Formal Methods in Software Engineering

(FMSE)

Lecture # 4

September 26, 2017

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Recapping.....

What is propositional Logic?

Why do we need to use Propositional Logic in formal

methods?

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Syntax of Propositional Logic

There are six different types of sentences:

Negation consist of negation operators “neg”

Conjunction consists of sequence of sentences separated by “∧”

operator and enclose in parenthesis. For example; (p ∧ q)

Disjunction consists of sequence of sentences separated by “∨”

operator and enclose in parenthesis. For example; (p ∨ q)

Implication consist of pair of sentences separated by “→” and

enclosed in parenthesis. For Example; (p → q) where p is called
antecedent and q is known as consequent.

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Syntax of Propositional Logic

Reduction is the reverse of implication. For example; (p ← q). In

implication, “q” is the antecedent and “p” is consequent.

Equivalence expresses the equivalence of both arguments p and q. It

represents the combination of an implication and a reduction. For
example; (p → q) ∧ (p ← q) or (p ↔ q)

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Semantics of Propositional Logic

Semantic shows the meaning or interpretation of the given expression.

It reveals the real world meaning of the arguments.
If the truth value of any sentence is true then the truth value of its
negation is false and vice versa. For example; If p is true then ¬p is
false. If ¬p is true then p is false.

The truth value of conjunctive sentence is true if and only if both

conjunctive arguments must be true. otherwise truth value is false.
For example; (p ∧ q) is true iff p and q both are true.

The truth value of disjunctive sentence is true if and only if any one
or both sentences must be true. otherwise truth value is false. For
example; (p ∨ q) is true iff p or q is true or both p and q are true.

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Semantics of Propositional Logic

The truth value of an implication is false if and only if its antecedent

is true and consequent is false, otherwise the truth value must be
true. For example; (p → q) if p is true and q is false then we can say
that the argument is not valid. For all other combinations, it must be
valid.
The truth value of a reduction is false if and only if its antecedent is
true and consequent is false, otherwise the truth value must be true.
For example; (q ← p) if q is true and p is false then we can say that
the argument is not valid. Otherwise it will be valid for all other
combinations.
An equivalence is said to be true if and only if the truth value of its
consequent must match, which means either both true or both false.
For example; (p ↔ q) iff both p and q are true or both p and q are
false.

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Validity in Propositional Logic

Valid sentence is a sentence that is true under all interpretations, no

matter what the world actually like or how semantics are defined.

An argument is said to be valid when premises are true and

conclusion must be true.

A formula is valid if it holds under every assignment and called

tautology.

For Example; Sky is blue or (p ∨ ¬p)

(un)satisfiable if it is true in some (no) interpretation,

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Decidability in Propositional Logic

Propositional logic is clearly decidable.

We can determine it with the finite amount of time whether the

argument is valid or not.

We can do the same task by constructing truth table but constructing

truth table is an expensive procedure, it requires exponential time
namely 2n .

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Entailment in Propositional Logic

A model is an interpretation (i.e., an assignment of truth values to

symbols) of a set of sentences such that each sentence is True. A
model is just a formal mathematical structure that “stands in” for the
world.

Given a set Γ of formulas and

A formula ϕ,

we write Γ |= ϕ iff every interpretation that makes all formulas in Γ

true makes ϕ also true.

Γ |= ϕ is read as “Γ entails ϕ” or “ϕ logically follows from Γ”.

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Properties of Entailment in Propositional Logic

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Soundness of Propositional Logic

In the soundness, reasoning derive only true statements.

It is a formula that is provable, is true.

Example; If Γ ` ϕ, then Γ |= ϕ. (if a formula ϕ can be derived from a

set of formulas Γ, then ϕ is a consequence of Γ).

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Sound Rules of Inference

Some examples of sound rules of inference. Each can be shown to be

sound once and for all using a truth table. We write each of these
derivations as A ` B , where A is the premise and B is the derived
sentence.

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Completeness in Propositional Logic

In completeness, Reasoning derives all true statements, which means

every true formula is provable.

Completeness asserts the existence of rules that allow to deduce every

consequence from any set of formula in the logic.

For example; Γ |= ϕ if and only if Γ ` ϕ. If Γ models ϕ then we can

also derive ϕ from a set of formula Γ.

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Logical Equivalences

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Conditional Logical Equivalences

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Biconditional Logical Equivalences

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Practice Question

¬(p ∨ (¬p ∧ q)) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q

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A Proof in Propositional Logic

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Normal Form in PL

A literal is an atomic formula or negation of an atomic formula that

may be positive or negative.

For example; A is positive literal. ¬ A is negative literal.

There are two major types of Normal forms.

Conjunctive normal form: A formula in conjunctive normal form

(CNF) is a conjunction of clauses.Example: (p ∨ ¬q ∨ r ) ∧ (¬p ∨ ¬r )

Disjunctive normal form: we can define formulae in disjunctive

normal form (DNF) by swapping the words “conjunction” and
“disjunction” in the definitions above. Example:
(¬p ∧ q ∧ r ) ∨ (¬q ∧ ¬r ) ∨ (p ∧ r ‘).

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Transformation into Conjunctive Normal Form

For every propositional formula one can construct an equivalent one in

conjunctive normal form.
1 Express all other operators by conjunction, disjunction and negation.

2 Push negations inward by De Morgan’s laws and the double negation

law until negations appear only in literals.

3 Use the commutative, associative and distributive laws to obtain the

correct form.

4 Simplify with domination, identity, idempotent, and negation laws.

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Example: Transformation into CNF

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Limitations of Propositional Logic

Propositional Logic is too weak representational language. Due to certain

limitations, other logics were introduced to overcome these problem:
Propositional Logic deals with simple declarative sentences.

Proposition have only boolean value that may either be true or false.

No quantifier variables are used in this logic. e,g; there exit, for all.

In propositional logic, it is very difficult to express the large domains

concisely.

There is no defined properties of individuals. For example; Bill is tall.

Generalization, patterns and regularities can’t be easily presented.

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Summary

Our aim is to give a broad overview of the formal verification methods

employed in the industry.

Model Checking

Theorem Proving

Propositional Logic (we already have discussed)

We started with the ‘simplest’ logic (propositional logic) and will proceed
as per plan

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Summary

Traditionally, propositional logic has been regarded as fairly boring,

and is usually regarded as a stepping-stone on the way to first order
logic (and beyond).

There are several limitations but Propositional logic is clearly

decidable in theory

However, the last decade has seen a remarkable upsurge of interest in

propositional logic. In fact, it’s arguably the hottest topic in
automated theorem proving!

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 Thanks!

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