A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land…

Water Harvesting from

Low-Standard Rural Roads

By Bill Zeedyk

First Edition: April 2006

A Joint Publication of The Quivira Coalition, Zeedyk Ecological Consulting, LLC,
The Rio Puerco Management Committee – Watershed Initiative, and the
New Mexico Environment Department – Surface Water Quality Bureau.
 Bill Zeedyk addressing a water harvesting workshop on the CS Ranch, Cimarron, NM. October 2004

“A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land…”

“A road lies easily on the land if it is located on a landform where it can be readily
and effectively drained (neither too steep nor too flat); is functional when used as intended
(class of vehicle, season and suitable weather conditions); has appropriate drainage
features (closely spaced, properly situated and adequately maintained); preserves the
natural drainage pattern of the landform; conserves water; does not cause or contribute
to accelerated soil loss, lost productivity or water pollution; does not encroach on wetland
or riparian areas; and is scenically pleasing.
A road is not easy on the land if it collects, concentrates or accelerates surface or
subsurface runoff; causes or contributes to soil erosion; impairs or reduces the productivity
of adjacent lands or waters; wastes water; unnecessarily intrudes upon key habitats,
stream channels, floodplains, wetlands, wet meadows or other sensitive soils; and is
aesthetically offensive.”
—Bill Zeedyk
 Table of Contents
Introduction.......................................................................................i-1
Chapter I: Assessing Needs and Opportunities.........................................I-3
Purpose, History, Standards and Legal Status
Land Impacts
Water Harvesting Options
Location and Alignment
Chapter II: Reading the Landscape:
Geology, Topography, Hydrology and Soils...............................II-5
Topography
Soil Texture and Depth
Climate and Precipitation Patterns
Hydrology
Soil Erosion and Sediment Transport
Chapter III: Reading the Roadway.........................................................III-9
Grade
Width
Cross Section
Berm
Plan Form
Drainage Systems
Road or Borrow Ditch
Lead-off, Furrow or Wing Ditch
Cross Drain and Lead-Out Ditch
Lead-In Ditch
Interceptor or Cut-Off Ditch
Stream Crossings
Chapter IV: Road System Planning and
Management Strategies and Practices...................................IV-13
Management Strategies
Management Guidelines and Practices
Ditch Management
Chapter V: Treatments......................................................................V-15
Blading (smoothing)
Grade Reversals
Outsloping
Insloping
Berms
Water Bars
Cross Drains
Rolling Dip
Flat Land Drain
Piped Drains (Culverts)
Road Closures
Erosion Control and Revegetation

Table of Contents
 Table of Contents cont.
Chapter VI: Survey and Design: Placing Treatments on the Ground.............IV-26
Survey Equipment
Standard Marking Procedure
Procedure
Guidelines
First Chance, Last Chance, Best Chance, No Chance
Preferred Treatments

Chapter VII: Monitoring: Are Maintenance Practices Effective?..................VII-29

Flow Paths
Cross Sections
Erosional Features
Ditches and Cross Drains
Vegetation Response
Water Quality

Chapter VIII: Streams, Wetlands, Springs and Ciénegas............................VIII-32

Guidelines for Stream Crossings
Guidelines for Streamside Road Locations
Guidelines for Roads Crossing Springs and Ciénegas
Guidelines for Roads Crossing Wetlands and Former Wetlands

Chapter IX: Tools and Equipment - Getting the Job Done..........................IX-36

Soil Type and Conditions
Equipment
Bulldozer
Backhoes and Skid-steer Units
Motor Graders
Small Farm Tractors
Chain Harrow
Pick and Shovel
Equipment Operation Safety Tips

Appendix A: Glossary...........................................................................39

Appendix B: Weights and Measures.........................................................41

Appendix C: Permits and Clearances........................................................41

Appendix D: Recommended Readings.......................................................42

Appendix E: Maintenance Treatments......................................................43

Table of Contents
Introduction
This book addresses the construction and maintenance “Roads alter water movement across
of unpaved rural roads including strategies, techniques the landscape, which can concentrate and
and practices for dealing with problems frequently accelerate flow and cause soil erosion and
encountered by landowners, land managers and gully formation.”
maintenance personnel. Running water is the primary
force affecting road condition and generating the need can be extremely valuable in conserving water and
for maintenance. Economical maintenance means using it wisely. In other words, roads can be managed
dealing effectively with water, but not just surface runoff. as tools for saving water, improving vegetative cover
Standing water, seeping water, rain, snow, ice, frost and and increasing forage yields while protecting valuable
even a lack of water can contribute to road maintenance soils from erosion.
needs. An acre of impermeable road surface can yield about
25,000 gallons of water from a one-inch rainfall event.
For the purposes of this book, low standard roads
are loosely defined as single lane, constructed of native
materials, unsurfaced and without permanent drainage
structures other than the occasional cross drain culverts
or ditches.
Low standard rural roads commonly are roads which
have simply evolved over time without the benefit of
engineering. Most take the direct or “logical” route
across the landscape and “have always been there.” Such
Photo i-1: Gully formation caused by surface runoff captured by
roads include old wagon roads, ranch roads, driveways,
an old wagon road. subdivision roads, logging and mining roads, power and
Water can be a nuisance, but is also a valuable natural pipeline roads, fire access routes, hunter, woodhauler and
resource. As the West becomes more populated, as the four-wheeler tracks.
demand for water escalates and the available supply
shrinks, practical measures for harvesting or conserving
water become increasingly useful. This book introduces
the concept of harvesting water from low standard rural
roads as an important aspect of maintenance activities.
Roads alter water movement across the landscape,
which can concentrate and accelerate flow and cause
soil erosion and gully formation. Roads can divert
surface and subsurface flows, causing affected sites to
dry out and lose productivity. Sediment-laden runoff Photo i-2: A low standard ranch road, unsurfaced and without
permanent drainage features.
from road surfaces, and their associated ditch systems,
can be a major source of In most cases where low standard roads were, in
water pollution and turbidity. fact, engineered water was
The very practices aimed “Low standard rural roads commonly are often treated as a nuisance
at maintaining roads and roads which have simply evolved over time to be disposed of as cheaply
offsetting negative effects without benefit of engineering.” as possible. Unique values

Introduction 
associated with streams, wetlands, riparian areas, springs,
seeps or ciénegas were seldom appreciated or protected “The Achilles’ heel of low standard roads is
in the road building process. poor drainage.”
Low standard roads are normally constructed of native
of this book is to describe how to design, locate and
materials found locally on site and vary immensely
install efficient drainage features so that damage caused
in texture, erodibility, load-bearing strength and
by runoff is minimized and the need for maintenance
trafficability. Most lack proper drainage and require
reduced.
constant re-grading or other costly maintenance activities.
By installing drainage features that not only protect the
Width, slope, location and alignment are haphazard.
road from erosion, but also direct the water to buffered
sites where infiltration can occur, landowners can realize
the added benefit of harvested water while reducing
maintenance costs.
This book addresses techniques for recognizing water
harvesting opportunities, ways of managing roads to
reduce off-site erosion and even ways of managing roads
to restore damaged sites.
During one road reconstruction project, approximately
2.4 miles or 3.5 acres of road surface was effectively
drained and the runoff diverted onto grassland adjoining
Photo i-3: Least-cost treatments rarely prove effective. the roadway. Thirty drains were installed that will
irrigate approximately 1/2 acre of grassland per drain.
The Achilles’ heel of low standard roads is poor
Three and a half acres of properly drained roadway at
drainage. When water is disposed of as quickly as
this location receive about 15 inches of annual rainfall.
possible without regard to its source or where it goes,
This equates to approximately 875,000 gallons of water
poor drainage results and water is wasted. Drainage
harvested per year going directly to irrigate grassland
structures are rudimentary, no more than the minimum
vegetation and not traveling down the roadway to the
required to get rid of excess water on the spot and without
nearest gully to create more sediment and erosion.
regard to off-site effects. Seldom do drainage features
Finally, road runoff is a major cause of “non-point
take into account the power of concentrated flow and
source” pollution throughout the West. Sediment from
accelerated velocity to magnify erosion rates. Ultimately,
roads and road-induced erosion gullies is a primary
drainage structures fail due to accelerated erosion
cause of stream turbidity. Sediment washed from roads
and accumulating sediment deposits. Unfortunately,
impairs water quality, damages fish and wildlife habitat,
accelerated off-site soil erosion and soil loss is the
silts in reservoirs and clogs irrigation systems. Reducing
normal result of poorly designed drainage structures and
sediment yield from roads is an important part of the
improper maintenance. To make up for poor drainage,
nation’s clean water program.
road managers are forced to grade and maintain roads
There are, as we will see, many things to consider
more often and at increased cost.
when assessing, planning, managing and treating a low
Periodic maintenance is an essential part of road
standard rural road or road system. The issue is more
management. Even
complicated than simply,
low-standard roads require
“Periodic maintenance is an essential part of “what can I do to keep that
occasional treatment
road management. Even low standard roads road passable until the next
but maintenance can be
require occasional treatment but maintenance time it rains?”
expensive. One purpose
can be expensive.”

 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
I. Assessing Needs and Opportunities
On-the-ground assessment is not just
an academic exercise. It is essential to
good planning and wise management. By
conducting an inventory and assessment
land managers can describe by segment, the
road system under management including
standard, length, status, condition, maintenance
needs, water harvesting opportunities and
priorities for maintenance, closure, relocation
or reconstruction. Topographic maps, aerial
photos, remote sensing or GIS can be helpful
in identifying all roads in the system and
classifying each by segment, condition and
length.
Having once completed an inventory and
assigning names or numbers to each route,
consider the following questions:
Purpose
What is the purpose of the road and its
primary use? How does the road fit into the
system? How important is it to ranch operations
or land management? Does it provide primary
access to ranch headquarters or shipping pens,
for example, or is it used only incidentally to
ranch operations? Is it really needed at all? Is
it the main artery or just a feeder road?
History Photo I-1: Example of a Road Survey Assessment Map.

Why is the road where it is? Why maintain what is the correct width, maximum grade, clearance,
it? Has it been a maintenance problem in the past? Is it bearing strength, surfacing and type of stream crossing
there only because it has always been there? Does it have needed to serve intended traffic. Will the road be used by
emotional, aesthetic, or cultural value? Is it sometimes low clearance vehicles for daily access to headquarters?
convenient to use but not Will it require all weather
really necessary? Is it there “On-the-ground assessment is not just an surfacing? Will it be used
only because that is where academic exercise. It is essential to good planning by livestock haulers (semi-
the first wagon road went and wise management.” trucks) with low clearance
years ago? or logging trucks with high
Standards clearance? Pickup truck with livestock trailer? Wood
The purpose for which a road is used will define the hauling?
proper standard. What is the intended use? What class of Legal Status
vehicle will be using the road and how often? What is the What is the legal status of the road? Sole ownership?
appropriate standard for the intended use? For example Easement? Width of easement? Are there buried

Chapter I: Assessing Needs and Opportunities 

cables or pipelines? (Call before you dig! 1-800-424-
5555 or www.callbeforeyoudig.com). Is there shared
ownership or shared use? Public? If public, what
agency maintains it? Is a permit required to maintain
or modify the roadway or alignment? What permits are
needed before work begins (county, state or federal)?
Land ownership and/or the easement may belong to
the United States Forest Service (USFS), the Bureau
of Land Management (BLM), State Land Commission,
State Highway Department or county. Required permits
may include archealogical, endangered species or Clean
Water Act (CWA) clearances (Appendix C). Photo I-4: A rolling dip deflecting water from a ranch road to the
adjacent grassland.
about foraging areas and pastures? If so, how, where
and when? Are there any chronic management or
maintenance problems that need to be addressed?

Water Harvesting Options

Is road runoff being effectively returned to the soil
and watering grass and other vegetation, or is it being
lost to the nearest ditch, gully or arroyo? What options
are available for restoring site productivity by enhancing
Photo I-2: A gate closing an old logging road within the Valle Vidal
water harvesting opportunities?
unit of Carson National Forest. Location and Alignment
Land Impacts With the above assessment in mind, is the road on
Does the road adversely impact other uses or the best location and alignment for its purpose and use?
resources? If so, how, where and when? Does it capture What are the potential benefits and costs of closing,
runoff, cause or contribute to soil erosion, degrade a abandoning, relocating or reconstructing the road on the
stream channel, damage a wetland, or pollute a stream? same or better location? Should troublesome segments
Is it entrenched on the landscape and diverting water be abandoned, relocated or reconstructed?
away from its natural landscape or watershed? Does For example: Does the road divert runoff out of its
it disturb wildlife or damage productive habitats? How natural subwatershed and into the next? If so, the added
water could accelerate erosion at the receiving end while
starving the natural drainage for moisture.
The above questions can assist the owner or manager in
a clearer understanding of the road system in respect to its
landscape. Information and concepts from Chapters I, II
and III may be useful in developing a road management
plan as discussed in Chapter IV. The result should be
an increased ability to recognize opportunities and set
priorities for road maintenance and water harvesting.
After studying Chapters II and III, the reader may wish
Photo I-3: Soil erosion resulting from concentrated runoff from an to revisit this chapter.
unpaved rural road.

 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
II. Reading the Landscape: Geology, Topography,
Hydrology and Soils
A road serves at the pleasure of its landscape.
Geologic formations, topographic features, drainage
patterns, climate, soil texture and depth, vegetation,
hydrologic and ecologic processes shape the landform.
These factors set the ground rules and establish natural
constraints that govern road building opportunities and
maintenance realities. Some landscape features which
favor initial construction may render maintenance more
difficult in the long run. For example, a valley-bottom
road can be easy to locate and construct but hard to drain
because there is no place to put the water. Reading the
landscape correctly can be helpful in predicting road Photo II-1: Valley-bottom roads can be difficult to drain.
related impacts on soil and water resources and an aid to
understanding maintenance issues. Some considerations
follow:
Topography:
Topography describes terrain features such as elevation,
relief, aspect, steepness of slope, length of slope and
drainage patterns. The key topographic factors important
to road maintenance are steepness of slope, position on
slope, aspect and drainage pattern. Roads are best placed
at the toe of the slope where cross slope is between 5
and 40% (Figure II-1). Steeper slopes are difficult to Photo II-2: A forest road, Rowe Mesa, NM.
excavate. Flatter slopes are hard to drain. Ridgetop and slope roads might be impassable. On the other hand, soils
valley-bottom roads can be too flat to drain efficiently. are usually deeper on northerly slopes, providing more
Aspect, or the direction that material for road building
the land faces, especially “A road serves at the pleasure of its landscape.” activities. A gently rolling
northerly or southerly aspects, topography with deep soils
can be important. South facing slopes are warmer and and varying aspects may offer the best chance for low
tend to dry quickly. Therefore, roads on south slopes may cost construction and ease of maintenance.
be passable during periods of wet weather when north

Figure II-1: Topographic setting provides contrasting advantages and disadvantages for road locations.

Chapter II: Reading the Landscape: Geology, Topography, Hydrology and Soils 
 Soil Texture and Depth Road maintenance activities should be scheduled to
Soil texture and depth are key factors in selecting road coincide with higher moisture content for ease of grading
location and alignment. Soil texture refers to the size, and better compaction. It is also easier to follow road
composition and proportion of different sized particles runoff flow patterns during wet times to better determine
in the soil column. Sizes include clay, silt, sand, gravel, and understand drainage needs.
cobble and larger particles. Medium to coarse textured
soils (sand-sized particles and larger) are best suited for
low-standard roads because they are readily worked,
provide good traction, are permeable and resist erosion.
Fine textured soils (silts and clays) may be easily worked
but can be highly erodible, impermeable, muddy and
slippery during wet weather. However, some finer
particles are needed to bond larger particles together. For
a smooth ride, it is important to preserve and protect the
fine textured component of medium to course textured
soils or the road will gradually, over time, become Photo II-3: The Chihuahuan Desert receives 4-6 inches of
precipitation a year.
rougher, stonier and more difficult to maintain.
Soils can be derived in place by weathering of bedrock,
deposited by running water (alluvium) or formed by soil
particles rolling and tumbling down a slope under force
of gravity (colluvium). Colluvial soils usually consist of
a workable mixture of large, medium and fine textured
particles, making them easy to work, shape, drain and
compact for a smooth surface. Alluvial soils can be more
variable and deeply stratified, ranging from sand and
gravel (ideal) to silt, clay or loams, which can be easy
to work but muddy or slick in inclement weather.
Local offices of the Natural Resources Conservation
Service (NRCS), the County Extension Agent, or the
Photo II-4: Piñón-Jjuniper woodlands receive 10-14 inches of
Soil & Water Conservation District can supply important precipitation a year.
information on the distribution, properties and uses of
local soils.
Climate and Precipitation Patterns
In the Southwest, precipitation patterns are typically
seasonal, characterized by wintertime snowfall
accumulation and summertime rainstorm events. Spring
and fall tend to be drier. What are the implications for
road maintenance and water harvesting opportunities?
The irrigation effect of harvested road runoff can be
relatively more significant in drier climates and at lower
elevations. Furthermore, the erosive effect of high
intensity storms can be more damaging in drier climates
Photo II-5: Ponderosa pine forests receive 16-20 inches of
than wetter climates. precipitation a year.

 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
 Soil moisture conditions favorable to road grading
activities are more likely to occur during early spring or “...an increase in runoff from the road surface
mid-to-late summer during monsoon season (common is not the only impact of roads on the hydrology
to the Southwest). Maintenance during drier times may of a watershed. More importantly, roads and
require the service of a water truck. road ditches intercept and capture hillslope
Proper soil moisture at the time of grading leads to runoff and divert it along the road corridor.
better compaction of soils on the road surface which Both surface and shallow subsurface flows are
leads to smoother, lower maintenance roads. intercepted.”
Hydrology
Of the total rainfall received in any given area, not all
capture hillslope runoff and divert it along the road
is available to support vegetation. Some is intercepted
corridor. Both surface and shallow subsurface flows
by above ground vegetation and evaporates or sublimates
are intercepted. The road and its ditches reroute and
back to the atmosphere. A larger portion infiltrates the
redistribute the runoff. The results are twofold: 1) soils
surface and percolates into the soil. Of that portion,
downhill from the point of interception lose moisture and
some is transpired back to the atmosphere by plants,
become drier and less productive than conditions prior
some evaporates and some penetrates deeper into the
to road construction, and 2) soils or drainage features
soil profile. The remainder runs off. Infiltration rate
downhill from the point of outflow receive concentrated
depends on porosity and soil structure and is affected
and accelerated flows which can lead to accelerated
by saturation due to previous rainfall. If the ground is
soil loss, gully formation and excessive sedimentation.
saturated, rainfall can not be absorbed and runs off. If the
If the receiving soils or landforms have the ability to
surface is compacted or impermeable, a high proportion
absorb the added runoff, then vegetation growth and
runs off. Runoff from paved roads may range upwards to
productivity may be stimulated by the added moisture.
90%, from a graveled surface 50-70%, and from native
The critical variable is in the capacity of the soil to absorb
soil only 10-20%. Therefore, runoff from a compacted
or convey the added runoff without eroding. Factors
road surface can be 5-10 times that of permeable native
affecting absorption rates include soil texture and depth,
soil.
compaction, permeability, vegetation cover and density,
In terms of volume, runoff from an impermeable,
steepness of slope and saturation. Implications for good
paved road surface resulting from a one inch rainfall
road hydrology are clear:
event would equal about 25,000 gallons per acre. In the
piñón-juniper rainfall zone of 10-14 inches per year, this
1. To reduce road runoff, minimize the area of
could total about one acre foot of discharge per acre of
impermeable surface by minimizing road width.
road per year ( Appendix B). One acre foot of water is the
2. To reduce the effects of concentrated flows, minimize
volume of water necessary to cover an acre of land with
the connectivity of flow paths from disturbed soils.
water one foot deep (325,852 gallons). A 12-foot wide
3. To retain the capacity of the soil to absorb runoff,
road equals about 1.5 acres of surface area per mile.
manage drainage outlets to return accumulated runoff
An increase in runoff from the road surface is not the
to a natural, undisturbed soil surface as quickly as
only impact of roads on the hydrology of a watershed.
possible at low volume output.
More importantly, roads and road ditches intercept and
4. Keep the water in the originating sub-watershed; do
not divert runoff between watersheds.
“The critical variable is in the capacity of
the soil to absorb or convey the added runoff
without eroding.”

Chapter II: Reading the Landscape: Geology, Topography, Hydrology and Soils 
Soil Erosion and Sediment Transport… sediment will drop out of suspension and be deposited
A Two-Edged Sword on the roadway or in the ditch.
The power of runoff to erode a road, the land surface, The implications for good road design and
a ditch bank, a gully or stream channel depends on the maintenance are:
velocity, depth and volume of flow. Runoff velocity r As road grade steepens, drainage features must be
increases with steepness of slope. The capacity to closer together.
transport dislodged and suspended sediments increases r Maintaining vegetative cover increases roughness
exponentially with increase in slope. The volume of and reduces erosion, reducing the sediment load
sediment that can be moved increases 4 X when the being transported by road runoff and the amount
velocity is doubled. The size of particles that can of sediment available to clog ditches and drainage
be transported increases by 8 X when the velocity features.
is doubled (Figure II-2). As water depth increases, r Drainage features need to be more closely spaced on
velocity increases because relative surface tension fine grained soils.
decreases. As flow velocity increases, shear force plucks r Drainage features with grades less steep than the
larger and larger particles from the road or soil surface. road surface or road ditch will tend to become
Surface roughness, however, can reduce shear force and clogged with deposited sediments as runoff velocity
erodibility of the exposed surface. These relationships decelerates.
are true with both increasing and decreasing velocities. r A well vegetated buffer zone at the edge of the road
Therefore, as runoff accelerates, the suspended sediment will tend to disperse flow, reduce runoff velocity and
load may increase exponentially, or as it decreases, the collect sediment from road runoff.
load will decrease exponentially. As flow decelerates,

Figure II-2: Graphic Representation of Velocity Rate Vs. Size of Particle Transported.

The steeper the slope of the road, the faster the runoff and the larger the particles moved. Hence, the need for
more and better drainage features as the road steepens. On the other hand, as the road flattens, runoff velocities
decrease and rate of deposition of sediment on the roadway increases. This causes ditches and culverts to
plug with sediment causing gravel, mud and other debris to be deposited on the roadway. To keep ditches self
cleaning, ditches and the road surface need to have a slope equal to or greater than the contributing source of
sediment. The faster the water, the more sediment it can transport at an increasing rate.

 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
III. Reading the Roadway
Managing runoff to protect the roadway, prevent
erosion and harvest water requires an ability to match
road features with landscape features to ensure proper
drainage. Sometimes it may be most informative to
leave the roadway itself and follow drainage patterns to
understand the effects that the road may be having on soil
and water conservation, forage yields and other values.
Key features and how they affect drainage include the
following:
Grade Figure III-1:
Road prism nomenclature
The single most important feature regarding road for a roadway cut into the
maintenance and water harvesting from low standard hill slope.

roads is grade. Grade, or steepness, is measured in

the direction of travel, up or down. Grade is usually
expressed as percent slope, rise over run. A road that if backslope, ditch banks and berms are included. A
climbs 5 feet in elevation in 100 feet of length has a 5% 12-foot wide road equals about 1.5 acres per mile. Width
slope. What is the average grade of the road? How steep is important. Roads should be no wider than necessary.
is it? Too flat is as bad as too steep. How long are the The wider the road, the wider the exposed area available
slope segments between grade changes? The longer the to capture and convey increased volumes of storm runoff.
segment, the greater the potential for erosion. Grades As the volume of storm runoff increases, so does the
ranging from 4 – 10% are ideal, with frequent grade power for scouring and transporting sediment from the
reversals. Drainage is assured if the road reverses grade road surface. Increased sediment loading will increase
every 200 – 300 feet. Water naturally exits the roadway the likelihood that ditches and drainage structures will
at every grade reversal. Anything flatter than 2% is too be clogged with deposits whenever the rate of runoff
flat to drain efficiently. Anything steeper than 15% is slows.
too steep to negotiate with two-wheel drive vehicles and Cross Section
presents a severe erosional potential (Figure III-1). A road’s cross section is a vital aid to road drainage,
helping to assure
“Excess road width is the mortal enemy of constant shedding
low cost road maintenance. ...Roads should be of water from the
no wider than necessary.” road surface. A
flat road with no
Width cross slope tends
Excess road width is the mortal enemy of low cost road to collect water,
maintenance. Most low standard roads are a single lane develop puddles
to a lane and a half wide with occasional wider spots for and ruts, and stays
turnouts or passing. That translates to an average width soft and unstable
of about 12 – 16 feet. Two-track jeep roads are not as following snowmelt
wide, averaging 8 – 10 feet. Two lane roads range from or rainstorms.
18 – 22 feet. The total disturbed area may be wider Figure III-2: Typical cross sections with Problematic road
little or no cross slope.

Chapter III: Reading the Roadway 

cross sections are shown in Figure III-2.
Typical cross sections or templates for types of cross
slopes are shown in Figure III-3. An insloped road
tilts toward the cut-bank or hillslope uphill from the
roadway. Runoff runs down grade in a ditch at the base
of the cut-slope. An insloped road needs frequent ditch
relief outlets or cross drains. An outsloped road tilts
gently away from the cut-bank and tends to shed water
continuously; usually no ditch is necessary.
A crowned road slopes both left and right from the
Photo III-1: This berm keeps water from the road surface from
center line, like a pitched roof, and is usually flanked spilling into the road ditch.
by a roadside ditch on one or both sides. Cross slopes
should range between 2 and 4% to assure adequate Berm
drainage. Unfortunately, graded roads constructed with Windrowed material may collect along the edge of the
a cross slope can be compromised by wheel ruts that road as a berm. Berms can be deliberately placed at the
convey water down the ruts, negating the cross slope, road edge, or may develop inadvertently through careless
and increasing the erosion hazard. Cross drainage can maintenance operations or can accumulate as surfacing
also be added to alleviate this problem. particles are spewed to the roadside by wheeled traffic.
Unpaved, two-track roads consisting of two parallel Berms can be beneficial under special circumstances
wheel tracks have a cross slope equal to the landform but are generally harmful as they tend to keep water
but the ruts may be flattened or cupped and may tend to trapped on the road surface, increasing surface erosion
intercept hillslope runoff. and sediment transport. A berm may be desirable to
keep vehicles from sliding off a slippery road during wet
weather. Berms are sometimes used to keep water on
the roadway until it can be spilled safely onto a buffered
area rather than directly into a gully, stream channel,
spring or seep.
Plan Form
Plan form
describes the
horizontal shape of
the road especially
as it relates to
adjacent features.
Problematic plan
forms include
road intersections,
switchbacks,
stream crossings,
spring seeps, or
constrictions caused
Figure III-3: Alternative cross sections used to assure by obstacles such
sufficient cross sloping and drainage. as rock outcrops. Figure III-4

10 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
 Figure III-5:
Nomenclature
of typical
drainage
ditches.

Special attention should be paid to plan form and how ditches tend to become plugged with sediment and
it relates to the collection, routing and disposal of runoff require frequent maintenance. Placement of the lead-
(Figure III-4). off ditch is critical relative to the ability of the soil to
Drainage Systems absorb or convey runoff from the ditch. The choice of
The road drainage system may consist of an array lead-off ditch locations and the spacing between them
of various ditch types that serve different purposes. will largely determine whether runoff water is harvested
Please refer to Figure III-5 for nomenclature and relative or wasted.
locations of various ditch types. ♦ Cross Drain and Lead-Out Ditch
♦ Road or Borrow Ditch The road ditch may be drained by spilling ditch flow
The road or borrow ditch runs parallel with the through a culvert or across a rolling dip to the downhill
roadway collecting water from both the road surface side of the road. A lead-out ditch may be required to
and the hillslope, if any, for removal at the first available insure that flow continues away from the road side.
location. Road ditches can be “V” or “U” shaped. “V” Flatter ditches tend to plug with sediment. Again, careful
shaped ditches concentrate flow and tend to erode quickly placement is important for efficient water harvesting. A
and produce sediment. “U” shaped ditches tend to spread poor choice of locations will result in accelerated erosion
flow and become vegetated and yield less sediment but at the outfall. Cross drains must be maintained in order
may collect too much sediment which can impede flow to function properly.
and cause damage. ♦ Lead-In Ditch
♦ Lead-Off, Furrow or Wing Ditch A lead-in ditch may be used to collect water from a
A lead-off, furrow or wing ditch leads water downslope gully or seep and lead it through the cross drain. Lead-in
and away from the road ditch. Again, these ditch types ditches accelerate flow and may initiate gully formation
may be “V” or “U” shaped. If built on a flatter grade and headcutting.
than the road ditch, or spaced too widely apart, these

Chapter III: Reading the Roadway 11

 ♦ Interceptor or Cut-Off Ditch Various erosion hazards are associated with stream
Interceptor ditches are occasionally used to collect crossings but these hazards can be avoided by selecting
sheet flow from a flat valley floor or hillside and direct the treatment and installing it properly. The common
it through a cross drain rather than relying on the road result of poorly designed stream crossings is channel
ditch to collect flow. Interceptor ditches accelerate flow straightening to accommodate the roadway. Straightening
and tend to initiate gully formation both upstream and can lead to down cutting of the streambed as flow
downstream of the crossing. They may be used to drain velocities increase. The road should be aligned to fit the
spring seeps, wet meadows and ciénegas upslope of the stream, not the stream to fit the road.
roadway. Road surface, road bed and soils downhill of A second hazard is road capture of the channel during
the ditch tend to dry out. Minimal use of interceptor flood events. This results in the stream flowing down the
ditches is recommended. road instead of along its natural channel. Severe erosion
Stream Crossings may result. Issues associated with stream and wetland
A stream crossing will be needed wherever the roadway crossings are further discussed in Chapter VIII.
crosses a natural stream channel, arroyo, wash or gully. A third hazard is in making the crossing too narrow,
Crossings can take the form of a bridge, a culvert, low constricting flow and accelerating flow rates, thus
water crossing (improved ford) or unimproved ford. eroding the channel bed.

Photo III-2: Straightening of the channel at an unpaved ford caused this channel bed to down cut.

“The common result of poorly designed

stream crossings is channel straightening to
accommodate the roadway. Straightening can
lead to down cutting of the streambed as flow
velocities increase.”

12 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
IV. Road System Planning and Management
Strategies and Practices
By integrating information gathered from Chapter I
with concepts outlined in Chapters II and III, managers
can proceed with developing a road management and
maintenance plan. The strategies and management
practices listed below may be useful in guiding the
planning process.
r Locate, construct and maintain the road system
adequately to meet traffic needs by season of use.
Frequently used roads, such as a headquarters road, Photo IV-2: Bill Zeedyk and workshop participants plan a
or roads subjected to heavy loads should be built to road treatment on the Thorpe Ranch, Newkirk, NM.

higher standards than occasional-use routes. Management Strategies

r Keep road densities as low as practical. Carefully Here are some strategies for maintaining roads in good
consider the purpose, value and frequency of use shape, conserving water and saving money.
of every roadway. What is its history? Why is it r Manage low standard roads for maximum drainage,
needed? If a road really isn’t needed, close it. Return not speed. It is better to be able to use the road at
the land to production and save maintenance dollars low speed and in poor weather, than at high speed
for a better purpose. Every acre of unnecessary road only in good weather.
is an acre out of production. r Prioritize treatments that accomplish both road
r Reevaluate the purpose and need for any troublesome maintenance and water harvesting objectives.
road or road segment which has, in the past, proven r Set aside a portion of the annual maintenance
costly to maintain. Is it really needed on its present budget to improve problem roads or segments
location or could it be relocated or even abandoned? incrementally.
Come up with a plan for scheduling modifications r Include a systematic approach to ditch maintenance
and stick with the plan. Planning will help save in the annual program.
money, conserve water and restore damaged sites r “A stitch in time saves nine.” Use hand tools as
over the long run. Often more than one road serves necessary and appropriate to repair or maintain
the same location for no good reason other than drainage features in a timely manner in order to
a presumed convenience. Is the “convenience” avoid more expensive repairs later. A few quick
really worth its cost in terms of lost production and shovelfuls can often unplug a ditch or culvert to let
increased maintenance expense? it do it’s job.
r If a road or road segment cannot be drained
effectively, replace, relocate or rebuild it.
Place emphasis on frequently used roads to
save travel time, avoid future cost and reduce
wear and tear on vehicles.

Photo IV-1: Rural road leading to an oil well, Lindrith, NM.

“Reevaluate the purpose and need for any troublesome road or road segment which has, in the
past, proven costly to maintain.”

Chapter IV: Road System Planning and Management Strategies and Practices 13
Management Guidelines and Practices r Remember, a well intentioned but poorly trained
By adopting a customized set of management maintenance operator can undo in a few minutes
guidelines, managers can reduce maintenance costs. what it may have taken many years to achieve. Use
For example: trained operators.
r Avoid using roads during wet weather or when too r Keep the grade of drainage features as steep or
soft to travel over. Passage by even one vehicle steeper than the roadway. The increased runoff
during these times can cause rutting that is costly to velocity will tend to flush sediment through the drain
repair. If the road is too wet to travel, keep off, leave rather than depositing sediments that clog it.
the pick-up at home and walk or ride a horse. r Install drainage features at closely-spaced intervals.
r Maintain drainage features in functional condition at If possible, select outfall sites that are buffered by
all times. Remove blockages as they occur. vegetation and can absorb runoff or can accomodate
r Keep ditches open, but do not remove vegetation concentrated flow with minimal erosion.
that does not impede drainage. Vegetation holds the r Fix the easiest road segments first to keep them
soil in place and reduces sediment loading which is functioning properly at least expense.
the greater problem.
r Watch for and remove accumulating sediment “Do not ‘back blade’ ditches or cutslopes just
plugs and berms that interfere with proper drainage, to ‘dress them up’ or control vegetation. Blading
widens the road and increases surface runoff and
keeping water trapped on the roadway. Determine
erosion rates.”
the sediment source and correct the cause. Is the
sediment coming from the road surface, a ditch Ditch Management
bank, a slump, or from an off-site source? Why is Ditch maintenance is essential to keeping the road
it accumulating? Is there an obstruction? Is there system serviceable but is often neglected. Maintenance
debris in the ditch? Is the grade too flat? includes removing accumulated sediments from lead-
r Keep road width as narrow as possible. Do not out ditches, culverts and cross drains. Ditches that are
“back blade” ditches or cutslopes just to “dress improperly situated, are too flat or too steep, or that spill
them up” or control vegetation. Blading widens the unnecessarily onto erodible soils should be systematically
road and increases surface runoff and erosion rates. modified, relocated, supplemented or replaced.
Mining soil from the road edge will widen the road,
subsequently increasing road runoff and sediment
yield.
r When installing drainage features, always return
intercepted runoff to its natural path at the first
opportunity. Walk out the flow path and be certain Photo IV-3:
This cross
that water spilled from the roadway is not causing drain culvert
an erosion problem somewhere else. If so, pick an was installed
at a point
alternate path. where the
soil could
r Sediment deposition, not erosion, is the primary not absorb
reason why drainage features fail. Minimize drainage concentrated
runoff and
failures by reducing sediment yield and transport. should be
r Do not grade or disturb an established surface if relocated
to a more
the road is draining properly and is smooth enough favorable site
that can filter
for travel. Exercise self-restraint: “If it ain’t broke, and absorb
don’t fix it!” road runoff.

14 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
V. Treatments
The three most useful treatments used to initiate moldboard in the upright position, travel at a constant
or improve surface drainage from low standard roads speed and try to create a windrow of material of uniform
include outsloping, berm removal and the installation height and volume on the road. Repeat from the opposite
of cross drains such as rolling dips. Other treatments direction and blade material from the fillslope side back
include blading, insloping, crowning and installing toward the center. Then blade the center windrow to
waterbars. Building grade reversals into the roadway complete the crown. Be sure the crown is actually cross-
helps to insure adequate drainage over the long term sloped and not flat. If necessary, go back and remove
with minimal maintenance. any berms that would prevent water from leaving the
The choice of drainage treatments will depend roadway.
upon knowledge gained from Chapter III: Reading the Grade Reversals
Landscape, Chapter IV: Reading the Roadway and should The simplest and most effective technique for assuring
relate to the purpose of use (size and class of vehicle), adequate surface drainage over the long run is to build
frequency and season of use, water harvesting objectives frequent grade reversals into the vertical alignment of the
and the maintenance schedule (frequency and timing). roadway In other words, build in frequent changes from
Blading (smoothing) uphill to downhill sections. A road surface that undulates
Blading to maintain a crowned road is a multi-step between upslope and downslope at short intervals (200
process. First, the road ditch and any auxiliary drainage – 400 feet) will drain itself without further treatment.
feature should be inspected and cleaned only if necessary. This technique is most applicable to low speed, single
Excess accumulations of surface gravel can be salvaged lane roads built on rolling topography or the toeslope of
and returned to the road surface but care should be taken a hill. The grade reversals will force any surface runoff
not to place fine-textured soils and organic debris from to leave the roadway, but adequate lead-off ditches will
the ditch back on the roadway. It may be possible to clean be needed to avoid puddling at surface points where
the ditch by “heeling the ditch,” a process whereby loose runoff collects on the roadway.
material is pushed back against the toe of the backslope The technique of building grade reversals into the
with the heel of the moldboard (blade). road alignment is most useful when locating a new two-
track road. When driving downhill across rolling terrain
or a uniform hillslope, simply turn gently upslope for a
short distance (25 – 50 feet) and then turn and continue
downslope for a distance of 200 – 300 feet and repeat
the upslope maneuver.

“The simplest and most effective technique

for assuring adequate surface drainage over the
long run is to build frequent grade reversals into
the vertical alignment of the roadway.”

Photo V-1: A crowned road. The berm on the right must be Outsloping
removed to assure drainage to the road ditch.
An outsloped road tilts outward from the cutslope
Once the ditch is in order, begin the blading operation toward the fillslope (Road Templates Figure III-3).
by blading the surface material from the cutslope side Outsloping is a highly effective treatment when used
toward the middle of the roadway. While keeping the on sloping terrain and course-textured road surfaces.

Chapter V: Treatments 15
Outsloping should not be used on fine-textured surfacing a stream, wetland, spring, or seep from sediment-laden
that can become slippery when wet. To be effective, runoff by directing runoff away from the sensitive
outsloped roads should have a cross slope profile of area.
2 – 5%. If the entire road cannot be outsloped, effective
drainage can be established by simply outsloping short
segments spaced at 200 – 300 foot intervals. Outsloped
segments should be located where the fill slope is well
vegetated or rocked and can resist erosion caused by
accumulated or concentrated runoff.
Berms and persistent wheel ruts can negate outsloping
as an erosion control or water harvesting technique. Even
very shallow wheel ruts that are no deeper than mere
depressions on the road surface can intercept runoff and
direct it down grade and beyond the outsloped segment.
Watch for flow paths, rills and sediment deposits on the Photo V-3: Blading to maintain an insloped road template.

roadway to determine if outsloping is effective or has The cross slope should range between 2 – 5%. As with
been compromised by wheel ruts. outsloping, the effectiveness of an insloped road or road
Outsloping is the most effective treatment for use on segment, can be negated by wheel ruts and/or berms that
road grades that are too steep for water bars or rolling keep runoff trapped on the roadway.
dips (roads steeper than 15% grade). Outsloping is the The difficulty in using an insloped road surface is in
best treatment to use to spill runoff when rounding a draining the roadside ditch at regular intervals. Ditch
point and to avoid diverting surface runoff from one drainage is gained by leading the runoff to a cross drain
sub-watershed to the next. such as a culvert or a rolling dip or by leading the runoff
to a terrain break where a change in hillslope orientation
provides an opportunity for a drainage outlet. It is
essential to drain “early and often.”

“More often, berms result from careless or

uninformed maintenance operations, and
create serious drainage complications.”

Berms
A berm is windrowed material piled as a continuous
ridge along the edge of the roadway. Berms are
sometimes purposefully created to meet one or more
Photo V-2: An outsloped road with coarse-textured surfacing and
berm removal. specific objectives such as traffic safety or to keep
water from spilling from the roadway at an undesirable
Insloping location. These are useful and desirable reasons for
An insloped road tilts inward toward the adjacent building or retaining berms in select situations.
hillslope and drains through a ditch running parallel with More often, berms result from careless or uninformed
the roadway (Road Templates Figure III-3). Insloping maintenance operations and compromise drainage
is most effective when used to drain a climbing turn, to features built into the roadway. Berms keep water
improve user safety on a slippery roadway or to protect trapped on the roadway and contribute directly to

16 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
increased volume, velocity and erosiveness of road with repeated use and to fail if used during wet weather.
runoff. The result is accelerated erosion and loss of Waterbars require frequent maintenance.
fine textured surfacing materials which are essential Waterbars constructed perpendicular to the road grade
to maintaining a smooth and well-compacted surface. tend to develop a mud puddle in the depression on the up
Berms cause sedimentation of drainage features and slope side of the bar, especially if the road is relatively
increased turbidity, and increase the need for further flat. Accumulating sediment fills the depression and
maintenance as the roadway becomes rough, scoured compromises the bar, leading to its eventual failure.
and eroded. Berms increase the cost of road maintenance
and should be removed routinely during any maintenance
operation except where specifically needed to solve a
particular problem.

Photo V-4: Removing the unwanted berm will allow surface runoff to
spill this outsloped roadway.
Photo V- 5: Water bars are easily flattened and only suitable
for abandoned roads or roads closed to traffic when wet.

Where a berm is specifically called for, as when used to

direct runoff around a spring source or to protect a fragile In short, the use of waterbars is seldom a satisfactory
embankment, openings should be placed through the treatment for well traveled roads or roads used when wet.
berm at locations where the resulting spill will not create The use of water bars is generally not recommended. On
a problem. Such openings are called berm breaks. the other hand, waterbars can be used very effectively
Waterbars to drain abandoned roads, roads closed to traffic or
A waterbar is a pushed up mound of earth or hump on roads where traffic is effectively excluded during wet
the roadway used to deflect runoff from the road surface. weather.
It is quick, easy and cheap to build with a bulldozer, Cross Drains
tractor or backhoe. Waterbars or “thank-you-ma’ams” ♦ Rolling Dip
are usually built at right angles to the roadway, but are The basic, most reliable cross drain for low standard
more effective when built at an angle of 30% to the roads is the rolling dip. The rolling dip was originally
grade. Waterbars are normally built to a height of 6 to called the Coweeta dip, after the Coweeta Experimental
24 inches above the road surface. Taller structures may Forest, North Carolina, where it was first developed. A
be impassable to low clearance vehicles or vehicles rolling dip is an excavated cross drain. Rolling dips can
towing trailers. While waterbars can be very effective be used to drain roads having grades between 3 and 15%.
when first built, there is a tendency for them to flatten When properly built, rolling dips are highly reliable and

Chapter V: Treatments 17
 Figure
V-1:
Rolling dip
schematic.

easy to maintain. Dips can be built using any type of The function of the rolling dip is to collect surface runoff
excavating equipment if soil moisture conditions permit from the roadway and/or road ditch and direct the flow
easy digging and good compaction. Soils that are too across and well away from the roadway. The velocity
dry are difficult to “break-out” and move easily without of flow must be sustained through the dip to prevent
heavy equipment. Soils that are either too wet or too puddling and to keep sediment moving through the dip
dry may not compact at all. drain. Sediment deposition will lead to failure of the
For a plan view of a rolling dip, see Figure V-1. structure. Secondly, the reverse slope of the roll-out must
Rolling dips are not suitable for use on flat terrain or on be steep enough and tall enough to prevent runoff from
roads designed for traffic speeds greater than 25 mph. overtopping the roll-out. The most vulnerable portion

Figure V-2: A rolling dip must be sized according to the dimensions and clearance for the type of vehicle with the strictest requirements.

18 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
 Photo V-6:
If the road
will be used
by a truck
pulling a
trailer, the
dip and roll-
out should
be long and
gentle.

of the structure is the point where the uphill or high-side structure and remaining trapped in wheel ruts on the
wheel rut crosses the roll-out. roadway will contribute to the potential failure of the
If the terrain is too flat, the road grade less than 3% next downgrade structure.
or cross slope less than 5%, it is difficult to build a dip Finally, rolling dips must be sized according to the
drain that will not impound runoff. If the road grade is dimensions (wheelbase length) and clearance (height)
too steep (greater than 15%), the roll-out will be too steep for the type of vehicle with the strictest requirements.
on the downhill side to negotiate with a two-wheel drive See Figure V-2. If the road will only be used by high
vehicle and traffic will damage the structure. clearance vehicles such as jeeps, pickups and SUVs, the
It is critical that the rolling dip be adequate to divert dip and roll-out can be relatively short, steep and abrupt.
all runoff from the roadway. Any flows bypassing the If the road will be used by a truck pulling a trailer or by
a semi-truck, the dip and roll-out should be long and
“The velocity of flow must be sustained through the gentle. The guideline is: total length of drainage structure
dip to prevent puddling and sediment accumulation from roll-in to roll-out should equal twice the length of
in the dip drain, which can lead to failure of the the longest vehicle, including trailer, that will be using
structure.” the road.
The essential features of a rolling dip are:
r adequate hillslope or crossing slope of at least 5%
grade,
r road grade between 3 and 15%,
r a broadly angled dip drain with a cross slope of
4-8%, i.e., steep enough to flush away accumulating
sediments,
r a beveled backslope, or “roll-out” with a positive
reverse grade of 4-8%, and
r overall dimensions proportionate to the dimensions
Photo V-7: Minor modifications in treatment applications should reflect of the design vehicle.
small changes in road conditions and land surface features.

Chapter V: Treatments 19
 To construct a rolling dip: excavate a lead-out ditch. Add the excavated material to
1. First, select the exact spill point where the water the stockpiled fill collected during the previous step.
will be deflected from the downhill edge of the road. 5. Once enough fill material has been gathered, start
Choose the location carefully to avoid spilling runoff building the “roll-out.” If the fillslope is too steep to
into an existing or potential erosion gully. Maximize borrow from, it may be necessary to borrow material
every opportunity for dispersing surface runoff and/or from the roadway itself. In some situations it may even
taking advantage of an erosion resistant location for the be necessary to haul material for the roll-out from another
outfall. source. Begin working the fill material into the proper
2. Next, lay out the course of the dip drain by marking shape and dimensions for the roll-out (Figure V-1). The
it on the ground. A spray paint line, a row of stones, pin roll-out should have a reverse grade of 4 to 8% and be
flags or any identifying marker will do as long as the higher and broader on the upslope side of the road than
operator will know what the marking means. The dip on the downslope side. This will help to prevent rutting
drain should cross the road at a 30o angle to the center and keep runoff in the upslope wheel rut from bypassing
line of the road in a down grade direction. A 30o angle the structure. Think of the roll-out as having the plan
is easily achieved by measuring the width of the road form of an equilateral triangle with its base parallel with
at the spill point and doubling the distance to identify the edge of the road opposite the spill point and one side
the starting point (apex of the 30o angle) on the opposite parallel with the dip drain.
side of the road. 6. When complete, the rolling dip should have the
3. Excavate the dip drain by using a bulldozer, grader, proper dimensions to accommodate the design vehicle,
excavator, backhoe, farm tractor or pick and shovel. a dip drain with a channel slope of 4 to 8% and a roll-out
Stockpile the dredged material as fill on the down grade having a positive reverse grade of 4 to 8%.
side of the dip drain and save it for building the roll- See Figure V-3 for a completed rolling dip with key
out. features noted.
4. If possible, go downslope from the spill point and

Figure V-3: Key features of a rolling dip are the dip drain, lead-out ditch and roll-out.

20 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
 ♦ Flat Land Drain
Flat land drains are used to drain roads having 0 to 3% slope and an adjacent hillslope less than 5%. These
structures are most useful on slightly to moderately incised roadways where it is not feasible to rebuild or relocate
the road.

Photo V-9: Material borrowed from lead-out ditch is stockpiled on roadway.

Photo V-8: A flat road on flat land. The stake marks

the location of the planned drainage outlet.
“The principle difference between a rolling dip
and a flat land drain is in the slope of the adjacent
landform.”

Photo V-10: Tractor constructing reverse slope ramp

beyond lead-out ditch using the stockpiled fill (photo V-9). Photo V-11: Completed flat land drain and lead-out ditch on fine-textured soil.
If needed, harden the surface with gravel hauled from another source.

Chapter V: Treatments 21
 The principle difference between a rolling dip and a ditch with tractor treads to compact and smooth the
flat land drain is in the slope of the adjacent landform. break. This will facilitate revegetation and reduce
Rolling dips are used on landforms with a cross slope erosion.
greater than 5%. Flat land drains are structures especially 5. Next, use the stockpiled borrow material to build a
designed for application on terrain with a flatter than reverse (positive) slope or ramp down grade from
5% cross slope and road grades flatter than 3%. The the spill outlet. The ramp should have a slope of
concern with a flat land drain is that the slope of the lead- 2 to 4 % and a height of 1 to 2 feet above the original
out ditch be steep enough to maintain runoff velocity road bed in order to force road runoff to exit the road
well beyond road edge. With a flat land drain it is surface at the spill outlet. Depending on the texture
necessary to excavate downhill from the road to create of excavated soils (gravel vs. silt, clay or loam) the
this capacity. spill point and raised bed may be firm and dry most of
The essential features of the flat land drain are: the time or soft and muddy. Fill material is borrowed
r a long, wide, deeply excavated lead-out ditch, from the lead-out ditch, temporarily stockpiled on the
r a slightly angled dip-drain spilling directly into the road surface and then used to build a reverse grade
ditch, downslope from the spill point.
r an elevated road surface down grade of the
dip-drain and constructed from borrow material
salvaged from the lead-out ditch or hauled from
another location, and
r a graveled or rock-lined dip-drain if needed.
For a plan view of a flat land drain, see Figure V-4.
To construct a flat land drain:
1. First, select the spill point at the road edge where
water will be drained from the roadway.
2. Next, using a hand level or clinometer, select
the location for a proposed lead-out ditch having
the greatest fall or slope leading away from the
roadside. In flat land situations, the direction
and steepness of slope can be very deceiving; it
can be literally impossible to tell up from down.
The use of an instrument is essential in locating
the direction of maximum slope for the path of
the lead-out ditch. Hand levels and clinometers
are available from surveyor or forestry supply
outlets.
3. Using a dozer or loader, excavate material from
the path of the lead-out ditch and stockpile it
temporarily on the roadway. Ideally, the lead-
out ditch should be as wide as the dozer blade, 1
to 2 feet deep at roadside, 30 to 50 feet long and
taper gradually downslope to a feathered edge at
the downhill end of the ditch.
4. When digging is completed, roll the edges of the Figure V-4: Flat land drain schematic.

22 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
 Flat land drains are especially useful in restoring The essential features of an effective culvert
dispersed overland flow or sheet flow to meadows treatment are:
and wetlands where V-shaped ditches might tend to r Location: Properly sited to match the land form,
concentrate runoff and initiate gully formation. resist erosion and disperse runoff (if possible).
If the roadway tends to remain soft and muddy long r Diameter: Use a pipe large enough to carry expected
after a storm event, it may be necessary to harden the discharge, minimum diameter of 18 inches,
surface with a layer of rock or gravel hauled to the site 24 inches is preferable. Installing an undersized
from elsewhere. Traffic should be excluded when the pipe is false economics since smaller pipes can be
road is wet; if not, then hardening of the structure is easily plugged by sediment or debris and require
essential. If using the road when it is wet cannot be more frequent cleaning.
avoided or controlled, hauling in rock or gravel can be r Cross Slope: Install pipes with a minimum cross
well worth the added expense. slope of 2% to efficiently move water through the
culvert.
♦ Piped Drains (Culverts) r Energy dissipaters: Place riprap or rocks as energy
Culverts or pipes are ideal cross drains for leading ditch dissipaters at the outlet to prevent scour on the
water across the roadway, especially where the surface is downstream side.
insloped or crowned. The consideration is that if culverts r Earthen ditch dam: Use an earthen ditch dam to
are used, routine maintenance must be provided for the prevent ditch water from bypassing the inlet to the
life of the road. If scheduled maintenance cannot or culvert.
will not be done, culverts are not reliable and should be r Spacing: Maximum spacing between cross drain
avoided in preference to rolling dips or flat land drains. features should not exceed 500 feet. Use less space
Culverts must be cleaned periodically or they will between cross drains if the road grade is steep
become clogged with debris. or the ditch carries substantial overland flow or
groundwater discharge.

“Good management may call for purposefully

closing an unneeded road or road segment.
Closure by abandonment is not good
management.”

Road Closures
Good management may call for purposefully closing
an unneeded road or road segment (Figure V-6). Closure
by abandonment is not good management. An unneeded
road should be actively put to bed, drained, obliterated
and revegetated. Failure to install well planned drainage
features at closing can lead to irreversible soil loss and
continuing hydrologic and ecological impacts. Roads
no longer useful to vehicular traffic may still intercept
and convey runoff, concentrate flow, accelerate erosion,
dehydrate wetlands, and pollute surface water. Such
roads will invite unwanted traffic, attract livestock
Photo V-12: This 18-inch diameter corrugated steel pipe
had adequate cross slope, but no energy dissipater. trailing, and channel runoff in harmful ways to the wrong
places.

Chapter V: Treatments 23
Figure V-5:
Options for
blocking a
closed road
to unwanted
traffic.

It should be noted that low standard roads used by and providing them with a brief, well-reasoned
livestock may need to be closed to trailing or treated explanation can be helpful in controlling use.
the same as other roads to prevent erosion and assure 2. The second step may include the installation of well
good drainage. planned, properly positioned drainage structures that
Road closure is a three step process: reestablish the natural drainage pattern characteristic
1. The first step is to block the road to further use of of the pre-roaded condition. Simply removing berms
any sort, whether intentional or accidental. This step and pushing up waterbars may suffice in establishing
involves blocking, gating and/or signing the road adequate drainage but most likely more elaborate
against travel. Blockage can take
the form of a gate, a fence or logs, Figure V-6: Reduce road density. Close or remove multiple roads serving the same
destination.
boulders or tree stumps placed
across the entrance; digging a
ditch across the road; removing
a culvert; erecting an earthen
barrier, or even planting trees in
the roadway (Figure V-5). Simply
signing the road against entry may
prove sufficient. In the case of
public lands, an administrative
closure order may be required
to enforce a closure. Asking the
public to “please cooperate”

24 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
 treatments will be needed to establish desirable of the newly placed material. Aspect, i.e. direction of
flow paths across the land form. Often the proper slope exposure, may favor or delay revegetation due
treatment is to establish dispersed flow or “sheet” to drying effects of direct sunlight or prevailing winds.
flow rather than channelized flow. Full bench recovery may be used to obliterate or conceal
3. For the third step, special drainage features should the presence of a former roadway or to render further
be installed to protect or preserve sensitive sites passage impossible.
such as springs and spring seeps from surface runoff
intrusion and sedimentation. Former wetlands Erosion Control and Revegetation
should be rehydrated to restore productivity. This It is often quick, convenient and economical to reseed
disturbed soils during time of treatment. It can be easy
sometimes can be accomplished by installing small
for the equipment operator to scatter a locally adapted
dams at strategic locations and removing berms or seed mix. It is recommended that a native seed mixture
ditches to reestablish natural drainage patterns across
be used that is appropriate for the soil type, precipitation
the landform. pattern and elevation of the treatment area. You can use
the tread of the equipment to track in the seed while work
Full bench recovery is a more intensive and expensive is in progress (Photo V-14).
treatment used to obliterate a closed road and restore
Photo V-14:
the landform to its original configuration and slope Reseeding a disturbed area during treatment construction.
characteristic prior to construction. This
is accomplished by retrieving earthen fill
material from the fillslope (PhotoV-13)
and placing it back on the road bench at
the appropriate width, depth and angle
to reestablish prior treatment conditions.
Once replaced, the fill should be promptly
mulched and reseeded for rapid revegetation
and soil stabilization. Depending on
local conditions such as soil texture and
steepness and length of slope, fill retrieval
can be done with a bulldozer, excavator
or backhoe. Secondary drainage features
may be needed to prevent rapid erosion

Photo V-13:
Full bench
recovery is a
more intensive
and expensive
treatment used
to obliterate
a closed road
and restore
the landform
to its original
configuration
and slope
characteristic
prior to
construction.

Chapter V: Treatments 25
VI. Survey and Design: Placing Treatments on the
Ground
Survey and design is where theory meets the road.
Once a road has been selected for treatment, goals and
objectives from the management plan, knowledge and
experience of the planner and skills of the operator can
come together and go to work. While a well trained
operator can do much from the tractor seat to modify
and improve substandard drainage features, best results
are achieved by clearly separating the layout and design
phase from the treatment phase. Planning and layout take
total concentration. Tracing the flow path of water down Photo VI-2: Tools for survey, design and layout.
the roadway, selecting suitable spill points, observing
patterns of sediment deposition, checking the origin of “Once a road has been selected for treatment,
inflow and disposition of outflow and selecting the best goals and objectives from the management plan,
water harvesting treatment for the site is a full time job. knowledge and experience of the planner and
Operating a dozer is a full time job as well. This is no skills of the operator can come together and go to
place for “multi-tasking.” Do not combine planning with work.”
implementation duties.
Standard Marking Procedure
Survey Equipment
Clear communication between the planner and the
Tools of the planner include above all, a clinometer, a
equipment operator is vital to a successful project. A
measuring device (tape, wheel or range finder), a map,
simple and consistent method of identifying, marking
aerial photo or GPS unit, a notebook and pencil, survey
and delineating treatments on the ground is critical to
stakes, flagging and marking paint (photos VI-1 and
informing and directing the dozer operator.
VI-2).
An example of a planning protocol leading to a
clear and consistent direction might be to:
r Place all survey stakes or flagging on the upslope
side of the road.
r Number treatment site locations consecutively.
r Specify treatment on the survey stake or flagging,
i.e. rolling dip, flat land drain, rolling outslope,
remove berm, etc., or by using different colored
flagging for different kinds of treatments.
r Delineate the orientation of the drainage structure
and outfalls on the ground with a paint line or
row of rocks, or delineate the location and extent
of berm breaks with paint stripes or pin flags; be
Photo VI-1:
Clinometer, consistent.
compass, r Use a standard dictionary of treatments and terms.
notebook,
maps and r Keep a map and inventory of treatments.
pencils.

26 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
 Procedure First Chance, Last Chance, Best Chance,
Experience has shown that the most direct and time- No Chance.
saving approach for laying out drainage features is to To interpret and apply this guideline, assume the
travel on foot. Start at the top of a road segment and maximum spacing between spill points is 250 – 300
follow the water down. The advantage is that each new feet for road grades less than 10%. For steeper grades,
increment of runoff, whether from the road surface itself, shorten the spacing as the grade increases. Starting at
a tributary, a spring, an intersecting road, trail or gully can the top of the grade, spill accumulated runoff at every
be dealt with at its source and disposed of promptly with opportunity. Continue downslope and repeat, using the
the proper treatments. Rills, ruts, slumps, slides, puddles, most appropriate treatment for the site as described in
pot holes, sediment deposits, mud holes and vegetation Chapter V.
provide clues to the drainage pattern, erosion problems Situations will be encountered where there is no
and water harvesting opportunities encountered along opportunity for drainage within the overall spacing
the way. While proceeding downslope, opportunities guidelines. In that event, carry on and spill accumulated
will present themselves to spill and disperse road runoff runoff at the First Chance.
onto soil sites and landforms capable of absorbing the Other situations will be encountered where clearly
additional runoff while maintaining a low erosion risk. there will be no feasible opportunity for drainage
Concentrated flows can be dispersed promptly and for some distance down grade, as when entering an
harmlessly. Vegetation growth, diversity and density can entrenched road segment or steep downhill slope. In
be stimulated by carefully selecting patches or stands to that case, spill all accumulated runoff before entering
be irrigated with runoff water (Table VI-1). that segment. This is the Last Chance.
Guidelines In other situations, the only available spill point may
Scientifically derived guidelines have been developed not offer an absorptive surface but may be the Best
for calculating recommended spacing between drainage Chance.
features such as water bars or dips (Table VI-1). Such Finally, it may be necessary to simply acknowledge
guidelines are based on steepness of road grade and soil that there is No Chance at all. In applying these rules,
texture as related to erodability of the road surface. consider not only where the water is coming from but
A more pragmatic approach to selecting drainage also where it will go. The need to compromise objectives
points is based on the principle of dispersing runoff at may become evident.
every opportunity along the way rather than at some
predetermined spacing interval. The working guideline
to this approach for selecting spill points is the mantra:

Table VI-1:

Low Maintenance Roads for Ranch, Fire & Utilities Access, Guenther, 1999.

Chapter VI: Survey and Design: Placing Treatments on the Ground 27

 For an effective drainage system ask yourself: Preferred Treatments
Of the various treatments described in Chapter V,
 Where is the water coming from?
the preferred treatment is always the one which will get
 Where is the water going? the job done efficiently while requiring the least future
maintenance. Choice of treatment, therefore, must call
 Where should it be going?
on knowledge of soil texture, soil depths, precipitation
 What treatment is needed to make it go there? patterns, aspect, the relationship of slope steepness
to runoff velocity, the bearing strength of soils under
various moisture conditions, vehicle capabilities and
limitations and the planner’s ability to read the landscape
“A more pragmatic approach to selecting drainage
and to choose accordingly. There are no preferred
points is based on the principle of dispersing runoff
treatments, only relatively dependable ones.
at every opportunity along the way rather than at
See Appendix E for a chart listing treatments,
some predetermined spacing interval.”
when/where to use, purpose and conditions of use, and
cautions.

Photo VI-3: Using a clinometer to measure the percent slope of a

landscape.

28 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
VII. Monitoring: Are Maintenance Practices Effective?
Monitoring is not research. Monitoring is a tool of Accumulation of twigs, leaves, pine cones, plastic
management. Monitoring provides timely information bottles or drink cans can mark the flow path. Reading
important to the land manager. Are objectives being these “tracks” can provide useful information about
met? Are the new practices working? Is maintenance the width and depth of runoff waters and ultimately
effective? Is the vegetation responding to water about the effectiveness of various types of maintenance
harvesting treatments? treatments. To learn more, follow the flow path beyond
Monitoring can be simple, but never casual. To the edge of the road.
be most useful at any intensity, monitoring should be To document changes in the flow path, take photographs,
deliberate, disciplined, scheduled and consistently make measurements, draw sketches and keep records of
applied. Monitoring should lead to a better understanding noticeable changes.
of natural processes affecting the maintenance program
while providing a basis for modifying treatments and “When it is not feasible to observe a storm
scheduling maintenance operations. event in progress, read the trails left by the
Monitoring can be solely visual or carefully documented storm.”
and supported by measurements and repeat photography.
Weather records can be helpful in interpreting the
knowledge gained from monitoring.
When monitoring road drainage and water harvesting
features, the following are useful indicators of structure
performance and maintenance effectiveness:

“To be most useful at any intensity, monitoring

should be deliberate, disciplined, scheduled and
consistently applied.”

Flow Paths
The most informative monitoring technique is to
simply watch water running on the roadway during a
rainstorm. Flow patterns develop as water runs down,
across or along the roadway. Where is the runoff coming
from and where is it going? Where does it enter and leave
the roadway? What road features modify the flow path?
Which structures are effective in guiding the flow and
which ones are not? Could some structures be modified
to improve their performance?
Water moving downslope leaves trails. When it is not
feasible to observe a storm event in progress, read the
trails left by the storm. Flow paths can take the form
of rills and gullies on the roadway or nearby, sediment
Photo VII-1: Flow patterns show where drainage structures have
deposits, stained rocks, disturbed soils, or trails of debris. failed.

Chapter VII: Monitoring: Are Maintenance Practices Effective? 29

 Cross Sections Ditches and Cross Drains
Examining various cross sectional features along When monitoring ditches and cross drains, the key
the roadway can help in evaluating the performance of performance indicators of an eroding ditch are: gully
typical treatments. Changes in the size, shape, depth, and rill formation, scour, headcutting, and slumping
extent or positioning of wheel ruts, puddles, mud holes (ditch capacity may be too small for the discharge
or debris fans on the road surface may indicate flaws in volume), sediment deposits in the ditch, and clogging
the size, shape or location of drainage structures. Such by vegetation or debris.
indicators relate directly to the effectiveness of drainage Possible remedies for an eroding ditch are:
structures. A puddle in the roadway upslope from a r to install additional lead-out ditches and cross
rolling dip could mean that the dip drain is plugged or drains;
too flat. Should the drain be steeper? Wheel ruts cutting r armor the ditch with cobble or energy dissipaters;
through a waterbar may indicate that the road was used r widen the ditch, install additional or alternative
during wet weather or that the waterbar was built with outfalls; and
the wrong type of material. An evolving debris fan on r encourage vegetation growth.
the roadway may mean that the cross drain is too flat. Remedies for an aggrading ditch could include:
An evolving gully may indicate that adjacent drainage r removing clogs, debris barriers or vegetation from
structures were placed too far apart for the length and the ditch bottom;
steepness of slope and soil stability. r installing additional lead-out ditches or cross
drains;
“Changes in the size, shape, depth, extent or r steepening cross drains or ditches; or
positioning of wheel ruts, puddles, mud holes r reducing the width of the bladed road surface to
or debris fans on the road surface may indicate
reduce sediment yield to the ditch.
flaws in the size, shape or location of drainage
structures.”

Photo VII-2: Puddle formation due to too little slope in the dip drain. Photo VII-3: Vigorous vegetative growth in response to water
harvested at a newly placed lead-out ditch.

Erosional Features “Possible remedies for an eroding ditch are to

Erosional features on the roadway, on cut and fill install additional lead-out ditches and cross
slopes, and on the adjacent landscape can offer important drains; armor the ditch with cobble or energy
clues about structure performance. Tell-tale erosional dissipaters; widen the ditch, install additional or
features include rills, gullies, headcutting, pedestalling alternative outfalls; and encourage vegetation
and erosion pavement. growth.”

30 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
 Vegetation Response Water Quality
An important reason for monitoring is to detect change Improved water quality can be a goal of improved
or lack of expected change in the vegetation growing road maintenance or operations. Streams, spring seeps,
along the roadway. Changes in species composition, ponds, stock waters and irrigation systems can benefit.
height growth, stocking density, color, and vigor may
indicate favorable change in soil moisture conditions If so, some indicators of success or failure observed
resulting from water harvesting practices applied to the during monitoring may include:
roadway. The correct interpretation of apparent change r a change in suspended sediment (turbidity),
in vegetation response to treatment may require repeated r change in bedload composition,
monitoring over time. r increase or decrease in fine-grained sediment
Some indicators of successful treatments include: deposits coating the stream bed,
r changes in species diversity, upland species being r change in the relative proportion of road surfacing
replaced by moist soil species, material represented in bedload deposits, and
r change in color and vigor of plant foliage, r erosion of stream or gully bed and banks.
r decadence or mortality among upland herbaceous These factors can be expressed qualitatively simply
and woody plant species growing on wet soil by visual observation (clear, muddy, very muddy,
areas, etc.) or quantitatively by conducting a “pebble count”
r replacement of woody species by sedges and or by measuring turbidity using a Seki disk or other
grasses, and instrument.
r increase in plant densities and forage yield.
Ponderosa pines growing on wet meadow sites, for
example, will turn yellow, weaken and die as meadow “An important reason for monitoring is to
soils become more saturated. Apparent changes in plant detect change or lack of expected change in the
species composition or growth patterns can be confirmed vegetation growing along the roadway.”
by measuring soil moisture levels or the accumulation
of organic materials on the soil surface.

Chapter VII: Monitoring: Are Maintenance Practices Effective? 31

VIII. Streams, Wetlands, Springs and Ciénegas
Special treatments are needed where roads cross
streams, wetlands, wet meadows, spring seeps,
and ciénegas or former wetlands. Management
should, of course, focus on creating a serviceable
road while mitigating any adverse impacts and
taking advantage of opportunities to restore
damaged sites. Carefully designed treatments can
improve the road, protect existing wetlands and
restore former wetlands to their natural potential
(Managing Roads for Wet Meadow Ecosystem
Recovery, Zeedyk 1995).
M a i n t e n a n c e p ro b l e m s c o m m o n l y
encountered with streams and wetlands
Photo VIII-2: Headcutting caused by improper culvert installation.
include:
r establishing a firm road bed, r properly placing and sizing culverts,
r keeping the road surface well drained, r hardening fords to stabilize the channel bed
r avoiding stream capture by the roadway during elevation,
flood events, r controlling the propagation and expansion of
r sizing culverts, bridges and fords to accommodate erosion fans,
flood events, and r preventing concentration and acceleration of surface
r crossing at proper elevation to avoid flood damage runoff,
to roadway or approaches. r restoring low velocity sheet flow across meadow
These concerns are important considerations in surfaces,
maintaining a serviceable road. r establishing the appropriate hydroperiod (duration
Other considerations critical to maintaining of flooding) to sustain moist soil vegetation native
channel stability, site productivity, the water table to the area, and
and riparian health include: r not impeding the movements of aquatic organisms
unless the goal is to have a barrier to
upstream migration of invasive aquatic
species.

Guidelines for Stream Crossings

1. Always cross streams at right angles
to direction of flow; cross at a straight
reach or meander crossover. Never cross
in a bend or meander apex.
2. Align the road to cross the stream
at the right spot and angle. Do not
build the road first and then channelize
Photo VIII-1: Unimproved fords are commonly used steam crossings on low standard the stream to align it with the crossing
roads. A road should cross at right angles to the direction of the flow to avoid stream
capture.
(Photo VIII-1).

32 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
 3. Place culverts, fords or bridges at the proper
elevation to keep the streambed at the normal elevation
and stabilize the channel slope. A culvert installed
below grade will cause the channel to downcut, initiate
headcutting and lower the water table. A culvert placed
above grade will pond water and capture sediments.
4. Use a bridge, ford, culvert or culvert array of the
right size to maintain natural bankfull channel width.
5. Use a low water crossing, improved ford or
multistage culvert array to maintain the stream’s access
to its floodplain at bankfull flood stage. Photo VIII-4: Road encroachment on streambank.

capturing stream flow on the roadway during flood

events.

Guidelines for Roads Crossing Springs and

Ciénegas
1. If at all possible, avoid crossing seeps and ciénegas;
relocate the road to an upland site.
2. Where a crossing is unavoidable, approach the
crossing from an elevated position on the hillslope and
drop down to the elevation of the spring, seep or ciénega;
Photo VIII-3: A vegetated buffer zone between a closed road and cross and climb out quickly on the opposite side.
Gold Creek, Valle Vidal, Carson National Forest, NM. 3. If an elevated road bed is needed to cross a seep or
Guidelines for Streamside Road Locations ciénega, haul embankment materials to the site from an
1. Avoid encroaching on the active channel or its upland borrow source. Do not take fill from a borrow
floodplain. Encroachment will narrow the channel, ditch to build an elevated embankment. Digging a borrow
increase stream velocities, initiate bed scour and cause ditch will lower the water table, trigger headcutting,
the opposite bank to erode (Photo VIII-4). create a gully and dehydrate the wetland.
2. Maintain a vegetated buffer zone
between the road and the stream bank
(Photo VIII-3). Spill road runoff onto
the buffer zone to filter sediments
and reduce turbidity. Do not spill
runoff directly into the stream. Buffer
effectiveness increases exponentially
with width.
3. Use berms to keep runoff on the
roadway between buffered sites.
4. In the absence of a buffer zone,
spill road runoff into a rock-lined ditch
to avoid gaining additional sediment.
5. Keep the road high on the terrace
and out of the floodplain to avoid Figure VIII-1: Porous fill, plan view.

Chapter VIII: Streams, Wetlands, Springs and Ciénegas 33

 soil conditions in the wetland
through the careful design and
construction of replacement
structures.
2. If the road or ditch system
is incised beneath the meadow
surface, attempt to relocate
the road to a higher location.
Install dams or berms across the
abandoned location and backfill
ditches to restore dispersed flow,
raise the water table and increase
storage capacity. Do not inundate
the site, but saturate in keeping
Figure VIII-2: Porous fill, profile view. with seasonal runoff cycles and
natural water depths.
4. Use a porous road fill (French drain, Figures VIII-1 3. If relocation/restoration is
and VIII-2), not culverts as cross drains to carry water not feasible, consider backfilling incised road segments,
under an elevated roadway. A porous fill will maintain plugging ditches and removing berms as above.
low velocity sheet flow on the surface of the wetland 4. Examine stream and ditch crossings to determine
while wetting the entire width of the landform. By if improper culvert installations have de-watered the
contrast, culverts tend to concentrate flows and foster site. If so, consider raising culverts or culvert inlets to
gully formation on the wetland surface. the elevation needed to restore wetland function.
5. Avoid spilling runoff from an upslope roadway 5. It has been customary in the past to dig culvert
or road ditch directly onto the fragile soils of a seep or footings too deeply into the meadow bottom. This
ciénega. The concentrated discharge from the ditch will practice has been used to insure rapid drainage and
accelerate flow velocities and trigger gully formation that minimize the amount of fill materials needed to cover
will dehydrate the wetland. As an alternative, spill road the pipe. Unfortunately, this practice almost invariably
runoff at the last available buffered location just upslope causes headcutting and gullying, which lowers the water
from the ciénega edge and disperse runoff evenly across table, drains the soil and destroys wetlands. Improper
the ciénega as sheet flow. Never spill road runoff into culvert installation can be corrected by removing the
an existing gully but put it to use growing vegetation pipe, backfilling the hole and replacing the pipe at the
on intact soils. proper elevation to rehydrate the soil. A multiple-culvert
6. Sand and gravel eroded from a road surface or array spread across the breadth of the meadow may be
ditch can bury wetland soils beneath a sterile blanket of useful in some situations to restore sheet flow to the entire
sediment and convert the site from wetland to upland. meadow surface. As an alternative, it may be feasible to
Try to capture these materials on upland sites. simply raise the culvert inlet (invert) elevation without
replacing the pipe by building a small dam at the inlet.
Guidelines for Roads Crossing Wetlands and
Former Wetlands Such a dam should be porous.
1. When crossing a former wetland or wet meadow that
has been dehydrated by road-related drainage structures
“If at all possible, avoid crossing seeps
and erosional processes, attempt to reestablish moist
and ciénegas; relocate the road to an upland
site.”
34 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
 Figure VIII-3:
Improper culvert
installation;
culvert bottom
beneath normal
stream bed
elevation.

6. Depending on the size of the watershed and other

features, a well defined stream channel may or may not
be characteristic of the wetland under consideration. This
may require further investigation. If a natural channel
is indicated, the culvert should be sized and installed at
the proper elevation to accommodate bankfull discharge
and establish floodplain function. If it is determined that
a defined stream channel is not characteristic of the site,
then the culvert should be installed level with the meadow
surface to restore sheet flow. Better still, a porous road
fill (French drain) may be the proper treatment if the Photo VIII-5: A raised culvert inlet with recovering wet meadow
vegetation.
wetland is fed by a spring or
spring seep; dispersed rather
than concentrated flow.
Wetlands are protected
by the Clean Water Act
(Appendix C). Permits may
be required when modifying
existing wetlands or stream
channels and installing or
modifying stream crossings,
bridges, culverts or fords.
Inquire at the US Army Corps
of Engineers or your State
Environment Department for
guidance. Figure VIII-4: Proper culvert installation with culvert bottom installed even with the normal bed level.
Culvert outfall armored to prevent bed scour.

Chapter VIII: Streams, Wetlands, Springs and Ciénegas 35

IX. Tools and Equipment - Getting the Job Done
Many factors should be considered in choosing greatly increase the effectiveness of equipment as can
tools and equipment best suited for maintenance or specialized tread and track designs, for example, wide
reconstruction of low standard roads. flotation tracks for wet or very loose soils.
From hand tools to farm machinery, skid-steer to
motor grader, backhoe to bulldozer, capability varies. Equipment
♦ Bulldozer
Each type of equipment has advantages and limitations
A bulldozer is the most versatile machine for
which will bear on its usefulness. Obvious factors to
construction, reconstruction or maintenance of low
consider include cost of operation, availability (on hand,
standard roads. A large, powerful machine such as a D-
rent or purchase) size and difficulty of the job ahead, type
7 or D-8 or equivalent, may be needed for rough, rocky
of material to be removed, weather conditions, operator
terrain or situations where the existing roadway is tightly
skill and qualifications and any special equipment
compacted or very dry. However, in most situations, a
needs.
small to medium weight machine such as a D-4, D-5 or
Can you accomplish the work to the correct standard
D-6 equipped with a six-way hydraulic blade and rear
using equipment on hand – within the operational
mounted ripper will prove powerful enough to do the job
capabilities of yourself or your employee? Or, must the
while at the same time being quicker and more agile than
needed equipment be leased and/or the job contracted
a larger machine. Speed, versatility and ease of operation
out to get it done right? If contracted out, would the
may prove more useful than sheer size, weight and power.
contractor know and understand the “what and why” of
The cost and difficulty of transporting heavy equipment
the requested work and be trained to do it?
to the job can prove to be a very important consideration.
Soil Type and Conditions Heavier equipment is more costly to transport and access
More than for other factors, the choice of equipment routes may be limited. Finally, is the machine properly
will relate to soil type and site conditions because equipped to deal with very dusty, or very rocky or boggy
these determine power requirements and the need for situations as the case may be? Dozers are not well suited
specialized equipment. The ability of any piece of to leaving a smooth, even, high speed surface. A follow-
equipment to move earthen material is known as break- up treatment using a grader or blade may be necessary
out force or power. Break-out force is determined by to smooth the road surface.
1) weight of equipment, 2) horsepower and 3) traction.
Thus, the bigger and more powerful the machine, with
good traction, the more earth it can move. Moist soils
are easier than dry soils to break-out and compact better
when placed on the roadway or fill. Steep, rough,
rocky, terrain will require more power than toeslopes or
gently rolling land with sandy-loam soils. Rippers used
to loosen native soils or compacted road surfaces can

“The ability of any piece of equipment to

move earthen materials is known as break-out
force or power.” Photo IX-1: A medium sized bulldozer is ideal for building cross
drains and for most maintenance situations.

36 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
 ♦ Backhoes and Skid-steer Units skilled for efficient use. Caution is advised that when
These rubber-tired tractors can be very versatile and low-standard road systems are maintained with a motor
efficient for periodic maintenance of low standard roads grader, the height of the roll-outs on rolling dip drains
because of their maneuverability. Their usefulness can is maintained and not graded off. Motor graders are
be limited by relatively small size, weight and power. a very effective machine for removing existing berms
They are best suited for ditch maintenance and culvert to promote outsloping and essential in maintaining
installation; however, with the right soil conditions, this crowned surfaces. As with all types of equipment,
type of equipment can be very effective in constructing motor graders are much more effective in moving native
cross drains. The backhoe can be used to break-up and soil and compacted surfaces when they are equipped
loosen hard, native or compacted soils. To increase with rippers. Use of a water truck to moisten the road
break-out efficiency, add digging teeth to the cutting surface beforehand may render the motor grader more
edge of the loader bucket. Many farms, ranches and effective.
agencies already own this type of machinery, ready to
go on a stand-by basis, so every day logistics may favor
its use.

Photo IX-4: Motor grader.

♦ Small Farm Tractor

Photo IX-2: Backhoe removing sediment from a culvert inlet. These light duty machines are especially useful in
maintaining and cleaning drains, adding materials to roll-
outs, light grading, and small scale construction duties.
They will perform best with moist soil conditions. To
increase their ability to move both native and compacted
road materials, they should be equipped with a box
scraper and ripper teeth.
Pre-ripping the soil will greatly increase the ability of
these machines to move earthen materials and save much
“wear and tear.” If the tractor being used is a four- wheel
drive type with a front loader bucket, break-out power

Photo IX-3: Skid -steer units are relatively cheap, adaptable and
easy to transport from site to site.

♦ Motor Grader
These machines can be used effectively in the
Photo IX-
construction and maintenance of low standard road 5: Farm
tractor
systems; however, they have some limitations. Motor with a box
graders can be limited on some locations by their size scraper
and
and length. Due to the size of the machine and the rippers.
complexity of operation, the operator must be highly

Chapter IX: Tools and Equipment - Getting the Job Done 37

Photo IX-6: Farm tractor using a box scraper to make a lead-out Photo IX-9: Chain harrow pulled behind a pickup to smooth
ditch.
the road surface. Such harrows can also be used to scarify the
roadside for seeding.

useful in smoothing newly constructed rolling dips,

preparing and covering reseeded areas, small berm
removal and general clean up.
♦ Pick and Shovel
A pick and shovel are the basic hand tools for
maintaining cross
drains on low standard
roads. Keep them in
your truck and utilize
Photo IX-7: Antique farm tractor making a lead-out ditch with a them whenever needed
scraper blade.
to keep drains and
and traction can be greatly enhanced by filling the loader c u l v e r t s o p e n a n d
bucket three fourths full of dirt to increase weight and functioning correctly.
front wheel traction. Five minutes of shovel
♦ Chain Harrow work today could save
The chain harrow can be pulled behind an ATV, pick- hours of equipment
up or any type of tractor with a chain. It is especially time tomorrow.

Photo IX-10: Trusty

hand tools - pick and
shovel.

Equipment Operation Safety Tips

Read the equipment manufacturer’s manual. Know
and observe the safe operating limits of the equipment
you are running and always wear your seatbelt and
hearing protection. Warn everyone working with you to
stand clear at all times and be careful to advise them of
your blind spots and any other hazardous situations.
Photo IX-8: Chain harrow pulled behind a bulldozer to
smooth a rolling dip.

38 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
APPENDIX A: Glossary
Alluvium: Soils deposited by flowing water, usually water away from a roadside ditch.
uniformly sorted by size or texture. Ditch, lead-out: A ditch used to lead water away
Bearing strength: The relative strength of the from the outfall of a cross drain or culvert.
road to support increased weight bearing down on the Ditch, Road, Roadside, or Borrow: The ditch
surface. paralleling the roadway used to drain the road surface,
Bedload: The coarser component (sand and larger road embankment and cut slopes; usually “V” shaped.
particles) of the sediment load that moves along the Ditch System (ditch works): The combination
streambed as compared with the finer components of all ditches, cross drains and channel crossings used to
which remain suspended in the water column. drain a road or road segment.
Berm: A raised edge or shoulder running alongside Dip Drain: The lowest portion of a rolling dip that
and parallel to a road that prevents water from leaving. carries water across a road surface.
Berms may be intentionally installed to keep water off Embankment: An artificially deposited bank of
erodable fill slopes. earth, rock or rubble used to support a road surface or
Ciénega: Riparian grassland characterized by low hold back water (dyke).
velocity surface and subsurface flows, fine-textured Energy Dissipater: Rocks or other non-erodible
hydric soils with high organic content and sustained materials placed where water is concentrated and
by groundwater discharge from deep, not alluvial, used to blunt the force of flowing water and reduce its
aquifers; infrequently flooded; an elevated hillside marsh momentum.
containing springs (local in Southwest). Erosion: The wearing away of the land surface by
Colluvium: Soils formed by particles moving detachment and transport of soil and rock fragments
downslope under force of gravity; heterogeneous by wind or water.
mixture, not sorted. Erosion Pavement: The hardened surface of
Cross Drain (relief drain): A culvert or pipe coarse particles left after storm runoff has washed
used to drain an upslope road ditch. or eroded away finer textured soil particles (silt, clay,
Cross Slope: The slope of a road perpendicular sand).
to the gradient of a road, either insloped towards the Fillslope: The artificial face on the downhill side
cutbank or outsloped towards the fillslope. of a road created by fill material excavated from the
Culvert: A conduit, pipe, tube or passageway under cutslope side.
a road used for the passage of water, debris, sediment, Floodplain: That portion of a stream valley, adjacent
and aquatic life. to the channel, which is covered by water when the
Cutslope (cutbank): The artificial face or slope stream overflows its banks at flood stage.
excavated from soils or rock along the inside (upslope) French Drain: A road embankment constructed of
of a road. porous rock fill for the purpose of efficiently conducting
Ditch, cut-off: A ditch used to intercept and dispersed surface flows. Also called rockfill embankment,
divert surface water away from the road ditch. permeable fill embankment, stabilized natural drain and
Ditch, flat-bottom: A “u-shaped” roadside permeable fill and porous fill.
ditch usually broader than deep; preferred for reduced Geotextile: Synthetic fibers forming a woven, non-
sediment yield. woven, or spunbonded fabric used to separate soil from
Ditch, lead-in: A ditch used to collect and lead engineered materials and add strength to a facility.
surface flows into a culvert. Grade: The slope of the road surface, usually
Ditch, lead-off: A ditch used to lead surface measured in percent or degrees, as ascending or

Appendix A: Glossary 39
descending in the direction of travel. direction.
Headcut: An encroaching escarpment associated Riparian: A zone of transition between an aquatic
with the extension of a stream channel into a previously ecosystem and an adjacent terrestrial ecosystem, usually
unchanneled area or a point within an established identifiable by soil characteristics and by distinctive
channel where there is an abrupt and actively eroding vegetation communities that require free or unbound
drop in streambed elevation; a nick point. water.
Hillslope: The slope of the natural terrain upon Riprap: A layer of coarse-sized rock fragments;
which a road was constructed. cobble or small boulders spread on the ground surface
Hydric soil: A soil that is saturated, flooded or to protect the soil from erosion by flowing water.
ponded long enough during the growing season to Road Gradient: The slope of a road along its
develop anaerobic conditions that favor the growth and alignment; referenced by direction of travel, positive
regeneration of hydrophytic vegetation. when gaining elevation, negative when loosing it.
Hydrology: The science dealing with the properties, Road Template (cross section): The shape
distribution and circulation of water, especially the study and cross-sectional dimensions of the roadway; cross
of water on the surface of the land. sectional profile.
Inslope: The amount or degree of steepness of Rolling Dip: Excavated drainage structure designed
inward sloping. to divert water off the road surface and consisting of
Insloped Road: A road surface that tilts inward two main features: 1) a below-grade drainage channel
toward the adjacent uphill side of the road or cut and 2) a reverse grade mound used to reinforce the
bank. drainage channel and ease vehicular travel across the
Nickpoint: The point of interruption of a stream structure.
profile. Sedimentation: The deposition of detached soil
Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution: Unlike and rock material that has been transported by water.
pollution from industrial and sewage treatment plants, Waterbar: A low barrier, sometimes accompanied
NPS pollution comes from many diffuse sources and by a ditch, designed to divert water off of a road; usually
by rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the installed after a road has already been built.
ground. As the runoff moves, it picks up and carries Wetlands: Those areas that are inundated or
away natural and human-made pollutants, finally saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and
depositing them into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal duration sufficient to support, and that under normal
waters, and even our underground sources of drinking conditions, do support a prevalence of vegetation
water (www.epa.gov/owow/nps). typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. The
Outslope: The amount or degree of steepness of current legal definition requires a site to have hydrophytic
outward sloping. vegetation, hydric soil, and wetland hydrology.
Outsloped Road: A road surface that tilts Wet Meadow: Riparian (riverine) grasslands
outward toward the adjacent downhill side of the road characterized by low to high velocity surface flows and
or fillslope. low velocity subsurface flows with frequently flooded
Percent (slope or gradient): The ratio of hydric soils, dominated by wetland obligate grasses and
elevation change to the distance traveled. A 20% slope grass-like plants (especially grasses and sedges) and
drops or gains 20 feet for each 100 feet of distance. sustained primarily by incoming channel flows, shallow
Permeable Fill, Porous Fill: See French alluvial groundwater and overland flow.
drain. Windrow: A ridge of loose soil, such as that
Reverse Grade: A section of road that changes produced by the spill off of a grader blade.
grade enough to cause water to flow in the opposite

40 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
APPENDIX B: Weights and Measures
Water Facts:
1 inch of rainfall on 1 square foot of impervious material = 0.60 gallons
1 gallon of water = 8.34 lbs
1 cubic foot of water = 62.4 lbs and contains 7.48052 gallons
1 acre foot of water (43,560 sq ft X 1 ft deep) = 325,852 gallons
Water flow: 1 cubic foot per second (CFS) = 1,98374 acre foot per day or 646,319 gallons per day. 1 acre of impermeable road
surface, on the average, will yield ~25,000 gallons (less transpiration) of water from 1 inch of rainfall.

Aproximate Weight of Earthen Lengths: Square Measure:

Materials per Cubic Yard: 1 mile = 5280 feet 144 sq inches = 1 sq foot
Earth with 25% rock = 2650 lbs = 1760 yards 9 sq feet = 1 sq yard
50% rock = 2900 lbs = 320 rods 30.25 sq yards = 1 sq rod
75% rock = 3300 lbs = 80 chain 160 sq rods = 1 acre = 10 square chains
Gravel (1/4” – 2”) dry = 2850 lbs 1 rod = 16.5 feet 1 sq acre (208.71 ft X 208.71 ft) = 43,560 sq ft
wet = 3400 lbs 66 ft = 1 chain
Riprap stone (average) = 2665 lbs

Fuel Facts: Cubic Measure:

1 gallon of diesel = 7.1 lbs 1 cubic foot = 1728 cubic inches
1 gallon of gasoline = 6.5 lbs 1 cubic yard = 27 cubic feet

APPENDIX C: Permits and Clearances

˛ Clean Water Act (CWA): The intent of the CWA is to restore and maintain the chemical,
physical and biological integrity of the nation’s waters.
˛ Section 319(d): The Nonpoint Source Pollution Program: Requires that states develop
management programs for the control of nonpoint source pollution (http://www.epa.gov/owow/
nps/cwact.html).
˛ Section 401: For federal-permitted or licensed activities that involve discharges to waters of the
U.S. (http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/facts/fact24.html).
˛ Section 402: The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES): Regulates the
discharge of a pollutant (other than dredged or fill material) from a point source into waters of the
U.S. (http://cfpub1.epa.gov/npdes/).
˛ Section 404: The wetland regulatory program: Establishes a program to regulate the discharge
of dredged or fill material into waters of the U.S., including wetlands. The basic premise of the
program is that no discharge of dredged or fill material can be permitted if a practical alternative
exists that is less damaging to the aquatic environment or if the nation’s waters would be significantly
degraded. Questions can be directed to EPA’s Wetlands Hotline at 1-800-832-7828 or e-mail:
[email protected]. Endangered species and archeological clearances may be required.
: http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/
: http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw/cecwo/reg/
: http://www.epa.gov/0202/wetlands/40cfr/part232.html
˛ TMDL: Total Maximum Daily Load is a calculation of the maximum amount of a pollutant that a
waterbody can receive (http://www.epa.gov/owow/tmdl). DeBano, L.F., and L.J. Schmidt. 1989.

Appendix B: Weights & Measures and Appenedix C: Permits and Clearances 41

APPENDIX D: Recommended Readings

& DeBano, L. F. and Schmidt, L. J. (1989). Improving Southwestern Riparian

Areas through Watershed Management. Report RM-182. USDA Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. Fort Collins, CO.

& Guenther, Keith. (1999). Low Maintenance Roads for Ranch, Fire & Utilities
Access. Wildland Solutions Field Guide Series. Clyde, CA (www.wildlandsolutions.
com).

& Hendrickson, D.A. and Minckley, W.L. (1984). Ciénegas – Vanishing Climax
Communities of the American Southwest Desert Plants. University of
Arizona – Boyce Thompson Southwestern Arboretum. Superior, AZ.

& Haussman, Richard F. (1960). Permanent Logging Roads for Better Woodlot
Management. Division of State and Private Forestry, Forest Service, Eastern
Region, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Upper Darby, PA.

& LaFayette, R.A., Pruitt, J.R. and Zeedyk, W. D. (1993). Riparian Area
Enhancement Through Road Management. Proceedings of the International
Erosion Control Assoc. 24th Conference. Indianapolis, Indiana.

& Rocky Mountain Research Station. (2002). Management and Techniques

for Riparian Restorations: Roads Field Guide Volumes I and II. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Gen.Tech. Rep. RMR5-CTR-102 Volumes
I and II.

& Terrene Institute. (1994). Riparian Road Guide: Managing Roads to

Enhance Riparian Areas. The Terrene Institute in cooperation with U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency and the US Department of Agriculture Forest
Service. Washington, D.C.

& Water/Road Interaction Core Team. (2000). Water/Road Interaction Field

Guide. USDA Forest Service, San Dimas Technolgy and Development Center. San
Dimas, CA.

& Zeedyk,William D. (1996). Managing Roads for Wet Meadow Ecosystem
Recovery. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southwestern Region.
Tech. Rep. FHWA-FS-LP-96-016. Washington, D.C.

42 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
APPENDIX E: Maintenance Treatments

Treat-
Purpose and
ment Where/When Used Cautions
Type
Conditions of Use

Berm Use to increase vehicle Berms should be high Runoff trapped on road-
safety on slick, outsloped enough to keep runoff on way by a berm can cause
roads; also used to re- the road surface or to pre- serious erosion or scour
tain road runoff on road vent vehicles from sliding off of road surfacing materi-
surface between suitable roadway as case may be. als; divert runoff at close-
spill sites. ly spaced intervals.
Berm Remove unintended Keep water from becom- Retain berms where
Removal berms at every oppor- ing trapped on road surface; needed to protect
tunity from crowned, save fine-textured surfacing; streambanks, springs and
insloped and outsloped protect road surface and wetlands from silt-laden
roads. reduce turbidity in receiving runoff; in special cases re-
waterways. tain for vehicle safety on
slippery outsloped roads.
Berm Permit trapped or im- Drain intentional berms at Select sites with filter
Breaks pounded runoff to drain 200-300 foot intervals at zones or erosion resis-
through an intentional locations where runoff can tant outfall sites or armor
berm at regular inter- filter through a vegetated or outfalls with riprap if nec-
vals. hardened buffer zone. essary to prevent erosion.
Buffer Use to protect streams, Prefer well vegetated Select best available sites
Zone springs and wetlands porous soils with dense to protect streams from
from sediment laden herbaceous (grassy) cover; direct runoff; use ditches
road runoff. upland sites preferred over or berms to direct flows
wetland sites if available; to suitable sites but do
performance increases not overload with excess
exponentially with increased amounts of runoff or
width. sediment.

Road Profiles
Crowned High traffic, gravel sur- Promote lateral drainage Do not “flat blade;” main-
faced roads receiving by maintaining a peaked tain ditches and cross
frequent routine main- or crowned surface with a drains in good condition
tenance where ditches 2-4% cross slope; increase at all times; remove ruts
and cross drains are well average traffic speed and and berms to prevent
maintained. safety. scour and loss of surfac-
ing materials.

Appendix E: Maintnenance Treatments 43

Treat-
Purpose and
ment Where/When Used Cautions
Type
Conditions of Use

Out- Low to moderate traffic; Promote continuous lateral Do not “flat blade;” re-
sloped coarse textured well- drainage with a cross slope move ruts and berms; do
drained soils, “non-skid” of 2-4%. not use on fine grained
surfacing; use on grades soils that become slip-
too steep for rolling pery in wet weather.
dips.

Insloped Used to deflect and trap Promote continuous lateral Do not “flat blade;”
runoff in the upslope drainage with cross slope of remove ruts and berms.
ditch for routing to a 2-4%. Do not use on fine-
cross drain. Protect grained soils that become
user safety. slippery in wet weather.
Must maintain ditches and
cross drains at proper
spacing and with suitable
outfalls.

Cross Drains
Culvert Provide durable cross Provide ditch relief. Route Use adequate diameter,
drain for a dry, even surface runoff beneath the minimum of 18 inches;
surface, especially for road. install at 2% cross slope,
high speed or high traffic minimum; use ditch dams
levels. and energy dissipaters;
keep inlets and outlets
clean and stable.
Rolling Provide durable cross Channel road runoff and Maintain roll-out in good
Dip drain for lower speeds ditch flows across the road; condition; remove ruts;
and lower traffic levels. dip drain should have a not suitable for road
Occasionally, too wet for minimum cross slope of grade steeper than 15%;
travel. Use with hill- 4%; roll-in and roll-out long wet season use is dis-
slopes greater than 5%, enough to accommodate couraged.
road grades greater than longest design vehicle; may
3% but less than 15%. need lead-out ditch.

44 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
Treat-
Purpose and
ment Where/When Used Cautions
Type
Conditions of Use

Flat Provide durable cross Use for flat land situations Drain may soften during
Land drain for lower speed with poor surface drainage, wet weather; prevent wet
Drain and lower traffic volume. low velocity runoff; excavate weather use or harden
Use with hillslope less adequate lead-out ditch. structures with coarse
than 5%, road grades gravel hauled to site.
less than 3%.

Water- Provide cross drainage Not suitable for roads Gate or block access to
bar for decommissioned subject to traffic of any sort; roads drained by water-
roads, closed roads or can be damaged by routine bars.
obliterated roads only. livestock trailing, ATV or
bicycle use.

Ditches
Borrow Runs parallel with Drain water from roadway Do not blade or remove
or Road roadway; used to drain and adjacent hillslopes; keep vegetation from back-
crowned and insloped open, remove blockages slope or ditch banks if
roads. and plugs; keep vegetated to not needed to maintain
minimize sediment yield. flow; “if it ain’t broke,
don’t fix it!”

Lead-in Leads water to a culvert Collect surface runoff and Keep clean but well veg-
or occasionally to a roll- direct it toward a suitable etated to minimize sedi-
ing dip. crossing point. ment supply; may need
riprap.
Lead- Leads water away from Grade of ditch must be Do not spill runoff into
out or a culvert, rolling dip, flat equal to or greater than sensitive sites such as
Lead-off land drain or borrow grade of tributary sources springs if there is a buf-
ditch. or ditch will clog with fer zone available. Keep
sediments; restores flow to grade steep enough to
dehydrated sites. transport sediments (4%
or greater).

Appendix E: Maintenance Treatments 45

Treat-
Purpose and
ment Where/When Used Cautions
Type
Conditions of Use

Stream Crossings
Low Hardened road surface Surface should be hardened Keep channel cross
Water used to cross a stream with rock and the stream- section area as wide as
channel or gully without bed armored or otherwise feasible to accommodate
a culvert or bridge. protected to prevent degra- peak flows at shallow
dation (use cross vanes or depth; cross channel per-
weirs). pendicular to direction of
flow at riffle or meander
crossover.

Culverts Use to cross live or in- Use pipe(s) with sufficient Cross at riffle areas only
termittent or ephemeral capacity to accommodate a and perpendicular to
streams; carefully place 25 year storm; use multiple- direction of flow, do not
at natural streambed stage arrays to maintain cross in bend; do not
elevation stream access to floodplain; channelize stream to fit
realign road to fit channel, culvert alignment.
not vice versa.

Raised Cross former wetlands Backfill former gully or Use only to restore
Culvert at an elevation equal to raise incised streambed to wetlands, wet meadows
historic wetland surface; proper bed elevation; install and ciénegas to natu-
used to restore wet- new culvert on fill material ral surface elevation or
lands damaged by gullies; at proper elevation; armor streambed elevation if a
raise pool elevation to outfall to dissipate energy. channel was present; do
stop upstream headcut- not use to impound sites
ting. artificially.

Raised Install drop inlet struc- Match top of structure Be careful not to saturate
Culvert ture at culvert inlet to with historic streambed or road embankment; use
Inlet restore historic stream- meadow surface only; used for restoration of former
bed elevation or wetland to remediate existing pipes wetlands only; use porous
surface; a minor modifi- short of replacement. materials or techniques
cation of existing culvert to assure that released
installation. flows mimic natural
hydroperiod.

46 A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land...Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads
Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge the following reviewers
I was encouraged by many people to produce who offered invaluable suggestions for improving
this book and help land managers create and content and organization: Steve Carson, Jim
maintain better low-standard rural roads while Thorpe, Julia Davis-Stafford, Tom Morris, Kirk
harvesting water for arid landscapes. I hope it is Gadzia, Craig Conley, Mary Miller, Frank Hayes,
of value. Special thanks to all who came before, John Fehr and Russ LaFayette. I much appreciate
especially Keith Guenther for his work and insight Steve Carson for taking the lead in preparing
toward creating and maintaining low-standard Chapter IX.
roads. I wish to thank my former Forest Service Many thanks goes to my wife, Mary Maulsby,
peers and mentors for all they taught me. I also for translating the proceedings of numerous
want to thank my associates in other agencies, workshop presentations and her unwavering
federal, state, private and Native American, for encouragement and support.
bearing with me.
I am most indebted to Tamara Gadzia for her
logistical and organizational support, graphic
Bill Zeedyk
design, editing and layout, and consistent
encouragement.

Photos and Graphics:

Steve Carson Photos: Deborah Myrin & Van Clothier:

I-3, II-2, II-4, II-5, IV-3,V-1,V-2, I-1
V-4,V-7,VI-1,VI-2,VI-3, IX-2, Jim Thorpe Photo:
IX-3, IX-4, IX-5, IX-6, IX-7, Back Cover
IX-8, IX-9 Bill Zeedyk Photos:
Craig Conley Photos: Front cover, lower right; i-1, i-2, i-3,
IV-1,V-6 II-1, III-1,V-3,V-12 ,VII-2,
Kirk Gadzia Photo: VIII-2,VIII-4 and Figure VI-1
I-4
Tamara Gadzia Photos: Funding Provided by:
Front cover left photo and upper right; S The Rio Puerco Management
inside cover photo; I-2, III-2, IV-2,V-5,V-8,V-9, Committee - Watershed Initiative
V-10,V-11,V-13,V-14,VII-1, S The Quivira Coalition
VII-3,VIII-1,VIII-3,VIII-5, IX-10. S The Environmental Protection Agency
Figures: II-1, II-2, III-1, III-2, III-3, III-4, III-5, S The New Mexico Environment
V-1,V-2,V-3,V-4,V-5,V-6, Department ~ Surface Water Quality
VIII-1,VIII-2,VIII-3 and VIII-4 Bureau
Melanie Gentry Photo: S Taos Soil and Water Conservation
II-3 District
Tina Gonzanarez Photo: S The Thaw Charitable Trust
IX-1

Layout and Design by Creative Enterprises, Dell City,Texas

Portions of this publication may be copied and shared for educational purposes and
practical field applications but are not intended for resale.
 To Contact Us:
The Quivira Coalition
1413 Second St. Suite 1
Santa Fe, NM 87505
Phone: 505-820-2544 Fax: 505-955-8922
[email protected]
www.quiviracoalition.org

Zeedyk Ecological Consulting, LLC

PO Box 574
Sandia Park, NM 87047
505-281-9066
[email protected]

Bureau of Land Management

Albuquerque Field Office
435 Montaño NE
Albuquerque, NM 87107-4935
Phone: 505-761-8700 Fax: 505-761-8911

New Mexico Environment Department ~

Surface Water Quality Bureau, Watershed Protection Section
1190 South St. Francis Drive
PO Box 26110
Santa Fe, NM 87505-0110
Phone: 505-827-1041 Fax: 505-827-0160