simplification, we may take x 
2
We than have,

1 H T  HR 
2 2

Reflected wave’s path  d  d

2 2

d
H T
2
 HR2 
d
 Path difference between the two waves arriving, at the receiver


H T
2
 HR 2    HT 2  HR 2  2HT HR 
d

 2H T H R 
 
 d 

2  H T H R  4  H T H R 
 Corresponding phase difference = 2   
  d    d 

The total phase difference, however, will have an additional contribution of  , caused by the reflection of
the wave from ground (rarer to denser media reflection). Hence the total phase difference, between the
two waves, arriving at the receiver, is

 4 H T H R 
   
  d 

The resultant field strength, at the receiver, can now be estimated. For simplification, we can take the

309
individual field strengths, of the two waves arriving at the receiver, to be identical (say E’ each). We then
have, in this special case,
1

Resultant field strength =  E 2  E 2  2E.E cos  

2

1
 2E 1  cos   2

1
2
  4 H T H R 
 2 E 1  cos    
   d 
1
2
  4 H T H R  
 2 E 1  cos    
   d  
1
2
  2 H T H R 
 2 E  2 sin 2  
   d 

 2 H T H R 
 2E sin  
  d 

Example–1:
A TV tower has a height of 150 m. How much population the TV broadcast covers if the average population
density around the tower is 1000/km2 (radius of earth is 6.4×106m)
Solution:
The radius of the region, covered by TV broadcast, in given by

r  2Rh
The area of region covered will be

A  r 2

 2hR

  2  64  106  150 m 2

12.8150 m 2

 Population covered = 12.8150 1000

 6.03 millions.

310
Example–2:
Which of the following frequencies, will be suitable for ‘beyond the horizon’ communication using sky
wves?
(1) 10 KHz
(2) 10 MHz
(3) 1 GHz
(4) 1000 GHz
Solution:
10 KHz can not be used for long distance communication and 1 GHz and 1000 GHz will penetrate through
the ionosphere. It is only 10 MHz that can get reflected back from the ionosphere.
Example–3:
Which means of propagation is used for frequencies in the UHF (Ultra High Frequencies) range?
Solution:
Space wave propagation; either line of sight communication or satellite communication.

Modulation
For reasons listed below, the original low frequency message/information signal cannot be directly transmitted
(as e.m. waves) over long distances. Therefore, at the transmitter end, such a low frequency message
signal is superimposed on a high frequency wave, which acts as a ‘carrier’ of the information. This process
is knowns as modulation.
Necessity of Modulation
Modulation is necessary because of the following reasons:
1. Size of Antenna or Areial: The antenna should have a size compaable to the wavelength of signal
(at least  4 ) so that it may properly ‘sense’ the time variations of the signal. Hence, we can obtain
transmissions (of e.m. waves) with resonable antenna lengths, only if the transmisstion frequency is
high.
2. Effective Power Radiated by an Antenna: The power, radiated by an antenna of effective length
‘  ’ is proportional to
2
  . This implies that with same length ‘  ’, the radiated power increases
with decreasing wavelength i.e., increasing freqeuncy.
3. The use of high frequency (carrier) waves, ‘used’ during modulation, also helps to avoid mixing up of
signals from different transmitters. This aim is achieved by alooting a (distance, non over–lapping)
band of frequencies to each message signal during its transmissions.

311
From, the above discussion we conclude that there is a need for ‘translating’ the original low frequency
message signals into high frequency signals, before transmisstion. This transformation must be done in a
way such that the ‘translated’ signal still possesses the information contrained in the original signal. The high
frequency wave, we use for this purpose, is known as the carrier wave.

During the process of modulation, any of the three parameters: ‘amplitude’, ‘frequency’ or ‘phase’, of the
carrier wave, is controlled by the amplitude of the original message or information signal. This results in
three types of modulation.
(i) Amplitude modulation (AM)
(ii) Frequency modulation (FM)
(iii) Phase modulation (PM)
These three types of modulation have been shown in the figure (6) given above.

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In amplitude modulation the amplitude of the carrier c (t) is varied in accordance with the amplitude of
information signal or modulating signal (m(t))

Let c  t   A c sin c t  , be the carrier wave

and m (t)   A m sin m t  be the modulating signal or information signal.

312
Then amplitude modulated signal is given by

c m  t    A c  A m sin m t  sin c t

A c
 A c sin c t  cos  c  m  t
2
A c
 cos  c  m  t
2
Here  = Am/Ac it is known as the modulation index.
 is kept < 1 to avoid distortion.

The difference  c  m  , and the sum  c  m  , are, respectively called the ‘lower side’ and ‘upper
side’ frequencies.

It is important to ensure that the broadcast frequencies (carrier waves) are sufficiently spaced out so that
sidebands do not overlap. Different stations can then operate without interfering with each other.
Power Distribution between the (Original) ‘Carrier Wave’ and the ‘Side Bands’ in an Amplitude
Modulated (Carrier) Wave
When a carrier wave

c  t   A c sin  c t 

is amplitude modulated by a message signal

m  t   A m sin  m t  ,

the resulting AM carrier wave

C mt   A c  A m sin  m t   sin  c t 

313
can be rewritten as
A c
C mt  A c sin m t  cos  c  m  t 
2
Ac
 cos  c  m  t 
2
Am
where =   A = modulation index.
c

The AM carrier wave, therefore, has its power distributed between the original carrier wave and the two
side bands accompyaning it. Their relative ‘shares’ depend on the value of  , the modulation index. Let us
see there ‘relative shares’ of power.
We have
2
 AC 
 2
Power of the original carrier wave =  
 R 
 
 Ac2 
 
 2R 
and power of each of the sideband waves
2
  AC 
   
2 2
 
 R 
 

 A 2
  2 c 
 4R 

Here R is the effective rsistance of the ‘modulator circuit’.

AC 2
Power is the two sidebands 2 2

  4R    
2  
Power is the original carrier AC 2
2R

A c2  2  A c 2
And total power = 2R 1  2  2   2R 1   
2

 

314
Example–4:
A message signale of frequency 5 kHz and peak voltage of 7.5 volts is used to modulate a carrier of
frequencies 2 MHz and peak voltage of 15 volts. Determine (a) modulation index, (b) the side bands
produced.
Solution:
(a) Modulation index = 7.5/15 = 0.5
(b) THe side bands are at (2000 + 8 kHz) = 2008 kHz and (2000 – 8 KHz) = 1992 kHz.

Frequency Modulation (FM)

In this type of modulcation, the frequency of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the amplitude of
the modulating / information signal, this is shown in Figure 6(b).
Advantage of FM over AM
1. The FM signals has a larger bandwidth. Therefore, to accomodate more FM signals, on a particular
frequency spectrum, without adjacent channel interference, higher carrier frequencies are used.
2. In FM signals, the intelligence is in the form of frequency variations. Hence the noise generated by
atmospheric or man made electric discharge, does not affect the intelligence. Hence FM leads to less
noisy transmission and reception.
3. Reproduction of the signal, at the receiver end, is of much better quality. FM is therefore, better for
transmisstion of music.

Phase Modulation (PM)

The modulated wave follows the phase of the modulating / information signals as shown in Fig. 6 (c)

Production of Amplitude Modulated Wave

Amplitude modulation can be produced by a variety of methods. A simple method is shown in the block
diagram of Fig. 8.

315
It is usual to have a ‘power amplifier’ for providing the necessary power to the output of an ‘amplitude
modulator’. The output of the power amplifier, is fed into the ‘transmitting antenna’ whose size is appropriate
for good transmission.

Detection of Amplitude Modulated Wave

The amplitude modulated signal, when received by the receiving antenna, is made to go throgh the different
stages, shown is the block diagram given below.

The signal received, is first amplified by using an appropriate amplifier. This is necessary to compensate for
the energy lost during transmission. The IF (intermediate frequency) stage changes the (high) carrier frequency
to a lower frequency. This helps in further processing of the signal. The detector receives the output of the
IF stage and ‘separates out’ the ‘message signal’ from it. Another amplifier then amplifies this ‘message
signal’ (received from the detector) before it is received as the output.

Detection
The (amplifier) modulated carrier wave has frequencies  c  m  in addition to its own frequency c .
The detector helps is recovering the message signal, of frequency m , from this Am wave. The block
diagram given below, shows a simple method of achieving this aim.

316
As shown here, the rectifier converts the AM wave into the form shown. The ‘envelope detector’ then
‘extracts’ the ‘envelope’ of the rectified signal; this is the original message signal. [We use suitable circuits
(like to RC circuit) to work as ‘envelope detector’].

317
 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
1. What is the coverage range of television transmitting station if the height of transmitting atenna is
200 m? Radius of earth = 6.4×106 m. If the population density of area is 4000 per km2, then how
much population is covered?
[Ans: 51 km, 3.2×107]
2. A transmitting antenna of height h and the receiving antenna of height 45 m are separated by a
0
distance of 48 km for satisfactory communication m line of sight mode of communication. Find the
value of h
[Ans: 45 m]
3. For an amplitude modulated wave, the maximum amplitude is found to be 10 V, while the minimum
amplitude is found to be 2V. Find the modulation index.
[Ans: 4/3]
4. A TV tower has a height of 100 m. If the average population density around the tower is 1500 km2,
then the population covered by T.V broadcast is n×106. What is the value of n? Radius of earth is
6.37×106 m.
[Ans: 6]
5. When the modulating frequency in frequency modulating system is 400 Hz and the modulating voltage
is 2V; the modulation index is 40. If the modulating signal is Vm = 4 sin 400  t volt, then find the
modulation index?
[Ans: 160]
6. What should be the length of dipole antenna for a carrier wave of frequency 6×108 Hz.
[Ans: 0.125 m]
7. An AM wave is represented by cm(t) = 6 (1+0.5 cos 12560 t) cos 22×105 t. Calcualte:
(i) amplitude and frequency of carrier.
(ii) frequency of the modulating signal.
(iii) modulation index.
(iv) maximum and minimum amplitude of the AM wave.

[Ans: (i) Ac 6V, c = 22×105 rad/s, m = 12560 rad/s,  = 0.05, Amax = 9V, Amin = 3V]

8. An audio signal of amplitude one half the carrier amplitude is employed in amplitude modulation.
What is the modulation index?
[Ans: 0.5]

318
9. If the whole earth is to be connected by LOS communication using space waves (no restriction to
antenna size or tower height), what is the minimum number of antennas required? Calculate the
tower height of these anteenas in terms of earth’s surface?
[Ans: 6 antennas of height equal to radius of earth]
10. Calculate the percentage increase in the signal reception, if the height of TV tower is increased by
44%.
[Ans: 20%]
11. An AM wave is modulated by 25%. What is the percentage saving in power if the carrier as well as
one of the sidebands are suppressed?
[Ans: 98.4%]
12. A sinusoidal carrier voltage of frequency 1.5 MHz and amplitude 50 volt is amplitude modulated by
sinusoidal voltage of frequency 10 KHz producing 50% modulation. Calculate the frequency of
upper and lower sidebands.
[Ans: 1510 Hz, 1490 Hz]
13. For skywave propagation of a 10 MHz signal, what should be the minimum electron density in
ionosphere?
[Ans: 1.2×103m–3]
14. For an amplitude modulated wave, the maximum amplitude is found to be 10 V while the minimum
amplitude is found to be 2V. Determine the modulation index.
[Ans: 2/3]
15. In short wave communication waves, which frequency will be reflected back by the ionospheric
layer having electron density 1011 per m–3.
[Ans: 2 MHz]

319
QUESTION BANK

320
 Key Learning Points
1. Electronic communication is the act of transmission of information. Every communication system has
three essential features, transmitter, medium / channel and receiver.
2. There are two basic modes of communication point to point and broadcast.
3. Information converted in electrical form and suitable for transmission is called a signal. Two important
forms of communication system are Analog and digital. The information to be transmitted is generally
in continuous waveform for Analog while for the digital it has only discrete or quantised levels.
4. Every message signal occupies a range of frequencies. The bandwidth refers to the frequency range
over the spectrum occupied by the signal.
5. Most of the signals are in audio form, which cannot be transmitted over a long distance becuase:
(i) the antenna or aerial should have a size comparable to the wavelength of signal.

1
(ii) power radiated  . For good transmission, we need high powers and hence smaller
2
wavelengths or higher frequencies.
(iii) low frequency signals transmitted as such will get mixed up and there is no way to distinguish
between them.
Hence to transmit audio frequency signals, we use a high frequency signal called the carrier wave.
6. At transmitter, information contained in the low frequency message signal is superimposed on high
frequency wave, which act as a carrier of the information. This process is known as modulation.
7. In modulation, some characterstics of the carrier signal like amplitude frequency or phase varies in
accordance with the modulation or message signal. Correspondingly, they are called Amplitude
Modulated (AM), Freqeuncy Modulated (FM) or Phase Modulated (PM) waves.
8. For transmisstion over long distances, signals are radiated into sapce using devices called antennas.
The radiated signals propagate as electromagnetic waves and the mode of propagation is influenced
by the presence of the earth and its atmosphere.
9. The radio waves which travel through atmosphere following the surface of earth are known as
ground waves or surface waves. The ground wave propagation becomes weaker with increase in
frequency. Hence ground wave propagation is suitable for low and medium frequency i.e. upto 20
MHz only.
10. In the frequency range from 2 MHz to 30 MHz, long distance communication can be achieved by
ionospheric reflection of radio waves back towards the earth. This mode of propagation is called
sky wave propagation. If the frequency of radiowave is more than critical frequency it will not be
reflected by ionosphere. The critical frequency of a sky wave for reflection from a layer of atmosphere

321
 is given by
fc = 9 (Nmax)1/2, where N is the number density of electron / m3 of a particular layer.
11. Space waves are radiowaves of very high frequency (between 30 MHz to 300 MHz or more).
These waves are used for line of sight communication (LOS) and satellite communication.
12. The range of communication of space wave propagation can be increased by increasing the heights
of transmitting and receiving antenna.
13. If hT is the height of transmiting antenna and d is the distance of receiving antenna from transmitting
antenna then:

d  2h T R , where R is the radius of the earth.

For T.V. signal, area covered =  d2 =  2Rh

Population covered = population density × area covered.
If receiving antenna is at a height hr, then maximum line of sight distance dm between two antennas will
be

d m  2h T R  2h r R

14. The satellite communication is a mode of communication of signal between transmitter and receiver
through satellite. A communication satellite is a space craft, provided with microwave receiver and
transmitter. It is placed in a geostationary orbit. The height H above the surface of the earth, for a
geostationary satellite is
1
 GmT 2 
3

H 2 
R
 4 

where m is the mass of earth, R the radius of earth and T time taken by the satellite to complete one
orbit.

15. The AM carrier wave has, in addition to its own frequency c , two side bands of frequencies
 c  m  and  c  m  . Hence the bandwidth of the AM carrier wave is 2m .

16. If c  t   A c sin c t represents carrier wave and m  t   Am sin m t represent the message signal,
then amplitude modulated signal is given by:

c m  t   A c sin c t  A c sin m t  sin c t

322
 Am
where   is the modulation index. In practice  is kept < 1 to avoid distortion.
Ac

17. Amplitude modulated wave cm (t) can be produced by application of the message signal and the
carrier wave to a non–linear device followed by a band pass filter.
18. AM signal cannot be transmitted as such. The modulator is to be followed by a power amplifier
which provides the necessary power and then the modulated signal is fed to an antenna of appropriate
size for radiation.
19. AM detection, which is the process of recovering the modulating signal from an AM waveform; is
carried out using a rectifier and envelope detector.

1
20. For detection of amplitude modulated wave, the essential condition is  RC
fc

where fc the frequency of carrier wave and RC time constant of envelope detector (simple RC
circuit).

323
 Unit–20 : Communication System
Average Message Signal
1. An audio message signal is a piece of information, which at a particular time,
(1) has only single value (Correct)
(2) can have two values (Incorrect)
(3) can hve a single value, or two values, depending on the time instant (Incorrect)
(4) must have multiple values (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Audio signal, at a particular time, have only a single value, as their variation with time, is (usually) basically
of the form shown here.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Basic Elements of a Communication System
2. The ‘information source’, whose ‘message signal’ needs to be transmitted is (i) a picture
(ii) a (audio) musical composition and (iii) a ‘pressure variation’. The transducers, likely to
be used in the three cases, would be (respectively):
(1) based on photoelectric effect, based on piezoelectric effect and a microphone. (Incorrect)
(2) based on piezoelectric effect, microphone and based on photoelectric effect. (Incorrect)
(3) based on photoelectric effect; a microphone and based on piezoelectric effect. (Correct)
(4) based on magneto–restriction effect; a microphone and based on photoelectric effect.
(Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)

324
Solution:
A transducer is (usually) a device / setup that converts variations in a givn physical variable into their
corresponding electrical variations. It thus ‘readies’ the message signal for transmission over large distances.
For ‘picture’ (variations in light intensity) the relevant transducer is based on the ‘photoelectric effect’.
For audio musical compositions (variations in sound intensity) the relevant transducer is the microphone.
For pressure variation relevant transducer is based on the phenomenon of ‘piezo electric effect’.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Devices used in Communication System
3. The role of the satellites, in ‘line of sight’ communication mode, can be regarded as similar
to the role of a
(1) Transducer (Incorrect)
(2) Transmitter (Incorrect)
(3) Receiver (Incorrect)
(4) Repeater (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
The satellites, used for communication purposes, receive signals (from a transmitting station on the earth),
amplify it and retransmit it (generally at a different carrier frequency) back towards the receiving stations on
the earth. The role is, therefore, similar to that of a repeater. The repeater also picks up the signal from the
transmitter, and retransmits it to the receiver, after amplifying it and (sometimes) changing its carrier frequency.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Space and Sky Wave Propagation
4. In the trosophere,
(1) Density of air molecules increases with increase in the altitude; and temperature decreases
with increase in the altitude. (Incorrect)
(2) Density of air molecules decreases with increases in the altitude; and temperature increases
with increase in the altitutde. (Incorrect)
(3) Density of air molecules and temperature, both increase with increase in the altitude.
(Incorrect)

325
 (4) Density of air molecules and temperature, both decreases with increase in the altitude.
(Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
The density of air molecules, as well as temperature of the air, have lower values at higher altitudes.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Space and Sky Wave Propagation
5. The atmospheric region which acts as ‘radio mirror’ is
(1) Troposphere (Incorrect)
(2) Stratosphere (Incorrect)
(3) Ionosphere (Correct)
(4) Both troposphere and stratosphere (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
Ionosphere (having a lot of air molecules ionised) reflects the radio waves back to the earth’s surface).

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Space and Sky Wave Propagation
6. Thickest layer of the ionosphere is
(1) D layer (Incorrect)
(2) E layer (Incorrect)
(3) F1 layer (Incorrect)
(4) F2 layer (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
The approximate height of the four layers is as follows.
D layer – 65–75 km

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E layer – 100 km
F1 layer – 170–190 km
F2 layer – 300 km (at night) and 250–400 km (during day)

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Space and Sky Wave Propagation
7. Locus of points at which direct rays from the antenna are tangential to the earth surface is
called as,
(1) Critical circle (Incorrect)
(2) Radio horizon (Correct)
(3) Skip distance (Incorrect)
(4) Vertical height (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The radio horizon is a measure of the distance between the transmitter and the receiver, when the receiver
is receving the ‘line of sight’ rays from the transmitter.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Space and Sky Wave Propagation
8. The atmospheric layer which reflects low frequency waves and absorbs medium frequency
waves is,
(1) Troposphere (Incorrect)
(2) D layer of the ionosphere (Correct)
(3) E layer of the ionosphere (Incorrect)
(4) F1 layer of the ionosphere (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
It is the D layer, of the ionosphere which reflects low frequency waves and absorbs medium frequency
waves.

327
 Unit–20 : Communication System
Average Propagation of EM Waves
9. The (usual) modes of propagation of EM waves, having a frequency.
(i) less than a few MHz
(ii) from a few MHz to (30–40) MHz
(iii) above 40 MHz
are respectively,
(1) Ground waves, space waves, sky waves (Incorrect)
(2) Ground waves, sky waves, space waves (Correct)
(3) Sky waves, space waves, ground waves (Incorrect)
(4) Space waves, ground waves, sky waves (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
In the ground wave mode of propagation the wave glides over the surface of the earth. This mode can be
used only for frequencies less than a few MHz.
The sky wave uses the ionospheric reflection of radio waves; the ionospere does not reflect back waves of
frequencies more than (30–40) MHz.
The space wave mode of propagation is used for line sight communication and satellite communication is
done primarily through this mode only.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Propagation of EM Waves
10. With increase in frequency of the EM waves, to be transmitted via ground wave propagation,
there is
(1) an increase in attenuation, but no change in the range of coverage (Incorrect)
(2) a decrease in attenuation, but no change in the range of coverage (Incorrect)
(3) an increase in attenuation, there is also a change in range of coverage (Correct)
(4) a decrease in attenuation, there is also a change in the range of coverage (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)

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Solution:
In ground wave propagation, the attenuation of surface waves increases (very rapidly) with increase in
frequency. The range of coverage also depends on the frequency of the transmitted EM Wave.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Propagation of EM Waves
11. Four students made the following statements about the propagation of EM waves via the
ground wave mode:
(A) The waves glide over the surface of the earth and lose energy because of the currents, induced
by them, in the ground.
(B) This mode is useful for transmission of EM waves of frequencies more than 40 MHz, the range
of coverage gets limited due to the curvature of the earth.
(C) The waves propagate throgh air, this mode is useful only for EM waves of frequencies less
than a few MHz.
(D) The wves glide over the surface of the earth; they lose energy primarily because of the energy
absorbed by the intervening air.
The correct statement is that of student.
(1) A (Correct)
(2) B (Incorrect)
(3) C (Incorrect)
(4) D (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
In the ground wave mode of propagation, the wave glides over the surface of the earth. It induces currents
in the ground over which it passes and this results in its loss of energy. This mode is practicable only for
frequencies less than a few MHz.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Propagation of EM Waves
12. The peak of ionisation density, within the ionosphere, occurs neither at very low nor at

329
 very great heights; it occurs at some intermediate height. This is because at these
intermediate heights, the
(1) Intensity of solar radiation, as well as the molecular concentration (of air molecule) attain their
peak values. (Incorrect)
(2) Intensity of solar radiation is at its peak, the molecular concentration (of air molecules) is also
reasonably high. (Incorrect)
(3) Intensity of solar radiation is resonably high; the molecular concentration (of air molecules) is
at its peak value. (Incorrect)
(4) Intensity of solar radiation, as well as the molecular concentration (of air molecules) are both
reasonably high. (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
The solar radiation is intense at great heights; the molecular concentration (of air molecules) is very high
near the surface of the earth. At intermediate heights, both these terms are reasonably high; this results in a
peak of ionisation density only at intermediate heights.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Propagation of EM Waves
13. The process of ‘ionospheric reflection’ of radio waves is basically a process of
(1) Absorption and re–radiation; it results in a change of direction of propagation without any
change in frequency (Correct)
(2) Absorption and re–radiation; it results in a change of direction of propagation accompanied
with a change in frequency. (Incorrect)
(3) Reflection, akin to reflection from a plane mirror; it results in a change of direction of propagation
accompanied with a change in frequency (Incorrect)
(4) Reflection, akin to reflection from a concave mirror; it results in a change of direction of
propagation without any change in frequency (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
The ions absorb the incoming EM waves and start oscillating at its frequency. As per the EM theory, they
then act as a source of EM aves whose frequency equals the frequency of oscillation of the ions.

330
Ionispheric reflection is, therefore, basically a process of absorption and ‘re–radiation’; there is a change
in the direction of propagation out no change a frequency.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Propagation of EM Waves
14. The phenomenon in optics, that is similar to the phenomenon of ionospheric reflection of
radio waves, (by the ionosphere) is the phenomenon of
(1) Refraction of light rays (Incorrect)
(2) Diffused, irregular reflection, of light rays (Incorrect)
(3) Regular, intense, reflection, of light rays (Incorrect)
(4) Total internal reflection,of light rays (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
Ionospheric reflection, of radio waves, may be regarded as similar to the phenomenon of ‘total internal
reflection’ in optics.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Space Wave Propagation
15. The height of a T.V. tower is 180 m. The distance up to which the transmission can be made
from this tower is (nearly)
(1) 18 Km (Incorrect)
(2) 48 Km (Correct)
(3) 64 Km (Incorrect)
(4) 90 Km (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The transmission range

d= 2Rh

 d  2  6.4  106  180

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  128  18  103 m

 64  36  103 m

= 48×103 m
= 48 km

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Space Wave Propagation
16. The percentage, by which the transmission range of a T.V. tower, would be affected, when
the height of the tower is increased by 21% is (nearly).
(1) 10% (Correct)
(2) 11.5% (Incorrect)
(3) 21% (Incorrect)
(4) 42% (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Original transmission range,

d  2hR (1)

21h 
New height h '   h    1.21h (2)
 100 

 New transmission range,

d '  2h 'R  2 1.21hR  1.1d (using equation) (3)

 Percentage increase in range

 d ' d 
   100
 d 

 1.1d  d 
   100  10%
 d 

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 Unit–20 : Communication System
Average Propagation of EM Waves
17. Let the radius of earth be devoted by R. The graph’s, representing, the co–relation between
the height (H) of a transmitting antenna and its radio horizon (dm), is/are the graph/s labelled
as graphs.

(1) (A) and (B) (Incorrect)

(2) (B) and (C) (Incorrect)
(3) (C) and (A) (Correct)
(4) (C) and (D) (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The radio horizon, dm, of a transmitting antenna, in related to its height (H), through the relation.

d m  2RH (R = Radius of the earth)

 d m 2  2RH

Hence a graph, between dm and H , as well as that between dm2 and H, would be a straight line, passing
through the origin and having a slope 2R. It is graphs (A) and (C), that meet all these requirements.

333
 Unit–20 : Communication System
Difficult Propagation of EM Waves
18. In the diagram shown here, EM Waves, sent from a transmitting antenna, are being received
back on the earth via ionosheric reflection. One can say that the

(1) (Relative) refractive index, of the ionospheric layer, between the E and F layers in less than
 1 . (Incorrect)
 
 sin  
(2) (Relative) refractive index, of the ionospheric layer, between the E and F layers, is, of the
1 
order of, or more than  . (Correct)
 sin  
(3) Rays (2) and (3) are incident at angles greater than the critical angles for the layers F1 and F2.
(Incorrect)
(4) There are no ions at all, in the ionospheric layers above the layer F1, that can cause ionospheric
reflection. (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The bending of EM waves, via ionospheric reflection, is similar to the phenomenon of total internal refelection.
For TIR, we have ,
1

sin C

where C is the critical angle for the given pair of media.

 1 
For  less than   these can be no TIR when the angle of incidence is C or less.
 sin C 

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Hence statements (1) and (3) are incorrect. Statement (4) is also incorrect as the layers mentioned have a
relatively low ion..............

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Propagation of EM Waves
19. Suppose a given TV transmission system (using space wave mode of propagation), were
set up in which the sum total (H) of the height of the transmitting antenna (HT) and the
receiving antenna (HR) remains constant. The ratio (HT/HR) to achieve maximum ‘line of
sight’ distance, between the two antennas, should be
(1) 2:3 (Incorrect)
(2) 3:2 (Incorrect)
(3) 1:1 (Correct)
(4) 2:1 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The line of sight distance, between the two antennas in given by
1 1
d m   2RH T  2   2RH R  2

(R = radius of the earth)

1 1
  2R  H  H R     2RH R  2
2

For maximum value of dm, we should have

d dm 
0
dH R

1 1 1 1
  2R    2R  H  H R   2   2RH R  2  2R   0
2 2

1 1
or 1  1 0
 2R  H  H R  
2
 2RH R  2

1 1
  2RH R  2   2R  H  H R   2

 0
Matter Not Clear

335
 1 1
or  2R  H  H R   2   2RH R  2

or H – H R = HR

H
 HR 
2

H
 HT  H  H R 
2

HT
  1:1
HR

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Propagation of EM Waves
20. The height of a transmitting antenna, and its ‘redio horizon’, are denoted by H and d
respectively. The radius of the earth is denoted by R. One can then say that a graph between.
(1) dm2 and H would be similar to the (time)2 displacement graph of a particle, starting from rest
and having a uniform acceleration a. (Correct)
(2) dm and H would be similar to the graph between pressure and volume of an ideal gas under
isothermal conditions. (Incorrect)

(3) dm and H would be similar to the displacement time graph of a particle having an initial
velocity u and a uniform acceleration a. (Incorrect)
(4) dm and H2 would be similar to the graph between volume and temperature of an ideal gas
under isobasic conditions. (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:

We known that d m  2RH

 d m 2   2R  H

We also know that, for a particle starting from rest and having a uniform acceleration a,

1 2 2
s at or t2    s
2 a 

336
 A graph between dm2 and H would be similar to the (time)2 – displacement graph, of a particle starting
from rest and having a uniform acceleration a.
The other listed (graphs – pairs) do not match.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Propagation EM Waves
21. Let R and M denote the radius and mass of the earth and let H be the height of a geostationary
satellite above the surface of the earth. Let TE denote the time taken by the earth to
complete one rotation about its own axis.
The minimum time delay between the transmission of a signal, and its ‘receiving back’ on
earth, after ‘reflection’ from a geostationary satellite, would be

1
1  GMTE  3 
(1)    R  (Incorrect)
c  2  

2  GMT 2  3 
(2)  2
E
  R  (Correct)
c  4  

1
2  GMTE  3 
(3)  2 
 R (Incorrect)
c  4  

1
1  GMTE  3 
(4)    R (Incorrect)
c  2  

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
For a geostationary satellite, at a height H above the surface of the earth, we have

mv2 GmM

 R  H   R  H 2

GM
or v
R  H

337
 Time taken by the satellite to complete one orbit.

2  R  H  2  R  H  R  H
T 
v GM

3
2  R  H  2


GM

This must equal, TE, the time taken by the earth to complete one rotation on its axis. Hence
3
2  R  H  2

TE 
GM

TE 2GM 3
or 2
 R  H
4
1
T 2
3

  R  H    E 2 GM 
 4 

1
 GM T 2  3 
E
 H   2   R 
 4  

The minimum distance the signal has to travel equals (H + H), i.e. 2H.
Hence,

2H
Minimum time dalay =
C

2  GM T 2  3 
E
  2   R 
C  4  

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Propagation of EM Waves
22. The ‘space wave’ mode of propagation of EM waves is used for LOS communication as

338
 well as for ‘satellite communication’. During satellite communication.
(1) The frequencies used are generally in the radio wave and microwave part of the e.m. spectrum;
the satellite usually retransmits the signal at a carrier freqeuncy different from the carrier freqeuncy
of its incoming signal. (Correct)
(2) The frequencies used are generally in the infrared and microwave part of the e.m. spectrum;
the satellite always retransmits the signal at the same carrier frequency as that of the incoming
signal. (Incorrect)
(3) The frequencies used are generally in the radio and microwave part of the e.m. spectrum; the
satellite always transmits the signal at the same carrier frequency as that of the incoming signal.
(Incorrect)
(4) The frequencies used are generally in the infrared part of the e.m. spectrum; the satellite usually
retransmits the signal at a carrier freqeuncy different from the carrier frequency of the incoming
signal. (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
The frequencies, used in satellite communication, are generally in the radio and microwave parts of the e.m.
spectrum.
The satellite receives the signal, amplified and usually refransmitts it at a carrier frequency different from the
carrier frequency of the incoming signal. It does so to avoid intermixing of the outgoing signal.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average ‘Line of Sight’ Propagation E.M. Waves
23. For the ‘combination’ of a transmitting antenna, of height HT and a receiving antenna, of
height HR, their ‘radio horizon’ equals x when HR = HT. Without changing the height of the
receivng antenna, the height of the transmitting antenna is increased to 4 times its earlier
value. The new value of their ‘radio horizon’ would be.
(1) 1.5x (Correct)
(2) 2x (Incorrect)
(3) 3x (Incorrect)
(4) 4x (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)

339
Solution:
The radio horizon is given by

d  2HR T  2RH R

In the first case, then

x  2RH T  2RH R  2 2RH T

In the second case, if x ' is the radio horizon,

We have,

x '  2 R .4 H T  2RH T

3x
 3 2RH T 
2

3x
 Now value of ‘radio horizon’ 
2

 1.5 x

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Bandwidth of Transmission Media
24. The bandwidth of three different transmission media, say, A, B, C, are (750 MHz), (from a
few kHz to a few GHz) and (up to 100 GHz). The media A, B and C, are (respectively),
likely to be
(1) (wire/a co–axial cable), optical fibres and air (or space) (Incorrect)
(2) air (or sapce), (wire / a co–axial cable) and optical fibres (Incorrect)
(3) a (wire co–axial cable); air (or space) and optical fibres (Correct)
(4) air (or space); (wire / a co–axial cable) and optical fibres (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
(Wires / Co–axial cables) have relatively small bandwidths __ of the order of 750 MHz.

340
Air (or space) has bandwidth ranging from a few kHz to a few GHz. Optical fibres __ a real revolution in
communication technology __ have bandwidth that can go up to about 100 GHz.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Modulation
25. It is known that the height of a transmission antenna should preferably be of the order. The
length of antenna at a place is 0.75 m. Its optimum transmission frequency would be (nearly)
(1) 25 MHz (Incorrect)
(2) 50 MHz (Incorrect)
(3) 75 MHz (Incorrect)
(4) 100 MHz (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:


Length of antenna required =
4

  4
= (4 × 0.75) m = 3 m

C 3  108
   m/s
 3m

108
  10 2 MHz
5
= 100 MHz

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy ‘Need for Modulation’
26. If an audio signal were to be transmitted directly over a long distance, the minimum size of
transmitting antenna would be of the order of
(1) (500) m (Incorrect)
(2) 1 km (Incorrect)

341
 (3) 2 km (Incorrect)
(4) 4 km (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
Considering the upper limit of the audio frequency range (i.e. 20 kHz), the wavelength, of the corresponding
e.m. wave (of this frequency), would be

C 3 108
  4
m  1.5 104 m
 2 10

 15  103 m  15 km


The optimum size of the antenna being, of the order of , we need to have an antenna size of the order of
4
3.75 km (  4 km).

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Amplitude Modulation
27. A carrier wave c (t), shown below, is amplitude modulated by the message signal m (t)
shown above. The shape, of the resultant amplitude modulated wave, would than be s per
the figure labelled as figure.

(1) A (Incorrect)

(2) B (Incorrect)

342
 (3) C (Incorrect)

(4) D (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
There is no change in the frequency of the carrier wave when it is aplitude modulated by a message signal.
However, the peak value of its amplitude (on the positive as well as the negative side) does not remain
constant; it varies as per the variations of the message signal. It is only diagram (D) that shows (correctly)
the variations in the amplitude (as per the message signal) of the carrier wave.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Amplitude Modulation
28. A carrier wave

c  t  = A csin  c t 

is amplitude modulated by a message signal

m  t  = A m sin  c t  where Am = 10 V.

The AM wave has a modulation index of 0.5 and side bands of frequencies 1010 kHz and
990 kHz. The value of Ac and the frequencies of the carrier wave, and the message signal,
are, respectively.
(1) 5V; 1 MHz and 20 kHz (Incorrect)
(2) 5V; 2 MHz and 10 kHz (Incorrect)
(3) 20V; 1 MHz and 10 kHz (Correct)
(4) 20V; 2 MHz and 20 kHz (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)

343
Solution:
We know that

A m 10 V
Modulation index =   
Ac Ac

10
 Ac  V  20 V
0.5
Also ‘side bands’ have frequencies

 c  m  and   c   m 

  c   m  1010 kHz

and  c   m  900 kHz

These give

 c  1000 kHz  1MHz

and  m  10 kHz

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Amplitude Modulation
29. A carrier wave

c  t  = A csin  c t 

is amplitude modulated by a message signal

m  t  = A m sin  m t 

The equation, for the (amplitude) modulated wave, and the rms value of its amplitude (over
2π
the time interval 0 to ) would then be, respectively..
ωm

 A  Am 
(1)  A c sin  ωm t   A n sin  ωm t   and  c  (Incorrect)
 2 

344
 1

A2 
2

(2)  A c  A m sin  ωm t   sin  ωm t  and  A m2  m  (Correct)
 2 

A2 
2

(3)  A c  A c sin  ωc t   sin  ωm t  and  A m2  m  (Incorrect)
 2 

 A  Am 
(4)  A c sin  ωc t   A n sin  ωm t   and  c  (Incorrect)
 2 

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
When a carrier wave is amplitude modulated, by message signal, it is the amplitude, of the carrier wave,
that is made to vary in accordance with the message signal. Hence the equation for the amplitude modulated
wave is

 A c  A m sin  ω m t   sin ω c t

The rms valus of its amplitude is the rms value of the term  A c  A m sin  ω m t   . The rms value is the
square root of the average of

 A c  A m sin  ω m t  

i.e. square root of the average of

 A 2c  A 2m sin 2  ωm t   2 A c A m sin 2  ωm t  

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Amplitude Modulation
30. A carrier wave

c  t  = A csin  c t 

is amplitude modulated by a message signal

m  t  = A m sin  m t 

The amplitude modulated wave can be regarded as made up of the

345
 (1) original carrier wave of frequency c and amplitude Ac and two sinusoidal waves, each of
amplitude (Am/2) and frequencies  c  m  . (Correct)

(2) original carrier wave of frequency c and amplitude (Ac + Am) and two sinusoidal waves, of
amplitude Am each and frequencies  c  m  . (Incorrect)

(3) modified carrier wave of frequency  c  m  and amplitude Ac and two sinusoidal waves,

of amplitude (Am/2) each and frequencies  c  m  . (Incorrect)

(4) modified carrier wave of frequency  c  m  and amplitude Ac and two sinusoidal waves,

of amplitude Am each and frequencies  c  m  . (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
The equation of the amplitude modulated carrier wave is

 A c  A m sin  ω m t   sin  ω c t 

Am
 A c sin  ωc t    2 sin  ωm t  sin  ωc t  
2 

Am
 A c sin  ωc t    cos  ωc  ω m  t  cos  ω c  ω m  t 
2 
Hence the amplitude modulated carrier wave can be regarded as made up of the

(i) original carrier wave of amplitude Ac and frequency ωc and

A 
(ii) two sinusoidal waves, each of amplitude  m  and frequencies  ωc  ωm  .
 2 

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Amplitude Modulation
31. In the process of amplitude modulation, the modulating (message) signal
m  t   = A m sin  ωm t   is added to the carrier wave c  t   = A csin  ω c t   , to produce the

346
 output signal x  t   = A msin  ωc t  + A csin  ω c t   . The devices, through which this signal is
made to pass, before being fed into the transmitting antenna (as an AM wave), are sequence
wise, the
(1) power amplifier, square law device and band pass filter. (Incorrect)
(2) band pass filter, power amplifier and square law device. (Incorrect)
(3) square law device, band pass filter and power amplifier. (Correct)
(4) power amplifier, band pass filter and square law device. (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The sequence of (amplitude) modulation, of the carrier wave by the message signal is as per the block
diagram shown here.

After adding the message signal m (t) to the carrier wave c (t), the signal x (t) is produced. This is passed
into a square law device whose output contains a d.c. term and sinusoidal of frequencies  m, 2  m,  c,
2  c, (  c–  m) and (  c+  m). The band pass filter than rejects the d.c. term and sinusoids of frequencies
 c, (  c–  m) and (  c+  m). This output is the AM wave which has its central frequency  c an its side
band frequencies (  c–  m) and (  c+  m).
The output of the band pass filter is followed by a power amplifier. This provides it the necessary power.
This power argumental signal is than fed into an appropriate sized transmitting antenna which than radiates
it out into space.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Modulation
32. The two well known types of modulation are the amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency
modulation (FM). In each of these, one of the characterstics (amplitude = Ac, frequency =
fc), of the carrier wave, may be made to vary as per the variations of the (varying) ‘amplitude’
(= Am) or the frequency (= fm) of the message signal. The relevant correlation is:

347
 (1) During AM, it is Ac that varies as per fm and during FM, it is fc that varies as per Am.
(Incorrect)
(2) During AM, it is Ac that varies as Am and during FM, it is fc that varies as per fm (Incorrect)
(3) During AM, it is Ac; and during FM, it is fc that both vary as per fm (Incorrect)
(4) During AM, it is Ac; and during FM, it is fc that both vary as per Am (Correct)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
During amplitude modulation, it is the amplitude, of the carrier wave, that varies in accordance with the
variation of the ‘amplitude’ of the message signal.
During frequency modulation it is the frequency, of the carrier wave, that varies is accordance with the
variations of the ‘amplitude’ of the message signal.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average AM and FM
33. The following are some statements about amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency
modulation (FM):
(A) The SNR (Signal to noise ratio) is better for AM as compared to FM.
(B) During FM, linear amplifiers are not required because FM signals have a constant amplitude.
(C) The operating range of AM as well as FM are nearly of the same order.
(D) The fidelity of reception, for FM, is much better than for AM.
The correct statement/s, from the above, is / are the statement / s.
(1) (B) only (Incorrect)
(2) (B) and (D) only (Correct)
(3) (A) and (C) only (Incorrect)
(4) (C) only (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Statement (A) is incorrect; it is the other way round.
Statement (C) is incorrect; the operating range of FM is higher than that of AM.
Statement (B) and (D) are both correct statements.

348
 Unit–20 : Communication System
Average AM and FM
34. The following are some statement about AM (amplitude modulation) and FM (frequency
modulation):
(A) The circuitary for AM is more complex than that for FM.
(B) The bandwidth of the signals, during AM, is twice the freqeuncy of the message signal.
(C) The bandwidth of the signals, during FM, is much more than twice the frequency of the message
signals.
(D) During frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier wave varies in accordance with the
frequency of the message signals.
The correct statement’s, from the above, is / are the statement / s.
(1) (A) and (C) (Incorrect)
(2) (B) only (Incorrect)
(3) (D) only (Incorrect)
(4) (B) and (C) (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
Statement (A) is incorrect; it is the other way round.
Statement (D) is incorrect; during FM, the frequency of the carrier wave varies in accordance with the
‘amplitude’ of the message signal.
Statement (B) and (C) are both correct. During AM, the sideband frequency being (  c–  m) and (  c+  m),
the bandwidth of the signal is   m.
During FM, the bandwith of the signal is much higher than   .

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Bandwidth
35. A carrier wave of frequency 2MHz, is amplitude modulated by a given message signal. The
‘message signal’ contains a mix–up of audio signals of frequencies 750 Hz, 1200 Hz and
5000 Hz.
The bandwidth of the resultant AM carrier wave can be

349
 (1) 4.250 kHz (Incorrect)
(2) 10 kHz (Correct)
(3) 1995.750 kHz (Incorrect)
(4) 2004.250 kHz (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The Am carrier wave has, in addition to its own carrier frequency, two sidebands of frequencies   c–  m)
and   c+  m). The ‘bandwidth’, of a signal, equals the difference between its highest frequency and its
lowest frequency. Hence the bandwidth, of the AM carrier wave, is
  c+  m) –   c–  m) =   m
Its bandwidth is, therefore, twice the frequency of the modulating (message) signal. In the given case, the
message signal contains 5000 Hz as its highest frequency. Hence the bandwidth can be taken as 10 kHz.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Bandwidth
36. The carrier waves c1(t) and c2(t), of frequencies 75 kHz, and 2.25 MHz, are both ‘amplitude
modulated’. The bandwidths, of the two resultant (AM) carrier waves, are 5 kHz each. The
‘amount of information’, carried by the two AM carrier waves [c1m (t) and c2m (t)] would then
be
(1) More for the wave c2m (t) than for the wave c1m (t) (Incorrect)
(2) Similar for both the waves (Correct)
(3) In the ratio 1:3, for the waves c1m (t) and c2m (t) (Incorrect)
(4) In the ratio 3:1, for the waves c1m (t) and c2m (t) (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
We know that the bandwidth, of an AM carrier wave, is twice the frequency of its modulating (or message)
signal. It does not depend on the frequency of the carrier wave itself.
Here the bandwidth, in the two cases, is given to be identical. This implies taht the ‘message signals’, in the
two cases, are similar. We can, therefore, take the ‘amount of information’, carried by the two carrier
waves (of different frequencies) to be similar.

350
 Unit–20 : Communication System
Difficult Amplitude Modulation / Bandwidth
37. A carrier wave, c (t), given by

c  t  = 12 sin  4 ×106 t  

is amplitude modulated by a given sinusoidal volts message signal. The resultant (AM)
carrier wave has a modulation index of 75% and a bandwidth that is 2% of the carrier wave
frequency. The equations for this message signal is
(1) on (t) = [16 sin (4  ×104)] volt (Incorrect)
(2) on (t) = [9 sin (4  ×104 t)] volt (Correct)
(3) on (t) = [9 sin (8  ×104 t)] volt (Incorrect)
(4) on (t) = [16 sin (8  ×104 t)] volt (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
We know that

m
Modulation index,  
c

75 A m
 
100 12

 Am = 9 volt
Further, for an (AM) carrier wave,
Bandwidth = 2×frequency of the message signal.

2
   2  106   2  m
100

  m  2  10 4 Hz

 The equation for the message signal is

 
m  t   9sin 2  2 10 4  t  volt
 
______________________Matter not Clear____________________

351
 Unit–20 : Communication System
Easy Amplitude Modulation
38. The amplitude modulated wave, shown here, is processed (at the receiver end), successively,
into the forms (a) and (b), shown alongside.

The devices, used for getting the AM input wave into the forms (a) and (bv), are known,
respectively, as
(1) rectifier and transducer (Incorrect)
(2) rectifier and envelope detector (Correct)
(3) transducer and evelope detector (Incorrect)
(4) transducer and rectifier (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
At the receiving end, the AM intant wave is first rectified by using a rectifier. The rectified output is then
processed by an envelope detector which removes its RF component and gives its envelope (the original
message signal) as its output.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Amplitude Modulation and Frequency Modulation
39. A carrier wave

c  t  = A csin  ωc t 

is to be (i) amplitude modulated (ii) frequency modulated by a message signal

m  t  = A msin  ωm t 

The equations (i) cma(t), for the amplitude modulated and (ii) cmf (t), for the frequency
modulated, carrier wave, may then be expressed as

352
 (1) c ma  t    A c  A m sin  m t   sin  c t 

and c mf  t    A c sin  c  kA m sin m t   t  (Correct)

(2) c ma  t    A c sin  m t   sin  c t 

and c mf  t    A c sin  c  kA m sin m t   t  (Incorrect)

(3) c ma  t    A c sin  m t   sin  c t 

and c mf  t    A c sin  c  sin  m t   t  (Incorrect)

(4) c ma  t    A c  A m sin  m t   sin  c t 

and c mf  t    A c sin  c  sin  m t   t  (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude, of the carrier, wave gets modified, in accordance with the
‘instantaneous amplitude’ of the message signal. Hence the instantaneous amplitude, of the carrier wave,
has the form

A 'c  A c  A m sin  m t 

Here there is no change in the frequency of the carrier wave. Hence the equation, for the amplitude
modulated carrier wave, has the form

c ma  t    A c  A m sin  m t   sin  c t 

In frequency modulation, it is the frequency of the carrier wave that varies in accordance with the
‘instantaneous amplitude’ of the message signal. Hence the instantaneous frequency has the form

'c  c  k  A m sin m t 

The factor k here would have the dimensions of (hertz / volt)].

Here there is no change in the amplitude of the carrier wave. Hence the equation for the frequency modulated
carrier wave would have the form

c mf  t   A c sin  c' t 

  A c sin  c  kA m sin m t  t 

353
 Unit–20 : Communication System
Difficult Space and Sky Wave Propagation
40. In space wave propagation, radio waves (having wavelength λ ) are transmitted from
transmitter (having height T) and reaches the receiver (having height R) located at a
distance, d, by two methods (d >> T, d >> R). The first is the direct transmisstion from
transmitter to the antenna. The second is the transmisstion from transmitter to the earth
surface, followed by reflection from the earth surface.

Assuming that the reflection, from the earth’s surface, takes place from a point midway
between the transmitter and the receiver, the total phase difference between the two waves
at the receiver will be:
(1)  (Incorrect)

4 TR
(2) (Correct)
d

4 TR
(3)  (Correct)
d

4 TR
(4)  (Incorrect)
d
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The direct distance (AB) traversed by the wave between the transmitter and the receiver can be calculated
as,
(AB)2 = d2 + (T–R)2

1
2
 T  R2 2 1 T  R 
 AB  d 1  2  d
 d  2 d

354
Similarly, the distance (AC plus CB) traversed by the wave between the transmitter and the receiver will
be given by,

2
1 T  R 
AC  CB  d 
2 d

Path difference    between the two wave at the receiver = (AC + CB) – (AB)

 1  T  R  2   1  T  R  2  2TR
  d  2   d  2 
 2 d   2 d  d

2 4 TR
Phase difference =   
 d
Since the second wave gets reflected from the earth surface, which a denser medium, therefore, an additional
phase difference is of  will be introduced.

4 TR
Total phase difference =  
d

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Space and Sky Wave Propagation
41. In space wave propagation, radio waves (having wavelength λ ) are transmitted from
transmitter (having height T) and reaches the receiver (having height R) located at a
distance, d, by two methods (d << T, d << R). The first is the direct transmisstion from
transmitter to the antenna. The second is the transmisstion from transmitter to the earth
surface, followed by reflection from the earth surface.

It may be assumed that the reflection, from the earth’s surface takes place from a point
midway between the transmitter and the receiver. Considering that the amplitude of both
the waves is E, then the resultant field strength amplitude (ER) will be equal to,

355
  4 TR 
(1) 12E sin   (Incorrect)
 d 

 2 TR 
(2) 12E sin   (Correct)
 d 

 4 TR 
(3) 12E cos   (Incorrect)
 d 

 2 TR 
(4) 12E cos   (Incorrect)
 d 

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
The resultant field strength amplitude can be calculated as follows.

2  4 TR 
 ER   E 2  E 2  2E.E cos    
 d 

2   4 TR  
  ER   2E 2 1  cos    
   d  

  4 TR 
   
  ER 
2
 2E 2  2 cos 2  d

  2 
   

  2TR 
 E R  2E cos   
2 d 

 2TR 
 E R  2E sin  
 d 
2
 
2  4 TR   
 2E  2   sin     
   d   

 2 TR 
 4E 2 sin 2  
 d 

356
  2 TR 
 E R  2E sin  
 d 

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Amplitude Modulation
42. At 100% modulation, let the total power in the sidebands be x% of the total power of the
amplitude modulated wave. Here, ‘x’ is equal to,
(1) 25 (Incorrect)
(2) 33.3 (Correct)
(3) 75 (Incorrect)
(4) 100 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:

m2
Fraction of total power carried by the sidebands =
2  m2
Therefore, at 100% modulation, sidebands carry only 1/3rd of the total power.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Space and Sky Wave Propagation
43. In space wave propagation, radio waves (having wavelength λ ) are transmitted from
transmitter (having height T) and reaches the receiver (having height R) located at a
distance, d, by two methods (d << T, d << R). The first is the direct transmisstion from
transmitter to the antenna. The second is the transmisstion from transmitter to the earth
surface, followed by reflection from the earth surface.

357
 It may be assumed that the reflection, from the earth’s surface takes place from a point
midway between the transmitter and the receiver. If the height of the transmitting antenna
is doubled, then, the total field strength at the receiver will:
(1) Remain same (Incorrect)
(2) Get doubled (Correct)
(3) Get halved (Incorrect)

(4) Increase by 2 times (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Consider that the amplitude of both the waves is E, then the resultant field strength amplitude (ER) will be
equal to,

 2 TR 
E R  2E sin  
 d 
But since, d >> T, d >> R, therefore,

 2 TR  4E TR
E R  2E  
 d  d

 ER  T

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Amplitude Modulation
44. The modulation index of an amplitude modulated wave is 0.4. The fraction of total power
carried by the central carrier wave will be equal to,
(1) 40% (Incorrect)
(2) 80% (Incorrect)
(3) 92.6% (Correct)
(4) 100% (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
VC2
Power of the central carrier wave = PC 
R

358
 VC2  2  m 2 
Total power = P 
R  2 

PC 2 2
  2
  92.6 %
P 2m 2  0.16

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Amplitude Modulation
45. As the value of the modulation index increases,
(1) Amplitude of the central band increases (Incorrect)
(2) Amplitude of the central band decreases (Incorrect)
(3) Total power carried by the sidebands increases (Correct)
(4) Total power carried by the sidebands decreases (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
Amplitude of the central band is independent of the modulation index.

2
Fraction of total power carried by the central carrier wave =
2  m2

m2
Fraction of total power cariied by the sidebands =
2  m2
Therefore, as the modulation index increases, the useful power carried by the central band decreases, but
the carried by the sidebands increases.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Amplitude Modulation
46. In the modulation index is 80%, then, power in each sideband is x% of that in the central
carrier band. Here, ‘x’ is equal to,
(1) 0 (Incorrect)
(2) 16 (Correct)

359
 (3) 20 (Incorrect)
(4) 32 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:

VC2
Power carried by the central carrier wave = PC 
2R

m 2 VC2
Power carried by each sidebands = PS 
8R
Therefore, at 80% modulation.

PS m 2
  16 %
PC 4

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Amplitude Modulation
47. Instantaneous voltage of the amplitude modulated wave is given by

v AM = VC  1 + m sin ωm t  sinωc t

Assuming that the effective resistance of the modulator circuit is R, the total power of the
amplitude modulated wave will be equal to,

VC2
(1) (Incorrect)
2R

m 2 VC2
(2) (Incorrect)
8R

m 2 VC2
(3) (Incorrect)
4R

VC2 1  m 2 
(4) 2R  2  (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

360
Solution:
The instantaneous voltage of the amplitude modulated wave can be written as,
mVC mVC
vA  VC sin 2 f c t  cos  2 f c  2 f m  t  cos  2  f c  2  f m  t
2 2
2

Power of the central carrier wave = PC 

 VC
2  VC2
R 2R
2 2

Power of the two sidebands = PS 

 mVC
2 2   mVC
2 2  
m 2 VC2
R R 2R

VC2 m 2 VC2 VC2

Total power = P  PC  PS    1  m 2 
2R 4R 2R

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Amplitude Modulation
48. In a communication system, the process of modulation is done at the
(1) Transmitter (Correct)
(2) Receiver (Incorrect)
(3) Channel between the transmitter and receiver (Incorrect)
(4) Both transmitter and receiver (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
It is necessary to modulate the (usual) low frequency message signals before they can be transmitted for
communication over large distances.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Amplitude Modulation
49. Im aplitude modulation,
(1) Amplitude of the low frequency carrier signal is varied in accordance with the high frequency
message signal (Incorrect)

361
 (2) Amplitude of the high frequency carrier signal is varied in accordance with the low frequency
message signal (Correct)
(3) Amplitude of the low frequency carrier signal is varied in accordance with the high frequency
carrier signal (Incorrect)
(4) Amplitude of the high frequency carrier signal is varied in accordance with the low frequency
carrier signal (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
We need a high frequency carrier wave for effective transmisstion of low frequency message signals in
amplitude modulation, it is the amplitude of the high frequency carriers wave that is varied in accordance
with the low frequency message signal.

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Amplitude Modulation
50. Suppose the carrier wave is modulated in accordance with the amplitude of a message
signal.
The modulation index is m. The Instantaneous carrier voltage is represented by,
vc = VC sin ωc t . The instantaneous modulating voltage is presented by, vm = Vm sin ωm t .
Amplitude of the amplitude modulated wave will be represented by,

(1) Vc sin c t (Incorrect)

(2) Vm sin m t (Incorrect)

(3) Vc 1  sin m t  (Correct)

(4) Vc 1  sin m t  sin c t (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
Vm
Modulation index = m 
Vc
Amplitude of the amplitue modulated wave will be given by,

VAM  Vc  v m  Vc  v m sin m t  v c  sinv c m t  v c 1  m sin m t 

362
 Unit–20 : Communication System
Average Amplitude Modulation
51. Suppose the carrier wave is modulated in accordance with the amplitude of a message
signal.
The modulation index is m. The Instantaneous carrier voltage is represented by,
vc = VC sin ωc t . The instantaneous modulating voltage is presented by, vm = Vm sin ωm t .
The time variation of the instantaneous voltage, of the amplitude modulated wave, will be
represented by,

(1) Vc sin c t (Incorrect)

(2) Vm sin m t (Incorrect)

(3) Vc 1  sin m t  (Incorrect)

(4) Vc 1  sin m t  sin c t (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:

Vm
Modulation index = m 
Vc

Amplitude of the amplitue modulated wave will be given by,

VAM  Vc  v m  Vc  v m sin m t  v c  sinv c m t  v c 1  m sin m t 

Instantaneous voltage of the amplitude modulated wave will be equal to,

vAM  Vc 1  msin m t  sin c t

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Amplitude Modulation
52. Suppose the carrier wave is modulated in accordance with the amplitude of a message
signal.
The modulation index is m. The Instantaneous carrier voltage is represented by,
vc = Vc sin 2π fc t . The instantaneous modulating voltage is presented by, vm = Vm sin 2πfm t .

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 The bandwidth of the amplitude modulated wave is equal to,
(1) 2f m (Correct)
(2) 2fc (Incorrect)
(3) fc – fm (Incorrect)
(4) fc + fm (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Instantaneous voltage of the amplitude modulated wave is represented by,

vAm  Vc sin 2 fc t  mVc sin 2 f m t sin 2 f c t

mVc mVc
 Vc sin 2 f c t  cos  2f c  2f m  t  cos  2 f c  2 f m  t
2 2
This implies that in addition to the original central frequency, there exist side bands in an amplitude modulated
wave. The frequency of upper sideband is equal to, fc + fm. The frequency of lower sideband is equal to fc
– fm. The bandwidth is the difference in frequency of the side bands, which is given by,
Bandwidth = (fc + fm– fc + fm) = 2fm

Unit–20 : Communication System

Difficult Amplitude Modulation
53. An amplitude modulated wave is represented by,
vAM = 4 (1 + 0.2 sin 314 t) sin (314 × 102t)
For this wave, one can say that
(1) Frequency of the upper sideband is 5000 Hz; and frequency of the lower sideband is 50 Hz
(Incorrect)
(2) Frequency of the upper sideband is 100 Hz; and frequency of the lower sideband is 50 Hz
(Incorrect)
(3) Frequency of the upper sideband is 5050 Hz; and frequency of the lower sideband is 4950 Hz
(Correct)
(4) Frequency of the upper sideband is 314×102 Hz; and frequency of the lower sideband is
314 Hz (Incorrect)

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Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
According to the expression,

1
Frequency of the modulating wave = f m  314  50 Hz
2

1
Frequency of the carrier wave = f m 
2
 314  10 2   5000 Hz

Therefore,
Frequency of the upper sideband = fc – fm = 5050 Hz
Frequency of the lower sideband = fc – fm = 4950 Hz

Unit–20 : Communication System

Average Amplitude Modulation
54. An amplitude modulated wave is represented by,
vAM = 4 (1 + 0.2 sin 314 t) sin (314 × 102t)
The bandwidth of the amplitude modulated wave is equal to,
(1) 50 Hz (Incorrect)
(2) 1000 Hz (Correct)
(3) 314 Hz (Incorrect)
(4) 314×102 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
According to the expression,

1
Frequency of the modulating wave = f m  314  50 Hz
2

1
Frequency of the carrier wave = f c  314  102  50 102 Hz
2
Therefore, bandwidth 2fm = 100 Hz

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 Unit–20 : Communication System
Average Amplitude Modulation
55. An amplitude modulated wave is represented by,
vAM = 4 (1 + 0.2 sin 314 t) sin (314 × 102t)
The minimum and the maximum amplitude of the amplitude modulated wave will be
respectively equal to,
(1) 0, 1 units (Incorrect)
(2) 0, 4 units (Incorrect)
(3) 3.2 units and 4.8 units (Correct)
(4) 1.6 units and 8 units (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Vc = 4
Modulated Index = m = 0.2
Minimum amplitude = 4(1 – 0.2) = 3.2 V
Maximum amplitude = 4(1 + 0.2) = 4.8 V

Unit–20 : Communication System

Easy Amplitude Modulation
56. The amplitude of a carrier wave, having a peak amplitude of 50 V, is made to vary between
75 V and 25 V after its amplitude modouls modulation index will be equal to,
(1) 0 (Incorrect)
(2) 0.25 (Incorrect)
(3) 0.5 (Correct)
(4) 0.75 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
Vmax  Vmin 75  25
Modulation index = m   0.5
Vmax  Vmin 75  25

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 Unit–20 : Communication System
Easy Amplitude Modulation
57. An amplitude modulated wave is represented by,
vAM = 4 (1 + 0.2 sin 314 t) sin (314 × 102t)
Amplitude of the sidebands will be equal to,
(1) 0.4 V (Correct)
(2) 0.8 V (Incorrect)
(3) 1.2 V (Incorrect)
(4) 4V (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
Instantaneous voltage of the amplitue modulated wave is represented by,
mVC mVC
vAM  VC sin 2 f c t  cos  2 f c  2 f m  t  cos  2 f c  2 f m  t
2 2
Here,
Vc = 4
Modulation Index = m = 0.2

mVC
Therefore, amplitude of the sidebands =  0.4 V
2

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 UNIT–21 : EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS

Learning Objectives
After going through unit, you would be able to understand and appreciate the following:
 The importance of experiments in science.
 The ‘open–ended’ and ‘self–corrective’ nature of science; the role of experiemnts in having this type
of nature for science.
 Getting familiar with the basic approach and observations of a few basic experiments.
 Basic devices, like the vernier callipers and the screw gauge and their role in improving the precision
of measurements.
 The simple pendulum; its role in providing an objective method for mesurement of time.
 The principle of moments, its use in providing a simple objective method for measurement of mass.
 The concept of ‘elasticity’ and Hook’s law.
 The meaning, and method of measurement, of the Young’s modulus for a material.
 The concept of ‘surface tension’ of a liquid; its importance in daily life.
 The reason for rise of a liquid, in a capillary tube, in an ‘apparent defiance’ of the force of gravity.
 The use of the capillary rise method for finding the surface tension of a liquid.
 The concept of ‘viscosity’ of a liquid; relative comparison of the viscosities of different liqiuds through
their ‘coefficient of viscosity’.
 The concept of ‘terminal velocity’; the role of the force of viscosity in making a freeely falling object
acquire its ‘terminal velocity’.
 The use of ‘measurement of terminal velocity’ to find the coefficient of viscosity.
 The (non–linear) nature, of the fall (with time) of the termperature of a hot body.
 Plotting of cooling curve.
 The concept of ‘resonance’.
 The ‘resonance positions’of an air column when set into vibrations by a tuning fork.
 The use of the ‘resonance tube’ to find the speed of sound, in air, at room temperature.
 The concept of ‘specific heat capacity’ of a given substance.
 The basic principle of exchange of ‘heat energy’, or transfer of heat, between different objects.

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 Theory of the ‘method of mixtures’ in finding the ‘specific heat capacity of a given (i) solid (ii) liquid.
 Understanding the principle of the Wheatstone Bridge; its use in the meter bridge for finding the
resistance of a wire; and hence the resistivity of its material.
 Understanding Ohm’s law and its use in finding the resistance of a wire.
 Understanding the principle of a potentiometer and its use for
(i) comparing the emf’s of two primary cells.
(ii) finding the internal resistance of a cell.
 Understanding the principle of a moving coil galvanometer and knowing the meaning of its ‘figure of
merit’.
 Using the ‘half deflection method’ for finding the resistance of a given moving coil galvanometer.
 Understanding the meaning of ‘parallex’; its use in finding the focal length of a (i) convex mirror (ii)
concave mirror and (iii) convex lens.
 Learning how to plot, the angle of deviation versus the angle of incidence, for a given triangular
prism.
 Understanding the use of a travelling microscope, for finding the ‘real’ and ‘apparent’ depth of a
given glass slab; and hence the refractive index of the glass used.
 Understanding the meaning of forward and reverse biased pn junction.
 Studying the variation / relation, between current flowing through a diode and the voltage applied
across it.
 Studying I–V characterstics curve of a Zener diode.
 Understanding the role of Zener diode as a voltage regulator device.
 Learning to identify and characterize, diode, LED, transistor, IC, resistor, capacitor, from a mixed
collection by:
(i) Physical examination
(ii) By making use of multimeter.
 Understanding the multiple functions of a multimeter.
 Learning the use of a multimeter for measuring / checking a variety of electronic components.

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 EXPERIMENT–1
Vernier Callipers: Its use to measure internal and external diameter and depth of a vessel.

Vernier Callipers
The essential parts of this device, invented by the French mathematician, Pierre Vernier, are shown in the
figure below.

Leart Count of the Vernier

The use of an additional scale – called the vernier scale – enables this device to have a much bettter ‘least
count’ than the metre scale. The least count of a vernier callipers is given by the formula:
Least count = (1 main scale divistion – 1 vernier scale division)


 value of the smallest division on the main scale 
 number of divisions on the vernier scale 

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Reading the Vernier
The reading of the the vernier is a two step process:
(i) reading the main scale value just before the zero of the vernier scale and
(ii) finding the number (n) of the vernier scale division that just coincides with some main scale division.
The total reading equals
Main scale reading + (n) (least count of vernier)
Thus in the fiture given here

The total reading of the vernier callipers (least count = 0.01 cm) equals
(1.9 cm) + 6 × (0.01 cm) = 1.96 cm

‘Zero Error’
A given vernier callipers in said to have a ‘zero error’ if the zero of the vernier scale does not coincide with
the zero of the main scale when the jaws of the vernier (just) touch each other.
‘Zero error’ can be positive or negative. It is positive when the zero of the vernier lies to the right of the
zero of main scale. (when the jaws just touch other).
It is negative when the ‘zero’ of the vernier lies to the left of the zero of the main scale (when the jaws just
touch each other). Zero error must always be algebrically subtracted from the observed reading.

It is important to remember that before using a vernier callipers, we

(i) Find / know the value of its one main scale division as well as its ‘least count’

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(ii) Check for the presence of any ‘zero error’ in it. If a zero error is present, we need to know both its
magnitude and sign.
(iii) Always apply the relevant ‘zero correction’ to the readings taken by it.

Using the Vernier

For doing any experiment with the vernier, we first find
(i) its least count and
(ii) zero error, if any, in it.
These have to be used, in the manner already explained, in all readings taken with the vernier.
1. To measure the external diameter of a given spherical object, say, a given cylindrical vessel / glass
marble.
After finding the least count and zero error, the given object is held between the ‘jaws’ of the vernier in the
manner shown.

The reading are taken by holding the given object first in one–direction and then in a direction perpendicular
to that. These ‘pair of readings’ are repeated at ‘at least three points’ on the object. The ‘zero–correction’,
if needed, is applied to the mean of all the redings taken. This mean corrected value (appropriately ‘rounded
off’, as per the least count of the given vernier) gives the diameter of the given object.
2. To measure the internal diameter and depth of a given (cylindrical) beaker / calorimeter.
We make use of the upper / outer jaws of the vernier callipers and the sliding strips provided at its back, for
taking these readings. The relevant settings are shwon in the figures given below.

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The readings, for the internal diamtere, are taken in the same way as those for
the ‘external diameter’. We again take readings in two mutually perpendicular
directions at ‘at least three points’ in the beaker / calorimeter.
The readings for the ‘depth’ may be taken, only once each, at ‘at least three
ponits’ within the beaker calorimeter. It is important here to keep the vernier
in a vertical position and to keep the edge of the main scale on the mouth of
the beaker / calorimeter. The zero correcion, if needed, has to be applied to
the mean of the readings taken and the final result ‘rounded off’ as per the
least count of the given vernier.

EXPERIMENT–2
Screw Gauge: Its use to determine thickness / diameter of thin sheet / wire.

Screw Gauge
A screw gauge – also sometimes known as the micrometer – has an accurately threaded screw having a
closely fitting nut. The threadings, of the nut and the screw, match each other. When rotated, the screw not
only rotates along a circular path but also advances along a linear path.
The essential parts, of the screw gauge, are shown, and labelled, in the figure given here.

373
Pitch
The pitch, of a screw gauge, equals the linear distance moved by the screw when it is given one complete
rotation. It equals the separation between the successive threads of the screw.

Least Count
The minimum distance, that can be measured by a screw guage, is known as its least count.
The circular scale, in a screw gauge, has (usually) 100 divisions on it. The least count of a screw gauge is
therefore, given by

Pitch
Least count 
 Number of divisons on the circular scale 
The screw gauges, in common use, have a least count of 0.001 cm. However, the more precise versions
often have least counts of 0.0005 cm.

Reading the Screw Guage

The (thin) sheet / wire, whose thickness / diameter is to be measured, is ‘just held’ between the faces of the

374
(fixed) and A and the (movable) and B of the screw gauge. At this position, the reading of the main scale
(say m), just before the end of its circular scale, is read. One also notes the number (n) of the circular scale
division that just coincides with the line of graduation of its main scale. The total reading, of the screw
gauge, is then
Totao reading = (m + n × least count)

Zero Error
Due to wear and tear, or due to some manufacturing defect, the screw gauge can have a zero error.
When the faces of the ends A and B of a screw gauge are put just in contact with each other, and the zero
of the circular scale lies along the line of graduation of the main scale, the screw aguge does not have any
zero error. This is shown in the figure below.

Quite often, however, the perfect, or ideal condition shown above, does not hold. The ‘zero’, of the
circular scale, may lie below / above the ‘reference line’ (the line of graduation of the main scale) when the
faces, of the ends A and B, are just in contact. When the ‘zero’, lies below the reference line, the screw
gauge is said to have a positive zero error. Whe, the ‘zero’ lies above the reference line, the screw gauge
is said to have a negative zero error.

The magnitude, of the zero error, equals the product of the least count (of the screw gauge) with the
number (with reference to its zero) of circular scale division that coincides with the reference line. Thus in
the figures above, the magnitudes, of the zero error, are (6 × L.C) and (100–92, i.e. 8) × L.C.
The zero error is always subtracted algebraically from the observed readings.

375
Backlash Error
The ‘wear and tear’, present in an ‘in–use’ screw gauge, can bring in some ‘play’ in the motion of its screw.
In such cases, the screw may not move forward even when the screw head is being rotated. This error is
known as ‘backlash error’.
It can be avoided / minimized by always rotating the screw in one direction only.

EXPERIMENT–3
Simple Pendulum: Dissipation of energy by plotting a graph between square of amplitude and
time.

Simple Penculum
An ‘ideal’ simple pendulum has a ‘point’ mass, suspended from a weightless, inextensible string.
In practice, it is a good quality sewing thread that usually serves the purpose of a ‘weightless’, inextensible
string. The ‘point mass’ is usually a small heavy metal sphere (known as the bob) that has a hook for
attaching it to the thread. The other end of this thread is put in the cut of a split cork; this cork is firmly held

376
in a suitable stand.
We take the distance between the point of suspension, and the centre of mass of the bobo, as the ‘length’
of a given simple pendulum.

Nature of Motion of a Simple Pendulum

The bob, of a simple pendulum, oscillates in a ‘periodic way’ when it is displaced to one side (from its
normal equilibrium position) and ‘let–go’. These periodic oscillations are (very nearly) simple harmonic
oscillatinos only if the initial displacement (the amplitude) of the bob (from its equilibrium position) is quite
small in comparision to the length of the simple pendulum. This can be seen as follows:
The equation of motion, of the angular oscillations, of the bob, is

d2
I 2    mg sin   
dt

d 2
or  m2  dt 2
   mg sin   

d 2 g
or   sin 
dt 2


 2 sin 

2 g
where  


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If  is small, we can take sin    . We then have

d 2
2
 2 
dt
This is the equation of a simple harmonic motion of time period,T, where

2 
T  2
 g

Energy of a Particle Executing SHM

The displacement, of a particle, executing SHM, is a sinosoidal function of time. If can have the form
y = a sin  t (a = amplitude)
The velocity, and accleration, are, therefore, given by

dy
v  a cos t   a 2  y 2
dt

dv
and f   a2 sin t  2 y
dt
The oscillating particle has both K.E. and P.E., at different points, on its oscillation path. These are given by

1 1
K.E.  mv 2  ma 2 2 cos 2 t
2 2

1
 m2  a 2  y 2 
2

1
and P.E.  ma 2 2 sin 2 t
2

1
 m2 y 2
2
The total energy, having a constant value at all points and at all times, therefore, equals

1
E m2 a 2
2

378
For a pendulum of a given length, the total energy is, thereore, proportional to the square of the amplitude
of its oscillations. We may, therefore, take the square of the amplitude, of the oscillations of a given simple
pendulum, as an ‘indicator’ of its ‘total energy’.

Dissipation of Energy with Time

A practical simple pendulum is never an ideal one; also it (usually) oscillates in air which can be regarded as
a (mild) viscous medium. There is,therefore, some dissipation of enregy, by a (freely) oscillating simple
pendulum. We observe this through a gradual but progressive decrease in the amplitude of its oscillations.
We express this by saying that the (small amplitude) oscillations of a (practical) simple pendulum, (oscillating
in air) are damped harmonic oscillations.

Damped Harmonic Oscillations

THe (mistantaneous) damping force, acting on an oscillating particle, is usually taken as proportional to its
instantaneous velocity. The equation of motion, of damped oscillations, is, therefore, usually written in the
form:

d2 y dy
2
 2b 2  c2 y  0
dt dt
On solving this differential equation, we find that the
(i) Amplitude of oscillations decays exponentially with time:

a  t   a  0  e  t

(ii) The time period of oscillations shows an increase; the exact magnitude of this increase depends on
the magnitude of the damping force that comes in play.
The figures, given below, show the difference between undamped and damped oscillations.

Practical ‘Observation’ of the Variation of Amplitude of an Oscillating Simple

Pendulum with Time
A simple method, of observing the variation of amplitude, with time, can be as follows. We draw a line on

379
the floor, below the oscillating bob. We then mark, on
this line, points (on both sides) at distances of 1 cm, 2
cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, and 5 cm from the mean, or equilibrium,
position. Set the bob oscillating and determine its time
period.
Start with an amplitude of 5 cm. Count the number of
oscillations the pendulum makes after which it amplitude
becomes 4 cm, 3 cm, 2 cm, 1 cm and (nearly) zero.
These number of oscillations, multiplied by the time
period (assumed to remain constant, (which it (nearly)
is) given the times taken for the amplitude to reduce
from 5 cm to its lower values. One can then prepare a
table, of the form shown below, and use it to draw a
graph between ‘square of amplitude’ and time.
Time Period of the Simple Pendulum = (t0)s

Table for Graph

The graph is likely to show an exponential decay of square of amplitude (  energy) with time.

380
 EXPERIMENT–4
Meter Scale: Mass of a given object by principle of moments.

Moment of a Force
The effectiveness of a given force, in producing rotation, of a given object, about some fixed axis
(or point), is measured through ‘the moment of the given force’, in the given set up.
We define the magnitude of the moment of a force as the product of the magnitude of the force and the

381
‘force–arm’. Here ‘force–arm’ equals the perpendicular distance between the ‘line of action’ of the force
and the axis (or point) about which rotation is taking place.

Magnitude of the moment of force = Fr

Moment, of a force, (about a given axis or point) is a vector quantity. Its direction is perpendicular to the
 
plane defined by the vector F and r , and is in the sense of rotation of a right handed screw rotated from
  
r to F . We may, therefore, express the moment of a force (say  ) through the vector relation
  
 = r× F
 
Here r is the position vector, of the point of application of the force ( F ); with
respect to the point (O, taken as the origin) about which rotation is taking place.
For rotation about an axis, the origin is taken as the point, where the perpendicular,
drawn from the point of application (P) of the force, on the axis of rotation, meets
this axis.
In general, then

  r Fsin 
   
Here r and F denote the magnitudes of the vector r and F ; also  is the angle between vectors r and F .

Principle of Moments
We state the principle (or law) of moments as follows:
Whenever a body is in equilibrium, under the action of a number of coplanar forces, the sum of the
anticlockwise moments, about any arbitrary point, is equal to the sum of the clockwise moments about the
same point.
Alternatively, if a body is in equilibrium under the action of a numbe rof coplanar forces, the algebraic sum
of all the moments, about any arbitrary point, is zero.

382
Practicle Application of the Principle of Moments
The principle of moments can be used to find the mass of a given object by using a meter scale, a sharp
wedge and suitable known weights. With a slight modification, this ‘set–up’ can be used to find the mass of
the meter scale itself.
For finding the (unknown) mass, say mX, of an object x, the ‘set–up’ can be arranged as follows:

We then have
xa = wb

b
or x= w 
a

We may also use a set–up in which two known weights are used. This type of set up is useful when the
unknown mass is a heavy mass.

In this case, we have

xa = w1b + w2c

 w b  w 2c 
 x 1 
 a 
This set–up can be used to ‘weigh’ the meter scale itself. In this case, the wedge is put at an ‘off–centre’
point and two known masses are put on the two sides of the wedge and adjusted to ‘balance the system’.

383
In this case, if m is the mass of the meter scale, we have
m1a = m1 (50 – a) + m2b

m1a  m 2 b
 m
 50  a 
When the meter scale is (horizontally) balanced on the wedge (by adjusting) the position of the masses x
and w), we have
(Algebraic) sum total of all moments, about the wedge = zero
 mx g a – mw gb = 0

m w .b
or mx 
a
The unknown mass mx can this be easily calculated.
To use the second ‘set–up’ to find the mass (ms) of the metre scale itself, the wedge is shifted from its usual
‘central’ position. We now use known masses, mw and mw1 and mw2. Let ms be the mass of the meter scale
itself. When the metre scale gets (horizontally) balanced, we again have
(Algebraic) sum total of moment of all the weights about the wedge = 0
 mw × a – ms.d – mw1 × b – mw2 × c = 0
or msd = mw × a – mw1 × b – mw2c

 m  a  m w1b  m w 2 c 
or ms   w 
 d 

It may be noted that the two ‘weights’, w1 and w2, shown on the right, can be (easily) replaced by a
suitable single weight.

384
 EXPERIMENT–5
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the Material of a Wire.

385
Elasticity
Elasticity is the property of objects of “tending to regain their original conditions after the removal of the
deforming forces”.

Stress
When an object is deformed from its normal (equilibrium) condition, internal forces get ‘set–up’ in it that
tend to oppose that deformation. This internal recovering force, measured per unit area, is known as the
stress developed in the (deformed) object.
N
The SI units of stress are, therefore, . Its dimensions are [ML–1T–2].
m2

Strain
When an object is subjected to the action of an external deforming force, the change in the dimensions
concerned, measured per unit value of that dimension, is called strain. Strain is a dimensionless quantity; it
therefore, has no units associated with it.

Hook’s Law
The fundamental law of elasticity, formulated by Robert Hook, is known as Hook’s law. According to this
law:
“For small values of strain, the stress developed in an object, is proportional to the strain produced in it”.
The limit, up to which this proportionality between stress and strain holds for a given material, is known as
the ‘elastic limit’ of that material.

Elastic Module
Within the elastic limits, the stress developed in a material, is proportional to the strain produced in it. Thus,
within the elastic limit,
Stress
 a constant
Strain
This constant is a characterstic of the material involved and is known as an ‘elastic modulus’ of that
material.
There are three types of elastic moduli that are defined for a given material. When a material is subjected
to a longitudinal strain, the ratio, of the longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain, is known as the Young’s
modulus (Y) for that material. Thus

Longitudinal stress
Young 's modulus = Y =
Longitudinal strain

386
In case of a volume strain, the ratio of the volume stress to the volume strain is known as the ‘Bulk
Modulus’ of the material. Thus

Volume stress
Bulk Modulus  K  =
Volumestrain

Sometimes a material is so strained so as to cause a change in its shape without any change in its volume.
We then speak of the modulus of rigidity    of the material.

Shearing stress
Modulus of rigidity =  
Shear strain

N
The SI units of all these moduli of elasticity is .
m2

In addition to these three moduli of elasticity, we also define a dimensionless ratio, called Poisson’s ratio
   for a given material. Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain. For a wire,
 D    D / D 
lateral strain equals  where D is the diameter of the wire. 
  L / L 
 D 

The four elastic ‘constants’, Y, K,  and  have two relations connecting them. We thus effectively have
only two independent elastic constant for a material.

Searle’s Apparatus
Searle’s apparatus is a convenient set up that is often used in laboratory for determining Young’s modulus
of the material of a given wire.

A labelled diagram of Searle’s apparatus is given here.

387
The arrangement, used in this apparatus, to find the (small)
change in length of the experimental wire. It has a spirit
level, supported horizontally. One end of this spirit level
rests on an arm that is fixed to one of the metal frames. Its
other end rests on the tip of the screw of a spherometer
set–up. The readings of this spherometer, corresponding
to the ‘in–centre’ positions of the bubble of the sprit level,
without and with the load, on the experimental wire, enable
us to find the ‘change in length’ of the experimental wire.
These readings, along with readings for the diameter of the
wire, enable us to calculate the Young’s modulus for the
material of the wire.

Relevant Formula
Let a load W be applied on the experimental wire. Let d
be the diameter of this wire and L its unstretched (original)
length. If L be the change in length, due to the load W,,
we have

W 4W
2

Longitudinal stress = d d 2
 
 2

 L 
and longitudinal strain =  
 L 

Longitudinalstress
 Y
Longitudinal strain

4W 1
 2

d  L 
 
 L 

4WL

d 2  L 

This relation shows that a graph between W and L would be a straight line whose slope, can be used to
calculate the mean value of Y corresponding to a given set of readings.

388
 EXPERIMENT–6
Surface tension of water by capillary rise and effect of detergents.

Inter Atomic / Inter Molecular Forces

These are the forces that the atoms /molecules, of a substance, exert on one another. They are short range
attractive forces; however, they become repulsive if the atoms / molecules are too close to each other.

389
Cohesive Forces
Forces, between atoms / molecules, of the same nature, are known as cohesive forces.

Adhesive Forces
Forces, between atoms /molecules of different nature, are known as adhesive forces.

Surface Tension
The surface of a liquid behaves as if it is in a state of stress. The properties, associated with a liquid surface,
indicate that each side of the liquid, on either side of an imaginary line on the liquid surface, appears to be
pulling the other side towards itself. We call this phenomenon as the phenonmenon of surface tension.

Quantitative Definition of ‘Surface Tension’

Imagine a line, say AB, to be drawn on the surface of a liquid. The (pulling) force, per unit length of this line,
directed perpendicular to this line, and in the plane of the (liquid) surface, is
taken as a measure of the surface tension of the given liquid.
The Si units of surface tension are N/m (newton per meter). Its dimensions
are [MT–2].
F1 = Pulling force, on side I, due to side II.
F2 = Pulling force, on side II, due to side I.

Angle of Contact
The surface of a liquid, when put in a container,
acquires a curved shape. The extent and nature, of
this ‘curving’, depends on the liquid and the material
of the container.
We use a quantity, called ‘angle of contact’, as a
measure of the ‘curved meniscus’ of a liquid in a
given container. The angle of contact is the angle
between the tangents to the liquid surface and the
surface of the container. For a concave meniscus
(like that of water in a glass tube), this angle is taken
as the relevant acute angle while for a convex
meniscus (like that of mercury in a glass tube), it is
taken as the relevant obtuse angle.

390
Surface Energy
The potential energy, of the molecules on the surface of a liquid, is more than that of the molecules in its
interior. This (extra) potential energy, per unit area of the liquid surface, is known as the surface energy per
unit area of the given liquid.
The units of surface energy per unit area, are joule / meter squared (J/m2) while its dimensions are [MT–2].
It is easty to see that the surface energy, per unit area of a given liquid, equals the ‘surface tension’ of that
liquid.

Pressure Difference Across the Curved Meniscus of a Liquid

The pressure, on the concave side, of the curved meniscus of a liquid, is more thatn that on its other side.
It can be shown that this excess pressure, (say  P), is given by

2T
P 
r
Here T = surface tension of the given liquid and r = radius of curvature of its curved meniscus.
For a bubble, blown out of a given liquid (like say, saop solution), the excess pressure is double that for a
liquid drop. This is because, the boundary surface (between) the liquid and air) exists both on the inner as
well as the outer side of the bubble.

4T
Thus, excess pressure, inside a bubble, equals .
r

Capillary Tubes
Tubes, of very small diameter (of the order of a mm or so), are known as capillary tubes.

391
‘Rise’ of Liquid in a Capillary Tube
When a capillary tube is dipped and held vertically, in a container of a given liquid, the level of the liquid, in
the capillary tube, is different from its level in the outiside container. This difference, in liquid levels, say h,
is related to the surface tension (T), and the density    , of the liquid, through the relation.

 1 
r  h  r  g
3 
T 
2 cos 

Here r = radius of the capillary tube;

g = acceleration due to gravity
and  = angle of contact between the liquid and the walls of the container..

We can take   00 when the liquid gets ‘spread out’ on the walls of the container. For such cases (e.g.
water in a glass tube), we have cos   1 . Hence the above relation takes the form

 1 
r  h  r  g
3 
T 
2

Quite often r << h. We can then write

rhg
T
2
It is this relation that we generally use for finding the surface tension of a liquid by the capillary rise method.

Travelling Microscope
We generally use a ‘special microscope’, called a travelling microscope, for finding the surface tension of
a liquid by the capillary rise method. The ‘stands’, attached to the tube of the ‘compound microscope’used
here are such taht the tube can be moved both ‘up and down’ (i.e. vertically) as well as ‘right and left’ (i.e.,
horizontally). There are ‘scales’ (‘main scale’, with its attached vernier scale) that enable one to measure
(the horizontal or vertical) movement of the ‘cross wires’ in the ‘eye–piece’ of this microscope. The ‘least
count’ of the vernier, used here, is generally 0.0005 cm or 0.001 cm.

392
We use this microscope for measuring the
(i) ‘height’ of ‘rise’, of the liquid in the capillary tube.
(ii) the diameter of the capillary tube.
It is important here to note that
(i) liquids, like water (in a glass tube), ‘rise’ above the ‘outside level’, in a capillary tube.
(ii) liquids, like mercury (in a glass tube), ‘fall’ below the ‘outside level’, in a capillary tube.
Thus ‘h’ is ‘positive’, for liquids, like water and ‘negative’, for liquids, like mercury (in a glass capillary
tube).

‘Experimental Set–up’
A diagram, of the experimental set–up used in the exeperiment for ‘Measuring the surface tension of water,
by the capillary rise’ method is given below.

393
We use this ‘set–up’ for measuing ‘h’ as well as ‘r’. The angle of contact, for water is a glass capillary tube,
is generally taken as 00. Using the value of  (density of water), and g (acceleration due to gravity), from
standard tables, one can calculate the surface tension of water (say, T) through the relation
 1 
r  h  r  g
3 
T 
2

Effect of Detergents
The addition of a deteregent to water, leads to a decrease is the surface tension of water.
Detergents help in cleaning of dirty or greasy clothes. These action can be understand in two ways:
(i) It is energatically favourable to have globs of dirt surounded by detergent and then water.
(ii) The lowering of surface tension, because of the addition of detergents, leads to a better ‘capillary
rise’ through the pores in the clothes. This in turn, leads to a better cleaning of the clothes.

EXPERIMENT–7
Coefficient of viscosity, of a given viscous liquid, by measuring terminal velocity of a given
spherical body.

394
Viscosity
There exists some ‘internal friction’, between adjacent fluid layers, when the fluid is in motion. This ‘internal
friction’, which tends to oppose any relative motion between adjacent fluid layers, is called viscosity.

Newton’s Law of Viscous Flow

Let there be two adjacent fluid layers, that are at distances z and (z + dz), from the reference stationary
layer. Let the speed of the flow, in these two layers be v and (v + dv). If A is the (in contact) surface area
of these two fluid layers, and F the retarding viscous force, between these two layers, it turns out
FA

dv
and F
dz
We can, therefore, write

dv
F  A
dz
We refer to this result as Newton’s law of viscosity.
Here  is a constant of proportionality, that is characterstics of the fluid considered. We call  as the
coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid.

Coefficient of Viscosity
From Newton’s law, it follows that

F 

dv
If A = 1 unit and = 1 unit
dz
We may, therefore, say;
The coefficient of viscosity, of a given fluid, is the (magnitude of) force required to maintain a unit velocity
gradient between adjacent layers of unit contact area.
The dimensions of  are
[  ] = [ML–1T–1]
The cgs unit of  is known as the poise while its SI unit has been named as Pa–s (pascal–second). Wee
have

395
poise = g cm–1s–1 or dyne cm–2s
and  a–s = kg m–1s–1 or Nm–2s or pascal–second
It is easy to see that
1 Pa–s = 10 poise

Stokes’ Law
When an object moves through a viscous fluid, the force of viscosity, that tends to oppose its motion,
increases with an increse in its velocity. It was Stokes who obtained a formula for this force of viscosity.
The result, obtained by him, is known as Stokes’ law.
According to Stokes’ law:

F  6  rv

Here F is the force of viscosity (or viscous force) that acts on an object of size r (a spherical ball of radius
r) moving with a velocity v in a medium having a coefficient of viscosity equal to  . The medium is
supposed to be infinite in extent.
Stokes’s law can be easily obtained using the method of ‘dimensional analysis’.

Terminal Velocity
Let a (small) object (say, a (small) spherical ball, of radius r) fall vertically through a viscous medium having
 as its coefficient of viscosity. The net gravitational force on it, at first, accelerates it and, thereby, increases
its velocity. The viscous force, acting on it, keeps on increasing (as per Stokes’ law) with this increase in its
velocity. At a certain value of its velocity (say vT), the viscous force becomes just equal (and opposite) to
the (net) gravitational force acting on the object. The overall net force, acting on the object, then becomes
zero and the object does not get accelerated any further. The velocity of the object then becomes constant
at this limiting value (vT) of its velocity. Any further ‘fall’ of the object is then a ‘fall’ with a constant velocity
(equal to vT). We, therefore, call vT as the ‘terminal velocity’ of the falling object.

‘A Formula’ for ‘Terminal Velocity

Let a (small) spherical ball, of radius r, (made up from a material of density  ), fall vertically through a
viscous medium (of density  , say), having a coefficient of viscosity,  . The various forces acting on this
spherical ball are:
 4 3 
(i) Force of ‘gravity’; this equals the ‘weight’ of the object and is equal to  r g 
 3 
(ii) Bouyant force, this equals the weight of that volume of the medium that gets displaced by the object;

396
  4 3 
; it is equal to  r g  .
 3 

(iii) Viscous force; as per Stokes’ law this equals  6  rv  when the velocity of the object equals v..

The net (downward) force, acting on the object, is

 4   4  
 Fd   r 3 g    r 3 g    6  rv  
 3   3  

For v = vT, this net (downward) force becomes zero. Hence

4 3
r      g  6  r v T  0
3

3
4 r      g
 vT 
3  6  r 

2 
     g  r2
 9 

Thus v T  r 2

The slope (say, m), of the graph between vT (on y–axis) and r2
(on the x–axis), is

2
m    g
9

2
      g
9m
We can, therfore, calcualte  by plotting a graph between vT
and r2.

Experimental Set–up
The experimental set–up, used for finding that coefficient of
visocisty of a viscous liquid (like glycerine), using (small) steel
balls,of different radii, is shown below.

397
 EXPERIMENT–8
Plotting a cooling curve between the temperature of a hot body and time.

Basic Heat Transfer Formula

The basic formula, for ‘heat transfer’, is
H = ms 
Here H = heat lost / gained by an object of mass m, made of a material of specific heat capacity, s. The
resulting fall / rise in temperature of the object, equals  .

398
Three Processes of Heat–Transfer
Heat can get transferred, from one object to another, via three processes. There are:
1. Conduction: This is the main method of heat transfer in solids.
2. Convection: This is generally the main method of heat transfer in fluids – liquids and gases.
3. Radiation: This is the process through which heat can get transferred even across vacuum.

Cooling of a Hot Body

When a hot body is kept in ‘isolation’, it cools down by losing heat mainly through convection and rediation.
The air, with which it would still be in contact, has very poor conductivity, hence the heat lost by it, through
conduction, is almost negligible.

Emission of Heat by Radiation

The law, associated with the ‘emission’ of heat by radiation, is Stefan’s law. This law, strictly valid for a
perfectly black body, states:
“The heat radiation emitted, per unit area per second, by a perfecly black body, is directly proportional to
the fourth power of its absolute (kelvin) temperature”.
In mathematical form:

E   T4

Here E = Total energy radiated per unit area per second

T = Absolute temperature of the body
 = A constant of proportionality, known as Stefan’s constant.
It may be noted that Stefan’s law is not a ‘law of colling’; it is a law that governs the emission of radiation
by a black body.
For a ‘black body’, at a temperature T kelvin, kept in surroundings that are at a temperature T0 kelvin, the
net ‘heat’, radiated per unit area per second, is

E  T 4  6T0 4    T 4  T04 

If T were close to T0, we would have

E    T 2  T02  T 2  T02 

   T  T0  T  T0   T 2  T02 

399
    T  T0  2T0   2T02  ( (T – T0) =  T, a small quantity)

  4 T03   T  T0 

E   T  T0 

Thus, under this approximation  T  T0  T, a small quantity  , the net heat radiated pe unit area, per
second, is directly proportional to the difference in temperture, between the hot body and its surroundings.
This approximated form of Stefan’s law is similar to the law of cooling given by Newton. However, it is not
quite correct to regard Newton’s law (of cooling) as an approximation of Stefan’s law corresponding to
small differences of temperature between the hot body and its surroundings.

Newton’s Law of Cooling

According to Newton’s law of cooling: “The rate of fall in temperature, of a hot body, is directly proportional
to the difference in temperature between the hot body and its surroundings”.
The mathematical form of this law is
d
     0 
dt
d
or   k    0 
dt
This mathematical form leads to the result
 d
   k  dt
0

or  n     0    kt  c

Thus the time, t , taken by the hot body to have its temperature fall, from 1 to 2 , say, is given by

n  2  0   n  1  0   t

    0  
or t  n  2 
  1  0  

    0  
or t  2.303 log  2 
  1  0  

400
The result

 n    0    kt  c '

or  log     0     kt  c '

tells us that the graph between log    0  and time should be a

straight line.
If the experimental data leads to such a straight line graph, it may be
regarded as verifying Newton’s law of cooling.
It is often said that Newton’s law of cooling holds only if the difference
in temperature, between the hot body and its surroundings, is small.
This ‘conclusion’ appears to come from the ‘fact’ that Stefan’s law
approaches Newton’s law when the hot body temperature is only
slightly above the temperature of its surroundings.
However, the above ‘conclusion’ is not quite correct. This is because,
‘hot bodies’, when kept in air, lose heat mainly through the process of
convection. If we aid this process (of loss of heat by convection) by
keeping the hot body near an open window, or under a fan, the validity
of Newton’s law holds even for quite large difference in temperature
between the hot body and its surroundings. Therefore, when we provide
such ‘conditions’ in our experiment, the ‘cooling curve’ (temperature
versus time graph) has the form shown here and the graph of
 log    0   versus [time] has the straight line form given above.

Experiment Set–up
The experimental set–up, for plotting the ‘cooling curve’, may use a
calorimeter (without its lid), provided with a stirrer. A thermometer
may be suspended in the calorimeter which may be kept near an
open window or under a fan. Hot water, pourded into the calorimeter,
needs to be constantly stirred and its temperature noted at (appropriate)
regular intervals of time. The (temperature) versus (time) graph may
then be plotted to get the ‘cooling curve’. One may also plot the
 log    0   versus (time) graph to check the validity, or otherwise,
of Newton’s law of cooling.

401
 EXPERIMENT–9
Speed of sound, in air, at room temperature, using a resonance tube.

Superposition of Waves
The phenomenon of mixing of two, or more, waves, with one another, to produce a ‘resultant’ wave, is
known as the phenomenon of ‘superposition of waves’.

Stationary Wave
The name ‘stationary wave’ is given to the resultant wave that gets formed when two identical waves,
propagating in opposite directions, get ‘superposed’ on each other.
The ‘form’ of a stationary wave does not appear to change with time. Such waves are characterised by the
presence of
(i) Nodal points (‘N’ points or nodes) that are points where the ‘medium’ is at ‘rest’, at all time instants.
(ii) Antinodal points (‘A’ points or antinodes), that are points of maximum disturbance at any given
instant of time.

402
In a stationary wave, there is always a nodal point between two antinodal points and vice–versa.
Any given antinodal (or nodal) point is separated from its immediate next antinodal (or nodal) point by a

distance . The distance between an antinodal (nodal) point and its immediate next nodal (antinodal)
2

point is .
4

Air Columns
We speak of an air column when we have a part of air, confined to definite dimensions, inside a hollow
(usually cylindrical) tube.
We refer to such a tube, open at both ends, as an open tube. However, if the tube is closed at one end, it
is known as a closed tube.

Stationary Waves in an ‘Open Tube’

We can get stationary waves in the air column inside an open tube. For this, we need a ‘source’ of waves.
When such a source is kept at one end of an open tube, the ‘direct’ waves (sent by the source), and the
waves reflected at the other open end, superpose inside the tube and form ‘stationary waves’ in the
‘contained air–column’.

403
Permissible Modes of Vibration of the Air–column inside an open tube.
The ‘stationary waves’, formed in the air–column in an open tube, have to satisfy the following requirements.
1. The two free ends (or open ends), of the tube must be antinodal points (or antinodes) of the stationary
waves formed in the air–column.
2. There must be a nodal point between two antinodal points and vice–versa.
The first three permissible modes of vibration of the air–column inside an open tube are shown below.

  
Here L Here 2. L Here 3. L
2 2 2

or   2L or L 2
or  L
3
V V
    2.
2L 2L  V 
  3 
(Fundamental mode (Second harmonic)  2L 
or first harmonic)
(Third harmonic)

We thus obseve that the permissible frequencies of vibration, inside an open tube, can be all integral
multiples of the frequency of vibration of its simplest, or fundamental mode of vibration.
Permissible Modes of Vibration of the Air–column inside a closed tube.
The ‘stationary waves’, formed in the air–column of a ‘closed tube’, have to satisfy
the following requirements.
1. The free (or open), of the tube, must be an antinodal point while the closed
end must be a nodal point.
2. There must be a nodal point between two antinodal points and vice–versa.
The first three permissible modes of vibration of the air–column inside a closed

404
tube, are shown below.

 3 5
Here L Here L Here L
4 2 4

or   4L 4L 4
 or  L
or 5
V 3
 
4L V
V  5
   3.
(Fundamental mode 4L 4L
or first harmonic)
(Third harmonic) (Fifth harmonic)

We thus observe that the permissible frequencies of vibration, inside a closed tue, can only be ODD
multiples of the simplest, or fundamental, mode of vibration.

The Tuning Fork

The tuning fork is a source of sound that gives out a single pure note of constant frequency. It is, therefore,
a standard oscillator of constant frequency.
The shape of the tuning fork is shown below. When it is held from its handle, and one of the its prongs is
struck lightly against a rubber pad, the prongs start vibrating transversly, both moving inwards, or outwards,
simultaneously. The tuning fork then produces its characterstics note of a constant frequency. The positions
of the nodal, and antinodal, points of a vibrating tuning fork, are as shown.

405
Resonance
The phenomenon of resonance takes place when the frequency of the applied periodic force (used to
vibrate a given system) matches the natural frequency of the system itself.

The Resonance Column

The simple set up, used for studying the phenomenon of resonance in a closed tube, has been given the
name ‘resonance column’. The length of the air–column, in this set up is adjustable. We adjust the length of
this air–column so that its permissible fundamental frequency, or a permissible multiple of that frequency,
matches the characterstics (known) frequency of the tuning fork, used to set the air–column into vibrations.
The phenomenon of resonance then takes place and one gets a loud, or maximum, sound. A measurement
of the length of the air–column, corresponding to which resonance takes place, enables one to calculate the
sped of sound in air.
The ‘resonance column’ is available in two simple forms, shown below. However, it is the first form, in
which the effective length of the air column is adjusted by raising or lowering of the reservoir, that is used
more often.

The first and second positions of resonance, of the air–column in a resonance–column, are shown here.

406
End–Correction
The reflection of sound does not take place exactly at the open end of the tube. It takes place a little
distance (usually denoted by e) above the open end of the tube. This distance ‘e’ is called the ‘end–
correction’. The ‘end–correction’ is very nearly equal to (0.3 D) where D is the diameter of the tube.

Experimental Set–up
The experimental set–up, used in this experiment, is shown below.

Calculation of the Speed of Sound

We take a tuning fork of known frequency (say n) and find the lengths of the air column corresponding to
the first and second positions of resonance. If these lengths are 1 and  2 , respectively, we have


1  e 
4

3
and 2  e 
4

407
 3   
   2  e    1  e     
 4 4 2

   2   2  1 

Now V  n
Hence speed of sound is given by

V  2n   2  1 

[Note: We can also calculate the end correction (e). We have from above,

3 
  2  e   3  1  e    3   0
4 4

  2  31  2e

or e
  2  31  ]
2

Dependence of Speed of Sound on Temperature

The dependence of the speed of sound, (in a gas) on temperature, is as per the formula

Vt 2 t 2  273 T2
 
Vt1 t1  273 T1

This speed of sound (in a gas) varies as the square root of the absolute temperature (of the gas).

408
 EXPERIMENT–10
Specific heat capacity of a given (i) solid, (ii) liquid, by the method of mixtures.

Heat
We may think of heat as a form of energy that gets exchanged between two bodies because of a difference
in temperature between them.
The SI unit of heat is, therefore, the same as that of energy, i.e., joule (J)

Quantity of Heat
The amount of heat, gained or lost by a substance, depends on its (i) mass (ii) nature and the (iii) change in
its temperature (  ).
We, therefore, write the formula:
H = ms 
Here s is a ‘constant’, characterstics of the substance. It is known as its ‘specific heat capacity’.

‘Specific Heat Capacity’

The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat needed to bring a unit change in
the temperature of a unit mass of the substance. The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J/(kg–K). This also
equals J/(kg–0C).

409
Principle of Calorimetery
Let two bodies, at different temperatures, be brought in contact with each other. The body, at a higher
temperature, would then ‘lose’ some heat which can be gained by the body at a lower temperature. This
process of ‘heat exchange’ continues till the two bodies acquire the same common temperature.
The basic principle of ‘calorimetry’ is that
Heat gained by the ‘cold’ body = Heat lost by the ‘hot’ body.
This principle, therefore, implicity assumes that all the heat transferred remains confined within the two
bodies. This is generally not quite true. However, in usual simple experiments on calorimetry, we assume
this principle to be a valid principle.

Thermal Capacity or Heat Capacity

The thermal capacity, or heat capacity of a substance, is defined as the quantity of heat needed to change
its temperature by a unit amount.
For a substance of mass M
Thermal capacity = M × its specific heat capacity
The SI unit of ‘thermal capacity’ is J/K. It is also equal to J/0C.

Calorimeter
The ‘calorimeter’ is the usual simple instrument / device, used in laboratories for experiments on finding
‘specific heat capacity’ and other simple heat related quantities. The following diagram shows the details of
construction for a ‘calorimeter’.

410
Method of Mixtures
In the ‘method of mixtures’ the ‘hot body’ is made to transfer its heat to the ‘cold body’, generally by using
a calorimeter. This method is often used for finding the specific heat capacity of a solid as well as a liquid.

‘Specific Heat Capacity’ of a Solid

A calorimeter of known mass (say m), made from a material of known specific heat capacity (say s), is
taken. A known mass of water (say M1) (or any other ‘suitable’ liquid of known specific heat capacity) is
poured into it. The initial temperature (say 0 ) of this water / liquid is noted. Let the speicfic heat capacity
of water / liquid be S1.
A known mass of the solid (say M2), of unknown specific heat capacity (say S2), is heated to a temperature
1 . This solid is then put submerged into the water / liquid contained in the calorimeter. The ‘liquid’ is
continuously stirred. Let the final equalibrium temperature of the ‘liquid’ be 2 .

We then have
Heat lost by the solid

 M 2S2  1  2 

heat gained by the calorimeter and the water / liquid contained in it

 ms  2  0   M1S1  2  0 

  ms  M1S1  2  0 

Putting heat lost = Heat gained, we get

M 2S2  1  2    ms  M1Sl  2  0 

 S2 
 ms  M1S1  2  0 
M 2  1  2 

We can thus calculate the (unknown) specific heat capacity of the solid.
[Note: The use of water / ‘suitable’ liquid, in the calorimeter, depends on the requirement that the given
solid should neither dissolve in water / ‘suitable liquid’, nor react chemically with it].

Specific Heat Capacity of a Liquid

Here we can use a (suitable) solid made from a material of known specific heat capacity.

411
Let M1 = mass of solid taken
S1 = specific heat capacity of the material of the solid

1 = Initial temperature of the ‘heated up’ solid.

Also let m = mass of calorimeter

s = specific heat capacity of the material of the calorimeter
M2 = mass of liquid taken
s2 = (unknown) specific heat capacity of the liquid.

Also let 0 be the initial temperature of the calorimeter and liquid; and 2 = Final equilibrium temperature
after the hot solid has been put / suspended into the liquid.
We now have

Heat lost by the solid = M1S2  1  2 

Heat gained by calorimeter = ms  2  0 

Heat gained by the liquid = M 2S2  2  0 

Putting,
Heat gained = Heat lost, we get

 ms  M 2S2  2  0   M1S1  1  2 

 M1S1  1  2   ms  2  0  
 S2  
 M 2  2  0  

We can use this formula to calculate the (unknown) specific heat capacity of the liquid.
[Note: We need to use such a ‘suitable’ solid that neither dissolves in the given liquid nor reacts chemically
with it.]

412
 EXPERIMENT–11
Metre Bridge : Determination of resistivity of the material of the given wire.

413
Metre Bridge
Aim: To determine the specific resistance, or resistivity, of the material of given wire, using a metre bridge.

Wheatstone’s Bridge
It is an arrangment of four resistance, say, P, Q, R and S (out of which P, Q and R are known and variable
while S is normally unknown), which are connected to a source of electricity and a galvanometer, as shown
in the diagram.

When the circuit is switched on, some current will flow through various branches of the circuit, including the
galvanometer (of resistance G).
Since P, Q and R are known and variable, we can adjust their values to make the current, and thereby the
deflection, in the galvanometer reduced to zero.
This process of adjusting the values of P, Q and R, to reduce the current through the galvanometer to zero
(or to reduce the deflection in the galvanometer to zero), is called ‘balancing the bridge’. At balance ig = 0.

Condition for Balancing of Wheatstone’s Bridge

Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law for the loop ABDA, we get:
I1 (P) + ig (G) – I2 (R) = 0 .....(1)
Similarly, for loop BCDB, we get
(I1–Ig) Q – (I2+Ig) S – (Ig) G = 0 .....(2)
When we make Ig = 0, by adjusting P, Q and R, equation (1) and equation (2) will become:
I1 (P) + 0 – I2 (R) = 0
or I1 (P) = I2 (R) .....(3)
and (I1) Q – (I2) S – 0 = 0
or I (Q) = I2 (S) .....(4)

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Dividing (3) and (4), we have
P R
 .....(5)
Q S
P R
This equation  (at balance, i.e., when (i = 0)) is called the Wheatstone Bridge’s principle or the
Q S g

condition for balancing of the Wheatstone’s bridge.

How to Find the value of S

From Wheatstone’s condition, we have
P R
 , at balance
Q S
R
 S Q
P
where S is the unknown resistance and P, Q and R are known resistances.

Metre Bridge, a Modified Wheatstone’s Bridge

Wheatstone’s bridge consists of three known variable resistances, which are usually resisatnce boxes.
Handling these individual reisistance boxes, along the unknown resistance wire,is not easy. So a modified
bridges has been developed, which is easy to handle and convenient for doing experiments. This is called
the metre bridge. The name ‘metre–bridge’ is derived from the use of a one ‘metre’ long uniform wire in
this modified bridge.

Metre Bridge: The Apparatus

The metre bridge consists of a uniform resistance wire AB of length 1 metre (or 100 cm), having a constant
value of resistance per unit length (say,  ohm cm–1), throughout its length. This wire is fixed on a wooden
board along with L–shaped metal strips at its two ends. There are terminals for connecting insulated
copper wires, as shown in the diagram. A straight metal strip, fixed on the wooden board, with three
terminals attached, provides two ‘gaps’. A metre scale is also attached, to meature lengths along the wire
AB, used for balancing the bridge.

415
Circuit Diagram of Metre Bridge
The given resistance wire, of unkonwn resistance ‘X’ and length ‘L’, is connected in the gap I. A resistance
box, which can have R = 1  , 2  , ------ etc. is connected in gap 2, as shown in the circuit diagram. A
cell,of emf V, is connected between the terminals A and B, through a key.

From the terminal at C, a galvanometer and a jockey (J) are connected as shown. The jockey can be used
to complete the bridge circuit by gently pressing it on to metre bridge wire, whenever it is required.
The above circuit of metre bridge is similar to the Wheatstone’s bridge circuit. The related Wheatstone’s
bridge circuit is shown for better comparison.

The jockey, pressed on to the uniform wire AB, divides the wire into two parts: (i) part AJ of resistance
(  ) and (ii) part JB of resistance 100     .

Experimental Set–up and Procedure to Find X

Using connecting wires, the resistance box, cell key, galvanometer and jockey are connected with the
metre bridge as shown is circuit diagram. The given wire (of resistance X and length L) is connected in the
gap 1.
The correctness of the circuit is tested by presing the jockey, on to the uniform wire, first near terminal A

416
and then near terminal B, after the cell key is switched on. If the deflections obtained in the galvanometer
are in opposited directions, when the jockey is pressed at A and then at B, the circuit made is correct and
the experiment can be performed with this circuit.
After checking the correctness of the circuit, with R ohm in the resisatnce box, the jockey is pressed near
terminal A and it is moved, gently, along the wire AB, towards the terminal B, in order to decrease the
deflection in the galvanometer. The jockey is moved till the deflection in the galvanometer becomes zero.
Here ig = 0, we say the bridge is balanced. The jockey position (J) is called the balancing point.

The balancing length AJ =  is measured. The length 100    , is also obtained, in centimetre.

Determination of X
According to condition for balancing of the bridge, we have
X 

R 100    

  
or X R .....(6)
 100   
As we know the value of R, (taken from the box), and measured value of  , we can calculate the value of
unkonwn resistance X of the given wire, connected in gap I.

A number of observations are to be taken corresponding to R = 1  , 2  , 3  , etc. each time calculating

X, using the corresponding balancing length in each case.
The mean of all the values of X, thus calculated, will give the most correct value of X.

Concept of Specific Resistance or Resistivity (  )

The resistance, say X, of a conductor, at constant temperature, depends on:
(i) the nature of its material
(ii) its length (  ) and
(iii) its area of cross section (A)
It is found that X varies directly as  and X varies inversely and A. Therefore, we have,


X
A

or X .....(7)
A

417
In equation (7),  is called the specific resistance or resistivity; it depends on the nature of the material of
the conductor and is a constant for a given material, at a given temperature. The unit of  is ohm–metre.
If the conductor is in the form of a thin wire of average diameter (d), then

d 2
A .....(8)
4
From equations (7) and (8) we get

X  d 2 
   .....(9)
L 4 

Determination of ‘d’ using a Screw Gauge

The diameter (d) of the wire, of resistance (X) is measured using a screw guage, following the procedural
steps explained in Experiment No. 2,
d = [M.S.R + (V.S.R) L.C] – Zero error
(Note that d, measured using screw guage, is in mm.)
The length ‘L’ of the resistance wire can be measured with the help of a metre–scale.
Once the values of X, d and L are obtained, the specific resisance (  ), of the material of the resistance
wire can be calculated using the equation

X  d 2 
  
L 4 

The following points are considered in order to minizime the error in obtaining thevalue of X, using the
metre–bridge.
1. The plug–keys of the resistance box are cleaned using sand paper.
2. All terminals and plug keys are made tight.
3. The circuit is not kept ‘on’ for a long time, as it may cause unnecessary heating.
4. The jockey is not dragged hard along the metre–bridge wire AB, as it may change the cross–
sectional area of the wire.
5. For better accuracy in the determination of X, the procedure can be repeated after putting the
resistance wire in the right gap and the resistance box in the left gap. (The overall mean value of X
will give the most accurate result).

418
6. The value of R, put in the resistance box, may be adjusted in such a way that the balancing length (  )
is obtained around the 50cm mark. The error, here, will be the least.
Example–1:
The following data was collected by a student to determine the resistance X of the given wire by metre
bridge and hence to calculate the specific resistance (  ) of the material of the wire (along with the additional
measurements for diameter and length of that wire). Find the value of  .

Length of the given wire = 42.0 cm

Diameter, measured using screw guage is d = 0.22 mm
Solution:
Since the balancing length (  ) is measured from the side of left gap, where X is connected, the formula
used for determining X is:

  
X R
 100   
The above table can be completed, with the values
of X in each observation, as shown.

419
Mean X = 5.76 
The formula for  is

X  d 2 
  
L 4 

X = 5.76 
d = 0.22 mm = 0.22×10–3 m
L = 42.0 cm = 0.42 m

2
 22  0.22 10 m 
3

   
0.42 m 7 4

= 5.22×10–7   m

EXPERIMENT–12
Resistance of a given wire using Ohm’s law.

420
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law, for a conductor, states taht the strength of current (I), flowing through that conductor, varies
directly as the potential difference (V) applied across its ends, provided all the physical conditions of that
conductor, like temperature, length and cross–sectional area, remain unaltered.
That is, I  V (When the physical conditions of the conductor are kept constant).

or VI
 V  RI
where R is the constant of proportionality; it is called the resistance of that conductor.
1. Resistance (R) of a conductor may be regarded as the obstruction offered by the conductor against
the flow of charge carriers through it.
2. The cause of resistance is the collision between the moving charge carriers with the atoms / molecules
of the conductor as well as with other moving charge carriers.
3. More is the chance of such collisions, more will be the resistance offered.
4. During collisions, energy of the moving charge carriers will be lost to atoms of the conductor. As
these atoms / molecules get more energy the conductor, as a whole, will get heated up (or the
temperature of the conductor will increase).
5. Thus flowing charges (or current) cause heating effect in the conductor.
6. Resistance (R) of a conductor depends on the following factors:
(i) nature of the conductor
(ii) length of the conductor (  )

 2 d 2 
and (iii) area of cross–section  A  r  
 4 

7. It is found that:
(i) R (  = length)
1
and (ii) R (A = area of cross–section)
A

 R
A

or R
A

421
 where  is constant and it is called the resistivity or specific resistance of the material of the conductor..
[  depends of the nature of the conductor; it also depends on the temperature of the conductor
according to the formula  t    0 1   t  , where  is called the temperature coefficient of
resistivity.]
8. The unit of resistance (R) is volt–ampere–1 and is called ohm (  ).


9. Since R  and  depends on temperature, we can say that R also depends on temeprature.
A
The resistance (R) of a conductor varies according to the formula:

R  t   R  0 1   t  , where  is called temperature coefficient of resistnace, which is same as

temperature coefficient of resistivity.

Ohmic and Non–ohmic Resistors

Materials, which offer resistance, are called resistors.
Ohm’s law is a conditional law, which is valid only when R is kept constant by maintaining temperature,
length and cross–sectional area as constant. Even if length and cross–section are kept un–changed,
temperature can vary, due to heating cuased by the current flow. This variation in temperature can cuase
variation in  , and thereby, variation in R. [For some alloys like mangamin and constantin, the value of 
is almost zero and, therefore, the variation is  and R is practically negligible for these materials. Hence
resistance of wire made of such materials (for which   0 ) will remain practically as a constant even if
their temperature changes. Such conductors, whose resistance (R) remains constant, are called ohmic
conductors / resistors.
For them, V = RI (where R = constant) is true for any temperature.
Therefore, V  I or the V–I graph for ohomic–conductor will be a straight
line, as shown in the figure.
The slope of such a V–I graph will given the resistance (R) of the conductor,
if V is plotted along y–axis and I is taken along X–axis.

422
The slope of I–V graph, therefore, will give the reciprocal of resistance, which is called the conductance
 1
C  .
 R

If, for a conductor / resistor, I does not always vary directly as V varies, then V–I graph cannot be a
straight line; instead the graph will be a curve. Such conductors / resistors, for which V–I graph is not a
straight line, are called non–ohmic resistors / conductors.

 It is to be noted that V = RI formula is valid for non–ohmic resistors also, where the value of R is true
only for that particular measured values of V and I.
 For materials with a positive value of  , (like tungston, nichrome etc.) R will increase with heating
(or when I is passed for lnoger time). Their graphs will be like in figure (A).
 For materials with a negative value of  , (like semiconductor and electrolytes), R will decrase with
heating (or when I is passed for longer time). Their graphs will be similar to figure (B).

V–I Graph for Ohmic Conductors / Resistors

For ohmic resistors, the value of R is a constant for all values of V and I.
That is I  V . Hence, when V is doubled I will also be doubled and so
on. Such a graph is shown here.
This is an ideal situation and in practical situations, it is difficult to obtain
such a graph. This is because current I can cause heating of the resistor
and thereby change its temperature; this, in turn, can change the value of R.

423
How to find Resistance from V–I Graph
Let the V–I graph for an ohmic resistor / conductor be as shown below.

The slope of this graph will be the ratio V/I and, therefore, it will give the value of the resistance R. To find
the slope, we follow these steps:
(i) Two (quite far apart) points A and B are marked on the straight line graph.
(ii) Horizontal and verticals are drawn from both points, as shown.
(iii) The right angled triangle ABC is drawn.
(iv) Slope is calculated as:

Perpendicular
Slope 
Base

BC

AC

V2  V1

I 2  I1

(v) The slope gives resistance R.

V2  V1
 R
I2  I1
V1 V2
Note that, for a perfect ohmic resistor, R  I or R  I will also give the same value of R as obtained
1 2

from the slope.

In an experimental situation, the values of V and I, measured by voltmeter and ammeter respectively, may
not give the current values of V and I for the conductor / resistor, as there can be various errors creeping
into the measurements. Here, in order to reduce the error in the calculation of R, we measure a numbers of

424
values of V and their corresponding I. We then plot the V–I graph and obatin the most correct straight line
(joining maximum points in the slot). The slope calculated will give the most correct value or R.

Experimental Set–up and Procedure to Find R

The given resistance wire is connected is series with a current
source, a key, a rheostat and an ammeter as shown here. A
voltmeter is then connected across the resistance wire.
The rheostat can be adjusted to obtain different values of I.
For every value of V (in volt) corresponding value of I (in
ampere) is measured and recorded. The V–I graph is plotted,
with V along y–axis and I along x–axis. The slope of this
V–I graph will give the resistance R of the given wire.
 Care should be takes to connect only the very ends of the resistor in the circuit.
 The least count, and range, of both the ammeter and the voltmeter, are to be recorded for reference.
 Parallax error must be avoided while taking the readings. The mirror strip, behind the scale of the
meters, may be used for this.
 Heating effect should be reduced by switching off the circuit when not taking the readings.
 All terminals should be made tight.

EXPERIMENT–13
Potentiometer(i) Comparison of EMF off two primary cells.
(ii) Determination of internal resistance of a cell.

425
Electro–chemical Cells
These are devices which generate electricity by converting chemical energy to electrical energy by means
of chemical reactions.
An electro–chemical cell (simply called a cell) essentially consists of two electrodes, made of two different
materials, dipped in a suitable electrolyte (taken in a container / vessel). For example, a simple voltaic cell
consists of a copper rod (as positive electrode) and a zinc rod (as negative electrode) which are dipped in
dilute sulphuric acid (taken as the electrolyte), taken in a glass beaker, as shown below.

H 2SO4 moelcules dissociate in the solution to produce H+ and SO4– – ions.

The higher electropositivity of copper will attract H+ ions towards it, producing a positive potential for
copper rod. Similarly the higher electronegativity of the zinc rod will attract SO4– – ions towards it, producing
a negative potential for the zinc rod.

426
Thus a potential difference gets developed between the two electrodes. When the two electrodes are
connected through an external circuit, electrons, deposited on the Zn–rod by SO4– – ions, wil flow through
this circuit to the copper rod, producing a current in the circuit.
During this flow of electrons from Zn–rod to the copper rod, through the external circuit, the following
reactions take place:
(i) At the Zn–rod

Zn  SO 
4  ZnSO 4  2e


(These two electrons will flow to the copper rod through the external circuit).
(ii) At the Cu–rod
The two e–, reaching the Cu–rod, will be absorbed by the H+ ions.

2H   2e  H 2

So, for every 2e– flowing through the external circuit one H2SO4 molcule will be consumed. Hence chemicals
will get consumed when we get current flow in the external circuit.
 (Note that chemical reactions will begin only when the circuit of the cell is completed).
 (The H2 molecules, deposited on the copper–rod, can cause ‘polarisation’, becuase of which the
flow of e– gets slowed down and eventually stops).
 The effect of polarisation can be reduced by oxidising hydrogen by using chemicals called
‘depolarisers’.

Daniel Cell and Leclanche Cell

These are electro–chemical cells in which depolarisers reduce the adverse effect of polarisation caused by
deposition of hydrogen molecules at their
positive electrode.

Daniel Cell
This is a modified simple–voltaic cell. CuSO4
is the chemical depolariser in Daniel cell. The
construction of Daniel cell is shown in the
diagram. The Cu–vessel will itself act as the
positive electrode. The negative electrode is
an amalgamated Zn–rod. H 2SO 4 is the
electrolyte.

427
The chemical reactions, which take place at the Zn–rod (–ve electrode), are

Zn  SO 
4  ZnSO 4  2e


(These 2e– get deposited on the Zn–rod. These reactions will continue to occur when the terminals of the
cells are connected to the external circuit).
The H+, which are protons only, can easily go through the pores of the porcelain cylinder; they react with
the CuSO4 solution.

2H   CuSO 4  H 2SO 4  Cu 

As H2 molecule is oxidised to H2SO4, deposition of H2 does not take place on the positive Cu electroode.
The Cu++ will receive the two e– from the Cu– electrode (or Cu– vessel) and get deposited on it as Cu–
atoms. (The potential difference (called EMF) developed across the positive and negative electrodes of
Daniel cell is (nearly) 1.08 volt).

Leclanche Cell
There are two types of Lechanche cell:
(i) Wet Leclanche cell
(ii) Dry Leclanche cell
The “Dry Leclanche cell” is the “Dry cell” which we use commonly in the torches and ‘remotes’. The
construction of “Wet Leclanche cell” normally called “Leclanche cell” is shown in the diagram below.
MnO2 is used as depolariser in this cell. MnO2 is mixed with powdered charcoal to increase the conductivity.
The EMF of this cell is 1.5 volt.

428
Primary and Secondary Cell
The electro–chemical cells are of two types:
(i) Primary cells
(ii) Secondary cells
Primary cells generate electricity by converting chemical energy into electrical energy. The chemical reactions
taking place in primary cells, are irreversible. Hence they cannot be reacharged. Primary cells can not be
re–used. Leclanche and Daniel cells are primary cells.
Secondary cells can store electrical energy as chemical energy and this energy gets converted back into
electrical energy back when used. The chemical reactions are reversible. These cells can be recharged and
therefore, re–used as well. They are also called accummulators as they accummulate energy during charging.
Lead–acid accummulators (acid battery) used in automobile cars, invertors etc., are secondary cells.

EMF, Internal Resistance and Terminal Voltage of Cells

EMF refers to electro–motive–force, force which moves electrons. As we know, the force on the electrons
cannot be measured directly; we measure the effect of this force in terms of ‘work done’ per unit charge.
Every cell (source of electricity) has got an EMF, which depends on the nature of the electrodes used and
the electrolyte of the cell.

Definitions of EMF
(i) EMF of a cell is defined as the work done, by the cell, in driving a unit charge through a circuit
(closed) once, including the cell.
Hence, EMF is ‘work done’ by the cell per unit of charge.
W
Therefore, EMF, E 
q
Hence the unit of EMF (E) is also JC–1 or volt. The above definition says that, if the EMF of cell is E
(= 2 volt, say) it performs a work of 2 joules in driving one coulomb of charge through a closed
circuit, including that cell.
(ii) The second definition of EMF is in terms of the potential difference. “EMF of a cell is defined as the
potential difference between the terminals of the cell, when no current is drawn from it”.
[That is, EMF of a cell is its ‘terminal voltage’ when current drawn from it is zero].

Definition of Internal Resistance (r)

It is the resistance offered, by the electrolyte of the cell, against flow of charges (i.e. ions) through it.
Internal resistance depends on the following factors:

429
(i) the temperature of the electrolyte.
(ii) the nature of the electrolyte.
(iii) the concentration of the electrolyte.
(iv) the distance between the electrodes.
(v) the area of the electrodes dipped in the electrolyte.

Definition of Terminal Voltage

Terminal voltage (V) is defined as the potential difference across the terminals of the cell, when some
current is drawn from the cell. That is, V = potential difference when I  0 .

Terminal voltage always appear across the external resistance, when I  0 .

(Please note that E is also defined as potential difference across the terminals of the cell, but when I = 0 or
E = V, when I = 0).

Relationship between E, r and V

Consider a simple circuit consisting of a cell of EMF E and internal resistance r, connected to an external
resistance R. Let I be the current draw from the cell.

Here, the work done per unit charge, by the cell, is called the EMF.
i.e. E = work done per unit charge in driving one coulomb round the (closed) circuit.
or E = work done per unit change across R + work done per unit charge across r
 E=V+ υ .....(1)
Here,
V = potential difference across R
υ = potential difference across r
(Remember that: potential difference is equal to work done per unit charge)

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But Ohm’s law says that:
V = IR and υ = IR
 E = IR + Ir
or E = I (R + r)

E
or I .....(2)
R r
Now, the terminal voltage of the cell is same as the voltage across the external resistance, that is equal to
V = IR.
Therefore, from equation (1), we have
V=E– υ
or V = E – Ir .....(3)
Now, υ =E–V
or Ir = E – V

V
or .r  E  V
R

E 
 r    1 R .....(4)
V 
Also, the terminal voltage, V = IR

ER
 V .....(5)
R r

Potentiometer
As the name suggests, it is a device which is used to measure potential difference. Since EMF is also
measured as potential difference, a potentiometer can be use to measure EMF also.
A potentiometer essentially consists of a uniform resistance wire, of length from 4m to 10m. This wire is
fixed on a wooden board, in four to ten strands, each of length one metre, as shown in the figure. A metre
scale is also fixed on this wooden board. The ends of this wire are provided with terminals A and B.
(Usually we draw only four strands, for convenience).

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Principle of Potentiometer
Let the resistance per unit length of the potentiometer wire AB be   cm 1 .

Suppose the wire AB of the wire is connected to a ‘primary’ circuit, consisting of a driver d.c source (a
battery) of voltage VD in series with a rheostat (Rh) and a key (K). When the key is closed, the battery will
drive a current, say I, through the wire AB. This current I, driven through the wire, will produce a uniform
‘Potential drop’ of I volt per centimetre of the wire, all along the wire AB. If the length of wire AB is L
(which can be from 4m to 10 m) the potential difference across AB will be:

VAB  I L .....(1)

If A is at positive potential, the steady current, I, will produce a potential drop of I for every one
centimetre length of the wire.

Now if J is any point on the wire AB, (which carries a steady current I, driven by VD), such that AJ =  ,
then the potential drop across AJ (=  ) length of this wire, is

VAJ   I  

or V  I .....(2)

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Here, VAJ = V, with A at higher (+ ve) potential and J at lower (– ve) potential.

Thus, we see that V   , (as I is a constant). This is the principle of the potentiometer..

Statement of the Principle of Potentiometer

If states that if a steady current (I) is passed through the uniform wire of the potentiometer (of
resistance   cm 1 ), then the potential drop (V) across any length (  ) of the wire is directly proportional
to that length itself i.e. V   .

Measurement of EMF of a Cell

Consider the potentiometer wire (AB) carrying a steady current (I), driven by the driver cell. Suppose a
cell, of EMF (E), be connected to this potentiometer wire through a galvanometer and a jockey, as shown
in the figure. (Care should be taken to ensure that positive terminals of both the driver battery and the cell
are connected to the terminal A of the potentiometer).

The jockey can be moved the along the wire AB, till the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This is called
the balancing of the cell across length AJ of the potentiometer wire.
Let AJ =  be called the balancing length, here.
Now, the two potential differences are balanced, in this case. These are:

(i) The potential difference across AJ     .

length of the potentiometere wire. (i.e. V = I   )

(ii) The potential difference across the terminals of the cell.
Note that the cell is in a closed circuit here, but the net current drawn from this cell (of EMF E) is zero (as
the galvanometer shows zero deflection) at the balancing position J of the jockey. Thus, by definition of
EMF, the potential difference available across the terminals of the cell is its EMF (E), (as no current is
drawn from it).

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Therefore, the EMF (F) of the cell is equal to the potential difference across AJ
or E = VAJ

or E = I .....(4)

By measuring the value of I  and  , we can find the value of E.

Potential Gradient along the Potentiometer Wire

From the principle of potentiometer, we have,
V 
 V  k
V
or k

Here k is called the potential gradient. We have (since V = I  )

k  I .....(5)

or kI
It is clear, from equation (4) and (5), that if the value of I is less
then the potential gradient will be less. Hence, to obtain the same
potential difference (V), we need a greater value of  (when the
potential gradient is lower. Thus a potentiometer, of lower potential
gradient, is more accurate as the balancing length will be greater.
In the adjacent graph, P and Q represent plots for V against length,
 , for two potentiometers. Clearly, A has lesser potential gradient
and hence it would be preferred for the measurement of EMF as
its accuracy is better.

Comparison of EMFs of two primary cells

Here, the aim is to compare the emfs of a Laclanche cell (E1) and a Daniel cell (E2).
Here, we use:

(a) a potentiometer wire AB of length (preferably)10m; with   cm 1 resistance.

(b) a primary circuit with a driver cell of voltage (VD) greater that the emf (E) of the two cells.
(c) The two cell whose EMFs are to be compared, along with a two–way key, galvanometer, a high
resistance (H.R.) and a jockey.

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(Note that the H.R. is used to protect the galvanometer from excess current damaging it. The H.R. may be
short–circuited to get accurate balancing length).
All the above components are connected as shown in the circuit below.

Formula: It 1 is the balancing length for Leclanche cell and  2 is the balancing length for Daniel cell, then
E1 1

E2  2

Experimental Set–up and Procedure

One the circuit is completed as shown in the figure above, the following steps are taken to check the
correctness of the circuit.
 Ensure that all positive terminals (of VD, E1 and E2) are connected to terminal A of the potentiometer
wire.
 The value of VD must be greater than the EMF (E1) of Leclanche cell (E1 = 1.5V) (i.e. VD must be
around 4V).
 When the Leclanche cell is included in the circuit (as is the case shown in the figure (above), we must
obtain opposite deflections, in the galvanometer, when we press the jockey near A, on the wire, and
then near B, on the wire.
[If opposite deflections are not obtained the rheostat can be adjusted in order to obtain opposite
deflections]
 Once such opposite deflections are obtained, the circuit set–up is ready for use.
 Once the circuit is made to give opposite sides deflection, the balancing lengths for lechanche cell (of
EMF E1) and daniel cell (of EMF E2) are obtained, for the same steady current I (i.e. for the same
rheostat position).

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 Let 1 be the balacing length measured for E1 and  2 be the balancing length for E2. As I  is the
same for both 1 and  2 measurements, we can write:
E1  I 1 amd E 2  I  2
E1 1
or 
E2  2

 In order to take more observations, we can change the value of I, by adjusting the rheostat to a
slightly different resistance value, keeping two important points in mind:
(a) 1 and  2 are obtained for same position of rheostat (or same current I) for every set of
observations.
(b) opposite deflections are obtained in the case of Lechanche cell in each set of observations.
 The value of high resistance does not affect the balance point position as the observations are taken
when ig = 0.

Determination of Internal Resistance (r) of a Primary Cell

The objective of the experiment is to determine the resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell; called
the internal resistance (r) of the cell.
Since the internal resistance depends on many factors (like the temperature and concentration of the
electrolyte, the distance between the electrodes and the surface area of the electrodes dipped in electrolyte),
the value of r may not give consistent results.

E 
It is to be noted that, to find r of the primary cell, we use the formula r    1 R , with respect to the
V 
circuit diagram given aside. (Here E is the emf of the primary cell, V is the terminal voltage across the cell
when the cell drives a current i through the external resistance R).

E 
Remember that, in the formula r    1 R , V is the terminal voltage when R is the external resistance
V 
and V will vary with R. Accurate determination of r is possible only if we
obtain the values of E and V correctly. This is done with the help of
potentiometer, by obtaining the balancing lengths corresponding to E and
V.

Circuit Diagram and Formula

Here we use:

(a) A potentiometer wire AB of length (preferably)10 metre and resistance   cm 1 .

436
(b) A driver circuit consisting of a battery of voltage VD a rheostat and a key connected in series with the
wire AB. (The + terminal of VD unit be connected to A).
(c) A primary cell (say, a Leclanche cell), of EMF ‘E’ and internal resistance ‘r’ (for which r is to be
found out) connected with a galvanometer and high resistance along with a jockey, as shown (+ve
terminal of E should be connected to the terminal A).
(d) A resistance box, in which a known and variable resistance R can be put, is connected across the
Leclanche cell, through a one–way key. This tertiary circuit, will enable us to obtain E and V from the
Leclanche cell.
The complete circuit is shown below.
K1 is key in the primary (driver) circuit and K2 is the key in the tertiary circuit.

Theory and Procedure

Suppose key K1 only (K2 open) is closed and the rheostat is properly adjusted so that the galvanomeer
gives opposite deflections when the jockey J is touched at A and then at B.
Here, let I be the steady current flowing through the potentiometer wire AB. Now, if AJ = 1 is the
balancing length obatined, then, E  I 1 gives the EMF of the leclanche cell.
Suppose next, a resistance R is included in the resistance box, in the tertiary circuit, and the key K2 is also
closed.
Now, if AJ '   2 is the balancing length obtained, then, V   I  2  gives the terminal voltage V of the
Leclanche cell corresponding to a resistance ‘R’ across the cell.
E 1
Therefore V  
2

437
We have the formula for r

E   
r    1 R , which now becomes r   1  1 R
V   2 

Knowing 1 ,  2 and R, the value of r can be calculated.

The observations can be repeated for various values of ‘R’ as well as for various positions of the rheostat.

[Note that for a set of observations of 1 and  2 the positions of the rheostat should remain undisturbed].

The following precautions may be taken to reduce the error in the observations while using a potentiometer.
 Balancing length (  ) is measured, properly, from the end A, along the wire.
 Overheating should be avoided by switching off the circuit immediately after every observation.
 All terminals should be made tight.
 The jockey should not be dragged hard along the potentiometer wire to avoid any change in the
cross–sectional area of the wire.
Example:
The following circuit was used by a student to determine the internal resistance of a Leclanch cell.

The rheostat was kept at the same position throughout and R was varied. The observations recorded by
the student are given in the table below. What are the maximum and minimum values of r ?

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Solution:
The formula for determination of internal resistance, using potentiometer, is:

E 
r    1 R
V 

 
or r   1  1 R
 2 

Using this formula the calculated value of r in each of the above observation is shown in the table below.

Here, the minimum value of r = 8.5  and the maximum value of r = 13.8 

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 EXPERIMENT–14
Aim: To determine the resistance (G) and figure of merit (k) of a galvanometer by half–deflection
method.

Galvanometer
It is device used to detect very small currents flowing in a circuit.A galvanometer is a very sensitive device.

Principle of Working of Galvanometer

It is based on the principle that a coil, suspended or pivoted in a uniform magnetic field, will experience a
torque whe a current (I) is passed through the coil.The extent of its rotation, against an (internal) restoring
torque, will be proportional to the current strength. The extent of rotation can be measured with the help of
a pointer, attached to the coil, when the pointer deflects and moves over a scale, graduated in divisions.
The scale is a linear scale and the pointer is made to coincide with the zero of the scale (when no current is
flowing) which is marked at the centre of the scale. This centre–zero scale enable us to observe the
direction of current also as the pointer can deflect in both the directions from its zero position (which is at
the middle of the scale).

Resistance (G) of the Galvanometer

The coil of the galvanometer is made of a long thin insulated copper wire wound on a rectangular metallic
non–magnetic light frame. Since the wire is very thin and long, the wire provides resistance, even though

440
the wire is made of copper. This resistance, provided by the coil, is called the resistance (G) of the
galvanometer. The value of G ranges from around 50  to 250  , depending on the sensitity of the
galvanometer.

Figure of Marit (k)

It gives an idea of how sensitive the galvanometer is detecting current. Figure of merit (k) is defined as the
strength of current which is required to deflect the pointer by one division on the scale.
That is k = current required for unit division deflection in the galvanometer.
If  is the number of division deflections of the pointer, when a current I is passed through the galvanometer,,
k can be written as

I
K

Since the galvanometer is very sensitive, I is normally in micro ampere only. Hence the unit of k is
I
A / division. The formula K  is used only to define the quantity called figure of merit of the galvanometer..

Once the figure of merit is experimentally found out the current (I) can be obtained by observing the
deflection produced by that current (as I  k  ).

(Note that this current is very small and only in A ).

Circuit Diagram
The circuit diagram, used for the determination of G, consists of a d.c source of emf E, a series variable
resistance R (or a resisance box), the given galvanometer of (unknown) resistance G, a shunt resistance
S (another resistance box) and two keys, which are connected in the manner as shown in the figure.

441
Derivation of the Formula for G in the terms of R and S
Let R be the resistance included in the resistance box 1. Suppose K1 is closed and K2 is kept open. A
current, say Ig, will flow through the galvanometer (Ensure that a sufficiently high value of R is put by the
box so that the deflection of pointer is within the scale of the galvanometer). If '  ' is the number of
divisions of deflection obtained on the scale and ‘k’ is the figure of merit of the galvanometer, then

E
I g  k  and I g 
RG

E
or  k .....(1)
R G
Now, suppose K2 is also closed (without changing the value of R). Here S gets connected across G. SInce
a part of the current passes now through S, connected in parallel to G, the deflection in the galvanometer
will decrease. Suppose the value of S is so adjusted that the deflection in the galvanometer is reduced

exactly to .
2

Let the current through the galvanometer, now, be Ig and let the main current from the source be I. (Note
that I will be more than Ig, the main current when K2 was open).

From the parallel connection of G and S,

We have

 S 
Ig   I
 G S


Also, Ig  k  
 2

442
  S  
 I k .....(2)
 G S 2

The combined resistance with circuit, now is

GS
R eff  R 
G S

E
 I
R eff

E
I
or GS
R
G S

Substituting this value of I in equation (2), we get

 
 E  S  
    k
 R  GS   G  S  2
 G S 

 E  G  S  S 
or   k
 R  G  S  GS   G  S 2

ES 
or k .....(3)
R  G  S  GS 2

Dividing equation (1) by equation (3), we have

R  G  S   GS
2
R  G S
or RG + RS + GS = 2 RS + 2 GS
or G (R–S) = RS

RS
or G .....(4)
R S
Since R and S are known resistances, the value of G can be obatined using equation (4).

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Formula for k
From equation (1), we can find the value of k as

E
k . ....(5)
R  G

Experimental Set–up and Procedure

A resistance box (1) of range (0 – 10,000  ) is used to provide the known variable resistance R. Another
resistance box (2), of range (0 – 500  ), is use to give known variable resistance S. The d.c source is a
battery of EMF ‘E’. The given galvanometer, of unknown resistance ‘G’, is connected as shown in the
circuit.

Normally, a galvanometer with 30 divisions on its scale, on either side of the zero at the centre, is used in
the experiment.
To determine ‘G’, we follow the steps described below:
 Take out a high resistance of R (  10,000  ) from box (1)
 Close K1 (keeping K2 open). Some deflection (  ) will be obtained in the galvanometer..

 By suitably adjusting the value of R, a deflection of  = 30 divisions, exact, is obtained. The value of
R is noted for  = 30.
 Now K2 is also closed and the resistance S in the box (2) is so adjusted that the deflection reduces
 
to  15 exact. The value of S, for deflection of  15 division, is recorded.
2 2

RS
 Using the value of R and S, the value of G is calculated from the formula G 
R S

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 Observations can be repeated for  = 28 division, 26 division, 24 division etc.
 The mean value G will give the (most correct) value of resistance of the galvanometer.
 Once the value of G is obtained, the value of k can be calculated using the formula.

E
k
R  G
Here, E in the emf of the battery used, G is the mean value obtained from above, R is the series
resistance, in box (1) for a given value of  .
The following precuations may be observed, in order to reduce the error in the observations.
 The plug keys of the resistance boxes should be properly cleaned using sand paper
 All plug keys and terminals must be tight.
 The readings in the galvanometer (  ) must be taken without any parallax error..
Example:
With the help of the experimental setup shown in the circuit diagram, using a cell of EMF 2V, a student
obatined the following data for the determination of G and k of the galvanometer using half–deflection
method.

445
Calculte the values of G and k.
Solution:
The formula for G and k are

RS
G
R S

E
and k
R  G
To find k, the mean value of G, and E = 2V, are to be used.
The values of G and k, calculated for each set of observations, are shown in the table below.
E = 2V

Mean G = 63.70 
Mean k = 1.72×10–5 ampere / division.

EXPERIMENT–15
Aim: To find the focal length of
(i) convex mirror
(ii) concave mirror and
(iii) convex lens
Using parallax method.

446
Focal Length (f)
For spherical mirrors (convex and concave mirrors), the focal length (f) is defined as the distance of the
principal focus (F) from the pole (P) of the mirror.
Now, principal focus, of a spherical mirror, is the point on the principal axis through which (or from which)
rays, which are parallel to the principal axis, pass (or appear to diverge from), after reflection from the
mirror.

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(i) Convex Mirror
A spherical mirror with its reflecting surface convex in shape is alled a convex mirror. The centre of
its aperture is named as the pole. The distance of the centre of curvature of the spherical mirror from
the pole is called radius of curvature (R). According to the new Cartesian sign conventions, f and R
are positive for convex mirror.

R
(ii) f for spherical Mirrors
2
For small aperture and comparitively longer radius of curvature, the focal length (f) and the radius of
curvature (R), are related as R  2f.

A Ray Incident Normally on a Mirror will Retrace its Path

As per the laws of reflection of light, a ray incident normally on any mirror / surface gets reflected back
along the same path.
For a spherical mirror, any ray passing through the centre of curvature (C), or any ray directed towards the
centre of curvature, will be incident normally on the mirror. There for they will trace the path back along the
incident ray.

Ray–diagram for Detemining the Focal Length of a Convex Mirror, Using a

Convex Lens
To determine the focal length (f) os a convex mirror, using the method of parallax, we require a real image
to get formed, even while using a convex mirror. For this purpose we use a convex lens, along with the
convex mirror. An optical pin is used as the real object here.
Any two rays originating from a point on the pin (for example the tip of the pin, assumed to be on the
principle axis of the mirror), will get converged by the lens. If these converging rays are made to get
incident normally on the reflecting surface of the convex mirror, they will retrace their path and converge
back at the position of the object itself. Thus we will be able to get a real image of the optical pin at the
same place where the object itself is.
Conversely, is we obtain a real image of the optical pin at the location of the pin itself, (by adjusting the
position of the convex mirror, placed after the convex lens), then we can infer that the rays are incident

448
normally on the surface of the convex mirror.
This scenario is shown in the diagram below.

When the mirror is removed, these rays with meet on the right side of the lens, and produce a real image.

Theory
From the two ray–diagrams drawn, it is clear that the position of the image (I), when the convex mirror is
removed will give the centre of curvature of the mirror. (We locate the position of I in the second case by
using an image pin and removing the parallax between the image and this image pin).

 R
As image I is formed at ‘C’ of the mirror, MC will be equal to R. Therefore, f    can be calculated.
2
 

Optical Bench
An optical bengh consists of two nickel plated metallic rods of length about 1.5 m, fixed parallel to each
other, on two heavy metallic bases which are provided with levelling screws. The parallel rods have millimeter
scales engraved on them. The bench has three or four metallic uprights which can slide freely along the

449
length of the optical bench and can be fixed in any position. There is also an arrangment for lateral movement
to bring the needles / pins, mirror or lens, fixed on the uprights, in one straight line. An index mark is made
at the base of each upright. The position of the upright is read against these marks. The needles / pins
serving as object, or image, and the mirror / lens, are mounted on these uprights. These can be lowered or
raised, moved sidewise and can be fixed in the desired position such that tip of the needles / pin, the pole
of the mirror (or the optical centre of the lens) are at the same height and are with least of ‘index error’.

Optical Bench

Parallax Method used to Locate the Position of a Real Image

A real image is formed when two or more rays, originating from a point on the object, are made to actually
meet at a point elsewhere, by using optical devices. A real image can be obtained on a screen. In this
experiment, the real image, of the optical pin, is located by using the parallax method.
Parallax refers to relative change in position of anobject, with respect to another object, when viewed from
different positions. If the relative positions of the objects are different when viewed from different points,
we say that there is parallex between such objects. When there is parallax, the objects are at different
positions with respect to the viewer.
Now, we can adjust the positions of these objects, with respect to each other, such that the parallax gets
removed, or the objects remain at same positions with respect to each other, when viewed from different
positions. They may remain coinciding for the viewer, at all positions of the view. This is called removing the
parallax. When we remove parallax, between the tips of an image pin and the real image of an object pin,
we say that the image (of the object pin) is at the same position as that of the image pin.
To remove parallax in optical experiments we use a refernce optical pin, often called image pin, which is
fixed on an upright. When parallax is removed between the real image, and this image pin, the position of
the real image is same as that of the image pin and can be noted from the index line of its upright.
Parallax can be removed between the real image of an object pin, and the pin itself also, as is case in the
first part of this experiment. While removing the parallex between a real image and the reference pin (image
pin), it is advised to observe their relative position using only one eye (keeping the other eye closed).

450
Procedure for Determining the Focal Length of the Convex Mirror
 Mount the convex mirror on a holder and then fix the holder on the upright of the optical bench.
Simiarly mount a convex lens and fix it on another upright.
 Place the upright, holding the convex lens, at around 75 cm marking on the bench.
 Place the convex mirror beyond this lens and at around 100 cm marking.
 Now place an object pin (O) on an upright and then place this upright in front of the lens, so that rays
from the object pin pass through the lens and fall on the convex mirror placed beyond it.
 Viewing from the same side of the object pin, in the direction of the lens, keeping a minimum distance
of 25 cm between the eye and the object pin, we will be able to see an inverted real image of the
object pin, formed by the convex lens and the convex mirror combination, on the same side of the
lens as the object is.
 Now, remove parallex between this real image and the object pin itself by adjusting the position of
the convex mirror. (Ensure that the tip of the image coincides with the tip of the object all the while,
during the adjustments we do for the removal of parallax).
 Once the parallax is removed between the object pin and its image, (formed by the lens and mirror
together), we can be sure that the rays, passing through the lens, are falling normally on the convex
mirror and so they are getting retraced back, to produce the real image back at the object itself.
 Record the positions of the object pin, lens and the mirror as O, L and M.
 Now remove the mirror and place another optic pin, a reference pin (called image pin) on another
upright.
 View the real image, of the object pin, formed by the lens, from the other side of the lens.
 Make the tips of this real image of the object pin, and the image pin coincide. Adjust the positions of
the image pin to remove the parallax, so as to obtain the position of the real image (I) formed by the
lens alone.
(Here we are getting the situation corresponding to the second part of the ray–diagram.)
 Record the position of I.

Calculation of f
Now, the distance MI will give the radius of curvature of the convex mirror.
Therefore, MI = R

R
But f
2
MI
 f
2

451
(To take more observations the position of the object pin can be varied, keeping the position of lens the
same. Accordingly the positions of mirror (M) and image (I) will change. But the distance MI = R will
remain the same, within experimental error).

To find the Focal Length of a Concave Mirror

Concave Mirror
It is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is concave in shape. A concave mirror can form real
images,on its own, if the object is kept beyond its principal focus (F).
Ray–diagram

Here, object pin is placed at O, beyond C. Therefore the image I will be formed between C and F. Also,
OP = u (object distance)
IP = v (image distance)

Theory
(a) Once we have obtained the values of u and v, we can find the focal length f using the formula.

1 1 1
 
f v u
Note that both u and v are negative according to the cartesian sign convention, as both are measured
to the left of P (for real images). Thus f is also obtained as negative.
(b) After we have obtained many values of v corresponding to different values of u, we can plot a graph
of u against v (u–v graph). (Note that the scales selected for u and v axis should be the same and the
origin should be taken at zero for both the axes). Since both u and v are negative, the u–v graph will
be drawn in the third quadrant.

452
 After plotting the u–v graph, 450 angle bisector is drawn from the origin to interesect the graph at O´.
The co–ordinates or the u and v values of O´, are u = OA and v = OB.
But from the geometry, OA = OB
 u=v
This means that object and image are at same distance from the pole of the mirror. This happens
when they are at C that is OA = OB = R =2f.

OA OB
Therefore, f  
2 2

OA OB
The average of and will give the mean value of focal length.
2 2

OA  OB
 f
4

1 1
(c) Corresponding to the various values of u and v, corresponding values of and are calculated
u v
1 1
and a   vs   graph is drawn. (Here also same scales are selected for both the axes and origin
u v
is taken as zero). The graph is a straight line graph; it is extrapolated to obtain the x and y–intercepts,
as shown.

453
 1  1
From the graph, it is clear that the co–ordinates of C are  , 0  , which means that is 0 or v is
u  v
tending to infinity for point C. When v   , u = f.

1 1
Therefore  , for point C.
u f
1
or  OC
f
1
 f
OC

1
Similarly, f 
OD
1 1
The mean of and will give the correct value of f. (Note that all quantities are –ve)
OC OD

Experimental Set–up and Procedure

Here also we use the optical bench, with the uprights, as described in case of the convex mirror experiment.
The concave mirror is mounted on the upright and this upright is kept at, say, 100 cm marking on the
bench.
The object pin is placed at a point which is beyond C for the mirror, so that the real image formed is smaller
in size.
Now, using an image pin as reference pin, the parallax, between the image of the object pin and the image
pin, is removed to locate the position of the image, accurately. Once the image is located, using the image–
pin, the positions of object pin ‘O’, mirror ‘M’ and image ‘I’ are recorded.
The whole procedure is repeated for different positions of object, each time recording the positions of O,
M and I.
In each case:
u = OM and
v = IM
The focal length (f) is then calculated using:

1 1 1
(a) Formula    
f v u

454
(b) (u) vs (v) graph

1 1
(c)   vs   graph, as explained in the theory..
u v
(Note that when u > 2f, the image is smaller and when u < 2f, the image is bigger than the object. Care
should be taken to have values of u where u > 2f and also where u < 2f, in order to obtain proper plots of
the graphs).

To find the Focal Length of a Convex Lens

Convex Lens
It is a piece of transparent medium bound by two spherical convex surfaces (bi–convex lens).

The centre of the lens is known as optical centre and it is marked as P.

Focal length (f) is the distance of the principal focus (F) from the optical centre (P).
i.e. PF = f
The principal focus (F) is the point on the principal axis at which rays, parallel to the principal axis, pass
after refraction through the lens.

Focal lengh of a convex lens is positive.

455
Ray–diagram
The convex lens can form real images when the object is kept beyond its F point. If the object is beyond
2F, the image is smaller in size and if it is between F and 2F, the image is bigger than the object.

The position of the image (I) is located by removing the parallax between the image pin (reference pin) and
the image of the object.
Once the image (I) is located we have OP = u and PI = v. Also we can have many positions of object (O)
and corresponding positions of image (I) to get various values of u and v.

Theory
(a) IF PO (= u) and PI (= v) are obtained, we can find the focal length (f) using the formula:

1 1 1
 
f v u
(Here u is negative and v is positive according to sign convention. Therefore f of convex lens is
positive).
(b) We can plot the u–v graph (in second quadrant) and obtain focal length (f). For plotting (u) vs (v)
graph we should use same scale for both ‘u’ and ‘v’ axes and the origin should be at zero.
Once the graph is drawn, drop the perpendicular and draw the horizontal, as shown.

456
 From the geometry if is clear that |OA| = OB or |u| = v. Therefore |OA| = OB = 2f.

OA OB
Hence f 
2 2

OA  OB
or f
4

1 1 1 1
(c) We can also find the values of and and plot a   vs   graph. It will be a straight line.
u v u v

The value of ‘f’ can be obtained from this graph as:

1 1

1 OC OD

f 2

Experimental Set–up and Procedure

The optical bench is used here also. The convex lens is mounted on the upright and it is placed at (around)
the 75 cm mark on the bench.
The object pin is placed at a point which is beyond 2F for the lens, so that the real image formed, on the
other side of the lens is smaller in size.
Now using an image pin, as reference pin, the location of this real image is obtained by removing the
parallax between the two.
Once the image is located, the positions of the object pin ‘O’, the lens ‘L’ and the image ‘I’ are recorded.
Here LO = u and LI = v..
The procedure is repeated to obtain many values for v corresponding to different values of u.
Calculations of f
(a) From the recorded values of u and v for each set, f is calculated from the formula

457
 1 1 1
 
f v u
(b) From the (u) vs (v) graph.

OA  OB
f
4

1 1
(c) From the   vs   graph
u v

1 1

OC OD
f
2

Example:
A student, performing the experiment to find the focal length of convex mirror, took the following two sets
of observations. Obtain the focal length of the convex mirror.

Solution:
The ray diagram for the first set of observation is shown below.

458
From this, clearly, R = (42.0 – 31.4) cm = 10.6 cm

R
 f  5.3cm
2
From the second set, R = (35.5 – 15.0) cm = 10.5 cm

R
 f  5.25cm
2

5.3  5.25
Mean f   5.3 cm
2
Example:
The following observations were recorded by a student performing concave mirror experiment on optical
bench, using parallax method.

Calculate the focal length (f) of the concave mirror from these observation by:

1 1 1
(a) calculation using the formula  
f v u

459
(b) by plotting (u) vs (v) graph.

1 1
(c) by plotting   vs   graph.
u v
Solution:
In each observation we find the value of u and v as:
u = MO
v = MI
1 1
Also we calculate the values of and for each set.
u v

uv
Finally we calculate f  for each set of observations.
uv
The completed table is shows below:

 uv
(i) Mean f (from calculation), using f 
uv

 12.6  12.4  11.9  12.8  12.3  11.8 

f    cm
 6 
= – 12.3 cm
(ii) (u) vs (v) graph
f = –13.2 cm

460
 1 1
(iii)   vs   graph
u v
f = –12.8 cm

461
 EXPERIMENT–16
Plot of angle of deviation (<D) versus angle of incidence (<i) for a triangular prism.

Measurement of the Refracting Angle of the Prism

The refracting angle, of a given prism, can be measured by finding the positions of the reflected rays,
corresponding to the incident rays (PP1P2 QD) and (P’P1’P2’Q’E), two incident rays taken along the
perpendicular to the base BC of the prism.

It can be shown that

< RSR’ = 2 (< A)

462
Tracing the Path of Rays through a Prism

The set up used for tracing the path, of a given incident rays through a prism is as shown. The accompyning
diagram shows how the different angles can be measured.

Refraction of Light through a Prism

The ray diagram, showing the refraction of a (monochromatic) ray of light by a prism, is given below.
In this diagram
< i and < r = angles of incidence and refraction at the face AB
< r’ and < e = angles of incidence and refraction at the face AC
[< e is also known as the angle of emergence].
< D = angle of deviation
< A = angle of the prism.
These angles are related as follows:
< r + < r’ = < A
and < i+ < e = <A+ < D

463
Graph between < i and < D
The dependence of the angle of deviation, on the angle of incidence, is shown in the graph given here.
There is one, and only one, angle of incidence (< i = < im), at which the angle of deviation (< D) has its
minimum value (= < Dm).

However, there can be two values of the angle of incidence (one greater than im and the other less than im)
for which the angle of deviation has (some other) same value.

Prism
A prism may be regarded as a section of a transparent medium, bounded by two plane refracting surfaces,
meeting at an angle.

Angle of the Prism

The angle between the two ‘faces’ (surface ABEF and ACGE) is known as the angle of the prism (< A).
The ‘base’ of the prism is the retangular surface (BCGF), at its bottom.

Refracting Edge a Prism

The two plane refracting surfaces, of a prism, meet along the line AE. We call this line (AE) as the ‘refracting
edge’ of a prism.

Principal Section of a Prism

Let a plane, perpendicular to its refracting edge, be used to obtain a ‘section’ of the prism. We refer to such
a section as the principal section of the given prism.

464
Example:
The angle of deviation for a given prism, (made from a material of refractive index  ), has the same value
for two different values, say i1, and i2, for the angle of incidence. If the angles of emergence, for these the
values of angle of incidence, are e1 and e2, respectively, we would have
(i) i1–i2 = (e1–e2)
(ii) i1–i2 = (e2–e1)
(iii) i1+i2 =  (e2+e1)
(iv) (i1+i2) =  (e1–e2)
Solution:
We know that, for a prism,
i + e =A+ D
Here, as D has the same value for the two sets of angles, we have.
i1 + e1 = A + D = i2 + e2
 (i1–i2) = (e2–e1)

EXPERIMENT–17
Refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

465
Refraction
There is a change in the speed of light as it goes from one medium to another. The phenomenon, associated
with this change in speed of light, are referred to as ‘refraction of light’.
Refraction is usually observed through a change in the direction of propagation (or ‘bending’ of the path) of
a ray of light as it goes (obliquely) from one medium to another.

Refractive Index

The refractive index  12   of a medium (say medium 2), with respect to another medium (say medium 1),
equals the ratio of the speed of light in medium 1 (= v1) to its speed in medium 2 (= v2)

2 v1
1 
v2

We also define 12  through Snell’s law:

2 sin i
1 
sin r

Real Depth and Apparent Depth

‘Refraction’ causes a pond of water to appear shallower than it actually is. It can also cause a rectangular
glass slab to appear less thick than it actually is.
We use the terms ‘apparent depth’ and ‘real depth’ in this
context.
A relation between these two ‘depths’ can be obtained as
follows. Consider a rectangular glass slab, ABCD, of
thickness, t, say.
Let there be a point P at the bottom of the glass slab. A ray
PQ, incident at point Q, bends away from the normal, and
goes along QR, during its propagation from glass to air. When
produced backwards, it intersects a ‘normally incident ray’,
PNP”, at the point P’. P’ is, therefore, the virtual image of point P when this point is viewed from above the
glass slab. The thickness of the glass slab, therefore, appears to be P’N ( P’N = apparent thickness)
when its actual thickness is PN ( PN = real thickness).
Now, from Snell’s law,

466
 air sin i
glass 
sin r

PQ ' NQ
Again sin i  ; sin r  cos   P 'QN  
PQ P 'Q

sin i PQ ' P 'Q P 'Q

     PQ '  NQ 
sin r PQ NQ PQ

P'N
 (Assuming Q to be very near to A)
PN

PN Real depth
 air
glass  
P ' N Apparent depth

Travelling Microscope
We can use the special microscope, called a travelling microscope, for finding the real and apparent
thicknesses of a given glass slab. The ‘stands’, attached to the tube of the ‘compound microscope’ used
here, are such that the microscope tube can be moved both ‘up and down’ (i.e. vertically) as well as ‘right
and left’ (i.e. horizontally). There are ‘scales’ (‘main scale’, with its attached ‘vernier scale’) that enable
one to measure the (vertical or horizontal) movement of the ‘cross–wires’ in the ‘eye–piece’ of this
microscope. The ‘least count’, of the vernier used here is generally 0.0005 cm or 0.001 cm.

To find the apparent depth, of the given glass slab, we put a sharp dark ink mark on a white sheet of paper
and focus the microscope on it. Its ‘scale reading’ is taken. The glass slab is now put on top of the mark
and the microscope tube is ‘raised up’ so that the image (of the mark) again comes in ‘sharp focus’ of the
microscope. The ‘scale reading’ of the microscope is again taken. The difference, between this reading,
and the first reading, gives the ‘apparent depth’ of the given glass slab.

467
To find the ‘real depth’, some lycopodium power, or fine chalk dust, is sprinkled on top of the glass slab.
The microscope tube is then raised further till this powder (or dust) particles come in ‘sharp focus’ of the
microscope. The scale reading of the microscope is again taken. The difference between this (third) reading,
and the first reading, tives the ‘real depth’ of the glass slab.
We then have

air  Real depth 

glass   ga    
 Apparent depth 

Example:
Three different liquids are filled in three beakers to heights h1, h2, h3, (respectively) that are in the inverse
ratio of their respective refractive indices, 1 ,  2 , 3 .

The ratio of their apparent heights, when viewed from above, would be
(i) 1:1:1

 h1   h 2   h 3 
(ii)  : : 
 1    2   3 

(iii) h 2
2 h 32  :  h 32 h12  :  h12 h 22 

(iv)  2
2  32  :   32 12  :  12  22 

Solution :
We have
Real depth
Apparent depth =


k  1 
  Real depth  (as given) 
2   
 Ratio of apparent depths is
 1 1 1 
 2: 2: 2
 1  2 3 
or  2
2  32 :  32 12 : 12  2 

Example:
A mark, put on a sheet of paper (kept on a table) is viewed from a point at a height H above the table. A
glass slab (of refractive index  and thickness t) is now put on the mark and the mark is again viewed from
the same point. The depth of its image now, below the point of view, would be (nearly)

468
   1 
(i)  H  t 1   
   

 t
(ii) H  
 

  1 
(iii)  H  t 1  
   

 t
(iv) H  
 
Solution :
t t
The apparent depth of the glass slab would be t’ where     . Hence t '  . The mark, therefore,
 t' 

 t
appears to be at a point  t   above the table. Hence the depth of the image, with respect to the ‘point
 

 t   1 
of view’, is H   t     H  t  1    .
     

EXPERIMENT–18
Characterstic curves ofa pn junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.

469
Introduction
A p–n junction is a diode which permits easy flow of currect in only one direction and offers high resistantce
to the flow of current in the opposite direction. Fig. (a) shows a p–n junction in forward bias and Fig. (b)
shows p–n junction in reverse bias

The circuit diagram, for studying IV characterstics of a p–n junction diode, is shown below.

Forward Bias
The external voltage is applied to the diode in such a polarity that the positive terminal is connected to p–
type end of the diode and the negative terminal is connected to n–type end of the diode. There occurs a
sudden increases in the current flowing through the diode. We have, here;
1. Knee Voltage: It is the voltage across the diode in the forward bias configuration at which the
current flowing through the diode starts increasing rapidly.
2. Breakdown Voltage: It is the voltage across the diode, in reverse biased configuration, at which
the reverse current suddenly rises; the p–n junction is then said to have ‘broken down’.
3. Avalanche Breakdown: In a normal p–n junction diode, a large reverse voltage results in a large
electric field due to which covalent bonds break, thereby giving rise to sudden increase in reverse
current. The charge carriers, thus created, collide with other ions. This process is multiplicative and
current increases like an avalanche. It is, therefore, referred to as ‘avalanche breakdown’.
The relation between current (I) flowing through the diode (measured by milliammeter), the voltage drop
(V) across the diode (measured by connecting either a voltmeter or a multimeter), is given by.

  eV  
I  IS exp    1
   KT  

470
Here, Is = reverse saturation current
e = charge of electron
 = a constant whose value is 1 for Ge diode and (– 2) for silicon diode.
k = Boltzman constant.
Therefore, in forward bias,
1. When external voltage is zero, then no current flows
through the diode.
2. As voltage increases, potential barrier of the p–n
junction starts reducing. At a voltage (0.3V for Ge
and + 0.7V for Si), the potential barrier is negligible
and current starts increasing exponentially with voltage.

 eV 
In this region, I  IS exp  
  KT 

Reverse Bias
The external voltage is applied to the diode such that, the positive terminal of the voltage is connected to n–
type end of the diode and negative terminal is connected to p–type end of the diode. In this configuration,
junction resistance is very large and the potential barrier of the junction is also large. Very small current
flows through the diode due to the minority carriers.

If reverse voltage is increased, the kinetic energy of minority carriers increases; they may then remove
electrons from the semiconductor atoms. This stage is called as breakdown of the junction; the voltage, at
which it occurs, is called as the breakdown voltage.

471
 EXPERIMENT–19
Characterstics curves of a Zener Diode and finding the Reverse Breakdown Voltage.
CONCEPT MAP

Introduction
Zener diode is a diode having heavily doped p and n regions of the p–n junction diode. The Zener diode
is specially doped / designed in a manner, so that in the breakdown region, it acts as a constant voltage
source or as a voltage regulator.
The I–V characterstics curve of a Zener diode in forward bias configuration is similar to that of a p–n
junction diode. In the reverse bias, a Zener diode has a sharper ‘breakdown voltage’.

The breakdown voltage is sometimes called as Zener voltage; the corresponding current is called as ‘knee
current’.
The breakdown voltage depends on the extent of doping. It doping is high, the depletion layer is very thin;
as a result, the breakdown occurs even at a lower reverse voltage.

472
In order to determine the reverse breakdown voltage of a zener diode the following circuit is made.

The input voltage Vi is slowly varied. A small current starts flowing through the Zener, but since Zener
diode is reverse biased it offers high resistance to the current. Therefore, all the voltage drop occurs across
the output terminals.
When Vi > Vz (Zener voltage), the Zener diode will offer low resistance to current flow. Consequentaly,
voltage drop now occurs across Rs. The voltage drop across RL remains constant at Vz. The Zener, in this
range of input voltage, acts as a voltage regulator. The characterstic curve has the form shown.

473
 EXPERIMENT–20
Characterstic curves of a transistor and finding current gain and voltage gain.
CONCEPT MAP

Introduction
We known that the transistor is a three terminal device that is used for a wide variety of practical applications.
The simple junction transistor has two well known forms: the n p n and the p n p transistor. We shall
understand the basic features and characterstics of the transistor through a discussion on the pnp transistor.
A pnp transistor is normally biased in the manner shown here.

474
For a n p n transistor, all the polarities will change.
In normal transistor action, the emitter–base junction is forward biased and collector–base junction is
reverse biased. Due to forward bias, the holes in the p–type emitter flow towards the n–types base. This
flow of holes constitutes the emitter current (IE). These holes tend to recombine with the electrons present
in the base. But since the base is only lightly doped, only few holes are able to recombine. The remaining
holes cross into the p–type collector and make up the collector current.
Therefore, IE = IB + IC

Some “Facts” about the Transistor

1. A transistor has 3 regions – emitter, base and collector. The base is the thinnest and is only lightly
doped. Due to this, it passes most of the charge carriers from emitter to collector.
2. Emitter is heavily doped becuase it has to inject charge carriers into the base.
3. Collector region is the largest and is moderately doped.
Circuit diagram for CE transistor characterstics.

Input Characterstics
It is a curve between base curcuit IB, and base emitter voltage
VBE, at constant collector emitter voltage, VCE. A sample I–V
graph is plotted here. Notice,
1. It resembles the IV characterstics curve of a forward
biased diode. It is so because the emitter–base junction
is forward biased and acts like a diode.
2. Initially base current is very small. It increases sharply once
the input voltage (or VBE) exceeds the barrier potential of
 0.7 V..

475
3. If the (reverse) collector voltage is increased, then, for the same VBE, the current decreases. The
reason is as follows. The reverse biased collector attracts the majority charge carriers; therefore, the
extent of recombination in the base decreases.Thus base current also decreases.

Output Characterstics
It is a curve between base curcuit IC, and collector emitter voltage VCE, at a constant base current, IB. A
simple IV graph is plotted here.

It should be noticed:
1. Initially collector current increases with base current. But after about 1V (value of VCE), collector
current bcomes (almost) constant and independent of VCE. This voltage (of about IV) is called as the
knee voltage.
The small slope, in the IV curve, beyond knee voltage is because of the collector depletion layer
which gets wide enough (due to reverse collector setting), to capture majority charge carriers.
2. Current gain: It is ratio of change in collector current to the change in base current.
I C

I B
Generally value of β lies between 20 to 500. This is because of the fact, that less than 5% of emitter
current flows as base current. The rest of the charge carriers move to collector and constitute the
collector current.
In common base configuration, current gain is defined as
IC
 at constant VCB
I E
Value of  is less than unity because a part of the emitter current flows as base current; hence IC is
necessarily smaller than IE.

3. Relation between  and  :

IC
IC I C IE 
   
IB IE  IC IE  IC 1   
I E I E

476
 EXPERIMENT–21
Identification of diode, LED, transistor, IC, resistor, capacitor from a rised collection of such
items.
CONCEPT MAP

Introduction
We know that the diode, LED, transistor, IC, resistors and capactiors are widely used in different electronic
and electric circuits. It is important, therefore, to get familiar with their basic characterstics and the simple
ways to identify them, from a mixed collection of such items.
We now talk about each of these devices in some detail.
1. Resistor
(i) A resistor is a small electric/electronic device that resists the flow of electric current. It obeys Ohm’s
law which states that the current I flowing through a resistor (having resistance R) is directly proportional
to the voltage V across R.

I  V  IR  V  Ohm 's law

(ii) The commanly used resistor in practical laboratories are the (two terminal) colour coded carbon
resistors. They generally have four colours stips. The first three colour signify the the value of resistor
the fourth colour implies the tolerance rating. The colour and their respective numbering is as follows:
Golden =  5% tolerance
Silver =  10% tolerance
B Black 0
B Brown 1
R Red 2

477
 O Orange 3
Y Yellow 4
G Green 5
B Blue 6
V Violet 7
G Grey 8
W White 9
If the four folour are: yellow, red, red golden, it implies that the resistance

= 42×102  5%  = (4200  210) 

(iii) Resistor is a passive device its the two terminals are not categorized as cathode / anode or as
(+ve)/–ve).

(iv) Place the multimeter knob on the dial marked will the symbol ‘  ’. The value of resistor can be
directly read on the display by placing each of the two probes of multimeter on the two terminals of
the resistance.
2. Diode and LED
(i) Diode and LED are semiconductor devices which consist of two semi conductor layers forming a
p-n junction. LED (light emitting diode) is a special type of diode which has the capacity of emitting
light.
(ii) The diode and the LED, both have two terminals and one of them is the (p–type) positive anode
terminal. The other is the (n–type) negative cathode terminal.
The lengths of wires, joined to the positive and negative terminal, are different.
LED
(a)  The longer leg is the (+ ve) anode terminal.
 The shorter leg is the (– ve) cathode terminal.
[Note: This is not the best identification criteria because some
manufacturers offer the polarity in the reverse way also].
(b) If the lengths of the two terminals is same, then look inside the plastic casing. The flat–flag type
end correponds to the cathode (–ve).
(c) There are no coloured striped markings in the LED.
(d) Generally, there are no number codes on an LED.
(e) Connect positive probe of the multimeter to the anode of LED and also place the negative
(common) probe of multimeter on the cathode of LED.

478
 Put the knob of the multimeter on the ‘diode’ symbol. You will see that LED will light up in this
forward bias configuration. The display will show a value  1.7 V (depending on the colour of
LED). If the probes are connected with opposite polarity, the LED will not glow and display of
multimeter wil show 1. (This implies ‘overload’).
Diode
The anode and cathode of diode can be identified through the
marking of a strip. Towards one end of the diode, a shaded
band type marking is made. The signifies the cathode of the
diode. Generally, normal diodes are black coloured with a grey–
silver band type strip. [Remember: In a resistor, we have four
coloured strips, but in a diode, we have only one strip!!]. Diode have low resistance to flow of
current in one direction and a very high resistance in the other direction.
The diodes are always numbered. The numbering code, however, varies from one manufacturer to
another. For example in American system, the code is like IN4007 which implies that it is a normal,
diode, having tolerance of 1000V and forward voltage drop of 0.6 V and an average forward
current of 1A.
By using multimeter, the diode can be identified as follows:
Connect multimeter probes to the diode terminals as per its forward biased configuration. Put the
multimeter knob on ‘diode’ symbol. The display will show  0.587 V. This is the forward voltage
drop between the two leads. In the reverse polarity connection, the display will read 1. This implies
infinite (very large) resistance of the diode in its reverse biased configuration.
3. Capacitor
Capacitor is also a two terminal device, but (as compared to resistance and diode) it is generally not
colour coded. Most capacitor have capacitance value written on them.
(a) This is typical example of non–electrolytic (casing) capacitor. There is no
anode / cathode
102  10×102 PF = 10×102×10–12 F
= 1 nF
(b)  Electrolytic cylindrical aluminimum casing.
4.7  F is directly written on the cap.
 The two terminals are of different lengths.
 Longer leg is +ve (anode).
 Shorter leg is –ve (cathode).
 Sometimes ‘–’ minus sign is also drawn on the cap.

479
4. Transistor
Transistor is a three terminal device; it can be easily identified from a collection of items (R, C, diode,
LED). We will talk more about the transistor in the next experiment.
5. IC
Integrated circuit (IC) is one in which components such as diodes, transistors, capacitors and resistors
etc. are embeded on a small semiconductor chip. The size of IC is so small that one will require a
microscope to see the connection between these components. The ICs are protected from external
disturbances by encapsulating them in plastic / metal / ceramic packages. We
generally have the IC package shown here.
It is a flat pack container having equal number of pins on either side. The total
number of pins can be 8, 10, 12, 14 etc. depending on the function of IC.
Example:
The colour coding of a resistor is brown, black, red, golden.

(i) What will be the most likely value displayed when the multimeter knob is at ‘2K’?
(a) 1.003 (b) 1.00 (c) 01.0 (d) 0.001
(ii) What will be the most likely value displayed when knob is at ‘20K’?
(a) 1.003 (b) 1.00 (c) 01.0 (d) 0.001
(iii) What will be the most likely value displayed when knob is at ‘200K’?
(a) 1.003 (b) 1.00 (c) 01.0 (d) 0.001
(iv) What will be the most likely value displayed when knob is at ‘2M’?
(a) 1.003 (b) 1.00 (c) 01.0 (d) 0.001
Solution:
(i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) c (iv) (d)

480
Reason: Brown black red  10×102  = 1000 

Golden  tolerance as 5% of 1000 = 50 

Value of resistor lies between 950–1050 

For best precision, knob should be placed at the next higher position i.e. 2K,

where 1.003  1.003 K  = 1003 

Precision in measurement decreases if the knob is placed at other higher markings.

EXPERIMENT–22
Use multimeter to identify: base of a transistor; distinguish between npn and pnp transistor;
see unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and a LED.
CONCEPT MAP

Introduction
We know that the multimeter is an integral and essential part of an electronics or physics laboratory. It is
put to many uses. Here we will try to understand its uses with respet to a transistor and a diode.
The basic details of the use of a multimeter for doing the indicated identifications, in case of a transistor and
a diode/LED, are outlined below. We first do a brief recapitulation of the basic features of a multimeter.

481
The Multimeter
Multimeter basically has 3 important parts:
(a) Display Section: Here generally 4 digits value, and +/–
sign of the quantity being measured, is displayed.
(b) Selection Knobs: It allows the user to set the multimeter
to read different quantities such as current (ac/dc), voltage
(ac/dc), resistance, capacitance etc.
(c) Two probes which are inserted in the ports present at the
bottom. One of the probe is connected to COM (ground)
port; the other is connected to either of the ports depending
on the quantity to be measured.

Identification of Base of Transistor

Physically
(i) In some transistors, there is a notch. The leg / pin, next / nearest to the notch, is emitter. Moving
ahead in clockwise direction (pins towards the user) gives base and the collector.
(ii) Some transistors have a black flat top which is rounded on one end.
Keep flat surface towards you and the pins pointing upwards. Emitter,
Base and collector will be as shown in the diagram.

Using a Multimeter
(i) Transistor are either n–p–n or p–n–p, i.e. basically two diodes placed side by side.
In n–p–n

Put –ve probe of multimeter to one of the pins. Put selection knob on the ‘diode’ symbol. Put +ve
probe to other 2 pins. A value 0.5–0.7 will be displayed in only one configuration. This happens
when –ve probe is connected to n and the +ve probe is connected to p. Repeat the process. You will
find that, whenever +ve probe is kept at pin *, then 0.5–0.7 is always displayed. The pin * will be
BASE.

482
 Only in p–n–p transistor
Whenever –ve probe is at pin *, then 0.5–0.7 will always be displayed. Pin * will be BASE.
Distinguish between npn and pnp Transistor
In the previous article, we identified the base of transistor. Once base is identified, the type of transistor,
n p n / p n p is automatically determined.
There is one more method.
Put knob on ‘hfe’. Multimeters have grooves such that

Put E,B, C of transistor in (1). If it is npn transistor, then it will show hfe value in display. hfe is forward
current gain of transistor. If transistor is pnp type, then it will show a reading / value only when placed in (2).
Unidirectional Flow of Current through Diode / LED
We have seen in previous experiment, that when knob of multimeter is placed on ‘diode’ symbol, then
diode shows 0.5–0.7 on display panel. LED glows up when forward biased. This establishes the unidiretional
flow of current through diode and LED.

483
 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
0
1. The main scale, of a given vernier scale set up, has been gradiented to read up to  12 . There are
30 division on its vernier scale that coincide with 29 division of its main scale.
The zero error of this vernier equals (–2) times its least count. The readings, in a given case, are as
follows:
Main scale reading = 63.50. Coincident vernier scale division = 17th.
The corrected value of this reading is
(1) 630 49’
(2) 630 45’
(3) 630 15’
(4) 630 11’
2. In a given vernier callipers, n division, on the vernier scale coincide with (n–1) divisons of the main
scale. The main scale has been graduated to read up to (x) units. If the zero error is (+p) times th
least count, the reading when the
(i) Main scale reads (m) units
(ii) The (kth) division on the vernier scale coincides with a main scale division, is

 x 
(1)  m  n  k  p 
 
 x 
(2) m  n  k  p
 
  x  
(3) m   n  1   k  p
   

  x  
(4) m   n  1   k  p
   
3. A given screw gauge has a least count of 0.002 cm and there are 50 divisons on its circular scale.
When the jaws, of this screw guage, are just in contact with each other, the 7th division of the circular
scale lies along its ‘reference line’.
When this scrw gauge, is used to measure the thickness of a thin mica sheet, the main scale reads 0.7
cm and the 21st division, of its circular scale, coincides with the ‘reference line’.

484
 The ‘pitch’ of this screw gauge, and the thickness of the mica sheet, are respectively, equal to
(1) 0.2 cm and 0.717 cm
(2) 0.1 cm and 0.756 cm
(3) 0.2 cm and 0.728 cm
(4) 0.2 cm and 0.756 cm
4. The pitch, of a given screw guage, equals (p) cm and its circular scale has n division on it. When the
jaws of the screw gauage are just in contact with eath other, the ‘zero’, of the circular scale, lies along
the reference line.
When a thin wire is just held between the jaws of the screw guage, the main scale reads (m) and the
kth division, of the circular scale, lies along the ‘reference line’. The volume, of a length L, of this wire,
is
2
L  p  
(1)  m  .k  
4  n  
2
 p  
(2) L  m  .k  
 n  

L  2
(3)   m  p n k  
4
2
(4) L  m  p n k  
 
5. The energy, of the bob of a simple pendulum, decreases to 64% of its original value. The amplitude
of oscillations must have decreased to
(1) 80% of its original value
(2) 75% of its original value
(3) 72% of its original value
(4) 64% of its original value
6. The graph showing the variation, of the square of the amplitude (A2) of the oscillating bob of a simple
pendulum, with time, is the graph labelled as graph
(1) P
(2) Q
(3) R
(4) S

485
7. The meter scale gets balanced in the set–up shown here. The mass, x, equals (nearly)
(1) 8.2 g
(2) 8.8 g
(3) 9.2 g
(4) 9.8 g

8. The mass of the meter scale that gets balanced, in the set–up shown, equals (nearly)
(1) 5g
(2) 10 g
(3) 15 g
(4) 20 g

9. Two wires, made of materials A and B (having Young’s moduli YA and YB) have
unloaded lengths  A and  B , respectively. They are joined and loaded as shown.
If the diameter of each wire is d, the extensions, produced in them, are equal,
respectively, to
4  M1  M 2  g  A  4M 2 g B 
(1) and  
 d Y 
2
A
2
 d YB 

4  M1g   A  4M 2g B 
(2) 2
and  2 
d YA  d YB 

486
 4  M1g   A 4M 2g   A   B 
(3) and
d 2 YA d 2 YB

4  M1  M 2  g   A   B  4M 2g   A   B 
(4) 2
and
d YA d 2 YB

10. N idential hollow cylindrical columns, made from a metal of Young’s modulus Y, together support
uniformly a total load of mass M kg. The inner and outer radii of each column, are r and R, respectively.
The compressional strain, developed in each column, equals

 Mg 
(1)
 NYR  2

 NMg 
(2)
 YR  2

 NMg 
(3)
 Y  R 2
 r2  
 Mg 
(4)
 NY  R 2
 r2  
11. Water, (assumed to ‘spread out’ on glass), rises to a height h (above the general outside level) in a
(very small radius) glass capillary tube. The surface tension of water may be taken as 70 N/m.

If the same capillary tube were to be dipped in mercury (surface tension  560 N / m , relative
 
density = 13.35, angle of contact with glass =     (  is an acute angle), the level of mercury,,
2 
in the capillary tube, relative to the general outside level, would be

(1) at a height h’ where h’  1.67 cos 

(2) at a depth d1 where d1  0.6 cos 
(3) at a depth d2 where d2  0.6sin 
(4) at a height h” where h”  1.67 sin 
12. The difference, in the mean value of the readings of the travelling microscope, when its horizontal
‘cross wire’, is at the two positions, indicated here, equals x.
This capillary tube is dipped in a liquid of surface tension T and density  . The angle of contact, of

487
 the liquid with the walls of the capillary tube, is  . If the tube has its axis inclined at an angle  to the
vertical, the length of the liquid column (relative to the general outside level), in the capillary tube,
would equal.

 4T cos  
(1)
 xg cos  
 4T cos  
(2)
 xg cos  
 4T cos  cos  
(3)
 xg 
 4T 
(4)
 xg cos  cos  
13. An oil drop (density of oil =  ), of radius r, falls vertically in the region between two plates, having
a separation d and a potential difference V between them. The charge on the drop is (–q). Taking the
density of air as  and the coefficient of viscosity of air as  , the terminal velocity acquired by the
drop (assuming the electrical force on it. to be smaller than the gravitational force on it), would be

 9 r 2      g qV 
(1)   
 2  6r 

 2 r 2      g qV 
(2)   
 9  6r 

 2 r 2     g qV 
(3)   
9  6rd 

 9 r 2     g qV 
(4)   
2  6rd 

14. A drop of a liquid (of density  ), having a radius r, falls through a viscous medium of density  and
coefficient of viscosity  . It acquires a terminal velocity v1.

Another drop of another liquid (of density ), has a volume equal to the volume of N drops (each
N 
of radius r) of the first liquid. It falls through a viscous medium (of density ) and coefficient of
N
v 
viscosity N . It acquires a terminal velocity v2. The ratio  2  equals.
 v1 
488
 (1) N 2
3

1
(2) N 1
3

(3) N 1
3

1
(4) N 5
6

15. The (temperature) vs (time) graph, of a body (initially at a temperature 1 , and present in surroundings
at a temperature 0 ), would have the form corresponding to the graph labelled as graph

(1) A
(2) B
(3) C
(4) D

16. A hot body, initially at a temperature  , is present in surroundings that are at a temperature 0 . The
times, taken by the hot body, to cool from:
   
(i)   to  2   is  t 1
  

      
(ii)  2  to  4   is  t 2
    
We can then say that
(1)  t 1   t 2
1
(2)  t 1   t 2
2

489
 (3)  t 1   t 2
(4)  t 1   t 2
17. A student does the experiment on finding the speed of sound using a resonance tube. He uses a
resonance tube of diameter D and a tuning fork of frequency N. If the velocity of sound, at the room
temperature is V, the first and second resonance lengths would equal, respectively.

V 3V
(1) and
4N 4N
 V   3V 
(2)   0.3 D  and   0.3 D 
 4N   4N 
 V   3V 
(3)   0.3 D  and   0.3D 
 4N   4N 
 V   3V 
(4)   0.3 D  and   0.9 D 
 4N   4N 
18. The speed of sound in air, at 00C equals V0. A student does the experiment, on finding the speed of
sound, at room temperature   0 C  using a resonance tube. The resonance tube has a diameter D
and the tuning fork used has a frequency N. The difference, between the second and first resonance
lengths, would then equal
1
V0    2

(1) 1  
2N  273 
 12
V0   
(2) 1  
N  273 

 12
V0   
(3) 1  
2N  273 
1
V0    2

(4) 1  
N  273 
19. A given solid, of mass M, is heated to a temperature 0 C . It is put in contact with a large block of
ice. It is known that a unit mass of ice needs L units of heat to just melt down. If the mass of ice, that
just melts down, is m, the specific heat capacity, of the material of the solid, is

mL
(1)
M

490
 M
(2)
mL
ML
(3)
m
m
(4)
ML
20. The quantity of heat needed to bring a rise  in the temperature of a
(i) mass m1, of a liquid of specific heat capacity s1, is H1.
(ii) mass m2, of a solid of specific heat capacity s2, is H2.
If the quantity of heat needed to bring the same rise  in the temperature of a mass (m1 + m2) of a
substance of specific heat capacity (s1 + s2), is H, the difference [H – H1 + H2)], equals
(1) zero
(2) (m1s1 + m2s2) 
(3) (m1s2 + m2s1) 
(4) (m1s2 – m2s1) 
21. An equilateral prism is made from a material of refractive index  . The angles of minimum deviation,
for this prism, when kept in (i) air (ii) a transparent medium of refractive and   , are found to be D
and D’, respetively. We would then have
 D' 
sin  300  
 2 
(1)  '
 0 D
sin  30  
 2
 D' 
sin  300  
 2  
(2) 
 0 D  '
sin  30  
 2
 D
sin  300  
 2 
(3) 
 0 D'  '
sin  30  
 2 

 D' 
sin  300  
 2  1
(4) 
 0 D  '
sin  30  
 2

491
22. A ray of light, incident on one face of an equilateral prism (made from a material of refractive index
 ) undergoes total internal reflection, when its refracted ray falls on the other face of the prism.The
angle of incidence, of this ray, equals.

  1 
(1) sin 1   600  sin 1  
   

 0 1 1  
  60  sin 
  
(2) sin 1  
  
 
 

 1 
(3) cos1  600  sin 1  
  

   1  
(4) cos 1   600  sin 1    
      

23. The forward and reverse currents, flowing through a diode, are due respectively to
(1) Majority charge carriers for both the currents.
(2) Minority charge carriers for both the currents.
(3) Majority charge carriers and minority charge carriers.
(4) Minority charge carriers and majority charge carriers.
24. The knee voltage, for Ge and Si diode are (respectively)
(1) 0.3 eV, 0.7 eV
(2) 0.3 V, 0.7 V
(3) 0.7 eV, 0.3 eV
(4) 0.7 V, 0.3 V
25. Zener diode, having a Zener voltage VZ , is said to be in ‘OFF’ state when, reverse voltage VR is
such that
(1) VR > VZ
(2) VR = VZ
(3) VR > 0
(4) VR < VZ

492
26. A zener diode is generally used as,
(1) p–n junction diode
(2) Full wave rectifier
(3) Half wave rectifier
(4) Voltage regulator
27. A characterstics feature of IV graph of a Zener diode is
(1) Gradual reverse breakdown
(2) Gradual forward breakdown
(3) Sudden reverse breakdown
(4) Sudden forward breakdown
28. In a CE transistor (in active mode), the emitter–base junction has a resistance (r) while the collector–
base junction has a resistanc R. We can say that r and R, are, respectively, a
(1) low resistance, low resistance
(2) high resistance, high resistance
(3) low resistance, high resistance
(4) high resistance, low resistance
29. The input characterstics curves of a transistor, are curves between
(1) Input current and output voltage for fixed input voltage.
(2) Input current and input voltage for fixed output voltage.
(3) Output current and output voltage for fixed input voltage.
(4) Output current and input voltage for fixed output voltage.
30. Two multimeters (A and B) require a total markings of 20 mA and 60 mA, respectively, to give full
scale deflection. It implies that,
(1) A will measure 10 mA current more accurately
(2) B will measure 10 mA current more accurately
(3) A and B will give equally accurate value of 10 mA current.
(4) B has a better ‘least count’ than A.

493
Answers
1. (1) 16. (3)
2. (2) 17. (2)
3. (3) 18. (1)
4. (1) 19. (1)
5. (1) 20. (3)
6. (2) 21. (4)
7. (4) 22. (1)
8. (4) 23. (3)
9. (1) 24. (2)
10. (4) 25. (4)
11. (3) 26. (4)
12. (2) 27. (3)
13. (3) 28. (3)
14. (4) 29. (2)
15. (1) 30. (1)

494
495
QUESTION BANK

496
 Key Learning Points
Experiment–1: Vernier Callipers
1. The vernier callipers has a vernier scale that slides on its main scale.
2. The least count of a vernier equals the difference between the values of its 1 main scale division and
1 vernier scale division. It is usually calculated by using the ‘formula’

Valueof one main scaledivision

Least count 
No.of divisions on the vernier scale

3. The read a vernier, we read / observe

(i) the main scale reading (m) just before the zero of the vernier scale.
(ii) the number (n) of the vernier scale division the coincides with some division on the main scale.
The complete reading is then
m + n (least count)
4. A vernier callipers is said to have a ‘zero error’ if the zeroes, of its main scale and its vernier scale, do
not coincide when the jaws of the vernier just touch each other.
5. The zero error is positive / negative if the zero of the vernier scale lies to the right / left of the zero of
the main scale. (when the jaws of the vernier just touch other).
6. The ‘zero error’ is always subtracted algebraically, from the observed reading, to get the corrected
reading.

Experiment–2: Screw Gauge

7. A screw gauge has an accurately threaded screw, having a closely fitting nut whose threadings match
that of the screw.
8. The screw, when rotated, has a simultaneous rotatory motion along a circular path and a translatory
motion along a straight path.
9. The linear distance, moved by the screw in one complete rotation, is known as its ‘pitch’.
10. The least count, of a screw gauge, is obtained by dividing its pitch, by the number of divisions on its
circular scale.
11. To read a screw gauge, the ‘object’/dimension,to be measured, is just held between the jaws of the
screw gauge. One then notes its main scale reading (say ‘m’) and also notes the number (say ‘k’), of
the circular scale division, that just lies along the ‘reference line’. The reading of the screw gauge is
then (m + k ×  .c).

497
12. The screw gauge is said to have a ‘zero error’ if the zero of its circular scale, lies above / below the
‘reference line’, when the jaws of the screw gauge are just in contact with each other.
13. The magnitude of the ‘zero error’ is obtained by multiplying the ‘least count’ with the number of
divisons of the circular scale, by which its zero is above / below the reference line.
14. The ‘zero error’ is negative if the ‘zero’, of the circular scale (when the jaws of the screw gauge are
just in contact with each other) lies above the ‘reference line’. It is positive if this lies below the
reference line.
15. The ‘zero error’ is always subtracted algebraically from the observed readings.
16. A screw gauge, that has been in use for long (or has a manufacturing defect), can develop some
‘play’ in the motion of its screw. The screw then may not advance even when it is being rotated. This
error is known as ‘backlash error’.
17. The ‘backlash error’ can be avoided by rotating the screw in one direction only.
Experiment–3: Simple Pendulum
18. A simple pendulum is made by attaching a small heavy spherical metal bob to a good quality sewing
(cotton) thread.
19. The oscillations of a simple pendulum are simple harmonic only if the amplitude of its oscillations is
small.
20. The oscillating bob, of a simple pendulum, has both kinetic as well as potential energies.

1
21. The total energy of the oscillating bob of the pendulum, equals m A 2 2 where m = mass of the
2
 2 
bob, A = amplitude of oscillation;     is the angular frequency of the oscillating
 Time Period 
bob.
22. When the bob is oscillating in a medium (like air), its oscillations are damped (harmonic) oscillations.
23. The amplitude of (damped) oscillations decays exponentially with time.
24. One can observe the variation of amplitude with time, and use it to draw a graph between the square
of amplitude (a measure of the energy) of the oscillating bob, with time.
25. The above graph is expected to be an exponentially decaying curve.
Experiment–4: Principle of Moments
26. We define the magnitude of the moment of a force, about a given point (or axis), as the product of the
force and the ‘force–arm’. Here the ‘force–arm’ equals the perpendicular distance between the line
of action of the force and the axis (or point) about which rotation is taking place.

498
  
27. The vector relation giving the magnitude as well as the direction of the moment (=  ) of a force F ,
producing rotation about some point (say O) is.
  
  rF

Here r is the position vector of the point of application of the force with respect to the point O.
28. The principle of moments says that
“Whenever a body is in equilibrium under the action of a number of coplaner forces, the algebraic
sum of the moments of all there forces, about any arbitrary point, is zero.
29. We take anticlockwise moments as +ve and clockwise moments as (–)ve.
30. We can use the principle of moments to find an unknown mass, by using a meter scale and a known
mass.
31. We can also use the principle of moments to find the mass of the meter scale itself.
Experiment–5: Young’s Modulus
32. “The tendency, to regain the original conditions, after the removal of the deforming forces”. This
characterstics of materials is known as elasticity.
33. The stress developed, in a deformed object, equals the internal restoring force, measured per unit
area.
34. Strain equals the ‘change in dimension’ per unit dimension.
35. According to Hook’s law:
“For smalls values of strain the stress, developed in an object, is proportional to the strain produced
in it”.
36. Within the elastic limit:

Stress
 a constant
Strain

Longitudinal stress
37. Y=  Young 's modulus
Longitudinal strain

Volume stress
38. K=  Bulk modulus
Volumestrain

Shearing stress
39. =  Modulus of rigidity
Shearing strain

499
40. The Si unit, of all moduli of elasticity, equals newton / metre2.

Lateral strain
41. =  Poisson's ratio
Longitudinal strain

42. Searle’s appraratus is used for experimental measurement of Young’s modulus of the material of a
wire.
Experiment–6: Surface Tension
43. The forces, which the atoms / molecules of a material exert on one another, are known as interatomic
/ intermolecules forces.
44. Interatomic / intermolecular forces are short ranged altractive forces; however, these forces become
repulsive in nature if the atoms / molecules come too close to each other.
45. Interatomic / intermolecular forces are known as cohesive forces if they exist between similar atoms
/ molecules. For different types of atoms / molecules, these forces are known as adhesive forces.
46. The property of a liquid surface, to be in a state of stress, is referred to as the phenomenon of surface
tension.
47. The surface tension of a liquid is measured in unit of N/m. Its dimensions are [MT–2].
48. The shape of the meniscus of a liquid, when put in a container, is used to define a term called the
‘angle of contact’.
49. The addtional potential energy, of the molecules of a liquid on the surface of the liquid, is referred to
as their surface energy.
50. The surface energy per unit area of the liquid surface, equals the surface tension of the liquid.
51. There exists an ‘excess of pressure’ on the concave side of the curved surface of a liquid.
52. The excess pressure, on the concave side of the curved surface
(i) equals (2T/r), for a drop of the liquid.
(ii) equals (4T/r), for a bubble blown out of the liquid.
Here T is the surface tension of the liquid and r is the rdius of curvature of its curved surface.
53. The level of a liquid, in a capillary tube dipped in a container of the liquid, is different from the general
level outside the capillary tube.
54. The difference in levels (h), inside the capillary tube and the container outside, is related to the
surface tension (T) of the liquid, by the relation
 r
r  h   g
3
T 
2 cos 

500
 Here r is the radius of the capillary tube,  is the density of the liquid and  is the angle of contact
between the liquid and the walls of the capillary tube.
55. We generally use a specially designed ‘travelling microscope’ for finding the surface tension of a
liquid by the capillary rise method.
Experiment–7: Viscosity
56. Viscosity may be viewed as a sort of ‘internal friction’, between adjacent liquid layers having a
‘relative motion’ between them.
57. According to Newton’s law of viscous flow:

dv
F  A
dz

dv
(F = viscous force; A = area of layers in contact, = velocity gradient;  = coefficient of viscosity).
dz
58. The Si and CGS units of  are Pa–s and poise, respectively. We have
1 Pa–s = 10 poise
59. According to Stokes’ law

F  6  rv

F = viscous force on a spherical ball of radius r, when falling through a viscous medium with a
velocity v.
60. The ‘terminal velocity’, of a falling ball, is that value of its velocity at which the viscous force, on it,
just equals its net downward ‘weight’.
61. The formula, for terminal velocity, is

4 3
6  rvT  r    g
3

 2    g  2
or vT   r
9  

62. The slope (m), of the graph between vT (on y–axis) and r2 (on x–axis), can be used to calculate  :
2    g

9m

501
Experiment–8: Temperature – Time Graph
63. The basic heat transfer formula: Heat gained = Heat lost
64. The transfer of heat takes place through the processes of conduction, convection and radiation.
65. Conduction is important in case of solids; convection is generally the main method of heat transfer in
fluids; ‘radiation’ can cause heat transfer even in vacuum.
66. A hot body, kept in ‘isolation’, losses heat mainly through the processes of convection and radiation.
67. The heat energy, emitted through radiation, is quantified through Stefan’s law.
68. According to Stefan’s law:
“The heat radiation, emitted per unit area per second by a perfectly black body, is directly proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute (kelvin) temperature”.

E  T 4 (  = Stefan’s constant)
69. When the (kelvin) temperature of a perfectly black body is close to the (kelvin) temperature of its
surroundings, the net heat radiated by it per unit area per second, is (approximately) directly
proportional to the excess of its temperature over the surroundings.
70. According to Newton’s law of cooling:
“The rate of fall in temperature, of a hot body, is directly proportional to the difference in temperature
between the hot body and its surroundings”.

d
Thus,   k    0 
dt
71. Newton’s law of cooling leads to the result:

log    0    kt  C

Thus the graph between log    0  and time (t), has the form
shown.
72. It is not quite correct to regard Newton’s law of cooling as an approximation of Stefan’s law.
73. Newtono’s law of cooling is relevant to cooling by convection. When cooling takes place primarily
through convection, Newton’s law is (quite) valid even for relatively large difference of temperature
between the hot body and its surroundings.
Experiment–9: Resonance Tube
74. Stationary waves are formed through the superposition of a direct wave with its own reflected wave,
propagating in the opposite direction.

502
75. We can get stationary form waves formed in an air column, contained in an open or a closed tube.
76. The permissible modes of vibration of the air column, in an open tube, can have frequencies that are
all integral multiples of its fundamental (or simplest) frequency.
77. The permissible modes of vibration, of the air column, in a closed tube, can only have frequencies
that are odd integral multiples of its fundamental or simplest frequency.
78. A tuning fork produces a note of a single (constant) frequency that is characterstic of the given tuning
fork.
79. The phenomenon of resonance takes place when the frequency of the applied periodic force (used
to vibrate a given system) matches the natural frequency of the system itself.
80. The phenomenon of resonance is used in a ‘resonance column set up’ to find the speed of sound in
air.
81. The ‘end–correction’, associated with the (resonance column) set up, can be eliminated by observing
the first and second positions of resonance.
82. The formula used is:

V  2n   2  1 

Experiment–10: Specific Heat Capacity

83. The ‘quantity of heat’ is calculated by using the formula

H  ms 
84. We define the ‘specific heat capacity’, of a substance, as the quantity of heat needed to bring a unit
change in the temperature of a unit mass of the substance.
85. The thermal capacity of a substance is the product of its mass and the specific heat capacity of its
material.
86. We use the ‘calorimeter’ for doing simple heat related experiments in the laboratory.
87. In the ‘method of mixtures’, the hot body is made to transfer its heat to the cold body that is usually
contained in a calorimeter.
88. We can use the formula

 ms  M1s1  2  0  
s2  
 M 2  1  2  

for finding the specific heat capacity of a solid. Here (m, M1, M2), denote respectively, the mass of
calorimeter, the water in it and the solid used.

503
 (s, s1, s2),denote, respectively, the specific heat capacities of the material of the calorimeter, water
and the solid used.

2 = Temperature of hot solid; 1 = initial temperature of water and calorimeter; 2 = final equilibrium
temperature.
89. We have a similar formula for finding the (unknown) specific heat capacity of a liquid.
Experiment–11: Meter Bridge
90. Wheatstone’s bridge is an arrangment consisting of five resistances – P, Q, R S and G – which are
connected along with a source of electricity, in such a way that no two resistances are in series or in
parallel.
91. When the Wheatstone’s bridge is balanced, by adjusting the known variable resistances P, Q and R,
the current through the galvanometer (of resistance G), is zero (i.e. ig = 0). That gives the condition
P R
 , called Wheatstone’s condition for balancing (or Wheatstone’s principle).
Q S

92. Wheatstone’s bridge is used to find the value of an unknown resistance (s), usually connected in the
fourth arm, from the Wheatstone’s condition for balacing:
P R Q
 or S   R
Q S P

93. Metre bridge is a modified form of Wheatstone’s bridge.

94. Metre bridge is convenient for doing experiments on finding an unknown resistance.
95. The name ‘Metre bridge’ is derived from the fact that it consists of a one ‘metre’ long uniform
resistance wire, fixed on a wooden board.
96. Metre bridge is also called slide–wire bridge.
97. The value of the unknown resistance (X) is obtained in terms of the balacing length ‘  ’, as:

X R
100   
where R is the resistance ‘taken out’ from the resistance box of the metre bridge circuit.
98. Specific resistance, or resistivity (  ), is a characteristic property of a material; it is a constant,
provided the temperature of the material remains consatnt.
 d2 
99. Specific resistance, of the material of a given wire, of length L and cross–sectional area A   4  ,
 
can be found out, from the resistance X of this wire through the formula:

504
 X  d 2 
  
L  4 

100. For metre bridge, the value of X is most accurate when the balancing length is,   50 cm.
101. The thick metal strips, used in the metre bridge apparatus, provide negligible resistance (almost zero)
between verious terminals.
102. Loose contacts, at the terminals, or the plug–keys, will cause error in the determination of X.
Experiment–12: Ohm’s Law
103. Ohm’s law states that current flowing through a conductor is proportional to the potential difference
across its ends, when the physical conditions are kept constant.
104. I  V as per Ohm’s law..
105. V  I or V = RI, where R is resistance of the conductor..
106. Resistance can be viewed as the obstruction offered by the conductor against flow of charges.
107. Resistance is caused due to collisions between moving charges and atoms / molecules of the conductor.
108. Resistance depends on
(a) the nature of the material.
(b) the length of the conductor / wire.
(c) the area of cross–section of the wire.
(d) the temperature of the wire.


109. R 
A
 d 2 
(  = specific resistance or resistivity,  = length, A    is area of cross–section).
 4 

110. The relation:  t    0  1  t  , gives variation of  with temeprature (t).  is called the
temperature coefficient of resistance / resistivity.

111. R  t   R  0  1  t  gives the variation of R with temperature.

112. When the temperature coefficient of resistance is negligible    0  , R will not vary (significantly)
with temperature.

505
113. If the resistance of a wire is constant, the graph plotted, for different values of V across the wire and
the corresponding I, will be a straight line.
114. If V–I graph is a straight line, the resistor is called an Ohmic resistor.
115. If V–I graph is a curve, the resistor is called a non–ohmic resistor.
116. The slope of V–I graph (with V along y–axis and I along x–axis) will give the resistance of the
conductor / wire.
Experiment–13: Potentiometer
117. Electrochemical cells, called simply as cells, convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
118. Daniel cell and Leclanche cell are primary cells which can’t be recharged.
119. Lead–acid accumulator, or acid battery, is a secondary cell; it can be recharged.
120. Every cell has got an EMF which is measured not as a force but in terms of work done per unit
charge.
121. There are two definitions of EMF of a cell:
(i) In terms of work done: “EMF of a cell is defined as the work done in driving one coulomb of
 W
charge through a (closed) circuit, including the cell  E   ”
 q 

(ii) In terms of terminal voltage (V). “EMF of a cell is defined as the potential difference across the
terminals of the cell when no current is known from it”. (i.e. E = V, when I = 0)
122. Internal resistance (r) of a cell is the resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell against the flow
of ions through the electrolyte.
123. Internal resistance (r) depends on: the temperature and concentration of the electrolyte, the distance
between the electrodes and the surface area of the electrodes dipped in the electrolyte.
124. Terminal voltage (V) of a cell is the potential difference across its terminals when current is drawn
from it, by an external circuit connected to the cell.
(Terminal voltage is the potential difference across the external circuit).
125. The terminal voltage (V), internal resistance (r), the EMF (E) and the external resistance R, across
the cell, are related as:

ER
(i) V 
Rr

E 
or (ii) r    1 R
V 

506
126. The principle of potentiometer is that when a steady current (I) is maintained in the uniform wire of
the potentiometer, the potential difference (V), obtained across any length (  ) of the wire, is
proportional to the length itself.
i.e. V 
or V = k (where k = I  )

V
127. K  , is called the potential gradient along the potentiometer wire.

128. Lower is the value of potential gradient, greater will be the accuracy of measurements.

E1 1
129. The formula used for comparison of EMFs, using potentiometer, is E  
2 2

130. The formula used for determining the internal resistance of a primary cell is:

E  E 1
r    1 R , where 
V  V 2

Experiment–14: Moving Coil Galvanometer

131. Galvanometer is an extremely sensitive device, used to detect even very small currents.
132. A galvanometer works on the principle. “A current carrying coil, when suspended in a magnetic field,
experiences a torque”.
133. Normally a galvanometer is provided with a linear scale with zero at the centre and with 30 equal
divisions on either side of the zero. A pointer, attached to the coil, can deflect and move over the
scale, whenever the current passed rotates the coil of the galvanometer.
134. The resistance (G) of the galvanometer is the resistance of the (copper) coil in it. It may (usually) be
between 50  and 250  , depending on the make and use of the galvanometer..
135. Figure of merit, (k), is the current required to produce one division deflection in the galvanometer.
I
It is given by k 

where  is the number of divisions of deflection in the galvanometer for a current of I.
136. The unit of k is ampere–divisions–1.
137. The formula for finding G, by the ‘half deflection method’, is

RS
G
R S

507
 Here R is the series resistance which gives a deflection of  divisions,when shunt is open. S is the

shunt (parallel) resistance required to reduce the deflection to .
2
138. The formula for finding k, (the figure of merit, of the galvanometer) is:
E
k
R  G
Here E is the emf of the cell / battery used, G is value of resistance of the galvanometer (obtained
from above formula), R is series resistance for  division deflection.
Experiment–15: Focal Length Measurements
139. Parallex refers to the relative change, in position of one object with respect to another, when both are
viewed from difference positions by an observer.
140. Parallex method is used in locating the position of real images, by removing parallex between the real
image and a reference pin called the image pin.
(When there is no parallax, the two are at the same positions).
141. A convex mirror also can be made to form a real image by using a convex lens.
142. When the path of a ray is retraced from a convex mirror, the ray will be incident normal on the
surface of the mirror. In other words, the ray is directed towards the centre of curvature (C) of the
mirror.

R
143. The formula, used to find focal length (f) , is f  , when R is obtained by using the parallax
2
method.
144. Concave mirror can produce real images bigger than the object when object is placed where u < 2f
and u > f). It can produce a smaller real image when u > 2f.
145. Focal length (f) of concave mirror can be calculated from the formula:
1 1 1
 
f v u
146. According to Cartesian sign convention, both u and v are negative (and therefore f is also negative,
for concave mirror) when real images are obtained.
147. (u) vs (v) graph, for a concave mirror, is drawn in the third quadrant as both u and v are negative.
148. The scale, for both u and v axes, should be the same and the origin should be at zero (for drawing the
1 1
(u) vs (v) graph as well as the graph between   and   .
u  v

508
149. For convex lens, f is positive; it is calculated by using the formula:
1 1 1
 
f v u

1 1
150. The (u) vs (v) graph (drawn in the fourth quadrant) and the   vs   graph. (drawn in the
u v
second quadrant) can also be used for finding f.
151. The scale, for both the axes, should be the same and the origin should be at zero for drawing both
1 1
(u) vs (v) graph and the   vs   graph for a convex lens also.
u v

Experiment–16: Prism
152. A prism may be regarded as section of a transparent medium, bounded by two plane refracting
surfaces meeting at an angle.
This angle (<A) a known as the angle of the prism.
153. When a ray of monochromatic light gets refracted by a prism,we have
Angle of incidence + Angle of emergence = Angle of prism + Angle of deviation
We also have <A = <r1 + <r2
154. The graph, between the angle of deviation and the angle of incidence, is a curve which has a point of
minima.
155. The minimum value, of the angle of deviation, is known as the angle of minimum deviation.
156. There can be two values of angle of incidence that can correspond to the same value of angle of
deviation. (This value of angle of deviation has to be different from its minimum value).
157. One can measure the angle of prism (<A) and find the value of the angle of minimum deviation (<Dm).
We can then use the relation

 A  Dm 
sin  
 2 

A
sin
2
to find the refractive index of the material of the prism.
Experiment–17: Glass Slab
158. The phenomena, under the heading ‘refraction’, are due to a change is the speed of light as it goes
from one medium to another.

509
 v1
159. The refractive index, 12  , of medium 2 with respect to medium 1, equals v . (v1 and v2 are the
2

speeds of light, in medium 1 and medium 2, respectively).

160. We also have,as per Snell’s law,
2 sin i
1 
sin r
161. The (above) value of refractive index, is also (nearly) equal to the ratio of the ‘real depth’ to the
‘apparent depth’.
162. We can estimate the refractive index, of the material of a given glass slab, by finding its ‘real depth’
and its ‘apparent depth’.
163. The real and apparent depths can be measured by using a ‘travelling microscope’.
Experiment–18: p–n Junction Diode
164. A p–n junction diode gets ‘forward biased’ when its p–side is at a higher potential than its n–side.
165. It gets ‘reverse biased’ when its n–side is at a higher potential than its p–side.
166. In the forward bias configuration, the current through the diode increases rapidly when the applied
voltage goes beyond a certain voltage, known as the ‘knee voltage’ for the given diode.
167. The current, through a p–n junction diode, in its ‘forward bias configuration’, is generally of the order
of a few milliamperes; the corresponding current, during its ‘reverse bias configuration’, is generally
in the range of a few microamperes.
Experiment–19: ‘Zener Diode’
168. The Zener diode, a special type of p–n junction diode, is formed when both the p and n sides have
been formed through ‘heavy doping’.
169. The breakdown voltage, for a Zener diode, is the voltage, in the reverse bias configuration, at which
the (reverse) current suddenly starts increasing quite rapidly.
170. The ‘depletion layer in a Zener diode, is (relatively) very thin. This result in a large electric field,
across the junction, when the reverse bias voltage is close to its ‘break down’ voltage value.
171. This large electric field can break the covalent bonds and lead to a phenomenon known as ‘Avalanche
breakdown’.
172. The Zener diode is generally used as a ‘voltage regulator’.
Experiment–20: Characterstic Curves of a Transistor
173. A junction transistor in a three terminal device; its three terminals are known as the emitter, base and
collector.

510
174. The emitter is forward biased and the collector is reverse biased.
175. We can have three different configurations of junction transistor circuits. The CE (common emitter)
configuration is the one used quite often for designing amplifier circuits.
176. The input characterstics, of a transistor in its CE configuration, show the dependence of the base
current (IB), on the base emitter voltage (VBE), when the collector emitter voltage is kept constant.
177. The output characterstics, of a transistor in its CE configuration, show the dependence of the collector
current (IC) on the collector emitter voltage (VCE), when the base current (IB) is kept constant.

 I 
178. We denote the current gain, in the CE configuration,   C  by the symbol  .
 I B 

 I 
179. For the common base configuration, the current gain   C  , is denoted by the symbol  . This
 I E 
‘current gain’ is always less than 1.


180. We have  
1   
Experiment–21: Identifiction of Different Devices
181. We often use a number of devices, (like the diode, LED, transistor, IC’s, resistors and capacitors),
in different electronics / electric circuits.
183. Each of these devices has its characterstics features / shape / design.
184. We can use the differences in the features / shape / design, of different devices, to identify them.
Experiment–22: Using the Multimeter
185. The ‘multimeter’ is a versatile measuring / identification instrument; it can be put to a variety of uses.
186. We can use a multimeter for measurement of resistance values as wall as for the measurement of
ac/dc currents and voltages.
187. The multimeter can be used to identify the ‘base’ terminal of a transistor. It can also be used to
distinguish between npn and pnp transistors.
188. The multimeter also helps us to check the state of a given diode /LED. It does so by making use of
the ‘unidirectional flow of current’ through these devices.

511
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Average Vernier Callipers
1. When the jaws are just touching each other, the positions of the zeroes of the vernier scale
and the main scale, are as shown, for two verniers A and B. Vernier A has 20 divisions on its
vernier scale and its main scale has been graduated is millimeters.
Vernier B has 50 divisions on its vernier scale and its main scale has been graduated in half
millimeters.

Four student reported the following basic information about these two verniers:

All the results have been correctly quoted by the student

(1) P (Incorrect)
(2) Q (Incorrect)
(3) R (Incorrect)
(4) S (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
For vernier A:

512
 1
Least count = mm  0.05 mm
20
Zero error = + 10 × L.C = 0.50 mm
For vernier B:

0.5
Least count = mm  0.01mm
50
Zero error = – 30 × 0.01 mm = -0.30 mm

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Vernier Callipers
2. A given vernier callipers has 20 divisions on its vernier scale which coincide with 19 divisions
of the main scale. The main scale has been graduated in mm.
The positions, of the ‘zeros’ of its main scale and its vernier
scale, when its jaws just touch one another, are as shown in
the figure.
For a given sphere, a student notes that the readings of the
main scale, of the above vernier calliper is 2.4 cm while the
14th division of the vernier coincides with a main scale
division. The diameter of this sphere, as per this reading, is
(1) 2.41 cm (Incorrect)
(2) 2.53 cm (Incorrect)
(3) 2.44 cm (Correct)
(4) 2.50 cm (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:

1
The least count of the given vernier = mm  0.05 mm
20
Zero error = + 6 × L.C = 6 × 0.05 mm = 0.3 mm = 0.03 cm
Observed reading,
= [2.4 + (14 × 0.05)×10–1] cm

513
 = 2.47 cm
 Corrected reading = (2.47–0.03) cm
= 2.44 cm

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Vernier Callipers
3. The main scale, on a travelling microscope, has 20 divisions each between its different
‘centimeter marks’. The vernier scale, attached to it, has 50 divisions and these coincide
with 49 divisions of the main scale.
The value of one vernier scale division, and the least count of this vernier, are equal,
respectively, to
(1) 0.049 mm and 0.001 mm (Incorrect)
(2) 0.049 mm and 0.001 cm (Incorrect)
(3) 0.049 cm and 0.001 mm (Incorrect)
(4) 0.049 cm and 0.001 cm (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
There being 20 divisions, between the ‘centimeter marks’, the value of one main scale division is

 1 
  cm  0.05cm
 20 
Now 50 division, of the vernier, coincide with 49 division of the main scale. Hence value of one vernier
 49  0.05 
scale division is   cm  0.049 cm
 50 

 Least count = 1 (M.S.D) – 1 (V.S.D) = (0.05–0.049) cm

= 0.001 cm

1M.S.D
[Alternatively: Least count =
No.of divisions on vernier

0.05
 cm  0.001cm ]
50

514
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Difficult Vernier Callipers
4. A vernier scale set up, is used to find the internal diameter of a capillary tube. The basic
details of this vernier are as follows:
No. of divisions on the vernier scale = 50
No. of main scale divisions coinciding with these 50 divisions of the
vernier scale = 49
No. of divisions between the successive centimeter marks on the
main scale = 20
Zero error of this vernier scale = – (3 times the L.C)
The readings, of the reference line, when the reference line, is in the
positions A and B, are as follows:

The (measured) diameter, of this capilary tube, is

(1) 0.255 cm (Incorrect)
(2) 0.249 cm (Incorrect)
(3) 0.246 cm (Correct)
(4) 0.252 cm (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:

1
Value of one M.S.D = cm  0.5 mm
20
No. of divisions on the vernier = 50

0.5
 L.C  mm  0.01mm  0.001cm
50

515
Zero error = 0.003 cm
Total observed reading at end A = (5.95 + 7 × 0.001) cm
= 5.957 cm
Total observed reading at end B
= (6.20 + 3×0.001) cm
= 6.203 cm
 Diameter of the capillary tue
= (6.203 – 5.957) cm
= 0.246 cm
[Note: There is no need here to apply ‘zero correction’ to the readings at ends A and B. This is because we
have to take the difference of the two readings. The identical correction applied to the two readings, would
cancel out in the difference. This can be seen explicity as follows:
Corrected reading at end A = [5.957 – (–0.003)] cm
= 5.960 cm
Corrected reading at end B = [6.203 – (–0.003)] cm
= 6.206 cm
 Diameter = 0.246 cm
The same, as before (when the zero correction was not applied to the two readings).

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Vernier Callipers
5. The positions of the zeroes of the main scale and the vernier scale, when the jaws of the
vernier just touch each other, is as shown in the figure.
This vernier is held vertical with the edge of its main scale
just touching the mouth of a calorimeter and the end of its
sliding strip just touching the bottom of the calorimter.
The reading of the main scale, at this positions is 5.4 cm and
the seventh division, on the vernier scale, coincides with a
division on the main scale.
If the main scale is graduated up to 15.0 cm, the depth of the calorimeter is

516
 (1) 5.52 cm (Correct)
(2) 5.42 cm (Incorrect)
(3) 9.48 cm (Incorrect)
(4) 9.58 cm (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:

1mm
The L.C of the vernier = = 0.1 mm = 1.01 cm
10
Zero error = –5×L.C = –0.05 cm
= (5.4 + 7×0.01) cm = 5.47 cm
 Corrected reading = [5.47 – (–0.05)] cm
= 5.52 cm
[Note: The (corrected) reading, observed this way, directly gives the depth of the calorimeter].

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Screw Guage
6. The positions of the ‘zeroes’of the circular scale, with respect to the reference lines, (when
the jaws are just put in contact), for two screw gauge X and Y, are as shown.

Screw gauge X has a main scale graduated in half millimeters and its circular scale has 50
divisions. The screw advances 3.5 mm, on the main scale, when given 7 complete rotations.
‘Screw gauge Y has a main scale graduates in millimeters and its circular scale has 100
divisions. The screw advances 5 mm, on the main scale, when given 5 complete rotations.
Four students reported the following basic information about the two ‘screw gauges’.

517
The complete correct reporting has been done by student
(1) A (Correct)
(2) B (Incorrect)
(3) C (Incorrect)
(4) D (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
For screw gauge X:

3.5
Pitch = mm = 0.5 mm
7

0.5
Least count = m m = 0.01 mm
50
Zero error = + 10 × L.C = + 0.10 mm
For screw gauge Y:

5
Pitch = mm = 1 mm
5

1
Least count = mm = 0.01 mm
100
Zero error = –5 × L.C = – 0.05 mm

518
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Average Screw Guage
7. The main scale, of a given screw gauge, has been graduated in ‘half millimeters’.
The moving jaw of this screw gauge advances through 2.5 mm, on the main scale, when the
screw is given five complete rotations. There are 100 divisions on its circular scale.
The zero of the circular scale, coincides with the zero of the main scale when the moving
face end just coincides with its fixed face end.
When a thin sheet is just held between the jaws of the screw guage, the main scale reads
0.55 cm while the 43rd division, of the circular scale, lies along the line of graduations of the
main scale. The least count of this screw gauge, and the thickness of the sheet, are equal,
respectively, to
(1) 0.0005 mm and 0.5715 cm (Incorrect)
(2) 0.0005 cm and 0.55215 cm (Incorrect)
(3) 0.0005 mm and 0.55215 cm (Incorrect)
(4) 0.0005 cm and 0.5715 cm (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:

2.5
The pitch of the screw gauge = mm = 0.5 mm
5

0.5
 Least count = mm = 0.005 mm = 0.0005 cm
100
Main scale reading = 0.55 cm
Circular scale reading = 43×0.0005 cm
= 0.0215 cm
 Thickness of the sheet
= 0.5715 cm

519
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Average Screw Gauge
8. The basic information, about a given screw gauge, is as follows:
(i) Number of divisions on the circular scle = 50
(ii) Distance moved, by the moving jaw, in 5 complete rotations
= 5 mm
(iii) Position of the zero of the circular scale, when the two jaws just
touch each other; as shown in the figure
When a wire is just held between the jaws of the screw gauge
(a) Reading of the main scale = 6.2 mm
(b) No. of circular scale divison coinciding with the ‘reference line’ = 38
The radius, of this wire, equals
(1) 0.326 cm (Correct)
(2) 0.652cm (Incorrect)
(3) 0.664 cm (Incorrect)
(4) 0.332 cm (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:

5
Pitch = mm = 1mm = 0.1 cm
5

0.1
 Least count = = 0.001 cm
100
Zero error = + 6×0.001 cm = + 0.006 cm
Total observed reading = (0.62 + 38 × 0.001) cm
= 0.658 cm
 Corrected reading = (0.658 – 0.006) cm
= 0.652 cm
Radius of wire = 0.326 cm

520
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Average Screw Guage
9. The basic information, about a given screw gauge, is as follows:
(i) Least divison on the main scale = 0.5 mm
(ii) No. of divisons on the circular scale = 100
(iii) Distance moved, on the main scale, when the screw is given 7 complete rotations
= 3.5 mm
(iv) Circular scale division, coinciding with the line of graduated (reference) line, when
the ‘jaws’, of the screw gauge, are just in contact = 97
When a wire is just held in contact with the jaws of the screw gauge, the main scale reads
0.45 mm. The circular scale division, just coinciding the reference line, is the 33rd division.
The zero error, and the corrected value of the radius of the wire, are equal, respectively, to
(1) + 0.0015 cm and 0.0308 cm (Incorrect)
(2) – 0.0015 cm and 0.0315 cm (Correct)
(3) – 0.0015 cm and 0.0308 cm (Incorrect)
(4) + 0.0015 cm and 0.0030 cm (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:

3.5
Pitch = mm = 0.5 mm
7

0.5
 L.C  mm = 0.005 mm = 0.0005 cm
100
Zero error = – (100–97) × L.C = – (.0015) cm
Observed total reading = (0.045 + 33 × 0.0005) cm
= 0.0615 cm
Corrected reading = [0.0615 – (-.0015)] cm = 0.0630 cm
 Radius = 0.0315 cm

521
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Average Screw Gauge
10. The least count, of a screw gauge, having 100 divisons, on its circular scale, equals 0.0005
cm. When a thin sheet in just held between its jaws, the main scale reads 0.65 mm and the
43rd divison, of the circular scale, coincides with the ‘reference line’. The student, doing the
experiment, (correctly), reports the thickness of the sheet as 0.0850 cm.
The pitch and the ‘zero error’ of this screw gauge, are, respectively, equal to
(1) 0.5 mm and (+ 0.0015) cm (Correct)
(2) 0.05 mm and (– 0.0015) cm (Incorrect)
(3) 0.5 mm and (– 0.0015) cm (Incorrect)
(4) 0.05 mm and (+ 0.0015) cm (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:

Pitch
We have L.C =
100

 Pitch = 0.0005 × 100 cm = 0.05 cm

= 0.5 mm
Total observed reading = (0.65 mm) + (43 × 0.0005) cm
= 0.0865 cm
Correct reading = Observed reading – (zero error)
 Zero error = (0.0865 – 0.0850) cm
= + 0.0015 cm

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Simple Pendulum
11. The amplitude, of the oscillating bob of a simple pendulum, decreases form an initial value
A to a value (A/n) in T seconds. The mass of the bob is m and the time period of the
pendulum is T0 seconds.
The average rate of dissipation of energy, by the oscillating bob, is

522
 2 2 mA 2
(1) T  n 2 T02  (Incorrect)

2 2 mA
(2) T  nT02  (Incorrect)

22 mA 2 2
(3) T  n 2 T02 
 n  1 (Correct)

2 2 mA
(4)  n  1 (Incorrect)
Tn  T02 

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
2
1 2 2 1 2  2 
Initial Energy = mA   mA  
2 2  T0 

A2
 2 2 m
T02

2 2 m  A 2 
Final energy = T 2  n 2 
0  

2 2 m 2  1 
 Loss of energy (in time T) = T 2 A 1  n 2 
0  

2 2 mA 2 2

T02 n 2
 n  1
 Average rate of dissipation of energy

22 mA 2 2

T  n 2 T02 
 n  1

523
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Difficult Simple Pendulum
12. A student plots a graph between the ‘square of amplitude’, of the oscillating bob of a simple
pendulum and ‘time’. This graph is likely to be similar to
the graph between the pair of variables, shown in the graph
labelled as graph
[Note: For graph A, the values are for an ideal gas.
For graph B the displacement values are for a particle
starting from rest and having a uniform acceleration.
For graph C the height means the (small) height above the
surface of earth.
For graph D, N means the number of radioactive nuclei of a given element. ]
(1) A (Incorrect)

(2) B (Incorrect)

(3) C (Incorrect)

524
 (4) D (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
The ‘square of amplitude’, of the bob, is likely to decay exponentially with time [A (t) = A (0) exp (–kt)]

1
For graph A, P 
V

For graph B, s  t 2

 2h 
For graph C, g  h   g  0  1   (R = radius of earth)
 R

For graph D, N  t   N 0 e t

Hence it is only graph in which the variation is an ‘exponential decay’ with time.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Simple Pendulum
13. The (small) amplitude, of the oscillating bob, of a simple pendulum becomes 75% of its
initial value in a time of T seconds. The percentage loss in energy, of the bob, in this time,
is nearly
(1) 40% (Incorrect)
(2) 44% (Correct)
(3) 52% (Incorrect)
(4) 56% (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)

525
Solution:

The energy of the bob  A 2

 Initial energy = kA2

2
  75  
Final energy = k  A  
  100  
9
 kA 2
16
 9 2 7 2
 Loss of energy =  1   kA  kA
 16  16

7
kA 2
16
 Percentage loss of enegy =  100 %
 kA 2 
 7 
   100  %  43.75%
 16 

 44 %

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Simple Pendulum
14. When a simple pendulum executes small amplitude oscillations in a medium (like air), its
amplitude decreases, quite slowly
(1) with time (in a linear way) but its time period remains completely independent of its amplitude.
(Incorrect)
(2) with time (in a non–linear way) but it time period remains completely independent of its amplitude.
(Incorrect)
(3) with time (in a non–linear way) and its time period shows a slight increase compared to its time
period in free space. (Correct)
(4) With time (in a linear way) and its time period shows a slight decrease compared to its time
period in free space. (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)

526
Solution:
The oscillations, of a pendulum bob, in a medium (like air) are damped oscillations. For such damped
oscillations, the amplitude decreases exponentially with time, i.e., its decrease is a non–linear one.
The time period, for such damped oscillations, is (slightly) more than its the time period in free space.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Using the Principle of Moments to
Find the Mass of a given Meter Scale
15. A meter scale, and a system of three ‘weights’, is set up as shown. The mass of the ‘weight’,
labelled as x equals (nearly)

(1) 30 g (Incorrect)
(2) 35 g (Correct)
(3) 40 g (Incorrect)
(4) 45 g (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Taking moments about the midpoint, O, of the meter scale, we have
g [25 × (50–27) + 40 (50–38)]
= Mx g (80–50)
or 30 Mx = (575 + 480)

1055
 Mx  g  35.17 g
30

 35g

527
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Average Using the Principle of Moments to
Find the Mass of a given Meter Scale
16. A meter scale and two objects, of (known) masses m1 and m2, are set up as shown. The
mass (m) of the meter scale, is

 m1  a  b   m 2 100  a  c  
(1)   (Correct)
  50  a  

 m1  a  b   m 2  50  a  c  
(2)   (Incorrect)
  50  a  

 m1  a  b   m 2 100  a  c  
(3)   (Incorrect)
  50  a  

 m1  a  b   m 2  50  a  c  
(4)   (Incorrect)
  50  a  

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
Total clockwise moments about the wedge
= m1g (a–b)
Total anticlockwise moments about the wedge
= mg (50–a) + m2g [(50–c) + (50–a)]
= mg (50–a) + m2g (100–a–c)
 By principle of moments, we get

528
 mg (50–a) + m2g (100–a–c) = m1g (a–b)
or m (50–a) = m1(a–b) – m2(100–a–c)

 m  a  b   m 2 100  a  c  
 m 1 
  50  a  

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Young’s Modulus
17. A meter scale gets balanced at its 40 cm mark when two objects, of masses 70 g and 50 g,
are kept, respectively, at its 10 cm mark and its 80 cm mark. Without making any other
change in this set up, the mass of 50 g is now replaced by an object of unknown mass. To
balance the meter scale now, this object has to be shifted to the 90 cm mark on the meter
scale. The mass of the meter scale, and that of the object used, are, respectively,
(1) 10 g and 30 g (Incorrect)
(2) 15 g and 45 g (Incorrect)
(3) 10 g and 40 g (Correct)
(4) 15 g and 35 g (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
Let m0 be the mass of the meter scale; we then have, in the first case
70×30 = m0×10+50×40

 2100  2000 
 m0     10g
 10 
In the second case, when the object of unknown mass ((x)g), is
put at the 90 cm mark, we have
70×30 = 10×10 + x×50

 2100  100 
 x    40 g
 50 

529
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Average Young’s Modulus
18. A force, F, applied to the experimental wire in a Searle’s apparents set up, increases its
length by an amount Δ .
If the diameter of this experimental wire were to be doubled and the force applied increased
to 2F, the increase in length would be
(1) 2 (Incorrect)
(2)  (Incorrect)


(3) (Incorrect)
2


(4) (Correct)
4
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
We have,

4F
2
Y  d
  
 
 L 

4F
2
  2d 
Also Y 
  
 
 L 

4F L F L
   2
d 2
 d 
4 1
 
   

  
or    
 4 

530
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Average Young’s Modulus
19. A rod of a material, of length L and radius r, initially at to room temperature, is held between
two rigid supports so that its length does not change with changes in temeperature. The
coefficient of linear expansion and the Young’s modulus, of the material of the rod, are α
and Y, respectively.
When the temperature of the rod increases by t0C, the stress, developed in it, would equal

Y
(1)  t  (Incorrect)

(2)  Y t  (Correct)

(3)  Y t   r 2  (Incorrect)

 Y t 
(4) (Incorrect)
 r 
2

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
When the temperature increases by t0C, the increase in length of the rod is

  L t

The corresponding longitudinal strain is


t
L
If Y be the Young’s modulus of the material of the rod, the stress developed is given by

Stress = Y × strain = Y  t

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Poisson’s Ratio
20. A wire, of length L and radius r, is subjected to a (longitudinal) force F that causes its length
to increase by an amount ΔL . Assuming that the total volume of the wire remains unchanged
even after this increase in its length, the Poisson’s ratio, of the material of the wire, equals

531
 1
(1)   (Correct)
2

2
(2)   (Incorrect)
3

3
(3)   (Incorrect)
4

4
(4)   (Incorrect)
5

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
The (original) volume of the wire is

V   r 2

When the length of the wire increases by an amount  , its radius must decrease (say, by an amount r )
so that the volume still equals V. We thus have
2
V    r  r       

We thus have

V   r 2  = constant

 V   0     2r r     r 2   

 2  r    r     0

  r 
or  2  
  r 
The Poisson’s ratio,  , is given by

532
  r   r 
   
r r 1
      
    r  2
  2  
    r 

1
 
2

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Young’s Modulus
21. The breaking stress, for a (light) wire of a given material, is n times the
Young’s modulus (Y) of its material. The wire has a (normal) length 
and a radius r. A mass M is suspended from its lower free end and is
made to oscillate by deflecting the wire through an angle θ from its
normal equilibrium position. The maximum value of θ , for which the
stress developed in the wire, at its mean position, would just equal its
breaking stress, is

 1 
(1) cos 1   2Mg  r 2 nY   (Incorrect)
 2Mg 

 1 
(2) cos 1   3Mg  2r 2 nY   (Incorrect)
 2Mg 

 2 
(3) cos 1   Mg  r 2 nY   (Incorrect)
 Mg 

 1 
(4) cos 1   3Mg  r 2 nY   (Correct)
 2Mg 
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
When the wire is displaced through an angle  , the mass M would rise through a height h where

h   L  L cos    L 1  cos  

533
The increase in P.E., of the mass, is Mgh. Hence if v be the velocity, of the mass, at the mean position, we
have

1
Mv 2  Mgh or v 2  2gh
2
At the mean position, the total tension, developed in the wire, would be

Mv 2 2gh M
T  Mg   Mg 
 

 Mg  2Mg
 L 1  cos   
L
 3Mg  2Mg cos 
The corresponding stress is

T 3Mg  2Mg cos 

Stress  2

r r 2
This would just equal the breaking stress if

3Mg  2Mg cos 

 nY
r 2

or 3Mg  r 2 nY  2Mg cos 

3 r 2 nY
or cos   
2 2Mg

 1 
   cos 1   3Mg  r 2 nY  
 2Mg 

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Surface Tension
22. It is well known that water forms a concave meniscus while mercury forms a convex meniscus
when they are present in a glass tube. This is because the
(1) Density of mercury is more than that of glass while water has a density less than that of glass.
(Incorrect)

534
 (2) Force of cohesion, between water molecules is more than the force of adhesion between
water and glass; the reverse in true for mercury. (Incorrect)
(3) Force of cohesion, between water molecules, is less thatn the force of adhesion between
water and glass; the reverse is true for mercury. (Correct)
(4) Excess of pressure, inside a water drop of radius r, is more than the correspending excess of
pressure inside a mercury drop of the same radius. (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The shape of the meniscus, of a given liquid, in a given container, is determined primarly by the comparative
magnitudes of the relevant forces of cohesion and adhesion.
For liquids (like water), the force of cohesion between liquid molecules, is less than the force of adhesion
between the liquid molecules and the molecules of the walls of the container (glass). In such a case, the
liquid forms a concave meniscus.
The reverse is true for mercury put in a glass tube. In such a case the liquid forms a convex meniscus.
 2T 
[Note: Option (4) is incorrect; the excess pressure    is more for the mercury drop which has a
 r 
higher value of surface tension].

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Capillary Rise

23. Two liquids, (having surface tensions T1 and T2 and densities ρ1 and ρ 2 ) are made to rise
in (small radii) capillary tubes (of glass) of radii r1 and r2, respectively. Their, respective,
angles of contact, with glass, are θ1 and θ 2 . The first liquid rises to a level h above the
general outside level while the second liquid falls to a level h below the general outside
level. We would then have
cos 1  T1r11 
(1)  (Incorrect)
cos 2  T2 r2 2 

cos 1   T2r11 
(2)  (Correct)
cos 2  T1r22 

cos 1  T2 r2 2 
(3)  (Incorrect)
cos 2  T1r11 

535
 cos 1  T1r2 2 
(4)  (Incorrect)
cos 2  T2 r11 

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
We know that

r hg 
T
 2 cos 
2T cos 
 h
r g

For the two given liquids

2T1 cos 1
h 
r11g

2T2 cos 2
and h 
r2 2 g

2T1 cos 1 2T2 cos 2

 
r11g r2 2 g

cos 1 T r
or  21 1
cos 2 T1r2 2

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Capillary Rise
24. A given liquid rises to a height h in a given capillary tube. If this capillary tube is cut to have
a length  that is less than h, the liquid
(1) will start over flowing through the capillary tube. (Incorrect)
(2) will have a readjusted value of its surface tension for which the rise is equal to  .
(Incorrect)
(3) will readjust its angle of contact, with the walls of the container, to a new value, say  ' , where

536
  rg 
 '  cos 1  
(Correct)
 2T 

(4) will readjust its angle of contact, with the walls of the container, to a new value, say  " , where
 2T 
 "  cos 1   (Incorrect)
 rg 
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The liquid will not overflow as that would lead to a violation of the principle of conservation of energy.
For the rise (h) of a liquid, in a capillary tube of radius, r, we have the relation
 r
r  h   g
3 rhg
T  
2 cos  2 cos 

For a capillary tube, of insufficient height, the liquid, readjusts its angle of contact with the walls of the
container, so that

cos  
 r   g   r  g 
or  '  cos 1  
2T  2T 

[Note: The liquid does not readjust its surface tension to a new value].

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Capillary Rise

T  2
25. Two liquids (say L1 and L2), having surface tensions T1 and T2 (where  1  = ) and
 T2  3
ρ  1
densities ρ1 and ρ 2 (where  1  = ), rise to the same height (say h) (above their
 ρ2  2
respective outside levels) in identical (very small radius) capillary tubes. If their respective
angles of contact, with the walls of the capillary tubes, are θ1 and θ 2 , we would have

(1) 9 cos 2 2  16 cos 2 2  7  0 (Incorrect)

(2) 16 cos 2 2  9 cos 2 1  7  0 (Incorrect)

537
 (3) 9 sin 2 1  16sin 2 2  7  0 (Incorrect)

(4) 16 sin 2 1  9 sin 2 2  7  0 (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
We know that

rh g
T
2 cos 

 h
 2T cos  
 r g 
From the given data, we then have

2T1 cos 1 2T2 cos 2

h 
r 1g r 2g

cos 1  T2   1  3 1 3
       
cos 2  T1   2  2 2 4

cos 2 1 9
 
cos 2 2 16

or 16 cos 2 1  9 cos 2 2  0

or 16 1  sin 2 1   9 1  sin 2  2   0

or 16sin 2 1  9 sin 2 2  7  0

or 16 sin 2 1  9 sin 2 2  7  0

 It is option (4) that is the correct choice.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Terminal Velocity
26. A drop of a liquid, of radius r, acquires a terminal velocity, v0, when falling vertically through
a given viscous medium.

538
 In n such (identical) drops of this liquid were to coalesce to form a single drop, the terminal
velocity, V, of this (large) drop, when falling vertically through the same viscous medium,
would be

(1) V  n v0 (Correct)
2
(2) V  n 3 v0 (Incorrect)
1
(3) V  n 3 v0 (Incorrect)
1
(4) V  n  3 v0 (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
Let R be the radius of the large drop.
We then have

4 3  4 
R  n  r3 
3  3 

 R n  r 1
3

The relation, between the terminal velocity and the radius of the drop, is given by
4 3
6  rvT  r     g
3
2
or vT       g .r 2
9
2


V R

2

n r
1
3

n
2
3

v0 r 2 r 2

2
 V  n 3r

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Terminal Velocity
27. A drop of a liquid, of a given radius, falls vertically through a given viscous medium. The
pair of graphs, that respresent the variation of velocity (v), and acceleration (a) of the
falling drop, with time, is the pair marked as pair

539
 (1) A (Incorrect)

(2) B (Incorrect)

(3) C (Incorrect)

(4) D (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

540
Solution:
As the drop falls vertically through the viscous medium, its velocity keeps on increasing with time. This, in
turn, increases the viscous force acting on it so that its acceleration keeps on decreasing with time. When
the viscous force becomes large enought to balance the net downward force, the acceleration of the drop
becomes zero. Its velocity than remains constant (with time) at a value called the terminal velocity of the
graph.
This variation of velocity and acceleration, with time, is non–linear because of the non–uniform accleration
of the falling drop. The pair (D) shows the variations in their correct form.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Terminal Velocity

28. A drop of a liquid, of density ρ1 , falls through a medium of density σ and ceofficient of
viscosity. Another drop, of a liquid of density ρ 2 , having the same radius as that of the first
drop, falls through the same medium. It is given that
 1
ρ 2 = n 2ρ1 ; σ =  1 –  ρ1 and ρ 2 >> σ
 n
The terminal velocities (v1 and v2) of the first, and the second drops, will then be related as

(1) v2 
n 2
 1
v1 (Incorrect)
n

 n2 
(2) v2    v1 (Incorrect)
 n 1 

(3) v 2  n 3 v1 (Correct)

(4) v 2  n 2 v1 (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
We know that

4 3
r      g  6 rvT
3

 For the first drop

541
 4 3   1 
r 1   1   1  g  6  rv1
3   n 

and for the second drop,

4 3
r  2   g  6  rv 2
3

4 3
or r  2  6  rv 2  2   
3
2 v
 n 2
1 v1

v2
or n 2 .n 
v1

 v 2  n 3 v1

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Stoke’s Law
29. A spherical ball, of mass m and radius r, starts from rest and falls vertically through a
medium of negligible density and having a coefficient of viscosity η . The time (T) taken by
the ball to acquire a velocity V, is given by

6r  mg 
(1) T n   (Incorrect)
m  mg  6rV 

m  mg  6rV 
(2) T n   (Incorrect)
6r  mg 

6r  mg  6rV 
(3) T n   (Incorrect)
m  mg 

m  mg 
(4) T n  (Correct)
6r  mg  6rV 

Correct answer: (4)

542
Solution:
Let the velocity of the ball be v after a time t. The net downward force, acting on to ball, at this instant, is

F  t   mg  6rv

The acceleration, a(t), at this instant, is

F  t   6r  
a t   g   v   g  kv 
m  m  

 6r 
k  
 m 

dv
   g  kv 
dt

dv
or  dt
 g  kv 
T V
dv 1 V
  dt    g  kv    k n  g  kv 
0 0
0

1  g 
 T n  
k  g  kV 

 m   mg 
or T    n  
 6r    mg  6rV  

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Newton’s Law of Cooling
30. To do an experimental verification of Newton’s law of cooling, we need to take the
‘temperature’ vs ‘time’ readings, of a hot body, kept in given surroundings. An appropriate
choice, of the ‘hot body’ and the ‘surroundings’, would then be:
(1) [A hot metal sphere]; and [a ‘closed enclosure’]. (Incorrect)
(2) [A hot metal sphere]; [a stone plate to hold the sphere and kept in an uncovered enclosure].
(Incorrect)

543
 (3) [An uncovered calorimeter containing hot water that is constantly being stirred]; [a slab on an
open window or a table under a fan]. (Correct)
(4) [A fully covered calorimeter containing hot water]; [a corner of the room away from any open
window or a fan]. (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
Newton’s law of coolings holds for the cooling of a hot body, primarily by convection. It can then be valid
even for quite a large difference of temperature between the hot body and the surroundings.
The ‘set–up’, suggested in option (3), is most likely to ensure that the whole of the hot body cools primarily
by convection. Hence it is the appropriate choice for verifying Newton’s law of cooling.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Cooling Time

31. A hot body, initially at a temperature 8 θ , is present in surroundings that are at a temperaturee
θ . The time intervals, for its temperature to fall from, (i) 8 θ to 4 θ and (ii) 4 θ to 2 θ , are
 Δt 
Δt1 and Δt 2 , respectively. The ratio  1  equals
 Δt 2 

(1) 2 (Incorrect)
(2) log 2 (Incorrect)

log  3 
7

(3) (Correct)
log  3

 log 7 
(4)  log 2  (Incorrect)
 
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
We know that
d
  k    0 
dt

544
 d
  k dt
   0 
2 t
2
d
     0    k t dt
1 1

2
  n     0     k  t 2  t1 
1

n
 1  0   k t  t
or  2 1
  2  0 

n
8     k t
 (i)  1
 4   

n
 4     k t
and (ii)  2
 2   

7
n  
 t 1 3 log  7 3 
   
 t 2 n  3  log  3

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Graph of Increase of Temperature with Time

32. A given object (initially at a temperature θ 0 ) is being heated by a ‘heat source’ that supplies
it heat at a constant rate. The graph, showing the variation of temperature of the object,
with time, would then be the graph labelled as graph
(1) A (Incorrect)

545
 (2) B (Correct)

(3) C (Incorrect)

(4) D (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:

Let the temperature of the object (mass = m; specific heat capcity = s), rise by an amount  when it
receives an amount of heat H . We then have

H  ms 

H 
  ms
t t

d 1 dH
   a constant = k  say 
dt ms dt

 d  k dt

546
  k
or  d  k  dt
0 0
( 0 = initial temperature)

   0  kt  kt  0

 The graph of  , against t, is a straight line with a slope k and an intercept (on the  –axis) of 0 .

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Experimental Skills
33. A hot body, initially at a temperature θ , is kept in surroundings that
are at a temperature θ 0 . The graph, shown here, is a graph of a
function, f  θ  , of θ , against time. Assuming that the body loses

heat primarily by convection, the function f  θ  , is

(1) f     k    0  (Incorrect)

k
(2) f    (Incorrect)
   0 
k
(3) f    (Incorrect)
log    0 

(4) f     k log    0  (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
As per Newton’s law of cooling

d
  k '    0 
dt

d
or   k 'dt
   0 

or n    0   k 't  C '

547
or log    0   k t  C '

 The graph of log    0  , against time, is a straight line having a negative slope. The given graph has
this very form.

Hence f     log    0 

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Easy Speed of Sound in Air
34. A student sets up the speed of sound in air apparatus for finding the velocity of sound in air,
at the room temperature. Using a tuning fork, of frequency n (Hz), she obtains the first and
second positions of resonance for lengths  1  m  and  2  m  , respectively, of the air column,

 m
in the resonance tube. The velocity of sound, V  in  , would then be best given by the
 s 
formula.

(1) V  41n (Incorrect)

4
(2) V  2n (Incorrect)
3

(3) V  2   2  1  n (Correct)

(4) V    2  1  n (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
We have

1  e 
4
3
and 2  e 
4

 3   
  2  1     
 4 4 2

548
   2   2  1 

The velocity, V, is, therefore, given by

V  n

 2n   2  1 

[Note: It is only this formula for V that is independent of the ‘end–correction’].

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Speed of Sound in Air
35. The experiment, using a resonance tube set–up, was carried out in a room at a temperature
θ0C . The tuning fork used had a frequency N(Hz) and the first and second positions of
resonance were observed for lengths  1 (cm) and  2 (cm), respectively, of the air–column.

Fr om t hese obser vat ions, one can say t hat t he velocit y of sound, in air, at 00C, equals

1
N   2  1     2

(1) 1   m / s (Incorrect)
50  273 
 12
N   2  1    
(2) 1    m / s (Correct)
50  273 
 12
  
(3) 2N   2   1  1   m / s (Incorrect)
 273 
1
2
  
(4) 2N   2   1   1   m / s (Incorrect)
 273 

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
We have

1  e 
4
3
and 2  e 
4

549
 1
    2  1  metre
50
N   2  1 
 V  at 0C   N  m/s
50
We also have
1 1
V    273  2    2

   1  
V0  273   273 
 12
  
 V  V0 1  
 273 
 1
N    2  1
 V0     2  1   1    ms
 50  273  

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Speed of Sound in Air
36. Two students, working in the same laboratory, do the experiment on finding the velocity of
sound using the ‘resonance tube column apparatus’. They used tubes of diameters D1 and
D2 and identical tuning forks of frequency N each. The first and second resonance lengths,
found by them, were   1 ,  '1  and   2 ,  '2  , respectively. These lengths would be related to
each otehr as

(1)  '
1   1  ;   '2   2  (Incorrect)

(2)  '
1  1  ;  '2    2  0.3  D 2  D1   (Incorrect)

(3)   '1   1  0.3  D1  D 2   ;   '2   2  0.3  D1  D 2   (Correct)

(4)   '1   1  0.3  D 2  D1   ;   '2   2  0.9  D 2  D1   (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
We know that

550

= first resonance length + end correction
4
3
and = second resonance length + end correction
4
Also end correction = 0.3 (Diameter of the tube). As the students are working in the same laboratory
(hence same value of velocity of sound) and are using tuning forks of same frequency, the value of  must
 V
be the same in both cases     . We, therefore, have
 N


   1  0.3D1    1  0.3 D 2 
4

  '
1   1   0.3  D1  D 2 

3
and    2  0.3 D1    2  0.3 D 2 
4

  2   2   0.3 D1  D2 

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Speed of Sound in Air
37. A student did the experiment on finding the speed of sound (say V) using a given resonance
tube of diameter D. She used five tuning forks of different frequencies and observed the
first and second resonance lengths in each case. She then plotted (separate) graphs of
these first and second resonance lengths against the reciprocal of the corresponding tuning
fork frequencies. The slopes of the two graphs were found to be m1 and m2 while the
magnitudes of their intercepts, on the y–axis, were found to be C1 and C2, respectively. We
would then have

4 10 10
(1) V  4m1  m 2 and D  C1  C2 (Correct)
3 3 3
3 10
(2) V  4m1  m 2 and D  C1  10 C 2 (Incorrect)
4 3
3 10
(3) V  4m1  m 2 and D  10 C1  C2 (Incorrect)
4 3

551
 m1 3 10
(4) V  m 2 and D  10 C1  C2 (Incorrect)
4 3 3
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
We know that

V  N.4  1  e 
V 1
or 1  . e
4 N
4
Also V  N. 2  e
3
3  1
or  2   V .  e
4  N
V
 m1  and C1  e  0.3 D
4
C1 10
 V  4m1 and D   C1
0.3 3
3
Also m 2  V and C 2  e  0.3D
4
4 10
 V m 2 and D  C2
3 3
We thus have
4
V  4m1  m2
3
10 10
and D C1  C2
3 3

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Specific Heat Capacity
38. A given liquid was k nown t o be (chemically) non–r eact ive wit h wat er ; a mass, m L, of this
liquid, having a (unknown) specific heat capacity, sL, was put in a calorimeter of mass m1,
made from a material of specific heat capacity sC. The liquid was heated to a temperature

552
 θL and poured into another calorimeter containing water. The mass of this second calorimeter
was m2 and the mass of water, contained in it, was mW. The specific heat capacities, of water
and the material of this calorimeter, are sW and sC, respectively. The initial temperature of
water was θC . If the final temperature of the mixture was θ F ; the specific heat capacity, of
the liquid, can be calculated from the formula

sL 
 mWsW  m2sC  F C   m1sC  L F 
(1) (Incorrect)

mL L F 
sL 
 mWsW  m2sC  F C 
(2) (Incorrect)

mL L F 
sL 
 mWsW  m2sC  F C 
(3) mL   F   m1sC  L F  (Incorrect)
L

sL 
 m W s W  m 2sC  F  C 
(4) (Correct)

m L  L  F 
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
Heat is lost only by the hot liquid. Hence heat lost = m L s L   L  F 
Heat is gained both by the second calorimeter and the water contained in it.
Hence heat gained = m W s W  F  C   m 2sC  F  C 

  m W s W  m 2 s C   F  C 
Putting heat gained = heat lost, we get
m Ls L  h  F    m W s W  m 2sC  F  C 

 sL 
 m W s W  m 2sC  F  C 

m L  L  F 

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Specific Heat Capacity
39. When a given amount of heat (say H) is supplied to a

553
 (i) mass m1 of a solid of specific heat capacity s1, its rise in temperature is θ1 .

(ii) mass m2 of a solid of specific heat capacity s2, its rise in temperature is θ 2 .

Let the same amount of heat (H) raise the temperature, of a mass (m1–m2) of a substance
 1 1  1 
of specific heat capacity (s1–s2), through θ . The difference,  +  –  , would equal
  θ1 θ 2  θ 

(1) zero (Incorrect)

 m1s1  m 2s 2 
(2) (Incorrect)
H
 m1s 2  m 2s1 
(3) (Correct)
H
 m1s1  m 2s 2 
(4) (Incorrect)
H
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
We have
H  m1s11
1 m1s1
 
1 H
1 m 2s 2
Similarly 
2 H
We also have
1  m1  m 2  s1  s 2 

 H
m1s1  m 2 s1  m1s 2  m 2 s 2

H
1 1 1
    m1s 2  m 2s1 
1 2 H

 1 1  1  m1s1  m 2s1 
     
 1 2    H 

554
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Difficult Specific Heat Capacity
40. A given solid rectangular bar (mass = M) has
an area of cross section A and a length L. Its
density ρ , and its specific heat capacity, s, vary
y
with distance, x from one end, as
ρ  x  = k1 x

and s  x  = k 2 x , respectively..
The heat needed to raise the temperature of
this bar by an amount, θ , is

1
(1) k 2 ML3 (Incorrect)
2
2
(2) k 2 ML (Correct)
3
1
(3) k 2 ML3 (Incorrect)
3
1
(4) k 2 ML2 (Incorrect)
2
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The mass, dm, of a segment of the bar, of length dx, is
dm    x  .  Adx 

 k1 x Adx
The specific heat capacity, of this segment, is
s  x   k1 x
Hence the heat needed to raise its temperature, by an amount θ , is
dH  dm s  x  

  k1 xAdx  k 2 x  
 k1k 2 Ax 2  dx

555
Hence the total heat needed is
L L
H =  dH  k1k 2 A  x 2 dx
0 0

L3
 k1k 2 A
3
The total mass of the bar, is
L'
L2
M     x  A dx  k1 A
0 2

2 
 H   k 2 ML 
3 

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Loss of Heat by a Hot Solid
41. It is given that the rate of loss of heat by a substance, at any temperature, is proportional
to the difference between that temperature and the temperature of the surroundings. A
solid, of mass 80g, is made from a material of specific heat capacity 400 J/(kg–0C). It is
heated to a temperature of 800C and is suspended in a room at a temperature of 200C.
The ratio of the times, taken by this solid, in cooling (i) from (700C to 500C) and (ii) from
(500C to 300C) would be
(1) 1:1 (Incorrect)
 log 4 
(2) (Incorrect)
 log 2 
 log 5  log 3
(3) (Correct)
 log 3
 log 7  log 5 
(4) (Incorrect)
 log 5  log 3
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
The (small) amount of heat (dH) lost by the given solid when its temperature falls by a (small) amount d
(from  to    d  , is

556
 dH  msd 
We are given that
dH
  k    0 
dt
d
  ms  k    0 
dt
d k
  dt
   0  ms
2 t
d k
     0    ms 0 dt
1

 n
 1  0   k t

 2  0  ms
If follows that

n
 70  20   k t
(i)
 50  20  ms 1

n
 50  20   k t
and (ii)
 30  20  ms 2
  5 
n 5
t1   3   log  
   3
t2   3   
n   log  3 
  1  


 log 5  log 3
 log 3

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Meter Bridge
42. In a metre bridge experiment to find the resistance of a uniform wire of length L = 25 cm,
the wire is connected in the left gap. The student performing the experiment inserted
0.5 cm of this wire at both the ends into the terminals at the gap. The balancing length is
measured to be 75 cm, from the end nearer to the left gap. When a resistance of 2 ohm is

557
 connected in the right gap. If the experiment is otherwise accurately performed, the actual
resistance of the given wire is

(1) 6.00  (Incorrect)

(2) 6.25  (Correct)
(3) 5.75  (Incorrect)
(4) 6.40  (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
Let X’ be the resistance of the ‘effective’ length of the wire.
The effective length is L’ = (L – 0.5 – 0.5 cm) = 24 cm i.e. X’ is resistance of 24 cm of the given wire. Now,
R = 2  and balancing length is  = 75 cm. As the balancing length is measured from the end where the
wire is connected, the relevant formla is:

    75 
X   R    2  6
 100     25 
Now, b  is the resistance of 24 cm of the wire [(excluding) the length inserted in to the terminal, which
does not provide any resistance)].
 The actual resistance X is:
 25 
X    6    6.25 
 24 

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Meter Bridge
43. A metre bridge circuit, with resistance X and R connected in the gaps, gives a balance
length of  , from the end where X is connected. When a resistance of 5 P is connected in
parallel with X and another resistance of 15 Q is connected in parallel with R, the balancing
length remained the same. The raio of P to Q, in terms of  , is
3
(1) (Incorrect)
100  3 

(2) (Incorrect)
100  3 

558
 
(3) (Incorrect)
 300   
3
(4) (Correct)
100   
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
X 
Given 
R 100  
X  5P
When 5 P is connected is parallel with X, the effective resistance in Gap 1 is
X  5P
R 15Q
When 15 Q is connected in parallel with R, the effective resistance in Gap 2 is
R  15Q
Since balancing length remains same,

X  5P  R  15Q  X
 
 X  5P  R 15Q R
or 75 PQ + 5 PR = 15 QX + 75 PQ
P X
or 
3Q R

P X
or  3 
Q R

P   
or 3 
Q  100   
Alternatively: Since the balacing length is the same, potential drops across the gaps remain the same.
Therefore, the ratio of resistances would be the same along individual paths.
X 3P
 
R 15Q

P X 3
or 3 
Q R 100  

559
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Easy Meter Bridge

44. In a metre bridge experiment, to determine the specific resistance  ρ  of the material of
the given wire, the percentage error in the measurement of resistance X, diameter (d) and
length (L) of the wire are respectively 1.25%, 0.75% and 0.25% respectively. The
percentage error in the measurement of ρ is:
(1) 1.75 % (Incorrect)
(2) 2.25 % (Incorrect)
(3) 2.50 % (Incorrect)
(4) 3.00 % (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
The formula for  , in the case of metre bridge experiment, is:
d 2
X
 4
L

 X d 
  2 
 X d L

= 1.25% + 2×0.75 % + 0.25 %

= 1.25 % + 1.5 % + 0.25 %
= 3.00 %

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Ohm’s Law
45. While performing the experiment, to find the resistance (R) of a wire, using a d.c source of
10 volt, a miliammeter of negligible resistance, a voltmeter and a rheostat of total resistance
200 Ω , a student connected all, including the voltmeter, in series, by mistake. The sliding
contact of the rheostat was kept exactly at the middle, as shown in the circuit diagram.
If the milliammeter read 3.2mA and the voltmeter read 9.6 V, the resistance of the voltmeter

560
 and the value of R are, respectively,

(1) 3125  and 125  (Incorrect)

(2) 3000  and 25  (Correct)
(3) 3125  and 25  (Incorrect)
(4) 3100  and 125  (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
In series also, a voltmeter will still read the potential difference across its terminals.
Reading in volt
 Resistance of voltmeter = current in ampere

9.6
or RV   3000 V
3.2  103
The resistance, due to the rheostat, is half of its total resistance of 200 

 The potential drop over the rheostat = 3.2 mA × 100 

= 0.32 volt
Total potential applied = 10 V
 The potential drop across R = 10 – (9.6 + 0.32)
= 0.08 volt
Voltage across R
Therefore, the value of R 
Current
0.08

3.2  103
= 25 

561
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Average Ohm’s Law
46. While performing the experiment on Ohm’s law, a student plotted the V–I graphs for two
resistances, individually and for their series and parallel combinations. The four plots are
marked A, B, C and D in the graph shown below. The values of the individual resistances in
ohm, are approximately

1
(1) 1 and (Incorrect)
3

(2) 1 and 3 (Incorrect)

(3) 1 and 0.732 (Correct)

1
(4) 3 and (Incorrect)
3

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:

V
Since R  , the reciprocal of the slope of the plots will give the resistance. Therefore, the resistance of
I
1
A is maximum and the value of R A   3  1.732 
tan 300
This must be the resistance for the series combination. Since the resistance is the least for D, this must be
for the parallel combination.
Therefore graphs B and C are for the individual resistances.

B graph representing one of the resistances, has its slope as unity. Hence this resistance is 1  .
 RA = Rseries = 3 = RB+RC = 1 + RC

562
 RC  3 1 0.732
Hence the two resistances are 1  and 0.732  .

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Ohm’s Law
47. Using the Ohm’s circuit, for determination of resistnace of a wire made of an alloy of
constant temperature coefficient of resistance  α  , a student obtained the resistance of
the wire at 00C, at 1000C and at t0C as 3.14 Ω , 3.54 Ω and 3.42 Ω respectively. The
temperature t is
(1) 600C (Incorrect)
(2) 700C (Correct)
(3) 800C (Incorrect)
(4) 900C (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The variation of R, with temperature, is expressed as
R  t   R  0 1   t 
Hence we have
R 100   R  0  1    100 

R  t   R  0  1  t 

 R  t   R 0 
 t   100
 R 100  R  0  
 

 3.42  3.14 
   100
 3.54  3.14 
0.28
  100  700 C
0.40

563
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Easy Potentiometer
48. Which of the following statements is incorrect regarding the use of the high resistance in
the potentiometer circuit?
(1) It protects the galvanometer from being damaged due to high current. (Correct Statement)
(2) Its value does not play any role in the determination of null point. (Correct Statement)
(3) It must always be necessarily connected just before the galvanometer to prevent high current
entering the galvanometer. (Incorrect Statement)
(4) It can be short circuited when the jockey, moved along the wire, approaches the null point
position. (Correct Statement)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
(1) The galvanometer circuit can have large current when the jockey is pressed near the extreme ends of
the poteniomeer wire due to the large potential difference across the wire, far away from the null
point. Since the galvanometer is highly sensitive, it might get damaged due to this high current. A high
resistance will reduce this current and protect the galvanometer. Hence (1) is a correct statement.
(2) At the null point the deflection in the galvanometer is zero as the current is zero. So the value of this
high resistance does not decide the position of the null point, it only decreases the deflection when
jockey is pressured at other points. So (2) is also a correct statement.
(3) Since a resistor only obstruct the flow of charge, the position of the resistor can be anywhere in the
series part of the circuit. That means, the high resistance can be before, or after, the galvanometer. In
either case the current gets reduced. So (3) is an incorrect statement (i.e. (3) is the correct answer to
the question).
(4) When we approach the null point, the current through the galvanometer approaches zero or the
deflection becomes almost zero. Here if we short circuit the high resistance, the deflection becomes
obviously more, but the current will not to so high as to damage the galvanometer. Instead the short
circuit of the high resistance will enable us to find the null point accurately. So (4) is also a correct
statement.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Potentiometer Internal Resistance
49. In a potentiometer experiment the following circuit arrangement is used. AB is the
potentiometer wire.

564
 When the key K1 is closed (K2 open), the balancing length is found to be  . When the key
K2 is closed (K1 open), the balancing length is found to be 2 . The value of r, in terms of R1
and R2 , is:

R 1R 2
(1) R 2  R1 (Incorrect)

2R1R 2
(2) R 2  R1 (Incorrect)

R 1R 2
(3) R 2  2R 1 (Correct)

2R 1R 2
(4) R 2  2R 1 (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
Let V1 be the terminal voltage when K1 is closed, that is ,when R1 is connected across the cell of emf E and
internal resistance r.
ER 1
Here V1 
R1  r

But V1  k (  = balancing length when K1 is closed (given)

ER 1
 k  .....(1)
R1  r
Let V2 be the terminal voltage when K2 is closed.

565
 ER 2
Then V2 
R2  r

But V2 = k  2  ( 2 = balacing length)

ER2
 k  2  .....(2)
R2  r
Dividing (1) by (2), we get:

1 R1  R 2  r 

2 R 2  R1  r 
or R2R1 + R2r = 2R1R2 + 2R1r
or (R2–2R1) r = R1R2

R 1R 2
 r
R 2  2R 1

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Potentiometer – Comparison of emfs
50. A potentiometer wire AB is of length 100 cm, with C as its middle point. The part AC is
made of a uniform wire of a material of resistivity ρ1 . The diameter of this part is d1. The
part CB is made of another uniform wire of a material of resistivity ρ 2 . The diameter of
this part d2. It is given that
ρ1 : ρ 2 = 2 : 3 and d1 : d 2 = 2 : 1
The balacing length, measured from A, for a cell for EMF E1 is found to be 40 cm and that
for a cell of EMF E2, is found to be 65 cm. The ratio E1/E2 is equal to

2
(1) (Correct)
7
4
(2) (Incorrect)
5
40
(3) (Incorrect)
65
4
(4) (Incorrect)
9

566
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
1 2 3
Given   2  1
2 3 2
d1 2 1
  d2  d1
d2 1 2
Now, let 1 and  2 be the resistance per unit length of each half.
3
1 1 2 1 1 
1  and  2   2  1 2 6
2 2 2
d d   d1  d
 1  2    1
4 4 4 2  4
  2  6 1

Let I be the current through the wire, which must be the same for both the halves.

By using the principle of potentiometer, E  I 

E1  I 11  I 1 40
and E 2  I   1 50   215  (  2 = 65 cm = 50 cm + 15 cm)
E1 1  40
 
E 2 1  50  6 1  15
4 4 2
  
5  9 14 7

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Potentiometer Application
51. For the potentiomeer circuit, set up as shown, the potential
gradient, across the potentiometer wire, AB, is (k) volt/cm.
The balancing lengths, with the gap between (i) points (1) and
(3) plugged in, equal (  1 ) cm and (ii) points (2) and (3) plugged
in, equals (  2 ) cm.
Assuming that the current value, as obtained through the
potentiometer readings, is the correct value of current, the
percentage error, in the reading of the ammeter, equals

567
 100 I R
0 1  R 2   k 2  100
(1)  I0 R1  k1  or (Correct)
k 1  k 2 
100 100
(2)  I0 R1  k1  or  I 0  R 1  R 2   k 2  (Incorrect)
k 2 k 1 
100 100
(3) k 1
 I0  R 1  R 2   k1  or
k 2
 I 0 R 1  k 2  (Incorrect)

100 100
(4)  I0 R 2  k 2  or  I 0  R 1  R 2   k1  (Incorrect)
k 2 k 1 

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
When the gap between points (1) and (3) is plugged in, we have

Potential drop across R1 = k1

k 1
 Current through R1 =
R1
Current read by the ammeter = I 0

 k 1 
 Error in ammeter reading =  I0  
 R1 

 I0R1  k1 R1 
 Percentage error =    100
 R1 k1 

100
  I 0 R 1  k 1  .....(1)
k 1
Similarly, with the gap between points (2) and (3) plugged in, we get the percentage error in ammeter
reading as
 100 
I R
0  R 2   k 2  
1  .....(2)
 k 2 
The percentage error can thus have either of the values given by expressions (1) and (2).

568
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Difficult Galvanometer Resistance
52. A galvanometer, of unknown figure of merit (k) and unknown resistance (G), is connected
in series with a cell of emf E and a variable resistance R. The deflection, obtained in the
galvanometer, is noted as θ divisions for every resistance value.

The experimental values of R and θ are used to plot a graph of

1 –1
  div along the y–axis and (R) Ω along the the x–axis. From
θ
the graph, the resistance G of the galvanometer can be obtained
as the
(1) Slope of the graph (Incorrect)
(2) y–intercept of the graph (Incorrect)
(3) Ratio of y–intercept to the slope of the graph (Correct)
(4) Product of y–intercept and the slope of the graph (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
From the circuit, the value of I can be written as:
E
I
R G
E
or K 
RG
1 K K
or   R  G
 E E
Since R and  are the only variables here, the above equation
is of the form
K
y = mx + C, which gives a straight line. Here m  is the
E
K
slope of the straight line graph and C    G is the y–
E
intercept.

569
 K
C  G
E
Now,    G
m K
 
E
 G = ratio of y–intercept to the slope of the graph.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Easy Galvanometer – G and K
53. In the galvanometer experiment, the values of G and k are obtained as 300 Ω and
1.5×10–4 ampere/division, for a galvanometer having a total 30 divisions. A student wants
to use this galvanometer as a voltmeter to measure a voltage up to 9 volt, for his project.
He noticed that carbon resistors of the following sequence of colour bands, are available in
the laboratory.
R1  Brown, Blue, Red
R2  Black, Violet, Red
R3  Brown, Yellow, Red
R4  Brown, Violet, Red
He would use the resistor:
(1) R1 (Incorrect)
(2) R2 (Incorrect)
(3) R3 (Incorrect)
(4) R4 (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
To convert the galvanometer in to a voltmeter, he has to connect a series resistor R with the galvanometer
such that when V = 9 volt, that voltmeter will give full–scale deflection, or a current ig flows through the
galvanometer (when 9 volt is applied).
The value of R is:

V
R G
Ig

570
Here, V = 9 volt
Ig = 30×k
= 30×1.5×10–4 A
= 4.5×10–3 A

G = 300 
9
 R  300
4.5  103

= 1700 
The colour code corresponding to this R is:
Brown, Violet, Red.
Therefore R4 is to be used as R.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Easy Half Deflection Method
54. While performing the galvanometer experiment using half deflection method, a student
got almost the same value for S, every time, whatever be the value of R he had set in the
(high value) resistance box. This is because

(1) The resistance box in which S is put is faulty (Incorrect)

(2) Resistance G is very low (Incorrect)
(3) In half–deflection method, current gets divided between G and S and R is very high
(Correct)
(4) The internal resistance of the d.c source varies with current flow (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)

571
Solution:
Here, the galvanometer is a very sensitive device. The current flowing in it should be very low. So R should
be quite high.
The formula for G is
RS
G
R S
Since R is large, (R-S) is almost equal to R.
RS
This shows that, G  S
R

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Finding the Resistance of Galvanometer
55. For the circuit shown here, the galvanometer deflection equals (i) 15 divisons when the key
K2 is kept open and (ii) 3 divisions when key K2 is closed. The resistance of this galvanometer
is (nearly)

(1) 60  (Incorrect)
(2) 64  (Correct)
(3) 68  (Incorrect)
(4) 75  (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
With the key K2 open, the current, through the galvanometer, is

i1 
R G
 GS 
When the key K2 is closed, the total resistance of the circuit equals  R   . Hence the current,
  G  S 

572
through the galvanometer, is
  S  S
i2   
  GS    G  S  RG  GS  SR
R   G  S 
  

3 i
We are given that i 2  i1  1
15 5
 5 RS  5GS  RG  GS  SR
 G  4S  R   4 RS
4 RS
 G
R  4S
4  1000 15  1000 
   60  
1000  60   940 
 63.8   64 

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Focal Length of Concave Mirror
56. In the experiment to find the focal length of a concave mirror, using parallex method, a
student placed the object pin at a point so at to obtain an enlarged real image. He used an
image pin in order to locate the position of this real image of the object pin, by trying to
remove the parallex between the two. Checking for parallex, he observed that the image of
the object pin moved through greater distance than the image pin, with respect to the edge
of the mirror, when he moved his eye. The position, across the optical bench (with respect
to the present position of the image pin), of the image (of the object–pin) is:
(1) Closer to his eyes. (Correct)
(2) Closer to the centre of curvature of the mirror. (Incorrect)
(3) between the image pin and the centre of curvature of the mirror. (Incorrect)
(4) At the position of the object pin. (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
It is obvious that more the relative distance moved closer will be the object observed (here the image of the
object–pin), with respect to the other.Hence the image (of the object pin) is closer to his eyes.

573
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Average Focal Length of Convex Lens
57. While using the displacement method, for determination of focal length of a convex lens, a
student placed the object pin at 10 cm mark on the optical bench and the imge pin at 90 cm
mark. He was able to obtain the image of the object pin, over the image pin, without any
parallax for two different positions of the convex lens. He observed that, in order to obtain
these two positions of the lens, he had to move the lens from the first position to the second
position through 40 cm. The focal length of the lens is:
(1) 10 cm (Incorrect)
(2) 15 cm (Correct)
(3) 20 cm (Incorrect)
(4) 40 cm (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The formula for f in the displacement method is:

f
D 2
 x2 
Here (D = (90–10) cm = 80 cm, x = 40 cm)
4D

 f
80 2
 40 2 
4  80
6400  1600
 cm
320
4800
 cm  15cm
320

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Focal Length of Convex Lens
58. In the experiment to determine the focal length of a convex lens, using the method of
parallex, the following observation were recorded by a student. Which of the observations
is possibly not taken correctly by the student?

574
 (1) S. No. 6 (Incorrect)
(2) S. No. 5 (Incorrect)
(3) S. No. 4 (Correct)
(4) S. No. 3 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
1 1 1
Obtaining the values of u and v for each set and calculating the value f using the formula   , we get
f v u
the following table.

Clearly, observation at Sl. No. 4, has not been taken correctly.

575
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Average Focal Length of Convex Lens
59. A convex lens, of focal length, f1, and a convex mirror
(having its centre of curvature at the point C), of focal
length, f2, are set up as shown. It is observed that, for
this set up, there is no parallex between an object,
put at A, and its image, formed by the ‘combination’.
The ratio of the focal length, f1 and f2, is then equal, to

d a  x  d 
(1) 2a  x  d  (Incorrect)

a a  x  d 
(2) 2a  x  d  (Incorrect)

2a  x  d 
(3) d a  x  d  (Correct)

2d  x  d 
(4) a a  x  d  (Incorrect)

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
The image of the object, put at A, coincides with the object itself. This implies that the rays, refracted by the
convex lens, are incident normally on the convex mirror. Hence the image, formed by the convex lens
alone, is at a distance (x+d), from the lens. For the lens, we then have
v = (x+d) and u = –a
1 1 1
  
x  d  a  f1

a x  d
This gives f1 
a  x  d
We are given that C is the centre of curvature of the mirror.
d
Hence f 2 
2
f1 2a  x  d 
 
f2 d  a  x  d 

576
 Unit–21 : Experimental Skills
Average Refraction of Lightly Prism
60. A ray of light is incident at grazing incidence on one face of an equilateral prism made from
a transparent material of refractive index 2 . The angle of emergence, and the angle of
deviation, for this ray, would be equal to (respectively),

 
(1) sin 1  2 sin150  and   sin 1  2 sin150   (Correct)
6 
 
(2) sin 1  2 sin 750  and   sin 1  2 cos150   (Incorrect)
6 
 
(3) sin 1  2 sin 750  and   sin 1  2 sin150   (Incorrect)
6 
 
(4) sin 1  2 sin150  and   sin 1  2 cos150   (Incorrect)
6 
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
For the ray, incident at grazing incidence, on one face, the corresponding angle of refraction, r1, would be
given by
sin 900

sin r1
1 1
 sin r1  
 2
 r1  450
If angle of incidence, at the second face, is r2, we would have
r1+r2 = A = 600
 r2 = 150
 If e is the angle of emergence, we have
sin e
 2
sin150
 e  sin 1  2 sin150 
Also, if D is the angle of deviation, we have

577
 i + e = A+D
 D =i+ e–A
 900  sin 1  2 sin150   600

 300  sin 1  2 sin150 

 
   sin 1  2 sin150  
6 

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Refractive of Light Through a Prism
61. A ray of light, incident on the face AB of a prism (made from a material of refractive index
μ ) gets refracted there and falls on its other face AC. If it were to go grazing along this
face, the angle of refraction (< r), at the face AB, would equal

 1 1 
(1)  A  sin


 as well as sin sin cos  sin  A  D  
1 1
 (Incorrect)
 
 1 1 
(2)  A  sin


 as well as sin  cos sin  cos  A  D  
1 1
 (Incorrect)
 
 1 1 
(3)  A  sin

 1

 as well as sin cos sin  cos  A  D   
1
(Incorrect)
 
 1 1 
(4)  A  sin

 1

 as well as sin sin cos  sin  A  D   
1
(Correct)


Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
It is clear that the angle of emergence, at the face AC, is 900. The angle of incidence (say r’), at the face

578
  1
AC, must equal the critical angle   sin 1  for the material of the given prism.
 
We have r + r’ = A
 1
 r   A  sin 1 
 
Also, i + e (+ i + 900) = A+D
 i = (A+D) – 900

 cos i  cos  A  D   90 0   cos 90 0   A  D  

= sin (A+D)

 i  cos 1 sin  A  D  
Again, by Snell’s law,
sin i

sin r
sin i
 sin r 


 sin  cos 1  sin  A  D   


 r  sin 1 sin cos 1  sin  A  D   
  

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Refraction of Light by Prism
62. Light, incident on the face AB, of an equilateral prism (made
from a material of refractive index μ ), undergoes total
internal reflection at the base BC and then falls on the other
face AC of the prism. The angle of emergence, from the face
AC, would equal
   1  
(1) sin 1  sin   sin 1     (Incorrect)
 3     

   1  
(2) sin 1  sin   sin 1     (Correct)
 3     

579
    1  
(3) sin 1 sin   sin 1     (Incorrect)
  3     

   1  
(4) sin 1 sin   sin 1     (Incorrect)
  3     

Correct answer: (2)

Solution:
Since there is total internal reflection at the face BC, we have
1 1
sin   or   sin 1  
 
From cyclic quadrilaterial QRCS, we get
<ROS = 1800 – <C = 1200
 From triangle ROS, we get
  1    1 
 r2  1800  1200  sin 1      600  sin 1   
       
sin e
But sin r  
2

   1  
 e  sin 1  sin  600  sin 1    
      

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Real and Apparent Height
63. A transparent oil, of refractive index 7/5, is poured over a layer
of water (refractive index = 4/3) in a glass container. The ‘depths’
of the oil and water layers, are in the inverse ratio of their
refractive indices.
A tiny shining metal ball, lying at the bottom of the container, is
viewed from above. Its ‘apparent height’, above the bottom of
the container equals, a fraction, f, of the total depth of the two
liquids in the container. The fraction, f, is (nearly) equal to

580
 (1) 0.27 (Correct)
(2) 0.30 (Incorrect)
(3) 0.32 (Incorrect)
(4) 0.35 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:

4 7
The depths, of the two liquids, are in the ratio : ; i.e., 20:21. We can therefore, take the total depth, of
3 5
the two liquids, as [(20+21)x] units, i.e.; (41x) units.
 7  100 x
Apparent depth of the top layer =  20 x    units
 5 7
 4  63 x
Apparent depth of the bottom layer =  21x    units
 3 4
 841 
 Total apparent depth =  28 x  units
 
 841 
 Apparent height of the ball =  41x – x  units
 28 
307
= x units
28
307  1   307 
 f x     0.27
28  41x   1148 

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Difficult Refractive Index
64. A tiny air bubble, trapped inside a glass cube of side a, appears to be at distances x1 and x2,
respectively, when viewed from two opposite faces of the cube. The refractive index, of
glass, and the actual distance (x) of the air bubble, from the first of the two faces, are then
equal, respectively, to

 x1  x2   a x1 
(1)  a  and  x  x  (Incorrect)
   1 2

581
  x1  x2   a x2 
(2)  a  and  x  x  (Incorrect)
   1 2

 a   a x2 
(3)   and   (Incorrect)
 x1  x2   x1  x2 

 a   a x1 
(4)   and   (Correct)
 x1  x2   x1  x2 

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:
1
The apparent distance, of the air bubble from the first face, is times its real distance (= x) from that face.

x
Hence x1 

a– x
For the opposite face, the real distance, of the air bubble, would be (a–x). Hence x2   
  
Dividing, we get
x1 x

x2 a  x
x1 x x
  
x1  x2 x   a  x  a
 x1 
 xa  
 x1  x2 
x  ax1  1
   
x1  x1  x2  x1
a

 x1  x2 

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average ‘Real and Apparent Depth’
65. Three layers of three different transparent media (of refractive indices n1, n2 and n3,
respectively) have thicknesses d1, d2 and d3, respectively. Their total apparent depth, when
viewed from above, would appear to be (nearly)

582
 d1 d 2 d 3
(1)   (Incorrect)
n 2 n 3 n1

 1  1   1 
(2) d1  1    d 2 1    d 3 1   (Incorrect)
 n1   n2   n3 
1
(3)  d1 n 2 n 3  d 2 n 3 n 1  d 3 n 1 n 2  (Correct)
n 1n 2 n 3
1
(4)  d1 n1 n 2  d 2 n 2 n 3  d 3 n 3 n 1  (Incorrect)
n 1n 2 n 3

Correct answer: (3)

Solution:
1
The apparent depth, of a layer of a medium of refractive index  , is   times its real depth. Hence the

total apparent depth, of the three layers, wuold be
d d d 
d'   1  2  3 
 n1 n 2 n 3 
1
  d1 n 2 n 3  d 2 n 3 n 1  d 3 n 1 n 2 
n 1n 2 n 3

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Easy P–N Junction Diode
66. The reverse saturation current in a p–n junction diode
(1) increases with increase in applied voltage (Incorrect)
(2) decreases with increase in applied voltage (Incorrect)
(3) increases with increase in temperature (Correct)
(4) decreases with increase in temperature (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
Reverse saturation current depends on the rate of generation of electron hole pair, which is independent of
the applied voltage.

583
  Eg 
In fact, IS  exp  
 kT 
(Eg = energy band gap, K = Boltzman constant, T = Temperature)
Hence IS increases as T increases.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average P–N Junction Diode
67. The slope of (log I) vs voltage curve (for a p–n junction diode), can be used to determine,
(1) Planck’s constant (Incorrect)
(2) Boltzman constant (Correct)
(3) Reverse saturation current (Incorrect)
(4) Mobility of minority charge carriers (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
We have
  eV  
I  I 0  exp  
   kT  
eV
 log I  log IS 
kT
e
 slope 
kT
It can give value of k.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Easy P–N Junction Diode
68. The depletion region in a p–n junction is so called because it is deplected of,
(1) Ionized donor impurities (Incorrect)
(2) Ionized acceptor impurities (Incorrect)
(3) Immobile charge carriers (Incorrect)
(4) Mobile charges carriers (Correct)

584
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
There is a recombination of electrons and holes in the deplections region. Hence the charge carriers, in this
region, are immobile.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Easy P–N Junction Diode
69. The motion of charge carriers, across the potential barrier, in a forward and reverse biased
p–n junction, is due, respectively, to
(1) Drift, diffusion (Incorrect)
(2) Diffusion, drift (Correct)
(3) Drift in both cases (Incorrect)
(4) Diffusion in both cases (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The charge carriers, diffuse across the junction during the forward biasing of a p–n junction.
During reverse biasing, the motion of charge cariers, is due to their drift.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Zener Diode
70. In the circuit given below, the Zener voltage is maintained at 6V. Zener resistance is
negaligible and the Zener knee current is 10mA. The minimum value of RL, is

(1) 75  (Incorrect)
(2) 150  (Incorrect)
(3) 300  (Incorrect)

585
 (4) 600  (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
We have,

9V  6V 3
IS   A  20mA
150  150

I S = IZ + IL
 20 mA = 10 mA + IL
 IL = 10 mA

VZ 6V
 RL    600 
10 mA 10 mA

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Zener Diode
71. In the circuit given below, the Zener voltage is 6V, dynamic resistance of Zener is 10 Ω and
Zener current is negligible. If input voltage varies between 9V to 12V, the output voltage
would

(1) always be 6V (Incorrect)

(2) lie between 9V to12V (Incorrect)
(3) equal 9V (Incorrect)
(4) lie between 6.1875V to 6.375V (Correct)
Correct answer: (4)
Solution:
The equivalent circuit diagram gives

586
 Vi  Vz Vi  6
I 
150  10 160
V0  Vz  10 I

V 6
 6Vz  10  i 
 160 
If V1 = 9V  V0 = 6.1875 V
If V1 = 12V  V0 = 6.375 v

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Easy Doping of a Diode
72. It will be correct to say that,
(1) A lightly doped diode has a thin deplection layer and a higher breakdown voltage (Incorrect)
(2) A heavily doped diode has a thin deplection layer and a lower breakdown voltage (Correct)
(3) A lightly doped diode has a wide deplection layer and a lower breakdown voltage (Incorrect)
(4) A heavily doped diode has wide deplection layer and a higher breakdown voltage Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The width of the deplection layer, as well as the barrier potential across the junction, both decrease with an
increase in the extent of doping, of the p and n sides, of the p–n junction diode.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Easy Junction Transistor
73. The input resistance, of a pnp transistor, in its common emitter configuration, is given by,

 VBE 
(1)   at constant VCE (Correct)
 IB 
 VBE 
(2)   at constant IC (Incorrect)
 IB 
 VCE 
(3)   at constant VB (Incorrect)
 IC 

587
  VCE 
(4)   at constant VBE (Incorrect)
 IC 

Correct answer: (1)

Solution:
The input resitance is defined as
 V 
ri   BE  at constant VCE
 I B 

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Easy Junction Transistor
74. In a bijunction transistor, the base region is,
(1) Lightly doped so that recombination is more (Incorrect)
(2) Lightly doped so that recombination is less (Correct)
(3) Heavily doped so that recombination is more (Incorrect)
(4) Heavily doped so that recombination is less (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The base region is kept thin and is also lightly doped. This is to ensure that the charge carriers, from the
emitter, cross over (without any significant recombination) and get collected in the collector region.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Junction Transistor
75. One of the differences/similarity, in the operation of a transistor amplifier, and a step–up
transformer, is
(1) In transistor, if voltage increases, current also increases, in step–up transformer, if voltage
increases, current decreases (Correct)
(2) In transistor, if voltage increases, current increase; in step–up transformer, if voltage increasee,
current increases (Incorrect)
(3) In both of them, if voltage increases, current also increases (Incorrect)

588
 (4) In both of them, if voltage increases, current decreases (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
The transistor can bring about an increases in voltage along with an increase in current. This is because the
increased power, in the ‘output’ of a transistor, comes at the expense of the power supplied by the biasing
battery.
In a step–up transformer, there is no such power source. Hence the ‘output’ power – even in the case of
an ideal transformer – can at best be equal to the ‘input’ power. The increase in voltage, here, is accompnied
by a decrease in current, and vice–versa.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average ‘Current Gain’ in a Transistor

76. For a given transistor, if β = 200, the value of α will be (almost) equal to

(1) 0.0 (Incorrect)

(2) 1.0 (Correct)
(3) 200 (Incorrect)
(4) 201 (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
 200
   0.995  1.0
1   201
I C
This is so because  is the current gain in the common base configuration. It equals I and is always
E
less than unity.
I C
'  ' , on the other hand, is the current gain in the common–emitter configuration. It equals I . Remembering
B

that IE   IC  IB  , we get the given relation between  and  .

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Multimeter Use
77. While checking a diode with a digital multimeter, set to its ‘diode’ symbol, a good diode is
expected to show.

589
 (1) 0 V in both forward and reverse biasing (Incorrect)
(2) 0.5 V – 0.7 V in both forward and reverse biasing (Incorrect)
(3) 0.5 V – 0.7 V in only one direction of polarity (Correct)
(4) 1 in both forward and reverse polarity (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (3)
Solution:
In forward bias, it shows voltage drop across the diode which is small, 0.5–0.7 V. In reverse bias, it shows
large, overload, signifying large ( ) resistance.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Easy LED
78. The voltage drop, across a LED, when connected in forward bias configuration to a
multimeter, is,
(1) 0.5 to 0.7 mV (Incorrect)
(2) 1.5 to 2.2 V (Incorrect)
(3) 0.5 to 0.7 V (Correct)
(4) 1.5 to 2.2 mV (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (2)
Solution:
The voltage drop, across LED, in the forward bias configuration, is in the range of 1.5 V to 2.2V.

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Easy Identification of a Given Device
79. A small device has a yellow colored capsule top and has 220 written on it. There is no + or
– sign on it. This device is likely to be

(1) Electrolyte capacitor of value 220 F (Incorrect)

(2) Electrolytc capacitor of value 22 F (Incorrect)

(3) Ceramic capacitor of value 220 F (Incorrect)

590
 (4) Ceramic capacitor of value 22 pF (Correct)

Correct answer: (4)

Solution:

The given description matches a ceramic capacitor of value 22 pF .

Unit–21 : Experimental Skills

Average Identifying the Base of a Transistor
80. If negative probe of a multimeter is placed n the base of a p–n–p transistor, then ohm meter
reading, with other probe placed on one of the other pins, will show
(1) a low resistance (Correct)
(2) a high resistance (Incorrect)
(3) zero resistance (Incorrect)
(4) (1–) reading (Incorrect)
Correct answer: (1)
Solution:
When the negative probe of a multimeter (adjusted to work as an ohm meter) is placed on the base of a
p–n–p transistor, and the other probe is placed on the of the other pins, it will show a ‘low resistnace’
reading. This is so because this way, of connecting the multimeter probes, corresponds to a forward
biasing of the (p–n junction) being investigated.

591