The Standard Manual l!

f
Amoteur Radio Comm:u,nicatUm,
The
Radio Amateur's
Handbook

By the HEADQUARTERS STAFF

of the

AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE

NEWINGTON, CONN., U.S.A. 06111

Editor'
Robert Myers, WIFBY
Assistant Editors:
Laird Campbell, WICUT
Tony Dorbuck, WI YNC
Gerald Hall, KIPLP
George Hart, WINJM
Lewis McCoy, WlICP
Thomas McMullen, WISL
Perry Williams, WI UED

1974 I

'I
Fifty-First Edition

_~L""""""'_ _ _ -.----------------
,

COPYRIGHT 1974 BY
THE AMERICAN RADIO RELA Y LEAGUE, INC.

Copyright secured under the Pan-American Convention

International Copyright secured

This work is publication No.6 of the Radio Amateur's

Library, published by the League. All rights reserved.
No part of this work may be reproduced in any form
except by written permission of the publisher. All
rights of translation are reserved. Printed in U. S. A.

Quedan reservados todos los derechos

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 41·3345
Fifty-First Edition

$4.50 in the U.S.A. and Possessions, $5.00 in Canada,

$6.00 elsewhere.
Oothbound edition $7.50 U.S.A., Possessions and Canada,
$8.00 elsewhere.
FOREWORD
The Radio A mateur's Handbook - The Standard
Manual of Amateur Radio Communication.
That title describes exactly this book's purpose; its
remarkable history since the first edition a half century
ago is the best testimonial to how well that purpose has
been achieved.
This publication is first and foremost a handbook, a
manual - not a theoretical text.· It has always attempted
to present radio theory and practice in terms of ap-
plication - to be a useful working tool for every radio
amateur. Through successiv"e annual editions it thoroughly
covers fundamentals and continually reflects changing
technology and advances in the "state of the art." It is
designed to serve the practical experimenter and the rag
chewer, the home constructor and the user of commercial
equipment - and those with special interests ranging from
the universal to the exotic.
From F.E. Handy's (WI BDI) one-man first edition in
1926, the Handbook has progressed to the present volume,
a product of the efforts, talents and skills of amateurs
from all over the country - volunteer authors as weli as
Hq. staff.
We hope that you, too - as have so many amateurs
before you - will find this Handbook indispensable to
your needs and interests; that it will contribute to the
achievement of your goals as a radio amateur.

JOHN HUNTOON
General Manager

Newington, Conn.
January, 1974
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 The Amateur's Code 6

Chapter Amateur Radio 7 II

II
•
2 Electrical Laws and Circuits IS

3 Vacuum-Tube Principles 61
4" Semiconductor Devices 79 III
II
•
5 AC-Operated Power Supplies lOS

6 HF Transmitting 136

CONTENTS 7 VHF and UHF Transmitting 199 II

8 Receiving Systems 235 II
9 VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 290
1
Mobile and Portable/Emergency
10
Equipment and Practices. 319 II
II
12
Code Transmission
Amplitude Modulation and
352

368
••
•
Double-Sideband Phone

13 Single-Side band Transmission 379

II
••
14 Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 420

Specialized Communications Systems 458

~5

Interference with other Services 484

16
17 Test Equipment and Measurements 506 II
18 Construction Practices and Data Tables 543 II
19 Wave Propagation 559 II
567
III
••
20 Transmissio.n Lines
HF Antennas 588
21
"
VHF and UHF Antennas 623
22
23 Assembling a Station 639 II
24 Operating a Station
646 II
25 Vacuum Tubes and Semiconductors VI II
Index II

---~ ------------~--------------------
The Amateur's Code

ONE
The A mateur is considerate . . . He never knowingly uses
the air in such a way as to lessen the pleasure of others.

TWO
The A mateur is Loyal . . . He offers his loyalty, encour-
agement and support to his fellow radio amateurs, his local
club and to the American Radio Relay League, through
which amateur radio is represented.

THREE
The Amateur tS Progressive . . . He keeps his station
abreast of science. It is well built and efficient. His
operating practice is above reproach.

FOUR
The A mateur is Friendly '" Slow and patient sending
when requested, friendly advice and counsel to the begin-
ner, kindly assistance, cooperation and consideration for
the interests of others; these are marks of the amateur
spirit.

FIVE
The A mateur is Balanced . . . Radio is his hobby. He
never allows it to interfere with any of the duties he owes
to his home, his job, his school, or his community.

SIX
The A mateur is Patriotic '" His knowledge and his
station are always ready for the service of his country and
his community.
-PAULM. SEGAL
Amateur Radio
Chapter 1
•
Amateur radio is a scientific hobby, a means of 500-mile and even occasional 1000-mile two-way
gaining personal skill in the fascinating art of contacts. Because all long-distance messages had to
electronics and an opportunity to communicate be relayed, relaying developed into a fine art - an
with fellow citizens by private short-wave radio. ability that was to prove invaluable when the
Scattered over the globe are over 700,000 amateur Government suddenly called hundreds of skilled
radio operators who perform a service defined in amateurs into war service in 1917. Meanwhile U.S.
international law as one of "self-training, amateurs began to wonder if there were amateurs
intercommunication and technical investigations in other countries across the seas and if, some day,
carried on by . . . duly authorized persons we might not span the Atlantic on 200 meters.
interested in radio technique solely with a personal Most important of all, this period witnessed the
aim and without pecuniary interest." birth of the American Radio Relay League, the
From a humble beginning at the turn of the amateur radio organization whose name was to be
century, amateur radio has grown to become an virtually synonymous with subsequent amateur
established institution. Today the American progress and short-wave development. Conceived
followers of amateur radio number over 250,000, and formed by the famous inventor, the late Hiram
trained communicators from whose ranks will Percy Maxim, ARRL was formally launched in
come the professional communications specialists early 1914. It had just begun to exert its full force
and executives of tomorrow - just as many of in amateur activities when the United States
today's radio leaders were first attracted to radio declared war in 1917, and by that act sounded the
by their early interest in amateur radio knell for amateur radio for the next two and a half
communication. A powerful and prosperous years. There were then over 6000 amateurs. Over
organization now provides a bond between 4000 of them served in the armed forces during
am a te u rs and protects their interests; an that war.
internationally respected magazine is published Today, few amateurs realize that World War I
solely for their benefit. The military services seek not only marked the close of the first phase of
the cooperation of the amateur in developing amateur development but came very near marking
communications reserves. Amateur radio supports its end for all time. The fate of amateur radio was
a manufacturing industry which, by the very in the balance in the days immediately following
demands of amateurs for the latest and best the sij!;ninj!; of the Armistice. The Government,
equipment, is always up-to-date in its designs and having had a taste of supreme authority over
production techniques - in itself a national asset. communications in wartime, was more than half
Amateurs have won the gratitude of the nation for inclined to keep it. The war had not been ended a
their heroic performances in times of natural month before Congress was considering legislation
disaster; traditional amateur skills in emergency that would have made it impossible for the
communication are also the stand-by system for
the nation's civil defense. Amateur radio is, indeed,
a magnificently useful institu tion.
Although as old as the art of radio itself,
amateur radio did not alway·s enjoy such prestige.
Its first enthusiasts were private citizens of an
experimental turn of mind whose imaginations
went wild when Marconi first proved that messages
actually could be sent by wireless. They set about
learning enough about the new scientific marvel to
build homemade spark transmitters. By 1912 there
were numerous Government and commercial sta-
tions, and hundreds of amateurs; regulation was
needed, so laws, licenses and wavelength specifica-
tions appeared. There was then no amateur organi-
zation nor spokesman. The official viewpoint
toward amateurs was something like this:
"Amateurs? . . . Oh, yes . . . Well, stick
'em on 200 meters and below; they'll never get out
of their backyards with that."
But as the years rolled on, amateurs found out HIRAM PERCY MAXIM
how, and DX (distance) jumped from local to President ARRL, 1914--1936

7
 8 AMATEUR RADIO
amateur radio of old ever to be resumed. ARRL's Finally, in November, 1923, after some months
President Maxim rushed to Washington, pleaded, of careful preparation, two-way amateur transat-
argued, and the bill was defeated. But there was lantic communication was accomplished, when
still no amateur radio; the war ban continued. Fred Schnell, IMO (now W4CF) and the late John
Repeated representations to Washington met only Reinartz, lXAM (later K6BJ) worked for several
with silence. The League's offices had been closed hours with Deloy, 8AB, in France, with all three
for a year and a·half, its records stored away. Most stations on 110 meters! Additional stations drop-
of the former amateurs had gone into service; ped down to 100 meters and found that they, too,
many of them would never come back. Would could easily work two-way across the Atlantic. The
those returning be interested in such things as exodus from the 200-meter region had started. The
amateur radio? Mr. Maxim, determined to find out, "short-wave" era had begun!
called a meeting of the old Board of Directors. The By 1924 dozens of commercial companies had
situation was discouraging: amateur radio still rushed stations into the 100-meter region. Chaos
banned by law, former members scattered, no threatened, until the first of a series of national
organization, no membership, no funds. But those and international radio conferences partitioned off
few determined men financed the publication of a various bands of frequencies for the different
notice to all the former amateurs that could be serviees. Although thought still centered around
located, hired Kenneth B. Warner as the League's 100 meters, League officials at the first of these
rust paid secretary, floated a bond issue among old frequency-determining conferences, in 1924, wise-
League members to obtain money for immediate ly obtained amateur bands not only at 80 meters
running expenses, bought the magazine QST to be but at 40,20, and even 5 meters.
the League's official organ, started activities, and Eighty meters proved so successful that "forty"
dunned officialdom until the wartime ban was was given a try, and QSOs with Australia, New
lifted and amateur radio resumed again, on Octo- Zealand and South Africa soon became common-
ber 1, 1919. There was a headlong rush by place. Then how about 20 meters? This new band
amateurs to get back on the air. Gangway for King revealed entirely unexpected possibilities when
Spark! Manufacturers were hard put to supply lXAM worked 6TS on the West Coast, direct, at
radio apparatus fast enough. Each night saw high noon. The dream of amateur radio - daylight
additional dozens of stations crashing out over the DX! - was finally true.
air. Interference? It was bedlam!
But it was an era of progress. Wartime needs PUBLIC SERVICE
had stimulated technical development. Vacuum
tubes were being used both for receiving and Amateur radio is a grand and glorious hobby
transmitting. Amateurs immediately adapted the but this fact alone would hardly merit such
new gear to 200-meter work. Ranges promptly wholehearted support as is given it by our Govern-
increased and it became possible to bridge the ment at international conferences. There are other
continent with but one intermediate relay. reasons. One of these is a thorough appreciation by
the military and civil defense authorities of the
TRANSATLANTICS value of the amateur as a source of skilled radio
personnel in time of war. Another asset is best
As DX became 1000, then 1500 and then 2000 described as "public service."
miles, amateurs began to dream of transatlantic About 4000 amateurs had contributed their
work. Could they get across? In December, 1921, skill and ability in '17-'18. After the war it was
ARRL sent abroad an expert amateur, Paul F. only natural that cordial relations should prevail
Godley, 2ZE, with the best receiving equipment between the Army and Navy and the amateur.
available. Tests were run, and thirty American These relations strengthened in the next few years
stations were heard in Europe. In 1922 another and, in gradual steps, grew into cooperative activi-
transatlantic test was carried out and 315 Ameri- ties which resulted, in 1925, in the establishment
can calls were logged by European amateurs and of the Naval Communications Reserve and the
one French and two British stations were heard on Army-Amateur Radio System (now the Military
this side.
Everything now was centered on one objective:
two-way amateur communication across the Atlan-
tic! It must be possible - but somehow it couldn't
quite be done. More power? Many already were
using the legal maximum. Better receivers? They
had superheterodynes. Another wavelength? What
about those undisturbed wavelengths below 200
meters? The engineering world thought they were
worthless - but they had said that about 200
meters. So, in 1922, tests between Hartford and
Boston were made on 130 meters with encouraging
results. Early in 1923, ARRL-sponsored tests on
wavelengths down to 90 meters were successful.
Reports indicated that as the wavelength dropped
the results were better. Excitement began to spread
through amateur ranks.
A view of the ARRL laboratory.
Public Service 9
Affiliate Radio System). In World War II thousands planned that regular (i.e., casual) amateur radio
of amateurs in the Naval Reserve were called to will cease and RACES will continue to operate
active duty, where they served with distinction u!lder certain restrictions. In peacetime emergen-
w~ile many other thousands served in the Army: cies (such as natural disasters), RACES will operate
Air Forces, Coast Guard and Marine Corps. Alto- closelY with ARPSC.
gether, more than 25,000 radio amateurs served in
the armed forces of the United States. Other
thousands were engaged in vital civilian electronic TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS
research, development and manufacturing. They
also organized and manned the War Emergency The amateur is constantly in the forefront of
Radio Service, the communications section of technical progress. His incessant curiosity, his
OCD. eagerness to try anything new, are two reasons.
The "public-service" record of the amateur is a Another is that ever-growing amateur radio con tin-
brilliant tribute to his work. These activities can be u.allY overcrowds its frequency assignments, spur-
roughly divided into two classes, expeditions and nng amateurs to the development and adoption of
emergencies. Amateur cooperation with expedi- new techniques to permit the accommodation of
tions began in 1923 when a League member, Don more stations.
During World War II, thousands of skilled
Mix, ITS, of Bristol, Conn. (from 1933 to 1968 a
amateurs contributed their knowledge to the de-
member of the QST technical staff), accompanied
velopment of secret radio devices, both in Govern-
MacMillan to the Arctic on the schooner Bowdoin
ment and private laboratories. Equally as import-
with an amateur station. Amateurs in Canada and ant, the prewar technical progress by amateurs
the U.S. provided the home contacts. The success provided the keystone for the development of
of this venture was so outstanding that other modern military communications equipment.
explorers followed suit. During subsequent years a From this work, amateurs have moved on to
total of perhaps two hundre<l voyages and expedi- satellites of their own, launched piggyback on
tions were assisted by amateur radio, the several regular space shots at no cost to the taxpayer.
explorations of the Antarctic being perhaps the Project Oscar Inc., an ARRL affiliate, designed and
best known. constructed the first four, with launch dates of
Since 1913 amateur radio has been the princi- December 12, 1961; June 2, 1962; March 9,1965;
pal, and in many cases the only, means of outside and December 21, 1965. Australis-Oscar 5 was
communication in several hundred storm, flood built in Australia and launched by NASA under the
and earthquake emergencies in this country. The auspices of Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation
earthquakes which hit Alaska in 1964, Peru in (Amsat); it went aloft on January 23, 1970.
1970 and California in 1971, the Dakota floods Amsat-Oscar 6 was orbited October 15, 1972 and
and the aftermath of Tropical Storm Agnes in is expected to remain usable throughout 1973. It
1972, respectively, called for the amateur's greatest contains beacons operating on 435.10 and 29.45; a
emergency effort. In these disasters and many repeater with input from 145.9 to 146 MHz and
others - tornados, sleet storms, forest fires, bliz- output from 29.45 to 29.55. Ground stations using
zards - amateurs played a major role in the relief the satellite should not exceed 100 watts effective
\\tork and earned wide commendation for their radiated power. Incidentally, Oscar stands for:
resourcefulness in effecting communication where "Orbital Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio."
all other means had failed. The League's Emergen- Another space-age field in which amateurs are
cy Corps, now a part of the Amateur Radio Public currently working is that of long-range communica-
Service Corps (APRSC), was formalized in 1938, tion using the moon as a passive reflector. The
and a program of close cooperation with the amateur bands from 50 to 2450 MHz are being
American Red Cross was adopted. Since 1947, used for this work. Moonbounce communications
there has been a staff member at headquarters have been carried out, for instance, between
whose primary job is coordination of public service Sweden and New Zealand on 144 MHz and
activities. between California and England on both 432 and
After World War II, it became evident that the 1296 MHz.
international situation was destined to be tense and
the need for some civil defense measures was
apparent. In the discussions with government THE AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE
agencies that followed, the League got two points
across: first, that amateur radio had a potential for The ARRL is today not only the spokesman for
and capability of playing a major role in this amateur radio in the U.S. and Canada but it is the
program; and second, that our participation largest amateur organization in the world. It is
should, this time as never before, be in our own strictly of, by and for amateurs, is noncommercial
name, as an amateur radio service, even if and after and has no stockholders. The members of the
war should break ou t. These principles were League are the owners of the ARRL and QST.
included into the planning by the formulation of The League is pledged to promote interest in
regulations creating a new branch of the amateur two-way amateur communication and experimen-
service, the Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Ser- tation. It is interested in the relaying of messages
vices, RACES. As an amateur service, its frequency by amateur radio. It is concerned with the advance-
segments are shared with the regular amateur ment of the radio art. It stands for the mainte-
service during peacetime. In the event of war, it is nance of fraternalism and a high standard of
-----~--~=~==--~ ---- -.--

10 AMATEUR RADIO
AMATEUR LICENSING IN THE UNITED
conduct. It represents the amateur in legislative
STATES
matters.
One of the League's principal purposes is to Pursuant to the law, the Federal Communica-
keep amateur activities so well conducted that the tions Commission (FCC) has issued detailed regula-
amateur will continue to justify his existence. tions for the amateur service.
Amateur radio offers its followers countless plea- A radio amateur is a duly authorized person
sures and unending satisfaction. It also calls for the interested in radio technique solely with a personal
shouldering of responsibilities - the maintenance aim and without pecuniary interest. Amateur
of high standards, a cooperative loyalty to the operator licenses are available to most permaneni
traditions of amateur radio, a dedication to its residents who can pass an examination on opera-
ideals and principles, so that the institution of tion, apparatus, and regulations affecting amateurs,
amateur radio may continue to operate "in the and who can demonstrate ability to send and
public interest, convenience and necessity." receive code. There are five available classes of
The operating territory of ARRL is divided into amateur license - Novice, Technician, General
one Canadian and fifteen U.S. divisions. The affairs ("Conditional" if taken by mail), Advanced, and
of the League are managed by a Board of Direc- Amateur Extra Class. Each has different require-
tors. One director is elected every two years by the ments, the flIst two being the simplest and
membership of each U.S. division, and one by the consequently conveying limited privileges as to
Canadian membership. These directors then choose frequencies available. Extra Class licensees have
the president and three vice-presidents, who are exclusive use of the frequencies 3.5-3.525,
also members of the Board. The secretary and 3.775-3.8, 7.0-7.025, 14.0-14.025, 21.0-21.025
treasurer are also appointed by the Board. The and 21.25-21.270 MHz. Advanced and Extra have
directors, as representatives of the amateurs in exclusive use of the frequencies 3.8-3.890,
their divisions, meet annually to examine current 7.15-7.225, 14.2-14.275, 21.270-21.35 and
amateur problems and formulate ARRL policies 50.0-50.1 MHz. Ex~ms for Novice, Technician and
thereon. The directors appoint a general manager Conditional classes are taken by mail under the
to supervise the operations of the League and its supervision of a volunteer examiner. Station li-
headquarters, and to carry out the policies and censes are granted only to licensed operators. An
instructions of the Board. amateur statiOtl may not be used for material
ARRL owns and publishes the monthly maga- compensation of any sort nor for broadcasting.
zine, QST. Acting as a bulletin of the League's Narrow bands of frequencies are allocated exclu-
organized activities, QST also serves as a medium sively for use by amateur stations. Transmissions
for the exchange of ideas and fosters amateur may be on any frequency within the assigned
spirit. Its technical articles are renowned. It has bands. All the frequencies may be used for cw
grown to be the "amateur's bible," as well as one telegraphy; some are available for radiotelephone,
of the foremost radio magazines in the world. others for special forms of transmission such as
Membership dues include a subscription to QST. teletype, facsimile amateur television or radio
ARRL maintains a model headquarters amateur control. The input to the final stage of amateur
station, known as the Hiram Percy Maxim Memor- stations is limited to 1000 watts (with lower limits
ial Station, in Newington, Conn. Its call is WIAW, in some cases; see the table on page 14) and on
the call held by Mr. Maxim until his death and later frequencies below 144 MHz must be adequately
transferred to the League station by a special filtered direct current. Emissions must be free from
government action. Separate transmitters of maxi- spurious radiations. The licensee must provide for
mum legal power on each amateur band have measurement of the transmitter frequency and
permitted the station to be heard regularly all over establish a procedure for checking it regularly. A
the world. More important, WIA W transmits on complete log of station operation must be main-
regular schedules bulletins of general interest to tained, with specified data. The station license also
amateurs, conducts code practice as a training au thorizes the holder to operate portable and
feature, and engages in two-way work on all mobile stations subject to further regulations. All
popular bands with as many amateurs as time radio licenses are subject to penalties for violation
permits. of regulations.
At the headquarters of the League in New- Amateur licenses are issued without regard to
ington, Conn., is a well-equipped laboratory to the applicant's age or physical condition. A fee of
assist staff members in preparation of technical $9.00 (payable to the Federal Communications
material for QST and the Radio Amateur's Hand· Commission) must accompany applications for
book. Among its other activities, the League new and renewed licenses. The fee for license
maintains a Communications Department concern- modification is $4.00 (except Novices: no fee).
ed with the operating activities of League mem- When you are able to copy code at the required
bers. A large field organization is headed by a speed, have studied basic transmitter theory and
Section Communications Manager in each of the are familiar with the law and amdteur regulations,
League's seventy-four sections. There are appoint- you are ready to give serious though t to securing
ments for qualified members in various fields, as the Government amateur licenses which are issued
outlined in Chapter 24. Special activities and you, after examination by an FCC engineer (or by
contests promote operating skill. A special place is a volunteer, depending on the license class),
reserved each month in QST for amateur news through the FCC Licensing Unit, Gettysburg, Pa.,
from every section.' 17325. A complete up-to-the-minute discussion of
Amateur Licensing 11
license requirements, the FCC regulations for the I, B.C.; and Comment Devenir Amateur, $2.50
amateur service, and study guides for those pre- from Guy Cadieux, VE2BTG, 924 20th Ave. S.,
paring for the examinations, are to be found in The Ville de St. Antoine, P.Q.
Radio Amateur's License Manual, available from
the American Radio Relay League, Newington,
Conn. 06111, for $1.00, postpaid. RECIPROCAL OPERATING
U.S. amateurs may operate their amateur sta-
tions while visiting in Argentina, Australia, Austria,
AMATEUR LICENSING IN CANADA Barbados, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecua-
The agency responsible for amateur radio in
dor, El Salvador, Finland, France * , Germany,
Canada is the Department of Communications,
Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, India, Indonesia,
with its principal offices in Ottawa. Prospective
Ireland, Israel, Jamaica, Kuwait, Luxembourg, Mo-
amateurs, no longer restricted as to age, may take
naco, Netherlands, * New Zealand, Nicaragua, Nor-
the examination for an Amateur Radio Operator
way, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Sierre
Certificate at one of the regional offices of the Leone, Sweden, Switzerland, Trinidad & Tobago,
DOC. The test is in three parts: a Morse code test
the United Kingdom *,Uruguay and Venezuela and
at ten words per minute, a written technical exam
vice versa. For the latest information, write to
and an oral examination. Upon passing the exami-
ARRL headquarters ..
nation, the amateur may apply for a station
license, the fee for which is $10 per year. At this
point, the amateur is permitted to use cw on all
authorized amateur bands (see table on page 13) LEARNING THE CODE
and phone on those bands above 50MHz. In starting to learn the code, you should
After six months, during which the station has consider it simply another means of conveying
been operated on cw on frequencies below 29.7 information. The spoken word is one method, the
MHz, the Canadian amateur may have his certifi- printed page another, and typewriting and short-
cate endorsed for phone operation in the hand are additional examples. Learning the code is
28.0-29.7 MHz band. The amateur may take a 15 as easy - or as difficult - as learning to type.
wpm code test and more-difficult oral and written The important thing in beginning to study code
examinations for the Advanced Amateur Radio is to think of it as a language of sound, never as
Operator Certificate, which permits phone opera- com binations of dots and dashes. It is easy to
tions on portions of all authorized amateur bands. "speak" code equivalents by using "dit" and
Holders of First or Second Class or Special Radio "dah," so that A would be "didah" (the "t" is
Operator's Certificates may enjoy the privileges of dropped in such combinations). The sound "di"
Advanced class without further examinations. The shOUld be staccato; a code character such as "5"
maximum input power to the final stage of an should sound like a machinegun burst: dididididit!
amateur transmitter is limited to 1,000 S tress each "dah" equally; they are underlined or
watts. italicized in this text because they should be
Prospective amateurs living in remote areas may sligh tly accented and drawn ou t.
obtain a provisional station license after signing a Take a few characters at a time. Learn them
statement that they can meet the technical and thoroughly in didah language before going on to
operating requirements. A provisional license is new ones. If someone who is familiar with code
valid for a maximum of twelve consecutive months can be found to "send" to you, either by whistling
only; by then, a provisional licensee should have or by means of a buzzer or code oscillator, enlist
taken the regular examination. his cooperation. Learn the code by listening to it.
Licenses are available to citizens of Canada, to Don't think about speed to start; the first require-
citizens of other countries in the British Common- ment is to learn the characters to the point where
wealth and to non-citizens who qualify as "landed you can recognize each of them without hesitation.
immig;ants" within the meaning of Canadian immi- Concentrate on any difficult letters. Learning the
gration law. The latter status may be enjoyed for code is not at all hard; a simple booklet treating
only six years, incidentally. A U.S. citizen who the subject in detail is another of the beginner
obtained a Canadian license as a "landed immi- publications available from the League, and is
grant" would have to become a Canadian citizen at entitled, Learning the Radiotelegraph Code, 50
the end of six years or lose his Canadian license. cents, postpaid.
Copies of the Radio Act and of the General Code-practice transmissions are sent by WIA W
Radio Regulations may be obtained for a nominal every evening at 0030 and 0230 GMT (0130 and
fee from the Queen's Printer, Ottawa, and its 2330 May through October). Code is also sent,
dealers. An extract of the amateur rules, Form Monday-Friday, at 1400 GMT (1300 GMT, May
AR-5-80, is available at DOC offices. Other books through October). See Chapter 24, "Code Profici-
include: The Canadian Amateur Radio Regulations ency."
Handbook, $2.55 from CARF, Box 356, Kingston,
K7L 4W2, Ontario; the Ham Handbook for Beginne/S A Code-Practice Set
and the Ham Handbook for Advanced, each $5.30
A simple oscillator circuit like the one shown in
from ARTA Publishing Co., P.O. Box 571 Don
Fig. 1-2 may be built using a Signetics NE555
Mills, Ont.; Radio Amateur Licensing Handboolf
$4.95, ALH Distributors, P.O. Box 1.1, Vancouver • Includes overseas entities.
12 AMATEUR RADIO

A didah N dahi,t
B dahc\id,idit 0 dahdahdah
C dahdidahd!t p ~idah,dahd!t
D dahdidit Q dahdahdidah
--,-
E dit R d,idahdi,t
F dididahdit S ~iqidit
dahdahdit
G - T dah
-,
H d,id,iqidi t U dididah
I d,idi t V d.ic\iqidah
J didahdahdah W didahdah
K dahdidah - X dahdididah .\
-,-
L d,idahd,idit y dahdid'ahdah
-'--
M dahdah Z -
dahdahdidit
_ ..
1 didahdahdahdah 6 dahdidididit
._----
2 qiqidahdahdah 7 dahdah~i~idit
A cw code·practice oscillator along with a speaker
3 d,id,ic\idahdah 8
---- ..
dahdahdahdidit
may be mounted inside a homemade aluminum
4 d,id,ic\iqidah 9 dahdahdahdahdit box. If desired, the battery could be mounted
5 dididididit o dahdahdahdahdah inside the enclosure also, thereby allowing easy
portability of the unit.
Period: didahdidahdidah. Comma: dahdahdidi-
dahdah. Qu~stio~ mark ~ididahdahdidit.Er;o~ : When power is applied the oscillator runs
d.id.ic\i~iqiqid.id!t.
Double' dash ~d~hd.i~ic\idah. continuously and the audio output is keyed on and
Colon: dahdahdahdididit. Semicolon: dahdidah- off. This circuit gives a degree of freedom from
didahdit.Parenthe;is'; dahdidahdahdidah: F;;;;-- chirps or whoop·like sounds when rapidly keyed.
However, the circuit always draws about 6 rnA of
tio-;:;-b~r: dahdididahdit. W~i~didah'dididit. End current when operated. If used with a small
of messag~ didahdid'ahdit. Invitatio~ to'trans- battery, such as those used in transistor portable
mit; dahqidah: End ;;£~ork; ~id.id,idahqidah. radios, the battery could quickly be discharged, so
Fig. 1·1 - The Continental (International Morse) a means of disconnecting the power should be
code. used, such as a spst switch, as shown at S1.
If facilities are not available for etching a board,
point-to·point wiring will work just as well, and
perforated board stock is a suitable material to be
timer and a few extra parts. The printed circuit for used. If a builder does not want to solder directly
the oscillator is made from a 2·inch square piece of to the IC leads an 8-pin IC socket can be used,
'pc material but the IC could have been placed on making all connections to the socket.
Masonite, Formica or some other insulating
material. Point·to-point wiring may be used. The
circuit is housed in a homemade enclosure that
provides room for a battery of almost any. value
between 4-1/2 and 18 volts. The speaker is
attached to the front of the enclosure with
caulking compound. Any speaker in the range of 4
to 50 ohms will work weiI' and may be salvaged
from a discarded transistor pocket radio.
The circuit shown costs approximately five
dollars to build. R2 is made from one fixed-value
resistor chosen to give a pleasant tone. The volume
control could be removed altogether (placing the
speaker at the negative side of C3) or be replaced R3
1
~~~FFe+C3
VOL. LSl
with a pair of resistors equalling about 10,000 10k
ohms. The speaker should be connected between Jl

---vn
Dr
the junction of these resistors and ground. An
on·off switch should be used to disable the TOP VIEW
oscillator when it is not in use.
The audio pitch is determined by the values of
RI, C2 and the setting of R2. The cost of the
oscillator may be reduced somewhat by replacing 1 2 3 4
R2 with a fixed value of resistance; R3 could be Fig. 1·2 - Schematic diagram for the code osc·
replaced by a fixed·value resistor. If this is done, illator. Resistance is in ohms, k ~ 1000. The O.1·pF
the speaker lead must be connected to the junction capacitor is a disk ceramic. U1 is a Signetics NE555
ofC3 and R3. IC timer.
The Amateur Bands 13
INTRODUCTION TO RADIO THE AMATEUR BANDS
THEORY Amateurs are assigned bands of frequencies at
approximate harmonic intervals throughout the
As you start your studies for an amateur spectrum. Like assignments to all services, they are
license, you may wish to have the additional help subject to modification to fit the changing picture
available in How to Become a Radio Amateur of world communications needs. Modifications of
($1.00). It features an elementary description of rules to provide for domestic needs are also
radio theory and constructional details on a simple occasionally issued by FCC and DOC, and in that
receiver and transmitter. respect each amateur should keep himself informed
Another aid isA Course in Radio Fundamentals by WIA W bulletins, QST reports, or by communi-
($2.00). There are experiments, discussions, and cation with ARRL Hq. concerning a specific point.
quizzes to help you learn radio fundamentals. On this page and page 14 are summaries of the
A League publication, Understanding Amateur Canadian and U.S. amateur bands on which opera-
Radio, explains radio theory and practice in greater tion is permitted as of our press date. A0 and F0
detail than is found in How to Become a Radio mean unmodulated carriers. Al means cw teleg-
Amateur, but is at a more basic level than this raphy, A2 is tone-modulated cw telegraphy, A3 is
Handbook. Understanding Amateur Radio contains amplitude-modulated phone, A4 is facsimile, AS is
304 pages, and is priced at $2.50. television, F I is frequency-shift keying, F2 is
These booklets are available postpaid from frequency-modulated tone keying (Morse or tele-
ARRL, Newington, Connecticut 06111. type), F3 is fm phone, F4 is fm facsimile and FS is
fm television.

CANADIAN AMATEUR BANDS

80 meters 3.500 - 3.725 MHz A I, Fl 6) TeleVision (AS), permitted by special authorization, shall
1)3)4)5) 3.725·· 4.000 MHz AI, A3, F3 employ asystcmofstandard interlace and scanning with a band-
width of not more than 4 MHz.
40 meters 7.000- 7.150 MHz AI, FI,
I) 3) 4) 5) 7.150· 7.300MHz AI,A3,F3
Operation in frequency band 1.800- 2.000 MHz shall be
20 meters 14.000··· 14.100 MHz AI, Fl limited to the area~ as indicated in the following table and shall
I) 3) 4) 5) 14.100 14.350 MHz AI, A3, 1'3 be limited to the indkated maximum dc power input to the an-
ode of the final radio frequency stage of the transmitter during
15 meters 21.000· 21.100 MHz AI, 1'1 day and night hour~ respectively: for the purpose of this table
I) 3) 4) 5) 21.1 00 21.450 MHz A I, A3. 1'3 "day" means the hours between sunrise and ~~unset, and "night"
means the hours between ~unset and sunrise. AI, A3 and 1;3
10 meters 28.000 28.100 MHz A I, 1'1 cmbsion arc permit ted.
2) 3) 4) 5) 28.100- 29.700 MHz AI, A3, 1'3
11 BCDt'FGH
6 meters 50.000 50.050 MHz A I
British Columbia 3 ) 3 0 0 0 0
3) 4) 50.050-· 51.000 MHz AI, A2, A3, FI
Fl, F3 Alberta 3 1' ) 3 I 0 0 I
Sa~katchcwan 31) 3 3 I I 3
51.000 - 54,000 MHz A0, AI, A2, A3
Ma.nitoba 3 ) 2 2 3 )
A4, FI, F2, F3,
1'4 Ontario 3' I 0 0 2'
North of 50' N. Lat.
2 meters 144.000·- 144.100 MHz Al Ontario 3 ) 0 0 0 0
South of SO' N. Lat. '
3) 4) 144.100- 148.000 MHz A0, AI, A2, A3
A4, FI, 1'2, F3 Provin(.;e of Oucbe\,; o 0 0 0
1'4 North of 52' N. Lat.
Province of Quebec o 0 000
3) 4) 220.000-· 225.000 MHz A0. AI, A2, A3, South of 52' N. Lat.
A4, 1'1, 1'2, 1'3. New Brun ... wick 3 2 1 000 0 0
1'4 Nova Scotia 3 2 I 0 0 0 0 0
4) 6) 420.000 450.000 MHz) Prinf.:e Edward Island 3 2 I 0 000 0
1215.000 1300.000 MHz) Newfoundland (I~land) 31100000
2300.000 2450.000 MHz) Newfoundland (Labrador) 2 0000000
3300.000 3500.000 MHz) A0, AI, A2, A3 Yukon Territory 31) 3 3 I 0 0 0 0
5650.000 5925.000 MHz) A4, AS, Fl. 1'2 Di~trict of MacKenzie 31) 3 3 3 I 0 0 I
10000.000· ·10500.000 MHz) 1'3,1,4 Di~trkt of Keewatin 3113002
21000.000· ·22000.000 MHz) District of Jo"ranklin o 000 001
I) Phone privilege!'> are re~tricted to holders of Advanced Ama·
leur Radio Operator Certificates, and of Commercial C'ertifi·
I) The power Icvch 500 day 100 night may be incrca:-.cd to
cates.
1000 day 200 night when au thorizcd by a Radio In:-.pxtor
2) Phone privileges are restricted as in footnote I), and to of the Department ot'('ommunicatiom.
holders of Amateur Radio Operators ('ertificates. whose certifi-
cates have been endorsed for operation on phone in these band". Ff£.'qucncy Band
3) Amplitude modulation (A2, A3, A4) shall not exceed t 3 A 1.800 1.825 Mllz E 1.900 1.925 Mllz
kHz (6A3). B I.S25 1.850 Mil, 1·' 1.925 1.950 Mllz
(' 1.850 1.875 Mllz G 1.950 1.975 ~lllz
4) Frequency modulation (F2. F3, F4) o;hall not produce a (.;ar- o 1.875 1.900 Mllz II 1.975 2.000 MHz
rier deviation exceeding 1-3 kHz, (6F3) except that in the 52
54 MHz and 146- -148 MHz bands and higher the (.;arricr devia- Power Level Watts
tion shall not exceed .f 15 kHz (30F3). o Operation not permitted
5) Slow Scan television (AS), permitted by o;pel.-iai authoriza- I 25 night 125 day
tion, shall not exceed a bandwidth greater than that occupied 2 50 night 250 day
by a normal single sideband voke transmission. 3 100 night 500 day
 U.S. AND POSSESSIONS AMATEUR BANDS

kHz EMISSIONS MHz EMISSIONS

160 m'* 1800-2000 AI,A3 50.0-54.0 Al

50.1-54.0 A2, A3, A4, AS3, FI,
3500-4000 Al 6 m." F2,F3 2 , FSI
3500-3775 Fl 51.0-54.0 AI)
80 m."
3775-3890 A5 1 , F5 1 52.5-54.0 F3
3775-4000 A3, F3 2

7000-7300 144-148 Al
Al
7000-7150 Fl
2 m. 144.1-148 A0, A2, A3, A4, A5 3 ,
40 m." FI),FI, F2,F3,F5 1
7150· 7225 A5 1 , F5 1
7150·· 7300 A3, F3 2
220-225 A0, AI, A2, A3, A4, A5 3 ,
14000-14350 Al FI),FI, F2,F3,F4,FSI
14000-14200 Fl
20 m."
14200-14275 A5 1 , F5 1 420- 450 4 AI), AI, A2, A3, A4,A5 3 ,
14200-14350 A3,F3 2 1,215-1,300 FI),Fl, F2,F3,F4,F5

MHz EMISSIONS
2,300-2,450
21.00-21.45 Al 3,300-3,500
5,650-5,925 AI), AI, A2, A3, A4, AS
15 m'*' 21.00-21.25 Fl
10,000-10,500 5 FI), FI, F2, F3, F4, F5,
21.25-21.35 A5 1 , F5 1
21.25-21.45 A3, F3 2 24,000-24,050 pulse

28.0-29.7 Al
10m. 28.0-28.5 FI The bands 220 through 10,500 MHz are shared
28.5-29.7 A3, ASl, F3 2, F5 1 with the Government Radio Positioning Service,
29.0-29.7 F3 which has priority.

NOTE: Frequencies from 3.9-4.0 MHz and 7.1-7.3

MHz are not available to amateurs on Baker.
Canton, Enderbury, Guam, Howland, Jarvis,
Palmyra, American Samoa, and Wake Islands.

When operating from points outside ITU Region 2

(roughly, the Western Hemisphere extended to 1 Slow-scan television no wider than a single-
include Hawaii), licensees of Conditional Class and sideband voice signal may be used; on AS if voice is
higher may operate A3 and F3 from 7075-7100 simultaneously used, the total signal can be no
wider than a standard a-m signal.
kHz; Novice licensees may operate Al from
7050-7075 kHz. 2 Narrow-band frequency- or phase-modulation
no wider than standard a-m voice signal.
REPEATERS:
3 Slow-scan television no wider than a standard
The frequency ranges (in MHz) available for a-m voice signal.
repeater inputs and outputs are as follows:
4 Input power must not exceed SO watts in
52.0 - 54.0 Fla., Ariz., and parts of Ga., Ala., Miss., N. Mex.,
146.0 - 148.0 Tex., Nev .. and Ca. See the License Manual or
write ARRL for further details.
222.0 - 225.0
442.0 - 450.0 5 No pulse permitted in this band.
any amateur frequency above 1215 MHz.
The frequency band 29.5 - 29.7 MHz may be au-
thorized upon a special showing of need for repeat-
er station operation in this band.

Novice licensees may use A I emISsIOn and a Technician licensees are permitted all amateur
maximum power input of 75 watts on the follow- privileges in 50.1-54 MHz, 145-148 MHz and in the
ing frequencies: bands 220 MHz and above.
3.700-3.750 MHz 21.100 .. 21.200 MHz Except as otherwise specified, the maximum
7.100-7.150 MHz 28.100-28.200 MHz amateur power input is 1000 watts.
*To minimize interference to radionavigation systems sharing the 160 meter band, amateurs are
required to observe frequency and power restrictions according to their geographic location. Exact
limitations are contained in Section 97.61(b)(2) of the FCC Amateur Regulations. This information also
appears in the ARRL License Manual, available for $1.00 postpaid. A chart of U.S. 160 meter limitations
is available from ARRL Headquarters; send a stamped, addressed envelope and request form S-15(a).
* *See page 10 for restrictions on usage of parts of these bands.
 Chapter 2

II
Electrical Laws
and Circuits
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS of the intensity of the force. The number of lines
When something occurs at one point in space per unit of area (square inch or square centimeter)
because something else happened at another point, is called the flux density.
with no visible means by which the "cause" can be
related to the "effect," we say the two events are ELECTRICITY AND THE ELECTRIC
connected by a field. In radio work, the fields with CURRENT
which we are concerned are the electric and
magnetic, and the combination of the two called Everything physical is built up of atoms,
the electromagnetic field. particles so small that they canno t be seen even
A field has two important properties, intensity through the most powerful microscope. But the
(magnitude) and direction. The field exerts a/orce atom in turn consists of several different kinds of
on an object immersed in it; this force represents still smaller particles. One is the electron,
potential (ready-to-be-used) energy, so the poten- essentially a small particle of electricity. The
tial of the field is a measure of the field intensity. quantity or charge of electricity represented by the
The direction of the field is the direction in which electron is, in fact, the smallest quantity of
the object on which the force is exerted will tend electricity that can exist. The kind of electricity
to move. associated with the electron is called negative.
An electrically charged object in an electric An ordinary atom consists of a central core
field will be acted on by a force that will tend to called the nucleus, around which one or more
move it in a direction determined by the direction electrons circulate somewhat as the earth and other
of the field. Similarly, a magnet in a magnetic field planets circulate around the sun. The nucleus has
will be subject to a force. Everyone has seen an electric charge of the kind of electricity called
demonstrations of magnetic fields with pocket positive, the amount of its charge being just
magnets, so intensity and direction are not hard to exactly equal to the sum of the negative charges on
grasp. all the electrons associated with that nucleus.
A "static" field is one that neither moves nor The important fact about these two "opposite"
changes in intensity. Such a field can be set up by a kinds of electricity is that they are strongly
stationary electric charge (electrostatic field) or by attracted to each other. Also, there is a strong
a stationary magnet (magnetostatic field). But if force of repulsion between two charges of the same
either an electric or magnetic field is moving in kind. The positive nucleus and the negative
space or changing in intensity, the motion or electrons are attracted to each other, but two
change sets up the other kind of field. That is, a electrons will be repelled from each other and so
changing electric field sets up a magnetic field, and will two nuclei.
In a normal atom the positive charge on the
a changing magnetic field generates an electric
nucleus is exactly balanced by the negative charges
field. This interrelationship between magnetic and
on the electrons. However, it is possible for an
electric fields makes possible such things as the
atom to lose one of its electrons. When that
electromagnet and the electric motor. It also makes
happens the atom has a little less negative charge
possible the electromagnetic waves by which radio
than it should - that is, it has a net positive charge.
communication is carried on, for such waves are
Such an atom is said to be ionized, and in this case
simply traveling fields in which the .energy is
the atom is a positive ion. If an atom picks up an
alternately handed back and forth between the
extra electron, as it sometimes does, it has a net
electric and magnetic fields.
negative charge and is called a negative ion. A
positive ion will attract any stray electron in the
Lines of Force vicinity, including the extra one that may be
Although no one knows what it is that attached to a nearby negative ion. In this way it is
composes the field itself, it is useful to invent a possible for electrons to travel from atom to atom.
picture of it that will help in visualizing the forces The movement of ions or electrons constitutes the
and the way in which they act. electric curren t.
A field can be pictured as being made up of The amplitude of the current (its intensity or
lines of force or flux lines. These are purely magnitude) is determined by the rate at which
imaginary threads that show, by the direction in electric charge - an accumulation of electrons or
w'hich they lie, the direction the object on which ions of the same kind - moves past a point in a
the force is exerted will move. The number of lines circuit. Since the charge on a single electron or ion
in a chosen cross section of the field is a measure is extremely small, the number that must move as a

15
 16 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
group to form even a tiny current is almost ing toward the right away from the vertical axis.
inconceivably large. The vertical axis represents the amplitude or
strength of the current, increasing in either the up
Conductors and Insulators or down direction away from the horizontal axis.
If the graph is above the horizontal axis the current
Atoms of some materials, notably metals and is flowing in one direction through the circuit
acids, will give up an electron readily, but atoms of (indicated by the + sign) and if it is below the
other materials will not part with any of their horizontal axis the current is flowing in the reverse
electrons even when the electric force is extremely direction through the circuit (indicated by the -
strong. Materials in which electrons or ions can be sign). Fig. 2-1A shows that, if we close the circuit
moved with relative ease are called conductors, - that is, make the path for the current complete
while those that refuse to permit such movement - at the time indicated by X, the current instantly
are called nonconductors or insulators. The takes the amplitude indicated by the height A.
following list shows how some common materials After that, the current continues at the same
are classified: amplitude as time goes on. This is an ordinary
direc t current.
Conductors Insulators In Fig. 2-1B, the current starts flowing with the
Metals Dry Air Glass amplitude A at time X, continues at that amplitude
Carbon Wood Rubber until time Y and then instantly ceases. After an
Acids Porcelain Resins interval YZ the current again begins to flow and
Textiles the same sort of start-and-stop performance is
repeated. This is an intermittent direct current. We
could get it by alternately closing and opening a
Electromotive Force switch in the circuit. It is a direct current because
The electric force or potential (called electro- the direction of current flow does not change; the
motive force, and abbreviated emf) that causes graph is always on the + side of the horizontal axis.
current flow may be developed in several ways. In Fig. 2-1C the current starts at zero, increases
The action of certain chemical solutions on in amplitude as time goes on until it reaches the
dissimilar metals sets up an emf; such a amplitude Al while flowing in the + direction,
combination is called a cell, and a group of cells then decreases until it drops to zero amplitude
forms an electric battery. The amount of current once more. At that time (X) the direction of the
that such cells can carry is limited, and in the current flow reverses; this is indicated by the fact
course of current flow one of the metals is eaten that the next part of the graph is below the axis.
away. The amount of electrical energy that can be As time goes on the amplitude increases, with the
taken from a battery consequently is rather small. current now flowing in the - direction, until it
Where a large amount of energy is needed it is reaches amplitude A2. Then the amplitude
usually furnished by an electric generator, which
develops its emf by a combination of magnetic and +
mechanical means.

Direct and Alternating Currents (A)

if
.:= 01--.....,.....---'----------
In picturing current flow it is natural to think i~ -x Time-
of a single, constant force causing the electrons to
move. When this is so, the electrons always move in
the same direction through a path or circuit made
up of conductors connected together in a
continuous chain. Such a current is called a direct
current, abbreviated dc. It is the type of current
furnished by batteries and by certain types of
generators.
It is also possible to have an emf that
periodically reverses. With this kind of emf the
current flows first in one direction through the
circuit and then in the other. Such an emf is called
an alternating emf, and the current is called an
alternating current (abbreviated ac). The reversals
(alternations) may occur at any rate from a few per
second up to several billion per second. Two
reversals make a cycle; in one cycle the force acts
first in one direction, then in the other, and then
returns to the first direction to begin the next
cycle. The number of cycles in one second is called
the frequency of the alternatin$ current.
The difference between direct current and Fig. 2-1 - Three types of current flow. A - direct
alternating current is show in Fig. 2-1. In these current; B - intermittent direct current; C -
graphs the horizontal axis measures time, increas- alternating current.
Frequency and Wavelength 17
decreases until finally it drops to zero (Y) and the FUNDAMENTAL
direction reverses once more. This is an alternating
current.
Waveforms
The type of alternating current shown in Fig.
2-1C is known as a sine wave. The variations in
many ac waves are not so smooth, nor is one
half-cycle necessarily just like the preceding one in
shape. However, these complex waves can be
shown to be the sum of two or more sine waves of
frequencies that are exact integral (whole-number)
multiples of some lower frequency. The lowest
frequency is called the fundamental, and the higher
frequencies are called harmonics.
Fig. 2-2 shows how a fundamental and a second
harmonic (twice the fundamental) might add to
form a complex wave. Simply by changing the
relative amplitudes of the two waves, as well as the
times at which they pass through zero amplitude,
an infinite number of waveshapes can be
constructed from just a fundamental and second
harmonic. More complex waveforms can be
constructed if more harmonics are used. Fig. 2·2 - A complex waveform. A fundamental
(top) and second harmonic (center) added
Frequency multiplication, the generation of together, point by point at each instant, result in
second, third and higher-order harmonics, takes the waveform shown at the bottom. When the two
place whenever a fundamental since wave is passed components have the same polarity at a selected
through a nonlinear device. The distorted ou tpu t is instant, the resultant is the simple sum of the two.
made up of the fundamental frequency plus When they have opposite polarities, the resultant is
harmonics; a desired harmonic can be selected the difference; if the negative-polarity component
through the use of tuned circuits. Typical is larger, the resultant is negative at that instant.
nonlinear devices used for frequency multiplication
include rectifiers of any kind and amplifiers that
distort an applied signal. FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
Frequency Spectrum
Electrical Units
Frequencies ranging from about 15 to 15,000
The unit of electromotive force is called the cycles per second (cps ,Hertz, or Hz) are called
volt. An ordinary flashlight cell generates and emf audio frequencies, because the vibrations of air
of about 1.5 volts. The emf commonly supplied for particles that our ears recognize as sounds occur at
domestic lighting and power is 117 volts ac at a a similar rate. Audio frequencies (abbreviated af)
frequency of 60 cycles per second. are used to actuate loudspeakers and thus create
The flow of electric current is measured in sound waves.
amperes. One ampere is equivalent to the Frequencies above about 15,000 cps are called
movement of many billions of electrons past a radio frequencies (rf) because they are useful in
point in the circuit in one second. The direct radio transmission. Frequencies all the way up to
currents used in amateur radio equipment usually and beyond 10,000,000,000 cps have been used
are not large, and it is customary to measure such for radio purposes. At radio frequencies it becomes
currents in milliamperes. One milliampere is equal convenient to use a larger unit than the cycle. Two
to one one-thousandth of an ampere. such units are the kilohertz, which is equal to 1000
A "dc ampere" is a measure of a steady current~ cycles (or hz), and is abbreviated to kHz, and the
but the "ac ampere" must measure a current that is megahertz, which is equal to 1,000,000 hertz or
continually varying in amplitude and periodically 1000 kilohertz, and is abbreviated MHz.
reversing direction. To put the two on the same The various radio frequencies are divided off
basis, an ac ampere is defined as the current that into classifications. These classifications, listed
will cause the same heating effect as one ampere of below, constitute the frequency spectrum so f~r as
steady direct current. For sine-wave ac, this it extends for radio purposes at the present time.
effective or (rms, for root mean square, the
mathematical derivation) value is equal to the Frequency Classification Abbrev
maximum (or peak) amplitude (Al or A2 in Fig.
2-1C) multiplied by 0.707. The instantaneous value 10 to 30 kHz Very-low frequencies vlf
is the value that the current (or voltage) has at any 30 to 300 kHz Low frequencies If
300 to 3000 kHz Medium frequencies mf
selected instant in the cycle. If all the instanta- 3 to 30 MHz High frequencies hf
neous values in a sine wave are averaged over a 30 to 300 MHz Very-high frequencies vhf
half-cycle, the resulting figure is the average value. 300 to 3000 MHz Ultrahigh frequencies uhf
3000 to 30,000 MHz Superhigh frequencies shf
It is equal to 0.636 times the maximum amplitude.
18 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
Wavelength 100 meters before the beginning of the next, and
so on. This distance is the wavelength.
Radio waves travel at the same speed as light The longer the time of one cycle - that is, the
300,000,000 meters or about 186,000 miles a lower the frequency - the greater the distance
second in space. They can be set up by a occupied by each wave and hence the longer the
radio-frequency current flowing in a circuit, wavelength. The relationship between wavelength
because the rapidly changing current sets up a and frequency is shown by the formula
magnetic field that changes in the same way, and A = 300,000
the varying magnetic field in turn sets up a varying f
electric field. And whenever this happens, the two where A = Wavelength in meters
fields move outward at the speed of light. f = Frequency in kilohertz
Suppose an rf current has a frequency of
3,000,000 cycles per second. The field will go or A = 3.illL
through complete reversals (one cycle) in f
1/3,000,000 second. In that same period of time where A = Wavelength in meters
the fields - that is, the wave ." will move f = Frequency in megahertz
300,000,000/3,000,000 meters, or 100 meters. By
Example: The wavelength corresponding to a frequen-
the time the wave has moved that distance the next cy of 3650 kilohertz is
cycle has begun and a new wave has started out.
The first wave, in other words, covers a distance of '1<," ~6n0 ~ 82.2 meters

RESISTANCE
Given two conductors of the same size and For direct current and low-frequency alternating
shape, but of different materials, the amount of currents (up to a few thousand cycles per second)
current that will flow when a given emf is applied the resistance is inversely proportional to the
will be found to vary with what is called the cross-sectional area of the path the current must
resistance of the material. The lower the resistance, travel; that is, given two conductors of the same
the greater the current for a given value of emf. material and having the same length, but differing
Resistance is measured in ohms. A circuit has a in cross-sectional area, the one with the larger area
resistance of one ohm when an applied emf of one will have the lower resistance.
volt causes a current of one ampere to flow. The
resistivity of a material is the resistance, in ohms, Resistance of Wires
of a cube of the material measuring one centimeter The problem of determining the resistance of a
on each edge. One of the best conductors is round wire of given diameter and length - or its
copper, and it is frequently convenient, in making opposite, finding a suitable size and length of wire
resistance calculations, to compare the resistance to supply a desired amount of resistance "can be
of the material under consideration with that of a easily solved with the help of the copper-wire table
copper conductor of the same size and shape. given in a later chapter. This table gives the
Table 2-1 gives the ratio of the resistivity of various resistance, in ohms per thousand feet, of each
conductors to that of copper. standard wire size.
The longer the path through which the current
flows the higher the resistance of that conductor.
Example: Suppose a resistance of 3.5 ohms is needed
and some No. 28 wire is on hand. The wire table in Chapter
TABLE 2-1 18 shows that No. 28 has a resistance of66.17 ohms per
thousand feet. Since the desired resistance is 3.5 ohms, the
Relative Resistivity of Metals length of wire required will be
Resistivity 6!:~ 7 X 1000: 52.89 feet.
Materials Compared to Copper
Or, suppose that the resistance of the wire in the circuit
Aluminum (pure) 1.6 must not exceed 0.05 ohm and that the length of wire
Brass 3.7-4.9 required for making the connections totals 14 feet. Then
Cadmium 4,4
Chromium 1.8
Ihto X R = 0.05 ohm
Copper (hard-drawn) 1.03 where R is the maximum allowable resistance in ohms per
Copper (annealed) 1.00 thousand feet. Rearranging the formula gives
Gold 1,4 R = 0.05 ~41000 = 3.57 ohms/1000 ft.
Iron (pure) 5.68
Lead 12.8 Reference to the wire table shows that No. 15 is the
smallest size having a resistance less than this value.
Nickel 5.1
Phosphor Bronze 2.8-5,4
Silver 0.94 When the wire is not copper, the resistance
Steel 7.6-12.7 values given in the wire table should be multiplied
Tin 6.7 by the ratios given in Table 2-1 to obtain the
Zinc 3,4 resistance.
Resistance 19

Types of resistors used in radio

equipment. Those in the fore·
ground with wire leads are carbon
types, ranging in size from 1/2
watt at the left to 2 watts at the
right. The larger resistors use
resistance wire wound on ceramic
tubes; sizes shown range from 5
watts to 100 watts. Three are the
adjustable type, having a sliding
contact on an exposed section of
the resistance wi ndi ng.

Example: If the wire in the first example were nickel current flow is confined within a few thousandths
instead of copper the length required for 3.5 ohms would be of an inch of the conductor surface. The rf
~ X 1000= 10.37 reet resistance is consequently many times the dc
resistance, and increases with increasing frequency.
In the rf range a conductor of thin tubing will have
Temperature Effects just as low resistance as a solid conductor of the
The resistance of a conductor changes with its same diameter, because material not close to the
temperature. Although it is seldom necessary to surface carries practically no current.
consider temperature in making resistance calcula-
tions for amateur work, it is well to know that the Conductance
resistance of practically all metallic conductors The reciprocal of resistance(that is, l/R) is
increases with increasing temperature. Carbon, called conductance. It is usually represented by the
however, acts in the opposite way; its resistance symbol G. A circuit having large conductance has
decreases when its temperature rises. The tempera- low resistance, and vice versa. In radio work the
ture effect is important when it is necessary to term is used chiefly in connection with
maintain a constant resistance under all conditions. vacuum-tube characteristics. The unit of conduct-
Special materials that have little or no change in ance is the mho. A resistance of one ohm has a
resistance over a wide temperature range are used conductance of one mho, a resistance of 1000
in that case. ohms has a conductance of .001 mho, and so on.
A unit frequently used in connection with vacuum
Resistors
tubes is the micromho, or one-millionth of a mho.
A "package" of resistance made up into a single It is the conductance of a resistance of one
unit is called a resistor. Resistors having the same megohm.
resistance value may be considerably different in
size and construction. The flow of current through OHM'S LAW
resistance causes the conductor to become heated;
The simplest form of electric circuit is a battery
the higher the resistance and the larger the current,
with a resistance connected to its terminals, as
the greater the amount of heat developed.
shown by the symbols in Fig. 2-3. A complete
Resistors intended for carrying large currents must
circuit must have an unbroken path so current can
be physically large so the heat can be radiated
flow out of the battery, through the apparatus
quickly to the surrounding air. If the resistor does
connected to it, and back into the battery. The
not get rid of the heat quickly it may reach a
circuit is broken, or open, if a connection is
temperature that will cause it to melt or burn.
removed at any point. A switch is a device for
making and breaking connections and thereby
Skin Effect
closing or opening the circuit, either allowing
The resistance of a conductor is not the same current to flow or preventing it from flowing.
for alternating current as it is for direct current. The values of current, voltage and resistance in
When the current is alternating there are internal a circuit are by no means independent of each
effects that tend to force the current to flow
mostly in the outer parts of the conductor. This

D
decreases the effective cross-sectional area of the Fig. 2-3 - A simple
conductor, with the result that the resistance circuit consisting of a
increases. battery and resistor.
For low audio frequencies the increase in
resistance is unimportant, but at radio frequencies
this skin effect is so great that practically all the
 20 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
The following examples illustrate the use of ohm's law:
TABLE 2-11 The current flowing in a resistance of 20,000 ohms is
150 milliamperes. What is the voltage? Since the voltage is
Conversion Factors for Fractional and to be found, the equation to usc is E ::< JR. The current
Multiple Units must fust be converted from milliamperes to amperes, and
reference to the table shows that to do so it is necessary to
Change divide by 1000. Therefore,
From To Divide by Multiply by
Units
E - I~t% )( 20,000" 3000 volts
Micro-units 1,000,000 When a voltage of 150 is applied to a circuit the current
Milli-units 1,000 is measured at 2.5 ampere~. What is the resistance of the
Kilo-units 1,000 circuit? In this case R is the unknown, so
Mega-units 1,000,000
R = r; = .!,jJL= 60 ohms
I 2.5
Micro- MiIli-units 1,000
units Units 1,000,000 No conversion was necessary because the voltage and
current were given in volts and amperes.
MiIli- Micro-units 1,000 How much current will flow if 250 volts is applied to a
units Units 1,000 5000-ohm resistor? Since I is unknown

Kilo- Units 1,000 I =~ = jioOo = 0.05 ampere

units Mega-units 1,000 Milliampere units would be more convenient for the
Mega- current, and 0.05 amp. X 1000:;: 50 milliamperes.
Units 1,000,000
units Kilo-units 1,000
SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTANCES
otheL The relationship between them is known as Very few actual electric circuits are as simple as
Ohm's Law. It can be stated as follows: The the illustration in the preceding section. Common-
current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional ly, resistances are found connected in a variety of
to the applied emf and inversely proportional to ways. The two fundamental methods of connecting
the resistance. Expressed as an equation, it is resistances are shown in Fig. 2-4. In the upper
drawing, the current flows from the source of emf
I (amperes) =E (volts) (in the direction shown by the arrow, let us say)
R (ohms)
down through the first resistance, Rl, then
The equation above gives the value of current through the second, R2, and then back to the

·
when the voltage and resistance are known. It may source. These resistors are connected in series. The
be transposed so that each of the three quantities current everywhere in the circuit has the same
may be found when the other two are known: value.
E=IR
-!RI
(that is, the voltage acting is equal to the current in
amperes multiplied by the resistance in ohms) and

(or, the resistance of the circuit is equal to the

applied voltage divided by the current).
All three forms of the equation are used almost
Fig. 2-4 - Resis-
tors connected
in series and in
parallel.
O
Source
of E.MF

<--
! R2
SERIES

constantly in radio work. It must be remembered

that the quantities are in volts, ohms and amperes;
other units cannot be used in the equations
without first being converted. For example, if the
current is in milliamperes it must be changed to the
equivalent fraction of an ampere before the value
can be substituted in the equations.
Table 2-11 shows how to convert between the In the lower drawing the current flows to the
various units in common use. The prefixes attached common connection point at the top of the two
to the basic-unit name indicate the nature of the resistors and then divides, one part of it flowing
unit- These prefixes are:. through Rl and the other through R2. At the
lower connection point these two currents again
combine; the total is the same as the current that
micro - one-millionth (abbreviated J.l) flowed into the upper common connection. In this
milli - one-thousandth (abbreviated m) case the two resistors are connected in parallel.
kilo - one thousand (abbreviated k)
mega - one million ( abbreviated M) Resistors in Series
When a circuit has a number of resistances
For example, one microvolt is one-millionth of a connected in series, the total resistance of the
volt, and one megohm is 1,000,000 ohms_ There circuit is the sum of the individual resistances. If
are therefore 1,000,000 microvolts in one volt, and these are numbered RI, R2, R3, etc., then
0.000001 megohm in one ohm. R (total) = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + . . . . . . . . . .
Series and Parallel Resistances 21
where the dots indicate that as many resistors as where the dots again indicate that any number of
necessary may be added. resistors can be combined by the same method.
For only two resistances in parallel (a very
Example: Suppose that three resistors arc connected to
a source of emf as ..hown in Fig. 2·5. The emf is 250 volts.
common case) the formula becomes
RI is 5000 ohms, R2 is 20,000 ohms. and R3 is 8000
ohms. The total resistance is then R = RIR2
R = RI + R2 + R3 = 5000 + 20,000 + 8000
Rl + R2
= 33,000 ohms Example: If a SOD-ohm resistor is paralleled with one of
The current flowing in the circuit is then 1200 ohms, the total resistance is

1= E
R = RIR2 = 500Xl200 =Q,QQ..OOO
R -- 33,000
250 - - 0. 00757 amp. = 7.5 7 rnA. RI+R2 500+1200 1700
= 353 ohms
(We need not carry calculations beyond three significant
figures, and often two will suffice because the accuracy of I t is probably easier to solve practical problems
measurements is seldom better than a few percent.) by a different method than the "reciprocal of
reciprocals" formula. Suppose the three resistors of
the previous example are connected in parallel as
Voltage Drop shown in Fig. 2-6. The same emf, 250 volts, is
applied to all three of the resistors. The current in
Ohm's Law applies to any part of a circuit as well
each can be found from Ohm's Law as shown
as to the whole circuit. Although the current is the
below, II, being the current through Rl, 12 the
same in all three of the resistances in the example, current through R2 and 13 the current through R3.
the total voltage divides among them. The voltage
appearing across each resistor (the voltage drop) For convenience, the resistance will be expressed in kilohms
so the current will be in milliamperes.
can be found from Ohm's Law.
11 =1, = 2~0 = 50 rnA

Example: If the voltage across RI (Fig. 2-5) is called E I.

that across R2 is called E2, and that across R3 is called E3,
then
12 = Ii = 2i~ = 12.5 rnA
EI = IRI = 0.00757 X 5000 = 37.9 volts 13 = rfj = 2i O= 31.25 rnA
E2 = IR2 = 0.00757 X 20,000 = 151.4 volts
E3 = IR3 = 0.00757 X 8000 = 60.6 volts The total current is
The applied voltage must equal the sum of the individual I = II + 12 + 13 = 50 + 12.5 + 31.25
voltage drops: = 93.75 rnA
The total resistance of the circuit is therefore
= EI + E2 + E3 = 37.9 + 151.4 + 60.6
E
= 249.9 volts R= f = .fits = 2.66 kilohms (= 2660 ohmsj
The answer would have been more nearly exact if the
current had been calculated to morc decimal places, but as
explained above a very high order of accuracy is not
necessary •

In problems such as this considerable time and

trouble can be saved, when the current is small
T
lE- -2S0V· SOOO
R, R2
20,000 8000
R,

enough to be expressed in milliamperes, if the

resistance is expressed in kilohms rather than Fig. 2-6 - An example of resistors in parallel. The
ohms. When resistance in kilohms is substituted solution is worked out in the text.
directly in Ohm's Law the current will be
milliamperes if the emf is in volts. Resistors in Series-Parallel
An actual circuit may have resistances both in
parallel and in series. To illustrate, we use the same

1.-
R,
Fig_ 2-5 - An ex- three resistances again, bu t now connected as in
5000 ample of resistors in Fig. 2-7. The method of solving a circuit such as
series. The solution Fig. 2-7 is as follows: Consider R2 and R3 in
E·2.50V. R2
20.000 of the circuit is parallel as through they formed a single resistor.

T 8000
worked out in the
text.
Find their equivalent resistance. Then this
resistance in series with R 1 forms a simple series
circuit, as shown at the right in Fig. 2-7. An
example of the arithmetic is given under the
illustration.
Resistors in Parallel Using the same principles, and staying within
In a circuit with resistances in parallel, the total the practical limits, a value for R2 can be
resistance is less than that of the lowest value of computed that will provide a given voltage drop
resistance present. This is because the total current across R3 or a given current through Ri. Simple
is always greater than the current in any individual algebra is required.
resistor. The formula for finding the total
Example: The first step is to find the eqUivalent
resistance of resistances in parallel is resistance of R2 and R3. From the formula for two
resistances in parallel,
R= 1 Req. = R~;RR\ = ~= iff
~+~+~+...l+
Rl R2 R3 R4 ..... . = 5.71 kilohms
 22 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
Electrical power in a resistance is turned into

EJ
:~o heat. The greater the power the more rapidly the
heat is generated. Resistors for radio work are
Req.
-=-E·250v. (Equivalent R made in many sizes, the smallest being rated to
of R2 and R, "dissipate" (or carry safely) about 1/8 watt. The
in parallel)
largest resistors commonly used in amateur equip-
ment will dissipate about 100 watts.
Fig. 2-7 - An example of resistors in series-parallel.
The equivalent circuit is at the right. The solution Generalized Definition of Resistance
is worked out in the text.
Electrical power is not always turned into heat.
The total resistance in the circuit is then The power used in running a motor, for example, is
R = RI + Req. = 5 + 5.71 kilohms converted to mechanical motion. The power
= 10.71 kilohm' supplied to a radio transmitter is largely converted
The current is into radio waves. Power applied to a loudspeaker is
[=jf = 1657°1 = 23.3 rnA changed into sound waves. But in every case of this
The voltage drops across Rl and Req arc
kind the power is completely "used up" - it
cannot be recovered. Also, for proper operation of
EI = IRI = 23.3 x 5 = 117 volts
E2 = IReq = 23.3 x 5.71 = 133 volts the device the power must be supplied at a definite
with sufficient accuracy, These total 250 volts, thus ratio of voltage to current. Both these features are
checking the calculatia.ns so far, because the sum of the characteristics of resistance, so it can be said that
voltage drops must equal the applied voltage. Since E2 any device that dissipates power has a definite
appears across both R2 and R3,
value of "resistance." This concept of resistance as
12 = ~1 = liJ =6.65 rnA something that absorbs power at a definite
13 = lH = It3 = 16.6 rnA voltagel current ratio is very useful, since it permits
substituting a simple resistance for the load or
where 12 = Current through R2
13 =Current through R3 power-consuming part of the device receiving
The total is 23.25 rnA. which checks closely enough power, often with considerable simplification of
with 23.3 rnA. the current through the whole circuit. calculations. Of course, every electrical device has
some resistance of its own in the more narrow
POWER AND ENERGY sense, so a part of the power supplied to it is
Power - the rate of doing work - is equal to dissipated in that resistance and hence appears as
voltage multiplied by current. The unit of electrical heat even though the major part of the power may
power, called the watt, is equal to one volt be converted to another form.
multiplied by one ampere. The equation for power
therefore is Efficiency
P=E! where P =Power in watts In devices such as motors and vacuum tubes,
E = Emf in volts the object is to obtain power in some other form
! = Current in amperes than heat. Therefore power used in heating is
considered to be a loss, because it is not the useful
Common fractional and multiple units for power. The efficiency of a device is the useful
power are the milliwatt, one one-thousandth of a power output (in its converted form) divided by
watt, and the kilowatt, or one thousand watts. the power input to the device. In a vacuum-tube
Example: The plate voltage on a transmitting vacuum transmitter, for example, the object is to convert
tube is 2000 volts and the plate current is 350 milliamperes. power from a dc source into ac power at some
(The current must be changed to amperes before substitution
in the formula, and so is 0.35 amp.) Then
radio frequency. The ratio of the rf power output
P = EI = 2000 X 0.35 = 700 watts to the dc input is the efficiency of the tube. That
is,
By substituting the Ohm's Law equivalent for E
and !, the following formulas are obtained for
power:
p=E2 P=!2R where Eff = Efficiency (as a decimal)
R Po = Power output (watts)
These formulas are useful in power calculations Pi = Power input (watts)
when the resistance and either the current or vol-
tage (but not both) are known. Example: If the dc input to the tube is 100 watts, and
the rf power output is 60 watts, the efficiency is
Example: How much power will be used up in a
4000-ohm resistor if the voltage applied to it is 200 volts?
Efr =~= ~ = 0.6
From the equation
Efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage; that is, it
P: ff = <18gb' = ~~ggo = 10 watts tells what percent of the input power will be available as use-
fuloutput. The efficiency in the above example is 60 per-
Or, suppose a current of 20 milliamperes flows through a cent.
300-ohm resistor. Then
P = ['R = (0.02)' X 300 ~ 0.0004 X 300 Energy
= 0.12 watt
Note that the current was changed from milliamperes to In residences, the power company's bill is for
amperes before substitution in the formula. electrical energy, not for power. What you pay for
Capacitance 23
is the work that electricity does for you, not the Other energy units are the kilowatt-hour and
rate at which that work is done. Electrical work is the watt-second. These units should be self-explan-
equal to power multiplied by time; the common atory.
unit is the watt·hour, which means that a power of Energy units are seldom used in amateur
one watt has been used for one hour. That is, practice, but it is obvious that a small amount of
power used for a long time can eventually result in
W=PT where W = Energy in watt-hours a "power" bill that is just as large as though a large
P =Power in watts amount of power had been used for a very short
T = Time in hours time.

CAPACITANCE
Suppose two flat metal plates are placed close capacitance many times. The ratio of the
to each other (but not touching) and are connected capacitance with some material other than air
to a battery through a switch, as shown in Fig. 2-8. between the plates, to the capacitance of the same
At the instant the switch is closed, electrons will be capacitor with air insulation, is called the dielectric
attracted from the upper plate to the positive constant of that particular insulating material. The
terminal of the battery, and the same number will material itself is called a dielectric. The dielectric
be repelled into the lower plate from the negative constants of a number of materials commonly used
battery terminal. Enough electrons move into one as dielectrics in capacitors are given in Table 2-III.
plate and out of the other to make the emf If a sheet of polystyrene is substituted for air
between them the same as the emf of the battery. between the plates of a capacitor, for example, the
If the switch is opened after the plates have capacitance will be increased 2.6 times.
been charged in this way, the top plate is left with
a deficiency of electrons and the bottom plate with Units
an excess. The plates remain charged despite the The fundamental unit of .capacitance is the
fact that the battery no longer is connected. farad, but this unit is much too large for practical
However, if a wire is touched between the two work. Capacitance is usually measured in micro-
plates (short-circuiting them) the excess electrons farads (abbreviated J.l.F) or picofarads (pF). The
on the bottom plate will flow through the wire to microfarad is one-millionth of a farad, and the
the upper plate, thus restoring electrical neu trality. picofarad (formerly micromicrofarad) is one-mil-
The plates have then been discharged. lionth of a microfarad. Capacitors nearly always
have more than two plates, the alternate plates
being connected together to form two sets as
shown in Fig. 2-9. This makes it possible to attain a
Fig. 2-8- fairly large capacitance in a small space, since
A simple several plates of smaller individual area can be
capacitor.
TABLE 2-111
Dielectric Constants and Breakdown Voltages
Metal Plate,
Dielectric Puncture
Material Constant* Voltage**
The two plates constitu te an electrical capaci-
tor; a capacitor possesses the property of storing
electricity. (The energy actually is stored in the Air 1.0
electric field between the plates.) During the time Alsimag 196 5.7 240
the electrons are moving - that is, while the Bakelite 4.4-5.4 300
capacitor is being charged or discharged - a Bakelite, mica-ftlled 4.7 325-375
current is flowing in the circuit even though the Cellulose acetate 3.3-3.9 250-600
circuit is "broken" by the gap between the Fiber 5-7.5 150-180
capacitor plates. However, the current flows only Formica 4.6-4.9 450
during the time of charge and discharge, and this Glass, window 7.6-8 200-250
time is usually very short. There can be no Glass, Pyrex 4.8 335
continuous flow of direct current "through" a Mica, ruby 5.4 3800-5600
capacitor, but an alternating current can pass Mycalex 7.4 250
through easily if the frequency is high enough. Paper, Royalgrey 3.0 200
The charge or quantity of electricity that can Plexigiass 2.8 990
be placed on a capacitor is proportional to the Polyethylene 2.3 1200
applied voltage and to the capacitance of the Polystyrene 2.6 500-700
capacitor. The larger the plate area and the smaller Porcelain 5.1-5.9 40-100
tire spacing between the plate the greater the Quartz, fuxed 3.8 1000
capacitance. The capacitance also depcnds upon Steatite, low-loss 5.8 150-315
the kind of insulating material between the plates; Teflon 2.1 1000-2000
it is smallcst with air insulation, but substitution of * At 1 MHz ** In volts per mil (0.001 inch)
other insulating materials for air may increase the
24 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CI RCUITS
liquid dielectric is mineral oil. The electrolytic
capacitor uses aluminum-foil plates with a
semiliquid conducting chemical compound be-
tween them; the actual dielectric is a very thin film
of insulating material that forms on one set of
plates through electrochemical action when a dc
voltage is applied to the capacitor. The capacitance
obtained with a given plate area in an electrolytic
Fig. 2-9 - A multiple-plate capacitor. Alternate capacitor is very large, compared with capacitors
plates are connected together. having other dielectrics, because the film is so thin
- much less than any thickness that is practicable
stacked to form the equivalent of a single large
plate of the same total area. Also, all plates, except with a solid dielectric.
The use of electrolytic and oil-filled capacitors
the two on the ends, are exposed to plates of the
is confined to power-supply filtering and audio
other group on both sides, and so are twice as
bypass applications. Mica and ceramic capacitors
effective in increasing the capacitance.
are used throughout the frequency range from
The formula for calculating capacitance is:
audio to several hundred megacycles.
C = 0.224 K;i (n - 1) Voltage Breakdown

where C = Capacitance in pF. When a high voltage is applied to the plates of a

K = Dielectric constant of material between capacitor, a considerable force is exerted on the
plates electrons and nuclei of the dielectric. Because the
A =Area of one side of one plate in square dielectric is an insulator the electrons do not
inches become detached from atoms the way they do in
d = Separation of plate surfaces in inches conductors. However, if the force is great enough
n =Number of plates the dielectric will "break down"; usually it will
puncture and may char (if it is solid) and permit
If the plates in one group do not have the same current to flow. The breakdown voltage depends
area as the plates in the other, use the area of the upon the kind and thickness of the dielectric, as
smaller plates. shown in Table 2-III. It is not directly proportional
to the thickness; that is, doubling the thickness
Capacitors in Radio does not quite double the breakdown voltage. If
The types of capacitors used in radio work the dielectric is air or any other gas, breakdown is
differ considerably in physical size, construction, evidenced by a spark or arc between the plates, but
and capacitance. Some representative types are if the voltage is removed the arc ceases and the
shown in the photograph. In variable capacitors capacitor is ready for use again. Breakdown will
(almost always constructed with air for the occur at a lower voltage between pointed or
dielectric) one set of plates is made movable with sharp-edged _surfaces than between rounded and
respect to the other set so that the capacitance can polished surfaces; consequently, the breakdown
be varied. Fixed capacitors - that is, assemblies voltage between metal plates of given spacing in air
having a single, non-adjustable value of capacitance can be increased by buffing the edges of the plates.
- also can be made with metal plates and with air Since the dielectric must be thick to withstand
as the dielectric, but usually are constructed from high voltages, and since the thicker the dielectric
plates of metal foil with a thin solid or liquid the smaller the capacitance for a given plate area, a
dielectric sandwiched in between, so that a high-voltage capacitor must have more plate area
relatively large capacitance can be secured in a than a low-voltage one of the same capacitance.
small unit. The solid dielectrics commonly used are High-voltage high-capacitance capacitors are phys-
mica, paper and special ceramics. An example of a ically large.

Fixed and variable capacitors. The

/~I large unit at the left is a
7 :.
I transmitting-type variable capaci-

.r/-\.
tor for rf tank circuits. To its
right are other air-dielectric vari-
ables of different sizes ranging
from the midget "air padder" to
the medium-power tank capacitor
pr "
at the top center. The cased
capacitors in the top row are for
power-supply filters, the cylindri-
cal-can unit being an electrolytic
] and the rectangular one a paper-
c o \, .. J
dielectric capacitor. Various types
of mica, ceramic, and paper-
dielectric capacitors are in the
foreground.
Inductance 25
CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND
PARALLEL
The terms "parallel" and "series" when used
with reference to capacitors have the same circuit
meaning as with resistances. When a number of
1
E-2000V.
capacitors are connected in parallel, as in Fig. 2-10,
the total capacitance of the group is equal to the
sum of the individual capacitances, so
C (total) =Cl + C2 + C3 + C4 + .............. .
However, if two or more capacitors are
connected in series, as in the second drawing, the
j
total capacitance is less than that of the smallest Fig. 2-11 - An example of capacitors connected in
capacitor in the group. The rule for finding the series. The solution to this arrangement is worked
out in the text.
capacitance of a number of series-connected
capacitors is the same as that for finding the
resistance of a number of parallel-connected
resistors. That is,
When capacitors are connected in series, the
C (total) = 1 applied voltage is divided up among them, the
~ +.-L+--L+--.l+"" ......
Cl C2 C3 C4 situation is much the same as when resistors are in
series and there is a voltage drop across each.
and, for only two capacitors in series, However, the voltage that appears across each
C (total) =CIC2 capacitor of a group connected in series is in
Cl +C2 inverse proportion to its capacitance, as compared
with the capacitance of the whole group.
Example: Three capacitors having capacitances of I, 2
and 4 JJF, respectively, are connected in series as shown in
Fig. 2-11. The total capacitance is
C= ___1_ _ = __1_ =L=±
Fig. 2-10 - Ca- !.+.L+..L 1+1+1 I 7
PARALLEL pacitors in paral- CI C2 C3 I 2 4 4
lel and in series. =0.571j1F
The voltage across each capacitor is proportional to the total
capacitance divided by the capacitance of the capacitor in
question, so the voltage across Cl is
! C
l EI =.!1f?lx 2000= 1142 volt,
Source II
of E.M.F. c"I Similarly. the voltages across C2 and C3 are

L 3y
C E2 = !1fZ1 x 2000 = 571 volts
SERIES E3 = 0.51 1. X 2000 = 286 volts
totaling approximately 2000 volts, the applied voltage.
The same units must be used throughout; that
is, all capacitances must be expressed in either pF Capacitors are frequently connected in series to
or pF; both kinds of units cannot be used in the enable the group to withstand a larger voltage (at
same equation. the expense of decreased total capacitance) than
Capacitors are connected in parallel to obtain a any individual capacitor is rated to stand. However,
larger total capacitance than is available in one as shown by the previous example, the applied
unit. The largest voltage that can be applied safely voltages does not divide equally among the capaci-
to a group of capacitors in parallel is the voltage tors (except when all the capacitances are the
that can be applied safely to the one having the same) so care must be taken to see that the voltage
lowest voltage rating. rating of no capacitor in the group is exceeded.

INDUCTANCE
It is possible to show that the flow of current voltage drop in any resistance in the circuit) is the
through a conductor is accompanied by magnetic result of an opposing voltage "induced" in the
effects; a compass needle brought near the con- circuit while the field is building up to its final
ductor, for example, will be deflected from its value. When the field becomes constant the in-
normal north-south position. The current, in other duced emf or back emf disappears, since no
words, sets up a magnetic field. further energy is being stored.
The transfer of energy to the magnetic field Since the induced emf opposes the emf of the
represents work done by the source of emf. Power source, it tends to prevent the current from rising
is required for doing work, and since power is rapidly when the circuit is closed. The amplitude
equal to current multiplied by voltage, there must of the induced emf is proportional to the rate at
be a voltage drop in the circuit during the time in which the current is changing and to a constant
which energy is being stored in the field. This associated with the circuit itself, called the induc-
voltage "drop" (which has nothing to do with the tance of the circuit.
26 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
Inductance depends on the physical characteris-
Fig. 2-12 - Coil dimen-
tics of the conductor. If the conductor is fonned sions used in the in-
into a coil, for example, its inductance is increased. ductance formula. The
A coil of many turns will have more inductance wire diameter does not
than one of few turns, if both coils are otherwise enter into the formula.
physically similar. Also, if a coil is placed on an
iron core its inductance will be greater than it was
withou t the magnetic core. the order of 100 MHz. or higher is flowing.
The polarity of an induced emf is always such However, at much lower frequencies the induc-
as to oppose any change in the current in the tance of the same wire could be ignored because'
circuit. This means that when the current in the the induced voltage would be negligibly small.
circuit is increasing, work is being done against the
induced emf by storing energy in the magnetic Calculating Inductance
field. If the current in the circuit tends to decrease, The approximate inductance of single-layer
the stored energy of the field returns to the circuit, air-core coils may be calculated from the simplified
and thus adds to the energy being supplied by the fonnula
source of emf. This tends to keep the current 2 2
flowing even though the applied emf may be L (J..tH) '" a n
9a + lOb
decreasing or be removed entirely.
The unit of inductance is the henry. Values of where L = Inductance in microhenrys
inductance used in radio equipment vary over a a = Coil radius in inches
wide range. Inductance of several henrys is re- b = Coil length in inches
quired in power-supply circuits (see chapter on n = Number of turns
Power Supplies) and to obtain such values of The notation is explained in Fig. 2-12. This
inductance it is necessary to use coils of many fonnula is a close approximation for coils having a
turns wound on iron cores. In radio-frequency length equal to or greater than 0.8a
circuits, the inductance values used will be mea-
sured in millihenrys (a inH, one one-thousandth of Example: Assume a coil having 48 turns wound 32 turns
per inch and a diameter of 3/4 inch. Thus a = 0.75 .;··2=
a henry) at low frequencies, and in microhenrys 0.375, b = 48 ~ 32 = 1.5, and n = 48. Substituting,
(.uH, one one-millionth of a henry) at medium L =.375 X .375 X48X 48_ 17.61lH
frequencies and higher. Although coils for radio (9 X .375) + (10 X 1.5)
frequencies may be wound on special iron cores
(ordinary iron is not suitable) most rf coils made To calculate the number of turns of a single-
and used by amateurs are of the "air-core" type; layer coil for a required value of inductance,
that is, wound on an insulating support consisting
of nonmagnetic material.
Every conductor has inductance, even .though n= I L (9a + lObi
a2
the conductor is not formed into a coil. The
inductance of a short length of straight wire is Example: Suppose an inductance of 10 J.LH is required.
small, but it may not be negligible because if the The form on which the coil is to be wound has a diameter
of one inch and is long enough to accommodate a coil of
current through it changes its intensity rapidly I 1/4 inches. Then a = 0.5, b = 1.25, and L ~ 10.
enough the induced voltage may be appreciable. Substituting,
This will be the case in even a few inches of wire n = flO (4 5 + 125) - ibSU = 26.1 turns
when an alternating current having a frequency of .5 X.5

Inductors for power and radio

frequencies. The two iron-core
coils at the left are "chokes" for
power-supply filters. The mount-
ed air-core coils at the top center
are adjustable inductors for trans-
mitting tank circuits. The "pie-
wound" coils at the left and in
the foreground are radio-frequen-
cy choke coils. The remaining
coils are typical of inductors used
in rf tuned circuits, the larger
sizes being used principally for
transmitters.
Iron-Core Coils 27
A 26-turn coil would be close enough in practical work. inches, the flux density is 40,000 lines per square
Since the coil will be 1.25 inches long. the number of turns
per inch will be 26.1 + 1.25 =20.8. Consulting the wire
inch. Now suppose that the iron core is removed
table, we find that No. 17 enameled wire (or anything and the same current is maintained in the coil, and
smaller) can be used. The proper inductance is obtained by that the flux density without the iron core is found
winding the required number of turns on the form and then
adjusting the spacing between the turns to make a
to be 50 lines per square inch. The ratio of the flux
uniformly-spaced coil 1.25 inches long. density with the given core material to the flux
density (with the same coil and same current) with
Inductance Charts an air core is called the permeability of the
material. In this case the permeability of the iron is
Most inductance formulas lose accuracy when
40,000/50 = 800. The inductance of the coil is
applied to small coils (such as are used in vhf work
increased 800 times by inserting the iron core
and in low-pass filters built for reducing harmonic
since, other things being equal, the inductance will
interference to television) because the conductor
be proportional to the magnetic flux through the
thickness is no longer negligible in comparison with coil.
the size of the coil. Fig. 2-13 shows the measured
The permeability of a magnetic material varies
inductance of vhf coils, and may be used as a basis with the flux density. At low flux densities (or
for circuit design. Two curves are given: curve A is with an air core) increasing the current through the
for coils wound to an inside diameter of 1/2 inch; coil will cause a proportionate increase in flux, but
curve B is for coils of 3/4-inch inside diameter. In at very high flux densities, increasing the current
both curves the wire size is No. 12, winding pitch 8 may cause no appreciable change in the flux.
turns to the inch (1/8 inch center-to-center turn When this is so, the iron is said to be saturated.
spacing). The inductance values given include leads Saturation causes a rapid decrease in permeability,
1/2 inch long. because it decreases the ratio of flux lines to those
The charts of Figs. 2-14 and 2-15 are useful for obtainable with the same current and an air core.
rapid determination of the inductance of coils of Obviously, the inductance of an iron-core inductor
the type commonly used in radio-frequency is highly dependent upon the current flowing in
circuits in the range 3-30 MHz. They are of the coil. In an air-core coil, the inductance is
sufficient accuracy for most practical work. Given independent of current because air does not
the coil length in inches, the curves show the saturate.
multiplying factor to be applied to the inductance Iron core coils such as the one sketched in Fig.
value given in the table below the curve for a coil 2-16 are used chiefly in power-supply equipment.
of the same diameter and number of turns per They usually have direct current flowing through
inch. the winding, and the variation in inductance with
Example: A coil 1 inch in diameter is 1 1/4 inches long current is usually undesirable. It may be overcome
and has 20 turns. Therefore it has 16 turns per inch, and by keeping the flux density below the saturation
from the table under Fig. 2-15 it is found that the reference
inductance for a coil of this diameter and number of turns point of the iron. This is done by opening the core
per inch is 16.8 .uH. From curve B in the figure the so that there is a small "air gap," as indicated by
multiplying factor is 0.35, so the inductance is the dashed lines. The magnetic "resistance" intro-
16.8 X 0.35 = 5.9 JlH duced by such a gap is so large - even though the
The charts also can be used for finding suitable gap is only a small fraction of an inch - compared
dimensions for a coil having a required value of with that of the iron that the gap, rather than the
inductance. iron, controls the flux density. This reduces the
inductance, but makes it practically constant re-
Example: A coil having an inductance of t 2 pH is
required. It is to be wound on a form having a diameter of
gardless of the value of the current.
1 inch, the length available for the winding being not more ~.
than 11/4 inches. From Fig. 2·15. the multiplying factor ~~
for a I-inch diameter coil (curve B) having the maximum
v~
possible length of 1 1/4 inches is 0.35. Hence the number
of turns per inch must be chosen for a reference inductance to
v
of at least 12/0.35, or 34 JlH. From the Table under Fig.
2-15 it is seen that 16 turns per inch (reference inductance 0.7
•
16.8 J.lH) is too small. Using 32 turns per inch, th.e 0.'
multiplying factor is 12/68, or 0.177, and from curve B thiS 0.'
corresponds to a coil length of 3/4 inch. There will be 24 O.
turns in this length, since the winding "pitch" is 32 turns
per inch. OJ
,
Machine-wound coils with the diameters and 0
turns per inch given in the tables are available in NO. 12 BARE WIRE

many radio stores, under the trade names of "B&W ,eTURNS PER I~H

Miniductor" and "Illumitronic Air Dux." ., •

INSIOE DIA.-r
INSIDE DIA .... ·r

IRON-CORE COILS .•
Permeability •
Suppose that the coil in Fig. 2-16 is wound on 10 I 20
NO. Of' TURNS
an iron core having a cross-sectional area of 2
square inches. When a certain current is sent Fig. 2-13 - Measured inductance of coils wound
through the coil it is found that there are 80,000 with No. 12 bare wire, 8 turns to the inch. The
lines of force in the core. Since the area is 2 square values include half-inch leads.
28 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
forced continually to supply energy to the iron to
/ overcome this "inertia." Losses of this sort are
called hysteresis losses.
/ Eddy-current and hysteresis losses in iron in-
/ crease rapidly as the frequency of the alternating
current is increased. For this reason, ordinary iron
/ cores can be used only at power and audio
/ frequencies - up to, say, 15,000 cycles. Even so, a
very good grade of iron or steel is necessary if the
/ core is to perform well at the higher audio
/ frequencies. Iron cores of this type are completely
useless at radio frequencies.
1.0
V >-
/ I V
1 "" .9
V ~~ J Y
1 2 3 4
LENGTH OF COIL IN INCHES
s
~
.8
.1
V v.
~
..... , A/ V I
Fig. 2-14 - Factor to be applied to the inductance
of coils listed in the table below, for coil lengths up
§
/ Val i
~5
to 5 inches.
~ .4 / i I
Eddy Currents and Hysteresis ~ / / !
~3 I I
When alternating current flows tluough a coil >- .2 1/ /'
wound on an iron core an emf will be induced, as it
~. 1 / V I
previously explained, and since iron is a conductor
a current will flow in the core. Such currents
~
;; 0
~V I
o 1 2 3
(called eddy currents) represent a waste of power LENGTH OF COIL IN INCHES
because they flow tluough the resistance of the Fig. 2-15 - Factor to be applied to the inductance
iron and thus cause heating. Eddy-current losses of coils listed in the table below, as a function of
can be reduced by laminating the core; that is, by coil length. Use curve A for coils marked A, and
cutting it into thin strips. These strips or lamina- curve B for coils marked B.
tions must be insulated from each other by Coil dia, No.oftpi Inductance
painting them with some insulating material such Inches in J.1lI
as varnish or shellac. 1/2 4 0.18
There is also another type of energy loss: the (A) 6 0.40
iron tends to resist any change in its magnetic 8 0.72
state, so a rapidly-changing current such as ac is to 1.12
16 2.9
32 12
Coil dia, No.oftpi Inductance 5/8 4 0.28
Inches in J.1lI (A) 6 0.62
8 1.1
1 1/4 4 2.75 10 1.7
6 6.3 16 4.4
8 11.2 32 18
10 17.5
16 42.5 3/4 4 0.6
(8) 6 1.35
1 1/2 4 3.9 8 2.4
6 8.8 10 3.8
8 15.6 16 9.9
10 24.5 32 40
16 63
1 4 1.0
1 3/4 4 5.2 (8) 6 2.3
6 ll.8 8 4.2
8 21 10 6.6
10 33 16 16.9
16 85 32 68
2 4 6.6
6 15 For radio-frequency work, the losses in iron
8 26.5 cores can be reduced to a satisfactory figure by
10 42
16 108 grinding the iron into a powder and then mixing it
2 1/2 4 10.2
with a "binder" of insulating material in such a
6 23 way that the individual iron particles are insulated
8 41 from each other. By this means cores can be made
to 64 that will function satisfactorily even through the
3 4 14 vhf range - that is, at frequencies up to perhaps
6 31.5 100 MHz. Because a large part of the magnetic
8 56
10 89 path is tluough a nonmagnetic material, the perme-
ability of the iron is low compared with the values
Time Constant 29

Fig. 2-16 - Typical con-

struction of an iron-core
Fig. 2-18 -
Mutual in- ------
ductance. I / : : - - - - - - - , '
When the I;,
.....
",'" ..,----- ...... ..... "
- ,\
inductor. The small air gap switch, S, is II 1 2 . . . ,,'
prevents magnetic satura- closed '
cur- /" '" I
tion of the i ron and thus
maintains the inductance
at high cu rrents.
rent flows
through coil ~~~-- .-"
No.1,setting
up a mag- ,I I S Induced I I I

--------
\ \ I e.m. f. .- I I

-----_/
,',-..:. --------",,,,/
netic field
...... /

-
that induces

obtained at power-supply. frequencies. The core is

an emf in the
tu rns of coi I
' ............
usually in the form of a "slug" or cylinder which No.2.
fits inside the insulating form on which the coil is
wound. Despite the fact that, with this construc-
another's magnetic field. When this is not so the
tion, the major portion of the magnetic path for
formulas given above cannot be used.
the flux is in air, the slug is quite effective in
increasing the. coil inductance. By pushing the slug
in and ou t of the coil the inductance can be varied MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
over a considerable range. If two coils are arranged with their axes on the
same line, as shown in Fig. 2-18, a current sent
INDUCTANCES IN SERIES AND through Coil 1 will cause a magnetic field which
PARAllEL "cuts" Coil 2. Consequently, an emf will be
When two or more inductors are connected in induced in Coil 2 whenever the field strength is
series (Fig. 2-17, left) the total inductance is equal changing. This induced emf is similar to the emf of
to the sum of the individual inductances, provided self-induction, but since it appears in the second
the coils are sufficiently separated so that no coil is coil because of current flowing in the first, it is a
in the magnetic field of another. "mutual" effect and results from the mutual
That is, inductance between the two coils.
Ltotal = 11 + L2 + L3 + L4 + .......... . If all the flux set up by one coil cuts all the
turns of the other coil the mu tual inductance has
If inductors are connected in parallel (Fig. 2-17,
its maximum possible value. If only a small part of
right) - and the coils are separated sufficiently, the
total inductance is given by the flux set up by one coil cuts the turns of the
other the mu tual inductance is relatively small.
£., - 1 Two coils having mutual inductance are said to be
total- ..l....+--L+..l....+--L+ coupled.
11 L2 L3 L4 The ratio of actual mutual inductance to the
maximum possible value that could theoretically
and for two inductances in parallel,
be obtained with two given coils is called the
L = LIL2 coefficient of coupling between the coils. It is
11+12 frequently expressed as a percentage. Coils that
have nearly the maximum possible (coefficient = 1
or 100%) mutual inductance are said to be closely,
or tightly, coupled, bu t if the mu tual inductance is
relatively small the coils are said to be loosely
coupled. The degree of coupling depends upon the

Jl} Fig. 2-17 - In-

ductances in ser-
ies and parallel.
physical spacing between the coils and how they
are placed with respect to each other. Maximum
coupling exists when they have a common axis and
are as close together as possible (one wound over
the other). The coupling is least when the coils are
far apart or are placed so their axes are at right
angles.
The maximum possible coefficient of coupling
is closely approached only when the two coils are
wound on a closed iron core. The coefficient with
Thus the rules for combining inductances in series air-core coils may run as high as 0.6 or 0.7 if one
and parallel are the same for resistances, if the coils coil is wound over the other, but will be much less
are far enough apart so that each is unaffected by if the two coils are separated.

TIME CONSTANT
Capacitance and Resistance resistance in the circuit. However, if the circuit
Connecting a source of emf to a capacitor contains resistance, as in Fig. 2-19A, the resistance
causes the capacitor to become charged to the full limits the current flow and an appreciable length of
emf practically instantaneously, if there is no time is required for the emf between the capacitor
30 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS

1'~~ , ~ ~

r ]J
(A)
C L - - - -- - - I

(8)
7
-- - [/<

I
/ CH.4 RGE

Fig. 2-19 - Illustrating the time constant of an RC

RC 2RC 3RC TIME
circuit.
plates to build up to the same value as the emf of
the source. During this "building-up" period the %100
current gradually decreases from its initial value,
because the increasing emf stored on the capacitor
~
~ 80 1\
offers increasing opposition to the steady emf of
the source.
l!l
~ 60
'\ /DISCHARGE

"
Theoretically, the charging process is never
really finished, but eventually the charging current ~40 -- --
drops to a value that is smaller than anything that ~ '-..
can be measured. The time constant of such a
circuit is the length of time, in seconds, required
" 20
~ r--
~ 0
for the voltage across the capacitor to reach 63 per ~ 0 RC 2RC 3RC TIME
cent of the applied emf (this figure is chosen for
mathematical reasons). The voltage across the Fig. 2-20 - How the voltage across a capa.citor
capacitor rises with time as shown by Fig. 2-20. rises, with time, when charged through a resistor.
The formula for time constant is The lower curve shows the way in which the
voltage decreases across the capacitor terminals on
T=RC dischargil1g through the same resistor.
where T = Time constant in seconds
C = Capacitance in farads however small, represents a very rapid change in
R = Resistance in ohms current, and a back emf is developed by the
self-inductance of L that is practically equal and
Example: The time constant of a 2-IlF capacitor and a
2S0,aOo-ohm (0.25 megohm) resistor is opposite to the applied emf. The result is that the
T = RC ~ 0.25 X 2 = 0.5 second
initial current is very small.
If the applied emf is 1000 volts, the voltage between the
The back emf depends upon the change in
capacitor plates will be 630 volts at the end of 1/2 second. current and would cease to offer opposition if the
current did not continue to increase. With no
If C is in microfarads and R in megohms, the time resistance in the circuit (which would lead to an
constant also is in seconds. These units usually are infinitely large current, by Ohm;s Law) the current
more convenient. would increase forever, always growing just fast
If a charged capacitor is discharged through a enough to keep the emf of self-induction equal to
resistor, as indicated in Fig. 2-19B, the same time the applied emf.
constant applies. If there were no resistance, the When resistance is in series, Ohm's Law sets a
capacitor would discharge instantly when S was limit to the value that the current can reach. The
closed. However, since R limits the current flow back emf generated in L has only to equal the
the capacitor voltage cannot instantly go to zero, difference between E and the drop across R,
but it will decrease just as rapidly as the capacitor because that difference is the voltage actually
can rid itself of its charge through R. When the applied to L. This difference becomes smaller as
capacitor is discharging through a resistance, the the current approaches the final Ohm's Law value.
time constant (calculated in the same way as Theoretically, the back emf never quite disappears
above) is the time, in seconds, that it takes for the and so the current never quite reaches the Ohm's
capacitor to lose 63 percent of its voltage; that is, Law value, but practically the differences becomes
for the voltage to drop to 37 percent of its initial unmeasurable after a time. The time constant of an
value.
Example: If the capacitor of the example above is

rR 0

o
charged to 1000 volts, it will discharge to 370 volts in 1/2
second through the 2SD,aOo-ohm resistor. ..... J.-
--
__ V
Inductance and Resistance V
A comparable situation exists when resistance o /
and inductance are in series. In Fig. 2-21, first
consider L to have no resistance and also assume J! L 2"
R
3L
R
TIMe
that R is zero. Then closing S would tend to send a If
current through the circuit. However, the instanta-
neous transition from no current to a finite value, Fjg. 2-21 - Time constant of an LR circuit.
Alternating Currents 31
inductive circuit is the time in seconds required for /00
the current to reach 63 percent of its final value.
The formula is
10 f\.
~50 r\.
~40

~30 "' r'\.

where T = Time constant in seconds
L = Inductance in Henrys
R = Resistance in ohms
~20
~
" '\.
The resistance of the wire in a coil acts as if it were
in series with the inductance.
Example: A coil having an inductance of 20 henrys and
a resistance of 100 ohms has a time constant of
T~~ = d£ = 0.2 second
,*-10
7
5
05 1.5 2
'" ""-

2.5
~
3
-L
if there is no other resistance in the circuit. If a de emf of RC
10 volts is applied to such a coil, the final current, by Fig. 2-22 - Voltage across capacitor terminals in a
Ohm's Law, is
discharging RC circuit, in terms of the initial
I=k= I~~ -0.1 amp. or 100mA charged voltage. To obtain time in se.conds,
multiply the factor tlRC by the time constant of
The current would rise from zero to 63 milliamperes in 0.2
second after closing the switch.
the circuit.

An inductor cannot be "discharged" in the Time constants play an important part in

same way as a capacitor, because the magnetic field numerous devices, such as electronic keys, timing
disappears as soon as current flow ceases. Opening and control circuits, and shaping of keying charac-
S does not leave the inductor "charged." The teristics by vacuum tubes. The time constants of
energy stored in the magnetic field instantly circuits are also important in such applications as
returns to the circuit when S is opened. The rapid automatic gain control and noise limiters. In nearly
disappearance of the field causes a very large all such applications a resistance-capacitance (RC)
voltage to be induced in the coil - ordinarily many time constant is involved, and it is usually neces-
times larger than the voltage applied, because the sary to know the voltage across the capacitor at
induced voltage is proportional to the speed with some time interval larger or smaller than the actual
which the field changes. The common result of time constant of the circuit as given by the formula
opening the switch in a circuit such as the one above. Fig. 2-22 can be used for the solution of
shown is that a spark or arc forms at the switch such problems, since the curve gives the voltage
contacts at the instant of opening. If the induct- across the capacitor, in terms of percentage of the
ance is large and the current in the circuit is high, a initial charge, for percentages between 5 and 100,
great deal of energy is released in a very short at any time after discharge begins.
period of time. It is not at all unusual for the-
Example: A O.Ol-~f capacitor is charged to 150 volts
switch contacts to burn or melt under such and then allowed to discharge through a a.l-megohm
circumstances. The spark or arc at the opened resistor. How long will it take the voltage to fall to 10
switch can be reduced or suppressed by connecting volts? In percentage, 10/150 = 6.7%. From the chart, the
factor corresponding to 6.7% is 2.7. The time constant of
a suitable capacitor and resistor in series across the the circuit is equal to RC = 0.1 X ,01 = ,001. The time is
contacts. therefore 2.7 X 0.001 = 0027 second, or 2.7 milliseconds.

ALTERNATING CURRENTS
PHASE
frequencies are to be considered, as in the case
The tenn phase essentially means "time," or where harmonics are present, the phase measure-
the time interval between the instant when one ments are made with respect to the lowest, or
thing occurs and the instant when a second related fundamental, frequency.
thing takes place. The later event is said to lag the The time interval or "phase difference" under
earlier, while the one that occurs first is said to consideration usually will be less than one cycle.
lead. In ac circuits the current amplitude changes Phase difference could be measured in decimal
continuously, so the concept of phase or time parts of a cycle, but it is more convenient to divide
becomes important. Phase can be measured in the the cycle into 360 parts or degrees. A phase degree
ordinary time units, such as the second, but there is therefore 1/360 of a cycle. The reason for this
is a more convenient method: Since each ac cycle choice is that with sine-wave alternating current
occupies exactly the same amount of time as every the value of the current at any instant is propor-
other cycle of the same frequency, we can use the tional to the sine of the angle that corresponds to
cycle itself as the time unit. Using the cycle as the the number of degrees - that is, length of time -
time unit makes the specification or measurement from the instant the cycle began. There is no actual
of phase independent of the frequency of the "angle" associated with an alternating current. Fig.
current, so long as only one frequency is under 2-23 should help make this method of measure-
consideration at a time. When two or more ment clear.
 32 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
resistance is "pure" - that is, is free from the
+ reactive effects discussed in the next section.
Practically, it is often difficult to obtain a purely
resistive circuit at radio frequencies, because the

~1
reactive effects become more pronounced as the
frequency is increased.
go. In a purely resistive circuit, or for purely
11 resistive parts of circuits, Ohm's Law is just as valid
for ac of any frequency as it is for dc.

REACTANCE
Alternating Current in Capacitance
In Fig. 2-26 a sine-wave ac voltage having a
Fig. 2-23 - An ac cycle is divided off into 360 maximum value of 100 volts is applied to a
degrees that are used as a measure of time or phase.
capacitor. In the period OA, the applied voltage
increases from zero to 38 volts; at the end of this
Measuring Phase period the capacitor is charged to that voltage. In
interval AB the voltage increases to 71 volts; that
The phase difference between two currents of is, 33 volts additional. In this interval a smaller
the same frequency is the time or angle difference quantity of charge has been added than in OA,
between corresponding parts of cycles of the two because the voltage rise during interval AB is
currents. This is shown in Fig. 2-24. The current
smaller. Consequently the average current during
labeled A leads the one marked B by 45 degrees,
since A's cycles begin 45 degrees earlier in time. It
is equally correct to say that B lags A by 45
degrees.
Two important special cases are shown in Fig.
2-25. In the upper drawing B lags 90 degrees
behind A; that is, its cycle begins just one-quarter
cycle later than that of A. When one wave is
passing through zero, the other is just at its
maximum point.
In the lower drawing A and Bare 180 degrees
out of phase. In this case it does not matter which
one is considered to lead or lag. B is always positive
while A is negative, and vice versa. The two waves
are thus completely out of phase.
The waves shown in Figs. 2-24 and 2-25 could
represent current, voltage, or both. A and B might
be two currents in separate circuits, or A might
represent voltage and B current in the same circuit.
Fig. 2-25 - Two important special cases of phase
If A and B represent two currents in the same difference. In the upper drawing, the phase
circuit (or two voltages in the same circuit) the difference between A and B is 90 degrees; in the
total or resultant current (or voltage) also is a sine lower drawing the phase difference is 180 degrees.
wave, because adding any number of sine waves of
the same frequency always gives a sine wave also of AB is smaller than during OA. In the third interval,
the same frequency. BC, the voltage rises from 71 to 92 volts, an
increase of 21 volts. This is less than the voltage
Phase in Resistive Circuits increase during AB, so the quantity of electricity
When an alternating voltage is applied to a added is less; in other words, the average current
resistance, the current flows exactly in step with during interval BC is still smaller. In the fourth
the voltage. In other words, the voltage and current interval, CB, the voltage increases only 8 volts; the
are in phase. This is true at any frequency. if the charge added is smaller than in any preceding
interval and therefore the current also is smaller.
By dividing the first quarter cycle into a very
large number of intervals it could be shown that
the current charging the capacitor has the shape of
a sine wave, just as the applied voltage does. The
current is largest at the beginning of the cycle and
becomes zero at the maximum value of the voltage,
Fig. 2-24 - When two waves of the same frequency so there is a phase, difference of 90 degrees
start their cycles at slightly different times, the between the voltage and current. During the first
time difference or phase difference is measured in quarter cycle the current is flowing in the normal
degrees. In this drawing wave B starts 45 degrees direction through the circuit, since the capacitor is
(one-€ighth cycle) later than wave A, and so lags 45 being charged. Hence the current is positive, as
degrees behind A. indicated by the dashed line in Fig. 2-26.
Reactance 33
Example: The reactance of a capacitor of 470 pF
(0.00047 IIF) at a frequency of 7150 kHz (7.15 MHz) is

X: 2ifJc = 6.28 X 7.ll X .00047~= 47.4 ohms

Inductive Reactance
When an alternating voltage is applied to a pure
inductance (one with no resistance - all practical
inductors have resistance) the current is again 90
degrees out of phase with the applied voltage.
However, in this case the current lags 90 degrees
Fig. 2-26 - Voltage and current phase relationships behind the ·voltage - the opposite of the capacitor
when an alternating voltage is applied to a current-voltage relationship.
capacitor. The primary cause for this is the back emf
generated in the inductance, and since the ampli-
tude of the back emf is proportional to the rate at
In the second quarter cycle - that is, in the which the current changes, and this in turn is
time from D to H, the voltage applied to the proportional to the frequency, the amplitude of
capacitor decreases. During this time the capacitor the current is inversely proporti(;mal to the applied
loses its charge. Applying the same reasoning, it is frequency. Also, since the back emfis proportional
plain that the current is small in interval DE and to inductance for a given rate of current change,
continues to increase during each succeeding inter- the current flow is inversely proportional to
val. However, the current is flowing against the inductance for a given applied voltage and frequen-
applied voltage because the capacitor is discharging cy. (Another way of saying this is that just enough
into the circuit. The current flows in the negative current flows to generate an induced emf that
direction during this quarter cycle. equals and opposes the applied voltage.)
The third and fourth quarter cycles repeat the The combined effect of inductance and fre-
events of the first and second, respectively, with quency is called inductive reactance, also expressed
this difference - the polarity of the applied voltage in ohms, and the formula for it is
has reversed, and the current changes to corres-
pond. In other words, an alternating current flows
in the circuit because of the alternate charging and
discharging of the capacitance. As shown by Fig. where XL = Inductive reactance in ohms
2-26, the current starts its cycle 90 degrees before f = Frequency in cycles per second
the voltage, so the current in a capacitor leads the L = Inductance in henrys
applied voltage by 90 degrees. 1T= 3.14

Example: The reactance of a 15-microhenry coil at a

Capacitive Reactance frequency of 14 MHz is
The quantity of electric charge that can be XL =2rrfL =6.28 X 14 XIS = 1319 ohms
placed on a capacitor is proportional to the applied
In radio-frequency circuits the inductance
emf and the capacitance. This amount of charge
values usually are small and the frequencies are
moves back and forth in the circuit once each
cycle, and so the rate of movement of charge - large. If the inductance is expressed in millihenrys
that is, the current - is proportional to voltage, and the frequency in kilocycles, the conversion
capacitance and frequency. If the effects of capaci- factors for the two units cancel, and the formula
tance and frequency are lumped together, they for reactance may be used without first converting
form a quantity that plays a part similar to that of to fundamental units. Similarly, no conversion is
resistance in Ohm's Law. This quantity is called necessary if the inductance is in microhenrys and
reactance, and the unit for it is the ohm, just as in the frequency is in megacycles.
the case of resistance. The formula for it is
X-I
c- 2rr[C

where Xc =Capacitive reactance in ohms

f
., ,
= Frequency in cycles per second
C =Capacitance in farads
1T= 3.14 ,
1\
Although the unit of reactance is the ohm,
I ,
there is no power dissipation in reactance. The I \
energy stored in the capacitor in one quarter of the I \ I
cycle is simply returned to the circuit in the next. ,"'\ \_,
The fundamental units (cycles per second, Induced
~/lojt!
farads) are too large for practical use in radio
circuits. However, if the capacitance is in micro- Fig. 2-27 - Phase relationships between voltage
farads and the frequency is in megacycles, the and current when an alternating voltage is applied
reactance will come out in ohms in the formula. to an inductance.
 34 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
100,000
70,000 -"

,
/
50,000 -. '\J /
".(
y
30,000
h~ -~

" ><
~.

"-" k
ZO,OOO
V 10""'--
'vK k v / ,1
10,000
7,000
5,000
I"-.

17
'"
~~.
, ,<9 ".(
"-
/
3,000 C~·
2,000
""" ><
~ """ K v
Iv
,0
'"
,...~
R 1/
i
qo"
~'\k
No
"k k i'\.
'\
1,000
700
500 7 7
O~
'l 0
"
" "
"'" k I" K
IJ)
300
qA
"Z kf' " K
::Iii
I
200
"\ i'\. 1/ V
0

K
'"
V
><
'" " ~
~
100
['\../ ,...
'"
0
z 70
50 ...
?o ,O°'i
~
.(

7 17
~
'"0:
30
20
""" R
1"-./
1/
17
/:'-
KK V "'" k I" K Iv" K ,0
,... 1/ i'\.
~ K
'"
V
10
7
5
~ ~OO~
V V
/
" /
,...
/

" K " K I'" K

3
2
i 1/ ~ ""'-- o'~ ""'-- II
V i 1'\./Rl f"- I ~
'" '"
V V
1.0
000
2 2~~R8
000
'" '" "' ....
k--CYCLES-...;~~r..c~------ KILOCYCLES
S? 0 0
'" '" "'
FREQUENCY
00 0
....
i'\.v
S?
0
0
'" '"
0
0
000
000
!

"' .... 0
~Io(
....
'" '" It)

MEGACYCLES
,....

'"
2 2 2g 0
t-
0
o
J
10 7 S4 3 INTERPOLATION
IIlIll! I SCALE
FOR LaC

Fig. 2-28 - Inductive and capacitive reactance vs. frequency. Heavy lines represent multiples of 10,
intermediate light lines multiples of 5; e.g., the light line between 10 pH and100pH represents50pH,
the light line between 0.1 pF and 1 pF represents 0.5 pF, etc. Intermediate values can be estimated
with the help of the interpolation scale.
Reactances outside the range of the chart may be found by applying appropriate factors to values
within the chart range. For example, the reactance of 10 henrys at 60 cycles can be found by taking the
reactance to 10 henrys at 600 cycles and dividing by 10 for the 10-times decrease in frequency.

Example: The reactance of a coil having an inductance where E =Emf in volts

of 8 henrys, at a frequency of 120 cycles, is I = Current in amperes
XL = 21rjL = 6.28 x 120 x 8 =6029 ohms X = Reactance in ohms

The reactance in the circuit may, of course, be

The resistance of the wire of which the coil is either inductive or capacitive.
wound has no effect on the reactance, but simply Fxamplc: If a ~urrcnt of 2 amperes is flowing through
acts as though it were a separate resistor connected the capacitor of the earlier example (reactance :: 41.4
in series with the coil. ohms) at 7150 kHz, the voltage drop across the capacitor is
E"IX" 2 X 47.4 =94.8voll,
Ohm's Law for Reactance If 400 volh at J 20 hertz is applied to the 8-henry
inductor of the earlier example. the current through the
Ohm's Law for an ac circuit containing only coil will he
reactance is I, i ~ 6%~f~ 0 0.0663 amp. (66.3 rnA)

Reactance Chart
The accompanying chart, Fig. 2-28, shows the
E=IX reactance of capacitances from 1 pF to 100 pF,
and the reactance of inductances from 0.1 J1H to
X=ll. 10 henrys, for frequencies between 100 hertz and
I 100 megahertz per second. The approximate value
Impedance 35
of reactance can be read from the chart or, where Note that in the series circuit the total react-
more exact values are needed, the chart will serve ance is negative if XC is larger than XL; this
as a check on the order of magnitude of reactances indicates that the total reactance is capacitive in
calculated from the formulas given above, and thus such a case. The resultant reactance in a series
avoid "decimal-point errors." circuit is always smaller than the larger of the two
individual reactances.
Reactances in Series and Parallel In the parallel circuit, the resultant reactance is
When reactances of the same kind are connect- negative (i.e., capacitive) if XL is larger than XC,
ed in series or parallel the resultant reactance is and positive (inductive) if XL is smaller than XC,
that of the resultant inductance or capacitance. bu t in every case is always larger than the smaller
This leads to the same rules that are used when of the two individual reactances.
determining the resultant resistance when resistors In the special case where XL = XC the total
are combined. That is, for series reactances of the reactance is zero in the series circuit and infinitely
same kind the resultant reactance is large in the parallel circuit.

x = Xl + X2 + X3 + X4 Reactive Power
and for reactances of the same kind in parallel the
In Fig. 2-29A the voltage drop across the
resultant is
inductor is larger than the voltage applied to the
X= _ _ _oO..l_ __ circuit. This might seem to be an impossible
condition, but it is not; the explanation is that
.1...+2..+.1...+..!.... while energy is being stored in the inductor's
Xl X2 X3 X4
magnetic field, energy is being returned to the
or for two in parallel, circuit from the capacitor's electric field, and vice
versa. This stored energy is responsible for the fact
X= XIX2
X1+X2 that the voltages across reactances in series can be
larger than the voltage applied to them.
The situation is different when reactances of In a resistance the flow of current causes
opposite kinds are combined. Since the current in a heating and a power loss equal to 12R. The power
capacitance leads the applied voltage by 90 degrees in a reactance is equal to 12X, but is not a "loss"; it
and the current in an inductance lags the applied is simply power that is transferred back and forth
voltage by 90 degrees, the voltages at the terminals between the field and the circuit but not used up
of opposite types of reactance are 180 degrees out in heating anything. To distinguish this "non dis-
of phase in a series circuit (in which the current has sipated" power from the power which is actually
to be the same through all elements), and the consumed, the unit of reactive power is called the
currents in reactances of opposite types are 180 volt-ampere-reactive, or var, instead of the watt.
degrees ou t of phase in a parallel circuit (in which Reactive power is sometimes called "wattless"
the same voltage is applied to all elements). The power.
180-degree phase relationship means that the cur-
rents or voltages are of opposite polarity, so in the IMPEDANCE
series circuit of Fig. 2-29 A the voltage EL across When a circuit contains both resistance and
the inductive reactance XL is of opposite polarity reactance the combined effect of the two is called
to the voltage EC across the capacitive reactance impedance, symbolized by the letter Z. (Impe-
XC. Thus if we call XL "positive" and XC dance is thus a more general term than either
"negative" (a common convention) the applied resistance or reactance, and is frequently used even
voltage EAC is EL - EC. In the parallel circuit at B for circuits that have only resistance or reactance,
the total current, I, is equal to IL - IC, since the although usually with a qualification - such as
currents are 180 degrees out of phase. "resistive impedance" to indicate that the circuit
In the series case, therefore, the resultant has only resistance, for example.)
reactance of XL and XC is The reactance and resistance comprising an
impedance may be connected either in series or in
X=XL-Xc parallel, as shown in Fig. 2-30. In these circuits the
and in the parallel case reactance is shown as a box to indicate that it may
be either inductive or capacitive. In the series
X= -XLXC circuit the current is the same in both elements,
XL-XC with (generally) different voltages appearing across
the resistance and reactance. In the parallel circuit
the same voltage is applied to both elements, but
different currents flow in the two branches.
Since in a resistance the current is in phase with
the applied voltage while in a reactance it is 90
degrees out of phase with the voltage, the phase
{BI relationship between current and voltage in the
circuit as a whole may be anything between zero
Fig. 2-29 - Series and parallel circuits containing and 90 degrees, depending on the relative amounts
opposite kinds of reactance. of resistance and reactance.
36 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
Ohm's Law for Impedance

~ Ohm's Law can be applied to circuits contain-

ing impedance just as readily as to circuits having

~
resistance or reactance only. The formulas are

(6) I=K
Z
Fig. 2-30 - Series and parallel circuits containing E=IZ
resistance and reactance.
z=K
I
where E = Emf in volts
I =Current in amperes
Series Circui ts Z = Impedance in ohms
When resistance and reactance are in series, the Fig. 2-31 show~ a simple circuit consbting of a
impedance of the circuit is resistance of 75 ohms and a reactance of 100 ohms in

Z= it-R-
2-+-X
- -2
seric .... From the formul<l previously given, the impedance is
Z: 'fR2'+1"L2 = 1(75)2 + (100)2 = 125
If the applied voltage is 250 volts, then
where Z = Impedance in ohms
R = Resistance in ohms I: ~ = r¥j= 2 amperes
X = Reactance in ohms This current flo\V~ through both the resistance and reac-
tance, so the voltage drops arc
The reactance may be either capacitive or induc- ER = IR = 2 X 75 = 150 volts
tive. If there are two or more reactances in the EXL ={XL = 2 X 100 = 200 volts
circuit they may be combined into a resultant by TIle simple arithmetical sum of these two drop~. 350 volts,
the rules previously given, before substitu tion into is greater than the applied voltage because the two voltages
are 90 degrees out of phase. Their actual resultant, when
the formula above; similarly for resistances. phase is taken into account, is
The "square root of the sum of the squares" 1(150)2 + (200)2 - 250 volts
rule for finding impedance in a series circuit arises
from the fact that the voltage drops across the Power Factor
resistance and reactance are 90 degrees out of
In the circuit of Fig. 2-31 an applied emf of
phase, and so combine by the same rule that
250 volts results in a current of 2 amperes, giving
applies in finding the hypothenuse of a right-angled
an apparent power of 250 X 2 = 500 watts.
triangle when the base and altitude are known.
However, only the resistance actually consumes
Parallel Circuits power. The power in the resistance is
With resistance and reactance in parallel, as in P = 12R = (2)2 X 75 = 300 watts
Fig. 2-30B, the impedance is
The ratio of the power consumed to the apparent
Z= RX power is called the power factor of the circuit, and
1R2+X2
in this example the power factor would be
where the symbols have the same meaning as for 300/500 = 0.6. Power factor is frequently ex-
series circuits. pressed as a percentage; in this case, it would be 60
Just as in the case of series circuits, a number of percent.
reactances in parallel should be combined to find "Real" or dissipated power is measured in
the resultant reactance before substitution into the watts; apparent power, to distinguish it from real
formal above; similarly for a number of resistances power, is measured in volt-amperes. It is simply the
in parallel. product of volts and amperes and has no direct
relationship to the power actually used up or
Equivalent Series and Parallel Circuits dissipated unless the power factor of the circuit is
known. The power factor of a purely resistive
The two circuits shown in Fig. 2-30 are circuit is 100 percent or 1, while the power factor
equivalent if the same current flows when a given of a pure reactance is zero. In this illustration, the
voltage of the same frequency is applied, and if the reactive power is VAR =12X = (2)2 X 100 = 400
phase angle between voltage and current is the volt-amperes.
same in both cases. It is in fact possible to
"transform" any given series circuit into an equiv-
alen t parallel circuit, and vice versa.
Transformations of this type often lead to
simplification in the solution of complicated
'Circuits. However, from the standpoint of practical
work the usefulness of such transformations lies in
the fact that the impedance of a circuit may be
modified by the addition of either series or parallel
elements, depending on which happens to be most
convenient in the particular case. Typical applica-
tions are considered later in connection with tuned Fig. 2-31 - Circuit used as an example for
circuits and transmission lines. impedance calculations.
Transformers for Audio Frequencies 37
Reactance and Complex Waves depends upon the values of resistance and reac-
tance involved and how the circuit is arranged. In a
It was pointed out earlier in this chapter that a simple circuit with resistance and inductive reac-
complex wave (a "nonsinusoidal" wave) can be tance in series, the amplitudes of the harmonic
resolved into a fundamental frequency and a series currents will be reduced because the inductive
of harmonic frequencies. When such a complex reactance increases in proportion to frequency.
voltage wave is applied to a circuit containing When capacitance and resistance are in series, the
reactance, the current through the circuit will not harmonic current is likely to be accentuated
have the same wave shape as the applied voltage. because the capacitive reactance becomes lower as
This is because the reactance of an inductor and the frequency is raised. When both inductive and
capacitor depend upon the applied frequency. For capacitive reactance are present the shape of the
the second-harmonic component of a complex current wave can be altered in a variety of ways,
wave, the reactance of the inductor is twice and depending upon the circuit and the "constants," or
the reactance of the capacitor one-half their the relative values of L, C, andR, selected.
respective values at the fundamental frequency; for This property of nonuniform behavior with
the third harmonic the inductor reactance is three respect t9 fundamental and harmonics is an ex-
times and the capacitor reactance one-third, and so tremely useful one. It is the basis of "filtering," or
on. Thus the circuit impedance is different for each the suppression of undesired frequencies in favor
harmonic component. of a single desired frequency or group of such
Just what happens to the current wave shape frequencies.

TRANSFORMERS FOR AUDIO FREQUENCIES

Two coils having mutual inductance constitute that shown in Fig. 2-32 also tends to insure that
a transformer. The coil connected to the source of practically all of the field set up by the current in
energy is called the primary coil, and the other is the primary coil will cu t the turns of the secondary
called the secondary coil. coil. However, the core introduces a power loss
The usefulness of the transformer lies in the because of hysteresis and eddy currents so this
fact that electrical energy can be transferred from type of construction is normally practicable only
one circuit to another without direct connection, at power and audio frequencies. The discussion in
and in the process can be readily changed from one this section is confined to transformers operating
voltage level to another. Thus, if a device to be at such frequencies.
operated requires, for example, 115 volts ac and
only a 440-volt source is available, a transformer Voltage and Turns Ratio
can be used to change the source voltage to that For a given varying magnetic field, the voltage
required. A transformer can be used only with ac, induced in a coil in the field will be proportional to
since no voltage will be induced in the secondary if the number of turns in the coil. If the two coils of
the magnetic field is not changing. If dc is applied a transformer are in the same field (which is the
to the primary of a transformer, a voltage will be case when both are wound on the same closed
induced in the secondary only at the instant of core) it follows that the induced voltages will be
closing or opening the primary circuit, since it is proportional to the number of turns in each coil.
only at these times that the field is changing. In the primary the induced voltage is practically
equal to, and opposes, the applied voltage, as
THE IRON-CORE TRANSFORMER described earlier. Hence,
As shown in Fig. 2-32, the primary and
secondary coils of a transformer may be wound on ns
a core of magnetic material. This increases the Es=n p Ep
inductance of the coils so that a relatively small
number of turns may be used to induce a given where Ks = Secondary voltage
value of voltage with a small current. A closed core Ep = Primary applied voltage
(one having a continuous magnetic path) such as ns = Number of turns on secondary
np = Number of turns on primary

PRIMARY SECONDARY
~IIC The ratio, ns/np is called the secondary-ta-primary
turns ratio of the transformer.
Example: A transformer has a primary of 400 turns and
a secondary of 2800 turns, and an emf of 115 vo1ts is
applied to the primary.
E,.~.!LEp=24~0~X 115~7X liS
p
= 805 volts
Also if an emf of 805 volts is applied to the 2800-turn
Fig. 2-32 - The transformer. Power is transferred winding (which then becomes the primary) the output
voltage from the 400-tum winding will be 115 volts.
from the primary coil to the secondary by m:ans Either winding of a transformer can be used as the
of the magnetic field. The upper symbol at right primary. providing the winding has enough turns (enough
indicates an iron<ore transformer, the lower one inductance) to induce a voltage equaJ to the appJied voltage
an air<ore transformer. without requiring an excessive current flow.
38 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
Effect of Secondary Current A transformer is usually designed to have its
highest efficiency at the power output for which it
The current that flows in the primary when no
is rated. The efficiency decreases with either lower
current is taken from the secondary is called the
or higher outputs. On the other hand, the losses in
magnetizing current of the transformer. In any
the transformer are relatively small at low output
properly-designed transformer the primary induc-
but increase as more power is taken. The amount
tance will be so large that the magnetizing current
of power that the transformer can handle is
will be quite small. The power consumed by the
determined by its own losses, because these heat
transformer when the secondary is "open" - that
the wire and core. There is a limit to the
is, not delivering power - is only the amount
temperature rise that can be tolerated, because
necessary to su pply the losses in the iron core and too-high temperature either will melt the wire or
in the resistance of the wire with which the cause the insulation to break down. A transformer
primary is wound. can be operated a reduced output, even though the
When power is taken from the secondary efficiency is low,because the actual loss will be low
winding, the secondary current sets up a magnetic under such conditions.
field that opposes the field set up by the primary The full-load efficiency of small power trans-
current. But if the induced voltage in the primary formers such as are used in radio receivers and
is to equal the applied voltage, the original field transmitters usually lies between about 60 and 90
must be maintained. Consequently, the primary percent, depending upon the size and design.
must draw enough additional current to set up a
field exactly equal and opposite to the field set up Leakage Reactance
by the secondary current.
In practical calculations on transformers it may In a practical transformer not all of the
be assumed that the entire primary current is magnetic flux is common to both windings,
caused by the secondary "load." This is justifiable although in well-designed transformers the amount
because the magnetizing current should be very of flux that "cuts" one coil and not the other is
small in comparison with the primary "load" only a small percentage of the total flux. This
current at rated power output. leakage flux causes an emf of self-induction;
If the magnetic fields set up by the primary and consequently, there are small amounts of leakage
secondary currents are to be equal, the primary inductance associated with both windings of the
current multiplied by the primary turns must equal transformer. Leakage inductance acts in exactly
the secondary current multiplied by the secondary the same way as an equivalent amount of ordinary
turns. From this it follows that inductance inserted in series with the circuit. It
I = ns I has, therefore, a certain reactance, depending upon
p np s the amount of leakage inductance and the
wherelp Primary current
=_ frequency. This reactance is called leakage reac-
Is Secondary current tance.
np = Number of turns on primary Current flowing through the leakage reactance
ns = Number of turns on secondary causes a voltage drop. This voltage drop increases
Example: Suppose that the secondary of the trans~ with increasing current, hence it increases as more
former in the previous example is delivering a current of 0.2 power is taken from the secondary. Thus, the
ampere to a load. Then the primary current will be
greater the secondary current, the smaller the
[p =~![s=~X 0.2= 7 X 0.2 = 1.4 amp. secondary terminal voltage becomes. The resis-
Although the secondary voltage is higher than the primary tances of the transformer windings also cause
voltage, the secondary current is lower than the primary voltage drops when current is flowing; although
current, and by the same ratio. these voltage drops are not in phase with those
Power Relationships; Efficiency caused by leakage reactance, together they result in
A transformer cannot create power; it can only a lower secondary voltage under load than is
transfer it and change the emf. Hence, the power indicated by the turns ratio of the transformer.
taken from the secondary cannot exceed that At power frequencies (60 cycles) the voltage at
taken by the primary from the source of applied the secondary, with a reasonably well-designed
emf. There is always some power loss in the transformer, should not drop more than about 10
resistance of the coils and in the iron core, so in all percent from open-circuit conditions to full load.
practical cases the power taken from the source The drop in voltage may be considerably more
will exceed that taken from the secondary. Thus, than this in a transformer operating at audio
frequencies because the leakage reactance increases
Po= nP; directly with the frequency.
where Po = Power output from secondary
Pi = Power input to primary Impedance Ratio
n = Efficiency factor
The efficiency, n, always is less than 1. It is usually In an ideal transformer - one without losses or
expressed as a percentage; if n is 0.65, for leakage reactance - the following relationship is
instances, the efficiency is 65 percent. true:
Example: A transformer has an efficiency of 85 percent
at its full-load output of 150 watts. The power input to the
primary at full sccondaty load will be
Z =Z r~12
P; =~o = J:-~-~ = 176.5 walts p s~sJ
The Iron-Core Transformer 39
where Zp =Impedance looking into primary ter-
minals from source of power
Zs Impedance of load connected to sec-
ondary
NP/N s = Turns ratio, primary to secondary
LAMINATION SHAPE
SHELL TYPE
That is, a load of any given impedance connec-
ted to the secondary of the transformer will be
transformed to a different value "looking into" the
primary from the source of power. The impedance
transformation is proportional to the square of the
primary-to-secondary turns ratio. CORE TYPE

Example: A transformer has a primary-ta-secondary

turns ratio of 0.6 (primary has 6/10 as many turns as the Fig. 2-34 - Two common types of transformer
secondary) and a load of 3000 ohms is connected to the
secondary. The impedance looking into the primary then
construction. Core pieces are interleaved to provide
will be a continuous magnetic path.
Zp = Zslfo:] = 3000 X (0.6)2 = 3000 X 0.36 The impedance of the actual load that is to
= 1080 ohms dissipate the power may differ widely from this
By choosing the proper turns ratio, the imped- value, so a transformer is used to change the actual
ance of a fixed load can be transformed to any load into an impedance of the desired value. This is
desired value, within practical limits. If transformer called impedance matching. From the preceding,
losses can be neglected, the transformed or
"reflected" impedance has the same phase angle as
Np = Ifi
Ns Zs
the actual load impedance; thus if the load is a
pure resistance the load presented by the primary where NP/Ns = Required turns ratio, primary to
to the source of power also will be a pure secondary
resistance. Zp =Primary impedance required
The above relationship may be used in practical Zs =Impedance of load connected to
work even though it is based on an "ideal" secondary
transformer. Aside from the normal design require- Example: A vacuum-tube af amplifier requires a load of
ments of reasonably low internal losses and low 5000 ohms for optimum performance, and is to be
connected to a loud-speaker having an impedance of 10
leakage reactance, the only requirement is that the ohms. The turns ratio. primary to secondary. required in
primary have enough inductance to operate with the coupling transformer is
low magnetizing current at the voltage applied to t:!.P.= Hi=
Ns Zs
.y:~NLfSoii=224
10= .
the primary.
The primary impedance of a transformer - as it The primary therefore must have 22.4 times as many turns
appears to the source of power - is determined as the secondary.
wholly by the load connected to the secondary and Impedance matching means, in general, adjust-
by the turns ratio. If the characteristics of the ing the load impedance - by means of a trans-
transformer have an appreciable effect on the former or otherwise - to a desired value. However,
impedance presented to the power source, the there is also another meaning. It is possible to show
transformer is either poorly designed or is not that any source of power will deliver its maximum
suited to the voltage and frequency at which it is possible output when the impedance of the load is
being used. Most transformers will operate quite equal to the internal impedance of the source. The
well at voltages from slightly above to well below impedance of the source is said to be "matched"
the design figure. under this condition. The efficiency is only 50
percent in such a case; just as much power is used
Impedance Matching up in the source as is delivered to the load. Because
of the poor efficiency, this type of impedance
Many devices require a specific value of load
matching is limited to cases where only a small
resistance (or impedance) for optimum operation.
amount of power is available and heating. from

IE:].
power loss in the source is not important.

Transformer Construction
()-L.-,-RC_ _ _ X;_R-I'
Transformers usually are designed so that the
magnetic path around the core is as short as
Fig. 2-33 - The equivalent circuit of a transformer possible. A short magnetic path means that the.
includes the effects of leakage inductance and transformer will operate with fewer turns, for a
resistance of both primary and secondary windings. given applied voltage, than if the path were long. A
The resistance Rc is an equivalent resistance short path also helps to reduce flux leakage and
representing the core losses, which are essentially
constant for any given applied voltage and therefore minimizes leakage reactance.
frequency. Since these are comparatively small, Two core shapes are in common use, as shown
their effect may be neglected in many approximate in Fig. 2-34. In the shell type both windings are
calculations. placed on the inner leg, while in the core type the
40 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
.----,cv/ron. Core frequency. The number of turns required is in-
versely proportional to the cross-sectional area of
the core. As a rough indication, windings of small
power transformers frequently have about six to
eight turns per volt on a core of 1-square-inch cross
section and have a magnetic path 10 or 12 inches
in length. A longer path or smaller cross section
requires more turns per volt, and vice versa.
Load
In most transformers the coils are wound in
layers, with a thin sheet of treated-paper insulation
Fig. 2-35 - The autotransformer is based on the between each layer. Thicker insulation is used
transformer principle, but uses only one winding. between coils and between coils and core.
The line and load currents in the common winding
(A) flow in opposite directions, so that the Autotransformers
resultant current is the difference between them.
The voltage across A is proportional to the turns The transformer principle can be utilized with
ratio. only one winding instead of two, as shown in Fig.
2-35; the principles just discussed apply equally
primary and secondary windings may be placed on well. A one-winding transformer is called an
separate legs, if desired. This is sometimes done autotransformer. The current in the common
when it is necessary to minimize capacitive effects section (A) of the winding is the difference
between the primary and secondary, or when one between the line (primary) and the load (second-
of the windings must operate at very high voltage. ary) currents, since these currents are out of phase.
Core material for small transformers is usually Hence if the line and load currents are nearly equal
silicon steel, called "transformer iron." The core is the common section of the winding may be wound
built up of laminations, insulated from each other with comparatively small wire. This will be the case
(by a thin coating of shellac, for example) to only when the primary (line) and secondary (load)
prevent the flow of eddy currents. The laminations voltages are not very different. The auto-
are interleaved at the ends to make the magnetic transformer is used chiefly for boosting or reducing
path as continuous as possible and thus reduce flux the power-line voltage by relatively small amounts.
leakage. Continuously-variable autotransformers are
The number of turns required in the primary commercially available under a variety of trade
for a given applied emf is determined by the size, names; "Variac" and "Powerstat" are typical
shape and type of core material used, and the examples.

THE DECIBEL
In most radio communication the received voltage, or current. The gain of an amplifier cannot
signal is converted into sound. This being the case, be expressed correctly in dB if it is based on the
it is useful to appraise signal strengths in terms of ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage
relative loudness as registered by the ear. A unless both voltages are measured across the same
peculiarity of the ear is that an increase or decrease value of impedance. When the impedance at both
in loudness is responsive to the ratio of the points of measurement is the same, the following
amounts of power involved, and is practically formula may be used for voltage or current ratios:
independent of absolute value of the power. For
example, if a person estimates that the signal is dB= 2010g~ Or2010g~
"twice as loud" when the transmitter power is VI
increased from 10 watts to 40 watts, he will also 0

estimate that a 400-watt signal is twice as loud as a /

100-watt signal. In other words, the human ear has
• V
a logarithmic response. •
This fact is the basis for the use of the . 1/
relative-power unit called the decibel (abbreviated li'
dB). A change of one decibel in the power level is .!I
.8,0
12
tJ~\".y
just detectable as a change in loudness under ideal
conditions. The number of decibels corresponding
~
• VI' V
to a given power ratio is given by the following
• &
~i§
. /V
formula:
4 / ~
dB= 10 log P2 /'
2 / ./
PI
Common logarithms (base 10) are used. o~I.! 2 2.~ 3 $1711.0
Ratio
Voltage and Current Ratios Fig. 2-36 - Decibel chart for power, voltage and
current ratios for power ratios of 1: 1 and 10: 1. In
Note that the decibel is based on power ratios. determining decibels for current or voltage ratios
Voltage or current ratios can be used, but only the currents (or voltages) being compared must be
when the impedance is the same for both values of referred to the same value of impedance.
Radio-Frequency Circuits 41
adding (or subtracting, if a loss) 10 dB each time
Decibel Chart the ratio scale is multiplied by 10, for power ratios;
The two formulas are shown graphically in Fig. or by adding (or subtracting) 20 dB each time the
2-36 for ratios from 1 to 10. Gains (increases) scale is multiplied by 10 for voltage or current
expressed in decibels may be added arithmetically; ratios. For example, a power ratio of 2.5 is 4 dB
losses (decreases) may be subtracted. A power (from the chart). A power ratio of 10 times 2.5, or
decrease is indicated by prefixing the decibel figure 25, is 14 dB (10 + 4), and a power ratio of 100
with a minus sign. Thus +6 dB means that the times 2.5, or 250, is 24 dB (20 + 4). A voltage or
power has been multiplied by 4, while -6 dB current ratio of 4 is 12 dB, a voltage or current
means that the power has been divided by 4. ratio of 40 is 32 dB (20 + 12), and one of 400 is 52
The chart may be used for other ratios by dB (40 + 12).

RADIO-FREQUENCY CIRCUITS
RESONANCE IN SERIES CIRCUITS the formulas for inductive and capacitive reactance
gives
Fig. 2-37 shows a resistor, capacitor and in-
ductor connected in series with a source of
alternating current, the frequency of which can be
varied over a wide range. At some low frequency f=2rr!rc
the capacitive reactance will be much larger than
the resistance of R, and the inductive reactance
where f= Frequency in cycles per second
L = Inductance in henrys
will be small compared with either the reactance of
C = Capacitance in farads
C or the resistance of R. (R is assumed to be the
1T = 3.14
same at all frequencies.) On the other hand, at
some very high frequency the reactance of C will These units are inconveniently large for radio-
be very small and the reactance of L will be very frequency circuits. A formula using more appro-
large. In either case the current will be small, priate units is
because the net reactance is large. = 106
At some intermediate frequency, the reactances f 2rr(Lc
of C and L will be equal and the voltage drops
across the coil and capacitor will be equal and 180 where f = Frequency in kilohertz (kHz)
degrees out of phase. Therefore they cancel each L = Inductance in micro henrys (~)
other completely and the current flow is deter- C = Capacitance in picofarads (pF)
mined wholly by the resistance, R. At that 1T = 3.14
frequency the current has its largest possible value,
assuming the source voltage to be constant regard- Example: The resonant frequency of a series circuit
containing a 5-p.H inductor and a 35-pF capacitor is
less of frequency. A series circuit in which the
inductive and capacitive reactances are equal is said r --~a 106
27r"fIT 6.28 X -{5VE
••
to be resonant.
The principle of resonance finds its most 106 106
0.28 X 13.2 ="83= 12,050 kHz
extensive application in radio-frequency circuits.
The reactive effects associated with even small 1.0
inductances and capacitances would place drastic
limitations on rf circuit operation if it were not
possible to "cancel them out" by supplying the •
o.
,..-R='O
right amount of reactance of the opposite kind -
in other words, "tuning the circuit to resonance." ,
!r-A=ZO
Resonant Frequency
•
The frequency at which a series circuit is
resonant is that for which XL =XC . Substituting
2
J .. ~

i/. ~
ol--~
-20 -10 0
~

+10
- +%0
PIli UNf CHANGE FRON RESONANr FREQIIENC~

Fig. 2-38 - Current In a series-resonant circuit with

various values of series resistance. The values are
arbitrary and would not apply to all circuits, but
represent a typical case. It is assumed that the
reactances (at the resonant frequency) are 1000
ohms. Note that at frequencies more than plus or
Fig. 2·37 - A series circuit containing L, C and R mi nus ten percent away from the resonant
is "resonant" at the applied frequency when the frequency the current is substantially unaffected
reactance of C is equal to the reactance of L. by the resistance in the circuit.
42 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
1.0,----r--...-,-1
The formula for resonant frequency is not affected
by resistance in the circuit.

Resonance Curves
If a plot is drawn on the current flowing in the ~ o·&f.....---t-f-H'Htt-\-j----i
circuit of Fig. 2-37 as the frequency is varied (~he
applied voltage being constant) it would look like ~
one of the curves in Fig. 2-38. The shape of the ,..
I.t.JO.•

resonance curve at frequencies near resonance is i::

determined by the ratio of reactance to resistance. "~ 0.2
If the reactance of either the coil or capacitor is
of the same order of magnitude as the resistance,
the current decreases rather slowly as the ~io- -!~ 0 +10
frequency is moved in either direction away from PER CENT (!-lANGE FROM RESONANT
FREQUENCY
resonance. Such a curve is said to be broad. On the
other hand, if the reactance is considerably. larger Fig. 2-39 ..... Current in series-resonant circuits
than the resistance the current decreases rapIdly as having different Qs. In this graph the. current at
resonance is assumed to be the same In all cases.
the frequency moves away from resonance and the The lower the Q, the more slowly the current
circuit is said to be sharp. A sharp circuit will decreases as the applied frequency is moved away
respond a great deal more readily to the resonant from resonance.
frequency than to frequencies quite close to
resonance; a broad circuit will respond aim ost
equally well to a group or band of frequencies quency. Qs of 10,20,50 and 100 are shown; these
centering around the resonant frequency. values cover much of the range commonly used in
Both types of resonance curves are useful. A radio work. The unloaded Q of a circuit is
sharp circuit gives good selectivi ty - the abili ty to determined by the inherent resistances associated
respond strongly (in terms of current amplitude) at with the components.
one desired frequency and discriminate against Voltage Rise at Resonance
others. A broad circuit is used when the apparatus
must give about the same response over a band of When a voltage of the resonant frequency is
frequencies rather than to a single frequency alone. inserted in series in a resonant circuit, the voltage
that appears across either the inductor or capacitor
Q is considerably higher than the applied voltage. The
current in the circuit is limited only by the
Most diagrams of resonant circuits show only resistance and may have a relatively high value;
inductance and capacitance; no resistance is indi- however, the same current flows through the high
cated. Nevertheless, resistance is always present. At reactances of the inductor and capacitor and causes
frequencies up to perhaps 30 MHz this resistance is large voltage drops. The ratio of the reactive
mostly in the wire of the coil. Above this fre- voltage to the applied voltage is equal to the ratio
quency energy loss in the capacitor (principally in of reactance to resistance. This ratio is also the Q
the solid dielectric which must be used to form an of the circuit. Therefore, the voltage across either
insulating support for the capacitor plates) also the inductor or capacitor is equal to QE where E is
becomes a factor. This energy loss is equivalent to the voltage inserted in series. This fact accounts for
resistance. When maximum sharpness or selectivity the high voltages developed across the components
is needed the object of design is to reduce the of series-tuned antenna couplers (see chapter on
inherent resistance to the lowest possible value. "Transmission Lines").
The value of the reactance of either the
inductor or capacitor at the resonant frequency of RESONANCE IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS
a series-resonant circuit, di"ided by the series
resistance in the circuit, is called the Q (quality When a variable-frequency source of constant
factor) of the circuit, or voltage is applied to a parallel circuit of the type
shown in Fig. 2-40 there is a resonance effect
Q=X similar to that in a series circuit. However, in this
r case the "line" current (measured at the point
where Q = Quality factor indicated) is smallest at the frequency for which
X = Reactance of either coil or capacitor in the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal.
ohms At that frequency the current through L is exactly
r = Series resistance in ohms canceled by the out-of-phase current through C, so
that only the current taken by R flows in the line.
Example: The ind'uctor and capacitor in a series circuit
each have a reactance of 350 ohms at the resonant At frequencies below resonance the current
frequency. The resistance is 5 ohms. Then the Q is through L is larger than that through C, because
Q~f~~= 70 the reactance of L is smaller and that of C higher at
low frequencies; there is only partial cancellation
The effect of Q on the sharpness of resonance of the two reactive currents and the line current
of a circuit is shown by the curves of Fig. 2-39. In therefore is larger than the current taken by R
these curves the frequency change is shown in alone. At frequencies above resonance the situation
percentage above and below the resonant fre- is reversed and more current flows through ethan
 Resonance in Parallel Circuits 43
0

O.e
l. r='oo

Q=50

Fig. 240 - Circuit illustrating parallel resonance.

through L, so the line current again increases. The I ' - Q"O

current at resonance, being determined wholly by

R, will be small if R is large and large if R is small. o
~~
Q:IO
~
The resistance R shown in Fig. 240 is not -20 10- 0 +10 +20
PER CENr CNANGE FRON RESONANr FREQUENCY
necessarily an actual resistor. In many cases it will
be the series resistance of the coil "transformed" Fig. 242 - Relative impedance of parallel·resonant
to an equivalent parallel resistance (see later). It circuits with different Qs. These curves are similar
may be antenna or other load resistance coupled to those in Fig. 2-39 for current in a series-resonant
into the tuned circuit. In all cases it represents the circuit. The effect of Q on impedance is most
total effective resistance in the circuit. marked near the resonant frequency.
Parallel and series resonant circuits are quite
Example: The parallel impedance of a circuit with a coil
alike in some respects. For instance, the circuits Q of 50 and having inductive and capacitive reactance of
given at A and B in Fig. 241 will behave 300 ohms will be
identically, when an external voltage is applied, if Z, = QX = 50 X 300 = 15,000 ohms
(1) L and C are the same in both cases; and (2) R
multiplied by r, equals the square of the reactance At frequencies off resonance the impedance is
(at resonance) of either L or C. When these no longer purely resistive because the inductive and
conditions are met the two circuits will have the capacitive currents are not equal, The off-resonant
same Q. (These statements are approximate, but impedance therefore is complex, and is lower than
are quite accurate if the Q is 10 or more.) The the resonant impedance for the reasons previously
circuit at A is a series 'circuit if it is viewed from outlined,
the "inside" - that is, going around the loop The higher the Q of the circuit, the higher the
formed by L, C and r - so its Q can be found from parallel impedance. Curves showing the variation of
the ratio of X to r. impedance (with frequency) of a parallel circuit
Thus a circuit like that of Fig. 2-41A has an have just the same shape as the curves showing the
equivalent parallel impedance (at resonance) variation of current with frequency in a series
circuit. Fig. 2-42 is a set of such curves. A set of
of R = X2. X is the reactance of either the curves showing the relative response as a function
r '
inductor or the capacitor. Although R is not an of the departure from the resonant frequency
actual resistor, to the source of voltage the would be similar to Fig. 2-39. The -3 dB band-
parallel-resonant circuit "looks like" a pure resis- width (bandwidth at 0.707 relative response) is
tance of that value. It is "pure" resistance because given by
the inductive and capacitive currents are 180 Bandwidth -3 dB = folQ
degrees out of phase and are equal; thus there is no where fo is the resonant frequency and Q the
reactive current in the line. In a practical circuit circuit Q. It is also called the "half-power"
with a high-Q capacitor, at the resonant frequency bandwidth, for ease of recollection.
the parallel impedance is
Zr=QX Parallel Resonance in Low-Q Circuits
. where Zr = Resistive impedance at resonance The preceding discussion is accurate only for Qs
Q = Quality factor of inductor of 10 or more. When the Q is below 10, resonance
X = Reactance (in ohms) of either the in- in a parallel circuit having resistance in series with
ductor or capacitor the coil, as in Fig. 2-41A, is not so easily defmed.
There is a set of values for L and C that will make
the parallel impedance a pure resistance, but with
these values the impedance does not have its
maximum possible value. Another set of values for
L and C will make the parallel impedance a
maximum, but this maximum value is not a pure
resistance. Either condition could be called
"resonance," so with low-Q circuits it is necessary
to distinguish between maximum impedance and
(A) (B) resistive impedance parallel resonance. The differ-
Fig. 2-41 - Series and parallel equivalents when ence between these L and C values and the equal
the two circuits are resonant. The series resistance. reactances of a series-resonant circuit is appreciable
r. in A is replaced in B bv the equivalent parallel when the Q is in the vicinity of 5, and becomes
resistance (R = X2c/r = X2L/r) and vice versa. more marked with still lower Q values.
 44 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CI RCUITS
conditions. However, the resistance of the load to
which the tube is to deliver power usually is
considerably lower than the value required for
proper tube operation. To transform the actual
load resistance to the desired value the load may be
tapped across part of the coil, as shown in Fig.
(A) ( B)
243B. This is equivalent to connecting a higher
value of load resistance across the whole circuit,
Fig. 2-43 - The equivalent circuit of a resonant and is similar in principle to impedance transforma-
circuit delivering power to a load. The resistor R tion with an iron-core transformer. In high-
represents the load resistance. At B the load is frequency resonant circuits the impedance ratio
tapped across part of L. which by transformer does not vary exactly as the square of the turns
action is equivalent to using a higher load
resistance across the whole circuit. ratio, because all the magnetic flux lines do not cut
every turn of the coil. A desired reflected im-
Q of Loaded Circuits pedance usually must be obtained by experimental
adjustment.
In many applications of resonant circuits the When the load resistance has a very low value
only power lost is that dissipated in the resistance (say below 100 ohms) it may be connected in
of the circuit itself. At frequencies below 30 MHz series in the resonant circuit (as in Fig. 241A, for
most of this resistance is in the coil. Within limits, example), in which case it is transformed to an
increasing the number of turns in the coil increases equivalent parallel impedance as previously de-
the reactance faster than it raises the resistance, so scribed. If the Q is at least 10, the equivalent
coils for circuits in which the Q must be high are parallel impedance is
made with relatively large inductance for the
frequency. Z =X2
However, when the circuit delivers energy to a r r
load (as in the case of the resonant circuits used in where Zr = Resistive parallel impedance at reso-
transmitters) the energy consumed in the circuit nance
itself is usually negligible compared with that X = Reactance (in ohms) of either the coil
consumed by the load. The equivalent of such a or capacitor
circuit is shown in Fig. 243A, where the parallel r = Load resistance inserted in series
resistor represents the load to which power is
delivered. If the power dissipated in the load is at
least ten times as great as the power lost in the If the Q is lower than 10 the reactance will have
inductor and capacitor, the parallel impedance of to be adjusted somewhat, for the reasons given in
the resonant circuit itself will be so high compared the discussion of low-Q circuits, to obtain a
with the resistance of the load that for all practical resistive impedance of the desired value.
purposes the impedance of the combined circuit is
equal to the load resistance. Under these condi- 100

tions the Q of a parallel resonant circuit loaded by

a resistive impedance is 50
olD
Q=JL 50
L
X
where R = Parallel load resistance (ohms) • ,/
X = Reactance (ohms) ./ ~ V
Example: A resistive load of 3000 ohms is connected
0
across a resonant circuit in which the inductive and
capacitive reactances arc each 250 ohms. The circuit Q is
then L ... /
Q~1~~= 12 /
, ~
~c.;
The "effective" Q of a circuit loaded by a ~/ ' /f'< ~.

parallel resistance becomes higher when the re-

actances are decreased. A circuit loaded with a / ~ V / / 'Y ! ~;V V
~
relatively low resistance (a few thousand ohms)
must have low-reactance elements (large capaci- 0.5 ,
~() r= r=
tance and small inductance) to have reasonably 0.4 L
high Q. 0.3 V
0.2
Impedance Transformation
An important application of the parallel- O. I
V // V V/
resonant circuit is as an impedance-matching device 10 20 30 40 50 100 200 300 400500 1000 :zooo
in the output circuit of a vacuum-tube rf power INDVCTIVE REACTANCE IN DHMS
amplifier. As described in the chapter on vacuum Fig. 2-44 - Reactance chart for inductance values
tubes, there is an optimum value of load resistance commonly used in amateur bands from 1.75 to
for each type of tube and set of operating 220 MHz.
 Coupled Circuits
45
Reactance Values
The charts of Figs. 2-44 and 2-45 show re-
actance values of inductances and capacitances in IN
the range commonly used in rf tuned circuits for OUT
the amateur bands. With the exception of the 3.5-4
MHz band, limiting values for which are shown on
the charts, the change in reactance over a band for (A)
either inductors or capacitors, is small enough so
that a single curve gives the reactance with suffi-
cient accuracy for most practical purposes.

LjC Ratio IN OUT

The formula for resonant frequency of a circuit
shows that the same frequency always will be
obtained so long as the product of Land C is (6)
constant. Within this limitation, it is evident that L
can be large and C small, L small and C large, etc.
The relation between the two for a fixed frequency
is called the LjC ratio. A high-C circuit is one that
has more capacitance than "normal" for the IN OUT
frequency; a low-C circuit is one that has less than
normal capacitance. These terms depend to a
considerable extent upon the particular application
considered, and have no exact numerical meaning. (e)

LC Constants Fig. 2-46 - Three methods of circuit coupling.

It is frequently convenient to use the numerical
value of the LC constant with a number of where L = Inductance in micro henrys (j.lH)
calculations have to be made involving different C = Capacitance in picofarads (pF)
LIC ratios for the same frequency. The constant f= Frequency in megahertz
for any frequency is given by the following
equation: Example: Find the inductance required to resonate at
3650 kHz (3.65 MHz) with capacitances of 25,50,100 and
500 pF. The LC constant is
LC=.2UlO LC:fHl>~=~= 1900
j2 With 25 pF L : 1900/C: 1900/25 = 76 !.IH
50 pF L: 1900/C= 1900/50= 38!.IH
100 pF L: 1900/C= 1900/100 = 191'H
500 pF L: 1900/C = 1900/500 = 3.8!.IH

COUPLED CIRCUITS
Energy Transfer and Loading
Two circuits are coupled when energy can be
transferred from one to the other. The circuit
delivering power is called the primary circuit; the
one receiving power is called the secondary circuit.
The power may be practically all dissipated in the
secondary circuit itself (this is usually the case in
receiver circuits) or the secondary may simply act
as a medium through which the power is trans-
ferred to a load. In the latter case, the coupled
circuits may act as a radio-frequency impedance-
matching device. The matching can be accom-
plished by adjusting the loading on the secondary
and by varying the amount of coupling between
the primary and secondary.

Coupling by a Common Circuit Elemen t

I~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~ One method of coupling between two resonant
10 'ID 30 40 50 100 200 300400500 1000 2DOO circuits is through a circuit element common to
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE IN OHMS
both. The three common variations of this type of
Fig. 2-45 - Reactance chart for capacitance values coupling are shown in Fig. 2-46; the circuit
commonly used in amateur bands from 1.75 to element common to both circuits carries the
220 MHz. subscript M. At A and B current circulating in
46 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CI RCUITS

tuned-circuit coil, thus either circuit is approxi-

mately equivalent to Fig. 2-43B.
By proper choice of the number of turns on .the
untuned coil, and by adjustment of the couphng,
the parallel impedance of the tuned circuit may be
adjusted to the value required for the proper
operation of the device to which it is connected. In
any case, the maximum energy transfer possible for
a given coefficient of coupUng is obtained when
the reactance of the untuned coil is equal to the
Fig. 2-47 - Single·tuned inductively coupled resistance of its load.
circuits. The Q and parallel impedance of the tuned
circuit are reduced by coupling through an un-
L1Cl flows through the common element, and the tuned coil in much the same way as by the tapping
voltage developed across this element causes arrangement shown in Fig. 2-43B.
current to flow in L2C2. At C, CM and C2 form a
capacitive voltage divider across L1Cl, and some of Coupled Resonant Circuits
the voltage developed across L1Cl is applied across
L2C2. When the primary and secondary circuits are
If both circuits are resonant to the same both tuned, as in Fig. 2-48, the resonance effects in
frequency, as is usually the case, the value of both circuits make the operation somewhat more
coupling reactance required for maximum energy complicated than in the simpler circuits just
transfer can be approximated by the following, considered. Imagine fIrst that the two circuits are
based onLl = L2, Cl = C2 and Ql = Q2: not coupled and that each is independently tuned
to the resonant frequency. The impedance of each
(A) LM ::L1/Ql; (B) CM :: QICl; will be purely resistive. If the primary circuit is
(C) CM :: Cl/Ql connected to a source of rf energy of the resonant
The coupling can be increased by increasing the frequency and the secondary is then loosely
above coupling elements in A and C and decreasing coupled to the primary, a current will flow in the
the value in B. When the coupling is increased, the secondary circuit. In flowing through the resistance
resultant bandwidth of the combination is in- of the secondary circuit and any load that may be
creased, and this principle is sometimes applied to connected to it, the current causes a power loss.
"broad-band" the circuits in a transmitter or This power must come from the energy source
receiver. When the coupling elements in A and C through the primary circuit, and manifests itself in
are decreased, or when the coupling element in B is the primary as an increase in the equivalent
increased, the coupling between the circuits is resistance in series with the primary coil. Hence the
decreased below the critical coupling value on Q and parallel impedance of the primary circuit are
which the above approximations are based. Less decreased by the coupled secondary. As the
than critical coupling will decrease the bandwidth coupling is made greater (without changing the
and the energy transfer; the principle is often used tuning of either circuit) the coupled resistance
in receivers to improve the selectivity. becomes larger and the parallel impedance of the
primary continues to decrease. Also, as the coup-
Inductive Coupling ling is made tighter the amount of power trans-
Figs. 2-47 and 2-48 show inductive coupling, or ferred from the primary to the secondary will
coupling by means of the mutual inductance

fe,
between two coils. Circuits of this type resemble

~, LI~
the iron-core transformer, but because only a part
of the magnetic flux lines set up by one coil cut Output
the turns of the other coil, the simple relationships
between turns ratio, voltage ratio and impedance
ratio in the iron-core transformer do not hold. (A)
Two types of inductively-coupled circuits are
shown in Fig. 2-47. Only one circuit is resonant.
The circuit at A is frequently used in receivers for
coupling between amplifier tubes when the tuning
of the circuit must be varied to respond to signals
of different frequencies. Circuit B is used prin-
cipally in transmitters, for coupling a radio-
~, fe, LI~ Output

frequency amplifier to a resistive load. (8)

In these circuits the coupling between the
primary and secondary coils usually is "tight" - Fig. 2-48 - Inductively-coupled resonant circuits.
that is, the coefficient of coupling between the Circuit A is used for high-resistance loads (load
coils is large. With very tight coupling either circuit resistance much higher than the reactance of either
L2 or C2 at the resonant frequency). Circuit B is
operates nearly as though the device to which the suitable for low resistance loads (load resistance
untuned coil is connected were simply tapped much lower than the reactance of either L2 or C2
across a corresponding number of turns on the at the resonant frequency).
Coupled Circuits 47
increase to a maximum of one value of coupling, If both circuits are independently tuned to
called critical coupling, but then decreases if the resonance, the over-all selectivity will vary abou t as
coupling is tightened still more (still without shown in Fig. 249 as the coupling is varied. With
changing the tuning). loose coupling, A, the output voltage (across the
Critical coupling is a function of the Qs of the secondary circuit) is small and the selectivity is
two circuits. A higher coefficient of coupling is high. As the coupling is increased the secondary
required to reach critical coupling when the Qs are voltage also increases until critical coupling, B, is
low; if the Qs are high, as in receiving applications, reached. At this point the output voltage at the
a coupling coefficient of a few per cent may give resonant frequency is maximum but the selectivity
critical cou pling. is lower than with looser coupling. At still tighter
With loaded circuits such as are used in trans- coupling, e, the output voltage at the resonant
mitters the Q may be too low to give the desired frequency decreases, but as the frequency is varied
power transfer even when the coils are coupled as either side of resonance it is found that there are
tightly as the physical construction permits. In two "humps" to the curve, one on either side of
such case, increasing the Q of either circuit will be resonance. With very tight coupling, D, there is a
helpful, although it is generally better to increase further decrease in the output voltage at resonance
the Q of the lower-Q circuit rather than the and the "humps" are farther away from the
reverse. The Q of the parallel-tuned primary resonant frequency. Curves such as those at e and
(input) circuit can be increased by decreasing the D are called flat-topped because the output voltage
Lie ratio because, as shown in connection with does not change much over an appreciable band of
Fig. 2-43, this circuit is in effect loaded by a frequencies.
parallel resistance (effect of coupled-in resistance). Note that the off-resonance humps have the
In the parallel-tuned secondary circuit, Fig. same maximum value as the resonant output
248A, the Q may be increased by increasing the voltage at critical coupling. These humps are
Lie ratio. There will generally be no difficulty in caused by the fact that at frequencies ·off reso-
securing sufficient coupling, with practicable coils, nance the secondary circuit is reactive and couples
if the product of the Qs of the two tuned circuits is reactance as well as resistance into the primary.
10 or more. A smaller product will suffice if the The coupled resistance decreases off resonance,
coil construction permits tight coupling. and each hump represents a new condition of
critical coupling at a frequency to which the
Selectivity primary is tuned by the additional coupled-in
In Fig. 2-47 only one circuit is tuned and the reactance from the secondary.
selectivity curve will be essentially that of a single Fig. 2-50 shows the response curves for various
resonant circuit. As stated, the effective Q depends degrees of coupling between two circuits tuned to
upon the resistance connected to the untuned coil. a frequency f o .. Equal Qs are assumed in both
In Fig. 248, the selectivity is increased. It circuits, although the curves are representative if
approaches that of a single tuned circuit having a Q the Qs differ by ratios up to 1.5 or even 2 to 1. In
equalling the sum of the individual circuit Qs - if these cases, a value of Q:: iQl Q2 should be used_
the coupling is well below critical (this is not the
condition for optimum power transfer discussed Band-Pass Coupling
immediately above) and both circuits are tuned to Over-coupled resonant circuits are useful where
resonance. The Qs of the individual circuits are substantially uniform output is desired O"~T a
affected by the degree of coupling, because each continuous band of frequencies, without reaCljust-
couples resistance into the other; the tighter the ment of tuning. The width of the flat top of the
coupling, the lower the individual Qs and therefore resonance curve depends on the Qs of the two
the lower the over-all selectivity. circuits as well as the tightness of coupling; the
frequency separation between the humps will

0
(¥- Prl
f( 1\\ \
, increase, and the curve become more flat-topped,
as the Qs are lowered.
Band-pass operation also is secured by tuning
the two circuits to slightly different frequencies,
C ill t\\i\ which gives a double-humped resonance curve even

rI ~\ .\
with loose coupling. This is called stagger tuning .
To secure adequate power transfer over the fre-
j 1// A ~ \ 1\' 1\ quency band it is usually necessary to use tight
~ ~V ~ .1'.:~ r-....... coupling and experimentally adjust the circuits for
-- FREQIJENCY -
Fig. 2-49 - Showing the effect on the output
+
the desired performance.

Link Coupling
voltage from the secondary circuit of changing the A modification of inductive coupling, called
coefficient of coupling between two resonant link coupling, is shown in Fig. 2-51. This gives the
circuits independently tuned to the same frequen- effect of inductive coupling between two coils that
cy. The voltage applied to the primary is held
constant in amplitude while the ·frequency is have no mutual inductance; the link is simply a
varied, and the output voltage is measured across means for providing the mutual inductance. The
the secondary. total mutual inductance between two coils coupled
48 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CI RCUITS
o link operates more as a transmission line than as a
r--,
.......
1\ means for providing mutual inductance. In such
\ case it should be treated by the methods described
-s "- in the chapter on Transmission Lines.
r-- \
.......

5
I'
" \
\'\\
1\ '\
\ \~«'
IMPEDANCE-MATCHING CIRCUITS
Various combinations of Land C can be used
to transform one impedance level to another and
provide desirable selectivity to unwanted energy at

0
1\ \~1>('G- the same time. While the simpler matching circuits
use fewer components and are relatively easy to
1\ 1\ \~b~~ ~ design, they lack the flexibility that is possible
\ io " ,.,
-,:. \\--
with more sophisticated networks.
\~I\",I\ \ The L network shown in Fig. 2-52 is the

-30
t\ simplest possible impedance-matching circuit. It
closely resembles an ordinary resonant circuit with
r-.. 1\ the load resistance, R, either in series or parallel.
0.1 02 0.30A 0.60.81.0 2 . . 3 , , " 810 The arrangement shown in Fig. 2-52A is used when
CYCLES OFF fo X Q the desired impedance, R in , is larger than the
fo
actual load resistance, R while Fig. 2-52B is used in
Fig. 2-50 - Relative response for a single tuned cir- the opposite case. The design equations for each
cuit and for coupled circuits. For inductively- case are given in the figure, in terms of the circuit
coupled circuits (Figs. 2-46A and 2-48A), reactances. The reactances may be converted to
inductance and capacitance by means of the
k ~..lLL- formulas previously given or taken directly from
1L1L2 the charts of Figs. 2-44 and 2-45.
where M is the mutual inductance. For capacitance- The Q of an L network is found in the same
coupled circuits (Figs. 2-468 and 2-46C), way as for simple resonant circuits. That is, it is
equal to XL/R or RIN/XC in Fig. 2-52A, and to
k::~andk::~ XL/RIN or R/XC in Fig. 2-52B. The value of Q is
- CM - 1C1C2 determined by the ratio of the impedances to be
respectively. matched, and cannot be selected independently. In
the equations of Fig. 2-52 it is assumed that both
Rand Rfn are pure resistances.

by a link cannot be made as great as if the coils

themselves were coupled. This is because the Rin) R
coefficient of coupling between air-core coils is (A) Xc = .yRRin- R'
considerably less than 1, and since there are two Xc = .B..llin....
coupling points the over-all coupling coefficient is Xc
less than for any pair of coils. In practice this need

~
not be disadvantageous because the power transfer
can be made great enough by making the tuned
(B)
circuits sufficiently high-Q. Link coupling is con- Ri~R
venient when ordinary inductive coupling would be
impracticable for constructional reasons.
The link coils usually have a small number of
turns compared with the resonant-circuit'coils. The R,:> R2,Q>...jR'iR,-'
number of turns is not greatly important, because =.&
(C)RI~,
XC,
the coefficient of coupling is relatively inde- Q
pendent of the number of turns on either coil; it is L R2 xc': R2 -V'"R,--;/::-R,--
~
Q'+,-(R,/R,)
more important ,that both link coils should have X =QR,. (R, R2/XC2)
about the same inductance. The length of the link L Q2+1
between the coils is not critical if it is very small
compared with the wavelength, but if the length is
more than about one-twentieth of a wavelength the

Input r----....,3~ut
0--_---,..; '-v--' -
M Fig. 2 -52 I mpedance-matchi ng networks
adaptable to amateur work. (A) L network for
Fig. 2-51 - Link coupling. The mutual inductances matching to a lower value of resistance. (8) L
at both ends of the link are equivalent to mutual network for matching to a higher resistance value.
inductance between the tuned circuits, and serve (C) pi network. (D) Versatile circuit often used in
the same purpose. transistor- and antenna-matching networks.
 Impedance-Matching Circuits 49
The pi network shown in Fig. 2-52C is often transmission, but below which there is considerable
used in the final stage of a transmitter. Different attenuation. Its behavior is the opposite of that of
values of L are switched in for the appropriate the low-pass mter.
band of frequencies while Cl and C2 are usually A band-pass filter is one that will transmit a
continuously variable. selected band of frequencies with substantially no
In its principal application as a "tank" circuit loss, but that will attenuate all frequencies either
matching a transmission line to a power amplifier higher or lower than the desired band.
tube, the load R2 will generally have a fairly low A band-reject mter attenuates a selected band
value of resistance (up to a few hundred ohms) of frequencies, but allows others to be transmitted.
while Rl, the required load for the tube, will be of The types that amateurs frequently encounter are
the order of a few thousand ohms. commonly called traps.
Graphical solutions for practical cases are given The pass band of a filter is the frequency
in the chapter on transmitter design in the dis- spectrum that is transmitted with little or no loss.
cussion of plate tank circuits. The L and C values The transmission characteristic is not necessarily
may be calculated from the reactances or read perfectly uniform in the pass band, but the
from the charts of Figs. 2-44 and 2-45. variations usually are small.
While the pi network can be used to match a The stop band is the frequency region in which
high resistance to a low one, the circuit shown in attenuation is desired. The attenuation may vary in
Fig. 2-520 has some attractive features. With Cl the stop band, and in a simple filter usually is least
and C2 ganged and L variable, it is often used in near the cut-off frequency, rising to high values at
matching an antenna to a transmitter (Trans- frequencies considerably removed from the cut-off
match). The inductor can be tapped to provide frequency.
impedance transformation between resistances that Filters are designed. for a specific value of
are low in value, but nearly equal. This is often the purely resistive impedance (the terminating impe-
case with many transistor circuits. dance of the filter). When such an impedance is
Example: Find a circuit that will match an connected to the output terminals of the filter, the
antenna with a resistance of 1500 ohms, to a impedance looking into the input terminals has
transmitter with a resistance of 50 ohms. Using the essen tially the same value throughou t most of the
circuit shown in Fj& 2-520, we see that Q has to pass band. Simple filters do not give perfectly
be greater than...; 1500/50 _ 1 or 5.38. A Q of uniform performance in this respect, but the input
10 will satisfy this condition and a guess is made impedance of a properly-terminated filter can be
that it will also give reasonable component values. made fairly constant, as well as closer to the design
XL will be 1500/10 or 150 ohms. value, over the pass band by using m-derived filter
J
xci = 50 5.O.llilll - I or 76.9 ohms.
1500
sections.
A discussion of filter design principles is be-
XCI = 1500 (10)
101
(1 _ 50
10 (76.9)
) or 138.85 ohms. yond the scope of this Handbook, but it is not
difficult to build satisfactory filters from the
If the frequency of operation was 3.7 MHz, the circuits and formulas given in Fig. 2-53. Filter
component values would be: L = 6.4 J1I-I, circuits are built up from elementary sections as
Cl = 309 pF, and C2 = 559.3 pF. The guess was shown in the figure. These sections can be used
good since C2 is becoming large and higher values alone or, if greater attenuation and sharper cut-off
of Q would make this situation worse. (that is, more rapid rate of rise of attenuation with
Quite often the load and source have reactive frequency beyond the cut-off frequency) are re-
components along with resistance but in many quired, several sections can be connected in series.
instances the matching networks just discussed can In the low- and high-pass filters, fe represents the
still be used. The effect of these reactive com- cut-off frequency, the highest (for the low-pass) or
ponents can be compensated for by changing one the lowest (for the high-pass) frequency transmit-
of the reactive elements in the matching network. ted without attenuation. In the band-pass filter
For instance, if some capacitive reactance was designs, f1 is the low-frequency cut-off and f2 the
shunted across the 1500 ohms in the last example, high-frequency cut-off. The units for L. C, R andf
L would have to be decreased to cancel it. are microhenrys, picofarads, ohms and megaherti,
respectively.
FILTERS All of the types shown are "unbalanced" (one
A filter is an electrical circuit configuration side grounded). For use in balanced circuits (e.g.,
(network) designed to have specific characteristics 300-ohm transmission line, or push-pull audio
with respect to the transmission or attenuation of circuits), the series reactances should be equally
various frequencies that may be applied to it. divided between the two legs. Thus the balanced
There are four general types of mters: low-pass, constant-k 1T-section low-pass filter would use two
high-pass, band-reject, and band-pass. inductors of a value equal to Lkf2, while the
A low-pass mter is one that will permit all balanced constant-k 7T-section high-pass filter
frequencies below a specified one,called the cut-off would use two capacitors each equal to 2Ck.
frequency, to be transmitted with little or no loss, If several low- (or high-) pass sections are to be
but that will attenuate all frequencies above the used, it is advisable to use m-derived end sections
cu t-off frequency. on either side of a constant-k center section,
A high-pass mter similarly has a cut-off fre- although an m-derived center section can be used.
quency, above which there is little or no loss in The factor m determines the ratio of the cut-off
50 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CI RCUITS
-------------LOW-~~SS FILTERS----'"""'7'"!:t-------'~--

:r9T;
:1 Too
~;
I
-;R
I 0

m - derived TT section m - derived endsections for use

with intermt!dia~ TT section

'LL'
~
o
2

X
22
C2
0
Constant-k Tsection m - derived T section m - derived end sections for use
with inurmediate Tseciion
5 l-m 2
L = 0.318 R ( =3.18(10 )
L,=mL K C,= 4m CII
K
fc K fc R

l-m:>
L z = 4ij1LK Cz =m (k
- - - - - - - - - - - - HIGH-PASS FILTERS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

wnstani-k 1T sedwn
~ :?~"'= ~~
m-derived 7T section m-derived end sections for use
with- in.termediate TT section

~
0---1 !--...--l ~-l
2C K 2CK R~
~~-- --~~r
2L2 2L2
C2 ~
6-_ _ _~_ _ _ o_-J oTT To
Constant - k T section m - derived T section. m -derived endsection for use
with in.termt!diate Tsectiol1
_ 0.0796 R C _ 7.96 (104)
LK- fe C-~
K- feR· ,- m

Lz =;; Cz =,~:' CK L2-.!:L

- m
C = 4m C
z I-m 2 K
--------------------BANDPASS FILTERS---------------------

Three-element "sedion Three - element 7T section

¥ ¥
~t~
Tc~
o jL 0
Constont-k Tsedion 7h~e-ele~ntT~~on Three-element Tsection

Fig. 2-53 - Basic filter sections and design formulas. In the above formulas R is in ohms, C in farads, L
in henrys, andfin cycles per second.
Piezoelectric Crystals 51
frequency, fe to a frequency of high attenuation,
foo. Where only one m-derived section is used, a
value of 0.6 is generally used for m, although a
deviation of 10 to 15 percent from this value is not
too serious in amateur work. For a value of m =
0.6, foo will be 1.25fe for the low-pass filter aJ;ld
0.8fe for the high-pass filter. Other values can be
found from
,----,---:--.,..-,
m = ~1 - (t;;;) for the low-pass fIlter
2 and

m = ..J 1 - (j;) 'for the high-pass filter.

The output sides of the filters shown should be
Fig. 2-55 - Reactance and resistance vs. frequency
terminated in a resistance equal to R, and there of a circuit of the type shown in Fig. 2-54. Actual
should be little or no reactive component in the values of reactance, resistance and the separation
termination. between the series· and parallel-resonant frequen-
cies, ft, and f2' respectively, depend on the circuit
PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTALS constants.
A number of crystalline substances found in
nature have the ability to transform mechanical coupling to the crystal is through the holder plates
strain into an electrical charge, and vice versa. This between which it is sandwiched; these plates form,
property is known as the piezoelectric effect. A with the crystal as the dielectric, a small capacitor
small plate or bar cut in the proper way from a like any other capacitor constructed of two plates
quartz crystal and placed between two conducting with a dielectric between. The crystal itself is
electrodes will be mechanically strained when the equivalen t to a series-resonant circuit, and together
electrodes are connected to a source of voltage. with the capacitance of the holder forms the
Conversely, if the crystal is squeezed between two equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 2-54. At frequen-
electrodes a voltage will be developed between the cies of the order of 450 kHz, where crystals are
electrodes. widely used as resonators, the equivalent L may be
Piezoelectric crystals can be used to transform several henrys and the equivalent C only a few
mechanical energy into electrical energy, and vice hundredths of a picofarad. Although the equivalent
versa. They are used in microphones and phono- R is of the order of a few thousand ohms, the
graph pick-ups, where mechanical vibrations are reactance at resonance is so high that the Q of the
transformed into alternating voltages of corres- crystal likewise is high.
ponding frequency. They are also used in headsets A circuit of the type shown in Fig. 2-54 has a
and loudspeakers, transforming electrical energy series-resonant frequency, when viewed from the
into mechanical vibration. Crystals of Rochelle circuit terminals indicated by the arrowheads,
salts are used for these purposes. determined by Land C only. At this frequency the
circuit impedance is simply equal to R, providing
Crystal Resonators the reactance of en is large compared with R (this
Crystalline plates also are mechanical resonators is generally the case). The circuit also has a
that have natural frequencies of vibration ranging parallel-resonant frequency determined by Land
from a few thousand cycles to tens of megacycles the equivalent capacitance of C and en in series.
per second. The vibration frequency depends on Since this equivalent capacitance is smaller than C
the kind of crystal, the way the plate is cut from alone, the parallel-resonant frequency is hig~er
the natural crystal, and on the dimensions of the than the series-resonant frequency. The separatIOn
plate. The thing that makes the crystal resonator between the two resonant frequencies depends on
valuable is that it has extremely high Q, ranging the ratio of Ch to C, and when this ratio is large (as
from a minimum of about 20,000 to as high as in the case of a crystal resonator, where Ch will be
1,000,000. a few pF, in the average case) the two frequencies
Analogies can be drawn between various me- will be quite close together. A separation of a
chanical properties of the crystal and the electrical kilocycle or less at 455 kHz is typical of a quartz
characteristics of a tuned circuit. This leads to an crystal.
"equivalent circuit" for the crystal. The electrical Fig. 2-55 shows how the resistance and react-
ance of such a circuit vary as the applied frequency
is varied. The reactance passes through zero at both
Fig. 2·54 - Equivalent
resonant frequencies, bu t the resistance rises to a

q-
circuit of a crystal reso·
nator. L, C and Rare large value at parallel resonance, just as in any
the electrical equiva· tuned circuit.
lents of mechan ical Quartz crystals may be used either as simple
properties of the crys· resonators for their selective properties or as the
~ ,
tal; Ch is the capaci·
tance of the holder
plates with the crystal
frequency-controlling elements in oscillators as
described in later chapters. The series-resonant
frequency is the one principally used in the former
plate between them.
case while the more common forms of oscillator
circ~it use the parallel-resonant frequency.
52 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DETAILS

COMBINED AC AND DC
Most radio circuits are built around vacuum
tubes, and it is the nature of these tubes to require
direct current (usually at a fairly high voltage) for
their operation. They convert the direct current
into an alternating current (and sometimes the
reverse) at frequencies varying from well down in D. C.
the audio range to well up in the super-high range. Supply
The conversion process almost invariably requires
that the direct and alternating currents meet
somewhere in the circuit.
In this meeting, the ac and dc are actually Parallel Feed
combined into a single current that "pulsates" (at
the ac frequency) about an average value equal to Fig. 2-57 - Illustrating series and parallel feed.
the direct current. This is shown in Fig. 2-56. It is the tube; the rf current generated by the tube
convenient to consider that the alternating current flows tluough the dc supply to get to the tuned
is superimposed on the direct current, so we may circuit. This is series feed. It works because the
look upon the actual current as having two impedance of the dc supply at radio frequencies is
components, one dc and the other ac. so low that it does not affect the flow of rf
In an alternating current the positive and current, because the dc resistance of the coil is so
negative alternations have the same average amp- low that it does not affect the flow of direct
litude, so when the wave is superimposed on a current.
direct current the latter is alternately increased and In the circuit at the right the direct current
decreased by the same amount. There is thus no does not flow tluough the rf tuned circuit, but
average change in the direct current. If a dc instead goes to the tube tluough a second coil,
instrument is being used to read the current, the RFC (radio-frequency choke). Direct current can-
reading will be exactly the same whether or not the not flow tluoughL because a blocking capacitance,
ac is superimposed. C, is placed in the circuit to prevent it. (Without C,
However, there is actually more power in such a the dc supply would be short-circuited by the low
combination current than there is in the direct resistance of L.) On the other hand, the rf current
current alone. This is because power varies as the generated by the tube can easily flow through C to
square of the instantaneous value of the current, the tuned circuit because the capacitance of C is
and when all the instantaneous squared values are intentionally chosen to have low reactance (com-
averaged over a cycle the total power is greater pared with the impedance of the tuned circuit) at
than the dc power alone. If the ac is a sine wave the radio frequency. The rf current cannot flow
having a peak value just equal to the dc, the power tluough the dc supply because the inductance of
in the circuit is 1.5 times the dc power. An RFC is intentionally made so large that it has a
instrument whose readings are proportional to very high reactance at the radio frequency. The
power will show such an increase. resistance of RFC, however, is too low to have an
appreciable effect on the flow of direct current.
Series and Parallel Feed The two currents are thus in parallel, hence the
Fig. 2-57 shows in simplified form how dc and name parallel feed.
ac may be combined in a vacuum-tube circuit. In Either type of feed may be used for both af and
this case, it is assumed that the ac is at radio rf circuits. In parallel feed there is no dc voltage on
frequency, as suggested by the coil-and-capacitor the ac circuit, a desirable feature from the view-
tuned circuit. It is also assumed that rf current can point of safety to the operator, because the
easily flow through the dc supply; that is, the voltages applied to tubes - particularly transmit-
impedance of the supply at radio frequencies is so ting tubes - are dangerous. On the other hand, it is
small as to be negligible. somewhat difficult to make an rf choke work well
In the circuit at the left, the tube, tuned circuit, over a wide range of frequencies. Series feed is
and dc supply all are connected in series. The often preferred, therefore, because it is relatively
direct current flows tluough the rf coil to get to easy to keep the impedance between the ac circuit
and the tube low.
. . -:r-- Fig. 2-56 - Pul-
sating dc, com- Bypassing
~ IlItax
~ AC posed of an al- In the series-feed circuit just discussed, it was
~ --t-- ternating current
assumed that the dc supply had very low imped-
It I or voltage super-
ance at radio frequencies. This is not likely to be
~
~
I". ____ ____________
imposed on a
s te ady direct true in a practical power supply, partly because the
normal physical separation between the supply and
OIL-~ ~

current or volt-
rlHE age. the rf circuit would make it necessary to use rather
 Combined Ac and Dc 53
frequency where its capacitance and inductance
Fig. 2-58 - Typical have the same reactance. Similarly, every inductor
use of a bypass is in effect a parallel tuned circuit, resonant at the
capacitor and rf frequency where its inductance and distnbuted
choke in a series-
feed circuit.
capacitance have the same reactance. At frequen-
cies . well below these natural resonances, the
capacitor will act like a capacitor and the coil
will act like an inductor. Near the natural reson-
ance points, the inductor will have its highest
impedance and the capacitor will have its lowest
impedance. At frequencies above resonance, the
capacitor acts like an inductor and the inductor
long connecting wires or leads. At radio frequen- acts like a capacitor. Thus there is a limit to the
cies, even a few feet of wire can have fairly large amount of capacitance that can be used at a given
reactance - too large to be considered a really frequency. There is a similar limit to the induct-
"low-impedance" connection. ance that can be used. At audio frequencies,
An actual circuit would be provided with a capacitances measured in microfarads and induct-
bypass capacitor, as shown in Fig. 2-58. Capacitor ances measured in henrys are practicable. At low
C is chosen to have low reactance at the operating and medium radio frequencies, inductances of a
frequency, and is installed right in the circuit few mH and capacitances of a few thousand pF are
where it can be wired to the other parts with quite the largest practicable. At high radio frequencies,
short connecting wires. Hence the rf current will usable inductance values drop to a few J1H and
tend to flow through it rather than through the dc capacitances to a few hundred pF.
supply. Distributed capacitance and inductance are
important not only in rf tuned circuits, but in
To be effective, the reactance of the bypass
bypassing a choking as well. I t will be appreciated
capacitor should not be more than one-tenth of the
that a bypass capacitor that actually acts like an
impedance of the bypassed part of the circuit.
inductance, or an rf choke that acts like a
Very often the latter impedance is not known, in low-reactance capacitor, cannot work as it is
which case it is desirable to use the largest intended they should.
capacitance in the bypass that circumstances per-
mit. To make doubly sure that If current will not Grounds
flow through a non-rf circuit such as a power
supply, an rf choke may be connected in the lead Throughout this book there are frequent refer-
to the latter, as shown in Fig. 2-58. ences to ground and ground potential. When a
The same type of bypassing is used when audio connection is said to be "grounded" it does not
frequencies are present in addition to rf. Because necessarily mean that it actually goes to earth.
the reactance of a capacitor changes with frequen- What it means that an actual earth connection to
cy, it is readily possible to choose a capacitance that point in the circuit should not disturb the
that will represent a very low reactance at radio operation of the circuit in any way. The term also
frequencies but that will have such high reactance is used to indicate a "common" point in the circuit
at audio frequencies that it is practically an open where power supplies and metallic supports (such
circuit. A capacitance of .001 IlF is practically a as a metal chassis) are electrically tied together. It
short circuit for rf, for example, but is almost an is general practice, for example, to "ground" the
open circuit at audio frequencies. (The actual value filament or heater power supplies for vacuum
of capacitance that is usable will be modified by tubes. Since the cathode of a vacuum tube is a
the impedances concerned.) Capacitors also are junction point for grid and plate voltage supplies,
used in audio circuits to carry the audio frequen- and since the various circuits connected to the tube
cies around a dc supply. elements have at least one point connected to
cathode, these points also are "returned to
Distributed Capacitance and Inductance ground." Ground is therefore a common reference
point in the radio circuit.. "Ground potential"
In the discussions earlier in this chapter it was means that there is no "difference of potential" -
assumed that a capacitor has only capacitance and no voltage - between the circuit point and the
that an inductor has only inductance. Unfortunate-
ly, this is not strictly true. There is always a certain earth.
amount of inductance in a conductor of any
Single-Ended and Balanced Circuits
length, and a capacitor is bound to have a little
inductance in addition to its intended capacitance. With reference to ground, a circuit may be
Also, there is always capacitance between two either single-ended (unbalanced) or balanced. In a
conductors or between parts of the same conduct- single-ended circuit, one side of the circuit (the
or, and thus there is appreciable capacitance cold side) is connected to ground. In a balanced
between the turns of an inductance coil. circuit, the electrical midpoint is connected to
This distributed inductance in a capacitor and ground, so that the circuit has two "hot" ends each
the distributed capacitance in an inductor have at the same voltage "above" ground.
important practical effects. Actually, every capacit- Typical single-ended and balanced circuits are
or is in effect a series-tuned circuit, resonant at the shown in Fig. 2-59. Rf circuits are shown in the
54 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CI RCUITS
by enclosing one or both of the circuits in
grounded low-resistance metallic containers, called
shields. The electric field from the circuit com-
ponents does not penetrate the shield. A metallic
plate, called a baffle shield, inserted between two
components also may suffice to prevent electro-
SINGLE-ENDED BALANCED static coupling between them. It should be large
enough to make the components invisible to each
other.
Similar metallic shielding is used at radio
frequencies to prevent magnetic coupling. The
shielding effect for magnetic fields increases with
frequency and with the conductivity and thickness
S'NGLE-ENDED BALANCED OUTPUT
of the shielding material.
A closed shield is required for good magnetic
Fig. 2·59 - Single-ended and balanced circuits. shielding; in some cases separate shields, one about
each coil, may be required. The baffle shield is
rather ineffective for magnetic shielding, although
upper row, while iron-core transformers (such as it will give partial shielding if placed at right angles
are used in power-supply and audio circuits) are to the axes of, and between, the coils to be
shown in the lower row. The rf circuits may be shielded from each other.
balanced either by connecting the center of the Shielding a coil reduces its inductance, because
coil to ground or by using a "balanced" or part of its field is canceled by the shield. Also,
"split-stator" capacitor and connecting its rotor to there is always a small amount of resistance in the
rf ground. In the iron-core transformer, one or shield, and there is therefore an energy loss. This
both windings may be tapped at the center of the loss raises the effective resistance of the coil. The
winding to provide the ground connection. decrease in inductance and increase in resistance
lower the Q of the coil, but the reduction in
Shielding
inductance and Q will be small if the spacing
Two circuits that are physically near each other between the sides of the coil and the shield is at
usually will be coupled to each other in some least half the coil diameter, and if the spacing at
degree even though no coupling is intended. The the ends of the coil is at least equal to the coil
metallic parts of the two circuits form a small diameter. The higher the conductivity of the shield
capacitance through which energy can be transfer- material, the less the effect on the inductance and
red by means of the electric field. Also, the Q. Copper is the best material, but aluminum is
magnetic field about the coil or wiring of one quite satisfactory.
circuit can couple that circuit to a second through For good magnetic shielding at audio frequen-
the latter's coil and wiring. In many cases these cies it is necessary to enclose the coil in a container
unwanted couplings must be prevented if the of high-permeability iron or steel. In this case the
circuits are to work properly. shield can be quite close to the coil without
Capacitive coupling may readily be prevented harming its performance.

UHF CIRCUITS
RESONANT LINES For these reasons it is common practice to
In resonant circuits as employed at the lower utilize resonant sections of transmission line as
frequencies it is possible to consider each of the tuned circuits at frequencies above 100 MHz or so.
reactance components as a separate entity. The

~i ~'(Q -A--("
jlt
fact that an inductor has a certain amount of
self-capacitance, as well as some resistance, while a -el' "'ij"
p'"
lA
capacitor also possesses a small self-inductance, can
usually be disregarded. -."'(>J if· --""'(>:I ~'(>J
At the very-high and ultrahigh frequencies it is
not readily possible to separate these components. (A) -
Also, the connecting leads, which at lower frequen-
cies would serve merely to join the capacitor and

33- '
coil, now may have more inductance than the coil
itself. The required inductance coil may be no
more than a single turn of wire, yet even this single
turn may have dimensions comparable to a wave-
length at the operating frequency. Thus the energy
1M
v.l. 1:"
,'
::
.-
ourCIJ

cw r (2j
: l ...
INli3=-' "
~::"{2J
in the field surrounding the "coil" may in part be T

radiated. At a sufficiently high frequency the loss Fig. 2-60 - Equivalent coupling circuits for
by radiation may represent a major portion of the parallel-line, coaxial-line and conventional resonant
total energy in the circuit. circuits.
Waveguides 55
A quarter-wavelength line, or any odd multiple
thereof, shorted at one end and open at the other
exhibits large standing waves, as described in the
section on transmission lines. When a voltage of the
frequency at which such a line is resonant is
applied to the open end, the response is very
similar to that of a parallel resonant circuit. The
equivalent relationships are shown in Fig. 2.Q0. At
frequencies off resonance the line displays qualities
comparable with the inductive and capacitive
reactances of a conventional tuned circuit, so Fig. 2-61 Methods of tuning coaxial resonant
sections of transmitision line can be used in much lines.
the same manner as inductors and capacitors.
To minimize radiation loss the two conductors
of a parallel-conductor line should not be more effects from being evident outside the guide. The
than about one-tenth wavelength apart, the spacing energy is injected at one end, either through
being measured between the conductor axes. On capacitive or inductive coupling or by radiation,
the other hand, the spacing shoUld not be less than and is received at the other end. The waveguide
about twice the conductor diameter because of then merely confines the energy of the fields,
"proximity effect," which causes eddy currents which are propagated through it to the receiving
and an increase in loss.' Above 300 MHz it is end by means of reflections against its inner walls.
difficult to satisfy both these requirements simulta- Analysis of waveguide operation is based on the
neously, and the radiation from an open line tends assumption that the guide material is a perfect
to become excessive, reducing the Q. In such case conductor of electricity. Typical distributions of
the coaxial type of line is to be preferred, since it is electric and magnetic fields in a rectangular guide
inherently shielded. are shown in Fig. 2-63. It will be observed that the
Representative methods for adjusting coaxial intensity of the electric field is greatest (as indi-
lines to resonance are shown in Fig. 2.Q 1. At the cated by closer spacing of the lines of force) at the
left, a sliding shorting disk is used to reduce the center along the x dimension, Fig. 2.Q3(B), dimin-
effective length of the line by altering the position ishing to zero at the end walls. The latter is a
of the short-circuit. In the center, the same effect necessary condition, since the existence of any
is accomplished by using a telescoping tube in the electric field parallel to the walls at the surface
end of the inner conductor to vary its length and would cause an infmite current to flow in a perfect
thereby the effective length of the line. At the conductor. This represents an impossible situation.
right, two possible methods of using parallel-plate
capacitors are illustrated. The arrangement with Modes of Propagation
the loading capacitor at the open end of the line Fig. 2-63 represents a relatively simple distribu-
has the greatest tuning effect per unit of capaci- tion of the electric and magnetic fields. There is in
tance; the alternative method, which is equivalent general an infinite number of ways in which the
to tapping the capacitor down on the line, has less fields can arrange themselves in a guide so long as
effect on the Q of the circuit. Lines with capacitive there is no upper limit to the frequency to be
"loading" of the sort illustrated will be shorter, transmitted. Each field configuration is called a
physically, than unloaded lines resonant at the mode. All modes may be separated into two
same frequency. general groups. One group, designated TM (trans-
Two methods of tuning parallel-conductor lines verse magnetic), has the magnetic field entirely
are shown in Fig. 2-62. The sliding short-circuiting transverse to the direction of propagation, but has
strap can be tightened by means of screws and nuts a component of electric field in that direction. The
to make good electrical contact. The parallel-plate other type, designated TE (transverse electric) has
capacitor in the second drawing may be placed the electric field entirely transverse, but has a
anywhere along the line, the tuning effect becom- component of magnetic field in the direction of
ing less as the capacitor is located nearer the propagation. TM waves are sometimes called E
shorted end of the line. Although a low-capaci- waves, and TE waves are sometimes called H waves,
tance variable capacitor of ordinary construction but the TM and TE designations are preferred.
can be used, the circular-plate type shown is The particular mode of transmission is identi-
symmetrical and thus does not unbalance the line. fied by the group letters followed by two subscript
It also has the further advantage that no insulating

: »~
material is required.

WAVEGUIDES
A waveguide is a conducting tube through

=========1~
which energy is transmitted in the form of electro-
magnetic waves. The tube is not considered as
carrying a current in the same sense that the wires
of a two-conductor line do, but rather as a
:q:::::$
boundary which confines the waves to the enclosed Fig. 2-62 - Methods of tuning parallel-type
space. Skin effect prevents any electromagnetic resonant lines.
 56 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS

I~ ~
Cavity Resonators
II·F.POTENTIAL
ALONG GUIDE
(A) Another kind of circuit particularly applicable
at wavelengths of the order of centimeters is the
II fit IIl1n 1 III 1111 II I I cavity resonator, which may be looked upon as a
section of a waveguide with the dimensions chosen
I. .t j
so that waves of a given length can be maintained
inside.
Typical shapes used for resonators are the
cylinder, the rectangular box and the sphere, as
shown in Fig. 2-64. The resonant frequency de-
(B) pends upon the dimensions of the cavity and the
I I t If 1111 fI f I
I---x---j
mode of oscillation of the waves (comparable to
the transmission modes in a waveguide). For the
lowest modes the resonant wavelengths are as
follows:

I~
MAGNET/CINTENSITY~
ALONG OUIDE
Cylinder
Square box.
2.61r
1.411
Sphere . • .
(c) 2.28r

The resonant wavelengths of the cylinder and

square box are independent of the height when the
1-----.£ - - - - - 1 height is less than a half wavelength. In other
modes of oscillation the height must be a multiple
of a half wavelength as measured inside the cavity.
Fig. 2-63 - Field distribution in a rectangular A cylindrical cavity can be tuned by a sliding
waveguide. The TEl 0 mode of propagation is shorting disk when operating in such a mode.
depicted. ' Other tuning methods include placing adjustable
tuning paddles or "slugs" inside the cavity so that
the standing-wave pattern of the electric and
numerals; for example, TEl ()o TM 1 1 etc. The magnetic fields can be varied.
number of possible modes increases with'frequency A form of cavity resonator in practical use is
for a given size of guide. There is only one possible the re-entrant cylindrical type shown in Fig. 2-65.
mode (called the dominant mode) for the lowest In construction it resembles a concentric line
frequency that can be transmitted. The dominant closed at both ends with capacitive loading at the
mode is the one generally used in practical work. top, but the actual mode of oscillation may differ
considerably from that occuring in coaxial lines.
Waveguide Dimensions The resonant frequency of such a cavity depends
In the rectangular guide the critical dimension upon the diameters of the two cylinders and the
is x in Fig. 2-63; this dimension must be more than distance d between the cylinder ends.
one-half wavelength at the lowest frequency to be Compared with ordinary resonant circuits, cav-
transmitted. In practice, the y dimension usually is ity resonators have extremely high Q. A value of Q
made about equal to 1/2 x to avoid the possibility of the order of 1000 or more is readily obtainable,
of operation at other than the dominant mode. and Q values of several thousand can be secured
Other cross-sectional shapes than the rectangle with good design and construction.
can be used, the most important being the circular
pipe. Much the same considerations apply as in the
rectangular case.
Wavelength formulas for rectangular and circu-

b£;~J!
lar guides are given in the following table, where x
is the width of a rectangular guide and r is the
radius of a circular guide. All figures are in terms of
the dominant mode.
SQUARE PRISM CYLINDER

Rectangular Circular
Cutoff wavelength 2x 3.41r
Longest wavelength trans-
mitted with little attenu-
ation 1.6r 3.2r SPHERE
Shortest wavelength before
next mode becomes pos-
sible 1. Ix 2.8r Fig. 2-64 - Forms of cavity resonators.
Modulation, Heterodyning, and Beats 57

CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW
;
@=§ -----
----
.- ... - .....
-~~--- ... -~ .....
, . . . ...

(A) (B)
Fig. 2-65 - Re-entrant cylindrical cavity resonator.
Fig. 2-66 - Coupling to waveguides and resonators.
Coupling to Waveguides and Cavity
Resonators
which maximum coupling will be secured depends
Energy may be introduced into or abstracted upon the particular mode of propagation in the
from a waveguide or resonator by means of either guide or cavity; the coupling will be maximum
the electric or magnetic field. The energy transfer when the coupling device is in the most intense
frequently is through a coaxial line, two methods field.
of coupling to which are shown in Fig. 2-66. The Coupling can be varied by turning the probe or
probe shown at A is simply a short extension of loop through a 90-degree angle. When the probe is
the inner conductor of the coaxial line, so oriented perpendicular to the electric lines the coupling will
that it is parallel to the electric lines of force. The be minimum; similarly, when the plane of the loop
loop shown at B is arranged so that it encloses is parallel to the magnetic lines the coupling will
some of the magnetic lines of force. The point at have its minimum value.

MODULATION, HETERODYNING, AND BEATS

Since one of the most widespread uses of radio circuit fit any instant. Figs. 2-67A and B show two
frequencies is the transmission of speech and such frequencies, and C shows the resultant. The
music, it would be very convenient if the audio amplitude of the I-MHz current is not affected by
spectrum to be transmitted could simply be shifted the presence of the I-kHz current, but the axis is
up to some radio frequency, transmitted as radio shifted back and forth at the I-kHz rate. An
waves, and shifted back down to audio at the attempt to transmit such a combination as a radio
receiving point. Suppose the audio signal to be wave would result in only the radiation of the
transmitted by radio is a pure IOOO-hertz tone, and
we wish to transmit the signal at I MHz (1,000,000
hertz. One possible way to do this might be to add
1.000 MHz and 1 kHz together, thereby obtaining II .
a radio frequency of 1.001 MHz. No simple
method for doing this directly has been devised,
TiN ~4-----
IS fllquency

although the effect is obtained and used in

"single-sideband transmission."
eEl
When two different frequencies are present
simultaneously in an ordinary circuit (specifically,
one in which Ohm's Law holds) each behaves as
though the other were not there. The total or
resultant voltage (or current) in the circuit will be
the sum of the instantaneous values of the two at
every instant. This is because there can be only one
value of current or voltage at any single point in a

Fig. 2-67 - Amplitude-vs.-time and amplitude-vs.-

frequency plots of various signals. (A) 1-1/2 cycles
of an audio signal, assumed to be 1000 hz in this
example. (B) A radio-frequency signal, assumed to
be 1 MHz; 1500 hertz are completed during the
same 'time as the 1-1/2 cycles in A, so they cannot
be shown accurately. (C) The signals of A and Bin
the same circuit; each maintains its own identity.
(D) The signals of A and B in a circuit where the
amplitude of A can control the amplitude of B.
The 1-MHz signal is modulated by the 1000-hz
signal.
E, F, G and H show the spectrums for the
signals in A, B, C and D, respectively. Note the new
frequencies in H, resulting from the modulation
process. (H)
58 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
I-MHz frequency, since the I-kHz frequency re-
tains its identity as an audio frequency and will not
radiate.
There are devices, however, which make it
possible for one frequency to control the ampli-
tude of the other. If, for example, a I-kHz tone is
used to control a I-MHz signal, the maximum rf
output will be obtained when the I-kHz signal is at
the peak of one alternation and the minimum will
occur at the peak of the next alternation. The
process is called amplitude modulation, and the
effect is shown in Fig. 2-67D. The resultant signal
is now entirely at radio frequency, but with its
amplitude varying at the modulation rate (1 kHz).
Receiving equipment adjusted to receive the I-MHz
rf signal can reproduce these changes in amplitude,
and reveal what the audio signal is, through a
process called detection.
It might be assumed that the only radio
frequency present in such a signal is the original
1.000 MHz, but such is not the case. Two new
frequencies have appeared. These are the sum (1.00
+ .001) and the difference (1.000 - .001) of the
two, and thus the radio frequencies appearing after
modulation are 1.001, 1.000 and .999 MHz.
When an audio frequency is used to control the
amplitude of a radio frequency, the process is
generally called "amplitude modulation," as men-
tioned, but when a radio frequency modulates
another radio frequency it is called heterodyning.
The processes are identical. A general term for the
sum and difference frequencies generated during
heterodyning or amplitude modulation is "beat
frequencies," and a more specific one is upper side
frequency, for the sum, and lower side frequency
for the difference.
In the simple example, the modulating signal
was assumed to be a pure tone, but the modulating
signal can just as well be a band of frequencies
making up speech or music. In this case, the side
frequencies are grouped into the upper sideband
and the lower sideband. Fig. 2-67H shows the side
frequencies appearing as a result of the modulation
process.
Amplitude modulation (a·m) is not the only
possible type nor is it the only one in use. Such
signal properties as phase and frequency can also
be modulated. In every case the modulation
process leads to the generation of a new set (or Fig. 2-68 - Actual oscilloscope photograph show·
sets) of radio frequencies symmetrically disposed ing the signals described in the text and shown in
about the original radio (carrier) frequency. the drawings of Fig. 2·67.

TOROIDAL INDUCTORS AND TRANSFORMERS

With many builders, miniaturization is the attribute when selectivity in an important con-
watchword. This is especially true when working sideration in equipment performance. Ordinarily,
with solid-state and etched-circuit projects. One of air-wound inductors which provide comparable Q
the deterrents encountered in designing small- are many times larger than are their toroidal
volume equipment is the squeezing in of bulky kinsmen. The correct type of core material must be
inductors - slug-tuned or air wound - into a used in order to realize the best possible Q at a
compact assembly. Toroids offer a practical solu- particular frequency.
tion to the problem of mass. The good points do Minimum interaction between the tuned stages
not end there, however; toroidal-wound inductors of a given piece of equipment is usually of
not only fit into small places, they offer exception- paramoun t importance to the builder. Here is
ally high values of tuned-circuit Q, a definite where the toroid performs well; a toroidal inductor
Toroids 59
is self-shielding. That is to say, its magnetic flux is not provide a high-Q inductor. In fact, the wrong
very nearly all contained within the coil itself. This material can completely ruin a tuned circuit. If too
feature cuts down stray inductive coupling be- large a core (physical size) is used in the upper hf
tween adjacent circuits and permits the toroid to region, or at vhf, it may be impossible to wind a
be mounted physically close to other components suitable coil on the toroid because so little wire
- including the chassis and cabinet walls - without will be required to provide the needed value of
impairment of its efficiency. The latter is not true inductance. For this reason, the smaller cores, and
of ordinary rf or af inductors. Because the flux is those with low permeability ratings, should be used
contained within the toroid coil, tighter coupling in the upper frequency range.
between windings, when a primary and secondary It is helpful to have some knowledge of the
are used, is possible. core types offered by the various companies before
The high permeability of ferrite toroid cores ordering a toroid for a particular project. Indiana
permits the user to employ fewer turns in the General offers a specification sheet for each of
tuned-circuit inductor. With fewer turns of wire their core materials (see Table I). Each sheet lists
required, larger wire gauges can be used, with a such data as permeability, flux density,residual
resultant reduction in heating and [2R losses. This magnetism, usable frequency range, and the loss
feature is especially beneficial in transistorized factor at a specified frequency. Bulletin lOlA lists
equipment where high collector currents are fre- the physical dimensions of their cores and also
quently required. gives the cross-sectional area of each model in
It is best to understand that the word "to- square inches. With this information one can
roidal" refers to a physical format - doughnut calculate the required number of turns for a
shape - rather than to a specific device or type of specific inductance value, using a selected core size.
material. Toroid cores come in a host of sizes, are With the fOfegoing information at our disposal, the
manufactured by many firms (each with a different formula given here will enable the constructor to
identifying code for the type of core material determine the inductance of a toroid when the
used), and are fashioned from a wide variety of number of turns is known:
materials. Some cores are made by rolling up great
lengths of thin silicon steel tape (Hypersil) into a L = (0.0046 J.JN2h [aglo OD ) /1H
toroidal form. Such cores are held together by lD
means of plastic covers, or are wrapped with glass WhereL = inductance
tape which holds the core intact while insulating it J1. = permeability of the material
from the wire which is wound on it. This type of N = number of turns
core is commonly used for low-frequency power OD =outer diameter of core (cm.)
applications such as dc-to-dc, and dc-to-ac con- ID = inner diameter of core (cm.)
verters. For audio and rf applications powdered h =height of core (in cm.)
iron and ferrite (a newer type of ceramic) material
are generally used. Ferrite acts like an insulating To obtain dimensions in centimeters, mUltip(y
material, making it unnecessary in all instances to inches by 2.54. The inductance nomogram given
place a layer of tape between the core and the in Fig. 2-70 can be used when designing toroidal
winding of the transformer or inductor. inductors which are to be wound on the standard
cores offered by Indiana General.
Choosing a Core
Specific Applications
There is no simple rule that can be used for
selecting a toroid core for a particular job. Many Because toroids can be used in circuits that
things must be considered notably the intended handle anything from micro watts to kilowatts,
frequency of operation, the operating frequency they can be put to good use in almost any
tuned-circuit or transformer application.
versus the physical size and permeability of the
Most amateurs are familiar with balun trans-
core, and whether or not the core will be used in a
formers, having used them at one time or another
small- or large-signal tuned circuit. The higher the
permeability rating of the material, the fewer will in their antenna systems. Toroids find widespread
use as balun transformers because they provide a
be the number of turns required to obtain a
broad-band transformer that is compact and offers
specific inductance value. For example: if a core of
good power-transfer efficiency. An article which
certain size has a permeability rating of 400, it
describes how to contruct homemade toroidal
might require, say, 25 turns of wire to give an
baluns was published in August 1964 QST. Core
inductance of 10 ~. Therefore, where minimum
fiR loss in the winding is desirable, the higher
size with respect to four different power levels -
150 to 1000 watts - is treated in the article.
permeability is better. A core with a larger cross-
Toroidal inductors are useful when applied to
sectional area (computed from inside diameter,
circuits in which a high degree of selectivity is
outside diameter, and core height) will reduce the
desired. A high-Q toroidal tuned circuit in the rf
required number of turns also. These are but a few
and mixer stages of a communications receiver can
possibilites to consider when selecting a core. QI
aid image rejection more than is possible with
material is rated for rf applications up to 10 MHz,
conventional slug-tuned inductors.
Q2 stock is good to 50 MHz, and Q3 ferrite is rated
to 225 MHz. These three ranges handle most rf lQl, Q2, and Q3 designations used here are
needs. 1 If the improper material is chosen for a those assigned to cores made by Indiana General
Corp., Keasbey, NJ 08832. Other manufactures of
given frequency of operation, the core material will ferramic materials use different identifying codes.
 -----------------

60 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS

Another application for toroidal inductors is in surface is a change in overall circuit capacitance,
transistorized transmitting and receiving equipment which in turn slightly affects the resonant fre-
- and in some vacuum-tube circuits - where quency of the toroidal tuned circuit. Because fewer
broad-band input, interstage, or output rf trans- turns of wire are needed for a toroid coil than for
formers are desired. Toroids can be used in such ordinary ai-wound or slug-tuned inductors, the
circuits to provide good efficiency and small assembly can be made extremely compact - a
physical size. The broad-band transformer requires much sought-after feature in miniaturized equip-
no tuning controls when properly designed for a ment.
given frequency range - a particularly useful Inductors and transformers which are wound
feature in mobile equipment. It is not difficult to on toroid cores are subject to the same general
design a broad-band transformer 2 that will work conditions that are common to the laminated
over a range of 3 to 30 MHz, but one must take iron-core types treated earlier in this chapter. A
precautions against the radiation of harmonic sufficient amount of cross-sectional area is nec-
energy when using this kind of transformer in the essary for a given amount of power in order to
final stage of a transmitter. prevent saturation and heating. Either of these
Compact equipment calls for the close spacing conditions will seriously impair the efficiencyu a
of component parts, often requiring that the tuned circuit. When toroids are used in circuits where
circuits of several stages be in close physical high pk-pk rf voltage is (or can be) present, the
proximity. This sort of requirement often leads to core should be wrapped with glass tape or some
electrical instability of one or more of the stages, insulating material of similar characteristics. Tef-
because of unwanted interstage coupling, thus lon-insulated wire should be used to prevent
impairing the performance of the equipment. flashover between turns, or between the winding
Because the toroidal transformer or inductor is and the core.
self-shielding, it is possible to place the tuned Additional design data and information on
circuits much closer together than when using making one's own toroid cores are given in,
conventional inductors. The self-shielding feature "Toroidal-Wound Inductors," QST for January
also makes it possible to mount a toroid against a 1968, page 11. Industrial data flies and application
circuit board, or against a metal chassis or cabinet notes are available from the manufacturers of
wall, without significantly affecting their Q. ferrite products. 3
Normally, the most noticeable effect of moving a 3Indiana General Corp.. Electronics Dl v.1
toroid closer to or farther away from a metal Ferrites, Keasbey, NJ 08832. Also, Ferroxcube
Corp. of America, Saugerties, NY 12477 and
2CL. Ruthroff "Some Broadband Trans- Arrudon Associates, 12033 Otsego St., N. Holly-
formers", Proc. IREs Vol. 47, p. 137, Aug. 1959. wood, CA 91607.

1H
500
CF·125

100mH
50
CF·114
CF·l
~21
10mH , . CF·lll
" CH08
,. CF·117

Fig. 2-69 - Nomograph which can be

5
,. .; CF·I02

used to calculate the nu mber of turns ,.

10 /'

... ,.
required for a specific inductance 1mH
once the type of core (I ndiana Gen· 20 Cf·lOl
500

1
eral) is known. Draw a line of in- Tl .;
CF·1.20
ductance, L through the marker o~ Te7 40

which indicates the core material 100 J.lH 60

being used, Q1, Q2, Q3, etc. Com· QI kA 80
100
plete this line until it intersects the 50 Q2
CF·llB
Reference line. Now draw a line from CF·1l9
/<3 200
the intersect point on the Reference Ferramic
Ii ne to the catalog nu mber Ii ne of the 10J.lH Calalog
Number
nomogram (CF number of the core). 5
400
This line will cross the Number of 600
Turns (N) line, indicating the number BOO
1000
of turns needed. Example shown Number 01 Turns
15-turn winding required for 10J.lH 1 J.lH N
inductance on CF-114 core of Q2 0.5
material. (Nomogram courtesy of
Indiana General.)
0.1 J.lH Reference
Inductance
L
Chapter 3

Vacuum-Tube Principles I
CURRENT IN A VACUUM
The outstanding difference between the
vacuum tube and most other electrical devices is
that the electric current does not flow through a
conductor but through empty space - a vacuum.
This is only possible when "free" electrons - that
is, electrons that are not attached to atoms - are
somehow introduced into the vacuum. Free
electrons in an evacuated space will be attracted to
a po~itively charged object within the same space,
or will be repelled by a negatively charged object.
The movement of the electrons under the
attraction or repulsion of such charged objects
constitutes the current in the vacuum. Fig. 3-1 - Conduction by thermionic emission in a
The most practical way to introduce a vacuum tube. The A battery is used to heat the
cathode to a temperature that will cause it to emit
sufficiently large number of electrons into the el~ctrons. The B battery makes the plate positive
evacuated space is by thermionic emission. WIth respect to the cathode, thereby causing the
emitted electrons to be attracted to the plate.
Thermionic Emission Electrons captured by the plate flow back through
the B battery to the cathode.
If a piece of metal is heated to incandescence in
a vacuum, electrons near the surface are given
enough energy of motion to fly off into the space charge repels those electrons nearest the
surrounding space. The higher the temperature, the cathode, tending to make them fall back on it.
greater the number of electrons emitted. The name Now suppose a second conductor is introduced
for the emitting metal is cathode. into the vacuum, but not connected to anything
If the cathode is the only thing in the vacuum, else inside the tube. If this second conductor is
most of the emitted electrons stay in its immediate given a positive charge by connecting a voltage
vicinity, forming a "cloud" about the cathode. The source between it and the cathode, as indicated in
reason for this is that the electrons in the space, Fig. 3-1, electrons emitted by the cathode are
being negative electricity, for a negative charge attracted to the positively charged conductor. An
(space charge) in the region of the cathode. The electric current then flows through the circuit
formed by the cathode, the charged conductor,
and the voltage source. In Fig. 3-1 this voltage
source is a battery ("B" battery); a second battery
("A" battery) is also indicated for heating the
cathode to the proper operating temperature.
The positively charged conductor is usually a
metal plate or cylinder (surrounding the cathode)
and is called an anode or plate. Like the other
working parts of a tube, it is a tube element or
electrode. The tube shown in Fig. 3-1 is a
two-element or two-electrode tube, one element
being the cathode and the other the anode or plate.
Since electrons are negative electricity, they
will be attracted to the plate only when the plate is
positive with respect to the cathode. If the plate is
given a negative charge, the electrons will be
repelled back to the cathode and no current will
flow. The vacuum tube therefore can conduct only
in one direction.

Cathodes
Transmitting tubes are in the back and center rows.
Receiving tubes are in the front row (I. to r.): Before electron emission can occur, the cathode
miniature, pencil, planar triode (two), Nuvistor and must be heated to a high temperature. However, it
1-inch diameter cathode-ray tube. is not essential that the heating current flow

61
62 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
attracted to the plate becomes larger. That is, the
plate current increases with increasing plate
voltage.
Fig. 3-3 shows a typical plot of plate current vs.
plate voltage for a two-element tube or diode. A
curve of this type can be obtained with the circuit
shown, if the plate voltage is increased in small
steps and a current reading taken (by means of the
current-indicating instrument - a milliammeter) at
V<l (6) (el (0) each voltage. The plate current is zero with no
plate voltage and the curve rises until a saturation
Fig. 3-2 - Types of cathode construction. Directly point is reached. This is where the positive charge
heated cathodes or "filaments" are shown at A, B, on the plate has substantially overcome the space
and C. The inverted V filament is used in small
receiving tubes, the M in both receiving and charge and almost all the electrons are going to the
transmitting tubes. The spiral filament is a trans- plate. At higher voltages the plate current stays at
mitting tube type. The indirectly heated cathodes
at D and E show two types of heater construction,
one a twisted loop and the other bunched heater
wires. Both types tend to cancel the magnetic
fields set up by the current through the heater.

through the actual material that does the emitting;

the filament or heater can be electrically separate
from the emitting cathode. Such a cathode is called
indirectly heated, while an emitting filament is
called a directly heated cathode. Fig. 3-2 shows
both types in the forms which they commonly
take.
Much greater electron emission can be obtain- U\] U
ed, at relatively low temperatures, by using special
cathode materials rather than pure metals. One of
these is thoriated tungsten or tungsten in which
thorium is dissolved. Still greater efficiency is
achieved in the oxide-coated cathode, a cathode in
which rare-earth oxides form a coating over a metal
base.
+c
n 0 0
Fig. 3-4 - Rectification in a diode. Current flows
only when the plate is positive with respect to the
cathode. so that only half-cycles of current flow
Although the oxide-coated cathode has the through the load resistor, R.
highest efficiency, it can be used successfully only
in tubes that operate at rather low plate voltages.
Its use is therefore confined to receiving-type tubes practically the same value.
and to the smaller varieties of transmitting tubes. The plate voltage multiplied by the plate
The thoriated filament, on the other hand, will current is the power input to the tube. In a circuit
operate well in high-voltage tubes. like that of Fig. 3-3 this power is all used in
heating the plate. If the power input is large, the
Plate Current plate temperature may rise to a very high value
(the plate may become red or even white hot). The
If there is only a small positive voltage on the heat developed in the plate is radiated to the bulb
plate, the number of electrons reaching it will be of the tube, and in turn radiated by the bulb to the
small because the space charge (which is negative) surrounding air.
prevents those electrons nearest the cathode from
being attracted to the plate. As the plate voltage is RECTI FI CATION
increased, the effect of the space charge is
increasingly overcome and the number of electrons Since current can flow through a tube in only
one direction, a diode can be used to change
alternating current into direct current. It does this
by permitting current to flow only when the anode
Saturation is positive with respect to the cathode. There is no
Point
current flow when the plate is negative.
Fig. 3-4 shows a representative circuit. Alternat-
ing voltage from the secondary of the transformer,
T, is applied to the diode tube in series with a load
resistor, R. The voltage varies as is usual with ac,
1I'lCrea!e~ but current flows through the tube and R only
Plat. Votta,. when the plate is positive with respect to the
cathode - that is, during the half-cycle when the
Fig. 3-3 - The diode, or two-element tube, and a upper end of the transformer winding is positive.
typical curve showing how the plate current During the negative half-cycle there is simply a gap
depends upon the voltage applied to the plate. in the current flow. This rectified alternating
Vacuum-Tube Amplifiers 63
current therefore is an intermittent direct current. to be developed in a load in order to serve a useful
The load resistor, R, represents the actual purpose. Also, to be efficient most of the power
circuit in which the rectified alternating current must do useful work in the load and not be used in
does work. All tubes work with a load of one type heating the plate of the tube. Thus the voltage
or another; in this respect a tube is much like a drop across the load should be much higher than
generator or transformer. A circuit that did not the drop across the diode.
provide a load for the tube would be like a With the diode connected as shown in Fig. 34,
short-circuit across a transformer; no useful the polarity of the current through the load is as
purpose would be accomplished and the only result indicated. If the diode were reversed, the polarity
would be the generation of heat in the transformer. of the voltage developed across the load R would
So it is with vacuum tubes; they must cause power be reversed.

VACUUM-TUBE AMPLIFIERS

TRIODES
Grid Control
If a third element - called the control grid, or
simply grid - is inserted between the cathode and
plate as in Fig. 3-5, it can be used to control the
effect of the space charge. If the grid is given a
positive voltage with respect to the cathode, the
positive charge will tend to neutralize the negative
space charge. The result is that, at any selected
plate voltage, more electrons will flow to the plate
than if the grid were not present. On the other
hand, if the grid is made negative with respect to
• I
•
the cathode the negative charge on the grid will
add to the space charge. This will reduce the • I II
II
number of electrons that can reach the plate at any 0

selected plate voltage. I

The grid is inserted in the tube to control the • / / / / / /
.
..,"Ii r~ / I 7 7
~
space charge and not to attract electrons to itself,
so it is made in the form of a wire mesh or spiral. • 1/1/1/ y-~ ~ ~
Electrons then can go through the open spaces in
1/l/'"1/V V
the grid to reach the plate.
-•• -20 -,. -10
Grid Volt••t
-.
Characteristic Curves
Fig. 3-6 - Grid-voltage-vs.-plate-current curves at
F or any particular tube, the effect of the grid various fixed values of plate voltage (Eb ) for a
voltage on the plate current can be shown by a set typical small triode. Characteristic curves of this
of characteristic curves. A typical set of curves is type can be taken by varyi ng the battery voltages
shown in Fig. 3-6, together with the circuit that is in the circuit at the right.
used for getting them. For each value of plate
voltage, there is a value of negative grid voltage The curves could be extended by making the
that will reduce the plate current to zero; that is, grid voltage positive as well as negative. When the
there is a value of negative grid voltage that will cu t grid is negative, it repels electrons and therefore
off the plate current. none of them reaches it; in other words, no current
flows in the grid circuit. However, when the grid is
positive, it attracts electrons and a current (grid
current) flows, just as current flows to the positive
plate. Whenever there is grid current there is an
accompanying power loss in the grid circuit, but so
long as the grid is negative no power is used.
Fig. 3-5 - Construction It is obvious that the grid can act as a valve to
of an elementary triode control the flow of plate current. Actually, the grid
vacuum tube, showing has a much greater effect on plate current flow
the di recti y-heated than does the plate voltage. A small change in grid
cathode (filamentl, grid voltage is just as effective in bringing about a given
(with an end view of change in plate current as is a large change in plate
the grid wires) and voltage. .
plate. The relative den-
sity of the space charge The fact that a small voltage acting on the grid
is indicated roughly by is equivalent to a large voltage acting on the plate
.the dot density. indicates the possibility of amplification with the
64 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
The best all-around indication of the effective-
ness of a tube as an amplifier is its grid-plate
transconductance - also called mutual conduct-
ance or gm' It is the change in plate current divided
by the change in grid voltage that caused the
change; it can be found by dividing. the
amplification factor by the plate resistance. Smce
current divided by voltage is conductance,
transconductance is measured in the unit of
conductance, the mho.
Practical values of transeonductance are very
small, so the micro mho (one millionth of a mho) is
the commonly used unit. Different types of tubes
have transconductances ranging from a few

1to==t==_2t.==t==t~~~_I~.~E:~::~:r::t==1~
hundred to several thousand. The higher the
transconductance the greater the posible amplifica-
Grid Volt.,. tion.
Fig. 3-7 - Dynamic characteristics of a small triode AMPLI FICATION
with various load resistances from 5000 to 100,000
ohms. The way in which a tube amplifies is best
known by a type of graph called the dynamic
triode tube. The many uses of the electronic tube characteristic. Such a graph, together with the
nearly all are based upon this amplifying feature. circuit used for obtaining it, is shown in Fig. 3-7.
The amplified output is not obtained from the The curves are taken with the plate-supply voltage
tube itself, but from the voltage source connected fixed at the desired operating value. The difference
between its plate and cathode. The tube simply between this circuit and the one shown in Fig. 3-6
controls the power from this source, changing it to is that in Fig. 3-7 a load resistance is connected in
the desired form. series with the plate of the tube. Fig. 3-7 thus
To utilize the controlled power, a load must be shows how the plate current will vary, with
connected in the plate or "output" circuit, just as different grid voltages, when the plate current is
in the diode case. The load may be either a made to flow through a load and thus do useful
resistance or an impedance. The term "impedance" work.
is frequently used even when the load is purely The several curves in Fig. 3-7 are for various
resistive. values of load resistance. When the resistance is
small (as in the case of the 5000-ohm load) the
Tube Characteristics plate current changes rather rapidly with a given
change in grid voltage. If the load resistance is high
The physical construction of a triode deter- (as in the 100,000-0hm curve), the change in plate
mines the relative effectiveness of the grid and current for the same grid-voltage change is
plate in controlling the plate current. The control relatively small; also, the curve tends to be
of the grid is increased by moving it closer to the straighter.
cathode or by making the grid mesh finer. Fig. 3-8 is the same type of curve, but with the
The plate resistance of a vacuum tube is the ac circuit arranged so that a source of alternating
resistance of the path from cathode to plate. For a voltage (signal) is inserted between the grid and the
given grid voltage, it is the quotient of a small grid battery ("e" battery). The voltage of the grid
change in plate voltage divided by the resultant battery is fixed at -5 volts, and from the curve it is
change in plate current. Thus if a I-volt change in seen that the plate current at this grid voltage is 2
plate voltage caused a plate-current change of .01 milliamperes. This current flows when the load
mA (.00001 ampere), the plate resistance would resistance is 50,000 ohms, as indicated in the
be 100,000 ohms. circuit diagram. If there is no ac signal in the grid
The amplification factor (usually designated by circuit, the voltage drop in the load resistor is
the Greek letter IJ.) of a vacuum tube is defined as 50,000 x .002 = 100 volts, leaving 200 volts
the ratio of the change in plate voltage to the between the plate and cathode.
change in grid voltage to effect equal changes in When a sine-wave signal having a peak value of
plate current. If, for example, an increase of 10 2 volts is applied in series with the bias voltage in
plate volts raised the plate current 1.0 mA, and an the grid circuit, the instantaneous voltage at the
increase in (negative) grid voltage of 0.1 volt were grid will swing to -3 volts at the instant the signal
required to return the plate current to its original reaches its positive peak, and to -7 volts at the
value, the amplification factors of triode tubes instant the signal reaches its negative peak. The
would be 100. The amplification factors of triode maximum plate current will occur at the instant
tubes range from 3 to 100 or so. A high-IJ. tube is the grid voltage is -3 volts. As shown by the graph,
one with an amplification of perhaps 30 or more, it will have a value of 2.65 milliamperes. The
medium-IJ. tubes have amplification factors in the minimum plate current occurs at the instant the
approximate range 8 to 30 and low-IJ. tubes in the grid voltage is -7 volts, and has a value of 1.35
range below 7 or 8. The IJ. of a triode is useful in mAo At intermediate values of grid voltage,
computing stage gains. intermdiate plate-current values will occur.
 Ampl ification 65
• I
Bias
Ip

5
-
--- 1 p
Rp
00,000
-Ohms I-- - ....
The fixed negative grid voltage (called grid bias)
in Fig. 3-8 serves a very useful purpose. One object
rv Signal fl, + ~ of the type of amplification shown in this drawing
is to obtain, from the plate circuit, an alternating
4 - {I~+ ,..h -300IV~
II + 400 voltage that has the same wave shape as the signal
voltage applied to the grid. To do so, an operating
point on the straight part of the curve must be
3
/ selected. The curve must be straight in both
Ip
directions from the operating point at least far
J-- -- enough to accommodate the maximum value of
'.
-~

Oper.tin,
71-1 Ir~
-- -- '- - ,' - - 200
Poinl -..:. the signal applied to the grid. If the grid signal
,, -- E._
2
swings the plate current back and forth over a part
J: ~ .../ 1\ I
_v
of the curve that is not straight, as in Fig. 3-9, the
7- -'--t- - -- --- --- shape of the ac wave in the plate circuit will not be
, I
,, ,,
' , ,
00 the same as the shape of the grid-signal wave. In
[/ I
, ,, ,
such a case the output wave shape will be
distorted.
V :-7 -3l
o A second reason for using negative grid bias is
-I~ -10
Grid Volt.,. ,
I
, '
-5 0
that any signal whose peak positive voltage does
:8,'
,I ,, ,I•
not exceed the fixed negative voltage on the grid
cannot cause grid current to flow. With no current
,I , ,, ienol Volt.,. flow there is no power consumption, so the tube
- 0 + will amplify without taking any power from the
Fig. 3-8 - Amplifier operation. When the plate signal source. (However, if the positive peak of the
cu rrent varies in response to the signal appl ied to signal does exceed the negative bias, current will
the grid, a varying voltage drop appears across the flow in the grid circuit during the time the grid is
load, R p , as shown by the dashed curve. Ep. Ip is positive.)
the plate current.
Distortion of the output wave shape that results
from working over a part of the curve that is not
The instantaneous voltage between the plate straight (that is, a nonlinear part of the curve) has
and cathode of the tube also is shown on the the effect of transforming a sine-wave grid signal
graph. When the plate current is maximum, the into a more complex waveform. As explained in an
instantaneous voltage drop in Rp is 50,000 x earlier chapter, a complex wave can be resolved
.00265 = 132.5 volts; when the plate current is into a fundamental and a series of harmonics. In
minimum the instantaneous voltage drop in Rp is other words, distortion from nonlinearity causes
50,000 x .00135 = 67.5 volts. The actual voltage the generation of harmonic frequencies - frequen-
between plate and cathode is the difference cies that are not present in the signal applied to the
between the plate-supply potential, 300 volts, and
the voltage drop in the load resistance. The
plate-to-cathode voltage is therefore 167.5 volts at
maximum plate current and 232.5 volts at
minimum plate current.
This varying plate voltage is an ac voltage 3
/
superimposed on the steady plate-cathode poten-
tial of 200 volts (as previously determined for I
no-signal conditions). The peak value of this ac
output voltage is the difference between either the 2
II
maximum or minimum plate-cathode voltage and j -- - - -- . ""
the no-signal value of 200 volts. In the illustration
this difference is 232.5 - 200 or 200 - 167.5; that I!, I , ~lp
_Oper.1in,
is, 32.5 volts in either case. Since the grid signal I pOinliX-
voltage has a peak value of 2 volts, the _ _1-

I
- -- - -- --- - - -
voltage-amplification ratio of the amplifier is
32.5/2 or 16.25. That is, approximately 16 times
as much voltage is obtained from the plate circuit
K'1-t-
-I 10
-,-,I -- --- -- - -- V
I - 5 0
as is applied to the grid circuit.
As shown by the drawings in Fig. 3-8, the
!~:
I ,
i Grid Volt,..

alternating component of the plate voltage swings I ,

in the negative direction (with reference to the I '

I Si,n.1 Volt.,.
no-signal value of plate-cathode voltage) when the
grid voltage swings in the positive direction, and Fig. 3-9 - Harmonic distortion reSUlting from
vice versa. This means that the altemating choice of an operating point on the curved part of
component of plate voltage (that is, the amplified the tube characteristic. The lower half-cycle of
signal) is 180 degrees out of phase with the signal plate current does not have the same shape as the
voltage on the grid. upper half-cycle.
66 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES

~ C~B
B. The latter tube has negative grid bias s\l:Pplied
by the battery shown. No current flows on the grid
Signal --- Rp RS --- circuit of tube B and there is therefore no dc
voltage drop in Rg; in other words, the full voltage
~II + - II + of the bias battery is applied to the grid of tube B.
The grid resistor R g, usually has a rather high
+ Plate
Supply value (0.5 to 2 megohms). The reactance of the
RESISTANCE COUPLING coupling capacitor, Ce , must be low enough
compared with the resistance of Rg so that the ac
voltage drop in Ce is negligible at the lowest
frequency to be amplified. If Rg is at least 0.5
megohm, a 0.1-J..lF capacitor will be amply large for
Signal the usual range of audio frequencies.
~II + So far as the alternating component of plate
voltage is concerned, it will be realized that if the
+Plat~ voltage drop in Ce is negligible then Rp and Rg are
SUPpl!/ effectively in parallel (although they are quite
IMPEDANCE COUPLING
separate so far as dc is concerned). The resultant
parallel resistance of the two is therefore the actual

~ifl~
load resistance for the tube. That is why Rg is
made as high in resistance as possible; then it will
have the least effect on the load represented by
Rp.
t:il{' The impedance-coupled circuit differs from
that using resistance coupling only in the
substitution of a high inductance (as high as several
+ Plate
SuppLy hundred henrys) for the plate resistor. The
TRANSFORMER COUPLING
advantage of using an inductor rather than a
resistor at this point is that the impedance of the
Fig. 3-10 - Three types of coupling are in common inductor is high for audio frequencies, but its
use at audio frequencies. These are resistance resistance, is relatively low. Thus it provides a
coupling, impedance coupling, and transformer higher value of load impedance for ac without an
coupling. I n all three cases the output is shown excessive dc voltage drop, and consequently the
coupled to the grid circuit of a subsequent amplifi- power-supply voltage does not have to be high for
er tube, but the same types of circuits can be used
to couple to other devices than tubes. effective operation.
The transformer~oupled amplifier uses a
transformer with its primary connected in the plate
grid. Harmonic distortion is undesirable in most circuit of the tube and its secondary connected to
amplifiers, although there are occasions when the load (in the circuit shown, a following
harmonics are deliberately generated and used. amplifier). There is no direct connection between
the two windings, so the plate voltage on tube A is
Audio Amplifier Output Circuits isolated from the grid of tube B. The transformer-
The useful output of a vacuum-tube amplifier is coupled amplifier has the same advantage as the
the alternating component of plate current or plate impedance-coupled circuit with respect to loss of
voltage. The dc voltage on the plate of the tube is dc voltage from the plate supply. Also, if the
essential for the tube's operation, but it almost secondary has more turns than the primary, the
invariably would cause difficulties if it were output voltage will be "stepped up" in proportion
applied, along with the ac output voltage, to the to the turns ratio.
load. The output circuits of vacuum tubes are Resistance coupling is simple, inexpensive, and
therefore arranged so that the ac is transferred to will give the same amount of amplification - or
the load but the dc is not. voltage gain - over a wide range of frequencies; it
Three types of coupling are in common use at will give substantially the same amplification at
audio-frequencies. These are resistance coupling, any frequency in the audio range, for example.
impedance coupling, and transformer coupling. Impedance coupling will give somewhat more gain,
They are shown in Fig. 3-10. In all three cases the with the same tube and same plate-supply voltage,
output is shown coupled to the grid circuit of a than resistance coupling. However, it is not quite
subsequent amplifier tube, but the same types of so good over a wide frequency range; it tends to
circuits can be used to couple to other devices than "peak," or give maximum gain, over a comparative-
tubes. ly narrow band of frequencies. With a good
In the resistance-coupled circuit, the ac voltage transformer the gain of a transformer-coupled
developed across the plate resistor Rp (that is, the amplifier can be kept fairly constant over the
ac voltage between the plate and cathode of the audio-frequency range. On the other hand,
tube) is applied to a second resistor, R ,through a transformer coupling in voltage amplifiers (see
coupling capacitor, Ce . The capacitor ,lIblocks off' below) is best suited to triodes having amplifica-
the dc voltage on the plate of the first tube and tion factors of about 20 or less, for the reason that
prevents it from being applied to the grid of tube the primary inductance of a practicable transform-
Amplification 67
Class A amplifier in such a way that current flows
Output in its grid circuit during at least part of the cycle.
Transformer In such a case power is used up in the grid circuit

1I0L* and the power amplification ratio is not infinite. A

tube operated in this fashion is known as a Class
A2 amplifier. It is necessary to use a power
amplifier to drive a Class A2 amplifier, because a
voltage amplifier cannot deliver power without
serious distortion of the wave shape.
Fig. 3-11 - An elementary power-amplifier circuit Another term used in connection with power
in which the power-consuming load is coupled to amplifiers is power sensitivity. In the case of a
the plate circuit through an impedance-matching Class Al amplifier, it means the ratio of power
transformer. output to the grid signal voltage that causes it. If
er cannot be made large enough to work well with grid current flows, the term usually means the ratio
a tube having high plate resistance. of plate power output to grid power input.
The ac power that is delivered to a load by an
Class A Amplifiers amplifier tube has to be paid for in power taken
from the source of plate voltage and current. In
An amplifier in which voltage gain is the fact, there is always more power going into the
primary consideration is called a voltage amplifier. plate circuit of the tube than is coming out as
Maximum voltage gain is secured when the load useful output. The difference between the input
resistance or impedance is made as high as possible and output power is used up in heating the plate of
in comparison with the plate resistance of the tube. the tube, as explained previously. The. ratio of
In such a case, the major portion of the voltage useful power output to dc plate input is called the
generated will appear across the load. plate efficiency. The higher the plate efficiency,
Voltage amplifiers belong to a group called
the greater the amount of power that can be taken
Class A amplifiers. A Class A amplifier is one
operated so that the wave shape of the output from a tube having a given plate-dissipation rating.
voltage is the same as that of the signal voltage
applied to the grid. If a Class A amplifier is biased Parallel and Push-Pull
so that the grid is always negative, even with the When it is necessary to obtain more power
largest signal to be handled by the grid, it is called output than one tube is capable of giving, two or
a Class Al amplifier. Voltage amplifiers are always more similar tubes may be connected in parallel. In
Class A I amplifiers, and their primary use is in this case the similar elements in all tubes are
driving a following Class Al amplifier. connected together. This method is shown in Fig.
3-12 for a transformer-coupled amplifier. The
Power Amplifiers power output is in proportion to the number of
The end result of any amplification is that the tubes used; the grid signal or exciting voltage
required, however, is the same as for one tube.
amplified signal does some work. For example, an
If the amplifier operates in such a way as to
audio-frequency amplifier usually drives a loud-
consume power in the grid circuit, the grid power
speaker that in tum produces sound waves. The required is in proportion to the number of tubes
greater the amount of af power supplied to the used.
speaker the louder the sound it will produce.
Fig. 3-11 shows an elementary power-amplifier
circuit. It is simply a transformer-coupled amplifier
with the load connected to the secondary.
Although the load is shown as a resistor, it actually
would be some device, such as a loudspeaker, that
employs the power usefully. Every power tube 311 II€
requires a specific value of load resistance from
plate to cathode, usually some thousands of ohms,
PARALLEL
for optimum operation. The resistance of the
actual load is rarely the right value for "matching"
this optimum load resistance, so the transformer
turns ratio is chosen to reflect the power value of
resistance into the primary. The turns ratio may be
either step-up or step-down, depending on whether
the actual load resistance is higher or lower than
the load the tube wants.
The power-amplification ratio of an amplifier is
the ratio of the power output obtained from the.
311 II~
plate circuit to the power required from the ac
signal in the grid circuit. There is no power lost in PUSH-PULL
the grid circuit of a Class AI amplifier, so such an
amplifier has an infinitely large power-amplifica- Fig. 3-12 Parallel and push·pull af amplifier
tion ratio. However, it is quite possible to operate a circuits.
68 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
The graphs show the operation of such an
amplifier. The plate current of tube B is drawn
inverted to show that it flows in the opposite

~T.I'I direction, through the primary of the output

transformer, to the plate current of tube A. Thus
':; each half of the output-transformer primary works
alternately to induce a half-cycle of voltage in the
secondary. In the secondary of T2, the original
waveform is restored. This type of operation is
called Class B amplification.
The Class B amplifier has considerably higher
SI~~AL -L..O"""V-+O-+V...,Of-+V-fO-+-V"'- plate efficiency than the Gass A amplifier.
Furthermore, the dc plate current of a Class B
.GRIOS
amplifier is proportional to the signal voltage on
PLATE the grids, so the power input is small with small
CURRENT ,.... f'\ ()
A =':::;
A
TUBE \-=¢.U~"¢.:;::"¢_~::;::= signals. The dc plate power input to a Class A
PL~TE
CURRENT
V V 0 0 amplifier is the same whether the signal is large,
TUaE B small, or absent altogether; therefore the maximum
dc plate input that can be applied to a Class A
(OMBINED f\ 0 0 0 amplifier is equal to the rated plate dissipation of
OUTPUT \OJ V \.TV the tube or tubes. Two tubes in a Gass B amplifier
Fig. 3-13 - Class B amplifier operation.
can deliver approximately twelve times as much
audio power as the same two tubes in a Class A
An increase in power output also can be amplifier.
secured by connecting two tubes in push-pull. In A Class B amplifier usually is operated in such a
this case the grids and plates of the two tubes are way as to secure the maximum possible power
connected to opposite ends of a balanced circuit as output. This requires rather large values of plate
shown in Fig. 3-12. At any instant the ends of the current, and to obtain them the signal voltage must
secondary winding of the input transformer, Tl, completely overcome the grid bias during at least
will be at opposite polarity with respect to the part of the cycle, so grid current flows and the grid
cathode connection, so the grid of one tube is circuit consumes power. While the power require-
swung positive at the same instant that the grid of ments are fairly low (as compared with the power
the other is swung negative. Hence, in any output), the fact that the grids are positive during
push-pull-connected amplifier the voltages and only part of the cycle means that the load on the
currents of one tube are out of phase with those of preceding amplifier or driver stage varies in
the other tube. magnitude during the cycle; the effective load
In push-pull operation the even-harmonic resistance is high when the grids are not drawing
(second, fourth, etc.) distortion is balanced out in current and relatively low when they do take
the plate circuit. This means that for the same current. This must be allowed for when designing
power output the distortion will be less than with the driver.
parallel operation. Certain types of tubes have been designed
The exciting voltage measured between the two specifically for Class B service and can be operated
grids must be twice that required for one tube. If without fixed or other form of grid bias (zero-bias
the grids consume power, the driving power for the tubes). The amplification factor is so high that the
push-pull amplifier is twice that taken by either plate current is small without signal. Because there
tube alone. is no fixed bias, the grids start drawing current
immediately whenever a signal is applied, so the
Cascade Amplifiers grid-current flow is continuous throughout the
It is readily possible to take the ou tpu t of one cycle. This makes the load on the driver much
amplifier and apply it as a signal on the grid of a more constant than is the case with tubes of lower
second amplifer, then take the second amplifier's tL biased to plate-current cut off.
output and apply it to a third, and so on. Each Class B amplifiers used at radio frequencies are
amplifier is called a stage, and stages used known as linear amplifiers because they are
successively are said to be in cascade. adjusted to operate in such a way that the power
output is proportional to the square of the rf
Oass B Amplifiers exciting voltage. This permits amplification of a
Fig. 3-13 shows two tubes connected in a modulated rf signal without distortion. Push-pull is
push-pull circuit. If the grid bias is set at the point not required in this type of operation; a single tube
where (when no signal is applied) the plate current can be used equally well.
is just cut off, then a signal can cause plate current
to flow in either tube only when the signal voltage Class AB Amplifiers
applied to that particular tube is positive with A Gass AB audio amplifier is a push-pull
respect to the cathode. Since in the balanced grid amplifier with higher bias than would be normal
circuit the signal voltages on the grids of the two for pure Gass A operation, but less than the
tubes always have opposite polarities, plate current cut-off bias required for Class B. At low signal
flows only in one tube at a time. levels the tubes operate as Class A amplifiers, and
Feedback 69
the plate current is the same with or without other things, to the amount of time during which
signal. At higher signal levels, the plate current of the plate current flows, and this time is reduced by
one tube is cut off during part of the negative cycle decreasing the operating angle.
of the signal applied to its grid, and the plate Depending on the type of tube, the optimum
current of the other tube rises with the signal. The load resistance for a Class C amplifier ranges from
total plate current for the amplifier also rises above about 1500 to 5000 ohms. It is usually secured by
the no-signal level with a large signal is applied. using tuned-circuit arrangements, of the type
In a properly designed Class AB amplifier the described in the chapter on circuit fundamentals,
distortion is as low as with a Class A stage, but the to transform the resistance of the actual load to
efficiency and power output are considerably the value required by the tube. The grid is driven
higher than with pure Class A operation. A Class well into the positive region, so that grid current
AB amplifier can be operated either with or flows and power is consumed in the grid circuit.
without driving the grids into the positive region. A The smaller the operating angle, the greater the
Class ABl amplifier is one in which the grids are driving voltage and the larger the grid driving
never positive with respect to the cathode; power required to develop full output in the load
therefore no driving power is required - only resistance. The best compromise between driving
voltage. A Class AB2 amplifier is one that has power, plate efficiency, and power output usually
grid-current flow during part of the cycle if the results when the minimum plate voltage (at the
applied signal is large; it takes a small amount of peak of the driving cycle, when the plate current
driving power. The Class AB2 amplifier will deliver reaches its highest value) is just equal to the peak
somewhat. more power (using the same tubes) but positive grid voltage. Under these conditions the
the Class ABl amplifier avoids the problem of operating angle is usually between 120 and 150
designing a driver that will deliver power, without degrees and the plate efficiency lies in the range of
distortion, into a load of highly variable resistance. 60 to SO percent. While higher plate efficiencies
are possible, attaining them requires excessive
Operating Angle driving power and grid bias, together with higher
plate voltage than is "normal" for the particular
Inspection of Fig. 3-13 shows that either of the
tube type.
two vacuum tubes is working for only half the ac
With proper design and adjustment, a Class C
cycle and idling during the other half. It is
amplifier can be made to operate in such a way
convenient to describe the amount of time during
that the power input and output are proportional
which plate current flows in terms of electrical
to the square of the applied plate voltage. This is
degrees. In Fig. 3-13 each tube has "ISO-degree"
an important consideration when the amplifier is
excitation, a half-cycle being equal to ISO degrees.
to be plate-modulated for radiotelephony, as
The number of degrees during which plate current
described in the chapter on amplitude modulation.
flows is called the operating angle of the amplifier.
From the descriptions given above, it should be
clear that a Class A amplifier has 360-degree FEEDBACK
excitation, because plate current flows during the It is possible to take a part of the amplified
whole cycle. In a Class AB amplifier the operating energy in the plate circuit of an amplifier and
angle is between ISO and 360 degrees (in each insert it into the grid circuit. When this is done the
tube) depending on the particular operating amplifier is said to have feedback.
conditions chosen. The greater the amount of If the voltage that is inserted in the grid circuit
negative grid bias, the smaller the operating angle is ISO degrees out of phase with the signal voltage
becomes. acting on the grid, the feedback is called negative,
An operating angle of less than ISO degrees or degenerative. On the other hand, if the voltage is
leads to a considerable amount of distortion, fed back in phase with the grid signal, the feedback
because there is no way for the tube to reproduce is called positive, or regenerative.
even a half-cycle of the signal on its grid. Using two
tubes in push-pull, as in Fig. 3-13, would merely Negative Feedback
put together two distorted half-cycles. An
operating angle of less than ISO degrees therefore With negative feedback the voltage that is fed
cannot be used if distortionless output is wanted. back opposes the signal voltage. This decreases the
amplitude of the voltage acting between the grid
Class C Amplifiers and cathode and thus has the effect of reducing the
In power amplifiers operating at radio frequen- voltage amplification. That is, a larger exciting
cies distortion of the rf wave form is relatively voltage is required for obtaining the same output
unimportant. For reasons described later in this voltage from the plate circuit.
chapter, an rf amplifier must be operated with The greater the amount of negative feedback
tuned circuits, and the selectivity of such circuits (when properly applied) the more independent the
"filters out" the rf harmonics resulting from amplification becomes of tube characteristics and
distortion. circuit conditions. This tends to make the
A radio-frequency power amplifier therefore frequency-response characteristic of the amplifier
can be used with an operating angle of less than flat - that is, the amplification tends to be the
ISO degrees. This is called Class C operation. The same at all frequencies within the range for which
advantage is that the plate efficiency is increased, the amplifier is designed. Also, any distortion
because the loss in the plate is proportional, among generated in the plate circuit of the tube tends to
70 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
used for selective amplification at both audio and
radio frequencies, the feedback being kept below
(A) the value that causes self-oscillation.

Signal
INTERELECTRODE CAPACITANCES
Each pair of elements in a tube forms a small
capaci tor "plate." There are three such capaci-
tances in a triode - that between the grid and
cathode, that between the grid and plate, and that
between the plate and cathode. The capacitances
are very small - only a few picofarads at most -
but they frequently have a very pronounced effect
on the operation of an amplifier circuit.
(8)

Input Capacitance
It was explained previously that the ac grid
voltage and ac plate voltage of an amplifier having
Fig. 3-14 - Simple circuits for producing feedback.
a resistive load are 180 degrees out of phase, using
the cathode of the tube as a reference point.
However, these two voltages are in phase going
"buck itself out." Amplifiers with negative around the circuit from plate to grid as shown in
feedback are therefore comparatively free from Fig. 3-15. This means that their sum is acting
harmonic distortion. These advantages are worth between the grid and plate; that is, across the
while if the amplifier otherwise has enough voltage grid-plate capacitance of the tube.
gain for its intended use.
In the circuit shown at A in Fig. 3-14 resistor As a result, a capacitive current flows around
Re is in series with the regular plate resistor, Rp the circuit, its amplitude being directly proportion-
and thus is a part of the load for the tube. al to the Slim of the ac grid and plate voltages and
Therefore, part of the output voltage will appear to the grid-plate capacitance. The source of the
across Re. However, Re also is connected in series grid signal must furnish this amount of current, in
with the grid circuit, and so the output voltage that addition to the capacitive current that flows in the
appears across Re is in series with the signal grid-cathode capacitance. Hence the signal source
voltage. The output voltage across Re opposes the "sees" an effective capacitance that is larger than
signal voltage, so the actual ac voltage between the the grid-cathode capacitance. This is known as the
grid and cathode is equal to the difference between Miller Effect.
the two voltages. The greater the voltage amplification the
The circuit shown At B in Fig. 3-14 can be used greater the effective input capacitance. The input
to give either negative or positive feedback. The capacitance of a resistance-coupled amplifier is
secondary of a transformer is connected back into given by the formula
the grid circuit to insert a desired amount of qnput = Cgk + Cgp (A + 1)
feedback voltage. Reversing the terminals of either
transformer winding (but not both simultaneously)
will reverse the phase. :-vhere C:gk is the grid-t~-cathode capacitance, Cgp
IS the gnd-te-plate capacItance, and A is the voltage
Positive Feedback amplification. The input capacitance may be as
much as several hundred picofarads when the
Positive feedback increases the amplification
voltage amplification is large, even though the
because the feedback voltage adds to the original
interelectrode capacitances are quite small.
signal voltage and the resulting larger voltage on
the grid causes a larger output voltage. The
amplification tends to be greatest at one frequency
(which depends upon the particular circuit
arrangement) and harmonic distortion is increased.
If enough energy is fed back, a self-sustaining
oscillation - in which energy at essentially one
frequency is generated by the tube itself - will be
set up. In such case all the signal voltage on the
grid can be supplied from the plate circuit; no
external signal is needed because any small
irregularity in the plate current - and there are
Fig. 3-15 - The ac voltage appearing between the
always some irregularities - will be amplified grid and plate of the amplifier is the sum of the
and thus give the oscillation an opportunity to signal voltage and the output Voltage, as shown by
build up. Positive feedback finds a major this simplified circuit. I nstantaneous polarities are
application in such "oscillators," and in addition is indicated.
Screen-Grid Tubes 71
Output Capacitance as an electrostatic shield to prevent capacitive
The principal component of the output coupling between the control grid and plate. It is
made in the form of a grid or coarse screen so that
capacitance of an amplifier is the actual plate-to-
electrons can pass through it.
cathode capacitance of the tube. The output
Because of the shielding sction of the screen
capacitance usually need not be considered in grid, the positively charged plate cannot attract
audio amplifiers, but becomes of importance at electrons from the cathode as it does in a triode. In
radio frequencies. order to get electrons to the plate, it is necessary to
apply a positive voltage (with respect to the
T~be Capacitance at RF cathode) to the screen. The screen then attracts
At radio frequencies the reactances of even very electrons much as does the plate in a triode tube.
small interelectrode capacitances drop to very low In traveling toward the screen the electrons acquire
values. A resistance-coupled amplifier gives very such velocity that most of them shoot between the
little amplification at rf, for example, because the screen wires and then are attracted to the plate. A
reactances of the interelectrode "capacitors" are so certain proportion do strike the screen, however,
low that they practically short-circuit the input with the result that some current also flows in the
and output circuits and thus the tube is unable to screen-grid circuit.
amplify. This is overcome at radio frequencies by To be a good shield, the screen grid must be
using tuned circuits for the grid and plate, making connected to the cathode through a circuit that has
the tube capacitances part of the tuning capaci- low impedance at the frequency being amplified. A
tances. In this way the circuits can have the high bypass capacitor from screen grid to cathode,
resistive impedances necessary for satisfactory having a reactance of not more than a few hundred
amplification. ohms, is generally used.
The grid-plate capacitance is important at radio A tube having a cathode, control grid, screen
frequencies because its reactance, relatively low at grid and plate (four elements) is called a tetrode.
rf, offers a path over which energy can be fed back
from the plate to the grid. In practically every case Pentodes
the feedback is in the right phase and of sufficient When an electron traveling at appreciable velo-
amplitude to cause self-oscillation, so the circuit
city through a tube strikes the plate it dislodges
becomes useless as an amplifier. other electrons which "splash" from the plate into
Special "neutralizing" circuits can be used to the interelement space. This is called secondary
prevent feedback but they are, in general, not too emission. In a triode the negative grid repels the
satisfactory when used in radio receivers. They are, secondary electrons back into the plate and they
however, used in transmitters. cause no disturbance. In the screen-grid tube,
however, the positively charged screen attracts the
SCREEN-GRID TUBES secondary electrons, causing a reverse current to
flow between screen and plate.
The grid-plate capacitance can be reduced to a To overcome the effects of secondary emission,
negligible value by inserting a second grid between a third grid, called the suppressor grid, may be
the control grid and the plate, as indicated in Fig. inserted between the screen and plate. This grid
3-16. The second grid, called the screen grid, acts acts as a shield between the screen grid and plate so
the secondary electrons cannot be attracted by the
screen grid. They are hence attracted back to the
plate without appreciably obstructing the regular
plate-current flow. A five-element tube of this type
SCREEN
CONTROL is called a pentode.
GRID
GRID Although the screen grid in either the tetrode
or pentode greatly reduces the influence of the
CATHODE plate upon plate-current flow, the control grid still
can control the plate current in essentially the
PLATE
same way that it does in a triode. Consequently,
the grid-plate transconductance (or mutual con-
ductance) of a tetrode or pentode will be of the
'-:""":II-'-",J-HEATER same order of value as in a triode of corresponding
structure. On the other hand, since a change in
plate voltage has very little effect on the plate-cur-
rent flow, both the amplification factor and plate
resistance of a pentode or tetrode are very high. In
Fig. 3-16 - Representative arrangement of ele- small receiving pentodes the amplification factor is
ments in a screenilrid tetrode, with part of plate of the order of 1000 or higher, while the plate
and screen cut away. This is "single-ended" con- resistance may be from 0.5 to 1 or more megohms.
struction with a button base, typical of miniature Because of the high plate resistance, the actual
receiving tubes. To reduce capacitance between
control grid and plate the leads from these ele- voltage amplification possible with a pentode is
ments are brought out at opposite sides; actual very much less than the large amplification factor
tubes probably would have additional shielding might indicate. A voltage gain in the vicinity of 50
between these leads. to 200 is typical of a pentode stage.
72 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
In practical screen-grid tubes the grid-plate cies the input impedance of a Class Al amplifier is
capacitance is only a small fraction of a picofarad. for all practical purposes the input impedance of
This capacitance is too small to cause an appreci- the stage. If the tube is driven into the grid-current
able increase in input capacitance as described in region there is in addition a resistance component
the preceding section, so the input capacitance of a in the input impedance, the resistance having an
screen-grid tube is equal to the capacitance be- average value equal to E2/P, where E is the rms
tween the plate and screen. driving voltage and P is the power in watts
In addition to their applications as radio-fre- consumed in the grid. The resistance usually will
quency amplifiers, pentodes or tetrodes also are vary during the ac cycle because grid current may
used for audio-frequency power amplification. In flow only during part of the cycle; also, the
tubes designed for this purpose the chief function grid-voltage/ grid-current characteristic is seldom
of the screen is to serve as an accelerator of the linear.
electrons, so that large values of plate current can The output impedance of amplifiers of this
be drawn at relatively low plate voltages. Such type consists of the plate resistance of the tube
tubes have quite high power sensitivity compared shunted by the output capacitance.
with triodes of the same power output, although At radio frequencies, when tuned circuits are
harmonic distortion is somewhat greater. employed, the input and output impedances are
usually pure resistances; any reactive components
Beam Tubes are "tuned out" in the process of adjusting the
A beam tetrode is a four-element screen-grid circuits to resonance at the operating frequency.
tube constructed in such a way that the electrons OTHER TYPES OF AMPLIFIERS
are formed into concentrated beams on their way
to the plate. Additional design features overcome In the amplifier circuits so far discussed, the
the effects of secondary emission so that a suppres- signal has been applied between the grid and
sor grid is not needed. The "beam" construction cathode and the amplified output has been taken
makes it possible to draw large plate currents at from the plate-to-cathode circuit. That is, the
relatively low plate voltages, and increases the cathode has been the meeting point for the input
power sensitivity. and output circuits. However, it is possible to use
For power amplification at both audio and anyone of the three principal elements as the
radio frequencies beam tetrodes have largely sup- common point. This leads to two additional kinds
planted the non beam types because large power of amplifiers, commonly called the grounded-grid
outputs can be secured with very small amounts of amplifier (or grid-separation circuit) and the cath-
grid driving power. ode follower_
These two circuits are shown in simplified form
Variable-p Tubes in Fig. 3-17. In both circuits the resistor R
represents the load into which the amplifier works;
The mutual conductance of a vacuum tube the actual load may be resistance-capacitance-
decreases when its grid bias is made more negative, coupled, transformer-coupled, may be a tuned
assuming that the other electrode voltages are held circuit if the amplifier operates at radio frequen-
constant. Since the mutual conductance controls cies, and so on. Also, in both circuits the batteries
the amount of amplification, it is possible to adjust that supply grid bias and plate power are assumed
the gain of the amplifier by adjusting the grid bias. to have such negligible impedance that they do not
This method of gain control is universally used in enter into the operation of the circuits.
radio-frequency amplifiers designed for receivers.
The ordinary type of tube has what is known as Grounded-Grid Amplifier
a sharp-cutoff characteristic. The mu tual conduct-
ance decreases at a uniform rate as the negative In the grounded-grid amplifier the input signal
bias is increased. The amount of signal voltage that is applied between the cathode and grid, and the
such a tube can handle without causing distortion
is not sufficient to take care of very strong signals.
To overcome this, some tubes are made with a Fig. 3-17 - In
the upper cir-
variable-p characteristic - that is, the amplification cuit, the grid is
factor decreases with increasing grid bias. The the junction R
variable-p tube can handle a much larger signal poi nt between
than the sharp-cutoff type before the signal swings the input and
either beyond the zero grid-bias point or the ou tput circuits
plate-current cutoff point. in the lower
GROUNDED-GRID AMPLIFIER
drawing, the
INPUT AND OUTPUT IMPEDANCES plate is the junc-
tion. I neither
The input impedance of a vacuum-tube amplifi- case the output
er is the impedance "seen" by the signal source is developed in
when connected to the input terminals of the the load resistor,
amplifier. In the types of amplifiers previously R, and may be
coupled to a fol-
discussed, the input impedance is the impedance lowing amplifier
measured between the grid and cathode of the tube by the usual
with operating voltages applied. At audio frequen- methods. CATtjgDE FOLLOWER
Cathode Circuits and Grid Bias 73
output is taken between the plate and grid. The direct current that is constant and without a
grid is thus the common element. The ac compon- superimposed ac component - the relatively large
ent of the plate current has to flow through the currents required by filaments and heaters usually
signal source to reach the cathode. The source of make a rectifier-type dc supply impracticable.
signal is in series with the load through the
plate-to-cathode resistance of the tube, so some of Filament Hum
the power in the load is supplied by the signal Alternating current is just as good as direct
source. In transmitting applications this fed- current from the heating standpoint, but some of
through power is of the order of 10 percent of the the ac voltage is likely to get on the grid and cause
total power output, using tubes suitable for a low-pitched Hac hum" to be superimposed on the
grounded-grid service. output.
The input impedance of the grounded-grid Hum troubles are worst with directly-heated
amplifier consists of a capacitance in parallel with cathodes or fIlaments, because with such cathodes
an equivalent resistance representing the power there has to be a direct connection between the
furnished by the driving source of the grid and to source of heating power and the rest of the circuit.
the load. This resistance is of the order of a few The hum can be minimized by either of the
hundred ohms. The output impedance, neglecting connections shown in Fig. 3-18. In both cases the
the interelectrode capacitances, is equal to the grid- and plate-return circuits are connected to the
plate resistance of the tube. This is the same as in electrical midpoint (center tap) of the fIlament
the case of the grounded-cathode amplifier. supply. Thus, so far as the grid and plate are
The grounded-grid amplifier is widely used at concerned, the voltage and current on one side of
vhf and uhf, where the more conventional amplifi- the fIlament are balanced by an equal and opposite
er circuit fails to work properly. With a triode tube voltage and current on the other side. The balance
designed for this type of operation, an rf amplifier is never quite perfect, however, so filament-type
can be built that is free from the type of feedback tubes are never completely hum-free. For this
that causes oscillation. This requires that the grid reason directly-heated filaments are employed for
act as a shield between the cathode and plate, the most part in power tubes, where the hum
reducing the plate-cathode capacitance to a very introduced is extremely small in comparison with
low value. the power-output level.
With indirectly heated cathodes the chief prob-
Cathode Follower lem is the magnetic field set up by the heater.
The cathode follower uses the plate of the tube Occasionally, also, there is leakage between the
as the common element. The input signal is applied heater and cathode, allowing a small ac voltage to
between the grid and plate (assuming negligible get to the grid. If hum appears, grounding one side
impedance in the batteries) and the output is taken of the heater supply usually will help to reduce it,
between cathode and plate. This circuit is degener- although sometimes better results are obtained if
ative; in fact, all of the output voltage is fed back the heater supply is center-tapped and the center-
into the input circuit out of phase with the grid tap grounded, as in Fig. 3-18.
signal. The input signal therefore has to be larger
than the output voltage; that is, the cathode Cathode Bias
follower gives a loss in voltage, although it gives the In the simplified amplifier circuits discussed in
same power gain as other circuits under equivalent this chapter, grid bias has been supplied by a
operating conditions. battery. However, in equipment that operates from
An important feature of the cathode follower is the power line, cathode bias is almost universally
its low output impedance, which is given by the used for tubes that are operated in Gass A
formula (neglecting interelectrode capacitances) (constant dc input).
The cathode-bias method uses a resistor (cath-
Z -~ ode resistor) connected in series with the cathode,
out -1 + 11
where rp is the tube plate resistance and 11 is the
amplification factor. Low output impedance is a
valuable characteristic in an amplifier designed to
cover a wide band of frequencies. In addition, the
input capacitance is only a fraction of the grid-to-
cathode capacitance of the tube, a feature of
further benefit in a wide-band amplifier. The
cathode follower is useful as a step-down imped-
ance transformer, since the input impedance is high
and the output impedance is low.
CATHODE CIRCUITS AND GRID BIAS
Most of the equipment used by amateurs is
powered by the ac line. This includes the filaments
or heaters of vacuum tubes. Although supplies for
the plate (and sometimes the grid) are usually Fig. 3-18 - Filament center-tapping methods for
rectified and fIltered to give pure dc - that is, use with directly heated tubes.
74 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
Example: A receiving pentode requires 3 volts negative
bias. At this bias and tbe recommended plate and screen
voltages, its plate current is 9 rnA and its screen current is 2

lie
mAo The cathode current is therefore II mA (0.0 II amp).
The required resistance is

R=!J = .Jll =272 ohms

A 270-0hm resistor would be satisfactory. The power in the

Fig. 3-19 - Cathode biasing. R is the cathode resistor is
resistor and C is the cathode bypass capacitor. P = EI = 3 X O.oI I ~ .033 watt
The cathode-resistor method of biasing is self-
as shown at R in Fig. 3-19. The direction of regulating, because if the tube characteristics vary
plate-current flow is such that the end of the slightly from the published values (as they do in
resistor nearest the cathode is positive. The voltage practice) the bias will increase if the plate current
drop across R therefore places a negative voltage is slightly high, or decrease if it is slightly low. This
on the grid. This negative bias is obtained from the tends to hold the plate current at the proper value.
steady dc plate current. Calculation of the cathode resistor for a resist-
If the alternating component of plate current ance-coupled amplifier is ordinarily not practicable
flows through R when the tube is amplifying, the by the method described above, because the plate
voltage drop caused by the ac will be degenerative current in such an amplifier is usually much smaller
(note the similarity between this circuit and that of than the rated value given in the tu~ tables.
Fig. 3-14A). To prevent this the resistor is by- However, representative data for the tubes com-
passed by a capacitor, C, that has very low monly used as resistance-coupled amplifiers are
reactance compared with the resistance of R. given in the chapter on audio amplifiers, including
Depending on the type of tube and the particular cathode-resistor values.
kind of operation, R may be between about 100
and 3000 ohms. For good bypassing at the low "Contact Potential" Bias
audio frequencies, C should be 10 to 50 micro-
farads (electrolytic capacitors are used for this In the absence of any negative bias voltage on
purpose). At radio frequencies, capacitances of the grid of a tube, some of the electrons in the
abou t 100 pF to 0.1 JJ.F are used; the small values space charge will have enough velocity to reach the
are sufficient at very high frequencies and the grid. This causes a small current (of the order of
largest at low and medium frequencies. In the microamperes) to flow in the external circuit
between the grid and cathode. If the current is
range 3 to 30 megahertz a capacitance of .01 JJ.F
is satisfactory. made to flow through a high resistance - a
megohm or so - the resulting voltage drop in the
The value of cathode resistor for an amplifier resistor will give the grid a negative bias of the
having negligible dc resistance in its plate circuit order of one volt. The bias so obtained is called
(transformer or impedance coupled) can easily be contact-potential bias.
calculated from the known operating conditions of Contact-potential bias can be used to advantage
the tube. The proper grid bias and plate current in circuits operating at low signal levels (less than
always are specified by the manufacturer. Knowing one volt peak) since it eliminates the cathode-bias
these, the required resistance can be found by resistor and bypass capacitor. It is principally used
applying Ohm's Law. in low-level resistance-coupled audio amplifiers.
The bias resistor is connected directly between grid
Example: It is found from tube tables that the tube to and cathode, and must be isolated from the signal
be used should have a negative grid bias of 8 volts and that source by a blocking capacitor.
at this bias the plate current will be 12 milliamperes (0.012
amp). The required cathode resistance is then
Screen Supply
R=f= -!n=6670hmS
In practical circuits using tetrodes and pentodes
the voltage for the screen frequently is taken from
The nearest standard value, 680 ohms, would be close
the plate supply through a resistor. A typical
enough. The power used in the resistor is circuit for an rf amplifier is shown in Fig_ 3-20.
p= EI ~ 8 X .012 = 0.096 watt Resistor R is the screen dropping resistor, and C is
the screen bypass capacitor. In flowing through R,
the screen current causes a voltage drop in R that
reduces the plate-supply voltage to the proper
A 1/4-watt or 1/2-watt resistor would have ample rating.
value for the screen. When the plate-supply voltage
and the screen current are known, the value of R
The current that flows through R is the total can be caluclated from Ohm's Law.
cathode current. In an ordinary triode amplifier Example: An rf receiving pentode has a rated screen
this is the same as the plate current, but in a current of 2 milliamperes (0.002 amp) at normal operating
screen-grid tube the cathode current is the sum of conditions. The rated screen voltage is 100 volts, and the
the plate and screen currents. Hence these two plate supply gives 250 volts. To put 100 volts on the screen,
the drop across R must be equal to the difference between
currents must be added when calculating the value the plate-supply voltage and the screen voltage; that is.
of cathode resistor required for a screen-grid tube. 250 .. 100 = ISO volts. Then
Oscillators 75
R =f =~= 75,000 ohms
The power to be .dissipated in the resistor is
p 2 EI = ISO X .002 = 0.3 watt

A 1/2- or I-watt resistor would be satisfactory.

The reactance of the screen bypass capacitor, C,

should be low compared with the screen-to-
cathode impedance. For radio-frequency applica-
tions a capacitance in the vicinity of .01 J.lF is
Fig. 3-20 - Screen-voltage supply for a pentode amply large.
tube through a dropping resistor, R. The screen In some vacuum-tube circuits the screen voltage
bypass capacitor, C, must have low enough react- is obtained from a voltage divider connected across
ance to bring the screen to ground potential for the the plate supply. The design of voltage dividers is
frequency or frequencies being amplified. discussed at length elsewhere in this book.

OSCILLATORS
It was mentioned earlier that if there is enough of bias so developed is equal to the grid current
positive feedback in an amplifier circuit, self-sus- multiplied by the resistance of Rg (Ohm's Law).
taining oscillations will be set up. When an amplifi- The value of grid-leak resistance required depends
er is arranged so that this condition exists it is upon the kind of tube used and the purpose for
called an oscillator. which the oscillator is intended. Values range all
Oscillations normally take place at only one the way from a few thousand to several hundred
frequency, and a desired frequency of oscillation thousand ohms. The capacitance of Cg should be
can be obtained by using a resonant circuit tuned large enough to have low reactance (a few hundred
to that frequency. For example, in Fig. 3-21A the ohms) at the operating frequency.
circuit LC is tuned to the desired frequency of The circuit shown at B in Fig. 3-21 uses the
oscillation. The cathode of the tube is connected voltage drops across two capacitors in series in the
to a tap on coil L and the grid and plate are tuned circuit to supply the feedback. Other than
connected to opposite ends of the tuned circuit. this, the operation is the same as just described.
When an rf current flows in the tuned circuit there The feedback can be varied by varying the ratio of
is a voltage drop across L that increases progressive- the reactance of Cl and C2(that is, by varying the
ly along the turns. Thus the point at which the tap ratio of their capacitances).
is connected will be at an intermediate potential Another type of oscillator, called the tuned-
with respect to the two ends of the coil. The plate tuned-grid circuit, is shown in Fig. 3-22.
amplified current in the plate circuit, which flows Resonant circuits tuned approximately to the same
through the bottom section of L, is in phase with frequency are connected between grid and cathode
the current already flowing in the circuit and thus and between plate and cathode. The two coils, L1
in the proper relationship for positive feedback.
The amount of feedback depends on the
position of the tap. If the tap is too near the grid
end the voltage drop between grid and cathode is
too small to give enough feedback to sustain
oscillation, and if it is too near, the plate end of the
impedance between the cathode and plate is too
small to permit good amplification. Maximum
feedback usually is obtained when the tap is
somewhere near the center of the coil. HA~TLEY CIRCUIT
The circuit of Fig. 3-21A is parallel-fed, Cb
being the blocking capacitor. The value of Cb is
not critical so long as its reactance is low (not more
than a few hundred ohms) at the operating
frequency.
Capacitor Cg is the grid capacitor. It and Rg
(the grid leak) are used for the purpose of
obtaining grid bias for the tube. In most oscillator
circuits the tube generates its own bias. During the
part of the cycle when the grid is positive with COLPITTS CIRCUIT
respect to the cathode, it attracts electrons. These Fig. 3-21 - Basic oscillator circuits. Feedback
electrons cannot flow through L back to the voltage is obtained bY,tapping the grid and cathode
cathode because Ci. "blocks" direct current. They across a portion of the tuned circuit. In the Hartley
therefore have to flow or "leak" through Rg to circuit the tap is on the coil, but in the Colpitts
cathode, and in doing so cause a voltage drop in Rg circuit the voltage is obtained from the drop across
that places a negative bias on the grid. The amount a capacitor.
76 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
ance of the tuned circuit and thus lower its Q. For
highest stability, therefore, the coupling between
the tuned circuit and the tube and load must be
kept as loose as possible. Preferably, the oscillator
should not be required to deliver power to an
external circuit, and a high value of grid leak
resistance should be used since this helps to raise
the tube grid and plate resistances as seen by the
Fig. 3-22 - The tuned-plate tuned-grid oscillator. tuned circuit. Loose coupling can be effected in a
variety of ways - one, for example, is by "tapping
and L2 are not magnetically coupled. The feed- down" on the tank for the connections to the grid
back is' through the grid-plate capacitance of. ~he and plate. This is done in the "series-tuned"
tube and will be in the right phase to be posItive Colpitts circuit widely used in variable-frequency
whe~ the plate circuit, C2-L2, is tuned to a slightly osci1lators for amateur transmitters and described
higher frequency than the grid circuit, LI-Cl. The in a later chapter. Alternatively, the Llc ratio may
amount of feedback can be adjusted by varying the be made as small as possible while sustaining stable
tuning of either circuit. The frequency of oscilla- oscillations (high C) with the grid and pla~e
tion is determined by the tuned circuit that has the connected to the ends of the circuit as shown m
Figs. 3-21 and 3-22. Using relatively high plate
higher Q. The grid leak and grid .cap~citor ha~e the voltage and low plate current also is desirable.
same functions as in the other CIICUltS. In thIS case
it is convenient to use series feed for the plate In general, dynamic stability will be at maxi-
circuit, so Cb is a bypass capacitor to guide the rf mum when the feedback is adjusted to the least
current around the plate supply. value that permits reliable osci1lation. The use of a
tube having a high v.alue of transconductance is
There are many oscillator circuits (examples of
desirable, since the higher the transconductance
others will be found in later chapters) but the basic
the looser the permissible coupling to the tuned
feature of all of them is that there is positive
circuit and the smaller the feedback required.
feedback in the proper amplitude and phase to
Load variations act in much the same way as
sustain oscillation. plate-voltage variations. A temperature change in
the load may also result in drift.
Oscillator Operating Characteristics
Mechanical variations, usually caused by vibra-
When an oscillator is delivering power to a load, tions, cause changes in inductance and/or capaci-
the adjustment for proper feedback will depend on tance that in turn cause the frequency to "wobble"
how heavily the osci1lator is loaded - that is, how in step with the vibration.
much power is being taken from the circuit. If the Methods of minimizing frequency variations in
feedback is not large enough - grid excitation too oscillators are taken up in detail in later chapters.
small - a small increase in load may tend to throw
the circuit out of osci1lation. On the other hand, Ground Point
too much feedback will make the grid current In the oscillator circuits shown in Figs. 3-21
excessively higher, with the result that the power and 3-22 the cathode is connected to ground. It is
loss in the grid circuit becomes larger than not actually essential that the radio-frequency
necessary. Since the oscillator itself supplies this circuit should be grounded at the cathode; in fact,
grid power, excessive feedback lowers the over-all there are many times when an rf ground on some
efficiency because whatever power is used in the other point in the circuit is desirable. The rf
grid circuit is not available as useful output. ground can be placed at any point so long as
One of the most important considerations in proper provisions are made for feeding the supply
oscillator design is frequency stability. The princi- voltages to the tube elements.
pal factors that cause a change in frequency are (1) Fig.3-23 shows the Hartley circuit with the
temperature, (2) plate voltage, (3) loading, (4) plate end of the circuit grounded. The cathode and
mechanical variations of circuit elements. Tempera- control grid are "above ground," so far as the rf is
ture changes will cause vacuum-tube elements to concerned. An advantage of such a circuit is that
expand or contract slightly, thus causing variations the frame of the tuning capacitor can be grounded.
in the interelectrode capacitances. Since these are The Colpitts circuit can also be used with the plate
unavoidably part of the tuned circuit, the frequen-
cy will change correspondingly. Temperature
changes in the coil or the tuning capacitor will alter
the inductance or capacitance slightly, again caus-
ing a shift in the resonant frequency. These effects
are relatively slow in operation, and the frequency
change caused by them is called drift.
A change in plate voltage usually will cause the
frequency to change a small amount, an effect
called dynamic instability. Dynamic instability can
be reduced by using a tuned circuit of high
effective Q. The energy taken from the circuit to Fig. 3-23 - Showing how the plate may be
supply grid losses, as well as energy supplied to a grounded for rf in a typical oscillator circuit
load, represent an increase in the effective resist- (Hartley).
Microwave Tubes 77
grounded and the cathode above ground; it is only variation is to use the screen grid of the tube as the
necessary to feed the dc to the cathode through an anode for the Hartley or Colpitts oscillator circuit.
rf choke. It is usually used in the grounded anode circuit,
A tetrode or pentode tube can be used in any and the plate circuit of the tube is tuned to the
of the popular oscillator circuits. A common second harmonic of the oscillator frequency.

VHF AND MICROWAVE TUBES

Until now, it has been assumed that the time it the cavity walls and the circuit is completed. This
takes for the electrons to travel from the cathode is shown pictorially in Fig. 3-24.
to the plate does not affect the performance of Klystrons either have cavities external to the
vacuum-tube operation. As the frequency of opera- vacuum part of the tube or built in as an integral
tion is raised, this time, called the transit time, part of the tube structure. The 723 reflex klystron
becomes increasingly important. The transit time is of the latter type, and along with similar types
depends upon the voltage from the cathode to the can be purchased surplus. These tubes were used as
plate and the spacing between them. The higher local oscillators in radar receivers and can be used
the voltage and the smaller the spacing, the shorter for the same purpose in amateur applications. They
the transit time. This is why tubes designed for vhf also may be used in low power transmitters.
and uhf work have very small interelectrode Along with a heater supply (usually 6.3 volts),
spacings. However, the power handling capabilities two other voltages are necessary for the operation
also get smaller as the spacing decreases so there is of the reflex klystron. This is shown in Fig. 3-24.
a limit above which ordinary triode and pentode Vc is typically 300 volts dc and Vr will vary from
tubes cannot be operated efficiently. 100 to 150 volts dc. The loaded Q of the reflex
Many different tubes have been developed klystron cavity is quite low and oscillations will
which actually use transit-time effects to an ad- occur at different frequencies for various values of
vantage. Velocity modulation of the electron Vr. This can be used to advantage and either
stream in a klystron is one example. A small frequency modulation or automatic frequency
voltage applied across the gap in a re-entrant cavity control (afc) can be applied to the klystron by
resonator either retards or accelerates an electron means of changes in Vr. As the repeller voltage is
stream by means of the resultant electric field. made more negative, it will be found that
Initially, all the electrons are traveling at the same oscillations will occur, increase in amplitude, and
velocity and the current in the beam is uniform. then drop out. This will be repeated as the voltage
After the velocity fluctuations are impressed on is increased and each time the maximum amplitude
the beam, the current is still uniform for awhile of the output power will be less. However, the
but then the electrons that were accelerated begin frequency range covered by each different set of
to catch up with the slower ones that passed oscillation conditions is approximately the same.
through when the field was zero. The latter are also
catching up with ones that passed through the gap
earlier but were retarded. The result is that the
current in the beam is no longer uniform but - vr
consists of a series of pulses. If the beam now
passes through another cavity gap, a current will be
+-;J;
induced in the cavity walls and an electric field also
will be set up across the gap. If the phase of the Bellows
electric field is right, the electron pulses or
"bunches" pass through the gap and are retarded,
thus giving up energy to the electric field. When Electron Re-entr:axt
the electric field reverses, it would normally Stream cavity resonator:
accelerate the same number of electrons and give Ouipui
back the energy, but fewer electrons now pass coupt»t.g loop
through the gap and the energy given up is less.
Thus, a net flow of energy is from the beam to the
cavity. If the voltage produced across the output
cavity is greater than that across the input cavity,
amplification results (assuming the two cavity
impedances are the same). waveguide
The type of klystron that amateurs are most coapfiii; probe
likely to use is the reflex klystron oscillator. Here,
the input and output cavity are the same. The
Fig. 3-24 - Cross-sectional view of a typical reflex
electron stream makes one pass through, becomes klystron. The frequency of the cavity resonator is
velocity modulated, and is turned around by the changed by varying the spacing between the grids
negative charge on an element called the repeller. using a tuning mechanism and a flexible bellows.'
During the second pass through, the stream is now Modification of this system may be necessary to
bunched and delivers some of its energy to the get certain surplus klystrons into an appropriate
cavity. The dissipated beam is then picked up by amateur band.
78 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
MOD. Fig. 3-25 - Schematic diagram
6AT6 and parts information for a
...---o+Z70V power supply and control unit
suitable for amateur micro-
wave transceivers. Unless
otherwise specified, capacitor
values are in fJ-F and resistors
are 1/2-watt composition.
22K CR1 - 1000 PRY, 1-A.
F1 - 1-A fuse and holder.
J1 - Shielded microphone
jack.
J2 - Coaxial chassis fitting.
L1 - 10-H 110-mA choke
(Stancor C-1 001 ).
R1 - 0.5-megohm potentiom-
eter, audio taper.
R2 - 0.2-rpeghom potentiom-
eter, carbon, linear taper.
R3 - Meter shunt; value to
--------------~c.-------- suit meter used, for 1-mA
METERING range.
50-0-50 R4 - 5000 ohms, 20 watts,
with slider.
RFC1 - 15 turns No. 24
enamel on 1/2-inch form.
(Any rf choke for 30 to
100 MHz is suitable.)
S1 - Toggle switch.
S2 - Toggle switch.
S3 - Single-pole 3-position
wafer switch.
S4 - Toggle switch.
T1 - 270-0-270 volts at 70
mA min., 5 volts, 3 A. 6.3
vo Its, 3.5 A (Stancor
f08V
PC-8405).
082 TO AFC T2 - 6.3 volts, 1.2 A (Stancor
L---------+-__-4__-o+ P-6134).

Practical metering, afc, modulator, and power waveguide and the coupling to the line is de-
supply circuit diagrams are shown in Fig. 3-25 termined by the depth of the probe. Since
(QST, August, 1960) which are suitable for the klystrons (and other microwave tubes) are quite
723 and 2K26 klystrons. One disadvantage of the sensitive to variations in loading, some sort of
system shown is that the shell of the klystron is at attenuator or an isolator is often necessary to
260 volts above ground. An alternate method is to prevent malfunctions.
ground the shell and apply -260 volts to the Other types of microwave tubes that the
cathode and -(260 + Vr) to the repeller. A amateur may encounter are the traveling wave tube
510-volt supply is needed for the repeller, but since (TWT) , and the backward wave oscillator (BWO).
the repeller draws negligible current, this should Here, an electromagnetic wave is slowed down
not be difficult. below the speed of light in free space and allowed
As is the case with most microwave tubes, to interact continuously with an electron stream.
coupling power out from the klystron is somewhat While the latter two tubes use magnets for focusing
more complicated than is the case with low- the electron beam, the magnetron and other
frequency tubes. A magnetic pickup loop placed in crossed-field amplifiers also use a magnetic field in
the cavity is connected either to a coaxial fitting or conjunction with an electric field in their
a waveguide probe. The latter (used with the 2K26 operation.
and the 723) is inserted into the middle of the
 Chapter 4

Semiconductor Devices
Materials whose conductivity falls approximate- CURRENT NO CURRENT
II
ly midway between that of good conductors (e.g.,
copper) and good insulators (e.g., quartz) are called

:a
semiconductors. Some of these materials (primarily
germanium and silicon) can, by careful processing, p ++++
t
be used in solid-state electronic devices that
perform many or all of the functionsofthermionic
tubes. In many applications their small size, long
life and low power requirements make them
-:-: +
N ++++
- + +t
+
N ~
----
superior to tubes.
The conductivity of a material is proportional W (B) (C)
to the number of free electrons in the material.
Pure germanium and pure silicon crystals have Fig. 4-1 - A p-n junction (A) and its
relatively few free electrons. If, however, carefully behavior when conducting (S) and
controlled amounts of "impurities" (materials nonconducting (e).
having a different atomic structure, such as arsenic
or antimony) are added the number of free tube diode rectifier in that there is a measurable,
electrons, and consequently the conductivity, is although comparatively very small, reverse current.
increased. When certain other impurities are The reverse current results from the presence of
introduced (such as aluminum, gallium or indium), some carriers of the type opposite to those which
an electron deficiency, or hole, is produced. As in principally characterize the material.
the case of free electrons, the presence of holes With the two plates separated by practically
encourages the flow of electrons in the semicon- zero spacing, the junction forms a capacitor of
auctor material, and the conductivity is increased. relatively high capacitance. This places a limit on
Semiconductor material that conducts by virtue of the upper frequency at which semiconductor
the free electrons is called n-type material; material devices of this construction will operate, as
that conducts by virtue of an electron deficiency is compared with vacuum tubes. Also, the number of
calle d p-type. excess electrons and holes in the material depends
upon temperature, and since the conductivity in
Electron and Hole Conduction turn depends on the number of excess holes and
If a piece of p-type material is joined to a piece electrons, the device is more temperature sensitive
of n-type material as at A in Fig. 4-1 and a voltage than is a vacuum tube.
is applied to the pair as at B, current will flow Capacitance may be reduced by making the
across the boundary or junction between the two contact area very small. This is done by means of a
(and also in the external circuit) when the battery point contact, a tiny p-type region being formed
has the polarity indicated. Electrons, indicated by under the contact point during manufacture when
the minus symbol, are attracted across the junction n-type material is used for the main body of the
from the n material through the p material to the device.
positive terminal of the battery, and holes,
indicated by the plus symbol, are attracted in the SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
opposite direction across the junction by the Point-contact and junction-type diodes are used
negative potential of the battery. Thus current for many of the same purposes for which tube
flows through the circuit by means of electrons
moving one way and holes the other.
If the battery polarity is reversed, as at C, the
excess electrons in the n material are attracted
away from the junction and the holes in the p
material are attracted by the negative potential of
the battery away from the junction. This leaves the
junction region without any current carriers,
consequently there is no conduction.
In other words, a junction of p- and n-type
materials constitutes a rectifier. It differs from the

Typical silicon and germanium diodes of the

present era. The larger units are designed to handle
high cu rrent.

79
80 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
curve, when the applied voltage is changed by a
Metal
base small amount. The forward resistance shows some
variation in the region of very small applied
voltages, but the curve is for the most part quite
straight, indicating fairly constant dynamic resist-
ance. For small applied voltages, the forward
Catwhisker resistance is of the order of 200 ohms or less in
most such diodes. The back resistance shows

~I tlL
considerable variation, depending on the particular
Wire voltage chosen for the measurement. It may run
lead
from a few thousand ohms to well over a megohm.
(8) Call' In applications such as meter rectifiers for rf
P·Tille,. , indicating instruments (rf voltmeters, wavemeter
niiztertcu indicators, and so on) where the load resistance
may be small and the applied voltage of the order
of several volts, the resistances vary with the value
of the applied voltage and are considerably lower.
(c)
SYMBOL
Junction Diodes
Junction-type diodes made of silicon are
Fig. 4-2 - At A, a germanium point-contact diode. employed widely as rectifiers. Depending upon the
At B, construction of a silicon junction-type diode. design of the diode, they are capable of rectifying
The symbol at C is used for both diode types and currents up to 40 or 50 amperes, and up to reverse
indicates the direction of minimum resistance
measured by conventional methods. At C, the peak voltages of 2500. They can be connected in
arrow corresponds to the plate (anode) of a series or in parallel, with suitable circuitry, to
vacuum-tube diode. The bar represents the tube's provide higher capabilities than those given above.
cathode element. A big advantage over thermionic rectifiers is their
large surge-to-average-current ratio, which makes
them suitable for use with capacitor-only filter
diodes are used. The construction of such diodes is circuits. This in turn leads to improved no-load-to-
shown in Fig. 4-2. Germanium and silicon are the full-load voltage characteristics. Some considera-
most widely used materials; silicon finds much tion must be given to the operating temperature of
application as a microwave mixer diode. As silicon diodes, although many carry ratings to 150
compared with the tube diode for rf applications, degrees C or so. A silicon junction diode requires a
the semiconductor point-contact diode has the forward voltage of from 0.4 to 0.7 volts to
advantages of very low interelectrode capacitance overcome the junction potential barrier.
(on the order of 1 pF or less) and not requiring any
heater or filament power. Ratings
The germanium diode is characterized by
relatively large current flow with small applied Semiconductor diodes are rated primarily in
voltages in the "forward" direction, and small, terms of maximum safe inverse voltage (PIV or
although finite, current flow in the reverse or PRy) and maximum average rectified current.
"back" direction for much larger applied voltages. Inverse voltage is a voltage applied in the direction
A typical characteristic curve is shown in Fig. 4-3. opposite to that which would be read by a dc
The dynamic resistance in either the forward or meter connected in the current path.
back direction is determined by the change in It is also customary with some types to specify
current that occurs, at any given point on the standards of performance with respect to forward
and back current. A minimum value of forward
current is usually specified for one volt applied.
The voltage at which the maximum tolerable back
Fig. 4-3 - Typical so current is specified varies with the type of diode.
point contact german-
ium diode characteristic ~
....,40
II Zener Diodes
cu rve. Because the back
c urrent is much smaller ~
'<30
/ The Zener diode is a special type of silicon
junction diode that has a characteristic similar to
than the forward cur·
rent, a different scale is
used for back vol tage
~
~ 20
II that shown in Fig. 44. The sharp break from
non-conductance to conductance is called the
a nd current. ~
~ to
/ Zener knee; at applied voltages greater than this
breakdown point, the voltage drop across the diode
60 -50
SACK VOLTS
-40 -30 ·20
,..... -to l/ is essentially constant over a wide range of
1 2- 3 of currents. The substantially constant voltage drop
./
V tOO
FORWARD VOLTS
over a wide range of currents allows this
....
V- ,,~

~~\
semiconductor device to be used as a constant
voltage reference or control element, in a manner
1/ 00

aoo il
somewhat similar to the gaseous voltage-regulator
tube. Voltages for Zener-diode action range from a
Semiconductor Diodes 81
4~0
few volts to several hundred and power ratings run
from a fraction of a watt to 50 watts.
Zener diodes can be connected in series to
IF (ma.l ~oo advantage; the temperature coefficient is improved
over that of a single diode of equivalent rating and
the power-handling capability is increased.
150 Examples of Zener diode applications are given
REVERSE VOLTAGE
V in Fig. 4-5. The illustrations represent some of the
more common uses to which Zeners are put. Many
30 20 10 ./ other applications are possible, though not shown
o.~ 1.0 1.5
FORWARD VOLTAGE here.

15
Voltage-Variable Capacitor Diodes
Voltage-variable capacitors, Varicaps or varac-
l z (ma.l
tors, are p-n junction diodes that behave as
30 capacitors of reasonable Q when biased in the
reverse direction. They are useful in many
applications because the actual capacitance value is
45 dependent upon the dc bias voltage that is applied.
In a typical capacitor the capacitance can be varied
over a 1O-to-1 range with a bias change from 0 to
Fig. 4-4 - Typical characteristic of a Zener diode. -100 volts. The current demand on the bias supply
In this example, the voltage drop is substantially is on the order of a few microamperes.
constant at 30 volts in the (normally) reverse Typical applications include remote control of
direction. Compare with Fig. 4-3. A diode with this tuned circuits, automatic frequency control of
characteristic would be called a "30-volt Zener receiver local oscillators, and simple frequency
diode." modulators for communications and for sweep-

:E;: ($) LO:~

R + R

I'V :1o~~
I LOAD
SIDE
£--t--o..J +42V

.:E----+------O~'
BASIC ZENER-DIODE 12V
DC REGULATOR
(A) 6.8V

ZENER-DIODE VOLTAGE.-
DIVIDER/REGULATOR
12: o--'V\/Ir-..--~,.,h (B)
RFAMP.r---------,
-~

INP8
FILAMENT REGULATOR
(C)
AMP.

o-H
INPUT
+o-------t"--~

1 12V

BASE-BIAS REGULATION
"1
TRANSIENT PROTECTION
(E) (F)

Fig. 4-5 - Zener diodes have many practical uses. Shown at A. is a simple dc voltage regulator which
operates in the same manner as a gaseous regulator tube. Several Zener diodes can be connected in series
(B) to provide various regulated voltages. At C, the filament line of a tube is supplied with regulated dc
to enhance oscillator stability and reduce hum. In the circuit at 0 a Zener diode sets the bias level of an
rf power amplifier. Bias regulation is afforded the bipolar transistor at E by connecting the Zener diode
between base and ground. At F, the 18-volt Zener will clip peaks at and above 18 volts to protect 12-volt
mobile equipment. (High peaks are frequently caused by transients in the automotive ignition system.)
82 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
31

tAl lBl

VFO

'-__-t"--...,ho---o OUTPUT

Fig. 4-6 - Varactor frequency multipliers are

shown at A and B. I n practice the tuned circuits
RFC
and impedance-matching techniques are somewhat
more complex than those shown in these
""'-VV'~ ___ +12Y representative circuits. At C, a varactor diode is
REG. used to vary the frequency of a typical JFET VFO.
As the dc voltage is changed by control R, the
junction capacitance of CR1 changes to shift the
leI resonant frequency of the tuned circuit.

tuning applications. Diodes used in these applica- such applications, this factor must be taken into
tions are frequently referred to as "Varicap" or account when designing a circuit. Present-day
"Epicap" diodes. manufacturing processes have produced units
An important transmitter application of the whose Qs are in excess of 200 at 50 MHz.
varactor is as a high-cfficiency frequency multipli-
er. The basic circuits for varactor doublers and HOT-CARRIER DIODES
triplers are shown in Fig. 4-6, at A and B. In these The hot-carrier diode is a high-frequency and
circuits the fundamental frequency flows around microwave semiconductor whose characteristics
the input loop. Harmonics generated by the fall somewhere between those of the point-contact
varactor are passed to the load through a filter diode and the junction diode. The former is
tuned to the desired harmonic. In the case of the comparable to the point-contact diode in high-
tripler circuit at B, an idler circuit, tuned to the frequency characteristics, and exceeds it in
second harmonic, is required. Tripling efficiencies uniformity and reliability. The hot-carrier diode is
of 75 percent are not too difficult to come by, at useful in high-speed switching circuits and as a
power levels of 10 to 25 watts. mixer, detector, and rectifier well into the
Fig. 4-6C illustrates how a voltage-variable microwave spectrum. In essence, the hot-carrier
capacitor diode can be used to tune a VFO. These diode is a rectifying metal-semiconductor junction.
diodes can be used to tune other rf circuits also, Typical metals used in combination with silicon of
and are particularly useful for remote tuning such either the n- or p-type are platinum, silver, gold or
as might be encountered in vehicular installations. palladium.
These diodes, because of their small size, permit The hot-carrier diode utilizes a true Schottky
tuned-circuit assemblies to be quite compact. Since barrier, whereas the point-contact diode used a
the Q of the diode is a vital consideration in metal whisker to make contact with the semicon-
ductor element. In a hot-carrier diode a planar area
N+SILICON WMER
provides a uniform contact potential and uniform
GOLD-PLATED WHISKER current distribution throughout the junction. This
GLASS geometry results in lower series resistance, greater
power capability, lower noise characteristics, and
considerably greater immunity to burnout from
transient pulses or spikes. A cross-sectional view of
a hot-carrier diode is shown in Fig. 4-7 (courtesy of
EPITAXIAL Hewlett Packard Associates). A comparison in
SILICON characteristics between a point-contact diode and a
hot-carrier diode is given in Fig. 4-8. Detailed
information on the characteristics of hot-carrier
Fig. 4-7 - Cross-sectional view of a hot-carrier diodes and their many applications is given in
diode. Hewlett Packard Application Note 907.
Transistors 83
PIN Diodes
.7
Another type of diode is the PIN diode. It
might more aptly be described as a variable resistor
than as a diode. In its intended application (at vhf .5 J

.. I
and higher) it does not rectify the applied signal, !
nor does it generate harmonics. Its resistance is
controlled by dc or a low-frequency signal, and the ....
high-frequency signal which is being controlled by
(
the diode sees a constant polarity-independent I i
resistance. The dynamic resistance of the PIN HfA~50 IIN21 p
diode is often larger than 10,000 ohms, and its 0.1 .3 .5 .7 .9 1.0
junction capacitance is very low. FORWARD VOLTAGE
PIN diodes are used as variable shunt or series (REVERSE VOLTAGE =10 V jolV.)
resistive elements in microwave transmission lines, Fig. 4-8 - Curves showing the comparison in
and as agc diodes in the signal input lead to vhf and characteristics between a 1 N21 G point-contact
uhf fm receivers. The PIN diode offers many diode and a Hewlett-Packard HPA2350 hot-carrier
in terestin~ possibilities. diode.

TRANSISTORS

the emitter current; that is, the collector current is

controlled by the emitter current.
Between each p-n junction exists an area known
as the depletion, or transition region. It is similar in
characteristics to a dielectric layer, and its width
varies in accordance with the operating voltage.
The semiconductor materials either side of the
depletion region consitute the plates of a capacitor.
The capacitance from base to emitter is shown as
Cbe (Fig. 4-9), and the collector-base capacitance is
represented as Cbc ' Changes in signal and operating
Fig. 4-9 - Illustration of a junctionpnp transistor. voltages cause a nonlinear change in these junction
Capacitances Cbe and Cbc are discussed in the text, capacitances, which must be taken into account
and vary with changes in operating and signal when designing some circuits. A base-emitter
voltage. resistance, rb', also exists. The junction capaci-
tance, in combination with rb' determines the
useful upper frequency limit ifT or fa) of a
Fig. 4-9 shows a "sandwich" made from two transistor by establishing an RC time constant.
layers of p-type semiconductor material with a thin
layer of n-type between. There are in effect two pn Power Amplification
junction diodes back to back. If a positive bias is Because the collector is biased in the back
applied to the p-type material at the left, current direction the collector-to-base resistance is high.
will flow though the left-hand junction, the holes
moving to the right and the electrons from the
n-type material moving to the left. Some of the
holes moving into the n-type material will combine This photo shows various modern-day bipolar and
with the electrons there and be neutralized, but field-effect transistors. Various case styles and
some of them also will travel to the region of the power classes are represented here.
right-hand junction.
If the pn combination at the right is biased
negatively, as shown, there would normally be no
current flow in this circuit. However, there are now
additional holes available at the junction to travel
to point B and electrons can travel toward point A,
so a current can flow even though this section of
the sandwich is biased to prevent conduction. Most
of the current is between A and B and does not
flow out through the common connection to the
n-type material in the sandwich.
A semiconductor combination of this type is
called a transistor, and the three sections are
known as the emitter, base and collector,
respectively. The amplitude of the collector
current dePends principally upon the amplitude of
84 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Collector capable of high-power operation well above 1000
MHz. These transistors are quite useful as
frequency doublers and triplers, and are able to
provide an actual power gain in the process.
Another multi-emitter transistor has been
developed for use from hf through uhf, and should
be of particular interest to the radio amateur. It is
called a balanced-emitter transistor (BET), or
"ballasted" transistor. The transistor chip contains
several triode semiconductors whose bases and
COllector collectors are connected in parallel. The various
Base
-«LNPN
Emitter
emitters, however, have built-in emitter resistors
(typically about 1 ohm) which provide a
current-limiting safety factor during overload
periods, or under conditions of significant
mismatch. Since the emitters are brought out to a

-«r eollector single case terminal the resistances are effectively

in parallel, thus reducing the combined emitter
Base
resistances to a fraction of an ohm. (If a significant
£miJier amount of resistance were allowed to exist it
PNP would cause degeneration in the stage and would
lower the gain of the circuit.)
Most modern transistors are of the junction
Fig. 4-10 - Schematic and pictorial representations variety. Various names have been given to the
of junction-type transistors. In analogous terms the
base can be thought of as a tube's grid, the several types, some of which are junction alloy,
collector as a plate, and the emitter as a cathode. mesa, and planar. Though their characteristics may
(See Fig. 4-12.1 differ slightly, they are basically of the same family
and simply represent different physical properties
and manufacturing techniques.
On the other hand, the emitter and collector
currents are substantially equal, so the power in Transistor Characteristics
the collector circuit is larger than the power in the
emitter circuit (P '" [2R, so the powers are An important characteristic of a transistor is its
proportional to the respective resistances, if the beta (jJ), or current-amplification factor, which is
currents are the same). In practical transistors sometimes expressed as hFE (static' forward-current
emitter resistance is of the order of a few hundred
ohms while the collector resistance is hundreds or
thousands of times higher, so power gains of 20 to
40 dB or even more are possible.
-rv ~~~----~'----, -%-
INpu~lh""'M--I
UN PHASE)

Types Jr 6 UTPUT

The transistor may be one of the types shown

in Fig. 4-10. The assembly of p- and n-types
materials may be reversed, so that pnp and npn
transistors are both possible.
The fIrst two letters of the npn and pnp
designations indicate the respective polarities of
the voltages applied to the emitter and collector in
normal operation. In a pnp transistor, for example,
the emitter is made positive with respect to both
the collector and the base, and the collector is
made negative with respect to both the emitter and
the base. lIN PHASE)
Manufacturers are constantly working to
improve the performance of their transistors -
greater reliability, higher power and frequency NEUTRALIZATION (8)
ratings, and improved uniformity of characteristics
for any given type number. Recent developments Fig. 4-11 - Transit-time effects (in combination
provided the overlay transistor, whose emitter with base-collector capacitance Cbc) can cause the
structure is made llP of several emitters which are positive-feedback condition shown at A. Normally,
joined together at a common case terminal. This the phase of the collector signal of an amplifier is
the inverse of the base signal. Positive feedback can
process lowers the base-emitter resistance, rb', and be corrected by using unilateralization, feeding an
improves the transistor's input time constant, equal amount of opposite-phase signal back to the
which is determined by rb' and the junction base through Uc. Neutralization is shown at B, and
capacitance of the device. The overlay transistor is deals with negative feedback, as can be seen by the
extremely useful in vhf and uhf applications, and is phase relationships shown.
Transistors 85
transfer ratio) or hfe (small-signal forward-current
transfer ratio). Both 'symbols relate to the
grounded-emitter configuration. Beta is the ratio of
the base current to the collector current. Thus, if a
base current of 1 rnA causes the collector current
to rise to 100 rnA the beta is 100. Typical betas for
junction transistors range from as low as 10 to as
high as several hundred. 10 20 30
COLLECTOR VOLTS
A transistor's alpha (a) is the ratio of the
emitter and collector currents. Symbols h FB (static Fig. 4-13 - Collector current vs. collector voltage
forward-current transfer ratio) and hfb (small- for various values of base current, for a
signal forward-current transfer ratio), common- junction-type transistor. The values are determined
base hookup, are frequently used in connection by means of the circuit shown.
with gain. The smaller the base current, the closer
the collector current comes to being equal to that
of the emitter, and the closer alpha comes to being
1. Alpha for a junction transistor is usually using a form of neu tralization called unilateraliza-
between 0.92 and 0.98. tion. In this case the feedback conditions are
Transistors have frequency characteristics balanced out. These conditions include a resistive
which are of importance to circuit designers. as well as a capacitive component, thus changing a
Symbol IT is the gain bandwidth product network from bilaterial to one which is unilateral.
(common-emitter) of the transistor. This is the Negative feedback caused by Cbc , on the other
frequency at which the gain becomes unity, or 1. hand, can be corrected by neutralization. Examples
The expression "alpha cutoff' is frequently used of both techniques are given in Fig. 4-11.
to express the useful upper-frequency limit of a
transistor, and this relates to the common-base Characteristic Curves
hookup. Alpha cutoff is the point at which the
gain is 0.707, its value at 1000 Hz. The operating characteristics of transistors can
Another factor which limits the upper frequen- be shown by a series of characteristic curves. One
cy capability of a transistor is its transit time. This such set of curves is shown in Fig. 4-12. It shows
is the period of time required for the current to the collector current VS. collector voltage for a
flow from emitter to collector, through the number of fixed values of emitter current.
semiconductor base material. The thicker the base Practically the collector current depends almost
material, the greater the transit time. Hence, the entirely on the emitter current and is independent
thicker the base material the more likelihood there of the collector voltage. The separation between
will be of phase shift of the signal passing through curves representing equal steps of emitter curren t is
it. At frequencies near and above iT or alpha quite uniform, indicating that almost distortionless
cutoff partial or complete phase shift can occur. output can be obtained over the useful operating
This will give rise to posi tive feedback bocause the range of the transistor.
internal capacitance, Cbc , (Fig.4-11)feeds part of Another type of curve is shown in Fig. 4-13,
the in-phase collector signal back to the base. The together with the circuit used for obtaining it. This
positive feedback can cause instability and also shows collector current vs collector voltage,
oscillation, and in most cases will interlock the but for a number of different values of base
inpu t and ou tpu t tuned circuits of an rf amplifier current. In this case the emitter element is used as
so that it is almost impossible to tune them the common point in the circuit. The collector
properly. Positive feedback can be corrected by current is not independent of collector voltage
with this type of connection, indicating that the
output resistance of the device is fairly low. The
~-IO I
base current also is quite low, which means that
.:. the resistance of the base-emitter circuit is

00 R+ - +-
~-8
0:
0: -6
a4
0:-
r2
~-2.
....
....
8 0 -10
Ie=

-20
COLLECTOR VOLTS
~ MA

-30
2

0
moderately high with this method of connection.
This may be contrasted with the high values of
emitter current shown in Fig. 4-12.

Ratings
The principal maximum ratings for transistors
are collector dissipation, collector voltage, collect-
or current, and emitter current. Variations in these
Fig. 4-12 A typical collector-current vs. basic ratings, such as maximum collector-to-base
collector-voltage characteristic of a junction-type voltage, are covered in the symbols chart later in
transistor, for various emitter-current values. The this chapter. The designer should study the
circuit shows the setup for taking such measure- maximum ratings of a given transistor before
ments. Since the emitter resistance is low, a selecting it for use in a circuit.
current-limiting resistor, R, is connected in series
with the source of current. The emitter current can The dissipation rating can be a troublesome
be set at a desired value by adjustment of this matter for an inexperienced designer. Techniques
resistance. must be employed to reduce the operating
 86 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
discussion that the use of heat sinks is important,
where applicable.

5pF TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS

~--r.:!+:...jr-OUTPUT Amplifier circuits used with transistors fall into
one of three types, known as the common-base,
4700
common-emitter, and common-collector circuits.
These are shown in Fig. 4-14 in elementary form.
The three circuits correspond approximately to the
100> grounded-grid, grounded-cathode and cathode-
follower circuits, respectively, used with vacuum
+9V tubes.
The important transistor parameters in these
COMMON BASE circuits are the short-circuit current transfer ratio,
-%- 5pF __ /----1~+
5pF .jl
(----0OUTPUT
the cut-off frequency, and the input and output
impedances. The short-circuit current transfer ratio
is the ratio of a small change in output current to
INPUT o--)H-~-+-f ~ the change in input current that causes it, the
~ output circuit being short-circuited. The cutoff
100
frequency was discussed earlier in this chapter. The
input and output impedances are, respectively, the
impedance which a signal source working into the
transistor would see, and the internal output
impedance of the transistor (corresponding to the
+9V plate resistance of a vacuum tube, for example).
COMMON EMITTER

Common-Base Circuit
The input circuit of a common-base amplifier
must be designed for low impedance, since the
4700 emitter-to-base resistance is of the order of 25/1e
ohms, where Ie is the emitter current in
milliamperes. The optimum output load impe-
OUTPUT
dance, R L , may range from a few thousand ohms
~ to 100,000, depending upon the requirements.
In this circuit the phase of the output
(collector) current is the same as that of the input
(emitter) current. The parts of these currents that
flow through the base resistance are likewise il'
COMMON COLLECTOR phase, so the circuit tends to be regenerative and
will oscillate if the current amplification factor is
Fig. 4-14 - Basic transistor amplifier circuits. The greater than 1.
differences between modes is readily apparent.
Typical component values are given for use at Common-Emitter Circuit
audio frequencies. The input and output phase
relationships are as shown. The common-emitter circuit shown in Fig. 4-14
corresponds to the ordinary grounded-cathode
temperature of power transistors, and this usually vacuum-tube amplifier. As indicated by the curves
requires that thermal-conducting materials (heat of Fig. 4-13, the base current is small and the input
sinks) be installed on the body of the transistor. impedance is therefore fairly high - several
The specification sheets list the maximum thousand ohms in the average case. The collector
transistor dissipation in terms of case temperatures resistance is some tens of thousands of ohms,
up to 25 degrees C. Symbol Tc is used for the case depending on the signal source impedance. The
temperature and PT represents the total dissipa- common-emitter circuit has a lower cutoff
tion. Silicone grease is often used to assure proper frequency than does the common-base circuit, but
thermal transfer between the transistor and its heat it gives the highest power gain of the three
sink. Additional information on the use of heat configurations.
sinks is given in Chapter 18. In this circuit the phase of the output
Excessive heat can lead to a condition known as (collector) current is opposite to that of the input
thermal runaway. As the transistor gets hotter its (base) current so such feedback as occurs through
internal resistance becomes lower, resulting in an the small emitter resistance is negative and the
increase of emitter-to-collector and emitter-to-base amplifier is stable.
current. The increased current raises the dissipation
and further lowers the internal resistance. The Common-Collector Circuit
effects are cumulative, and eventually the tran- Like the vacuum-tube cathode follower, the
sistor will be destroyed. It can be seen from this common-collector transistor amplifier has high
Transistor Amplifiers 87
input impedance and low output impedance. The exception, exhibiting terminal impedances similar
latter is approximately equal to the impedance of to those of triode vacuum tubes. Therefore, the
the signal input source multiplied by (1 - a). The designer of bipolar transistor circuits must deal
input resistance depends on the load resistance, with specific matching techniques that assure
being approximately equal to the load resistance efficient power transfer and acceptable stability of
divided by (1 - a). The fact that input resistance is operation. Most of the LC networks used in tuned
directly related to the load resistance is a transistor amplifiers are of established standard
disadvantage of this type of amplifier if the load is configuration, but in practice call for much higher
one whose resistance or impedance varies with C-to-L ratios than are common to circuits using
frequency. tubes. The low terminal impedances of bipolar
The current transfer ratio with this circuit is : transistors result from the fact that current is being
_I_ amplified rather than voltage. High base or col-
i -0 lector current (plus relatively low operating vol-
tages) establishes what may at times seem to be
and the cut-off frequency is the same as in the unworkable terminal impedances - ten ohms or
grounded-emitter circuit. The output and input less. The greater the power input and output of an
currents are in phase. amplifier stage the more pronounced the matching
problem becomes, requiring the employment of
PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DETAILS special matching techniques. Low-level amplifying
The bipolar transistor is no longer restricted to stages are not so seriously affected, and the usual
use in low-voltage circuits. Many modern-day procedure is to use simple RC-coupling techniques
transistors have voltage ratings as high as 1400. for audio (and some rf) amplifiers. This being the
Such transistors are useful in circuits that operate case, the discussion will relate primarily to
directly from the 117-volt ac line, following common-emitter stages that are called upon to
rectification. For this reason, battery power is no deliver significant amounts of output power.
longer the primary means by which to operate When designing matching network for
transistorized equipment. Many low-voltage tran- efficient transfer of power from the collector to a
sistor types are capable of developing a consider- given load impedance, the designer must first
able amount of af or rf power, hence draw amperes establish what the level of power output will be in
of current from the power supply. Dry batteries watts. He must know also what the operating
are seldom practical in circuits of this type. The voltage for the collector (collector to emitter) will
usual approach in powering high-current, high- be. Once these quantities are determined the
wattage transistorized equipment is to employ a collector load impedance can be calculated by
wet-cell storage battery, "Or operate the equipment using the formula:
from a 117-volt ac line, stepping the primary ~
voltage down to the desired level by means of a 2P 0 (watts)
transformer, then rectifying the ac with silicon
diodes. where RL = Collector load impedance at re-
Coupling and Impedance Matching sonance
In contrast to vacuum tubes, bipolar transistors Vee = Dc operating voltage. collector to
present low input and output impedances when emitter
used as amplifiers. Field-effect transistors are the Po = Required power output in watts

7MHz
L2 L3

Fig. 4-15 - A practical

example illustrating the
probl ems e ncou ntered T NETWORK
when designing networks I BEADS LI L2

RI~RL
for use with solid-state
power amplifiers. Trans- +12V
formers T1 and T2 can be
used to bring the base and
collector impedences up to X.. =R,Q+X co
a practical value for VALUES FOR 7 MHz XL2 =RLB
matching with Land T ,=
XL QR,+Xco
CI s300pF (NOM.) X _ (A/Q)(A/B) _ A
networks. The trans- X'2= ARL C2=550pF (NO",.) Ct- (Aja)+(A/B) - Q+B
formers are broad-band, X _ (B/A) (8/0) _ .!!.. C3-S30pF (NOM}
toroidal types. e-~-Q-A Lt- O.75pH wuERE:A= R,(I<Q2)
L2- 2.4f1H
L3= 3.2pH
B'~
WUERE:A= Y[R, (~~Q2)] -I· Xco'OUTPUT C OFQI

B=R, (I+Q2)
Xeo= OUTPUT C OF ql
 88 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Example: An amplifier stage must deliver 10 collector must be negative with respect to the
watts to a known resistive load. The dc voltage emitter. The required bias is provided by the
from collector to emitter is 13.6. RL is collector-to-emitter voltage, and by the emitter-to-
base voltage. These bias voltages cause two currents
RL = ~ = l.8.4...2.6 = 9.248 ohms to flow - emitter-to-collector current and
2Po 20 emitter-to-base current. Either type of transistor,
pnp or npn, can be used with a nega~ve- or
It is not difficult to determine from this that an positive-ground power source by changmg t~e
amplifier delivering, say, 25 watts output at a circuit hookup as shown in Fig. 4-16. Forward bIas
collector supply of 12 volts would have an ex- is still properly applied in each instance. The lower
tremely low collector impedance (2.88 ohms). F~w the forward bias, the lower the collector current.
standard LC networks are suitable for transformmg As the forward bias is increased the collector
that value to the typical 50-ohm nonreactive current rises and the junction temperature
antenna impedance. The situation becomes even increases. If the bias is continuously increased a
more complex when matching a power driver to point will be reached where the transistor becomes
the base element of a power-amplifier stage. In
overloaded and bums out. This condition, called
such a case it would not be uncommon to match
thermal runaway was discussed earlier in the
an 18-ohm collector impedance to a 3-ohm base
chapter. To prevent damage to the transistor, some
impedance, or similar.
form of bias stabilization should be included in the
Two common networks are illustrated in Fig.
design. Some practical bias-stabilization te~hniq~es
4-15. Additional information is contained in
are given in Fig. 4-17. At A and B, Rl m senes
Chapter 6 of this book. An excellent design aid is
with the emitter, is for the purpose of "swamping
Motorola's Matching Network Designs with Com-
out" the resistance of the emitter-base diode; this
puter Solutions, Application Note AN-267. The
swamping helps to stabilize the emitter current.
bibliography at the end of this chapter lists other
The resistance of Rl should be large compared
recommended texts for amateur and professional
with that of the emitter-base diode, which is
designers.
·approximately equal to 25 divided by the emitter
Broadband toroidal-wound transformers and
current in rnA .
baluns are frequently used to match difficult
Since the current in RI flows in such a
impedances. They can be used in combination with
direction as to bias the emitter negatively with
tuned circuits or networks to arrive at practical respect to the base (a pnp transistor is assumed), a
network values. Resonant networks are employed base-emitter bias slightly greater than the drop in
to provide needed selectivity for assurance of clean Rl must be supplied. The proper operating point is
output waveforms from amplifiers. A practical achieved through adjustment of voltage divider
upper limit for network QL (loaded Q) is 5, though R2R3, which is proportioned to give the desired
some professional engineers design for values value of no-signal collector current.
higher than 5. It should be understood that the In the transformer-coupled circuit, input signal
higher the QL the greater the chance for electrical currents flow through Rl and R2, and there would
instability. It is recommended that the amateur be a loss of signal power at the base-emitter diode
adhere to the practice of designing his networks for if these resistors were not bypassed by Cl and C2.
QL values between 3 and 5. Values as low as I are The capacitors should have low reactance com-
suitable for some circuits, especially low-pass
harmonic filters of the variety used in the 50-ohm
output line from many amplifiers.

Bias and Bias Stabilization

Transistors must be forward biased in order to Fig. 4-16 - An example of how the circuit polarity
conduct significant current. In the npn design case can be changed to accommodate either a positive
the collector and base must be positive with or negative power-supply ground. Npn transistors
respect to the emitter. The same is true when are shown here, but the same rules apply to pnp
working with a pnp device, but the base and types.

~pF
__ ~--~+"-l~
OUTPUT
--------1r-l/-!-o OUTPUT

L-__________ ~ __ ~+

12V 12V
~- rh'+
NEGATIVE GROUND POSITIVE GROUND
Transistor Amplifiers 89
AMP. AMP.

TRANS. COUPLI NG
DIODE BIAS STABI LIZATION
(A) (C)
AMP. AMP.
/7~_______C~4~~
OUTPUT

RL

RESISTANCE COUPLING
(B) THERMISTOR BIAS STABILIZATiON

(D)
Fig. 4-17 - Examples of bias-stabilization tech-
niques. A text discussion is given.

pared with the resistances across which they are connection open. This current, which is highly
connected. In the resistance-coupled circuit R2 temperature sensitive, has the effect of increasing
serves as part of the bias voltage divider and also as the emitter current by an amount much larger than
part of the load for the signal-input source. As seen I co itself, thus shifting the operating point in such
by the signal source, R3 is in parallel with R2 and a way as to increase the collector current. This
thus becomes part of the input load resistance. C3 effect is reduced to the extent that I co can be
must have low reactance compared with the made to flow out of the base terminal rather than
parallel combination of R2R3 and the base-to- through the base-emitter diode. In the circuits of
emitter resistance of the transistor. The load Fig. 4-17, bias stabilization is improved by making
impedance will determine the reactance of C4. the resistance of Rl as large as possible and both
The output load resistance in the transformer- R2 and R3 as small as possible, consistent with
coupled case will be the actual load as reflected at gain and power-supply economy.
the primary of the transformer, and its proper It is common practice to employ certain devices
value will be determined by the transistor in the bias networks of transistor stages to enhance
characteristics and the type of operation (Class A, bias stability. Thermistors or diodes can be used to
B). The value of RL in the resistance-coupled advantage in such circuits. Examples of both
case is usually such as to permit the maximum ac techniques are given in Fig. 4-17 at C and D.
voltage swing in the collector circuit without Thermistors (temperature-sensitive resistors) can be
undue distortion, since Class-A operation is usual used to compensate the rapid increase in collector
with this type of amplifier. current which is brought about by an increase i1J
Transistor currents are sensitive to temperature temperature. As the temperature in that part of the
variations, and so the operating point"tends to shift circuit increases, the thermistor's resistance de-
as the transistor heats. The shift in operating point creases, reducing the emitter-to-base voltage (bias).
is in such a direction as to increase the heating, As the bias is reduced in this manner, the collector
leading to thermal runaway. The heat developed current tends to remain the same, thus providing
depends on the amount of power dissipated in the bias stabilization.
transistor, so it is obviously advantageous in this Resistors R5 and R7 of Fig. 4-17D are selected
respect to operate with as little internal dissipation to give the most effective compensation over a
as possible; i.e., the dc input should be kept to the particular temperature range.
lowest value that will permit the type of operation A somewhat better bias-stabilization method is
desired and should never exceed the rated value for shown in Fig. 4-17C. In this instance, a diode is
the particular transistor used. used between the base of the transistor and
A contributing factor to the shift in operating ground, replacing the resistor that is used in the
point is the collector-to-base leakage current circuits at A and B. The diode establishes a fixed
(usually designated I co) - that is, the current that value of forward bias and sets the no-signal
flows from the collector to base with the emitter collector current of the transistor. Also, the diode
90 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

INPUT

lFC1

(A)

Fig. 4-18 - Various methods for assuring high- and

(e) low-frequency circuit stability. (See text.)

bias current varies in direct proportion with the spectrum below the operating frequency will be
supply voltage, tending to hold the no-signal very high, giving rise to low-frequency oscillation.
collector current of the transistor at a steady value. At vhf and uhf phase shifts come into play, and
If the diode is installed thermally close to the this condition can encourage positive feedback,
transistor with which it is used (clamped to the which leads to instability. At these higher
chassis near the transistor heat sink), it will provide frequencies it is wise to avoid the use of rf chokes
protection against bias changes brought about by and coupling capacitors whenever possible. The
temperature excursions. As the diode temperature
capacitors can cause shifts in phase (as can the base
increases so will the diode bias current, thus
semiconductor material in the transistor), and the
lowering the bias voltage. Ordinarily, diode bias
rf chokes, unless of very low Q, can cause a
stabilization is applied to Class B stages. With
tuned-base tuned-collector condition. Some pre-
germanium transistors, diode bias stabilization
cautionary measures against instability are shown
reduces collector-current variations to approxi- in Fig. 4-18 .. At A, RFC1 has its Q lowered by the
mately one fifth of that obtainable with thermistor addition of the lOO-ohm series resistor. Alterna-
bias protection. With silicon transistors, the current tively, RFC1 could be shunted by a low-value
variations are reduced to approximately one-fif- resistor, but at some sacrifice in driving power. One
teenth the thermistor-bias value. or more ferrite beads can be slipped over the pigtail
of an rf choke to lower the Q of the inductor. This
Frequency Stability method may be preferred in instances where the
Parasitic oscillations are a common source of addition of a low-value resistor might establish an
t1'Oubie in transistor circuits. If severe enough in undesirable bias condition, as in the base return of
magnitude they can cause thermal runaway and a Class C stage. Parasitic choke Z1 consists of three
destroy the transistor. Oscillation can take place at ferrite beads slipped over a short piece of wire. The
any frequency from just above dc to the IT of the choke is installed as close to the collector terminal
device, and these parasitics can often pass as possible. This low-Q choke will help prevent vhf
unnoticed if the waveforms are not examined with or uhf instability. RFC2 is part of the decoupling
an oscilloscope. In addition to posing a potential network in the collector supply lead. It is bypassed
danger to the device itself, the oscillations can for the operating frequency by means of the
cause distortion and unwanted radiation of .01-W capacitor, but is also bypassed for low
spurious energy. In an amateur transmitter this frequencies by the addition of the l-W capacitor.
condition can lead to violation notices from the In the vhf amplifier at B, Z1 and Z2 are
FCC, interference to other services, and TVI. In ferrite-bead chokes. They present a high impedance
the case of receivers, spurious energy can cause to the base and collector elements, but because
"birdies" and poor noise figures. they are low-Q chokes there is little chance for
A transistor chosen for high-frequency opera- them to permit a tuned-base tuned-collector
tion (fT at least five times greater than the oscillation. At C, the stage operates Class A, a
proposed operating frequency) can easily oscillate typical arrangement in the low-level section of a
above the operating frequency if feedback transmitter, and the emitter is above ground by
conditions are correct. Also, the device gain in the virtue of bias resistor Rl. It must be bypassed to
Field-Effect Transistors 91
assure maximum stage gain. Here the emitter is
bypassed for the operating frequency and for vhf.
By not bypassing the emitter for low frequencies
the stage is degenerative at If. This will lessen the
chance of low-frequency oscillation. The supply
leads, however, are bypassed for the operating
frequency and for If, thus preventing unwanted DEPLETION FREE ElECTRON
feedback between stages along the supply leads. Zl REGIONS FLOW
(NOW REDUCED)
is a ferrite-bead vhf/uhf parasitic choke. The
lO-ohm resistor, R2, also helps suppress vhf (A) (S)
parasitics. The emitter lead should be kept as short
as possible in all three circuits to enhance stability Fig. 4-20 - Operation of the JFET under applied
and to prevent degeneration at the operating bias. A depletion region (light shading) is formed,
frequency. It is wise to use rf shields between the compressing the channel and increasing its
input and output halves of the rf amplifier stage to resistance to current flow.
prevent unwanted coupling between the base and
collector tuned circuits. At operating frequencies
where toroid cores are suitable, the shields can
nearly to zero. Since the large source-drain current
often be omitted if the tuned circuits use toroidal
changed with a relatively small gate voltage, the
inductors. Toroidal transformers and inductors
device acts as an amplifier. In the operation of the
have self-shielding properties - an asset to the
JFET, the gate terminal is never foward biased,
designer. because if it were the source-drain current would
all be diverted through the forward-biased gate
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS junction diode.
The resistance between the gate terminal and
Still another semiconductor device, the field- the rest of the device is very high, since the gate
effect transistor, (FET) is superior to bipolar terminal is always reverse biased, so the JFET has a
transistors in many applications because it has a very high input resistance. The source terminal is
high input impedance, its characteristics more the source of current carriers, and they are drained
nearly approach those of a vacuum tube. out of the circuit at the drain. The gate opens and
closes the amount of channel current which flows
The Junction FET in the pinch-off region. Thus the operation of a
FET closely resembles the operation of the vacuum
Field-effect transistors are divided into two tube with its high grid input impedance.
main groups: junction FETs, and MOSFETs. The Comparing the JFET to a vacuum tube, the source
basic JFET is shown in Fig. 4-19. corresponds to the cathode, the gate to the grid,
The reason for the terminal names will become and the drain to the plate.
clear later. A dc operating condition is set up by
starting a current flow between source and drain. MOSFETs
This current flow is made up of free electrons since
the semiconductor is n-type in the channel, so a The other large family which makes up
positive voltage is applied at the drain. This field-effect transistors is the insulated-gate FET, or
positive voltage attracts the negatively charged free MOSFET, which is pictured schematically .in Fig.
electrons and the current flows (Fig. 4-20). The 4-21. In order to set up a dc operating condition, a
next step is to apply a gate voltage of the polarity positive polarity is applied to the drain terminal.
shown in Fig. 4-20. Note that this reverse-biases The substrate is connected to the source, and both
the gates with respect to the source, channel, and are at ground potential, so the channel electrons
drain. This reverse-bias gate voltage causes a are attracted to the positive dram. In order to
depletion layer to be formed which takes up part regulate this source-drain current, voltage is applied
of the channel, and since the electrons now have to the gate contact. The gate is insulated from the
less volume in which to move the resistance is rest of the device by a layer of very thin dielectric
greater and the current between source and drain is material, so this is not a p-n junction between the
reduced. If a large gate voltage is applied the gate and the device - thus the name insulated gate.
depletion regions meet, causing pinch off, and When a negative gate polarity is applied,
consequently the source-drain current is reduced positive-charged holes from the p-type substrate

TOP GATE
SOURCE GATE DRAIN SOURCE I DRAIN

SUBSTRATE
BOTTOM GATE

Fig. 4-21 - The insulated-gate field-effect transis-

Fig. 4-19 - The junction field-effect transistor. tor.
92 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
los
V GS • + 2 VOLTS

V GS • + I VOLT

VGS·-IVOLT

V GS • -2VOLTS V GS ' - I VOLT

VGS • - 2 VOLTS
V GS ' - 3 VOLTS
____________.___________ VoS
~:===================~--_VoS
~~

Fig. 4·21 A-Typical JFET characteristic curves. Fig. 4-21 B-Typical MOSFET characteristic curves.
are attracted toward the gate and the conducting Classifications
channel is made more narrow; thus the source- Field-effect transistors are classed into two
drain current is reduced. When a positive gate main groupings for application in circuits, EN-
voltage is connected, the holes in the substrate are HANCEMENT MODE and DEPLETION MODE_
repelled away, the conducting channel is made The enhancement-mode devices are those specific-
larger, and the source-drain current is increased. ally constructed so that they have no channel.
The MOSFET is more flexible since either a They become useful only when a gate voltage is
positive or negative voltage can be applied to the applied that causes a channel to be formed.
ga teo The resistance between the gate and the rest IGFETs can be used as enhancement-mode devices
of the device is extremely high because they are since both polarities can be applied to the gate
separated by a layer of thin dielectric. Thus the without the gate becoming forward biased and
MOSFET has an extremely high input impedance. conducting.
In fact, since the leakage through the insulating A depletion-mode unit corresponds to Figs.
material is generally much smaller than through the 4-19 and 4-21 shown earlier, where a channel exists
reverse-biased p-n gate junction in the JFET, the with no gate voltage applied. For the· JFET we can
MOSFET has a much higher input impedance. apply a gate voltage and deplete the channel,
Typical values of Rln for the MOSFET are over a causing the current to decrease. With the MOSFET
million megohms, while Rin for the JFET ranges we can apply a gate voltage of either polarity so
from megohms to over a thousand megohms. There the device can be depleted (current decreased) or
are both single-gate and dual-gate MOSFETs avail- enhanced (current increased).
able. The latter has a signal gate, Gate 1, and a To sum up, a depletion-mode FET is one which
control gate , Gate 2. The gates are effectively in has a channel constructed; thus it has a current
series making it an easy matter to control the flow for zero gate voltage. Enhancement-mode
dynamic range of the device by varying the bias on FETs are those which have no channel, so no
Gate 2. Dual-gate MOSFETs are widely used as current flows with zero gate voltage.
agc-controlled rf and i-f amplifiers, as mixers and
product detectors, and as variable attenuators. The
Gate-Protected FETs
isolation between the gates is relatively high in
mixer service. This helps lessen oscillator "pulling" Most JFETs are capable of withstanding up to
and reduces oscillator radiation. The forward trans- 80 volts pk-pk from gate to source before junction
admittance (transconductance, or gm ) of modern damage occurs. Insulated-gate FETs, however, can
MOSFETs is as high as 18,000, and they are be damaged by allowing the leads to come in
designed to operate efficiently well into the uhf contact with plastic materials, or by the simple act
spectrum. of handling the leads with one's fingers. Static
Characteristic Curves charges account for the foregoing, and the damage
The characteristic curves for the FETs des- takes the form of punctured dielectric between the
cribed above are shown in Figs.4-21Aand4-21B, gate or gates and the remainder of the internal
where drain-source current is plotted against elements. Devices of the MFE3006 and 3N140
drain-source voltage for given gate voltages. series are among those which can be easily
damaged.
40673
Gate-protected MOSFETs are currently
available, and their gates are able to withstand
DRAIN pk-pk voltages (gate to source) of up to 10.
Internal Zener diodes are connected back to back
SOURCE/SUBS. from each gate to the source/substrate element.
The 40673 and 3N200 FETs are among the types
which have built-in Zener diodes. Dual-gate
Fig. 4-22 - Schematic presentation of a gate- MOSFETs which are gate-protected can be used as
protected MOSFET. Back-to-back Zener diodes are single-gate protected FETs by connecting the two
bridged internally from gates 1 and 2 to the gate leads in parallel. A gate-protected MOSFET is
source/substrate element. shown schematically in Fig. 4-22.
 Integrated Circuits 93
shows a representative three-component IC in both
pictorial and schematic form. Most integrated
circuits are housed in T0-5 type cases, or in

. •.•
flat-pack epoxy blocks. ICs may have as many as

;.~
•• 12 or more leads which connect to the various
elements on the chip.

Types oflC Amplifiers

Some ICs are called differential amplifiers and
others are known as operational amplifiers. The

.a:. • • • basic differential-amplifier IC consists of a pair of

transistors that have sinillar input circuits. The
inputs can be connected so as to enable the
A collection of modern ICs. Various case styles of transistors to respond to the difference between
metal and epoxy materials are illustrated. two voltages or currents. During this function, the
circuit effectively suppresses like voltages or
currents. For the sake of simplicity we may think
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS of the differential pair of transistors as a push-pUll
amplifier stage. Ordinarily, the differential pair of
Just as the term implies, integrated circuits transistors are fed from a controlled, constant-
(ICs) contain numerous components which are current source (Q3 in Fig. 4-24A. Ql and Q2 are
manufactured in such a way as to be suitably the differential pair in this instance). Q3 is
interconnected for a particular application, and on commonly called a transistor current sink.
one piece of semiconductor base material. The Excellent balance exists between the input
various elements of the IC are comprised of ternrinals of differential amplifiers because the
bi-polar transistors, MOSFETs, diodes, resistances, base-to-enriUer voltages and current gains (beta) of
and capacitances. There are often as many as ten or
more transistors on a single IC drip, and frequently
their respective bias resistors are formed on the
drip. Generally speaking, ICs fall into four basic
categories - differential amplifiers, operational
amplifiers, diode or transistor arrays, and logic ICs.

IC Structures
The basic IC is formed on a uniform c1rip of
n-type or p-type silicon. Impurities are introduced
into the chip, their depth into it being deternrined P = P-TYPE MATERIAL
N = N-TYPE MATERIAL
by the diffusion temperature and time. The
geometry of the plane surface of the chip is
determined by masking off certain areas, applying
photochenrical techniques, and applying a coating
of insulating oxide. Certain areas of the oxide
coating are then opened up to allow the formation
E
of interconnecting leads between sections of the
IC. When capacitors are formed on the chip, the Fig. 4-23 - Pictorial and schematic illustrations of
oxide serves as the dielectric material. Fig. 4-23 a simple IC device.

9O----~
RCA CA3020
.--------------011
8 6
8C>----+-~
...-...,....--04

10
5

~+--lf-----o 9

2O--~
3 C>-----l--'~
';"'-.."...-<l6

L -_ _ _ ~ _ __C3

RCA CA3028
DI FFERENTIAL AM P.

(A)
12~~~-~~~~~~~~~====E:::~~~
(8) OPERATIONAL AMP.
___--02
Fig. 4-24 - At A, a representative circuit for a typical differential IC. An Operational Amplifier IC is
illustrated at B, also in representative form.
94 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
+OV .9V

C" I-F
Co°UTPUT

"~,+;
OSC.
INJECTION

BALANCED MIXER RF
+9V GAIN
(A)
BALANCED DIFFERENTIAL
Fig. 4-25 - Some typical circuit applications for a AMPLIFIER
differential amplifier IC. The internal circuit of the (B)
CA3028A IC is give~ in Fig. 4-24 at A.
• 9V

.001
Fj;000(CT):10K
~~.~
\
Cl~~F

~ '" ~ ~'-Z
-,3·~ .Of.:+, ~~~+-~~~~~r-0+9V
,:J;OOI S60
2R

BFO
+9V INJECTION

CASCODE AMP. PRODUCT DETECTOR

IC) (D)
the two transistors are closely matched. The match groups, or as separate components. Diode ICs of
results from the fact that the transistors are formed this kind are useful in balanced-modulator circuits,
next to one another on the same silicon chip. or to any application requiring closely matched
Differential ICs are useful as linear amplifiers diodes.
from dc to the vhf spectrum, and can be employed Fig. 4-25 demonstrates the .versatility of just
in such circuits as limiters, product detectors, one type of IC, an RCA CA3028A differential
frequency multipliers, mixers, amplitude modula- amplifier. Its internal workings are shown in Fig.
tors, squelch, rf and i-f amplifiers, and even in 4-24A, permitting a comparison of the schematic
signal-generating applications. Although they are diagram and the block representations of Fig. 4-25.
designed to be used as differential amplifiers, they The circuit at B in Fig. 4-25 is characterized by its
can be used in other types of circuits as well, high input and output impedances (several
treating the various IC components as discrete thousand ohms), its high gain, and its stability.
units. This circuit can be adapted as an audio amplifier
Operational-amplifier ICs are basically very- by using transformer or RC coupling. In the
high-gain direct-coupled amplifiers that rely on circuits of B and C terminal 7 is used to manually
feedback for control of their response characteris- control the rf gain, but agc can be applied to that
tics. They contain cascaded differential amplifiers terminal instead. In the circuit at D the CA3028A
of the type shown in Fig. 4-24A. A separate output provides low-noise operation and exhibits good
stage, Q6-Q7, Fig. 4-24B, is contained on the conversion gain as a product detector. The
chip. Although operational ICs can be successfully CA3028A offers good performance from dc to 100
operated under open-loop conditions, they are MHz.
generally controlled by externally applied negative
feedback. Operational amplifiers are most often PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
used for audio amplification, as frequency-shaping Some modern-day ICs are designed to replace
(peaking, notching, or bandpass) amplifiers, or as nearly all of the discrete components used in
integrator, differentiator, or comparator amplifiers. earlier composite equipment. One example can be
Diode-ICs are also being manufactured in the seen in the RCA CA3089E flat-pack IC which
same manner as outlined in the foregoing section. contains nearly the entire circuit for an fm
Several diodes can be contained on a single silicon receiver. The IC contains 63 bipolar transistors, 16
wafer to provide a near-perfect match between diodes, and 32 resistors. The CA3089E is designed
diode characteristics. The diode arrangement can for an i-f of ·10.7 MHz and requires but one
take the form of a bridge circuit, series-connected outboard tuned circuit. The chip consists of an i-f
Transistor Arrays 95
Fig. 4-26 - The circuit at A shows practical 200
component values for use with the CA3089E fm
subsystem IC. A COS/MOS array IC is illustrated at
B in schematic-diagram form. It consists of three
complementary-symmetry MOSFET pairs. The
illustration at C shows how the CA3600E can be
connected in cascade to provide at least 100 dB of
audio amplification.

amplifier, quadrature detector, audio preamplifier,

agc, afc, squelch, and a tuning-meter circuit.
Limiting of -3 ,dB takes place at the 12-I1V input
level. When using an IC of this kind it is necessary
only to provide a front-end converter for the
desired frequency of reception, an audio amplifier,
,and a power supply (plus speaker, level controls,
and meter). +12V
There are two IC subsystem units designed for
a-m receiver use. Each is similar in complexity to
the CA3089E illustrated in Fig: 4-26. These com- ,01 AF
ponents are identified as CA3088E and CA3123E.
The latter is described in RCA Data File No. 631. ~T
Both ICs are readily adaptable to communications
receiver use and should become popular building 22M
blocks for amateurs who desire compact, portable 7 3 (B) -4 9 (C)
receiving equipment. RCA 3600E COS/MOS ARRAY CASCADE lOO-dB AF AMPLIFIER
(GOO~ ro 5 MHz)
EXCEPT AS INDICATED. DECIMAL VAUJES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (J'F 1 ;
TRANSISTOR ARRAYS OTHERS ARE IN "PICOFARADS (pF OR jlJlFl:
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS:
Amateur designers should not overlook the k.IOOO, "-'000 000.
usefulness of transistor- and diode-array ICs, These
devices contain numerous bipolar or MOSFET vantages not available when using discrete tran-
transistors on a common substrate. In most in- sistors, Fig. 4-27 shows the internal workings of
stances the transistors can be employed as one the CA3018A and CA3045 ICs.
would treat discrete npn devices. An entire receiver COS/MOS (complementary-symmetry metal-
can be made from one transistor-array IC if one oxide silicon) ICs are becoming increasingly
wishes to construct a compact assembly. The popUlar, and one RCA part, the CA3600E, con-
CA3049 is a dual independent differential rf/i-f t ains an array of complementary-symmetry
amplifier chip with an IT of 1.3 GHz. It is MOSFET pairs (three) which can be used in-
especially well suited to applications which call for dividually or in cascade, as shown in Fig. 4-26 at B.
double-balanced mixers, detectors, and modu- Detailed information is given in RCA File No. 619.
lators. Another device of similar usefulness is the The CA3600E is a high-input impedance, micro-
CA3018A. The CA3045 should also be of interest power component which is suitable for use as a
to the amateur. Matched electrical characteristics preamplifier, differential amplifier, op amp, com-
of the transistors in these ICs offer many ad- parator, timer, mixer, chopper, or oscillator.

II 12 1 S 4

2
1 3
(A) 6 5 8 ( B)
6 3 6

-4 7 L--~-013
7

CA30lBA
9 1011

Fig. 4-27 - Transistor arrays offer unlimited connected in a differential amplifier fashion. Three
application because several circuit combinatiohs separate transistors are available for use in other
are possible. The CA3018A Ie at A has a functions. The arrays shown here are useful into
Darlington-connected pair plus two separate the vhf spectrum.
transistors. At B. two transistors are internally
96 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
One of the more interesting and useful array of two differential amplifiers. The shield helps assure
ICs is the RCA CA3102E. It contains two differ- good isolation in applications where that feature is
ential pairs and two current-source transistors. The required.
device is ideally suited for use in doubly balanced FT for CA3102E is in excess of 1000 MHz.
mixers, modulators, and product detectors. The Noise figure at 100 MHz single transistor is 1.5
CA3102E is excellent for use in the following dB, Rs = 500 ohms. Noise figure at 200 MHz
additional applications: vhf amplifiers, vhf mixers, cascode mode is 4.6 dB. Additional specifications
rf amp./mixer/oscillator combinations, i-f ampli- can be found in RCA Data File No. 611. The
fiers (differential and/or cascode mode), synchro- CA3102E offers almost limitless possibilities for
nous detectors, and sense amplifiers. This IC is applications in amateur radio design work. The
similar in configuration to the CA3049T array, but chip is manufactured in a 14-lead DIP package. The
has an independent substrate connection which is CA3049T comes encased in a standard TO-5
common to an internal shield that separates the package.

DIGITAL-LOGIC INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Digital logic is the term used to describe an levels, and vary between manufacturers and
overall design procedure for electronic systems in devices. Nearly always, a "0" means a voltage near
which "on" and "off" are the important words, ground, while" 1 " means whatever the manufactur-
not "amplification," "detection," and other terms er specifies. One must distinguish between
commonly applied to most amateur equipment. It "positive logic" and "negative logic." In positive
is "digital" because it deals with discrete events logic, a 1 is more positive than a 0, though both
that can be characterized by digits or integers, in may be negative voltages. In negative logic, the
contrast with linear systems in which an infinite reverse is true. Often the terms "high" and "low"
number of levels may be encountered. It is "logic" are used in reference to these voltage levels. The
because it follows mathematical laws, in which definitions of these terms are the same for both
"effect" predictably follows "cause." positive and negative logic. A "high" is the most
Just like linear integrated circuits, digital ICs positive or least negative potential, while a "low" is
are manufactured in such a way that the internal the least positive or most negative.
components are interconnected for particular For practical use in some applications it is
applications. Packaging of the digital ICs is the desirable to convert binary data into decimal
same for their linear counterparts, with the full equivalents, such as in electronic counting and
package range pictured earlier being used. From display systems. In other applications, such as for
outward appearances, it would be impossible to tell the graphic recording or metering of summations
the difference between the two types of ICs except or products of integers, it is convenient to convert
from the identification numbers. the digital data into analog equivalents. Specialized
Linear ICs are constructed to respond to integrated circuits designed to perform these
continuously variable or analog signals, such as in functions are also considered to be included in the
an amplifier. Digital devices, on the other hand, digital-IC category.
generally have active components operating only in
either of two conditions - cutoff or saturation. LOGIC SYMBOLS
Digital ICs find much application in on-off
With modern microcircuit technology, hun-
switching circuits, as well as in counting,
dreds of components can be packaged in a single
computation, memory-storage, and display circuits.
case. Rather than showing a forest of transistors,
Operation of these circuits is based on binary
resistors, and diodes, logic diagrams show symbols
mathematics, so words such as "one" and "zero"
based on the four distinctive shapes given in Fig.
have come into frequent use in digital-logic
4-28 at A through D. These shapes may. be
terminology. These terms refer to specific voltage
"modified'; or altered slightly, according to

From outward appearances, these three I Cs appear

to be identical. Although each is a J-K flip-flop,
there are differences in their characteristics. Pic-
tured at the left is a Texas Instruments SN74H72N
integrated circuit, called a J-K master-slave flip-
flop. Shown in the center is a Motorola MC1927P
IC, which is a 120-MHz ac-coupled J-K flip-flop.
Both of these ICs might be considered "universal"
flip-flops, for they may be used in a variety of
ways. Shown at the right is a Motorola MC726P, a
simple J-K flip-flop.
Types of DigitallCs 97
specific functions performed. Examples are shown
at E through H of Fig. 4-28.
The square, Fig. 4-28D and H, may appear on
logic diagrams as a rectangle. This symbol is a
-t>-(A)
D- (E)
somewhat universal one, and thus must be
identified with supplemental information to
indicate the exact function. Internal labels are
usually used. Common identification labels are: =D- (B)
=D- (F)
FF - Flip-flop
FL - Flip-flop latch
SS
ST
-
-
Single shot
Schmitt trigger. =D- (C)
=)[)--
(G)
Other logic functions may also be represented by
the square or rectangle, and the label should

B
adequately identify the function performed.
Unique identifying shapes are used for gates and
inverters, so these need no labels to identify the
function. Hardware- or package-identification in- (0 )
formation may appear inside any of the symbols
on logic diagrams.
Fig. 4·28 - Distinctive symbols for digital logic
TYPES OF DIGITAL ICs diagrams. At A is shown an inverter, at B an AND
gate, at C an OR gate, and at D a flip-flop.
Digital integrated circuits perform a variety of Additions to these basic symbols indicate specific
functions, but these functions can generally be functions performed. A small circle, for example,
cataloged into just a few categories: gates, placed at the output point of the symbol, denotes
inverters, flip-flops, drivers and buffers, adders and that inversion occurs at the output of the device.
subtractors, registers, and memories, plus the Shown at E is an inverting AND or NAND gate,
special-purpose ICs as mentioned earlier - and at F is an inverting OR or NOR gate. At G is
decoders and converters. Some of these types, such the symbol for an exclusive OR gate. The symbol
at H represents a J·K flip-flop.
as adders and subtractors, registers, and memories,
find use primarily in computer systems. More
universally used types of ICs are the inverters, gates
and flip-flops.

Inverters
A single chip in one IC package may be
designed to perform several functions, and these before the device will operate properly. In the case
functions can be independent of each other. One of all multiple-function ICs, such as the hex
example of an IC of this type is Motorola's inverter, a single ground connection and a single
MC789P, which bears the name, "hex inverter." +Vcc connection suffice for all sections contained
This IC contains six identical inverter sections. The in the package.
schematic diagram of one section is shown in Fig.
4-29A. In operation, 3.0 to 3.6 volts are applied Gates
between +Vcc and ground. For this device in Another example of an IC containing several
positive-logic applications, a 0 is defined as any independent functions in one package is Motorola's
potential less than approximately 0.6 volt, and a 1 MC724P, a quad 2-input gate. Four gates are
is any voltage greater than about 0.8. With a logic 0 contained in one chip. The schematic diagram and
applied at the input, the transistor will be at or logic symbols for a gate section are shown at B in
near cutoff. Its output will be a potential near Fig. 4-29. As with the MC789P, a supply of 3.0 to
+Vcc, or a logic 1. If the 0 at the input is replaced 3.6 volts is used; for positive logic a 0 is a potential
by a 1, the transistor goes into saturation and its less than 0.6 volt, and a 1 is a potential greater
output drops nearly to ground potential; a 0 than 0.8 volt. It may be seen from the schematic
appears at the output. The output of this device is diagram that the two transistors have an
always the opposite or complement of the input independent input to each base, but they share a
logic level. This is sometimes called a NOT gate, common collector resistor. Either transistor will be
because the input and output logic levels are not saturated with a logic 1 applied at its input, and a 0
the same, under any conditions of operation. output will result. A 0 at the input of either
Shown at the right in Fig. 4-29A is the logic transistor will cause that transistor to be cut off,
symbol for the inverter. In all logic symbols, the but a 1 at the opposite input will hold the output
connections for +Vcc and the ground return are at O. Thus, a 1 at either Input 1 or Input 2 will
omitted, although they are understood to be made. cause a 0 (or a NOT 1) to appear at the output.
The proper connections are given in the man)lfac- The NOT functions are usually written with a bar
turer's data sheets, and, of course, must be made over them, so r means the same thing as NOT 1,
98 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
+Vcc number of pulses which have entered the input can
be determined at all times. These binary-coded
decimal (BCD) outputs, after decoding, may be
OUTPUT
used to operate decimal-readou t indicators.
INPUT =IN~UT The term, medium-scale integration (MSI) is
frequen tly applied to ICs such as this decade
450 INVERTER up-counter, which contains the equivalent of 15 or
(A) more gates on a single chip. Large-scale integration
GROUND (LSI) describes ICs containing the equivalent of
INPUT![ rl
100 or more gates on a single chip. These terms,
+VCC OUTPUT
INPUT 2
when applied to a particular IC, convey an idea of
the complexity of the circuitry.
= NOR GATE A flip-flop is a device which has two outputs
( POSITIVE lOGIC) that can be placed in various 1 and 0 combinations
INPUT 1
INPU~UT
by various input schemes. Basically, one output is a
450 1 when the other is a 0, although situations do
INPUT 2 =INPU~
occur (sometimes on purpose) where both outputs
450 NAND GATE are alike. One output is called th~ Q output, or
(NEGATIVE lOGIC) "set" output, while the other is the Q (NOT Q) or'
(B) "reset" output. If Q = 1 and ~ = 0, the flip-flop is
GROUND
said to be "set" or in the "1 state," while for the
reverse, the flip-flop is "reset," or "cleared," or in
Fig. 4-29 - Digital circuits and their equivalent
logic symbols. See text. Indicated resistor values the "0 state." A variety of inputs exist, from which
are typical. the flip-flops derive their names.
The R-S flip-flop is the simplest type. Its
outputs change directly as a result of changes at its
and is expressed as NOT 1 when reading the term. inputs. The type T flip-flop "toggles," "flips," or
Logic-circuit operation can be expressed with changes its state during the occurrence of a T
equations. Boolean algebra, a form of binary pulse, called a clock pulse. The T flip-flop can be
mathematics, is used. These equations should not considered as a special case of the J-K flip-flop
be confused with ordinary algebraic equations. The described later. The type D flip-flop acts as a
logic equation for the operation of the circuit in storage element. When a clock pulse occurs, the
Fig. 4-28A is 1 v 1 = 1. The little v means OR. complementary status of the D input is transferred
Sometimes "+" is used instead of "v." In plain to the Q output. The flip-flop remains in this state
words, the equation says that a 1 at Input 1 or even though the input may change, as it can change
Input 2 will yield a NOT 1 at the output. This is states only when a clock pulse occurs.
equivalent of saying the circuit is an inverting OR Although there is some disagreement in the
gate, or a NOT OR gate. This latter name is usually nomenclature, a J-K flip-flop is generally consi-
contracted to NOR gate, the name by which the dered to be a toggled or clocked R-S flip-flop. It
circuit is known. may also be used as a storage element. The J input
If the circuit of Fig. 4-29B is used with negative is frequently called the "set" or S input; the K is
logic, circuit operation remains the same; only the called the "clear" or C input (not to be confused
definitions of terms are changed. A logic 1, now, is with the clock input). The clock input is called T,
a voltage level less than 0.6, and a 0 is a level as in the type T flip-flop. A clear-direct or CD
greater than 0.8 volt. If a logic 1 is applied at both inpu t which overrides all other inpu ts to clear the
inputs, 1 and 2, both transistors will be cut off. flip-flop to 0 is provided in most J-K flip-flop
The output is near +Vcc, which is a logic 0 or NO..]' packages. The logic symbol for the J-K flip-flop is
1. The equation for this operation is 1 . 1 = 1, shown in Fig. 4-28H. A simpieJ-K flip-flop circuit
where the dot means AND. In this way, with contains 13 or 14 transistors and 16 or 18 resistors.
negative logic, the circuit becomes an inverting There are essentially two types of flip-flop
AND gate, or a NOT AND gate or, more inputs, the dc or level-sensitive type, and the "ac"
commonly, a NAND gate. Manufacturers' literature or transistion-sensitive type. It should not be
frequently refers to this type of device as a concluded that an ac input is capacitively coupled.
NAND/NOR gate, because it performs either This was true for the discrete-component flip-flops,
function. but capacitors just do not fit into microcircuit
dimensions. The construction of an ac input uses
the "master-slave" principle, where the actions of a
Flip-Flops master flip-flop driving a slave flip-flop are
combined to produce a shift in the output level
It is not necessary for the various functions on during a transit of the input.
a single chip to be identical. Motorola's MC780P
IC, a decade up-counter, contains four flip-flops,
an inverter, and a 2-input gate. These functions are
interconnected to provide divide-by-IO operation, DIGITAL-LOGIC IC FAMILIES
with ten input pulses required for every output
pulse which appears. Intermediate outputs are also There are seven categories or families of which
provided (in binary-coded form) so that the nearly all semiconductor digital ICs are members.
Digital-Logic Ie Families 99
Each family has its own inherent advantages and highest available speed of any saturated logic. TTL
disadvantages. Each is geared to its own particular may be thought of as a DTL modification that
market, meeting a specific set of needs. results in higher speed and driving capability. It is
noted for better noise immunity than that offered
Resistor-Transistor Logic - RTL by DTL, and is more effective for driving
RTL is known primarily for its economy. It is high-capacitance loads because of its low output
well named, since it contains resistors and impedance in both logic states. TTL les fall into
transistors exclusively. The circuits of Fig. 4-29 are two major categories - medium speed and high
RTL. Advantages of the RTL family are economy, speed. Various manufacturing techniques are used
ease of use in system designs, ease of interface with to increase the speed, including gold doping and
discrete components, and high speed-power incorporation of high-speed Schottky diodes on
product. There are a wide number of functions the chip. Another advantage of TTL is that it is
available in this family. Disadvantages are low compatible with various other families. Multiple
immunity to voltage noise (transients, rf pickup, sources and extensive competition have resulted in
and the like), and relatively low fanout (the low prices for TTL devices. Disadvantages are that
number of loads that may be connected to an more care is required in the layout and mechanical
output before performance is degraded). The RTL design of syStems because of its high speed, and
family requires a supply of 3.0 to 3.6 volts. additional capacitors are required for bypassing
because of switching transients. The TTL family
requires a supply of 5 volts.
Diode· Transistor Logic - DTL
DTL les contain diodes, as well as resistors and
transistors. Early DTL les used design criteria Emitter..coupled Logic - EeL
carried over from the use of discrete components, EeL has the highest speed of any of the logic
where diodes were inexpensive compared to forms. It is sometimes called current-mode logic.
transistors. These les required negative and This family is different from standard saturating
positive voltage sources. Later DTL les are of a logic in that circuit operation is analogous to that
modified design which lends itself more easily to of some linear devices. In this case, the transistors
Ie processing. Performance characteristics are also do not saturate and the logic swings are reduced in
enhanced, with less input current being required, amplitude. Very high speeds can be attained
and only a single voltage source needed. Members because of the small voltage swings and the use of
of the DTL faniily are limited generally to gates. nonsaturating transistors. The input circuitry of
Advantages of this family are low power EeL devices is of the nature of a differential
dissipation, compatibility with TTL (see later amplifier, resulting in much higher input impe-
section), low cost, ease of use in system design, dances than saturated-logic devices. Emitter-fol-
ease of interface with discrete circuits, and lower outputs are of low impedance with high
relatively high fanout. DTL disadvantages are low fanout capabilities, and are suited for driving
noise immunity, especially in the high state where 50-ohm transmission lines directly. Disadvantages
the input impedance is relatively high, rapid change are higher power dissipation, less noise immunity
in voltage thresholds with temperature, speed than some saturated logic, translators are required
slowdown with capacitive loading, and lower speed for interfacing with saturated logic, and slowed-
capabilities than some other families. The DTL down operation with heavy capacitive loading. The
family requires a supply voltage of 5. EeL family requires a supply of -5.2 volts.

High-Threshold Logic - HTL Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (MOS)

HTL devices are designed for high noise Digital MOS devices are gaining significance in
immunity. The circuit form is the same as DTL industrial applications, with p-channel or P-MOS
except that breakdown (Zener) diodes are used at Ies being the most popular. Large, complex
the inputs. Higher supply voltages and higher repetitive functions, such as long shift registers and
power dissipations accompany the HTL family. high-capacity memories, have proved very practi-
These les find applications in industrial environ- cal. Gates and basic logic circuits have not become
ments and locations likely to have high electrical as popular, because they exhibit lower drive
noise levels. Advantages are high noise immunity, capability than other Ie families. Input impedances
stable operation over very large temperature to these devices are essentially capacitive (an open
ranges, interfaces easily with discrete components, circuit for dc). This feature allows very high fanout
electromechanical components, and linear func- where speed is not a consideration. Bidirectional
tions (operational amplifiers and multipliers), and a devices give more flexibility to the circuit designer.
constant threshold-versus-temperature characteris- P-MOS technology results in the lowest cost per bit
tic. Disadvantages are higher cost than other for memories and long shift registers, because
families, and relatively high power dissipation. The many more functions can be contained on a given
HTL family requires a supply voltage of 15. chip size than in bipolar devices. Disadvantages are
that devices must be handled more carefully than
bip·olar les because excessive static electricity can
Transistor-Transistor Logic -TTL destroy the narrow gate oxide, even with internal
TTL has characteristics that are similar to DTL, breakdown-diode input protection. Drive capabili-
and is noted for many complex functions and the ty is limited because of the high output
100 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

impedances characteristic of these devices. Two with 8-ns delay MECL. MECL II has a speed of
power supplies are usually required. The P-MOS 4 ns; MECL 10,000, 2 ns; and MECL III, 1.1
family requires supplies of -13 and -27 volts. ns. With a propagation delay of 1 ns, operation
at 300 MHz is possible.
Complementary Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor - CMOS
Special Digital ICs
CMOS technology employs both p-channel and
n-channel devices on the same silicon substrate. In addition to the logic families, many
Both types are enhancement-mode devices; that is, special-purpose digital ICs are available to ac-
gate voltage must be increased in the direction that complish specific tasks. A divide-by-lO circuit,
inverts the surface in order for the device to such as the Fairchild U6B95H9059X, operates
conduct. Only one of the two complementary up to 320 MHz and is used as a prescaler to
devices of a circuit section is turned on at a time, extend the range of a frequency counter. This
resulting in extremely low power dissipation. IC has been designed to operate with low-level
Dissipation is primarily from the switching of input signals, typically 100 mV at 150 MHz.
devices through the active region and the charging Large MOS arrays are being used for a num-
and discharging of capacitances. Advantages are ber of applications which require the storage of
low power dissipation, good noise immunity, very logic instructions. These ICs are called memo-
wide power supply voltage variations allowed, high ries. Instructions are stored in the memory by a
fanout to other CMOS devices, and full tempera- process named programming. Some memories
ture-range capabilities. Disadvantages are restricted can be programmed only once; they are called
interfacing capabilities because of high output ROMs (Read-Only Memory). ROMs must be
impedance, and medium to high cost. The CMOS read in sequence, but another group of devices
family requires a supply of 1.5 to 16 volts, 10 volts called RAMs (Random-Access Memory) can be
being nominal. used a section at a time. Both ROMs and RAMs
are also made in reprogram mabie versions, where
IC Family Groups the information stored in the memory can be
The popular digital-logic families have several changed as desired. These models are named
groups where basic designs have been modified PROMs and PRAMs, respectively.
for medium speed, high speed, or low power Large memory arrays are often used for the
consumption. The TTL family ICs have single- generation and conversion of information codes.
letter designators added to the part number to One IC can be programmed to convert the 5-
identify the group: S - Schottky high speed, H level RTTY code to the 8-level ASCII code
- medium speed, L - low power. ECL logic, as popular in computer devices. National Semicon-
yet, has no such simple identification system. ductor manufactures a single IC which generates
Manufacturers group their ECL products by pro- the entire 56-.:haracter 8-level code. Several ICs
pagation delay, an expression of the maximum are now available for character generation where
speed at which the logic device will operate. letters and numerals are produced for display on
Motorola, for example, calls the ECL group an oscillograph screen.

OTHER DEVICES
THE UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR terminals are called anode, cathode and gate, Fig.
Unijunction transistors (UJT) are being used by 4-28B.
amateurs for such applications as side-tone The SCR differs from the silicon rectifier in
oscillators, sawtooth generators, pulse generators, that it will not conduct until the voltage exceeds
and timers. the forward breakover voltage. The value of this
Structurally, the UJT is built on an n-type voltage can be controlled by the gate current. As
silicon bar which has ohmic contacts - base one the gate current is increased, the value of the
(Bl) and base two (B2) - at opposite ends of the forward breakover voltage is decreased. Once the
bar. A rectifying contact, the emitter, is attached rectifier conducts in the forward direction, the gate
between Bl and B2 on the bar. During normal current no longer has any control, and the rectifier
operation Bl is grounded and a positive bias is behaves as a low-forward-resistance diode. The gate
supplied to B2. When the emitter is forward biased, regains controls when the current through the
emitter current will flow and the device will rectifier is cu t off, as during the other half cycle.
conduct. The symbol for a UJT is given in Fig. The SCR finds wide use in power-control
4-30 at C. A circuit showing a typical application applications and in time-delay circuits. SCRs are
in which a UJT is employed is shown in Fig. 4-30. available in various voltage and wattage ratings.

SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

The silicon controlled rectifier, also known as a TRIACS
Thyristor, is a four-layer (p-n-p-n or n-p-n-p) The triac, similar to the SCR, has three
three-electrode semiconductor rectifier. The;: three electrodes - the main terminal (No.1), another
Operational Amplifiers
101
SCR JUNCTIONS Fig. 4-30 - Unijunction transistor and SCR
ANODE~ PiN I PiN ~ CATH. symbols are given at Band C. A neon lamp is used
to trigger an SCR in the circuit at D. A UJT
(A) 1
GATE
triggers the SCR in example E.

82

E~
C A E f [ T . GATE

UJT

(C~Bl
SCR
(8) ANODE

TERM 2
main terminal (No.2), and a gate. The triac
performs in the same manner as the SCR, but for 2

~,
either polarity of voltage applied to its main
terminals. The SCR, as mentioned in the foregoing,
TRIAC SCR SCR
conducts only during one half the sine-wave cycle.
When an SCR is used in a motor-speed control,
therefore, the motor cannot be brought up to full
speed. The triac, however, does trigger on both TERM 1 GATE
halves of the cycle. Therefore, triacs are preferred (A)
to SCRs in many control circuits. The triac can be (B)
regarded as a device in which two SCRs are
employed in parallel and oriented in oppo~ite Fig. 4-31 - The symbol for a triac is given at A.
directions as shown in the drawing of Fig. 4-30. An The illustration at B shoilvS how a triac compares to
example of a motor-speed control which uses a two SCRs connected for the same performance
triac is given in the construction chapter of this offered by a triac, thus permitting conduction
book. du ring both halves of the cycle.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Early analog computers used amplifier blocks semiconductor manufacturers) is shown in Fig.
which became known as operational amplifiers, or 4-32. Two inputs are provided, one the comple-
simply op amps. Operational amplifiers can be ment or inverse of the other. An amplifier with
constructed using tubes or transistors, and as two such inputs is known as a differential ampli-
hybrid or monolithic integrated circuits. The fier. If a small positive voltage is applied to the
monolithic IC has become the most popular type noninverting (+) terminal, it will produce a positive
of op amp. Today op-amp ICs cost approximately output. The same positive voltage applied to the
one dollar for the preferred types. They are used as inverting (-) terminal will result in a negative
building blocks in many circuit applications. output. If the same voltage was applied to both
The op amp is a dc-coupled multistage linear terminals, the output would be zero. Both inputs
amplifier which, in an ideal device, would have can be used, called the differential connection, or
infinite input impedance and infinite gain. While one can be returned to ground for single-ended
the ideal op amp remains an unobtainable goal, operation. In practical ICs, the output may not be
voltage gains of 100,000 or more can be achieved. exactly zero when both inputs are at zero poten-
FET-input op amps have sufficiently high input tial. Any output under these conditions is called
impedance that the current required from the offset - some op amps have provision for con-
driving source is measured in pA (j.JJJ.A). nections to an external control which compensates
for any offset voltage by applying bias current to
Gain and Feedback the input transistors. The offset connections for
The internal circuit of a popular op-amp IC, the the p.A 741 are shown in Fig. 4-32. Op amps are
I'airchild p.A741 (also produced by most other available in all of the popular IC packages; consult
102 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
INVERTING
INPUT

Fig. 4-32 - Internal circuit

of a pA 741 operational
amplifier.
OUTPUT

L---~ __ ~ __ +-~ ____ __

~ ~~ __ ________
~ ~-ov

the manufacturer's literature for pin connections. operational amplifier. This circuit is often em-
Usually the pin connections are not the same for a ployed as an audio mixer. Fig. 4-33D shows the
particular device when it is made up in different voltage-follower connections. The load at the
package styles. output of this circuit can draw a large current
For most applications the full gain of the op while the input draws almost no current. The
amp is not used. Feedback is employed, as shown output voltage follows the level of the input
in Figs.4-34A and B.. The addition of a resistive potential almost exactly. The output of the differ-
divider network, Ro-Ri, causes negative feedback entiator (Fig. 4-33E) is proportional to the rate of
by allowing part of the output voltage to be change of the input voltage, while the integrator
applied to the inverting input. The gain of the (Fig.4-33F) averages the level of a voltage that
device will be equal to the sum of Ro and Ri, varies over a short period of time. A differen tial
divided by the value of Ri. Feedback can be connection of a single op amp is shown at G.
applied in a similar manner for a noninverting
amplifier, Fig.4-33B .. The voltage summer, Fig.
Stability
4-33C, provides an output voltage which is the sum Because op amps are high-gain devices with
of all input voltages multiplied by the gain of the frequency response from dc to several megahertz,

INVERTING AMPLIFIER
DIFFERENTIATOR

NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER

Rr INTEGRATOR

Rl
t
fIN

El
R, VOLTAGE SUMMER
EOUT =&(EHE2+E3)
!
E2o-'VV'""R,'-4 RI
E3 o-'VVI--Rr,-,
01 FFERENTIAL AMPLI FIER
COMMON

VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

E~Q-----~:::
0-6_ _ _ _ _ _ &
Fig. 4-33 - Basic op-amp circuits.
 Operational Amplifiers 103
AUDIO AMP. COMPARATOR
lOOK. +12V

INPUT
10K TTL
OUTPUT
INPUT
(E)
.......\I\I1,~-U -12V

1200 Hz ACTIVE FILTER

+15V -15V

INPUTS AUDIO MIXER 2700 2700

,05 ~ .05

1 '350

INPUT<>--; ~.AI\,""""'~
OUTPUT
,01

AUDIO AMPLIFIER
(F)

+12V -12V
OUTPUT
;uA 709
~ pA 710
JAA 741
(C)
+12V

LIMITING AMPLIFIER
Fig. 4-34 - Some typical applications of opera-
10K tional amplifiers. The pin numbers shown are all
for the metal can (TO-99) package.
INPUT

~ requirement can be eliminated by using a resistive

10K
divider to bias the noninverting input as indicated
in Fig. 4-34C. If the amplifier is intended to be used
OFFSET (D) as a limiting device (the input stage of an RTTY
.1..,...
r17 -15V +15V
demodulator is an example) an offset control
should be added to allow adjustment for equal
clipping of the negative and positive peaks (Fig.
oscillation can occur. In any op-amp circuit layout, 4-34D). .
Another popular use for the op amp IS as a
the inputs should be well isolated from the output.
comparator - see Fig. 4-34E. A comparator is used
Input leads should be kept as short as possible.
to indicate when a difference exists between a
Supply-voltage terminals should be bypassed with
reference voltage and an input voltage. The output
0.1- or .Ol-J.LF capacitors. As the frequency is
of the comparator will swing from its maximum
increased, the stages within an op amp will
positive voltage to maximum negative when the
introduce phase shift. If the phase shift in the
input exceeds the reference (zero voltage .if. the
amplifier reaches 180 degrees before the gain has reference is zero). A number of op amps optimized
decreased to unity, the amplifier will be unstable. for comparator service are available; they are often
Some op amps, such as the Jl.A. 709 of Fig. 4-34A. used as interface devices between linear and digital
require an external compensation network, RI-CI, circuits. The operational amplifier is often em-
to reduce the gain of the device at hf. Others, the ployed inactive filters, which use RC components
Jl.A.741 of Fig. 4-34R for example, contain internal to provide low-pass, high-pass, and bandpass char-
compensation and, thus, require no additional acteristics. A simple illustration, an RC filter
components to assure stability. network tuned to 1200 Hz connected in parallel
Applications with the feedback resistor, is given in Fig.4-34F.
This design is for low Q giving a characteristic
Most monolithic op-amp ICs require supply suitable for a cw receiver. The gain at resonance is
voltages of plus 5 to 15 and minus 5 to 15. approximately 40. Additional information about
Practical examples of an audio amplifier and audio active filters and other op-amp circuits is available
mixer are given in Fig. 4-33A and B" respectively. in the publications listed in the bibliography at the
In some amateur applications, the dual-polarity end of this chapter.
104 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
ABBREVIATED SEMICONDUCTOR SYMBOL LIST

BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR SYMBOLS

Cibo - Input capacitance, open circuit VCC - Collector-su pply voltage
(common base) VCE - Collector-to-emitter voltage
Cieo - Input capacitance, open circuit VCEO - Collector-to-emitter voltage (base
(common emitter) open)
Cobo - Output capacitance, open circuit VCE(sat) - Collector-to-emitter saturation vol t-
(common base) age
C oeo - Output capacitance, open circuit VEB - Emitter-to-base voltage
(common emitter) VEBO - Emitter-to-base voltage (collector
fe - Cutofffrequency open)
- Gain-bandwidth product (frequen- VEE - Emitter-supply voltage
iT Yfe - Forward transconductance
cy at which small-signal forward
current-transfer ratio, common Yie - Input Admittance
emitter, is unity, or 1) Yoe - Output Admittance
gme - Small-signal transconductance FielD-EFFECT TRANSFER SYMBOLS
(common emitter)
hFB - Static forward-current transfer A - Voltage amplification
ratio (common base) Ce - Intrinsic channel capacitance
hfb - Small-signal forward-current trans- Cds - Drain-to-source capacitance (in-
fer ratio, short circuit (common cludes approximately I-pF drain-
base) to-case and interlead capacitance)
hFE - Static forward-current transfer Cgd - Gate-to-drain capacitance (includes
ratio (common emitter) O.I-pF interlead capacitance)
hfe - Small-signal forward-current trans- Cgs - Gate-to-source interlead and case
fer ratio, short circuit (common capacitance
emitter) Ciss - Small-signal input capacitance,
hIE - Static input resistance (common short circuit
emitter) C rss - Small-signal reverse transfer capaci-
hie - Small-signal input impedance, short tance, short circuit
circuit (common emitter) gfs - Forward transconductance
Ib - Base current g"lS - Input conductance
Ie - Collector current gos - Output condu~tance
ICBO - Collector-cutoff current, emitter In - Dc drain current
open InS(OFF)- Drain-to-source OFF current
ICEO - Collector-cutoff current, base open IGSS - Gate leakage current
IE - Emitter current re - Effective gate series resistance
MAG - Maximum available amplifier gain rnS(ON) - Drain-to-source ON resistance
PCE - Total dc or average power input to rgd - Gate-to-drain leakage resistance
collector (common emitter) rgs - Gate-to-source leakage resistance
POE - Large-signal output power (common VnB - Drain-to-su bstrate voltage
emitter) Vns - Drain-to-source voltage
RL - Load resistance VGB - Dc gate-to-substrate voltage
Rs - Source resistance VGB - Peak gate-to-substrate voltage
VBB - Base-supply voltage VGS - Dc gate-to-source voltage
VBC - Base-to-collector voltage VGS - Peak gate-to-source voltage
VBE - Base-to-emitter voltage V GS(OFF)- Gate-to-source cutoff voltage
VCB - Collector-to-base voltage Yfs - Forward transadmittance =gfs
VCBO - Collector-to-base voltage (emitter Yos - Output admittance
open) YL - Load admittance

Semiconductor Bibliography

Garrett, "Integrated-Circuit Digital Logic RCA Power Circuits, DC to Microwaves, Series

Families," in three parts, IEEE Spectrum SP-Sl, RCA, Harrison, NJ 07029•
. Oct.ober, November, and December, 1970. RCA Linear Integrated Circuits, Series IC-42, RCA,
Heilwe~, Inn:oduction to Boolean Algebra and Harrison, NJ 07029.
Logzc DeSign, McGraw-Hill, 1964. RCA Hobby Circuits Manual, Series HM-91 RCA
Maley, Manual of Logic Circuits Prentice-Hall Harrison, NJ 07029. "
1970. " Solid-State Communications McGraw-Hill.
Pike, "The Operational Amplifier," Parts I and II, Transistor Circuit Design, McGraw-Hill.
QST, August and September 1970 Malmstadt and Enke, Digital Electronics for
Pos, ':.Digital Logic Devices," QST, Jul~, 1968. Scientists, W. A. Benjamin, Inc., New York NY
Pos, Integrated-Circuit Flip-Flops," QST, Febru- 10016. '
ary, 1971. Malmstadt and Enke, A Laboratory Workbook
RCA Transistor, Thyristor, and Diode Manual (computer logic). W. A. Benjamin, Inc., New
Series SC-14, RCA, Harrison, NJ 07029. ' York, NY 10016.
 Chapter 5

AC-Operated
Power Supplies
I
and may have either a capacitor input or a choke
Power-line voltages have been "stan- input, depending on whether a shunt capacitor or a
dardized" throughout the U.S. at 115 series inductor is the first filter element. Essentially
- 230 V in residential areas where a pure direct current is required to prevent hum in
single voltage phase is supplied. These the output of receivers, speech amplifiers, modula-
tors and transmitters. In the case of transmitters, a
figures represent nominal voltages, pure dc plate supply is also dictated by government
however. "Normal" line voltage in a regulations. If a constant supply voltage is required
particular area may be between ap- under conditions of changing load or ac line
proximately 110 and 125 volts, but voltage, a regulator is used following the filter.
When the prime power source is dc (a battery),
generally will be above 115 volts. In the dc is first changed to ac, and is then followed
many states, the service is governed by by the transformer-rectifier-filter system. Addi-
the state's public utilities commission. tional information on this type of supply is
The voltage average across the country contained in Chapter 10.
The cathode-heating power can be ac or dc in
is approximately 117 volts. Source of the case of indirectly heated cathode tubes, and ac
information: Edison Electric Company or dc for filament-type tubes if the tubes are
(an association of power companies), operated at a high power level (high-powered audio
New York, NY. and rf applications). Low-level operation of
filament-type tubes generally requires dc on the
filaments if undue hum is to be avoided.
The electrical power required to operate Occasionally transformerless power supplies are
amateur radio equipment is usually taken from the used in some applications (notably in the ac-dc
ac lines when the equipment is operated where this type of broadcast receiver). Such supplies operate
power is available; in mobile operation the prime directly from the power line, and it is necessary to
source of power is usually the storage battery. connect the chassis or common-return point of the
The high-voltage dc for the plates of vacuum circuit directly to one side of the ac line. This type
tubes used in receivers and transmitters is derived of power supply represents an extreme shock
from the commercial ac lines by the use of a hazard when the equipment is interconnected with
transformer-rectifier-filter system. The transformer other apparatus in the amateur station, or when
changes the voltage of the ac to a suitable value, the chassis is exposed. For safety reasons, an
and the rectifier converts it to pulsating dc. The isolation transformer should be used with such
fIlter reduces the pulsations to a suitably low level, equipmmt when it is present in an amateur station.

POWER-LINE CONSIDERATIONS

POWER LINE CONNECTIONS one wire and the neutral, while the other half of
In most residential systems, three wires are the load is connected between the other wire and
brought in from the outside to the distribution neutral. Heavy appliances, such as electric stoves
board, while in other systems there are only two and heaters, normaUy are designed for 230-volt
wires. In the three-wire system, the third wire is operation and therefore are connected across the
the neutral which is grounded. The voltage two ungrounded wires. While both ungrounded
between the other two wires normally is 230, while' wires should be fused, a fuse should never be used
half of this voltage (115) appears between each of in the wire to the neutral, nor should a switch be
these wires and neutral, as indicated in Fig. S-lA. used in this side of the line. The reason for this is
In systems of this type, usually it will be found that opening the neutral wire does not disconnect
that the US-volt household load is divided as the equipment. It simply leaves the equipment on
evenly as possible between the two sides of the one side. of the 230-volt circuit in series with
circuit, half of the load being connected between whatever load may be across the other side of the

105
106 POWER SUPPLI ES

NO FUSE
OR SWITCH

W
nn (B) (e)
@
T,=

(0)

Fig. 5-1 - Three-wire power-line circuits. A - Normal 3-wire-line termination. No fuse should be used in
the grounded (neutral) line. B - Showing that a switch in the neutral does not remove voltage from
either side of the line. C - Connections for both 115- and 230-volt transformers. D - Operating a
115-volt plate transformer from the 230-volt line to avoid light blinking. T1 is a 2-to-1 step-down
transformer.

circuit, as shown in Fig. S-lB. Furthermore, with requirements to be met. Some amateurs tenninate
the neutral open, the voltage will then be divided the special line to the station at a switch box, while
between the two sides in inverse proportion to the others may use electric-stove receptacles as the
load resistance, the voltage on one side dropping tennination. The power is then distributed around
below normal, while it soars on the other side, the station by means of conventional outlets at
unless the loads happen to be equal. convenient points. All circuits should be properly
The usual line running to baseboard outlets is fused.
rated at 15 amperes. Considering the power Three-Wire llS-V Power Cords
consumed by filaments, lamps, transmitter, re-
ceiver and other auxiliary equipment, it is not To meet the requirements of state and national
unusual to find this lS-A rating exceeded by the codes, electrical tools, appliances and many items
requirements of a station of only moderate power. of electronic equipment now being manufactured
It must also be kept in mind that the same branch to operate from the liS-volt line must be equipped
may be in use for other household purposes with a 3-conductor power cord. Two of the
through another outlet. For this reason, and to conductors carry power to the device in the usual
minimize light blinking when keying or modulating fashion, while the third conductor is connected to
the transmitter, a separate heavier line should be the case or frame.
run from the distribution board to the station When plugged into a properly wired mating
whenever possible. (A three-volt drop in line receptacle, the 3-contact polarized plug connects
voltage will cause noticeable light blinking.) this third conductor to an earth ground, thereby
If the system is of the three-wire 230-V type, grounding the chassis or frame of the appliance and
the three wires should be brought into the station preventing the possibility of electrical shock to the
so that the load can be distributed to keep the line user. All commercially manufactured items of
balanced. The voltage across a fixed load on one electronic test equipment and most ac-operated
side of the circuit will increase as the load current amateur equipments are being supplied with these
on the other side is increased. The rate of increase 3-wire cords. Adapters are available for use where
will depend upon the resistance introduced by the older electrical installations do not have mating
neutral wire. If the resistance of the neutral is low, receptacles. For proper grounding, the lug of the
the increase will be correspondingly small. When green wire protruding from the adapter must be
the currents in the two circuits are balanced, no attached underneath the screw securing the cover
current flows in the neutral wire and the system is plate of the outlet box where connection is made,
operating at maximum efficiency. and the outlet box itself must be grounded.
Light blinking can be minimized by using
transfonners with 230-volt primaries in the power Fusing
supplies for the keyed or intennittent part of the All transfonner primary circuits should be
load, connecting them across the two ungrounded properly fused. To detennine the approximate
wires with no connection to the neutral, as shown current rating of the fuse to be used, multiply each
in Fig. S-lC. The same can be accomplished by the current being drawn from the supply in amperes by
insertion of a step-down transfonner with its the voltage at which the current is being drawn.
primary operating at 230 volts and secondary Include the current taken by bleeder resistances
delivering 115 volts. Conventional lIS-volt trans- and voltage dividers. In the case of series resistors,
fonners may be operated from the secondary of use the source voltage, not the voltage at the
the step-down transfonner (see Fig. 5-1 D). equipment end of the resistor. Include filament
When a special heavy-duty line is to be power if the transfonner is supplying filaments.
installed, the local power company should be After multiplying the various voltages and currents,
consulted as to local requirements. In some add the individual products. Then divide by the
localities it is necessary to have such a job done by line voltage and add 10 or 20 percent. Use a fuse
a licensed electrician, and there may be special with the nearest larger current rating.
 Line Voltage Adjustment 107
TO TO rated over a range of less than one V A at 5 volts
TRANS TRANS
output up to several thousand VA at 115 or 230
volts. On the average they will hold their output
voltages within one percent under an input voltage
variation of ± 15 percent.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
All power supplies in an installation should be
fed through a single main power-line switch so that
all power may be cut off quickly, either before
working on the equipment, or in case of an
accident. Spring-operated switches or relays are not
suffIciently reliable for this important service.
II~VAC II~VAC
Foolproof devices for cutting off all power to the
(A) (8) transmitter and other equipment are shown in Fig.
5-3. The arrangements shown in Fig. S-3A and B
Fig. 5-2 - Two methods of transformer primary are similar circuits for two-wire (lIS-volt) and
control. At A is a tapped toy transformer which three-wire (230-volt) systems. S is an enclosed
may be connected so as to boost or buck the line dOUble-throw switch of the sort usually used as the
voltage as required. At B is indicated a variable entrance switch in house installations. J is a
transformer or autotransformer (Variac) which standard ac outlet and P a shorted plug to fIt the
feeds the transformer primaries. outlet. The switch should be located prominently
in plain sight,and members of the household
shOUld be instructed in its location and use. I is a
LINE-VOLTAGE ADJUSTMENT red lamp located alongside the switch. Its purpose
In certain communities trouble is sometimes is not so much to serve as a warning that the power
experienced from fluctuations in line voltage. is on as it is to help in identifying and quickly
Usually these fluctuations are caused by a variation
in the load on the line. Since most of the variation
comes at certain fIxed times of the day or night,
such as the times when lights are turned on at
evening, they may be taken care of by the use of a
manually operated compensating device. A simple
POWER TO
arrangement is shown in Fig. S-2A. A toy
transformer is used to boost or buck the line LINE EQUIP
voltage as required. The transformer should have a
tapped secondary varying between 6 and 20 volts
in steps of 2 or 3 volts and its secondary should be (A)
capable of carrying the full load current.
The secondary is connected in series with the
line voltage and, if the phasing of the windings is
correct, the voltage applied to the primaries of the
TO
transmitter transformers can be brought up to the
rated 115 volts by setting the toy-transformer tap
switch on the right tap. If the phasing of the two
windings of the toy transformer happens to be EQUIP
reversed, the voltage will be reduced instead of
increased. This connection may be used in cases
where the line voltage may be above 115 volts.
This method is preferable to using a resistor in the
primary of a power transformer since it does not
affect the voltage regulation as seriously. The
circuit of S-2B illustrates the use of a variable
autotransformer (Variac) for adjusting line voltage.
POWER 1 TO
Constant-Voltage Transformers LI NE EQUIP

Although comparatively expensive, special (C)

transformers called constant-voltage transformers
are available for use in cases where it is necessary
to hold line voltage and/or fIlament voltage Fig. 5-3 - Reliable arrangements for cutting off all
power to the transmitter. S is an enclosed
constant with fluctuating supply-line voltage. double-pole power switch, J a standard ac outlet, P
These are static-magnetic voltage regulating trans- a shorted plug to fit the outlet and I a red lamp.
formers operating on principles of ferroresonance. A is for a two-wire 115-volt line, B for a
They have no tubes or moving parts, and require three-wire 23(}.volt system, and C a simplified
no manual adjustments. These transformers are arrangement for low-power stations.
108 POWER SUPPLIES

locating the switch should it become necessary for Those who are operating low power and feel
someone else to cut the power off in an that the expense or complication of the switch
emergency. isn't warranted can use the shorted-plug idea as the
The outlet J should be placed in sQme comer main power switch. In this case, the outlet should
out of sight where it will not be a temptation for be located prominently and identified by a signal
children or others to play with. The shorting plug light, as shown in Fig. 5-3C.
can be removed to open the power circuit if there The test bench should be fed through the main
are others around who might inadvertently throw power switch, or a similar arrangement at the
the switch while the operator is working on the rig. bench, if the bench is located remotely from the
If the operator takes the plug with him, it will transmitter.
prevent someone from turning on the power in his A bleeder resistor with a power rating which
absence and either hurting themselves or the gives a considerable margin of safety should be
equipment or perhaps starting a fire. Of utmost used across the output of all transmitter power
importance is the fact that the outlet J must be su pplies, so that the filter capacitors will be
placed in the ungrounded side of the line. discharged when the high-voltage is turned off.

PLATE AND FILAMENT TRANSFORMERS

Output Voltage I-- E, - - l - - E2 - -1

The output voltage which the plate transformer
must deliver depends upon the required dc load ,
voltage and the type of filter circuit. R Eo

With a choke-input filter (see Fig. 54), the j

required rms secondary voltage (each side of
Rs
center-tap for a center-tap rectifier) can be
calculated by the equation: Fig. 54 - Diagram showing various voltage drops
that must be taken into consideration in determin-
ing the required transformer voltage to deliver the
desired output voltage.
where Eo is the required dc output voltage, I is the
Series resistance 5 ohms
load current (including bleeder current) in
Load resistance = II = 50 ohms
amperes, Rl and R2 are the dc resistances of the 0.5
RC = SO x 1000 = 50.000
chokes, and Rs is the series resistance (transformer RsfR = 5150 = 0.1
and rectifier). E t is the open-circuit rms voltage. Fig. 5-5 shows that the ratio of de volts to the required
With a capacitive-input filter system, the transformer rms voltage is 1.07.
approximate transformer output voltage required The required transformer terminaJ voltage under load is
to give a desired dc ou tpu t voltage with a given E _Epc+/XRs
AC - 1.07
load can be calculated with the aid of Fig. 5-5.
where I is the load current in amperes.
Example:
Required de output volts ~ 25 EAC=25~%iX5
Load current to be drawn - 500 rnA (0.5 ampere)
Input capacitor - 1000 J1F = ~70~ = 25.7 volts

1.4
II 1111 II 1if.= .01

~II e~
1.3 I- ,
~c
S
f-
c EAC :
0.d4
1.2. f--
lu
R
1/ V
f- -7
luI.!>
I.!>~ 1.1 L' Fig. 5-5 - Dc output
voltages from a full-wave
~o rectifier circuit as a func-
..... ~ ./ tion of the filter capaci-
~\J 1.0 tance and load resistance.
~ I;i J.21 Rs includes transformer
\J<")
Q~ 0.9
,.. ~ winding resistance and rec-
tifier forward resistance.
Q:::
V
...- V For the ratio RslR, both

-,..
0.8 resistances are in ohms; for
the RC product, R is in
ohms and C is in fJ.F.
0.7
.1 .3.5 1.0 3 5 10 30 50 100 300 500 1000
l~O (R INOHMS,CINp.F)
 Rewinding Transformers 109
The required transformer is one having a
5l.4-V center-tapped secondary. A 50- or 55-V
secondary would be entirely satisfactory. Should
the fIlter section contain one or more filter chokes I--w---j
connected between the input capacitor and the
load, the dc-resistance values of the chokes are
added to the value of Rs in the equation before
T ..;~.
H
multiplying by the load-current value.

Volt-Ampere Rating l~-

The number of volt-amperes delivered by a
transformer depends upon the type of filter
(capacitor or choke input) used, and upon the type Core
of rectifier used (full-wave center tap, or full-wave CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA =
bridge). With a capacitive-input fIlter the heating WIDTH)( HEIGHT (wx H) OF CORE
effect in the secondary is higher because of the
high ratio of peak-to-average current. The volt- Fig. 5-6 - Cross-sectional drawing of a typical
amperes handled by the transformer may be several po.wer transformer. Multiplying the height (or
times the watts delivered to the load. With a thickness of the laminations) times the width of
choke-input filter, provided the input choke has at the central core area in inches gives the value to be
least the critical inductance, the secondary applied to Fig. 5-7.
volt-amperes can be calculated quite closely by the
equation: rewinding of a transfonner secondary to give some
desired voltage for powering filaments or a
(Full-wave ct) Sec VA = .707 EI solid-state device is not difficult. It involves a
. 1000 matter of only a small number of turns and the
. EI wire is large enough to be handled easily. Often a
(Full-wave bndge) Sec. VA = 1000 receiver power transfonner with a bumed-out
high-voltage winding or the power transfonner
where E is the total rms voltage of the secondary from a discarded TV set can be converted into an
(between the outside ends in the case of a entirely satisfactory transformer without great
center-tapped winding) and I is the dc output effort and with little expense. The average TV
current in milliamperes (load current plus bleeder power transfonner for a 17 -inch or larger set is
current). The primary volt-amperes will be capable of delivering from 350 to 450 watts,
somewhat higher because of transformer losses. continuous duty. If an amateur transmitter is being
powered, the service is not continuous, so the
BROADCAST & TELEVISION ratings can be increased by a factor of 40 or 50
percent without danger of overloading the
REPLACEMENT TRANSFORMERS transfonner.
Small power transformers of the type sold for The primary volt-ampere rating of the trans-
replacement in broadcast and television receivers fonner to be rewound, if known, can be used to
are usually designed for service in terms of use for determine its power-handling capability. The
several hours continuously with capacitor-input secondary volt-ampere rating will be ten to twenty
filters. In the usual type of amateur transmitter percent less than the primary rating. The power
service, where most of the power is drawn rating may also be determined approximately from
intermittently for periods of several minutes with the cross-sectional area of the core which is inside
equivalent intervals in between, the published the windings. Fig. 5-6 shows the method of
ratings can be exceeded without excessive trans- detennining the area, and Fig. 5-7 may be used to
former heating. convert this infonnation into a power rating.
With a capacitor-input filter, it should be safe Before disconnecting the winding leads from
to draw 20 to 30 percent more current than the their tenninals, each should be marked for
rated value. With a choke-input filter, an increase identification. In removing the core laminations,
in current of about 50 percent is permissible. If a care should be taken to note the manner in which
bridge rectifier is used, the ou tpu t voltage will be the core is assembled, so that the reassembling will
approximately dOUbled. In this case, it should be be done in the same manner. Most transfonners
possible in amateur transmitter service to draw the have secondaries wound over the primary, while in
rated current, thus obtaining about twice the rated some the order is reversed. In case the secondaries
output power from the transformer. are on the inside, the turns can be pulled ou t from
the center after sli tting and removing the fiber
This does not apply, of course, to amateur
transmitter plate transformers, which usually are core.
The turns removed from one of the original
already rated for intermittent service. filament windings of known voltage should be
carefully counted as the winding is removed. This
REWINDING POWER TRANSFORMERS will give the number of turns per volt and the same
Although the home winding of power trans- figure should be used in detennining the number of
fonners is a task that few amateurs undertake, the turns for the new secondary. For instance, if the
 110 POWER SUPPLIES
transformer will run. The current rating in amperes
~ 4 ~ of various wire sizes is shown in the copper-wire
~3¥.I /" table in another chapter. If the transformer being
~ 3Y2 ..-'
~ 3~ rewound is a filament transformer, it may be
..-' necessary to choose the wire size carefully to fit
8l"3 ./ the small available space. On the other hand, if the
; 2'4
V transformer is a power unit with the high-voltage
~ 2Yz winding removed, there should be plenty of room
~ 2Y-
/"
/" for a size of wire that will conservatively handle
e 2
V the required current.
i'51~ After the first layer of turns is put on during
6'Y2 V/ rewinding, secure the ends with cellulose tape.
~ 1)4
Each layer should be insulated from the next;
~,
3 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 ordinary household waxed paper can be used for
POWER RATING OF TRANSFORMER IN WATTS the purpose, a single layer being adequate. Sheets
cut to size beforehand may be secured over each
layer with tape. Be sure to bring all leads out the
Fig. 5-7 Power-handling capability of a
transformer versus cross-sectional area of core. same side of the core so the covers will go in place
when the unit is completed. When the last layer of
the winding is put on, use two sheets of waxed
old filament winding was rated at 5 volts and had paper, and then cover those with vinyl electrical
15 turns, this is 15/5 = 3 turns per volt. If the new tape, keeping the tape as taut as possible. This will
secondary is to deliver 18 volts, the required add mechanical strength to the assembly.
number of turns on the new winding will be The laminations and housing are assembled in
18 X 3 =54 turns. just the opposite sequence to that followed in
In winding a transformer, the size of wire is an disassembly. Use a light coating of shellac between
important ,factor in the heat developed in each lamination. During reassembly, the lamination
operation. A cross-sectional area of 1000 circular stack may be compressed by clamping in a vise. If
mils per ampere is conservative. A value commonly the last few lamination strips cannot be replaced, it
used in amateur-service transformers is 700 cmil/A. is better to omit them than to force the unit
The larger the cmil/ A figure, the cooler the together.

RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

Half-Wave Rectifier load drawing little or no current it can rise to 2.8

Fig. 5-8 shows three rectifier circuits covering E RMS ·
Another disadvantage of the half-wave rectifier
most of the common applications in amateur
circuit is that the transformer must have a
equipment. Fig. 5-8A is the circuit of a half-wave
considerably higher primary volt-ampere rating
rectifier. The rectifier is a device that will conduct
(approximately 40 percent greater), for the same
current in one diiection but not in the other.
dc power output, than in other rectifier circuits.
During one half of the ac cycle the rectifier will
conduct and current will flow through the rectifier
Full-Wave Center-Tap Rectifier
to the load. During the other half of the cycle the
rectifier does not conduct and no current flows to A commonly used rectifier circuit is shown in
the load. The shape of the output wave is shown in Fig. 5-8B. Essentially an arrangement in which the
(A) at the right. It shows that the current always outputs of two half-wave rectifiers are combined, it
flows in the same direction but that the flow of makes use of both halves of the ac cycle. A
current is not continuous and is pulsating in transformer with a center-tapped secondary is
amplitude. required with the circuit.
The average output voltage - the voltage read The average output voltage is 0.9 times the rms
by the usual dc voltmeter - with this circuit (no voltage of half thc transformer secondary; this is
ftlter connected) is 0.45 times the rms value of the the maximum voltage that can be obtained with a
ac voltage delivered by the transformer secondary. suitable choke-input filter. The peak output
Because the frequency of the pulses is relatively voltage is 1.4 times the rms voltage of half the
low (one pulsation per cycle), considerable ftltering transformer secondary; this is the maximum
is required to provide adequately smooth dc voltage that can be obtained from a capacitor-input
output, and for this reason this circuit is usually filter (at little or no load).
limited to applications where the current involved The peak reverse voltage across a rectifier unit
is small, such as supplies for cathode-ray tubes and is 2.8 times the rms voltage of half the transformer
for protective bias in a transmitter. secondary.
The peak reverse voltage (PRV), the voltage the As can be seen from the sketches of the output
rectifier must withstand when it isn't conducting, wave form in (B) to the right, the frequency of the
varies with the load. With a resistive load it is the output pulses is twice that of the half-wave
peak ac voltage (1.4 E RMS ) but with a capacitor rectifier. Therefore much less ftltering is required.
Rectifier Circuits 111

~~
Since the rectifiers work alternately, each handles +
half of the load current, and the load-current rating
of each rectifier need be only half the total load
A~.
LINE II Eo... FILT~R
TO /\/\/\
EPEAK 11 1.4 E RMS
current drawn from the supply. E AV 110.45 ERMS
Two separate transformers, with their primaries (Al HALF - WAVE Epov 1.4-2.8 Eo ...
connected in parallel and secondaries connected in RIPPLE 11 121°/.
series (with the proper polarity) may be used in

~lle
o", F~LTER
this circuit. However, if this substitution is made,
the primary volt-ampere rating must be reduced to TO
A~ _
about 40 percent less than twice the rating of one LINE
EpEAK 1.4 E RMS
transformer. 11

E AV 11 0.9 E RMS

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier (Bl FULL-WAVE EpRY 11 2.8 E RMS

%
RIPPLE- 48
Another full-wave rectifier circuit is shown in
Fig. 5-8C. In this arrangement, two rectifiers
operate in series on each half of the cycle, one
rectifier being in the lead to the load, the other
being in the return lead. The current flows through EpEAK 11 1.4 ERMS
two rectifiers during one half of the cycle and EAV 11 0.9 E RMS
through the other two rectifiers during the other EpRY 11 1.4 E RMS
half of the cycle. The output wave shape (C), to (el BRIDGE RIPPLE 11 48°/.
the right, is the same as that from the simple
center-tap rectifier circuit. The maximum output
voltage into a resistive load or a properly designed Fig. 5-8 - Fundamental rectifier circuits. A -
choke-input filter is 0.9 times the rms voltage Half·wave (EpRV = 1.4 ERMS with resistive load,
delivered by the transformer secondary; with a = 2.8 ERMS with capacitor-input filter). B -
capacitor-input filter and a very light load the FUll-wave. C - Full-wave bridge. Output voltage
output voltage is 1.4 times the secondary rms values do not include rectifier voltage drops.
voltage. The peak reverse voltage per rectifier is 1.4
times the secondary rms voltage. Each rectifier in a
bridge circuit should have a minimum load-current and are characterized by a relatively high internal
rating of one-half the total load current to be resistance. For this reason, their application usually
drawn from the supply. is limited to low power, although there are a few
types designed for medium and high power in cases
RECTIFIER RATINGS where the relatively high internal voltage drop may
All rectifiers are subject to limitations as to be tolerated. This high internal resistance makes
breakdown voltage and current-handling capability. them less susceptible to damage from temporary
Some tube types are rated in terms of the overload and they are free from the bothersome
maximum rms voltage that should be applied to electrical noise sometimes associated with other
the rectifier plate. This is sometimes dependent on types of rectifiers.
whether a choke- or capacitive-input filter is used. Some rectifiers of the high-vacuum full-wave
Others, particularly mercury-vapor and semicon- type in the so-called receiver-tube class will handle
ductor types, are rated according to maximum up to 275 rnA at 400- to SOO-volts dc output.
peak reverse voltage. Those in the higher power class can be used to
Rectifiers are rated also as to maximum dc load handle up to 500 rnA at 2000 volts dc in full-wave
current, and some may carry peak-current ratings circuits. Most low-power high-vacuum rectifiers are
in addition. To assure normal life, all ratings should produced in the full-wave type, while those for
be carefully observed. greater power are invariably of the half-wave type,
two tubes being required for a full-wave rectifier
HIGH-VACUUM RECTIFIERS circuit. A few of the lower voltage types have
High-vacuum rectifiers depend entirely upon indirectly heated cathodes, but are limited in
the thermionic emission from a heated filament heater-to-cathode voltage rating.

SEMICONDUCTOR RECTIFIERS

Silicon rectifiers are being used almost exclu- Silicon rectifiers are available in a wide range of
sively in power supplies for amateur equipment. voltage and current ratings. In peak reverse voltage
Types are available to replace high-vacuum and ratings of 600 or less, silicon rectifiers carry
mercury-vapor rectifiers. The semiconductors have current ratings as high as 400 amperes, and at 1000
the advantages of compactness, low internal PRY the current ratings may be 1.5 amperes or so.
voltage drop, low operating temperature and high The extreme compactness of silicon types makes
current-handling capability. Also, no filament feasible the stacking of several units in series for
transformers are required. higher voltages. Standard stacks are available that
112 POWER SUPPLI ES
will handle up to 10,000 PRY at a dc load current rectifiers), some form of heat sinking is necessary.
of SOO rnA, although the amateur can do much Frequently, mounting the rectifier on the main
better, economically, by stacking the rectifiers chassis - directly, or by means of thin mica
himself. insulating washers - will suffice. If insulated from
the chassis, a thin layer of silicone grease should be
used between the diode and the insulator, and
between the insulator and the chassis to assure
good heat conduction. Large high-current rectifiers
PROTECTION OF SILICON often require special heat sinks to maintain a safe
POWER DIODES operating temperature. Forced-air cooling is
sometimes used as a further aid. Safe case
The important specifications of a silicon diode temperatures are usually given in the manufac-
are: turer's data sheets and should be observed if the
1) PRY (or PIV), the peak reverse (or peak maximum capabilities of the diode are to be
inverse) voltage, realized.
2) 10 , the average dc current rating.
3) I REP , the peak repetitive forward current, Surge Protection
and
4) ISURGE, the peak one-cycle surge current. Each time the power supply is activated,
The first two specifications appear in most assuming the input filter capacitor has been
catalogs. The last two often do not, but they are discharged, the rectifiers must look into what
very important. represents a dead short. Some form of surge
Since the rectifier never allows current to flow protection is usually necessary to protect the
more than half the time, when it does conduct it diodes until the input capacitor becomes nearly
has to pass at least twice the average direct current. charged. Although the dc resistance of the
With a capacitor-input mter, the rectifier conducts transformer secondary can be relied upon in some
much less than half the time, so that when it does instances to provide ample surge-current limiting, it
conduct, it may pass as much as ten to twenty is seldom enough on high-voltage power supplies to
times the average dc current, under certain be suitable. Series resistors can be installed
conditions. This peak current is IrtEP, the peak between the secondary and the rectifier strings as
repetitive forward current. illustrated in Fig. 5-4, but are a deterrent to good
Also, when the supply is first turned on, the
discharged input capacitor looks like a dead short, R R
and the rectifier passes a very heavy current. This is
ISURGE. The maximum ISURGE rating is usually
for a duration of one cycle (at 60 Hz), or about
16.7 milliseconds.
If a manufacturer's data sheet is not available,
an educated guess about a diode's capability can be
made by using these rules of thumb for silicon
diodes of the type commonly used in amateur
power supplies:
Rule 1) The maximum IREP rating can be
assumed to be approximately four times the OFF
maximum 10 rating.
Rule 2) The maximum IS URGE rating can be
assumed to be approximately twelve times the
maximum 10 rating. (This should provide a
reasonable safety factor. Silicon rectifiers with 11SV. A.C.
7S0-mA dc ratings, as an example, seldom have
I-cycle surge ratings of less than IS amperes; some
are rated up to 35 amperes or more.) From this Fig. 5-9 - The primary circuit of T1 shows how a
then, it can be seen that the rectifier should be 115-volt ac relay and a series dropping resistor, Rs,
selected on the basis of ISURGE and not on 10 can provide surge protection while C charges. When
ratings. sil icon rectifiers are connected in series for
high-voltage operation, the inverse voltage does not
divide equally. The reverse voltage drops can be
equalized by using equalizing resistors, as shown in
Thermal Protection the secondary circuit. To protect against voltage
The junction of a diode is quite small, hence it "spikes" that may damage an individual rectifier,
must operate at a high current density. The each rectifier should be bypassed by a .01-pF
heat-handling capability is, therefore, quite small. capacitor. Connected as shown, two 400-PRV
silicon rectifiers can be used as an 800-PRV
Normally, this is not a prime consideration in rectifier, although it is preferable to include a
high-voltage, low-current supplies. When using safety factor and call it a "750-PRV" rectifier. The
high-current rectifiers at or near their maximum rectifiers, CR1 through CR4, should be the same
ratings (usually 2-ampere or larger stud-mount type (same type number and ratings).
Semiconductor Rectifiers 113
Sarkes-Tarzian uses the descriptive name, "Klip-
volt."
Transient voltages can go as high as twice the
normal line voltage before the 'suppressor diodes
clip the peaks. Capacitors cannot give perfect
suppression either. Thus, it is a good idea to use
(A) power-supply rectifiers rated at about twice the
expected PRY.

Diodes in Series
Where the PRY rating of a single diode is not
sufficient for the application, similar diodes may
be used in series. (Two 500·PRV diodes in series
will withstand 1000 PRY, and so on.) When this is
done, a resistor and a capacitor should be placed
across each diode in the string to equalize the PRY
(8) drops and to guard against transient voltage spikes,
as shown in Fig. 5-9. Even though the diodes are of
the same type and have the same PRY rating, they
Fig. 5-10 - Methods of suppressing line transients. may have widely different back resistances when
See text. they are cut off. The reverse voltage divides
according to Ohm's Law, and the diode with the
higher back resistance will have the higher voltage
voltage regulation. By installing a surge-limiting developed across it. The diode may break down.
device in the primary circuit of the plate If we put a swamping resistor across each diode,
transformer, the need for series resistors in the R as shown in Fig. 5-9, the resultant resistance
secondary circuit can be avoided. A practical across each diode will be almost the same, and the
method for primary-circuit surge control is back voltage will divide almost equally. A good
shown in Fig. 5-9. The resistor, Rs introduces a rule of thumb for resistor size is this: Multiply the
voltage drop in the primary feed to T1 until C is PRY rating of the diode by 500 ohms. For
nearly charged. Then, after C becomes partially example, a 50D-PRV diode should be shunted by
charged, the voltage drop across R s lessens and 500 X 500, or 250,000 ohms.
allows K1 to pull in, thus applying full primary The shift from forward conduction to high
power to T1 as KIA shorts out Rs.R s is usually a back resistance does not take place instantly in a
25-watt resistor whose resistance is somewhere silicon diode. Some diodes take longer than others
between 15 and 50 ohms, depending upon the to develop high back resistance. To protect the
power supply characteristics. "fast" diodes in a series string until all the diodes
are properly cut off, a .01-J,lF capacitor should be
placed across each diode. Fig. 5-9 shows the
complete series-diode circuit. The capacitors
Transient Problems should be noninductive, ceramic disk, for example,
A common cause of trouble is transient voltages and should be well matched. Use lO-percent-toler-
on the ac power line. These are short spikes, ance capacitors if possible.
mostly, that can temporarily increase the voltage
seen by the rectifier to values much higher than the
normal transformer voltage. They come from Diodes in Parallel
distant lightning strokes, electric motors turning on Diodes can be placed in parallel to increase
and off, and so on. Transients cause unexpected, current-handling capability. Equalizing resistors
and often unexplained, loss of silicon rectifiers. should be added as shown in Fig. 5-11. Without the
It's always wise to suppress line transients, and resistors, one diode may take most of the current.
it can be easily done. Fig. 5-10A shows one way. The resistors should be selected to have about a
C1 looks like 280,000 ohms at 60 Hz, but to a I-volt drop at the expected peak current.
sharp transient (which has only high-frequency
components), it is an effective bypass. C2 provides

-c :
additional protection on the secondary side of the
transformer. It should be .01J,lF for transformer
voltages of 100 or less, and .001J,lF for high-voltage
transformers.
Fig. 5-10B shows another transient-suppression
method using selenium suppressor diodes. The
diodes do not conduct unless the peak voltage
becomes abnormally high. Then they clip the
transient peaks. General Electric sells protective Fig. 5-11 - Diodes in parallel should have
diodes under the trade name, "Thyrector." equalizing resistors. See text for appropriate value.
114 POWER SUPPLIES

FILTERING

The pulsating dc waves from the rectifiers are amplifIers, usually requires good dynamic regula-
not sufficiently constant in atnplitude to prevent tion (15 percent or less) if distortion products are
hum corresponding to the pulsations. Filters are to be held to a low level. The dynamic regulation
required between the rectifier and the load to of a power supply is improved by increasing the
smooth out the pulsations into an essentially value of the output capacitor.
constant dc voltage. Also, upon the design of the When essentially constant voltage regardless of
filter depends to a large extent the dc voltage current variation is required (for stabilizing an
output, the voltage regulation of the power supply, oscillator, for example), special voltage-regulating
and the maximum load current that can be drawn circuits described elsewhere in this chapter are
from the supply without exceeding the peak- used.
current rating of the rectifier. Power supply filters
are low-pass devices using series inductors and Bleeder
shunt capacitors. A bleeder resistor is a resistance connected
across the output terminals of the power supply.
Load Resistance Its functions are to discharge the filter capacitors
as a safety measure when the power is turned off
In discussing the perfonnance of power-supply and to improve voltage regulation by providing a
filters, it is sometimes convenient to express the minimum load resistance. When voltage regulation
load connected to the output terminals of the is not of importance, the resistance may be as high
supply in terms of resistance. The load resistance is as 100 ohms per volt. The resistance value to be
equal to the output voltage divided by the total used for voltage-regulating purposes is discussed in
current drawn, including the current drawn by the later sections. From the consideration of safety,
bleeder resistor. the power rating of the resistor should be as
conservative as possible, since a burned-out bleeder
Voltage Regulation resistor is more dangerous than none at all!
The output voltage of a power supply always
decreases as more current is drawn, not only Ripple Frequency and Voltage
because of increased voltage drops on the The pulsations in the output of the rectifIer can
transformer, fllter chokes and the rectifier (if be considered to be the resultant of an alternating
high-vacuum rectifiers are used) but also because current superimposed upon a steady direct current.
the output voltage at light loads tends to soar to From tliis viewpoint, the filter may be considered
the peak value of the transformer voltage as a to consist of shunting cap"llcitors which short-
result of charging the fIrst capacitor. By proper circuit the ac component while not interfering with
filter design the latter effect can be eliminated. The the flow of the dc component, and series chokes
change in output voltage with load is called voltage which pass dc readily but which impede the flow
regulation and is expressed as a percentage. of the ac component.
The alternating component is called the ripple.
The effectiveness of the filter can be expressed in
Percent regulation '" 1 00 (El - E2) terms of percent ripple, which is the ratio of the
E2 rms value of the ripple to the de value in terms of
Example: No-load voltage = El = 1550 vol Is. percentage. Any multiplier or amplifIer supply in a
FuU-Ioad voltage =E2 = 1230 volts. code transmitter should have less than 5 percent
Percentage regulation E 100 01~o 12301 ripple. A linear amplifIer can tolerate about 3
percent ripple on the plate voltage. Bias supplies
~ ~26 percent for linear amplifIers, and modulator and modu-
lated-amplifIer plate supplies, should have less than
A steady load, such as that represented by a 1 percent ripple. VFOs, speech amplifIers and
receiver, speech amplifIer or unkeyed stages of a receivers may require a ripple reduction to .01
transmitter, does not require good (low) regulation percent.
as long as the proper voltage is obtained under load Ripple frequency is the frequency of the
conditions. However, the filter capacitors must pUlsations in the rectifier o.utput wave - the
have a voltage rating safe for the highest value to number of pUlsations per second. The frequency of
which the voltage will soar when the external load the ripple with half-wave rectifiers is the same as
is removed. the frequency of the lin,e supply - 60 Hz with
A power supply will show more (higher) 60-Hz supply. Since the output pulses are doubled
regulation with long-term changes in load resis- with a full-wave rectifier, the ripple frequency is
tance than with short temporary changes. The doubled - to 120 Hz with a 60-Hz supply.
regulation with long-term changes is often called The amount of filtering (values of inductance
the static regulation, to distinguish it from the and capacitance) required to give adequate
dynamic regulation (short temporary load smoothing depends upon the ripple frequency,
changes). A load that varies at a syllabic or keyed with more flltering being required as the ripple
rated, as represented by some audio and rf frequency is lowered.
Capacitive-Input Filters 115
8
Type of Filter
Power-supply filters fall into two classifications,
capacitor input and choke input. Capacitor-input "-
filters are characterized by relatively high output ~ 1r---I1--t--j---j--J'-----t--J'-------1
voltage in respect to the transformer voltage.
Advantage of this can be taken when silicon ~
rectifiers are used or with any rectifier when the ~'"
load resistance is high. Silicon rectifiers have a ~ 6 I----If----t-_j_
higher allowable peak-to-dc ratio than do ther- :::
mionic rectifiers. This permits the use of "-
capacitor-input filters at ratios of input capacitor is
to load resistance that would seriously shorten the a~ sr----iI--t-~'----_,<j!'A-----A------1
life of a thermionic rectifier system. When the :lil;:
series resistance through a rectifier and filter ~
system is appreciable, as when high-vacuum ~
rectifiers are used, the voltage regulation of a : 4 ___-4_~~--_j'------j'-------r-R-B-IS-~-~-E~
capacitor-input power supply is poor.
The output voltage of a properly designed ~
choke-input power supply is less than would be ~
<:>
obtained with a capacitor-input ftlter from the ~ 3"""'--~'--+-~+--+----+---__I
same transformer. ~

CAPACITIVE-INPUT FILTERS
Capacitive-input filter systems are shown in Fig. 2000 3000 SOOO 10,000 2(\000 50,000
5-12. Disregarding voltage drops in the chokes, all LOAD RESISTANCE =DCDCAMPERES
VOLTS (
OUTPUT
)
have the same characteristics except in respect to
ripple. Better ripple reduction will be obtained
when LC sections are added, as shown in Figs. Fig. 5·13 - Graph showing the relationship
5-12B and C. between the dc load current and the rectifier peak
current with capacitive input for various values
Output Voltage of load and input resistance.
To determine the approximate dc voltage
output when a capacitive-input filter is used, Series resistance - 200 ohms
reference should be made to the graph of Fig. 5-5. 200 -;- 2000: 0.1
Input capacitor C: 20 J,lF

Example: .RC...lOOO..l:L2ll= 40
1000 1000
Transformer Ims voltage - 350
Load resistance - 2000 ohms From curve 0.1 and RC = 40, de voltage = 350 x 1.06
• 370.

+~------~----------~----~ + Regulation
If a bleeder resistance of 20,000 ohms is used in
r: C, R D.C.
OUTPUT the example above, when the load is removed and
R becomes 20,000, the dc voltage will rise to 470.
,..h For minimum regulation with a capacitor-input
filter, the bleeder resistance should be as high as
possible, or the series resistance should be low and
+ the filter capacitance high, without exceeding the
transformer or rectifier ratings.
D.C.
C2 R OUTPUT
Maximum Rectifier Current
The maximum current that can be drawn from
a supply with a capacitive-input filter without
exceeding the peak-current rating of the rectifier
may be estimated from the graph of Fig. 5-13.
Using values from the preceding example, the ratio
of peak rectifier current to dc load current for
(el
2000 ohms, as shown in Fig. 5-13, is 3. Therefore,
the maximum load current that can be drawn
without exceeding the rectifier rating is 1/3 the
peak rating of the rectifier. For a load current of
Fig. 5-12 - Capacitive-input filter circuits. A - 185 rnA, as above (370 V -;- 2000 .Q), the rectifier
Simple capacitive. B - Single-section. C - peak current rating should be at least
Double-section. 3 X 185 =555 rnA.
116 POWER SUPPLIES

With bleeder current only, Fig. 5-13 shows that current rating of 200 rnA. At all load currents
the ratio will increase to 6.5. Bu t since the bleeder between 40 rnA and 200 rnA, the choke will adjust
draws 23.5 rnA dc, the rectifier peak current will its inductance to the approximate critical value.
be only 153 rnA.
Output Voltage
CHOKE-INPUT FILTERS Provided the input-choke inductance is at least
With thermionic rectifiers better voltage regula- the critical value, the output voltage may be
tions results when a choke-input filter, as shown in calculated quite close by the following equation:
Fig. 54, is used. Choke input permits better
utilization of the thermionic rectifier, since a Eo =0.9Et - (I B + h) (Rl + R2) - Er
higher load current usually can be drawn without
exceeding the peak current rating of the rectifier. where Eo is the output voltage; E t is the rms
voltage applied to the rectifier (rms voltage between
Minimum Choke Inductance center-tap and one end of the secondary in the case
A choke-input filter will tend to act as a of the center-tap rectifier); IB and IL are the
capacitive-input filter unless the input choke has at bleeder and load currents, respectively, in amperes;
least a certain minimum value of inductance called R 1 and R 2 are the resistances of the first and
the critical value. This critical value is given by second filter chokes; and E r is the voltage drop
across the rectifier. The various voltage drops are
L . (henrys)
cnt
= EI (volts)
(rnA)
shown in Fig. 54. At no 10adIL is zero; hence the
no-load voltage may be calculated on the basis of
bleeder current only. The voltage regulation may
where E is the output voltage of the supply, and I be determined from the no-load and full-load
is the current being drawn through the filter. voltages using the formula previously given.
If the choke has at least the critical value, the
output voltage will be limited to the average value
of the rectified wave at the input to the choke (see OUTPUT CAPACITOR
Fig. 5-8) when the current drawn from the supply Whether the supply has a choke- or capacitor-
is small. This is in contrast to the capacitive-input input filter, if it is intended for use with a Class A
filter in which the ou tpu t voltage tends to soar af amplifier, the reactance of the output capacitor
toward the peak value of the rectified wave at light should be low for the lowest audio frequency; 16
loads. IJ.F or more is usually adequate. When the supply is
used with a Class B amplifier (for modulation or
Minimum-Load - Bleeder Resistance for ssb amplification) or a cw transmitter,
From the formula above for critical inductance, increasing the output capacitance will result in
it is obvious that if no current is drawn from the improved dynamic regulation of the supply.
supply, the critical inductance will be infinite. So However, a region of diminishing returns can be
that a practical value of inductance may be used, reached, and 20 to 30 IJ.Fwill usually suffice for
some current must be drawn from the supply at all any supply subjected to large changes at a syllabic
times the supply is in use. From the formula we (or keying) rate.
find that this minimum value of current is
RESONANCE
I (rnA) =E (volts) Resonance effects in the series circuit across the
Lcrit
output of the rectifier, formed by the first choke
In the majority of cases it will be most and first filter capacitor, must be avoided, since the
convenient to adjust the bleeder resistance so that ripple voltage would build up to large values. This
the bleeder will draw the required minimum not only is the opposite action to that for which
current. From the formula, it may be seen that the the filter is intended, but may also cause excessive
value of critical inductance becomes smaller as the rectifier peak currents and abnormally high
load current increases. peak-reverse voltages. For full-wave rectification
the ripple frequency will be 120 Hz for a 60-Hz
Swinging Chokes supply, and resonance will occur when the product
of choke inductance in henrys times capacitor
Less costly chokes are available that will capacitance in microfarads is equal to 1.77. At
maintain at least the critical value of inductance least twice this product of inductance and
over the range of current likely to be drawn from capacitance should be used to ensure against
practical supplies. These chokes are called swinging
chokes. As an example, a swinging choke may have resonance effects. With a swinging choke, the
an inductance rating of 5/25 H and a current rating minimum rated inductance of the choke should be
of 200 rnA. If the supply delivers 1000 volts, the used.
minimum load current should be 1000/25 =40
rnA. When the full load current of 200 rnA is RATINGS OF FILTER COMPONENTS
drawn from the supply, the inductance will drop to In a power supply using a choke-input filter and
5 H. The critical inductance for 200 rnA at 1000 properly designed choke and bleeder resistor, the
volts is 1000/200 = 5 H. Therefore the 5/25 H no-load voltage across the filter capacitors will be
choke maintains the critical inductance at the full about nine-tenths of the ac rms voltage. Neverthe-
 Filtering 117
less, it is advisable to use capacitors rated for the is important that each of the capacitors be shunted
peak transformer voltage. This large safety factor is with a resistor of about 100 ohms per volt of
suggested because the voltage across the capacitors supply voltage applied to the individual capacitors,
can reach this peak value if the bleeder should burn with an adequate power rating. These resistors may
out and there is no load on the supply. serve as all or part of the bleeder resistance.
In a capacitive-input filter, the capacitors Capacitors with higher voltage ratings usually are
should have a working-voltage rating at least as made with a dielectric of thin paper impregnated
high, and preferably somewhat higher, than the with oil. The working voltage of a capacitor is the
peak voltage from the transformer. Thus, in the voltage that it will withstand continuously.
case of a center-tap rectifier having a transformer
delivering 550 volts each side of the center tap, the
minimum safe capacitor voltage rating will be Filter Chokes
550 X 1.41 or 775 volts. An 800-volt capacitor
should be used, or preferably a lOOO-volt unit. Filter chokes or inductances are wound on iron
cores, with a small gap in the core to prevent
magnetic saturation of the iron at high currents.
Filter Capacitors in Series
When the iron becomes saturated its permeability
Filter capacitors are made in several different decreases, and consequently the inductance also
types. Electrolytic capacitors, which are available decreases. Despite the air gap, the inductance of a
for peak voltages up to about 800, combine high choke usually varies to some extent with the direct
capacitance with small size, since the dielectric is current flowing in the winding; hence it is
an extremely thin film of oxide on aluminum foil. necessary to specify the inductance at the current
Capacitors of this type may be connected in series which the choke is intended to carry. Its
for higher voltages, although the filtering capaci- inductance with little or no direct current flowing
tance will be reduced to the resultant of the two in the winding will usually be considerably higher
capacitances in series. If this arrangement is used, it than the value when full load current is flowing.

NEGATIVE-LEAD FI LTERING

For many years it has been almost universal insulation requirements. Choke terminals, negative
practice to place filter chokes in the positive leads capacitor terminals and the transformer center-tap
of plate power supplies. This means that the terminal should be well protected against acci-
insulation between the choke winding and its core dental contact, since these will assume full supply
(which should be grounded to chassis as a safety voltage to chassis should a choke burn out or the
measure) must be adequate to withstand the chassis connection fail.
output voltage of the supply. This voltage
requirement is removed if the chokes are placed in THE "ECONOMY" POWER SUPPLY
the negative lead as shown in Fig. 5-14. With this In many transmitters of the 100-watt class, an
connection, the capacitance of the transformer excellent method for obtaining plate and screen
secondary to ground appears in parallel with the voltages without wasting power in resistors is by
filter chokes tending to bypass the chokes. the use of the "economy" power-supply circuit.
However, this effect will be negligible in practical Shown in Fig. 5-15, it is a combination of the
application except in cases where the output ripple full-wave and bridge-rectifier circuits. The voltage
must be reduced to a very low figure. Such
at E1 is the normal voltage obtained with the
applications are usually limited to low-voltage
full-wave circuit, and the voltage at E2 is that
devices such as receivers, speech amplifiers and
obtained with the bridge circuit (see Fig. 5-8). The
VFOs where insulation is no problem and the
chokes may be placed in the positive side in the total dc power obtained from the transformer is, of
conventional manner. In higher voltage applica- course, the same as when the transformer is used in
tions, there is no reason why the filter chokes its normal manner. In cw and ssb applications,
should not be placed in the negative lead to reduce additional power can usually be drawn without
excessive heating, especially if the transformer has
a rectifier filament winding that isn't being used.

~118l:Lt Ct~llq}' [<>---0;;::

Fig. 5-14 - In most applications. the filter chokes
may be placed in the negative instead of the
positive side of the circuit. This reduces the danger Fig. 5-15 - The "economy" power supply circuit
of a voltage breakdown between the choke winding is a combination of the full-wave and bridge-recti-
and core. fier circuits.
 118 POWER SUPPLI ES

VOLTAGE-MULTIPLYING CIRCUITS

Although vacuum-tube rectifiers can be used in Resistors R1 in Fig. 5-17 are used to limit the
voltage-multiplying circuits, semiconductor rectifi- surge currents through the rectifiers. Their values
ers are recommended. are based on the transformer voltage and the
A simple half-wave rectifier circuit is shown in rectifier surge-current rating, since at the instant
Fig. 5-16. Strictly speaking this is not a the power supply is turned on the filter capacitors
voltage-multiplying circuit. However, if the current look like a short-circuited load. Provided the
demand is low (a milliampere or less), the dc limiting resistors can withstand the surge current,
output voltage will be close to the peak voltage of their current-handling capacity is based on the
the source, or 1.4Enns . A typical application of maximum load current from the supply.
the circuit would be to obtain a low bias voltage Output voltages approaching twice the peak
from a heater winding; the + side of the outpu t can voltage of the transformer can be obtained with
be grounded by reversing the polarity of the the voltage-doubling circuit of Fig. 5-17. Fig.5-1S
. rectifier and capacitor. As with all half-wave shows how the voltage depends upon the ratio of
rectifiers, the output voltage drops quickly with the series resistance to the load resistance, and the
increased current demand. product of the load resistance times the filter
The resistor R1 in Fig. 5-16 is included to limit capacitance.
the current through the rectifier, in accordance When one side of the transformer secondary
with the manufacturer's rating for the diode. If the must be at ground potential, as when the ac is
resistance of the transformer winding is sufficient, derived from a heater winding, the voltage-multi-
R1 can be omitted. plying circuits of Fig. 5-19 can be used. In the
voltage-doubling circuit at A, C1 charges through
the left-hand rectifier during one half of the ac
cyle; the other rectifier is nonconductive during
+. t this time. During the other half of the cycle the
right-hand rectifier conducts and C2 becomes
charged; they see as the source the transformer
~~________~~-o~4Irm. plus the voltage in Cl. By reversing the polarities
of the capacitors and rectifiers, the + side of the
output can be grounded.

Fig. 5-16 - If the current demand is low, a simple VOLTAGE TRIPLING AND
half-wave rectifier will deliver a voltage increase. QUADRUPLING
Typical values, for ERMS = 117 and a load current
of 1 rnA: A voltage-tripling circuit is shown in Fig. 5-19B.
C1 - 50-tlF, 250-V electrolytic. On one half of the ac cycle C1 is charged to the
Eoutput - 160 volts. source voltage through the left-hand rectifier. On
R1 - 22 ohms. the opposite half of the cycle the middle rectifier
conducts and C2 is charged to twice the source
voltage, because it sees the transformer plus the
charge in C1 as its source. (The left-hand rectifier is
VOLTAGE DOUBLERS cut off on this half cycle.) At the same time the
Several types of voltage-doubling circuits are in right-hand rectifier conducts and, with the
common use. Where it is not necessary that one transformer and the charge in C2 as the source, C3
side of the transformer secondary be at ground is charged to three times the transformer voltage.
potential, the voltage-doubling circuit of Fig. 5-17 The + side of the output can be grounded if the
is used. This circuit has several advantages over the polarities of all of the capacitors and rectifiers are
voltage-doubling circuit to be described later. For a reversed.
given output voltage, compared to the full-wave The voltage-quadrupling circuit of Fig. 5-19C
rectifier circuit (Fig. 5-SB), this full-wave doubler .works'in substantially similar fashion.
circuit requires rectifiers having only l).alf the PRY In any of the circuits of Fig. 5-19, the output
rating. Again for a given output voltage, compared voltage will approach an exact multiple (2, 3 or 4,
to a full-wave bridge circuit (Fig. 5-SC) only half as depending upon the circuit) of the peak ac voltage
many rectifiers (of the same PRY rating) are when the output current drain is low and the
required. capacitance values are high.

IWVW\EpEAK • 2.8 ERMS

Fig. 5-17 - Full-wave vol·
tage·dou bl i n g circuit.
Values of limiting resistors,
EpRY • 2.8 ERYS R 1, depend upon allowable
surge currents of rectifiers.
Voltage Multiplying and Dropping 119
2.8
nlill ~=.J~ 10-
~60:?11
~
2.6

2.4
f-
Rs C R I1 ;/
.",...
.01

C I
2.2 f - EAC
I. .03
lIJ
III
~2.0
D
\.!)~ JiI
~ -I # /
.... 01.8
0::'
:,. <..I
/'/
U ~ 1.6
/
(lit) // .1
~ 1.4
/
/'
1.2

1.0 V
2 3 5 10 30 50 100 300 SOO 1000
RC
1000 (R IN OHMS, C IN,uF)

Fig. 5-18 - Dc output voltages from a full-wave voltage-doubling circuit as a function of the filter
capacitances and load resistance. For the ratio AsIA and for the AC product, resistances are in ohms and
capacitance is in microfarads. Equal resistance values for As and equal capacitance values for Care
assumed.

~J(t~r f ~ :H~ .~~, -----"'N\...-+--I~~·+EDC f;

(Al Fig. 5-19 - Voltage-multiplying circuits with one
side of transformer secondary grounded. (A)
Voltage doubler (8) Voltage tripler (C) Voltage
quadrupler.
Capacitances are typically 20 to 50 IlF
depending upon output current demand. Dc ratings
of capacitors are related to Epeak (1.4 Eac):
C1 - Greater than Epeak
C2 - Greater than 2Epeak
C3 - Greater than 3Epeak
C4 - Greater than 4Epeak

VOLTAGE DROPPING

Series Voltage-Dropping Resistor

Certain plates and screens of the various tubes R=
in a transmitter or receiver often require a variety
of operating voltages differing from the output where Ed is the voltage drop required from the
voltage of an available power supply. In most cases, supply voltage to the desired voltage and I is the
it is not economically feasible to provide a separate total rated current of the load.
power supply for each of the required voltages. If Example: The plate of the tube in one stage and the
the current drawn by an electrode (or combination screens of the tubes in two other stages require an operating
of electrodes operating at the same voltage) is voltage of 250. The nearest available supply voltage is 400
and the total of the rated plate and screen currents is 75
reasonably constant under normal operating rnA. The required resistance is
conditions, the required voltage may be obtained
R = ~ = .u.!!. = 2000 ohms
from a supply of higher voltage by means of a .075 .075
voltage-dropping resistor in series, as shown in Fig. The power rating of the resistor is obtained from P
S-20A. The value of the series, resistor, Rl, may be (watts) = [2R = (0.075)2 X (2000) = 11.2 watts. A 20-watt
resistor is the nearest safe rating to be used.
obtained from Ohm's Law,
 120 POWER SUPPLI ES

+o------~~----------o+ +o-----------~~-----o+E
R,
FROM FROM
POWER TO LOAD POWER
SUPPLY SUPPLY

-O----------JC~--~O-

(A) (6)
Fig. 5-20 - A - Series voltage·dropping resistor.
B - Simple voltage divider.
+o-----------~------_o+E
R', R2 =E1 ; R 1 = E - E1
, -__...:I.!.,---0+ E, 12 11+12
FROM
POWER 12 must be assumed.
SUPPLY ~__...:.I·i!....__O+ Ez
C - Multiple divider circuit.
R3 = E2; R2 = E 1 -E~ R1 = E - E1
n 12+n ~+12+n
(C)
13 must be assumed.
shown in Fig. 5-20C. The terminal voltage is E, and
Voltage Dividers two taps are provided to give lower voltages, E1
The regulation of the voltage obtained in this and E2, at currents 11 and 12 respectively. The
manner obviously is poor, since any change in smaller the resistance between taps in proportion
current through the resistor will cause a directly to the total resistance, the lower is the voltage
proportional change in the voltage drop across the between the taps. The voltage divider in the figure
resistor. The regulation can be improved somewhat is made up of separate resistances, R1, R2 and R3.
by connecting a second resistor from the R3 carries only the bleeder current, 13; R2 carries
low-voltage end of the first to the negative 12 in addition to 13; R1 carries 11, 12 and 13. To
power-supply terminal, as shown in Fig. 5-20B. calculate the resistances required, a bleeder
Such an arrangement constitutes a voltage divider. current, 13, must be assumed; generally it is low
The second resistor, R2, acts as a constant load for compared with the total load current (10 percent
the flIst, R1, so that any variation in current from or so). Then the required values can be calculated
the tap becomes a smaller percentage of the total as shown in the caption of Fig. 5-20, I being in
current through R1. The heavier the current drawn decimal parts of an ampere.
by the resistors when they, alone are connected The method may be extended to any desired
across the supply, the better will be the voltage number of taps, each resistance section being
regulation at the tap. calculated by Ohm's Law using the needed voltage
Such a voltage divider may have more than a drop across it and the total current through it. The
single tap for the purpose of obtaining more than power dissipated by each section may be calculated
one value of voltage. A typical arrangement is by multiplying 1 and E or 12 and R.

VOLTAGE STABILIZATION

Gaseous Regulator Tubes operation, a minimum tube current of 5 to 10 rnA

There is frequent need for maintaining the is required. The maximum permissible current with
voltage applied to a low-voltage low-current circuit most types is 40 rnA; consequently, the load
at a practically constant value, regardless of the current cannot exceed 30 to 35 rnA if the voltage
voltage regulation of the power supply or is to be stabilized over a range from zero to
variations in load current. In such applications, maximum load. A single VR tube may also be used
gaseous regulator tubes (OB2/VR105, OA2/VR150, to regulate the voltage to a load current of almost
etc.) can be used to good advantage. The voltage any value as long as the variation in the current
drop across such tubes is constant over a does not exceed 30 to 35 rnA. If, for example, the
moderately wide current range. Tubes are available average load current is 100 rnA, a VR tube may be
for regulated voltages near 150, 105, 90 and 75 used to hold the voltage constant provided the
volts. current does not fall below 85 rnA or rise above
The fundamental circuit for a gaseous regulator 115 rnA.
is shown in Fig. 5-21. The tube is connected in The value of the limiting resistor must lie
series with a limiting resistor, R1, across a source between that which just permits minimum tube
of voltage that must be higher than the starting current to flow and that which just passes the
voltage. The starting voltage is about 30 to 40 maximum permissible tube current when there is
percent higher than the operating voltage. The load no load current. The latter value is generally used.
is connected in parallel with the tube. For stable It is given by the equation:
Voltage Regulation 121
+o-~--~-----r~=-¢ +
(A)
where R is the limiting resistance in ohms, E s is the
DC
+ --J
voltage of the source across which the tube and
resistor are connected, Er is the rated voltage drop - -~-
across the regulator tube, and I is the maximum
tube current in amperes (usually 40 mA, or .04 A).
Two tubes may be used in series to give a higher +
regulated voltage than is obtainable with one, and
also to give two values of regulated voltage.
Regulation of the order of 1 percent can be +
obtained with these regulator tubes when they are (B)
operated within their proper current range. The
capacitance in shunt with a VR tube should be +
limited to 0.1 J.lF or less. Larger values may cause
the tube drop to oscillate between the operating
and starting voltages.

ZENER DIODE REGULATION

Fig. 5-22 - Zener-diode voltage regulation. The
A Zener diode (named after Dr. Carl Zener) can voltage from a negative supply may be regulated by
be used to stabilize a voltage source in much the reversing the power-supply connections and the
same way as when the gaseous regulator tube is diode polarities.
used. The typical circuit is shown in Fig. 5-22A.
Note that the cathode side of the diode is operated at its maximum dissipation rating, would
connected to the positive side of the supply. The conduct 5 amperes of current. A 10-V 1-W diode,
electrical characteristics of a Zener diode under on the other hand, could safely conduct no more
conditions of forward and reverse voltage are given than 0.1 A, or 100 mAo The conducting impedance
in Chapter 4. of a diode is its voltage rating divided by the
Zener diodes are available in a wide variety of current flowing through it, and in the above
voltages and power ratings. The voltages range examples would be 2 ohms for the 50-W diode, and
from less than 2 to a few hundred, while the power 100 ohms for the 1-W diode. Disregarding small
ratings (power the diode can dissipate) run from voltage changes which may occur, the conducting
less than 0.25 watt to 50 watts. The ability of the impedance of a given diode is a function of the
Zener diode to stabilize a voltage is dependent current flowing through it, varying in inverse
upon the conducting impedance of the diode, proportion.
which can be as low as one ohm or less in a The power-handling capability of most Zener
low-voltage high-power diode to as high as a diodes is rated at 25 degrees C, or approximately
thousand ohms in a low-power high-voltage diode. room temperature. If the diode is operated in a
higher ambient temperature, its power capability
Diode Power Dissipation must be derated. A typical I-watt diode can safely
Unlike gaseous regulator tubes, Zener diodes of dissipate only 1/2 watt at 100 degrees C.
a particular voltage rating have varied maximum
current capabilities, depending upon the power Limiting Resistance
ratings of each of the diodes. The power dissipated The value of Rs iIi Fig. 5-22 is determined by
in a diode is the product of the voltage across it the load requirements. If Rs is too large the diode
and the current through it. Conversely, the will be unable to regulate at large values of IL, the
maximum current a particular diode may safely current through R L . If Rs is too small, the diode
conduct equals its power rating divided by its dissipation rating may be exceeded at low values of
voltage rating. Thus, a 10-V 50-W Zener diode, if I L . The optimum value for Rs can be calculated
UNREG + by:
+

FROM POWER- R - EDC (min) - E z

SUPPLY OUTPUT + s - 1.1 h (max)

When Rs is known, the maximum dissipation

of the diode, PD' may be determined by:

Fig. 5-21 - Voltage stabilization circuit using a VR P = fEDC (max) - E z - IL (min)l EZ

tube. A negative-supply output may be regulated D l Rs J
by reversing the polarity of the po~er-suPpIY
connections and the VR-tube connections from In the fIrst equation, conditions are set up for
those shown here. the Zener diode to draw 1/10 the maximum load
122 POWER SUPPLI ES
current. This assures diode regulation under Voltage regulators fall into two basic types. In
maximum load. the type most commonly used by amateurs, the dc
supply delivers a voltage higher than that which is
Example: A t 2-volt source is to supply a circuit requir- available at the output of the regulator, and the
ing 9 volls. The load current varies between 200 and 350
rnA.
regulated voltage is obtained by dropping the
Ez = 9.1 V· (nearest available value). voltage down to a lower value through a dropping
12 - 9.1 2.9 75 h "resistor." Regulation is accomplished by varying
Rs =1.1 X 0.35 =0.385 = . 0 IDS either the current through a fixed dropping resis-
Po =[12 ./.1 -0.2) 9.1 = .185 X 9.1 =1.7 W tance as changes in input voltage or load currents
7
occur (as in the VR-tube and Zener-diode regulator
The nearest available dissipation rating above circuits), or by varying the equivalent resistive
1.7 W is 5; therefore, a 9.1-V 5-W Zener diode value of the dropping element with such changes.
should be used. Such a rating, it may be noted, will This latter technique is used in electronic regula-
cause the diode to be in the safe dissipation range tors where the voltage-dropping element is a
even though the load is completely disconnected vacuum tube or a transistor, rather than an actual
( IL (min) = 0 L resistor. By varying the dc voltage at the grid or
current at the base of these elements, the con-
ductivity of the device may be varied as necessary
Obtaining Other Voltages to hold the output voltage constant. In solid-state
regulators the series-dropping element is called a
Fig. 5-22B shows how two Zener diodes may be pass transistor. Power transistors are available
used in series to obtain regulated voltages not which will handle several amperes of current at
normally obtainable from a single Zener diode, and several hundred volts, but solid-state regulators of
also to give two values of regulated voltage. The this type are usually operated at potentials below
diodes need not have equal breakdown voltages, 100 volts.
because the arrangement is self equalizing. The second type of regulator is a switching
However, the current-handling capability of each type, where the voltage from the dc source is
diode should be taken into account. The limiting rapidly switched on and off (electronically). The
resistor may be calculated as above, taking the sum average dc voltage available from the regulator is
of the diode voltages as E z, and the sum of the proportional to the duty cycle of the switching
load currents as fL' wave form, or the ratio of the ON time to the total
period of the switching cycle. Switching frequen-
cies of several kilohertz are normally used to avoid
ELECTRONIC VOLTAGE REGULATION the need for extensive filtering to smooth the
switching frequency from the dc output.
Several circuits have been developed for The above information pertains essentially to
regulating the voltage output of a power supply voltage regulators. A circuit can also be con-
electronically. While more complicated than the structed to provide current regulation. Such regula-
VR-tube and Zener-diode circuits, they will handle tion is usually obtained in the form of current
higher voltage and current variations, and the limitation - to a maximum value which is-either
output voltage may be varied continuously over a preset or adjustable, depending on the circuit.
wide range. Relatively simple circuits, such as described later,

I17V AC

RZ

.01
I?~.O g$6-18V
+

Fig. 5-23 - Schematic diagram of the power OS1 - Neon lamp assembly with resistor (Leecraft
supply. Capacitances are in IJ.F; capacitors marked 32-2111 ).
with a polarity are electrolytic. Resistances are in Q1 - 2N1970.
ohms; R1 and R2 are composition. S1 - Spst toggle switch.
C1 - 2000-J.tF 50 volts dc electrolytic (Mallory S2 - Phenolic rotary, 1 section, 2-pole (1 used),
CG23U50C1 ). 6-position, shorting (Mallory 3126J).
C2 - .01-J.tF disk ceramic. T1 - Filament transformer, 25.2 V, 2 A (Knight
CR1-CR4, incl. - 50 PRV 3-A silicon diode 5404140 or similar).
(Motorola 1 N4719). VR1 - Voltage regulator diode.
Electronic Voltage Regulation 123
can be used to provide current limiting only.
Current limiting circuitry may also be used in
EtN
conjunction with voltage regulators.

Solid-State Regulators
One of the simplest forms of solid-state regula-
tion is shown at Fig. 5-23. A bridge rectifier
supplies 25 volts dc to a series regulator transistor,
Q1, whose base bias is established by means of a
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VAWES OF
Zener diode, VR1, providing a voltage reference of CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I JlF ) ;
a fixed level. C1 is the input capacitor for the OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR JlJlF)~
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
filter_ R1 is chosen to establish a safe Zener-diode I\a 1000, M-IOOO 000.
current, which is dependent upon the wattage
rating of the diode_ A I-watt Zener diode is Fig. 5-24 - Schematic diagram of 15-V 5-A
adequate for the circuit of Fig_ 5-23_ R2 is a regulator (W1 KLK, QST for November, 1971).
bleeder resistor and C2 is an rf bypass. If several Q1 - Motorola power transistor; 30-cubic-inch
output voltages are desired, say from 6 to 18 volts, heat sink required (Delco 7281366 radiator or
Zener diodes from 6 to 18 volts can be wired to S2 equiv.).
as shown_ When a 2N1970 is used at Q1, the value R1 - 0.1-ohm resistor, made from 8 feet of No. 22
of R1 will be 680 ohms_ Thls value offers a enam. copper wire.
R2, R4 - For text reference.
compromise for the 5 reference diodes used R3 - Linear taper.
(6,9,12,15, and 18 volts). U1 - Signetics IC.
The output of the supply is equal to the Zener
voltage minus the emitter-to-base bias voltage of of 24 to 30 volts applied at EIN the circuit as
Ql. Both the Zener voltage and bias voltage will be shown will provide an adjustable output voltage
approximately zero with only R2 as a load, but between 5 and 15. The circuit will handle up to 5
will rise to roughly 0.3 volt with a I-A load amperes of current, provided, of course, that the
connected to the output. An increase in load dc source will deliver this amount. If the load
current lowers the unregulated dc input voltage requires no more than 150 rnA of current the pass
which appears across VR1 and Rl. Zener current is transistor may be eliminated from the circuit
reduced, decreasing the voltage at which the diode altogether; in this case pins 2 and 10 of the IC
regulates. How much the voltage drops depends should be interconnected.
upon the characteristics of the particular Zener The NE550 regulator will safely accept input
employed. voltages as high as 50, and output voltages may be
This power supply has very low output ripple. adjusted by appropriate resistance values for R2,
The main limitation of the circuit is the possibility R3, and R4 from 2 to 40 volts. The value of R1
of destroying Q1, the series-regulator transistor, determines the shut-down current (maximum cur-
when a dead short or heavy overload is connected
across the output of the supply. To protect Q1
during normal operation, it should be mounted on
Table 5-1
a fairly large heat sink which is thermally coupled
to the main chassis of the supply. The transistor Voltage Divider Current Limit
should be insulated from the sink by means of a
mica spacer and a thin layer of silicone grease. The VOUT RA RB IMAX Rl
sink can then be bolted directly to the chassis. .05 12
3.6 6135 2967
5 4417 3654 0.1 6
IC Regulators 9 11,043 2442 0.5 1.2
12 14,724 2314 1.0 0.6
The solid-state regulator described above pro- 13.6 16,687 2272 1.5 0.4
vides only fixed voltages. Regulator circuits with 15 18,405 2243 2 0.3
the output voltage continuously variable over a 20 24,540 2177 2.5 0.24
wide range and with a very high degree of 34,356 2122 3.0 0.20
28
regulation can be built, but the number of circuit 5 0.12
components is comparatively large when discrete 10 .006
components are used. Integrated-circuit devices can
be used in a solid-state regulator circuit to replace
many or all of the discrete components, depending Table 5-1 - Resistance values for various voltage
on the output requirements. The voltage reference, and current outputs from the regulator of Fig.
5-24. These values were determined by mathe-
control, shut-down (for current limiting) and pass- matical calculation and are not necessarily available
transistor driver elements are contained on a single from stock supplies. The figures given do indicate
silicon chip. The construction of a regulated power the practical values which may be used along with
supply is simplified to a few interc,onnections if an an appropriate-value control for R2 in the circuit
IC regulator is used. of Fig. 5-24.
Fig. 5-24 is the diagram of a regulator using an RA - R2 plus top portion of R3.
IC and a single pass transistor. With a dc potential RB - R4 plus bottom portion of R3.
124 POWER SUPPLI ES
rent which the circuit will deliver into a short Fixed-Voltage IC Regulators
circuit) and is usually selected to protect either the
pass transistor or the power supply transformer, IC regulators with all circuitry contained on a
whichever has the lower current rating. Table 5-1 single silicon chip are becoming available for
gives resistance values for various levels of voltage different values of fixed-voltage outputs. The
and current from the regulator. LM309 five-volt regulator, manufactured by
The use of a high-gain pass device improves the Nationial Semiconductor and others, is one type of
output regulation, and a Darlington-connected pair such ICs. These regulators are three-terminal de-
is frequently employed. Of course it is easy to vices, for making connections to the positive
purchase a ready-made Darlington transistor, but unregula,ted input, positive regulated output, and
the enterprising amateur can make his own, as ground. They are designed for local regulation on
shown in Fig. 5-25A. However, some of the IC digital-logic circuit-board cards to eliminate the
regulators which are available on the market have distribution problems associated with single-point
so much internal gain that it is difficult to avoid regulation. For this reason they are frequently
oscillation with a high-gain pass transistor. called on-card regulators.
The LM309 is available in two common tran-
High-Current-Output Regulators sistor packages. The LM309H in a TO-5 package
can deliver output currents in excess of 200 rnA if
When a single pass transistor is not available to adequate heat sinking is provided, and the
handle the current which may be required from a LM309K in the TO-3 power package can provide
regulator, the current-handling capability may be an output current greater than 1 A. The regulator
increased by connecting two or more pass tran- is essentially blow-out proof, with current limiting
sistors in parallel. The circuits at Band C of Fig. included in the circuit. In addition, thermal shut-
5-25 show the method of connection. The resis- down is provided to keep the IC from overheating.
tances in the emitter leads of each transistor are If internal dissipation becomes too great, the
necessary to equalize the currents. regulator will shut down to prevent excessive
heating.
It is not necessary to bypass the output of the
c E LM309, although bypassing does improve immun-
ISO
ity from transient responses. Input bypassing is
needed, however, if the regulator is located very far
(A) from the fIlter capacitor of the power supply.
QI 10K
Typical values of input bypass capacitance are 0.15
and 0.22 J.lF. Although designed primarily as a
fixed-voltage regulator, the LM309 can be used to
obtain a regulated output at voltages higher than
Q3 .3
five. This is done by returning the "ground"
c connection of the IC to a tap point on a voltage
divider which is connected between the regulated
output and a true circuit ground. An adjustable
output regulator for voltages above five can be had
if the "ground" pin is connected to the junction of
(B) a 300-ohm fixed resistor and one end of a
toOO-ohm linear control. The opposite end of the
300-ohm resistor should be connected to the
.45 output pin, and the wiper contact and third lug of
c E the control to a true circuit ground.
.45 Switching Regulator
Switching regulators are used when it is neces-
.45 sary or desired to minimize power losses which
would otherwise occur in the series pass transistor
(c) (or transistors) with large variations in input or
output voltages. The basic operation of the switch-
ing regulator, known as the flyback type, may be
understood by referring to Fig. 5-26A. Assume
Fig. 5-25 - At A, a Darlington-connected pair for that the switch is closed and the circuit has been in
use as the pass element in a series-regulating circuit. operation long enough to stabilize. The voltage
At Band C, the method of connecting two or more across the load, RL, is zero, and the current
transistors in parallel for high current output.
Resistances are in ohms. The circuit at A may be through L is limited only by RI, the internal
used for load currents from 100 mA to 5 A, at B resistance of the inductor. At the instant the
for currents from 6 to lOA, and at C for currents switch is opened, the voltage across the load goes
from 9 to 15 A. to a value higher than the source voltage, E,
01 - Motorola MJE 340 or equivalent. because of the series-aiding or "flyback" effect of
02-07, incl. - Power transistor such as 2N3055 or the inductor. When the magnetic lines of flux
2N3772. about the inductor collapse completely, the voltage
 r- f
Electronic Voltage Regulation 125

t
across RL will be equal to that of the source L
(minus the small voltage drop across RI). Each
time the switch is closed and then opened, the
process is repeater. By opening and closing the IDEAL RI
VOLTAGE ~H R (A)
switch rapidly, voltage pulses may be applied
SOURCE E L._____ ---<_I--_---.J L
across RL which are higher than the dc input
voltage. A capacitor may be connected across RL
to produce a dc output voltage. To keep the
capacitor from discharging when the switch is
closed, a diode can be connected in series with the L
load and its parallel-connected capacitor.
In a practical switching-regulator circuit the
switching is perforll!ed by a transistor, as shown at
B of Fig. 5-26. The transistor may be driven by any
number of circuits. In the practical circuit shown
later (Fig. 5-27) four sections make up the driving
circuit, as shown in block diagram form in Fig. (8)
5-26B. The oscillator triggers the monostable mul-
tivibrator and determines the frequency of opera-
tion. The sensor measures the output voltage and
controls the pulse width of the multivibrator
accordingly. The monostable multivibrator como,
bines the signals from the oscillator and sensor to
produce the correct pulse width. The driver re- Fig. 5-26 - At A, the fundamental circuit of a
ceives the multivibrator output and drives the flyback switching regulator, and at B, the elements
power transistor, Ql. of a practical circuit.
The voltage step-up capability of the inductor
has been mentioned briefly. However, in choosing prevent a large inductance change with increased
the value of the inductor, energy is an important current.
consideration. During the time the transistor is Efficiency of the circuit depends mainly upon
turned on, the inductor stores energy. This energy the switching and saturation losses of the power
is added to the supply and delivered to the load transistor. The peak current through the transistor
when the transistor turns off. The total energy is considerably greater than the input current. The
must be enough to supply the load and maintain flyback diode must have a fast reverse recovery
output voltage. As the load is increased, the time and low forward drop. There will be a large
transistor must remain on longer in order to store current spike through the transistor if the diode is
more energy in the inductor. The required value of slow.
inductance depends on frequency of operation, The complete circuit of a switching regulator is
duty cycle, and load. A linear change in current given in Fig. 5-27. This regulator will handle 100
through the inductor is a desirable condition and watts of power efficiently, at output voltages as
indicates operation is over a small segment of the much as 6 volts above the input voltage. The
inductor's charging and discharging curve. A switching rate of the regulator is 9 kHz, and it
powdered-iron-core inductor is normally used to operates with an input of 22 to 28 volts. Regula-

IN3879 OUTPUT
:zavoc
+0----, +
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I J.lF } ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR JlJlF):
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k.'OOO, M.'OOO 000.

220

Fig. 5-27 - A 100·W 28·V switching 680 41K

regulator (circuit design courtesy of
Delco Electronics, Kokomo, Ind.).
All resistors are 1/2 W.
CRl - Motorola rectifier mounted
on Delco heat sink 7281352.
L1 - 124 turns No. 18 wire wound
on Arnold B079024-3 powdered-
iron core.
01 - Darlington power transistor
(Delco DTS 1020 or equiv.).
 126 POWER SUPPLIES
operation is obtained from the power source being
protected, with the load functioning as the return
to the power source. Ql is a series element which
allows current, up to a desired maximum, to flow
to the load. Rl provides a suitable bias for Ql to
permit such current to flow. R2 is a sensing resistor
interposed between the series transistor and the
Fig. 5-28 - Two-terminal current limiter. See text load, and provides bias for Q2. Normally this bias
for discussion of component values and types. is low enough to prevent Q2 from conducting. Q2
controls the bias applied to Ql. When excess
tion and ripple are less than 1 percent at full
current flows through R2 as a result of a circuit
output. The switching device, Ql, is a commer-
malfunction or a short across the load, the voltage
cially available Darlington transistor.
drop across R2 rises, biasing Q2 into conduction.
The efficiency of the circuit drops off at low
When Q2 turns on, it reduces the bias on Ql and
power levels. This is because the losses of the
limits the amount of current flow. The maximum
circuit are not proportional to the output power.
amount of current flow can be varied by changing
Maximum efficiency occurs at about 80 watts
the value of R2. If an adjustable limiting level is
because the duty cycle of the transistor is an
desired, R2 may be a variable resistor. The limiting
optimum for the chosen value of the inductor.
level is an inverse function of the resistance value.
Whenever the input voltage increases above 28
volts, the ou tpu t voltage tracks the inpu t. The The current limiter works equally well with
difference between the two voltages is the drop in germanium or silicon, or npn or pnp types of
the flyback diode. semiconductors (so long as proper polarities are
Output voltage variations resulting from observed). The circuit values are not critical but
changes in ambient temperature are caused by two one must not exceed the maximum voltage rating
major factors; positive temperature coefficient of or the dissipation rating of the components used,
the Zener diode, and the negative temperature as in any other circuit. The voltage and dissipation
coefficient of the emitter-base junctions of the ratings are the only actual limiting factors in using
transistors. One way to compensate partially for this circuit; the device ratings may be scaled up or
temperature is to connect diodes that have negative down depending on their utilization. For pro-
temperature coefficients in series with the Zener tecting micro-circuitry (low current protection),
diode. for example, Ql and Q2 may be 2N4401 silicon
npn 310-mW audio transistors. If Rl is 10,000
Two-Tenninal Current Limiter ohms and R2 is 350 ohms, the current will be
limited to approximately 2 mA with a 9-V supply.
The simple circuit of Fig. 5-28 performs the If Rl is changed to 820 ohms and R2 changed to
current limiting function of fuses or circuit break- 24 ohms, the current will be limited to approxi-
ers with greater speed, accuracy, reliability and mately 30 mAo With fixed resistance values and
automatic resetting. Fuses and circuit breakers are with a fixed voltage input, the limited current
commonly used for protection of dc power sup- value will be somewhat dependent upon the beta
plies or experimental solid state devices under test of the transistors. If regulation is of concern,
and development, but such protective devices are germanium transistors will exhibit less voltage
not fast enough to cope with instantaneous over- drop, and R2 may be made only about 1/3 the
curren ts. The circuit uses only two transistors and value for equivalent limiting with silicon tran-
two resistors. The necessary supply voltage for sistors.

BI AS SUPPL 1ES
Bias supplies are used to provide grid voltage to cutting off receiver and transmitter output.
the PA and modulator stages of amateur Negative bias voltage is also used for grid-block
transmitters, to supply grid voltage to linear keying in most modern amateur exciters.
amplifiers, and to provide control voltage for
Tl

° TO 125V.
311~~--O~:~}o~'{;,tT
~~----~--~---------o+
TAPS'
-E3

(c)

311 ___. . . ., .___----.. .

Tl

R2 °_T°
_____
o:v. Fig. 5-29 - Circuits of typical bias supplies using
solid-state rectifiers. The circuit at B is preferred if
the bias is to be supplied to a Class C amplifier
stage. Zener-diode regulation is shown at C.
 ---------------------------------------
Power Supply Construction 127
Typical circuits for bias supplies are shown in voltages. The Zener diodes are selected for the
Fig. 5-29. At A, a simple half-wave rectifier (CRI) operating voltages required. Fewer, or more, Zener
provides dc voltage to RI, which is adjusted for the diodes can be connected in the string, or a single
desired output. If the bias is being fed to a Class C Zener diode can be used. R4 is adjusted to provide
amplifier, the circuit at B is preferred. Rl is used the proper Zener-diode current for the string, and
to set the bias voltage at the desired level and R2 is its wattage must be sufficient to handle the current
the value that would ordinarily be used as a flowing through it. R2 and R3 are current-limiting
grid-leak resistor for the Class C stage. No other resistors to protect CRI and CR2.
grid resistor should be used. Of course, full-wave center-tapped and full-
A voltage-doubler bias supply is shown at C. TI wave bridge rectifiers can be used in place of the
is chosen to provide the desired output voltage, half-wave examples shown in Fig. 5-29. Similarly,
when doubled, while allowing for the voltage drop voltage triplers can be used in bias supplies. The
a"ross R4. Zener diodes are connected in series full-wave rectifiers are easier to filter and may be
(CR3 through CR5, inc!.) to offer regulation and preferred for some applications.
to enable the user to obtain three different bias

CONSTRUCTION OF POWER SUPPLI ES

The length of most leads in a power supply is female receptacle. The input connector of the
unimportant, so the arrangement of components power supply should have a male receptacle to fit
from this consideration is not a factor. More the female receptacle of the cord. The power-
important are the points of good high-voltage output connector on the power supply should be a
insulation, adequate conductor size for filament female socket, never a male type. A male plug to
wiring - and most important of all ~ safety to the fit this socket should be connected to the cable
operator. Exposed high-voltage terminals or wiring going to the equipment. The opposite end of the
which might be bumped into accidentally should cable should be fitted with a female connector, and
not be permitted to exist. They should be covered the series should terminate with a male connector
with adequate insulation or made inaccessible to on the equipment. There should be no "live"
contact during normal operation and adjustment of exposed contacts at any point, regardless of where
the transmitter. Power-supply units should be a disconnection may be made.
fused individually. All negative terminals of plate Rectifier filament leads should be kept short to
supplies and positive terminals of bias supplies assure proper voltage at the rectifier socket.
should be securely grounded to the chassis, and the Through a metal chassis, grommet-lined clearance
chassis connected to a waterpipe or radiator holes will serve for voltages up to 500 or 750, but
ground. All transformer, choke, and capacitor cases ceramic feed through insulators should be used for
should also be grounded to the chassis. Ac power higher voltages. Bleeder and voltage-dropping resis-
cords and chassis connectors should be arranged so tors should be placed where they are open to air
that exposed contacts are never "live." Starting at circulation. Placing them in a confined space
the conventional ac wall outlet which is female, reduces the rating. Other precautions are given
one end of the cord should be fitted with a male earlier in this chapter, in the section on power-line
plug. The other end of the cord should have a considerations.

ADJUSTABLE REGULATED TRANSISTOR POWER SUPPLY

This power supply will develop from 3.5 to 21 The conduction of Ql is governed by the voltage
volts at 1.5 amperes. These capabilities should applied to its base from the output of VI, thereby
prove adequate for powering most solid-state controlling the output voltage. VI contains its own
devices, or for general-purpose use as a bench Zener reference diode. The regulated output
supply for solid-state projects. An RCA CA3055 voltage is adjusted with R2. Rl, a 56-ohm fixed
integrated-circuit regulator and a 2N3055 pass resistor, establishes the limiting value for the
transistor are the only active components needed current delivered to the load. Increasing the value
beyond those of a simple unregulated supply. The of this shutdown resistor will decrease the
design includes short-circuit protection, so that a maximum available current, and vice versa. The
dead short across the output terminals will cause function is approximately linear in inverse
no damage to the supply, even though the proportion - halving the resistance value doubles
output-voltage control may be set for maximum. the value at which the output current is limited.
The 56-ohm value of Fig. 2 was selected to
maintain a current level within the maximum
The Circuit ratings of Tl and Ql in the event a short circuit of
A potential of approximately 26 volts is extended duration was connected across the
delivered by the bridge rectifier and 3000-J.lF filter output. A variable control, such as a lOOO-ohm
capacitor to the regulator section of the circuit. value, could be placed in series with Rl to provide
 128 POWER SUPPLIES
Fig. 1 - The regulated power supply is housed in a
homemade two-piece metal box. Binding posts are
used for the dc output, neither side of which is
grounded. The third jack is a ground connected to
the case. On·off and meter switches flank the
meter. The knob at the lower left is mounted on
the voltage-control potentiometer.

alter the length of wire for the desired current

range. In any event, the current readings should be
checked against an ammeter having reliable
\ calibration.
The meter is calibrated to read half scale at 15
volts with S2 in the VOLTAGE position.
Calibration adjustment is made with R4 against a
known standard.

Construction
The power supply is built into a two-piece
cabinet assembly. The bottom piece serves as the
for adjustable current limiting at the regulated main chassis, front panel, and rear panel. The top
output. piece serves also as the sides. Figs. 1 and 3 show
A 0- to 3-mA meter, Ml, is used to monitor the arrangement of parts used in this model,
either the output voltage or the output current, although the layout is not critical. Neither the
with selection made at S2. R3 serves as the shunt positive nor the negative side of the output
element for current measurements, and R4 plus R5 connections is grounded to the chassis. Instead,
serve as the multiplier resistors for voltage three binding posts are used, the third being
measurements. R3 is homemade from a 1 1/2-inch connected to the chassis. By appropriate jumpering
length of No. 30 copper wire, wound over a at the front-panel binding posts, either a
I-megohm 1/2 watt resistor. This shunt causes Ml negative-ground or a positive-ground output may
to indicate at full scale with a load current of 1.5 be used.
amperes. With meter movements other than that Most of the small circuit components are
specified in the parts list, it may be necessary to mounted on a piece of etched circuit board which

2N3055

BOTTOM VIEW

~
(C~SEI

E B
® ®
o
Q1
2N3055
5
40°0 6
30
.5 A
500pF
R4
toOO 25V
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES DF CURRENT
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ()IF I ; LIMIT R1 (Al
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR )I)IFl:
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS:
k.IOOC. M'IOOO 000.
N.C.' NO CONNECTION

Fig. 2 - Circuit of the transistor power supply. Rl, R5 - For text reference.
Resistances are in ohms; resistors are 1/2 watt R2 - linear taper, panel mount.
10-percent tolerance unless otherwise noted. R3 - See text.
Capacitors with polarity indicated are electrolytic; R4 - linear taper, printed-circuit type.
others are ceramic. Sl - Spst.
CR1·CR4, incl. - 100 PRV 3 A (Motorola lN4720 S2 - Dpdt.
or equiv.l Tl - Primary 117 V; 21-V, 1.5-A secondary
Ml - 0-3 rnA {Knight 701·0021 or equiv.J {Stancor TP-4 or equiv.J
Ql - Silicon npn power transistor, 2N3055 (Radio Ul - Integrated circuit voltage regulator, RCA
Shack Archer 276-592 suitable). CA3055.
 General Purpose Supply 129
Fig. 3 - View of the regulated transistor supply
from the side. The transistor mounted in the
U-shaped heat sink is Q1. The rectifiers, CRl
'through CR4, are mounted beneath the meter on a
tie point strip, and are partially hidden in this view.
The large capacitor sitting atop the etched circuit
board is the 3000-MF filter capacitor connected at
the rectifier output.

is mounted vertically. This board is visible in Fig. 3

between the front panel and the homemade heat
sink for Q1. Components in the metering circuit
are mounted on tie-point strips located near the
front panel.
The case of Ql must be insulated from the
chassis. A mica washer coated with silicone grease
and insulating sleeves for the mounting scre.ws
should be used.

A HEAVY-DUTY REGULATED SUPPLY

This power supply is designed to be used with
fm transceivers in the 25-watt class. It is a
regulated supply with voltage adjustment from 0 to
15 volts and with current limiting to 5 amperes. It
also makes an excellent general-purpose bench
supply to power solid-state devices.

Circuit Details
A Motorola MC1466L integrated-circuit regula-
tor is used in the supply. Two parallel-connected
2N3055s are used for the pass transistors to handle
the current loads. The design of the supply
includes short-circuit protection, so that a dead
short across the outpu t terminals will cause no
damage to the supply, even at maximum output
voltage.
A voltage of approximately 25 volts is delivered
to the regulator section of the MC1466L. The
conduction of Ql and Q2, a Darlington-connected
pair, is governed by the voltage applied to the base
of Ql from the output of VI, thereby controlling
the output voltage. R4 is used to adjust the output
voltage and R5 can be set to establish the current
limiting value delivered to the load. Ml is a 0 -
15-volt meter for monitoring the output voltage
and M2 is a 0 - 100ampere meter for current
monitoring.

Construction Information
The supply is housed in a cabinet, 11-1/2 x
7-1/2 x 4-3/4 inches. This is a commercial cabinet
manufactured by Apollo Products, Box 245,
Vaughnsville, OH 45893. However, any suitable
enclosure will serve. The MC1466L, Ql, Q2, and

Fig. 1 - Inside view of the front section of the

supply. The 25-volt supply is mounted on the
chassis. Also visible is Rl and R3; R2 is mounted
at the rear of the cabinet.
130 POWER SUPPLI ES

associated components are mounted in an etched

circuit board. The 25-volt supply that provides the
regulator voltage to pins 7, 13 and 14 of U2 is also
mounted on an etched board. The pass transistors,
Q3 and Q4, are installed on a heat sink which is
mounted on the rear of the chassis.

Fig. 2 - Here is the back portion of the supply

showing the etched board for Ul and associated
components. Rectifiers CRl and CR2 are mounted
on a homemade bracket which is installed on the
chassis.

Fig. 3 - Schematic diagram of the

regulated supply. Resistances are
in ohms; resistors are 1/2 watt
unless otherwise specified. Capa- 25V
DC
citors with polarity indicated are (MUST
electrolytic, others are disk cera- FLOAT)

mic.
Ml - 0-15 V (Calectro Dl-920
suitable).
M2 - 0-10 A (Calectro Dl-917
suitable).
01 - Motorola MPS6530 or equiv.
02 - 2N4921.
03, 04 - 2N3055.
Rl, R2 - 0.1 ohm, 9.66 feet of No. 20 enam_
wound on 1/4-inch form, l-inch long. l---_--Q+
R3 - .025 ohm; 2.42 feet of No. 20 enam. wound +
eoo}l~T
on 1 /4-inch form, l-inch long. 30V,..+..,
R4 - 15,OOO-ohm control, linear taper.
R5 - 500-0hm control, linear taper.

A UNIVERSAL POWER SUPPLY FOR THE AMATEUR STATION

Presented here is a general-purpose unit with addition the supply provides ac filament potentials
provisions for 117-220-volt operation, and it is of 6.3 Vat 11 A or 12.6 Vat 5.5 A.
adapted easily for use with most commercially Often the station power supply is a heavy black
available gear by constructing appropriate power box that is tucked away in a corner and just sits
cords_ The supply delivers 800 V at 300 mA dc, there. A large cable interconnects this device with
300 Vat 175 mA dc, and 0 to -130 Vat 25 mAo In the station transmitter or transceiver. and the
amateur never comes directly in contact with it; all
of the supply functions are remotely controlled

Fig. 1 - The Universal Power Supply is con-

structed on a standard-size aluminum chassis.
Back-to-back plugs with appropriate jumper wires
make changing from 117-V to 220-V input opera-
tion or from 6.3-V to 12.6-V filament operation a
simple matter of reversing a plug.
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VAWES OF Fig. 2 - Circuit diagram for the Universal Power Supply. Component
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS t pF ) ; designations not listed below are for text reference.
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR pjlF)~ c:
::s
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k a I 000, ,..-, 000 000. CRl - CR12, incl. - 1000-PRV, 2.5-A silicon Ll - 10 H, 200 mA :;;;r
*.3.1. FOR 220V OPERATION.
diode (Mallory M2.5A or equiv.). CD
* * "FII... LEADS MUST BE CORRECTLY PHASED (Hammond 193J). ~
en
Jl, J2 - 5- pin tube-type socket (Amphenol L2 - 10 H, 300 mA
RED
78RS5 or equiv.). ~
(Hammond 193M).
J3 - 12 lug terminal block (Cinch 12-140 or "C
BLACK L1
equiv.), and 12 lug fanning strip (Cinch
Pl, P2 - 5-pin plugs to o
~
~ mate Jl and J2, 4
12-160L or equiv.). req'd (Amphenol
WHITE ~
86-PM5 or equiv.). (I)
1M
Rl - 5-watt linear· !:
taper control. "'C
"'C

11
R2, R3 - For text ref-
erence.
R4 - Three 39,000-
-<
.01 .0' .01
9 ohm 2-watt resistors
connected in paral-
lel.
52.'!" 1- 528'!"
R5, R6 - See text.
10011 1000 Sl - Spst toggle rated
at 6 A or greater.
GREEN
S2 - 2-pole 6-position
J2 6.3 or 12.6 V FI L. 3 rotary, nonshorting
(Centralab 1411 or
."ii!
u
,00'.il
equiv.).
Tl - Dual primary,
i6OOv,..+...,
11 7 or 220 V ac;
secondary 890 volts
each side of center
VR2 6.3 V FIL. .0:1, tap at 300 mA
300V (Hammond type
101059).
T2 - Dual primary,
11 7 or 220 V ac;
secondary 350 volts
each side of center
6A*
• tap at 175 mA, 6.3
~
o
5~~OR1
BIAS SET
4~~OR2
J3
volts ac at 6 A, 6.3
volts ac at 5 A
\;! (Hammond special
273BXl.
4700 PRI. FIL.
R3
2W VR1, VR2 - Thyrector
P2A** assembly (G E

4000
row
5000
row
-70V
250V

R'
0.2 P,8
6V

dEIk
P2S
N
*
6RS20SP4B4).
--
W

METER SHUNT 220V'C~ 12V ~

(1121015) (,1 210)
132 POWER SUPPLI ES
between -80 and -130 volts be required, R1 may
be interchanged with R3. Likewise, if a range from
o to -40 volts is needed, RI may be swapped with
R2.
Metering
A six-position switch and a 0-1-mA meter
allows monitoring of high and low voltages, the
current for each of these, and the bias voltage. The
sixth position permits the meter to be disabled.
The meter shunts for both current positions of S2
are homemade and provide a full-scale reading of
500 mA on each range. The proper resistance for
the shunts is determined by dividing the meter
internal resistance (approximately 100 ohms in this
case) by 500, and is equal to 0.2 ohm. No. 30
enameled copper wire has a resistance of 105 ohms
per 1000 feet, or 0.105 ohm per foot. Extending
the division another step, one inch of wire has a
Fig. 3 - Bottom view of the Universal Power resistance of .008 ohm. Approximately 23 inches
Supply. of wire provided the correct value for the shunts.
Each 23-inch length of wire is wound on a
100,000-ohm, two-watt composition resistor which
serves as a form.
from the panel of the station transmitting gear. But
what happens if an instance arises where a par- Construction
ticular voltage (or combination of voltages) is
needed for an experimental project? Can that The supply is built on a 10 x 8 x 3-inch
"black box" in the corner be pressed readily into aluminum chassis. The spot welds at the four
service? And what about the amateur who buys corners are reinforced with No.6 hardware since
two power supplies for his station because his the transformers are quite heavy. The total weight
mobile transceiver cannot be plugged directly into of the completed supply is slightly more than 40
his home-station transmitter power supply? This pounds. Several one-inch-diameter holes are cut in
supply is designed to fill all these needs. the chassis bottom plate to allow adequate air
Many of today's commercially available ac circulation.
supplies are not equipped for 220-volt operation. If All of the power-supply output voltages are
the station includes a two-kilowatt amplifier, a present on a 12-connection terminal block. The
separate 220-volt line should be available in the end of the cable used to interconnect the supply to
shack. Blinking house lights are not always a .result the station transceiver is equipped with a 12-lug
of running a high-powered amplifier. It could be fanning strip, providing a convenient means to
caused by the intermittent 400- or SOO-watt load disconnect it.
presented by an exciter power supply to the One special wiring precau tion is necessary; the
117-volt source. Connecting the exciter supply to a bleeder resistors for both the high and)low-voltage
220-volt outlet (providing a dual-primary trans- circuits should be mounted in the clear to allow
former is used) can be helpful in this regard. plenty of air circulation around them. Perforated
aluminum stock is placed over a I X 3-inch cut in
Circuit Details the chassis which is directly above the mounting
position for the 800-volt bleeder network.
The supply is shown in Figs. I through 3.
Primary power may be applied to the supply in Operation
two ways. First, terminals 6 and 8 of 13 may be
shorted together; this is normally the function of ~wo jumper plugs are mounted "back-to-back",
the station transmitting equipment on-off switch makmg the change from 117-volt operation to 220
(see Fig. 2). On the other hand, Sl may be volts a simple matter of reversing PI. P2 performs
actuated when the supply is used independently. an identical function to select 6 or 12 volts for the
Transient voltages on the ac line are eliminated by filament line.
Thyrector assemblies VRI and VR2. T~e cost for this project should be under $100,
Full-wave rectification is employed in the even If all of the parts are purchased new. The
secondary circuit of each power transformer to price of the two power transformers and two filter
develop the three dc operating voltages. Choke- chokes comprises approximately 60 percent of the
input filtering provides adequate regulation of both total cost. 1
the 300- and 800-volt outputs. Both L1 and L2 are 1 A package including the two power trans-
shunted with suitable resistors to reduce the formers and the two filter chokes is available from
possibility of diode damage when primary power Hammond Manufacturing CompanY, Inc., 1051
to the supply is removed. ~linton Street, Buffalo, NY 14240, for approx-
unately $60. In Canada, the address is Hammond
The bias voltage is adjustable and may be set to Mfg. Co., Ltd., 394 Edinburgh Rd., North Guelph
any value between -40 and -80. Should a range Ontario. Catalog available. '
3000-Volt Power Supply 133
A 3000-VOL T POWER SUPPLY

This high-voltage power supply may be used

with linear amplifiers that are capable of operating
at maximum legal input power levels. It was
designed for use with a one-kilowatt 3-S00Z
amplifier, but with minor modifications to the
control circuitry to suit individual circumstances it

.'-
can be used with amplifiers having a pair of 3-S00Z
tubes, a single 3-1000Z, 4-1000A, or any tube or
tubes calling for 2S00 to 3000 volts at up to 700
rnA. Examples of such amplifiers may be found in
Chapter 6. I
The Circuit
A voltage-doubler circuit connected to the
secondary of Tl provides approximately 3000
volts dc. See Fig. 3. The primary of T1 can be
operated from either a 117-volt line or a 220-volt
source; the latter voltage is preferred. VRI and
VR2 are suppressors included to prevent transients Fig. 1 - Top chassis view of the 300o.volt power
from damaging the high-voltage capacitor bank or supply as constructed by WA 1JZC. The circuit
the rectifier diodes. Since Tl has two 117-volt board in the foreground holds the bleeder resistors,
primary windings, a suppressor is connected across which are spaced apart and supported a short
distance above the board for proper cooling. The
each. The windings and suppressors are connected large transformer is for the high-voltage supply,
in parallel for 117-volt operation, and they are and the small transformer provides filament power
series connected for a 220-volt line. for the amplifier.
A relay (Kl) is necessary to switch the high-
current inrush when the supply is activated. Ordin-
ary toggle switches cannot be used to activate the
power supply directly. Surge protection is accom- mounted underneath the chassis. Reasonable care
plished by placing Rl in series with one lead of the must be taken to prevent any part of the primary
ac line. K2B shorts out this resistor a few seconds or control wiring from coming into contact with
after the main power switch (SI, located on the the high-voltage components. Each of the 100-J.LF
amplifier front panel) is actuated. A separate line capacitors in the capacitor bank is shunted by a
cord for the power supply allows this section to be 2S,000-ohm, 20-watt wire wound resistor. These
operated on 220 volts while permitting other resistors equalize the voltage drops across the
circuits in the amplifier to operate on 117 volts. series-connected capacitors, and also serve as the
The 120 volts needed to energize the coil of K2 are bleeder resistance. Since these resistors get quite
taken from a half-wave rectified de supply located hot during normal operation, they are mounted
on the amplifier chassis. Note that the B-minus away from the electrolytic capacitors on a separate
terminal is held a few volts above ground by the circuit board above the chassis, to allow for
IS-ohm, 2-watt resistor, for metering purposes in adequate ventiiation. The other large heat-
the companion amplifier. generating components are the power and filament
Construction
The power supply is built on a standard
10 X 12 x 3-inch aluminum chassis. Construction I
is straightforward, as can be seen from Figs. 1 and
2. The front and rear panels are made from 9 x
lO-inch pieces of 1/16-inch thick aluminum, and
the bottom plate and the U-shaped top cover are
made out of perforated aluminum stock.
The primary and control-circuit components, as
well as the rectifier board and capacitor bank, are
l

Fig.2 - The primary and control-circuit com-

••
ponents are grouped at the bottom, with the
high-voltage capacitor bank and rectifier board
occupying the upper portion of this bottom chassis
view of the power supply. Rl is visible in the lower
right-hand corner.
• .~==:----
 134 POWER SUPPLI ES
ALT. CONNECTION FOR 220 V AC
~ .01 .01 .01 .01 .01
sow K2B
3000V B+ J2

KIB .01
**
~ 4101(

15A*
KIC

~ 4101(

4101(

liSE BA. FOR 220VAC

*** BE SURE PRINARY WINDINGS

ARE PROPERLY PHASED

B- Jl

15
W
FIL XFRMR
5.,AC

K2A
Fig. 3 - Schematic dia-
gram of the 30oo-volt
power supply.

CRl - CR10, inc. - loo0-PRV, 2.5-A (Mallory P2 - Cable-mounted 2-pin power connector.
M2.5A or equiv.). R2 - 8 feet No. 14 enam. wire wound on 3-inch
OSl - 117-volt ac neon pilot lamp assembly. long, 3/4-inch dia Plexiglas rod.
Jl, J2 - High-voltage chassis connector (Millen Tl - OuaI117-voltprimary, l100-Vsecondary,
370011. Kl -PowerrelaY,dpdt, 117-voltcoil 600 VA (Berkshire 6181 or equiv.).
(Potter and Brumfeld PR-ll AY or equiv.l. T2 - 117-volt primary; secondary 5_0 volts at 15 A
K2 - Opdt 10 A contacts, 120-V dc coil (Potter (Stancor P6433 or equiv.l_
and Bru mfel d KA 11 OG or equ iv.l_ VR1, VR2 - Transient-voltage suppressor, 120-
P1 - Cable-mounted 11-pin power connector. volt (General Electric 6RS2OSP4B4 or equiv.)_

transformers (TI and T2), which are also mounted mum voltage recommended by the tube manu-
above chassis. facturer slightly, so R2 was included to reduce the
A small etched circuit board supports CRI voltage to a suitable value. To avoid excessive
through CRIO and their associated equalizing voltage drop in the cable connecting T2 with the
resistors and transient-suppressing disk capacitors. amplifier, it is recommended that the cable be
In actual operation, the filament voltage measured made of No. lO wire or larger (in many cases, R2
at the amplifier tube socket exceeded the maxi- will not be necessary).

NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY CHARGER

Any advantage that a NiCad (nickel-cadmium) constant current for battery charging is permissible
battery may have over other types can be lost at the start of the charging cycle, however, as the
through improper charging. This information con- battery reaches full charge, the voltage may rise to
cerning NiCadcharging techniques was contributed an excessive value.
by WA0UZO. NiCads can even be ruined on the The correct solution is a combination of the
first recharging cycle. If connected to a constant- two methods. Any circuit used for charging NiCads
voltage source, initial current may be quite high. should limit both the current and voltage, such as
Normally, no damage would result unless the the one described here.
battery voltage is low (fully discharged). Using a
Nickel-Cadmium Battery Charger 135
os,

lA CRI

~ ~~~~~::~~~"""-.-T""".....J~~QPL..v-F""--r--B-A"<l;RY
n

S1 CR2 I VRI
I
Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the 117-V ac I

1
charger.
C1 - Electrolytic.
CR1, CR2 - Silicon diodes, 100 PRY, 3 A.
OS1 - See text.
T1 - Primary 117 V ac, secondary 25.6 V at 500
mAo Calectro 01-752 ( or equiv.l. be connected to the cigarette lighter, and is
VR1 - See text. suitable for battery packs of up to 14 volts.
The dial lamp (DSl) is used to limit the
Some other precautions which should be ob- current. One with a rating of 100 to 150 rnA
served while charging NiCads are: should work fine with most batteries. The voltage
1) Battery temperature should be between 40 0 rating should be approximately that of the
and 80 0 F. It should never exceed 100 0 F. charging source (for example, two 12-V bulbs in
2) Two or more batteries with the same voltage series may be necessary if a 26-V supply is used).
rating may be charged in parallel, but be sure that The voltage regulator shown in Fig. 3 is based
the charger has sufficient current capability. on the fact that a forward-biased diode will not
3) Check the manufacturer's data sheet for the conduct until approximately 0.75 V dc is applied.
maximum allowable charging rate. A typical figure By adding a suitable number of diodes in series as
would be ten percent of the ampere-hour rating (a shown, a voltage regulator for the maximum
10-ampere-hour battery would require a current of battery voltage can be built easily. The circuit
lA). shown in Fig. 3 can be used in either Fig. 1 or 2,
4) Do not attempt to charge two batteries in for VRl. It will draw little current until the
series with a constant current unless the batteries
VR3 VR4 VR(Ntll
are. of the same type and capacity, and are in the
o.---+""'-j.,...+---t4-'+~'j -,l1li+ 0+
same state of charge (voltage on one may be
excessive). TOTAL VOLTAGE
5) To determine the approximate charging FOR VRI IS.0.75N
(N· NUMBER OF
time, divide the ampere-hour rating by the charging SILICON DIODES)
current used, and multiply the resulting time by 2.25V
l.25.
Fig. 3 - Schematic diagram of the voltage reg·
Suitable Charging Circuits ulator (V R1. Figs. 1 and 2).
Figs. 1 and 2 show two versions' of the same battery voltage reaches a permissible value during
basic charging circuit. The circuit shown in Fig. 1 is charge. Once the voltage reaches a preset level, the
used with 117 V ac, and the one in Fig. 2 can be diodes start to conduct and limit any further
used with the car battery. The latter circuit could increases.
os,
Initial Testing
After the circuit is wired and checked, apply
CR2
power (without a battery connected for charging).
FROM t o--___t-~ '-------<+ The bulb should light to less than full brilliance.
TO Measure the voltage across the regulator. It should
VEHICLE
BATTER!.~
f~ERY be 3 to 8 percent above the rated voltage of the
batteries to be charged. Adding or removing some
I diodes in VRI may be necessary. Connect the
I discharged batteries and measure the charging
I current (either a built-in meter could be used, or a
temporary one could be connected in series with

1
Fig. 2 - Schematic diagram of NiCad battery
the battery). The current should be typically 100
rnA with partially discharged batteries. The current
will decrease as the charging time increases, and a
value of 5 rnA indicates a fully charged condition.
charger suitable for mobile use. See text for No damage will result if the batteries are left on
explanation of OS1 and V R 1. CR2 protects the
components in the event of accidental reversal of charge continuously.
input leads. See Fig. 1 for CR2.
 Chapter 6

Regardless of the transmission mode - code, primary purpose is one of isolation, rather than
a-m, fm, single sideband, radioteletype, amateur power gain.
TV - vacuum tubes and semiconductors are Because it becomes increasingly difficult to
common elements in all transmitters. They are maintain oscillator frequency stability as the
used as oscillators, amplifiers, frequency multi- frequency is increased, it is most usual practice in
pliers and frequency converters. These four working at the higher frequencies to operate the
building blocks, plus suitable power supplies, are oscillator at a low frequency and follow it with one
basically all that is required to make any of the or more frequency multipliers as required to arrive
popular transmission systems. at the desired output frequency. A frequency
The simplest code transmitter is a keyed multiplier is an amplifier that delivers output at a
oscillator working directly into the antenna; a multiple of the exciting frequency. A doubler is a
more elaborate (and practical) code transmitter, multiplier that gives output at twice the exciting
the type popular with many beginners, will include frequency; a tripler multiplies the exciting
one or more frequency-multiplication stages and frequency by three, etc. From the viewpoint of
one or more power-amplifier stages. Any code any particular stage in a transmitter, the preceding
transmitter will obviously require a means for stage is its driver.
keying it. The bare skeleton is shown in Figs. 6-2A As a general rule, frequency multipliers should
and B. The rf generating and amplifying sections of not be used to feed the antenna system directly,
a double-sideband phone transmitter (a-m or fm) but should feed a straight amplifier which, in tum,
are similar to those of a code transmitter. feeds the antenna system.
The overall design depends primarily upon the Good frequency ,stability is most easily
bands in which operation is desired and the power obtained through the use of a crystal-controlled
output. A simple oscillator with satisfactory oscillator, although a different crystal is needed for
frequency stability may be used as a transmitter at each frequency desired (or multiples of that
the lower frequencies, but the power output frequency). A self-controlled oscillator or VFO
obtainable is small. As a general rule, the output of (variable-frequency oscillator) may be tuned to any
the oscillator is fed into one or more amplifiers to frequency with a dial in the manner of a receiver,
bring the power fed to the antenna up to the but requires great care in design and construction if
desired level. its stability is to compare with that of a crystal
An amplifier whose output frequency is the oscillator.
same as the input frequency is called a straight Many transmitters use tubes, but for low-power
amplifier. A buffer amplifier is the term sometimes hf and channelized vhf fm transmitters, transistors
applied to an amplifier stage to indicate that its are dominant. New solid-state devices are being
developed which allow dc inputs of 100 watts or
!'?"'; ~~ more with a low-level of 1M distortion products. As
"I..;:

~ .~
.. the cost of these transistors is reduced it can be
assumed that at some point in the future tubes will
.... :.
be used only for high-power amplification.
The best stage or stages to key in a code
transmitter is a matter which is discussed in a later
chapter. The oscillator/multiplier/amplifier type of
transmitter (Fig. 6-2B) has long been popular.
However, the excellent frequency stability and the
advantages of grid-block keying (which are
explained in the Code Transmission chapter) have

Fig. 6-1 - An amateur's transmitter is his

on-the-ai r voice. He is judged by the quality of that
"voice," whatever the mode that he chooses to
operate.

136
Crystal Oscillators 137

'--~T-tc-L-'Hr--P-A-~
Fig. 6-2 - Block diagrams of the three basic types
of transmitters. (A)

I
(c)

made the heterodyne exciter of Fig. 6-2C which, in tum, is a function of the amount of
increasingly popular, in spite of the slightly more feedback required to provide proper excitation.
complex circuitry required. Crystal heating short of the danger point results in
An fm transmitter can only be modulated in or frequency drift to an extent depending upon the
following the oscillator stage. An a-m phone way the crystal is cut. Excitation should always be
transmitter can only be modulated in the output adjusted to the minimum necessary for proper
stage, utiless the modulated stage is followed by a operation.
linear amplifier. However, following an amplitude- The most stable type of crystal oscillator is that
modulated stage by a linear amplifier is an which provides only a small voltage output (lightly
inefficient process, convenient as an expedient, but loaded), and which operates the crystal at a low
not recommended for best efficiency. drive level. Such oscillators are widely used in
Following the generation of a single-sideband receivers and heterodyne transmitters. The oscilla-
phone signal, its frequency can be changed only by tor/multiplier/amplifier type of transmitter usually
frequency conversion (not multiplication), in requires some power from the oscillator stage. For
exactly the same manner that signals in a receiver either type of crystal oscillator, the active element
are heterodyned to a different frequency. Com- may be a tube or a transistor.
plete details of ssb trllnsmitter design and
construction are given in Chapter 13. Oscillator Circuits
The simplest crystal-oscillator circuit is shown
CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS in Fig. 6-3A. Feedback in this circuit is provided
by the gate-source and drain-source capacitance.
The frequency of a crystal-controlled oscillator The circuit shown at B is the equivalent of the
is held constant to a high degree of accuracy by the tuned-grid, tuned-plate circuit discussed in the
use of a quartz crystal. The frequency depends chapter on vacuum-tube principles, using t1!e
almost entirely on the dimensions of the crystal crystal to replace the tuned grid circuit. Although
(essentially its thickness); other circuit values have JFETs are shown in the sample circuits at A and B,
comparatively negligible effect. However, the MOSFETs or triodes may also be employed, using
power obtainable is limited by the heat the crystal the connections shown in 6-3C through F.
will stand without fracturing. The amount of For applications where some power is required
heating is dependent upon the rf cyrstal current from the crystal oscillator, the circuits shown in

:~128
b 0

(A) G s
(8)
* = GATE PROTECTED (D) C

Fig. 6-3 - Simple crystal oscillator circuits. (A) Pierce, (B) FET, (C-F) other devices that can also be
used in the circuits of A and B with appropriate changes in supply voltage.
138 HF TRANSMITTING
....---_-0+

.01
1000
;r,
~-"""0+300V (c)
PENTODE TUBE
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR ELECTRON COUPLED
(GRI 0- PLATE)
Fig. 64 - Crystal-oscillator circuits that are designed to deliver power'. L1/C1 resonate at the crystal
frequency, or a multiple thereof if the second, third, or fourth harmonic is the desired output frequency.

Fig. 64 may be employed. At A, a bipolar power ou tpu t, and less frequency change occurs
transistor is used, while the tube circuits (B, C) are when the plate circuit is tuned through the cyrstal
somewhat more complicated. They combine the frequency (less than 25 Hertz at 3.5 MHz).
functions of oscillator and amplifier or frequency Crystal current may be estimated by observing
multiplier in a single tube. In these circuits, the relative brilliance of a 60-mA dial lamp connected
screen of a tetrode or pentode is used as the plate in series with the crystal. Current should be held to
in a triode oscillator. Power output is taken from a the minimum for satisfactory output by careful
separate tuned tank circuit in the actual plate adjustment of excitation. With the operating
circuit. Although the oscillator itself is not entirely voltages shown, satisfactory output should be
independent of adjustments made in the plate tank obtained with crystal currents of 40 rnA or less.
circuit when the latter is tuned near the In these tube circuits, output may be obtained
fundamental frequency of the crystal, the effects at multiples of the crystal frequency by tuning the
can be satisfactorily minimized by proper choice of plate tank circuit to the desired harmonic, the
the oscillator tube. output dropping off, of course, at the higher
The oscillators of Fig. 64B and 64C are a harmonics. Especially for harmonic operation, a
modification of the grid-plate circuit of Fig. 6-3B. low-C plate tank circuit is desirable.
In Fig. 64C the ground point has been moved
from the cathode to the plate of the oscillator (in Practical Considerations
other words, to the screen of the tube). Excitation The operation of a crystal oscillator is often
is adjusted by proper proportioning of 22- and hampered because vhf parasitic oscillations also
100-pF feedback capacitors. occur in the circuit. An effective way of killing
When some types of tubes are used in the parasitics is the use of a low-value composition
circuits of Fig. 6-4B, oscillation will stop when the resistor or ferrite bead, as shown in Fig. 6-5. The
output plate circuit is tuned to the crystal parasitic stopper ean be located on the gate (grid or
frequency, and it is necessary to operate with the base) lead, and it should be placed as close as
plate tank circuit critically detuned for maximum possible to the transistor. The circuit at A may be
output with stability. However, when the 6GK6, used for low-power applications. If a crystal above
12BY7 A, 5763, or the lower-power 6AH6 is used 1 MHz is to be used it may be advisable to include
with proper adjustment of excitation, it is possible a trimmer capacitor across the crystal to allow the
to tune to the crystal frequency without stopping crystal frequency to be set exactly.
oscillation. These tubes also operate with less It is often desirable in fm and ssb gear to use
crystal current than most other types for a given several crystals, switch-selected in a single oscilla-

+12V 22K
r-....JV\fI,.--t--.,--<l+12V

10K

15

Fig. 6-~ - T~o practical crystal-oscillator designs. (A) For low-power output applications such as a
conversIon oscillator or BFO, (B) an example of diode switching of crystals. The rf choke on the base lead
of the transistor is a ferrite bead which prevents vhf parasitic oscillation.
 Variable-Frequency Oscillators 139
+v +v +v

HARTLEY HARTLEY
(GROUNDED DRAIN) (GROUNDED CATHODE)
+v

(E)
PENTOD E (F)
SERIES-TUNED COLPITTS BIPOLAR HARTLEY
(GROUNDED DRAIN)

Fig. 6-6 - VFO circuits. The devices shown in Fig. 6-2C through F may also be employed as the active
component.

tor. If manual switching is used, the leads to the variations in the load may reflect on the frequency.
switch may introduce sufficient additional capaci- Very slight mechanical movement of the compon-
tance to upset the operation of the circuit. ents may result in a shift in frequency, and
Therefore, the use of diode switching, such as vibration can cause modulation.
shown in Fig. 6-SB, is now popular. Any In the past different techniques have been used
high-speed switching diode may be employed. The to design the VFOs for transmitters and receivers.
use of diode switching for low-level tank circuits, However, today the same circuits may be used for
especially in receivers, has gained wide acceptance. either application. In receivers the VFO is usually
A special diode known as the PIN has been called an HFO.
developed for this purpose. In any diode-switching VFO Circuits
circuit it is important to insure that the switching Fig. 6-6 shows the most commonly used
bias is many times larger than the peak rf voltage circuits. They are all designed to minimize the
present. effects mentioned above. The oscillating circuits in
Figs. 6-6A and B are the Hartley type; those in C
VARIABLE-FREQUENCY and D are Colpitts circuits. (See chapter on
OSCILLATORS vacuum-tube principles.) In the circuits of A, Band
C, all of the above-mentioned effects, except
The frequency of a VFO depends entirely on changes in inductance, are minimized by the use of
the values of inductance and capacitance in the a high-Q tank circuit obtained through the use of
circuit. Therefore, it is necessary to take careful large tank capacitances. Any uncontrolled changes
steps to minimize changes in these values not under in capacitance thus become a very small percentage
the control of the operator. As examples, even the of the total circuit capacitance.
minute changes of dimensions with temperature, In the series-tuned Colpitts circuit of Fig. 6-6D
particularly those of the coil, may result in a slow (sometimes called the Clapp circuit), a high-Q
but noticeable change in frequency called drift. circuit is obtained in a different manner. The tube
The effective input capacitance of the oscillator is tapped across only a small portion of the
tube, which must be connected across the circuit, oscillating tank circuit, resulting in very loose
changes with variations in electrode voltages. This, coupling between tube and circuit. The taps are
in tum, causes a change in the frequency of the provided by a series of three capacitors across the
oscillator. To make use of the power from the coil. In addition, the tube capacitances are shunted
oscillator, a load, usually in the form of an by large capacitors, so the effects of the tube -
amplifier, must be coupled to the oscillator, and changes in electrode voltages and loading - are still
140 HF TRANSMITTING
BUFFER It is desirable, although not a strict necessity if
detuning is recognized and taken into account, to
approach as closely as possible the condition where
FRO· M:..-...- the adjustment of tuning controls in the
O 4 transmitter, beyond the VFO frequency control,
VFO
will have negligible effect on the frequency. This
can be done by adding isolating stage or stages
FI L. Tc whose tuning is fIxed between the oscillator and
,.h005 ;J;.005 the fIrst tunable amplifIer stage in the transmitter.
1500 .005 (A) Fig. 6-7 A shows such an arrangement that gives
I +IOSV
REG.
+250V
good isolation. A pentode tube is operated with a
low-impedance resistive load, and regulated screen
+12V voltage. At B a simple follower circuit is used. The
disadvantage of this circuit is that the level of the
output will be quite low, usually less than one volt.
Bipolar transistors are used in a direct-coupled
follower arrangement in Fig. 6-7C, providing a
FROM higher level of output (above 3 V) than was
VFO ~OUTPUT
possible with the design shown at B. The ability of
a buffer stage to isolate the VFO from the load can
(8) be tested simply. Use a receiver to monitor the
VFO, and listen as the buffer output is first left
If = GATE PROTECTEO
open and then shorted. A good buffer will hold the
BUFFER 100
frequency change to less than 100 Hz. Often the
~__-_--~--,\M.-o t12V frequency change may be in the order of several
kHz when this test is made, an indication that the
buffer is not doing its job.

Chirp, Pulling and Drift

Any oscillator will change frequency with an
extreme change in plate screen voltages, and the
(C) use of stabilized sources for both is good practice.
But steady source voltages cannot alter the fact of
the extreme voltage changes that take place when
Fig. 6-7 - Isolating stages to be used between a an oscillator is keyed or heavily amplitude-
VFO and the following amplifier or mixer stage.
modulated. Consequently some chirp or fm is the
inescapable result of oscillator keying or heavy
amplitude modulation.
A keyed or amplitude-modulated amplifIer
further reduced. In contrast to the preceding presents a variable load to the driving stage. If the
circuits, the resulting tank circuit has a high Llc driving stage is an oscillator, the keyed or
ratio and therefore the tank current is much lower modulated stage (the variable load) may "pull" the
than in the circuits using high-C tanks. As a result, oscillator frequency during keying or modula-
it will usually be found that, other things being tion. This may cause a "chirp" on cw or incidental
equal, drift will be less with the low-C circuit. fm on a-m phone. In either case the cure is to
For best stability, the ratio of C2 to C4 should provide one or more "buffer" or isolating stages
be as high as possible without stopping oscillation. between the oscillator stage and the varying load.
The permissible ratio will be higher the higher the If this is not done, the keying or modulation may
Q of the' coil and the mutual conductance of the be little better than when the oscillator itself is
tube. If the circuit does not oscillate over the keyed or modulated.
desired range, a coil of higher Q must be used or Frequency drift is minimized by limiting the
the capacitance of C2 and C3 reduced. temperature excursions of the frequency-determin-
The pentode tube of 6-6E or any of the active ing components to a minimum. This calls for good
devices shown in Fig. 6-3 may be used in either the ventilation and a minimum of heat-generating
Hartley or Colpitts circuits. Good results can be components.
obtained with both tubes and transistors, so the Variable capacitors should have ceramic insula-
choice of the active device is often a matter of tion, good bearing contacts and should preferably
personal preference. be of the double bearing type. Fixed capacitors
should have zero-temperature coeffIcients. The
Load Isolation tube socket should have ceramic insulation.
In spite of the precau tions already discussed,
the tuning of later stages in the transmitter may
cause a noticeable change in frequency. This effect Temperature Compensation
can be reduced considerably by designing a If, despite the observance of good oscillator
pentode oscillator for half the desired frequency construction practice, the warm-up drift of an
and doubling frequency in the output circuit. oscillator is too high, it is caused by high-tempera-
A Practical VFO Circuit 141
1-MHz LOW PASS 1-MHz LOW PASS
Fig. 6-8 - Universal high- and Z'N=50Jl 7.2p.H 7.2f<H
low-pass filter designs. The val-
ues given are for 1 MHz; they 50Jl
may be divided by the desired
cutoff frequency (in MHz) to
determine the value of the
components needed. For ex- 1-MHz HIGH PASS
ample, if the 600-ohm high-

''"'~ "11i"~ I "'P'

pass design at A was to be
used at 10 MHz, the values of
C and L shown are divided by
10. The input and output im-
pedance remains at 600 ohms.
"P"
(B)
,~ 1::'
ture operation of the oscillator. If the ventilation possible and flexible wire will have less tendency to
cannot be improved (to reduce the ultimate vibrate than solid wire. It is advisable to cushion
temperature), the frequency drift of the oscillator the entire oscillator unit by mounting on sponge
can be reduced by the addition of a "temperature- rubber or other shock mounting.
coefficient capacitor." These are available in
negative and positive coefficients, in contrast to Output Filtering
the zero-coefficient "NPO" types.
The output of an oscillator contains a good deal
Most uncorrected oscillators will drift to a of harmonic energy in addition to the desired
lower frequency as the temperature rises. Such an frequency. Often these harmonics can cause the
oscillator can be corrected (at a frequency f) by generation of spurious products in heterodyne
adding an N750-type capacitor (-750 parts per transmitters which result in signals being radiated
million per OC) of a value determined by making outside the amateur bands. In receivers, the
two sets of measurements. Measure the drift h oscillator harmonics cause "birdies" and sprious
from cold to stability (e.g., 1 1/2 hours). To the responses in the tuning range. In general, transistor
cold (cooled-off) oscillator, add a trial N750 circuits generate a higher level of harmonic energy
capacitor (e.g., 50 pF) and retune the cold than do tube designs. Thus, the output of a tube
oscillator to frequency It (by retuning a padder VFO often can be used without filtering, while
capacitor or the tuning capacitor). Measure the most solid-state VFOs require an output low-pass
new warm-up drift 12 over the same period (e.g., fIlter.
1 1/2 hours). The required corrective N750 W7ZOI has provided general-purpose fIlter
capacitor is then designs shown in Fig. 6-S. These designs have been
Corrective C = C triall 1 1 f developed using computer-aided design (CAD),
1- 2 where a digital computer models or "synthesizes"
If the trial capacitor results in a drift to a higher the circuit. Not only fIlters, but models of tubes,
frequency, the denominator becomes It +12. transistors and complete circuits may be developed
in this way, allowing a designer to optimize a
Oscillator Coils circuit without taking days of cut and try.
However, the CADs are just models, and often
The Q of the tank coil used in the oscillating once a circuit is built additional refinement is still
portion of any of the circuits under discussion required.
should be as high as circumstances (usually space)
permit, since the losses, and therefore the heating, The filter shown in Figs. 6-SA and B are
will be less. With recommended care in regard to designed for 600-ohm input and output impe-
other factors mentioned previously, most of the dances, while C and D are for use in 50-ohm lines.
drift will originate in the coil. The coil should be The values shown are for 1 MHz. A design for
well spaced from shielding and other large metal higher frequencies may be obtained by dividing the
surfaces, and be of a type that radiates heat well, values shown by the desired frequency. For
such as a commercial air-wound type, or should be example, if a VFO were to be used in tuning 5 to
would tightly on a threaded ceramic form so that 5.5 MHz, the output fIlter of Fig. 6-SA might be
the dimensions will not change readily with employed with a cut-off frequency of 6 MHz. The
temperature. The wire with which the coil is LC values shown would be divided by 6. The result
wound should be as large as practicable, especially will usually be an odd number, so the closest
in the high-C circuits. standard value may be used.

Mechanical Vibration A PRACTICAL VFO CIRCUIT

To eliminate mechanical vibration, components The circuit shown in Fig. 6-9 is for a solid-state
should be mounted securely. The capacitor should VFO covering 3.5 to 4 MHz. A number of
preferably have small, thick plates and the coil measures have been taken to prevent harmonic and
braced, if necessary, to prevent the slightest spurious outputs that so often plague transistor
mechanical movement. Wire connections between designs. Examination of Fig. 6-9 will show that a
tank-circuit components should be as short as diode, CR2, is connected between the signal gate
 142 HF TRANSMITTING
+12V

Fig. 6-9 - A typical VFO

design showing extensive
use of buffering and filter-
ing to achieve a highly sta·
ble output with low spuri·
ous·frequency content.

of Q1 and ground. This diode should be designed solid-state transmitters need from 3 to 10 volts of
for high-speed switching - a 1N914 is suitable - drive on the base of the first power stage, and a
and should be connected with its anode toward reasonable amount of driving power is needed to
gate 1. It clamps on the positive-going half of the satisfy this requirement. Driving power is generally
cycle to prevent QI from reaching high peak required by the grid of the first stage of a tube
transconductance, the time period when the transmitter. The VFO should, therefore, be capable
output from the oscillator is rich in harmonic of supplying from 0.5 to I watt of power output.
energy. This technique should be applied to any The Class.c amplifier, Q3, provides the needed
JFET or MOSFET oscillator, but does not work power output. Should the driven stage present a
with bipolar-transistor oscillators. CR2 does not low-impedance to the VFO, output can be taken
impair the perfonnance of the VFO. Additional directly from the side of FLI opposite Q3. If,
hannonics can be generated at Q2 and Q3, so however, the driven stage of the transmitter or
attention must be given to that part of the circuit receiver has a high input impedance, some method
as well. Note that the collector of Q3 is tapped must be used to provide the required impedance
well down on L3. The tap provides an impedance transfonnation, low to high. A broad-band toroidal
match for the circuit, but still represents a high step-up transfonner, TI, is used for this purpose in
impedance at the hannonic frequencies, if not Fig. 6-9. The secondary of the transfonner is
located too near the cold end of L3, thus resonant somewhere in the operating range of the
contributing to a cleaner output signal. However, VFO, and takes advantage of the stray circuit
even though these precautions are taken, it is not capacitance, nonnally around 10 pF, to establish
uncommon to find that the second and third resonance. The impedance-transfonnation ratio is
harmonics from a transistor output stage are only set by adjusting the number of turns on the
down some 10 to 15 decibels in level from the primary winding. Alternatively, TI can be replaced
fundamental signal. By taking the VFO output at by a tuned circuit of conventional design. It can be
low impedance, U, a low-pass, double-section equipped with a fixed-value capacitor and a
, fIlter can be used to diminish the harmonic to a slug-tuned inductor, or a fixed-value inductor can
level that is some 30 decibels or more below that be used with a variable capacitor to pennit peaking
of the desired output signal. FLI is designed for the output at the operating frequency. The use of a
3.5 to 4-MHz use, and assures a clean output signal tuned circuit will assure somewhat better efficien-
from the VFO. cy than will the broadband transformer, T1. Thus,
it can be seen that the circuit must be tailored to
VFO Output Level and Impedance the need.
One of the things that perplexes many
first-time users of transistorized VFOs is the matter Checking VFO Stability
of sufficient signal output to properly excite a A VFO should be checked thoroughly before it
transmitter input stage, or to supply adequate is placed in regular operation on the air. Since
injection voltage to a receiver or transmitter mixer. succeeding amplifier stages may affect the signal
The nns output of a solid-state VFO is limited by characteristics, final tests should be made with the
its low-impedance output port. In the circuits of complete transmitter in operation. Almost any
Fig. 6-9 the output would usrrally be taken across VFO will show signals of good quality and stability
the emitter resistor of Q2, the buffer. Typically, when it is running free and not connected to a
the rms output voltage at that point in the cir- load. A well-isolated monitor is a necessity.
cuit will be on the order of 0.5 to 2 volts. Perhaps the most convenient, as well as one of the
Tube mixers can require up to several volts of most satisfactory, well-shielded monitoring ar-
oscillator signal in order to function properly. Most rangements is a receiver combined with a harmonic
VFO Dials 143
from a frequency standard. (See the Measurements OUTPUT
chapter for suitable circuits.) The receiver BFO is
turned off and the VFO signal is tuned to beat
with the signal from the crystal oscillator instead.
In this way any receiver instability caused by
overloading the input circuits, which may result in
"pulling" of the hf oscillator in the receiver, or by
a change in line voltage to the receiver when the
transmitter is keyed, will not affect the reliability
of the check. Most crystals have a sufficiently low
temperature coefficient to give a check on drift as
OUTPUT
well as on chirp and signal quality if they are not
overloaded.
Harmonics of the crystal may be used to beat
with the transmitter signal when monitoring at the
higher frequencies. Since any chirp at the lower
frequencies will be magnified at the higher
frequencies, accurate checking can best be done by
monitoring at a harmonic.
The distance between the crystal oscillator and
receiver should be adjusted to give a good beat
between the crystal oscillator and the transmitter Fig. 6-10 - Block diagrams of the (A) premixing
signal. When using harmonics of the crystal and (B) phase-lock-loop schemes.
oscillator, it may be necessary to attach a piece of
wire to the oscillator as an antenna to give
sufficient signal in the receiver. Checks may show
(VCO) and a frequency standard are fed to a phase
that the stability is sufficiently good to permit
detector which produces an output voltage equal
oscillator keying at the lower frequencies, where
to the difference in frequency between the two
break-in operation is of greater value, but that signals. The error voltage is amplified, filtered, and
chirp becomes objectionable at the higher frequen- applied to the VCO. The error voltage changes the
cies. If further improvement does not seem frequency of the VCO until it is locked to the
possible, it would be logical in this case to use standard. The bandwidth of the error-voltage filter
oscillator keying at the lower frequencies and determines the frequency range over which the
amplifier keying at the highe.t frequencies. system will remain in phase lock.
Three types of phase-locked loops are now in
Premixing use. The simplest type uses harmonics of a crystal
It is difficult to build a variable-frequency standard to phase-lock an HFO, providing the
oscillator for operation above 10 MHz with drift of injection for the first mixer in a double-conversion
only a few Hz. A scheme called premixing, shown receiver. A typical circuit is given in Fig. 6-11.
in Fig. 6-10A, may be used to obtain VFO output Complete construction details on this PLL were
in the 10- to SO-MHz range. The output of a highly given in QST for January, 1972. A second type of
stable VFO is mixed with energy from a phase-locked loop uses a stable mf VFO as the
crystal-controlled oscillator. The frequencies of the standard which stabilizes the frequency of an hf or
two oscillators are chosen so that spurious outpu ts vhf VCO. This approach is used in the receiver
generated during the mixing process do not fall described by Fischer in QST, March, 1970.
within the desired output range. A bandpass filter The other PLL system also uses a crystal-
at the mixer output attenuates any out-of-band controlled standard, but with programmable
spurious energy. The charts given in Chapter 8 can frequency dividers included so that the VCO
be used to choose oscillator combinations which output is always locked to a crystal reference. The
will have a minimum of spurious outputs. Also, frequency is changed by modifying the instructions
Chapter 8 contains a discussion of mixer-circuit to the dividers; steps of 100 Hz are usually
design. employed for hf receivers while 10-kHz increments
are popular in vhf gear. The use of a PLL for fm
PLL demodulation is covered separately in Chapter 14.
Receivers and transmitters of advanced design
are now using phase-locked loops (PLLs) to VFO DIALS
generate highly stable local oscillator energy up One of the tasks facing an amateur builder is
into the microwave region. The PLL has the the difficulty of fmding a suitable dial and drive
advantage that no mixing stage is used in assembly for a VFO. A dial should provide a
conjunction with the output oscillator, so the sufficiently slow rate of tuning - 10- to 2S-kHz
output energy is quite "clean." The Galaxy R-S30, per knob revolution is considered optimum -
the Collins 6S1S-1, and the National HRO-600 without backlash. Planetary drives are popular
currently use PLL high-frequency oscillator sys- because of their low cost; however, they often
tems. develop objectional backlash after a short period of
The basic diagram of a PLL is shown in Fig. use. Several types of two-speed drives are available.
6-10B. Output from a voltage-controlled oscillator They are well suited to homemade amateur
 144 HF TRANSMITTING
OSCILLATOR PHASE DETECTOR BUFFER BUFFER
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (jlF I ~
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR JlpF):
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k= 1000, MolDOO 000.

10K 10K .001

L2

veo ft~
OUTPUT

.-'-,JV\r--""'"T'"--v+ 12V

1M

TO PIN
7, Ul

1 L3

Fig. 6-11 - A practical phase-locked oscillator

intended for application as the crystal-controlled output frequency. A 200-kHz crystal is good to 40
HFO in a transmitter or receiver. The crystal MHz, 5OD-kHz crystal to 60 MHz, and 1-MHz
frequency should be chosen so that the harmonic crystal to 80 MHz. L1 and L3 are chosen to
content of the standard is sufficient at the desired resonate at the desired output frequency.

equipment. Several of the construction projects final adjustment, the plates of the capacitor must
described elsewhere in this book employ this type be filed until linear readout is achieved. In a PTO,
of dial. The Eddystone 898 precision dial has long the pitch of the oscillator coil winding may be
been a favorite with amateurs, although the need varied so that linear frequency change results from
to elevate the VFO far above the chassis introduces the travel of the tuning slug. Such a VFO was
some mechanical-stability problems. If a permea- described in QST for July, 1964. A different
bility tuned oscillator (PTO) is used, one of the approach was employed by Lee (QST, November,
many types of tum counters made for vacuum 1970), using a variable-capacitance diode (Varicap)
variable capacitors or rotary inductors may be as the VFO tuning element. A meter which reads
employed. the voltage applied to the Varicap was calibrated to
indicate the VFO frequency.
Linear Readout
Electronic Dials
If linear-frequency readout is desired on the
dial, the variable capacitor must be only a small An electronic dial consists of a simplified
portion of the total capacitance in the oscillator frequency counter which reads either the VFO or
tank. Capacitors tend to be very nonlinear near the operating frequency of a transmitter or receiver.
ends of rotation. A gear drive providing a 1.5: 1 The advantage of an electronic dial is the excellent
reduction should be employed so that only the accuracy (to one Hertz, if desired) and the fact
center of the capacitor range is used. Then, as a that VFO tuning does not have to be linear. The
readout section of the dial may use neon-glow
tubes called Nixies (a trade name of the Burroughs

,
Corp.), or a seven-segment display using incandes-
)VER
,-,
Ci • I
--,
I
,
0
cent lamps, filament wires in a vacuum tube, or
LEDs (Iight-emitting diodes). A typical LED
display is shown in Fig. 6-12. The use of MSI and
LSI circuits, some containing as many as 200
transistors on a single chip, reduces the size
Fig. 6-12 - A 5-digit readout using light-emitting required for an electronic dial to a few square
diodes. inches of circuit-board space.
Frequency Multipliers 145
ELECTRONIC DIAL Multiplications of four or five sometimes are
used to reach the bands above 28 MHz from a
lower-frequency crystal, but in the majority of
lower-frequency transmitters, multiplication in a
single stage is limited to a factor of two or three.
Screen-grid tubes make the best multipliers because
their high power-sensitivity makes them easier to
drive properly than triodes.
Since the input and output circuits are not
tuned close to the same frequency, neutralization
usually will not be required. Instances may be
encountered with tubes of high transconductance,
however, when a doubler will oscillate in t.g.t.p.
fashion.
Fig. 6·13 - Block diagram of a frequency counter. Frequency multipliers using tubes are operated
Class C, with the bias and drive levels adjusted for
plate-current conduction of less than 180 degrees.
A typical counter circuit is given in Fig. 6-13.
The accuracy of the counter is determined by a MULTIPLIER
crystal standard which is often referred to as a
clock_ The output from a 100-kHz calibration
oscillator, the type often used in receivers and INP~II--'"t-_~:;:::
transceivers, may be employed if accuracy of 100
Hz is sufficient. For readout down to 1 Hz, a 1- to
10-MHz AT-cut crystal should be chosen, because
this type of high-accuracy crystal exhibits the best
temperature stability. The clock output energy is
divided in decade-counter ICs to provide the pulse +300V
which opens the input gate of the counter for a
BIAS
preset time. The number of rf cycles which pass
through the gate while it is open are counted and TRI PLER
stored. Storage is used so that the readout does not
blink. At the end of each counting cycle the
information that has been stored activates the
display LEDs, which present the numbers counted F
until another count cycle is complete. A complete
electronic dial arranged to be combined with an
existing transmitter or receiver was described in
INP~ >-+--<+-...,
QST for October 1970. Also, Macleish et al
reported an adapter which allows a commercially
made frequency counter to be mated with ham 100 2N2102
gear so that the counter performs as an electronic
560 + .!PEt:
dial (QST, May, 1971). ;+; 15V
(B) +v
FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS
Single-Tube Multiplier
DOUBLER
Output at a multiple of the frequency at which
it is being driven may be obtained from an 820 1200
amplifier stage if the output circuit is tuned to a
harmonic of the exciting frequency instead of to
the fundamental. Thus, when the frequency at the L1
grid is 3.5 MHz, output at 7 MHz, 10.5 MHz, 14
MHz, etc., may be obtained by tuning the plate
tank circuit to one of these frequencies. The circuit OUTPUT
otherwise remains the same as that for a straight ~.---1-1~
rl~---~--~ 220
amplifier, although some of the values and
operating conditions may require change for
maximum multiplier efficiency.
A practical limit to efficiency and ou tpu t
within normal tube ratings is reached when the
multiplier is operated at maximum permissible
plate voltage and maximum permissible grid INPUT
current. The plate current should be reduced as
necessary to limit the dissipation to the rated value
by increasing the bias and decreasing the loading. Fig. 6-14 - Frequency-multiplier circuits.
146 HF TRANSMITTING
DRIVER DRIVER

INPUT

P
(A) +300V

+
Fig. 6-15 - Driver stages using (A) a pentode tube and (8) a bipolar power transistor.

For maximum efficiency, a doubler requires a drive required. If a high level of drive is available,
plate~onduction angle of about 110 degrees, while the bias circuit may be omitted.
a tripler needs 100 degrees, a quadrupler 80 A number of integrated circuits can be
degrees, and a quintupler 65 degrees. For higher employed as frequency multipliers. The circuit at C
orders of multiplication increased bias and more uses a Motorola MC1496G (or the Signetics
drive are needed. S5596, or Fairchild J.lA 796) as a doubler. The
A typical circuit using a 6CL6 pentode tube is input signal is balanced out in the IC, so only the
shown in Fig. 6-14A. The input circuit is tuned to desired second harmonic of the input frequency
the driving frequency while the output tank is set appears at the output. With suitable bypass
for the desired harmonic. If such a multiplier were capacitors this doubler can be used from audio to
to be operated directly into an antenna, additional vhf.
selectivity would be necessary to prevent the
radiation of harmonic energy (other than the DRIVERS
desired frequency). Pentode tubes are usually chosen for the driver
Push-Push Multipliers stages of tube transmitters because they provide
high amplification, often without requiring neutral-
A two-tube circuit which works well at even ization. Many of the receiving-type pentodes and
harmonics, but not at the fundamental or odd smaller TV sweep tubes may be employed. The
harmonics, is known as the push-push circuit. The 6CL6, 6GK6, 12BY7A, 6BA6, 6AU6, and 6DC6
grids are connected in push-pull while the plates are often chosen. In cw and fm service the driver
are connected in parallel. The efficiency of a stage is operated Class C, while for ssb operation
doubler using this circuit approaches that of a
the Class-A mode is preferred to keep distortion to
straight amplifier.
a minimum (third-order products at least 50 dB
This arrangement has an advantage in some
down). In ssb exciters alc voltage is often applied
applications. If the heater of one tube is turned
to a driver stage, in which case a semiremote-cutoff
off, its grid-plate capacitance, being the same as
tube is desirable. Sharp-cutoff types are not
that of the remaining tube, serves to neutralize the
acceptable because of a rapid increase in distortion
circuit. Thus provision is made for either straight
as alc voltage drives the grid increasingly negative.
amplification at the fundamental with a single
A typical tube driver stage is shown in Fig. 6-15
tube, or doubling frequency with two tubes.
at A. The output load is a parallel-resonant circuit.
Often a bandpass network is used so that the stage
Push-Pull Multiplier
does not have to be tuned by a panel control. Also,
A single- or parallel-tube multiplier will deliver coupling with a bandpass transformer provides a
output at either even or odd multiples of the higher order of attenuation of harmonic and
exciting frequency. A push-pull stage does not spurious signals. At Fig. 6-15B, a 2N3632
work as a doubler or quadrupler but it will work as medium-power transistor serves as a Class-C driver.
a tripler. Note that this circuit is not suitable for ssb service.

Transistor Multipliers Broadband Driver

A transistor develops harmonic energy with Transistor circuits often require complex
good efficiency, often causing harmonic-output interstage coupling networks, because of the low
problems in straight-through amplifiers. Two input and output impedance characteristics of
harmonic-generating modes are present, parametric bipolar devices. Designing a solid-state multiband
multiplication and multiplication caused by the hf transmitter often requires some very complex
nonlinear characteristic presented by the base- band-switch arrangements. To eliminate this
collector junction. Transistors may be used in problem, the current trend is to use a broadband
single-ended, push-pull, or push-push circuits. A multistage driver that covers 3.5 to 30 MHz, for
typical push-pull tripler is shown in Fig. 6-14B. A example, without switching or tuning adjustments.
small amount of forward bias has been added to A typical circuit, similar to that used in
the bases of the 2N2102s to reduce the amount of Signal/Ode's CX-7 transceiver, is shown in Fig.
 Drivers
147

4)f11~ ~
PIT '" ~ F 'P t"
+ (A) BIAS + . (B) BIAS

IN~UT

.r C1
.r C2

(F)

Fig. 6-16 - Interstage coupling networks for (A, B)

tubes, (C-E) transistor stages, and (F) a grounded-
grid amplifier.

6-17. Only a few millivolts of ssb or cw drive will

increases with a decrease in the capacitance of the
provide sufficient output to drive a 4CX2S0B
coupling capacitor.
operating Class AB!. Interstage coupling is
When the amplifier grid impedance is lower
accomplished with broadband toroidal transform-
than the optimum load resistance for the driver, a
ers. Feedback is added from the collector to the
transforming action is possible by tapping the grid
emitter of each bipolar-transistor stage to improve
down on the tank coil, but this is not
linearity. Output impedance of the broadband
recommended because it invariably causes an
driver is approximately 390 ohms.
increase in vhf harmonics and sometimes sets up a
In terstage Coupling parasitic circuit.
So far as coupling is concerned, the Q of the
To achieve the maximum transfer of power
circuit is of little significance. However, the other
between the driver and the succeeding amplifier
considera tions discussed earlier in connection with
stage, the output impedance of the driver must be
tank-circuit Q should be observed.
matched to the input impedance of the following
amplifier. Some form of rf coupling or impedance-
Pi-Network Interstage Coupling
matching network is needed. The capacitive system
of Fig. 6-16A is the simplest of all coupling A pi-section tank circuit, as shown in Fig.
systems. In this circuit, the plate tank circuit of the 6-16B, may be used as a coupling device between
driver, C 1L 1, serves also as the grid tank of the screen-grid amplifier stages. The circuit can also be
amplifier. Although it is used more frequently than considered a coupling arrangement with the grid of
any other system, it is less flexible and has certain the amplifier tapped down on the circuit by means
limitations that must be taken into consideration. of a capacitive divider. In contrast to the
The two stages cannot be separated physically tapped-coil method mentioned previously, this
any appreciable distance without involving loss in system will be very effective in reducing vhf
transferred power, radiation from the coupling lead harmonics, because the output capacitor provides a
and the danger of feedback from this lead. Since direct capacitive shunt for harmonics across the
both the output capacitance of the driver tube and amplifier grid circuit.
the input capacitance of the amplifier are across To. be most effective in reducing vhf harmonics,
the single circuit, it is sometimes difficult to obtain the output capacitor should be a mica capacitor
a tank circuit with a sufficiently low Q to provide connected directly across the tube-socket ter-
an efficient circuit at the higher frequencies. The minals. Tapping down on the circuit in this manner
coupling can be varied by altering the capacitance also helps to stabilize the amplifier. Since the
of the coupling capacitor, C2. The driver load coupling to the grid is comparatively loose under
impedance is the sum of the amplifier grid any condition, it may be found that it is impossible
resistance and the reactance of the coupling to utilize the full power capability of the driver
capacitor in series, the coupling capacitor serving stage. If sufficient excitation cannot be obtained, it
simply as a series reactor. The driver load resistance may be necessary to raise the plate voltage of the
 148 HF TRANSMITTING
impedance of an rf power transistor is between
several tenths of an ohm and several ohms.
Generally, the higher the power rating of the
device, the lower the input impedance. The base
connection also has a reactive component which is
capacitive at low frequencies and inductive at
higher frequencies. At some frequency, usually
between 50 and 150 MHz, the base lead will be
self-resonant. The input impedance will vary with
drive level, which makes a cut-and-try adjustment
of the interstage network necessary.
An interstage network must provide the proper
impedance transformation while tuning out reac-
tance in the transistors. The reactive components
of the base and collectors of power transistors are
of such magnitude that they must be included in
any network calculations. Fig. 6-16 shows several
networks capable of interstage matching in a
multistage transistor amplifier. At C, a T network
is pictured. The value of the inductor is chosen so
that its reactance is much greater than the
capacitive reactance of the second transistor's base
circuit. The capacitive divider provides the
impedance match between the collector and the
base.
The circuit of 6-16 D is also basically a T
network in which both the inductor arid second
capacitor are chosen to have reactance of a greater
magnitude than the base-emitter capacitance of the
second transistor. The circuits of C and D require
that the collector of the driver transistor be shunt
fed through a high-impedance rf choke. Fig. 6-16E
shows a coupling network that eliminates the need
for a choke. Here the collector of the driver
transistor is parallel-tuned and the base-emitter
junction of the following stage is series-tuned.
The remaining circuit, Fig. 6-16F, shows the
pi-section network that is often used to match the
50-ohm output of an exciter to a grounded-grid
power amplifier. A Q of 1 or 2 is chosen so that
the circuit will be broad enough to operate across
an amateur band without retuning. The network is
designed for a 50-ohm input impedance and to
match an output load of 30 to 150 ohms (the
impedance range of the cathode of typical
grounded-grid stages). Typical LC values are given
in the construction projects presented later in this
chapter.

RF POWER AMPLIFIER CIRCUITRY

Tube Operating Conditions
Fig. 6-17 - A solid-state broadband driver for 3 to
30 MHz. The design of transformers T1, T2 and T3 In addition to proper tank and output-coupling
is covered later in the chapter. circuits, an rf amplifier must be provided with
suitable operating voltages and an rf driving or
driver, if this is pennissible. Otherwise a larger excitation voltage. AIl rf amplifier tubes require a
driver tube may be required. As shown in Fig. voltage to operate the mament or heater (ac is
6-16B, parallel driver plate feed and amplifier grid usually permissible), and a positive dc voltage
feed are necessary. between the plate and mament or cathode (plate
voltage). Most tubes also require a negative dc
Coupling Transistor Stages voltage (biasing voltage) between control grid (grid
No.1) and mament or cathode. Screen-grid tubes
In stages using bipolar power transistors, the require in addition a positive voltage (screen
input circuit must provide a match between the voltage or grid No.2 voltage) between screen and
driver collector and the PA base. The latter mament or cathode.
exhibits a very low impedance. The input Biasing and plate voltages may be fed to the
Sources of Tube Electrode Voltages 149
tube either in series with or in parallel with the heat. Other types of operation, such as cw or
associated rf tank circuit as discussed in the single-sideband phone are intermittent in nature,
chapter on electrical laws and circuits. resulting in less average heating than in other
It is important to remember that true plate, modes where there is a continuous power input to
screen or biasing voltage is the voltage between the the tube during transmissions. There are also
particular electrode and filament or cathode. Only different ratings for tubes used in transmitters that
when the cathode is directly grounded to the are in almost constant use (CCS - Continuous
chassis may the electrode-to-chassis voltage be Commercial Service), and for tubes that are to be
taken as the true voltage. The required rf driving used irt- transmitters that average only a few hours
voltage is applied between grid and cathode. of daily operation (lCAS - Intermittent Commer-
cial and Amateur Service). The latter are the
Power Input and Plate Dissipation ratings used by amateurs who wish to obtain
Plate power input is the dc power input to the maximum output with reasonable tube life.
plate circuit (dc plate voltage X dc plate current).
Screen power in pu t likewise is the dc screen Maximum Ratings
voltage X the dc screen current. Maximum ratings, where they differ from the
Plate dissipation is the difference between the values given under typical operating values, are not
rf power delivered by the tube to its loaded plate normally of significance to the amateur except in
tank circuit and the dc plate power input. The special applications. No single maximum value
screen, on the other hand, does not deliver any should be used unless all other ratings can
output power, and therefore its dissipation is the simultaneously be held within the maximum
same as the screen power input. values. As an example, a tube may have a
maximum plate-voltage rating of 2000, a maximum
TRANSMITTING-TUBE RATINGS plate-current rating of 300 mA, and a maximum
plate-power-input rating of 400 watts. Therefore, if
Tube manufacturers specify the maximum
the maximum plate voltage of 2000 is used, the
values that should be applied to the tubes they
plate current should be limited to 200 mA (instead
produce. They also publish sets of typical
of 300 mA) to stay within the maximum
operating values that should result in good
power-input rating of 400 watts.
efficiency and normal tube life.
Maximum values for all of the most popular
transmitting tubes will be found in the tables of SOURCES OF TUBE ELECTRODE
transmitting tubes in the last chapter. Also VOLTAGES
included are as many sets of typical operating Filament or Heater Voltage
values as space permits. However, it is recommend-
ed that the amateur secure a transmitting-tube The heater voltage for the indirectly heated
manual from the manufacturer of the tube or tubes cathode-type tubes found in low-power classifica-
he plans to use. tions may vary 10 percent above or below rating
without seriously reducing the life of the tube. But
CCS and ICAS Ratings the voltage of the higher-power fIlament-type tubes
The same transmitting tube may have different shOUld be held closely between the rated voltage as
ratings depending upon the manner in which the a minimum and 5 percent above rating as a
tube is to be operated, and the service in which it is maximum. Make sure that the plate power drawn
to be used. These different ratings are based from the power line does not cause a drop in
primarily upon the heat that the tube can safely filament voltage below the proper value when plate
dissipate. Some types of operation, such as with power is applied.
grid or screen modulation, are less efficient than Thoriated-type fIlaments lose emission when
others, meaning that the tube must dissipate more the tube is overloaded appreciably. If the overload

20K/25W

..:J:.Ol +600V

RFC
~
PROTECTING
CLAMP
TUBE
AND
OPERATING
BIAS
NO
PROTECTIVE
BIAS _1 ___
OPERATING
BIAS -r +300V (D)
PROTECTIVE - I
~r-- i+ -1- (8) (C)

Fig. 6-18 - (A-C) Various systems for obtaining protective and operating bias. (0) Screen clamper circuit
for protecti ng power tetrodes.
150 HF TRANSMITTING
has not been too prolonged, emission sometimes The voltage of the cathode biasing Zener
may be restored by operating the filament at rated diode VRI should be chosen for the value which
voltage with all other voltages removed for a period will give the correct operating bias voltage with
of 10 minutes, or at 20 percent above rated voltage rated grid, plate and screen currents flowing with
for a few minutes. the amplifier loaded to rated input. When
excitation is removed, the input to most types of
Plate Voltage tubes will fall to a value that will prevent damage
to the tube, at least for the period of time required
Dc plate voltage for the operation of rf to remove plate voltage. A disadvantage of this
amplifiers is most often obtained from a biasing system is that the cathode rf connection to
transformer-rectifier-filter system (see power- ground depends upon a bypass capacitor.
suppiy chapter) designed to deliver the required
plate voltage at the required current. However,
Screen Voltage
batteries or other dc-generating devices are
sometimes used in certain types of operation (see For cw and fm operation, and under certain
portable-mobile chapter). conditions of phone operation (see amplitude-
modulation chapter), the screen may be operated
Bias and Tube Protection from a power supply of the same type used for
Several methods of obtaining bias are shown in plate supply, except that voltage and current
Fig. 6-18. At A, bias is obtained by the voltage ratings should be appropriate for screen require-
drop across a resistor in the grid dc return circuit ments. The screen may also be operated through a
when rectified grid current flows. The proper value series resistor or voltage-divider from a source of
of resistance may be determined by dividing the higher voltage, such as the plate-voltage supply,
required biasing voltage by the dc grid current at thus making a separate supply for the screen
which the tube will be operated. Then, so long as unnecessary. Certain precau tions are necessary ,
the rf driving voltage is adjusted so that the dc grid depending upon the method used.
current is the recommended value, the biasing It should be kept in mind that screen current
voltage will be the proper value. The tube is biased varies widely with both excitation and loading. If
only when excitation is applied, since the voltage the screen is operated from a fixed-voltage source,
drop across the resistor depends upon grid-current the tube should never be operated without plate
flow. When excitation is removed, the bias falls to voltage and load, otherwise the screen may be
zero. At zero bias most tubes draw power far in damaged within a short time. Supplying the screen
excess of the plate-dissipation rating. So it is through a series dropping resistor from a
advisable to make provision for protecting the tube higher-voltage source, such as the plate supply,
when excitation fails by accident, or by intent as it affords a measure of protection, since the resistor
does when a preceding stage in a cw transmitter is causes the screen voltage to drop as the current
keyed. increases, thereby limiting the power drawn by the
If the maximum cw ratings shown in the tube screen. However, with a resistor, the screen voltage
tables are to be used, the input should be cut to may vary considerably with excitation, making it
zero when the key is open. Aside from this, it is necessary to check the voltage at the screen
not necessary that plate current be cutoff terminal under actual operating conditions to make
completely but only to the point where the rated sure that the screen voltage is normal. Reducing
dissipation is not exceeded. In this case plate- ~xcitat!on will cause the screen current to drop,
modulated phone ratings should be used for cw mcreasmg the voltage; increasing excitation will
operation, however. have the opposite effect. These changes are in
With triodes this protection can be supplied by addition to those caused by changes in bias and
obtaining all bias from a source of fixed voltage, as plate loading, so if a screen-grid tube is operated
shown in Fig. 6-18B. It is preferable, however, to from a series resistor or a voltage divider, its
use only sufficient fixed bias to protect the tube voltage shOUld be checked as one of the final
and obtain the balance needed for operating bias adjustments after excitation and loading have been
from a grid leak. The grid-leak resistance is set.
calculated as above, except that the fixed voltage is A~ appr?ximate value for the screen-voltage
subtracted first. droppmg reSIStor may be obtained by dividing the
Fixed bias may be obtained from dry batteries voltage drop required from the supply voltage
or from a power pack (see power-supply chapter). (difference between the supply voltage and rated
If dry batteries are used, they should be checked screen voltage) by the rated screen current in
periodically, since even though they may show decimal parts of an ampere. Some further
normal voltage, they eventually develop a high adjustment may be necessary, as mentioned above,
internal resistance. so an adjustable resistor with a total resistance
In Fig. 16-8D, bias is obtained from the voltage above that calculated should be provided.
drop across a Zener diode in the cathode (or
filament center-tap) lead. Protective bias is Protecting Screen-Grid Tubes
obtained by the voltage drop across VRI as a result Considerably less grid bias is required to cut off
of plate (and screen) current flow. Since plate an amplifier that has a fixed-voltage screen supply
current must flow to obtain a voltage drop across than one that derives the screen voltage through a
the resistor, it is obvious that cutoff protective bias high value of dropping resistor. When a "stiff"
cannot be obtained. screen voltage supply is used, the necessary grid
Transistor Ratings 151
cutoff voltage may be determined from an this is the load resistance into which the driver
inspection of the tube curves or by experiment. plate circuit must be coupled. The approximate
When the screen is supplied from a series grid input resistance is given by:
dropping resistor, the tube can be protected by the
use of a clamper tube, as shown in Fig. 6-1SD. The Input impedance (ohms)
grid-leak bias of the amplifier tube with excitation =driving power (wattsl X 620 000
is supplied also to the grid of the clamper tube. dc grid cu"ent (mA)2 '
This is usually sufficient to cut off the clamper For normal operation, the driving power and grid
tube. However, when excitation is removed, the current may be taken from the tube tables. Since
clamper-tube bias falls to zero and it draws enough the grid input resistance is a matter of a few
current through the screen dropping resistor thousand ohms, an impedance step-up is necessary
usually to limit the input to the amplifier to a safe if the grid is to be fed from a low-impedance
value. If complete screen-voltage cutoff is desired, transmission line
a Zener diode may be inserted in the screen lead.
The regulator diode voltage rating should be high
enough so that it will c'ease conducting when TRANSISTOR RATINGS
excitation is removed. Transistor ratings are similar in some respects to
the maximum limits given for tubes. However,
Feeding Excitation to the Grid solid-state devices are generally not so forgiving of
overload; they can quickly be ruined if a voltage or
The required rf driving voltage is supplied by an
current parameter of the device is exceeded. All
oscillator generating a voltage at the desired
semiconductors undergo irreversible changes if
frequency, either directly or through intermediate
their temperature is allowed to go above a critical
amplifiers, mixers, or frequency multipliers.
As explained in the chapter on vacuum-tube limit.
fundamentals, the grid of an amplifier operating
Voltage Rating
under Class C conditions must have an exciting
voltage whose peak value exceeds the negative In general, the higher the collector-emitter
biasing voltage over a portion of the excitation voltage rating of a transistor the less the chance of
cycle. During this portion of the cycle, current will damage when used as an rf power amplifier. A
flow in the grid-cathode circuit as it does in a diode mismatched load, or the loss of the load entirely,
circuit when the plate of the diode is positive in causes high voltages to appear between the
respect to the cathode. This requires that the rf collector and emitter of the transistor. If the
driver supply power. The power required to maximum rating is exceeded, the transistor may
develop the required peak driving voltage across break down and pass reverse current. Transistor
the grid-cathode impedance of the amplifier is the manufacturers are now including a resistance in
rf driving power. series with the emitter lead of each of the many
The tube tables give approximate figures for the junctions that make up the power transistor as
grid driving power required for each tube under break-down protection. This technique is called
various operating conditions. These figures, how- ballasting or balanced emitters. Another way to
ever, do not include circuit losses. In general, the protect a power transistor is to include a Zener
driver stage for any Class C amplifier should be diode from collector to emitter. The break-down
capable of su pplying at least three times the driving voltage rating of the diode should be above the
power shown for typical operating conditions at peak rf voltage to be developed in the circuit, but
frequencies up to 30 MHz and from three to ten below the maximum rating of the power device.
times at higher frequencies.
Since the dc grid current relative to the biasing Current and Heat
voltage is related to the peak driving voltage, the dc The current that a power device can stand is
grid current is commonly used as a convenient related to its ability to dissipate heat. A transistor
indicator of driving conditions. A driver adjust- is physically small, so high-power models must use
ment that results in rated dc grid current when the effective heat radiators, called heat sinks, to insure
dc bias is at its rated value, indicates proper that the operating temperature is kept to a
excitation to the amplifier when it is fully loaded. moderate value - even when large currents are
In coupling the grid input circuit of an flowing through the device.
amplifier to the output circuit of a driving stage Cooling considerations for practical solid-state
the objective is to load the driver plate circuit so amplifiers are outlined below. Manufacturer's
that the desired amplifier grid excitation is specification sheets describe a safe operating area
obtained without exceeding the plate-input ratings for an individual power transistor. Also, transistors
of the driver tUbe. are rated in terms of power output, rather than
input, so it should be remembered that a device
Driving Impedance specified to deliver SO watts of output power will
The grid-current flow that results when the grid probably be running 160 watts or more input.
.is driven positive in respect to the cathode over a Transistor amplifiers pass an appreciable amount of
portion of the excitation cycle represents an driver power to the output, as do grounded-grid
average resistance across which the exciting voltage tube stages, and this fact must also be taken into
must be developed by the driver. In other words, account by the circuit designer.
 152 HF TRANSMITTING
20
~
0::::
~ 10
I, Device Case 5W lOW 25W 50W lOOW
~ 8
~ ~
'" ........ TO-5 17.2 7.2 1.2 .71 .35
~ 4
TO-44 1.2 9.2 .44 nla nla
~ 3
~ 2 r---.... (B)
Q:;

~ r-.... 1"-
~I.O Fig. 6-19 - (A) Graph to determine the
0.8
o\J
thermal resistance of a heat sink of a giv-
" --,
~ 0.6 - t---
~ 0.5 en size. The heat sink volume may be
:"': 0.4 computed by multiplying cross-sectional
t; 0.3 ......... area by height. (8) Approximate thermal
~ ...... ~ resistance needed for proper cooling of
~O 2 two types of transistor cases when oper-
..... ated at the proper levels given .
"t
~ 01
~ 2 3 4 5 8 10 20 30 50
VOLUME IN CUBIC INCHES OF FINNED-TYPE HEAT SINK
80100 200 300 500 1000

(A)
COOLING vapor cooling, allowing high-power operation
without producing an objectionable noise level
Tubes from the cooling system.
Vacuum tubes must be operated within the Transistor Cooling
temperature range specified by the manufacturer if
long tube life is to be achieved. Tubes with glass Bipolar power transistors usually have the
envelopes rated at up to 25 watts of plate collector connected directly to the case of the
dissipation may be run without forced-air cooling, device, as the collector must dissipate most of the
if a moderate amount of cooling by convection can heat generated when the transistor is in operation.
be arranged. If a cane-metal enclosure is used, and However, even the larger case designs cannot
a ring of l/4-inch diameter holes are placed around conduct heat away fast enough to keep the
the tube socket, normal air flow can be relied upon operating temperature of the device functioning
to remove excess heat at room temperatures. within the safe area, the maximum temperature
For tubes with greater plate dissipation, or that a device can stand without damage. Safe area
those operated with plate currents in excess of the is usually specified in a device data sheet, often in
manufacturer's ratings (often the case with TV graphical form. Germanium power transistors may
sweep tubes) forced air cooling with a fan or be operated at up to 100 degrees C while the
blower is needed. Fans, especially those designed silicon types may be run at up to 200 degrees C.
for cooling hi-fi cabinets, are preferred because Leakage currents in germanium devices can be very
they operate quietly. However, all fans lose their high at elevated temperatures; thus, for power
ability to move air when excessive back pressure applications silicon transistors are preferred.
exists. For applications where a stream of air must A thermal sink, properly chosen, will remove
be directed through a tube socket, a blower is heat at a rate which keeps the transistor junction
usually required. Blowers vary in their ability to temperature in the safe area. For low-power
work against back pressure, so this specification applications a simple clip-on heat sink will suffice,
should be checked when selecting a particular while for 100-watts of input power a massive
model. Some air will always leak around the socket cast-aluminum finned radiator will be necessary. In
and through other holes in a chassis, so the blower general, the case temperature of a power transistor
chosen should have a capacity which is 30 to 50 must be kept below the point at which it will
percent beyond that called for by the tube produce a burn when touched.
manufacturer.
An efficient blower is required when using the Heat-Sink Design
external-anode tubes, such as the 4X150A. Such Simple heat sinks, made as described in the
tubes represent a trade-off which allows high- Construction Practices chapter, can be made more
power operation with a physically small device at effective (by 25 percent or more) by applying a
the expense of increased complexity in the cooling coat of flat-black paint. Finned radiators are most
system. Other types of external-anode tubes are effective when placed where maximum air flow can
now being produced for conductive cooling. An be achieved - outside a case with the fins placed
electrical insulator which is also an excellent vertically. The size of a finned heat sink required
thermal conductor, such as AlSiMag, couples the to give a desired thermal resistance, a measure of
tube to a heat sink. Requirements for the heat the ability to dissipate heat, is shown in Fig.
dissipator are calculated in the same way as for 6-l9A. Fig. 6-l9B is a simplified chart of the
power transistors, as outlined below. Similar tubes thermal resistance needed in a heat sink for
are made with special anode structures for water or transistors in TO-5 and T0-44 cases. These figures
Output Power from Transmitters 153

;;1;.001
FI L. +400V +2200V
(A) ~65V
(B) +180V OUTPUT

Fig. 6-20 - Typical (A) push-pull and (8) parallel amplifier circuits.

are based on several assumptions, so they can be modulated phone at about 2/3 that of cw or fm.)
considered a worst-case situation. Smaller heat A plate-modulated stage running 100 watts input
sinks may be usable. will deliver a carrier output of from 65 to 75 watts,
The thermal design of solid-state circuits has depending upon the tube, frequency and circuit
been covered in QST for April, 1972. The factor. The PEP output of any a-m signal is four
surface contact between the transistor case and the times the carrier output power, or 260 to 300
heat sink is extremely important. To keep the sink watts for the 100-watt input example.
from being "hot" with dc, a mica insulator is Grid- (control or screen) modulated output
usually employed between the transistor case and amplifiers in a-m operation run at a carrier
the heat dissipator. Newer types of transistors have efficiency of 30 to 35 percent, and a grid-modu-
a case mounting bolt insulated from the collector lated stage with 100 watts input has a carrier
so that it may be connected directly to the heat output of 30 to 35 watts. (The PEP output, four
sink. Whatever the arrangement, the use of a times the carrier output, is 120 to 140 watts.)
conductive compound such as silicone grease Running the legal input limit in the United
(Corning PC-4) is recommended between the States, a plate-modulated output stage can deliver a
transistor and the sink. For high-power designs, it carrier output of 650 to 750 watts, while a screen-
may be desirable to add a small cooling fan, or control-grid-modulated output amplifier can
providing a stream of air across the heat sink, to deliver only a carrier of 300 to 350 watts.
keep the size of the heat dissipator within SSB: Only linear amplifiers can be used to
reasonable limits. Even a light air flow greatly amplify ssb signals without distortion, and this
increases the radiator's ability to dispose of excess limits the choice of output amplifier operation to
heat. Classes A, AB 1 , AB2, and B. The efficiency of
operation of these amplifiers runs from about 20
to 65 percent. In all but Class-A operation the
OUTPUT POWER FROM TRANSMITTERS indicated (by plate-current meter) input will vary
CW or FM: In a cw or fm transmitter, any with the signal, and it is not possible to talk about
class of amplifier can be used as an output or relative inputs and outputs as readily as it is with
intermediate amplifier. (For reasonable efficiency, other modes. Therefore linear amplifiers are rated
a frequency multiplier must be operated Class C.) by PEP (input or output) at a given distortion
Class-C operation of the amplifier gives the highest level, which indicates not only how much ssb signal
efficiency (65 to 75 percent), but it is likely to be they will deliver but also how effective they will be
accompanied by appreciable harmonics and conse- in amplifying an a-m signal.
quent TVI possibilities. If the excitation is keyed LINEAR AMPLIFIERS FOR A-M: In consider-
in a cw transmitter, Class-C operation of ing the practicality of adding a linear ou tpu t
subsequent amplifiers will, under certain condi- amplifier to an existing a-m transmitter, it is
tions, introduce key clicks not present on the necessary to know the carrier output of the a-m
keyed excitation (see chapter on Code Transmis- transmitter and the PEP output rating of the linear
sion). The peak envelope power (PEP) input or amplifier. Since the PEP output of an a-m signal is
output of any cw (or fm) transmitter is the four times the carrier output, it is obvious that a
"key-down" input or output. linear with a PEP output rating of only four times
A-M: In an amplitude-modulated phone trans- the carrier output of the a-m transmitter is no
mitter, plate modulation of a Class-C output amplifier at all. If the linear amplifier has a PEP
amplifier results in the highest output for a given output rating of 8 times the a-m transmitter carrier
input to the output stage. The efficiency is the output, the output power will be doubled and a
same as for cw or fm with the same amplifier, from 3-dB improvement will be obtained. In most cases
65 to 75 percent. (In most cases the manufacturer a 3-dB change is just discernible by the receiving
rates the maximum allowable input on plate- operator.
154 HF TRANSMITTING
By comparison, a linear amplifier with a PEP a single high-power type. When parallel operation is
output rating of four times an existing ssb, cw or used, precautions must be taken to insure that
fm transmitter will quadruple the output, a 6-dB equal drive is applied to each transistor. Otherwise,
improvement, It should be noted that the linear one transistor may "hog" most of the drive and
amplifier must be rated for the mode (ssb, cw or exceed its safe ratings.
fm) with whichit is to be used. A basic push-pull circuit is shown in Fig. 6-20A.
GROUNDED-GRID AMPLIFIERS: The pre- Amplifiers using this circuit are cumbersome to
ceding discussion applies to vacuum-tube amplifiers bandswitch and consequently are not very popular
connected in a grounded-cathode or grounded-grid below 30 MHz. However, since the push-pull
circuit. However, there are a few points that apply configuration places tube input and output
only to grounded-grid amplifiers. capacitances in series, the circuit is often used at
A tube operated in a given class (AB1, B, C) 50 MHz and higher.
will require more driving power as a grounded-grid In the circuit shown at A two 813s are used.
amplifier than as a grounded-cathode amplifier. Cross neutralization is employed, with Cl connect-
This is not because the grid losses run higher in the ed from the plate of one tube to the grid of the
grounded-grid configuration but because some of second, while C2 is attached in the reverse order.
the driving power is coupled directly through the
tube and appears in the plate load circuit. Provided
enough driving power is available, this increased
GROUNDED-GRID AMPLIFIERS
requirement is of no concern in cw or linear Fig. 6-21A shows the input circuit of a
operation. In a-m operation, however, the fed- grounded-grid triode amplifier. In configuration it
through power prevents the grounded-grid ampli- is similar to the conventional grounded-cathode
fier from being fully modulated (100 percent). circuit except that the grid, instead of the cathode,
is at ground potential. An amplifier of this type is
AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS characterized by a comparatively low input
impedance and a relatively high driver power
Parallel and Push-Pun Amplifiers requirement. The additional driver power is not
The circuits for parallel-tube amplifiers are the consumed in the amplifier but is "fed through" to
same as for a single tube, similar terminals of the the plate circuit where it combines with the normal
tubes being connected together. The grid impe- plate output power. The total rf power output is
dance of two tubes in parallel is half that of a the sum of the driver and amplifier output powers
single tube. This means that twice the grid tank less the power normally required to drive the tube
capacitance shown in Fig. 6-20B should be used for in a grounded-cathode circuit. .
the same Q. Positive feedback is from plate to cathode
The plate load resistance is halved so that the through the plate-cathode capacitance of the tube.
plate-tank capacitance for a single tube (Fig. 6-24) Since the grounded-grid is interposed between the
also should be doubled. The total grid current will plate and cathode, this capacitance is small, and
be doubled, so to maintain the same grid bias, the neutralization usually is not necessary.
grid-leak resistance should be half that used for a In the grounded-grid circuit the cathode must
single tube. The required driving power is doubled. be isolated for rf from ground. This presents a
The capacitance of a neutralizing capacitor should practical difficulty especially in the case of a
be doubled and the value of the screen dropping filament-type tube whose filament current is large.
resistor should be cutin half. In plate-modulated phone operation the driver
In treating parasitic oscillation, it is often power fed through to the output is not modulated.
necessary to use a choke in each plate lead, rather The chief application for grounded-grid ampli-
than one in the common lead to avoid building in a fiers in amateur work below 30 MHz is in the case
push-pull type of vhf circuit, a factor in obtaining where the available driving power far exceeds the
efficient operation at higher frequencies. power that can be used in driving a conventional
Two or more transistors are often operated in grounded-cathode amplifier.
parallel to achieve high output power, because Screen-grid tubes are also used sometimes in
several medium-power devices often cost less than grounded-grid amplifiers. In some cases, the screen

Fig. 6-21 - Input circuits for

triode or triode-connected
power tubes operated ground-
(A) ed grid.
(e)
.01
~UT
BIAS

FIL.
Grounded-Grid Amplifiers 155
TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
A transistor amplifier requires some means for
impedance matching at the input and output of the
stage. For conventional narrow-band amplifier
designs, impedance matching is achieved with
tuned networks (pi, L or T sections or
combinations thereof). To simplify band-switching
requirements, broadband amplifiers with four
octaves or more of bandwidth are desirable. Wide
bandwidths are achieved by using a special form of
transmission-line transformer for interstage and
output coupling that is described later in this
chapter.
Most solid-state Class.c amplifiers are operated
with both the base and emitter leads connected to
dc ground. Thus, the transistor is practically off
when no driving signal is present. The distortion of
the drive signal by such an amplifier is appreciable.
However, with cw, fm, or collector-modulated a-m,
the harmonics produced are removed from the
desired frequency by at least a factor of 2. Thus,
harmonic- energy can be reduced or eliminated by
using appropriate fIlters.
Fig. 6-22 - A 30-A filament choke for a Fig. 6-23A shows a basic Class.c transistor
grounded-grid power amplifier consisting of 28 amplifier. The base input is held at dc ground
turns of No. 10 enam. wire on a 1/2-inch diameter through a radio-frequency choke. A second choke,
ferrite rod 7 inches long. consisting of two ferrite beads (collector lead),
eliminates a tendency to vhf parasitic oscillation.
is simply connected in parallel with the grid, as in At B, parallel-connected transistors are operated
Fig. 6-21B and the tube operates as a high-M triode. Class C. Adjustment of L1 and L2 provide equal
In other cases, the screen is bypassed to ground levels of drive. The devices chosen for this circuit
and operated at the usual dc potential, as shown at are designed for 30- to 50-MHz operation. Below
C. Since the screen is still in parallel with the grid 14 MHz some form of degenerative feedback will
for rf, operation is very much like that of a triode be needed to prevent self oscillation, as the gain of
except that the positive voltage on the screen the transistors is quite high at lower frequencies.
reduces driver-power requirements. For ssb operation transistors must be forward
In indirectly-heated cathode tubes, the low biased at the base. The lowest distortion results
heater-to-cathode capacitance will often provide with Class-A operation, but, efficiency is poor. The
enough isolation to keep rf out of the heater best trade off between low distortion and high
transformer and the ac lines. If not, the heater efficiency is Class-B operation, even though
voltage must be applied through rf chokes. operation in this region introduces some severe
In a directly-heated cathode tube, the filament requirements for the bias circuit. Whenever a
must be maintained above rf ground. This can be transistora forward biased, thermal runaway can
done by using a pair of fIlament chokes or by using be a problem. Also, ssb drive varies in amplitude
the input tank circuit, as shown in Fig. 6-21C. In causing large variations in the transistor base
the former method, a double solenoid (often current. For best linearity, the dc base-bias voltage
wound on a ferrite core) is generally used, although should remain constant as the rf drive level is
separate chokes can be used. When the tank circuit varied. This situation is in conflict with the
is used, the tank inductor is wound from two conditions needed to prevent thermal runaway.
(insulated) conductors in parallel or from an Exotic schemes have been designed to provide the
insulated conductor inside a tubing outer conduc- proper base bias for Class-B ssb amplification.
tor. A typical filament choke is shown in Fig. 6-22. However, a simple diode circuit such as shown in
The input impedance of a grounded-grid power Figs. 6-23C and D can provide the required dc
stage is usually between 30 and 150 ohms. For stability with protection against thermal damage.
circuits similar to those shown in Figs. 6-21A and The ballasted type of transistors are preferred for
B some form of input tuning network is needed. A these circuits. Typical choices for Class-B ssb
high-C, low-Q parallel-resonan t or pi-section service are the 2N5941, 2N2942, 2N3375,
network will suffice. The input network provides 2N5070, 2N5071, and the 2N5093. The design of
benefit other than impedance matching - a suitable broadband transformers for the circuits of
reduction in the 1M distortion produced by the Fig. 6-29 is covered later in this chapter.
stage when amplifying an ssb signal. A typical The circuits at 6-23C and D are similar except
input circuit is shown in Fig. 6-16F. When an for the choice of the active device. Both designs
amplifier is built for single-band operation, a tank were developed by K7QWR. The base-bias circuit
circuit similar to that shown in Fig. 6-21C may be maintains a steady voltage while supplying current
employed. Proper input matching is achieved by that varies by a factor of 100 to 1 with drive. The
tapping the input down on the coil. gain versus frequency of both circuits follows the
 156 HF TRANSMITTING
3.5 MHz AMPLIFIER 28MHz AMPLIFIER L3

Fig. 6-23 - Some typical trans-

istor power-amplifier circuits. At
C, R1 is adjusted for a collector
current of 40 mA with no drive,
while R2 at 0 is set for 20 mA
collector current with no input.
Broadband transformers used
consist of the following:
T1, T3, T5 - 6 turns of 2 twisted
pairs of No. 26 enam. wire on
a Stackpole 57 -9322 No. 11
toroid core, connected for
50!20W 2-50 MHz 4:1. (See table 6-A.I
T2,T4 - 4 turns of 4 twisted pairs of
No. 26 enam. wire on a Stack-
pole 57-9322 No. 11 toroid
core, connected for 4:1.
T6 - 10 turns of 3 twisted pairs
lN4719 10 of No. 28 enam. wire on two
2-50 MHz rJ,RFC
10)LH
Stackpole 57-9074 No. 11
toroid cores, connected for
INP~UT
T3 T4 9:1
.1
== (D)
350

power-output CUIVes of the transistors used, the Q of the tank circuit will have an effect on the
changing from 25 dB at 2 MHz to 13 dB at 30 coefficient of coupling necessary for proper
MHz. IMD is typically 30 dB or more down with loading of the amplifier. In respect to all of these
either circuit. factors, a tank Q of 10 to 20 is usually considered
optimum_ A much lower Q will result in less
RF POWER-AMPLIFIER TANKS efficient operation of the amplifier tube, greater
AND COUPLING harmonic output, and greater difficulty in coupling
inductively to a load. A much higher Q will result
TANKQ in higher tank current with increased loss in the
tank coil. Efficiency of a tank circuit is determined
Rf power amplifiers used in amateur transmit- by the ratio of loaded Q to unloaded Q by the
ters are operated under Class-C or -AB conditions relationship:
(see chapter on tube fundamentals). The main
objective, of course, is to deliver as much
fundamental power as possible into a load, R
Eff. = 100 (1 - g~)
without exceeding the tube ratings. The load
resistance R may be in the form of a transmission where QL is the loaded Q and Qu is the unloaded
line to an antenna, or the input circuit of another Q.
amplifier. A further objective is to minimize the The Q is determined (see chapter on electrical
harmonic energy (always generated by an ampli- laws and circuits) by the Lie ratio and the load
fier) fed into the load circuit. In attaining these resistance at which the tube is operated. The tube
objectives, the Q of the tank circuit is of load resistance is related, in approximation, to the
importance. When a load is coupled inductively, ratio of the dc plate voltage to dc plate current at
Inductive-Link Coupling 157
which the tube is operated and can be computed
from:
INPUT
Class-A Tube:
Plate Volts
1.3 X Plate Current RFC

Class-B Tube:

Plate Volts - BIAS +S.G. +H.V.

1.57 X Plate Current
Fig. 6-25 - Inductive-link output coupling circuits.
Class-C Tube: C1 - Plate tank capacitor - see text and Fig. 6-24
for capacitance.
R Plate Volts L1 - To resonate at operating frequency with C1.
L = 2 X Plate Current See LC chart and inductance formula in
electrical-laws chapter, or use ARRL Lightning
Transistor: Calculator.
L2 - Reactance equal to line impedance. See
R = (Collector Volts) 2 reactance chart and inductance formula in
L 2 X Power Output (Watts) electrical-laws chapter, or use ARRL Lightning
Calculator.
100 0
R - Representing load.

""'" "
900
800
100 Parallel-Resonant Tank
600 '\ ."'\ ~i The amount of C that will give a Q of 10 for
500 1"-. '\.-.."'Y various ratios is shown in Fig. 6-24. For a given
400 '\. I~~ plate-V'Oltage/plate-current ratio, the Q will vary
"'7

~~I "~
""
directly as the tank capacitance, twice the
300

~
capacitance doubles the Q, etc. For the same Q,
~-1.
200 r-....
1-<) "r-- the capacitance of each section of a split-stator
capacitor in a balanced circuit should be half the
~I t\1'\c value shown.
"
~ ~
u.J 100
U
!So

90
""" " ,,/v
~ ~1-<)

"
"-
"r-- "'\ '\.
"
These values of capacitance include the output
capacitance of the amplifier tube, the input
capacitance of a following amplifier tube if it is
coupled capacitively, and all other stray capaci-
Z
~
80
10
" " {:-s-"
'\ ~I
'\. tances. At the higher plate-voltage/plate-current
ratios, the chart may show values of capacitance,
~"'7
U
~
«
u
1>0
50
40
'" "',~ ~<)
"- .~~"'7"- t\
'" '\. for the higher frequencies, smaller than those
attainable in practice. In such a case, a tank Q
higher than 10 is unavoidable.
~~~ '\
"'"
:.:
Z 30
INDUCTIVE-LINK COUPLING
~ ~~I'"
20 ~~1-- r--"
<}
" Coupling to Flat Coaxial Lines
When the load R in Fig. 6-25 is located for
r<>
"r-- ~ "" convenience at some distance from the amplifier,

'"
or when maximum harmonic reduction is desired,
10 it is advisable to feed the power to the load
9
through a low-impedance coaxial cable. The
8
""- ""' shielded construction of the cable prevents
6 I'\. radiation and makes it possible to install the line in
1 z 3 45678910 15 20
any convenient manner without danger of
PLATE VOLTS
RATIO unwanted coupling to other circuits.
PLATE inA
If the line is more than a small fraction of a
Fig. 6-24 - Chart showing plate tank capacitance wavelength long, the load resistance at its output
required for a Q of 10. Divide the tube plate end should be adjusted, by a matching circuit if
voltage by the plate current in milliamperes. Select necessary, to match the impedance of the cable.
the vertical line corresponding to the answer This reduces losses in the cable and makes the
obtained. Follow this vertical line to the diagonal coupling adjustments at the transmitter independ-
line for the band in question, and thence ent of the cable length. Matching circuits for use
horizontally to the left to read the capacitance.
For a given ratio of plate voltage/plate current, between the cable and another transmission line
doubling the capacitance shown doubles the Q. are discussed in the chapter on transmission lines,
When a split-stator capacitor is used in a balanced while the matching adjustments when the load is
circuit, the capacitance of each section may be one the grid circuit of a following amplifier are
half the val ue given by the chart. described elsewhere in this chapter.
158 HF TRANSMITTING
inductance even for coupling to a 50-ohm line at
low frequencies.
If the line is operating with a low SWR, the
system shown in Fig. 6-26A will require tight
coupling between the two coils. Since the
secondary (pickup coil) circuit is not resonant, the
leakage reactance of the pickUp coil will cause
some detuning of the amplifier tank circuit. This
detuning effect increases with increasing coupling,
but is usually not serious. However, the amplifier
tuning must be adjusted to resonance, as indicated
by the plate-current dip, each time the coupling is
COAXIAL LINE
changed.

Tuned Coupling
The design difficulties of using "untuned"
pickup coils, mentioned above, can be avoided by
(8)
using a coupling circuit tuned to the operating
ALTERNATIVE FOR USE
WITH SMALL LINKS
frequency. This contributes additional selectivity
as well, and hence aids in the suppression of
spurious radiations.
If the line is flat the input impedance will be
essentially resistive and equal to the Z 0 of the line.
With coaxial cable, a circuit of reasonable Q can be
(C) obtained with practicable values of inductance and
capacitance connected in series with the line's
Fig. 6-26 - With flat transmiSSion lines, power input terminals. Suitable circuits are given in Fig.
transfer is obtained with looser coupling if the line 6-26 at B and C. The Q of the coupling circuit
input is tuned to resonance. C1 and L1 should
resonate at the operating frequency. See table for often may' be as low as 2, without running into
maximum usable value of C1. If circuit does not difficulty in getting adequate coupling to a tank
resonate with maximum C1 or less, inductance of circuit of proper design. Larger values of Q can be
L1 must be increased or added in series at L2. used and will result in increased ease of coupling,
but as the Q is increased the frequency range over
which the circuit will operate without readjust-
Table 6-A ment becomes smaller. It is usually good practice,
therefore, to use a coupling-circuit Q just low
Capacitance in pF Required for Coupli~ to enough to permit operation, over as much of a
Flat Coaxial Lines with Tuned Coupling ircuit 1 band as is normally used for a particular type of
Frequency Characteristic Impedance of Line communication, without requiring retuning.
Band 52 75 Capacitance values for a Q of 2 and line
MHz ohms ohms impedances of 52 and 75 ohms are given in the
3.5 450 300 accompanying table. These are the maximum
7 230 150 values that should be used. The inductance in the
14 115 75 circuit should be adjusted to give resonance at the
21 80 50
28 60 40
P I NETWORK
1 Capacitance values are maximum usable.
Note: Inductance in circuit must be adjusted to
resonate at operating frequency.

Assuming that the cable is properly terminated,

proper loading of the amplifier will be assured,
using the circuit of Fig. 6-26A, if
1) The plate tank circuit has reasonably higher
value of Q. A value of lOis usually sufficient.
2) The inductance of the pickup or link coil is
close to the optimum value for the frequency and
type of line used. The optimum coil is one whose PI-L NETWORK
self-inductance is such that its reactance at the TO L2 L3
operating frequency is equal to the characteristic TU~~UTPUT
impedance, Zo, of the line. CS
C3 C4
3) It is possible to make the coupling between
the tank and pickup coils very tight.
The second in this list is often hard to meet.
Few manufactured link coils have adequate Fig. 6-27 - Pi and pi-L output-<:oupling networks.
Pi and Pi-L Output Tanks 159
operating frequency. If the link coil used for a circuit Q. With a Q of 2, the coupling should be
particular band does not have enough inductance tight - comparable with the coupling that is
to resonate, the additional inductance may be typical of "fixed-link" manufactured coils. With a
connected in series as shown in Fig. 6-26C. swinging link it may be necessary to increase the Q
of the cou pIing circuit in order to get sufficient
Characteristics power transfer. This can be done by increasing the
In practice, the amount of inductance in the L/Cratio.
circuit should be chosen so that, with somewhat
loose coupling between Ll and the amplifier tank PI AND PI-L OUTPUT TANKS
coil, the amplifier plate current will increase when
the variable capacitor, Cl, is tuned through the A pi-section and pi-L tank circuit may also be
value of capacitance given by the table. The used in coupling to an antenna or transmission line,
coupling between the two coils should then be as shown in Fig. 6-27. The optimum values of
increased until the amplifier loads normally, capacitance and inductance are dependent upon
without changing the setting of Cl. If the values of amplifier power input and output load
transmission line is flat over the entire frequency resistance.
band under consideration, it should not be Values for L and C may be taken directly from
necessary to readjust Cl when changing frequency, the charts of Fig. 6-28 if the ou tpu t load resistance
if the values given in the table are used. However, it is the usual 52 ohms. It should be borne in mind
is unlikely that the line actually will be flat over that these values apply only where the output load
such a range, so some readjustment of Cl may be is resistive, i.e., where the antenna and line have
been matched. Fig. 6-28 and 6-28A were provided
needed to compensate for changes in the input
by W6FFC.
impedance of the line. If the input impedance
variations are not large, Cl may be used as a Output-Capacitor Ratings
loading control, no changes in the coupling The voltage rating of the output capacitor will
between Ll and the tank coil being necessary. depend upon the SWR. If the load is resistive,
The degree of coupling between Ll and the receiving-type air capacitors should be adequate for
amplifier tank coil will depend on the coupling- amplifier input powers up to 2 kW PEP when

TUBE LOAD IMPEDANCE (OPERATING Q)

MHz 1500(12) 2000(12) 2500(12) 3000(12) 3500(12) 4000(12) 5000(13) 6000(14) 8000(16)
Cl 3.5 420 315 252 210 180 157 126 114 99
7 190 143 114 95 82 71 57 52 45
14 93 70 56 47 40 35 28 25 22
21 62 47 37 31 27 23 19 17 IS
28 43 32 26 21 18 16 13 12 10
C2 3.5 2117 1776 1536 1352 1203 1079 875 862 862
7 942 783 670 583 512 451 348 341 341
14 460 382 326 283 247 217 165 162 162
21 305 253 216 187 164 144 109 107 107
28 210 174 148 128 111 97 72 70 70
Ll 3.5 5.73 7.46 9.17 10.86 12.53 14.19 17.48 19.18 21.98
7 3.14 4.09 5.03 5.95 6.86 7.77 9.55 10.48 12.02
14 1.60 2.08 2.56 3.03 3.49 3.95 4.85 5.33 6.11
21 1.07 1.39 1.71 2.02 2.34 2.64 3.25 3.56 4.09
28 0.77 1.01 1.24 1.46 1.69 1.91 2.34 2.57 2.95

TUBE LOAD IMPEDANCE (OPERATING Q)

MHz 1500(12) 2000(12) 2500(12) 3000(12) 3500(12) 4000(12) 5000(12) 6000(12 8000(12)
C3 3.5 406 305 244 203 174 152 122 102 76
7 188 141 113 94 81 71 56 47 35
14 92 69 55 46 40 35 28 23 17
21 62 46 37 31 26 23 18 15 12
28 43 32 26 21 18 16 13 11 8
C4 3.5 998 859 764 693 638 593 523 472 397
7 430 370 329 298 274 255 225 203 171
14 208 179 159 144 133 123 109 98 83
21 139 119 106 96 89 82 73 65 55
28 95 81 72 66 60 56 50 45 38
L2 3.5 7.06 9.05 10.99 12.90 14.79 16.67 20.37 24.03 31.25
7 3.89 4.97 6.03 7.07 8.10 9.12 11.13 13.11 17.02
14 1.99 2.54 3.08 3.61 4.13 4.65 5.68 6.69 8.68
21 1.33 1.69 2.05 2.41 2.76 3.10 3.78 4.46 5.78
28 0.96 1.22 1.48 1.74 1.99 2.24 2.73 3.22 4.17
L3 3.5 4.45 4.45 4.45 4.45 4.45 4.45 4.45 4.45 4.45
7 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.44
14 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.24
21 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83
28 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60

Fig. 6-28 - Chart to determine the values of Land C needed for a pi (A) and pi-L (8) network to match a
range of input impedances to a 50-ohm load.
 160 HF TRANSMITTING
Rl F Cl Ll C2 R2 Q Rl F Cl Ll C2 R2 Q
Ohms MHz pF J.1lI pF Ohms Qual. Ohms MHz pF J.1lI pF Ohms Qual.
so 3.5 2600 0.94 4153 10 2.9 125 3.5 839 3.19 1124 SO 2.3
SO 7.0 1179 0.49 1678 10 2.6 125 7.0 381 1.67 488 SO 2.1
SO 14.0 579 0.25 801 10 2.5 125 14.0 187 0.84 237 SO 2.1
SO 21.0 384 0.16 528 10 2.5 125 21.0 124 0.56 157 SO 2.0
SO 29.7 266 0.12 351 10 2.5 125 29.7 86 0.40 107 SO 2.0
SO 3.5 2098 1.27 2811 20 2.3 150 3.5 699 3.62 957 SO 2.3
SO 7.0 952 0.67 1220 20 2.1 ISO 7.0 317 1.89 405 SO 2.1
50 14.0 467 0.34 593 20 2.1 ISO 14.0 156 0.95 196 SO 2.1
50 21.0 310 0.23 393 20 2.0 150 21.0 103 0.64 129 50 2.0
50 29.7 214 0.16 268 20 2.0 150 29.7 71 0.45 88 50 2.0
50 3.5 2098 1.43 2533 30 2.3 175 3.5 599 4.03 816 SO 2.3
50 7.0 952 0.76 1131 30 2.1 175 7.0 272 2.09 333 50 2.1
SO 14.0 467 0.38 553 30 2.1 175 14.0 133 1.05 159 50 2.1
50 21.0 310 0.26 367 30 2.0 175 21.0 89 0.70 105 SO 2.0
50 29.7 214 0.18 253 30 2.0 175 29.7 61 0.50 70 SO 2.0
SO 3.5 2098 1.55 2290 40 2.3 200 3.5 569 4.26 822 SO 2.5
SO 7.0 952 0.83 1033 40 2.1 200 7.0 258 2.22 334 SO 2.3
SO 14.0 467 0.42 506 40 2.1 200 14.0 127 1.12 160 SO 2.2
50 21.0 310 0.28 336 40 2.0 200 21.0 84 0.74 105 SO 2.2
SO 29.7 214 0.20 232 40 2.0 200 29.7 58 0.53 70 50 2.2
SO 3.5 2098 1.66 2098 SO 2.3 225 3.5 543 4.48 827 SO 2.7
SO 7.0 952 0.88 952 SO 2.1 225 7.0 246 2.34 335 50 2.4
SO 14.0 467 0.45 467 SO 2.1 225 14.0 121 1.18 160 SO 2.4
SO 21.0 310 0.30 310 SO 2.0 225 21.0 80 0.79 106 SO 2.4
SO 29.7 214 0.21 214 SO 2.0 225 29.7 55 0.56 70 SO 2.3
SO 3.5 2098 1.66 2098 SO 2.3 250 3.5 520 4.68 831 SO 2.9
SO 7.0 952 0.88 952 SO 2.1 250 7.0 236 2.45 336 SO 2.6
50 14.0 467 0.45 467 SO 2.1 250 14.0 116 1.23 160 50 2.5
SO 21.0 310 0.30 310 SO 2.0 250 21.0 77 0.82 106 50 2.5
SO 29.7 214 0.21 214 SO 2.0 250 29.7 53 0.59 70 SO 2.5
75 3.5 1399 2.21 1630 SO 2.3 275 3.5 499 4.86 834 SO 3.0
75 7.0 634 1.17 731 SO 2.1 275 7.0 227 2.56 336 50 2.7
75 14.0 311 0.59 358 50 2.1 275 14.0 111 1.29 160 SO 2.7
75 21.0 207 0.40 238 50 2.0 275 21.0 74 0.86 106 SO 2.7
75 29.7 143 0.28 164 SO 2.0 275 29.7 51 0.61 70 SO 2.6
100 3.5 1049 2.72 1337 SO 2.3 300 3.5 481 5.04 836 SO 3.2
100 7.0 476 1.43 591 SO 2.1 300 7.0 218 2.66 337 SO 2.9
100 14.0 234 0.72 288 SO 2.1 300 14.0 107 1.34 160 SO 2.8
100 21.0 155 0.48 191 SO 2.0 300 21.0 71 0.89 106 SO 2.8
100 29.7 107 0.35 131 SO 2.0 300 29.7 49 0.64 70 50 2.8

Fig. 6-28A - The foliowing data is for a pi network with a Q of 2 at the top of each band. The Q shown is
that for the same inductor at the bottom of the band. The capacitors are shown for the bottom of the
band to indicate the maximum capacitance needed. If the transformation ratio exceeds 70 percent of
maximum, the Q has been automatically recalculated in order to retain the characteristics of a pi network
and that new value shown. Do not forget which end of the network represents 50 ohms!

feeding 52- 75-ohm loads. In obtaining the larger the micas only at the lower frequencies. Broad-
capacitances required for the lower frequencies, it cast-receiver replacement-type capacitors can be
is common practice to switch one or more fixed obtained reasonably. Their voltage insulation
capacitors in parallel with the variable air should be adequate for inputs of 1000 watts or
capacitor. While the voltage rating of a mica or more.
ceramic capacitor may not be exceeded in a
particluar case, capacitors of these types are
limited in current-carrying capacity. Postage-stamp TRANSISTOR OUTPUT CIRCUITS
silver-mica capacitors should be adequate for Since rf power transistors have a low output
amplifier inputs over the range from about 70 impedance (on the order of 5 ohms or less), the
watts at 28 MHz to 400 watts at 14 MHz and problem of coupling the transistor to the usual
lower. The larger mica capacitors (CM-45 case) 50-ohm load is the reverse of the problem with a
having voltage ratings of 1200 and 2500 volts are vacuum-tube amplifier. The 50-ohm load must be
usually satisfactory for inputs varying from about transformed to a low resistance.
350 watts at 28 MHz to I kW at 14 MHz and Figs 6-29A and B show two types of
lower. Because of these current limitations, parallel-tuned circuits used to couple the load to
particularly at the higher frequencies, it is advisable the collector circuit. The collector is tapped down
to use as large an air capacitor as practicable, using on the inductor in both cases. C1 provides tuning
Stabilizing Amplifiers 161
Fig. 6-29 - Typical transistor output-matching R( C2
networks.

for the collector and C2 adjusts the coupling to the

load to achieve the proper impedance transforma-
tion. The use of the tapped connection to the
inductor helps to maintain the loaded Q of the
circuit while minimizing variations in tuning with
changes in the junction capacitance of the
transistor.
Circuits of Figs. 6-29C through E are not
dependent upon coupling coefficient of a tapped
coil for load-impedance transformation, making
them more suitable for use at hf than either A or
B. The collector-emitter capacitance (Co) of the
transistor is a major factor in the calculations used
to design these circuits. Unfortunately Co is not (1 )XC1=Q LR,
constant, so cut-and-try adjustments are usually R.
necessary to optimize a particular circuit.
Early tests of transistor rf power amplifiers R2 (z)Xu.= VR.(Qttt)_t
R, QL'
should be made with low voltage, a dummy load
and no drive. Some form of output indicator . QLR,
should be included. When it has been established (3)XL'= [~J
that no instability exists, the drive can be applied
(c) FOR R,<R. ~
Co =2 Cob
in increments and adjustment made for maximum
output. The amplifier should never be operated at
(4)XL2=QLR, ~+QLRX'C2]
high voltage and no load.

BROADBAND COUPLING
The techniques of broadband-transformer con-
struction use transmission-line elements. A trans-
former consists of a short transmission line
(one-eighth wavelength or less) made from a (D)
twisted-wire pair, coaxial or strip line, wound on a
high-permeability toroid core to improve the
low-frequency characteristics. At vhf the core may ( l)X
L'
= QLXCO'
R,
,,=VR,
L'
R'J
Q. Xco
be omitted. Only discrete impedance transforma-
tions are possible; typical ratios are 9/4:1, 4:1,9:1,
16: 1, and 25: 1. The higher ratios are difficult to
achieve in practice, so several 4: 1 transformers are
employed for a large transformation ratio as shown
in Fig. 6-23. Hybrid transformers, providing the
180-degree phase shift for input and output
matching to push-pull stages, may also be made
using broadband techniques.
Large toroid cores are not required for
moderate power levels. A one-half inch diameter
core is sufficient for operation at 100 watts at the
there will be negligible opportunity for coupling
low impedance levels found in transistor circuits.
external to the tube or transistor itself. Complete
Because the current is high it is important to keep
shielding between input and output circuits usually
the resistance of the conductors low. Multicon-
is required. All rf leads should be kept as short as
ductor leads (3 or 4 strands of No. 26 enam.,
possible and particular attention should be paid to
twisted) or the flat enam. strip used for
the rf return paths from input and output tank
transformer windings) are suitable. Some typical
circuits to emitter or cathode. In general, the best
designs are shown in Table 6-11. arrangement using a tube is one in which the
cathode connection to ground, and the plate tank
STABILIZING AMPLIFIERS circuit are on the same side of the chassis or other
A straight amplifier operates with its input and shielding. The "hot" lead from the input tank (or
output circuits tuned to the same frequency. driver plate tank) should be brought to the socket
Therefore, unless the coupling between these two through a hole in the shielding. Then when the grid
circuits is brought to the necessary minimum, the tank capacitor or bypass is grounded, a return path
amplifier will oscillate as a tuned-plate tuned-grid through the hole to cathode will be encouraged,
circuit. Care should be used in arranging since transmission-line characteristics are simula-
components and wiring of the two circuits so that ted.
 162 HF TRANSMITTING
Screen-Grid Tube Neutralizing Circuits
The plate-grid capacitance of screen-grid tubes
is reduced to a fraction of a picofarad by the

f interposed grounded screen. Nevertheless, the

power sensitivity of these tubes is so great that
only a very small amount of feedback is necessary
to start oscillation. To assure a stable amplifier, it
is usually necessary to load the grid circuit, or to
use a neutralizing circuit.
The capacitive neu tralizing system for screen-
grid tubes is shown in Fig. 6-30A. CI is the
+v neutralizing capacitor. The capacitance should be
chosen so that at some adjustment ofCI,
Fig. 6-30 - (A) A neutralizing
scheme may use either C1 or
C2 to cancel the effect of grid-
~ Cl
C3
= Tube grid-plate capacitance (or CgpJ
Tube input capacitance (or C1N)

~~
to-plate capacitance in the tube
(B) Vhf parasitic circuit shown The grid-cathode capacitance must include all
with heavy lines. strays directly across the tube capacitance,
(8) including the capacitance of the tuning-capacitor
stator to ground. This may amount to 5 to 20 pF.
A check on external coupling between input In the case of capacitance coupling, the output
and output circuits can be made with a sensitive capacitance of the driver tube must be added to
indicating device, such as the wavemeter shown in the grid-cathode capacitance of the amplifier in
the Measurements chapter. The amplifying device arriving at the value of C 1.
is removed. With the driver stage running and
tuned to resonance, the indicator should be Neutralizing a Screen-Grid Amplifier Stage
coupled to the output tank coil and the output
tank capacitor tuned for any indication of rf There are two general procedures available for
feedthrough. Experiment with shielding and indicating neutralization in a screen-grid amplifier
rearrangement of parts will show whether the stage. If the screen-grid tube is operated with or
isolation can be improved. For additional informa- without grid current, a sensitive output indicator
tion on transistor circuits see Chapter 4.

BIFILAR
WINDING
I
3 THREE
BIFILAR
WINDINGS
ON ONE CORE

TOROIDAL
FERRITE CORE

~
2 BALANCED

~ BALANCED
R

~ 3 4

1;1 4:1
BALUN BALANCED SYMMETRIC
UNBALANCED

1:1 BROADBAND TRANSFORMER 4: I BROADBAND TRANSFORMER

4:1 BROADBAND TRANSFORMER
(A) HIGH IMPEDANCE BALANCED LOW IMPEDANCE BALANCED
(B) (LESS THAN 20 OHMS)

~
NBALANCED ~
(C)

Table 6-11 - Basic broadband balun transformers.

4R UNBALANCED UNBALANCED Bifilar windings are six to ten turns, depending on
the ferrite-core permeability. A suitable ferrite
UNBAL:1 ~ material is Ql with a permeability of 125. Very
small size cores (1/4-to 3/4-inch 00) may be used
for receiving and low-power applications. For
full-power applications a 2-1/2-inch 00 Ql core
UNBALANCED 1:1 PHASE REVERSING with 1/2-inch cross section wound with No. 14
AUTO-TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER Formex copper wire, seven turns per winding, is
(E) (G) recom1T]ended.
 Stabilizing Amplifiers 163
can be used. If the screen-grid tube is operated be replaced with a grid leak of 10,000 to 20,000
with grid current, the grid-current reading can be ohms. All load on the output of the amplifier
used as an indication of neutralization. When the should be disconnected. Plate and screen voltages
output indicator is used, both screen and plate should be reduced to the point where the rated
voltages must be removed from the tubes, but the dissipation is not exceeded. If a Variac is not
dc circuits from the plate and screen to cathode available, voltage may be reduced by a 117 -volt
must be completed. If the grid-current reading is lamp in series with the primary of the plate
used, the plate voltage may remain on but the transformer.
screen voltage must be zero, with the dc circuit With power applied only to the amplifier under
completed between screen and cathode. test, a search should be made by adjusting the
The immediate objective of the neutralizing input capacitor to several settings, including
process is reducing to a minimum the rf driver minimum and maximum, and turning the plate
voltage fed from the input of the amplifier to its capacitor through its range for each of the
output circuit through the grid-plate capacitance of grid-capacitor settings. Any grid current, or any dip
the tube. This is done by adjusting carefully, bit by or flicker in plate current at any point, indicates
bit, the neutralizing capacitor or link coils until an oscillation. This can be confumed by an indicating
rf indicator in the output circuit reads minimum, absorption wave meter tuned to the frequency of
or the reaction of the unloaded plate-circuit tuning the parasitic and held close to the plate lead of the
on the grid-current value is minimized. tube.
The wavementer shown in the Measurements The heavy lines of Fig. 6-30B show the usual
chapter makes a sensitive neutralizing indicator. parasitic tank circuit, which resonates, in most
The wavemeter coil should be coupled to the cases, between 100 and 200 MHz. For each type of
output tank coil at the low-potential or "ground" tetrode, there is a region, usually below the
point. Care should be taken to make sure that the parasitic frequency, in which the tube will be
coupling is loose enough at all times to prevent self-neutralize<i By adding the right amount of
buring out the meter or the rectifier. The plate inductance to the parasitic circuit, its resonant
tank capacitor should be readjusted for maximum frequency can be brought down to the frequency
reading after each change in neutralizing. at which the tube is self-neutralized. However, the
When the grid-current meter is used as a resonant frequency should not be brought down so
neu tralizing indicator, the screen should be low that it falls close to TV Channel 6 (88 MHz).
grounded for rf and dc, as mentioned above. There From the consideration of TVI, the circuit may be
will be a change in grid current as the unloaded loaded down to a frequency not lower than 100
plate tank circuit is tuned through resonance. The MHz. If the self-neutralizing frequency is below
neutralizing capacitor (or inductor) should be 100 MHz, the circuit should be loaded down to
adjusted until this deflection is brought to a somewhere between 100 and 120 MHz with
minimum. As a fmal adjustment, screen voltage inductance. Then the parasitic can be suppressed
should be returned and the neutralizing adjustment by loading with resistance. A coil of 4 or 5 turns,
continued to the point where minimum plate 1/4 inch in diameter: is a good starting size. With
current, maximum grid current :md maximum the tank capacitor turned to maximum capaci-
screen current occur simultaneously. An increase in tance, the circuit should be checked with a GDO to
grid current when the plate tank circuit is tuned make sure the resonance is above 100 MHz. Then,
slightly on the high-frequency side of resonance with the shortest possible leads, a noninductive
indicates that the neutralizing capacitance is too 100-0hm I-watt resistor should be connected
small. If the increase is on the low-frequency side, across the entire coil. The amplifier should be
the neutralizing capacitance is too large. When tuned up to its highest-frequency band and
neutralization is complete, there should be a slight operated at low voltage. The tap should be moved
decrease in grid current on either side of resonance. a little at a time to find the minimum number of
turns required to suppress the parasitic. Then
Grid Loading
voltage should be increased until the resistor begins
The use of a neutralizing circuit may often be to feel warm after several minutes of operation,
avoided by loading the grid circuit if the driving and the power input note<i This input should be
stage has some power capability to spare. Loading compared with the normal input and the power
by tapping the grid down on the grid tank coil (or rating of the resistor increased by this proportion;
the plate tank coil of the driver in the case of i.e., if the power is half normal, the wattage rating
capacitive coupling), or by a resistor from grid to should be double<i This increase is best made by
cathode is effective in stabilizing an amplifier. connecting I-watt carbon resistors in parallel to
give a resultant of about 100 ohms. Or, one of the
VHF Parasitic Oscillation Globar surge-protection resistors may be used. As
Parasitic oscillation in the vhf range will take power input is increased, the parasitic may start up
place in almost every rf power amplifier. To test again, so power should be applied only momen-
for vhf parasitic oscillation, the grid tank coil (or tarily until it is made certain that the parasitic is
driver tank coil in the case of capacitive coupling) still suppressed. If the parasitic starts up again
should be short-circuited with a clip lead. This is to when voltage is raised, the tap must be moved to
prevent any possible t.g. t. p. oscillation at the include more turns. So long as the parasitic is
operating frequency which might lead to confusion suppressed, the resistors will heat up only from the
in identifying the parasitic. Any fixed bias should operating-frequency current. In grounded-grid
164 HF TRANSMITTING
+v
(B) 9G
Fig. 6-31 - Metering circuits
+v for (A) tubes and (B) trans-
INP~ istors. To measure current,
~PUT connect a meter at the point
INPUT
~ shown in series with the lead.
o--jl-!-----4-{ F or voltage measurements,
connect the meter from the
point indicated to the
common or ground con-
E
+v +V nection.
1
-v
A-GRID
B -CATHODE
h
E -BAS£
F -EMITTER
C-SCREEN G-COLLECTOR
D-PLATE

circuits it is useful to locate the parasitic frequency. Two transistor characteristics combine
suppressor in the cathode lead, as the rf power to cause this trouble. First, transistors have higher
level is less than at the plate terminal. gain at lower frequencies than they do at hf.
Since the resistor can be placed across only that Second, interelement capacitances vary over a wide
portion of the parasitic circuit represented by L p ' range of changes in voltage, the result being
the latter should form as large a portion of the varactor action that causes spurious outputs. The
circuit as possible. Therefore, the tank and bypass best way to avoid the problem is to use a minimum
capacitors should have the lowest possible of inductance in the collector circuit. Large chokes
inductance and the leads shown in heavy lines are unsatisfactory. Series feed is a good answer as
should be as short as possible and of the heaviest no choke is needed. Bypass capacitors should be
pratical conductor. This will permit Lp to be of the minimum value required. Decoupling on power
maximum size without tuning the circuit below the leads between stages should have at least two
100-MHz limit. capacitors, one effective at the operating frequency
Another arrangement that has been used and a second large capacitor that is good at low
successfully in transistor and low-level tube stages frequencies.
is to place one or more ferrite beads over the input
or output leads, as close as possible to the METERING
amplifying device. The beads have sufficient low-Q Fig. 6-31 shows how a voltmeter and
inductance at vhf to discourage any tendency inilliammeter should be connected to read various
toward parasitic oscillation. voltages and currents. Voltmeters are seldom
installed permanently, since their principal use is in
Low-Frequency Parasitic Oscillation preliminary checking. Also, milliammeters are not
normally installed permanently in all of the
The screening of most transmitting screen-grid positions shown. Those most often used are the
tubes is sufficient to prevent low-frequency ones reading grid current and plate current, or grid
parasitic oscillation caused by resonant circuits set current and cathode current, or collector current.
up by rf chokes in grid and plate circuits. When rf Milliammeters come in various current ranges.
chokes are used in both grid and plate circuits of a Current values to be expected can be taken from
triode amplifier, the split-stator tank capacitors the tube tables and the meter ranges selected
combine with the rf chokes to form a low-frequen- accordingly. To take care of normal overloads and
cy parasitic circuit, unless the amplifier circuit is pointer swing, a meter having a current range of
arranged to prevent it. Often, a resistor is about twice the normal current to be expected
substituted for the grid rf choke, which will should be selected.
produce the desired result. This resistance should Grid-current meters connected as shown in Fig.
be at least 100 ohms. If any grid-leak resistance is 6-31 and meters connected in the cathode circuit
used for biasing, it should be substituted for the need no special precautions in mounting on the
100-0hm resistor. transmitter panel so far as safety is concerned.
However, milliammeters having metal zero-adjust-
Transistor LF Parasitics ing screws on the face of the meter should be
Using transistors with shunt feed often means recessed behind the panel so that accidental
low-frequency parasitic trouble. Aword about this contact with the adjusting screw is not possible, if
problem is in order as it usually doesn't occur in the meter is connected in any of the other
vacuum-tube circuits and is often a rough problem positions shown in Fig. 6-31. The meter can be
for the newcomer to solid state. These parasitics mounted on a small subpanel attached to the front
manifest themselves as a wide spectrum of white panel with long screws and spacers. The meter
noise (hash) around and below the operating opening should be covered with glass or celluloid.
frequency. They can often be heard on a broadcast Illuminated meters make reading easier. Reference
receiver several feet away from a transmitter under should also be made to the TVI chapter of this
test. The desired signal may sound clean, so it is Handbook in regard to wiring and shielding of
necessary to check far below the operating meters to suppress TVI.
 Component Ratings 165
COMPONENT RATINGS
Wire Sizes for Transmitting Coils
for Tube Transmitters
Output Tank Capacitor Voltage
Power Input (Watts) Band (MHz) Wire Size
In selecting a tank capacitor with a spacing
1000 28-21 6
between plates sufficient to prevent voltage 14-7 8
breakdown, the peak rf voltage across a tank 3.5-1.8 10
circuit under load, but without modulation, may
be taken conservatively as equal to the dc plate or 500 28-21 8
14-7 12
collector voltage. If the dc supply voltage also 3.5-1.8 14
appears across the tank capacitor, this must be
added to the peak rf voltage, making the total peak 150 28-21 12
voltage twice the dc supply voltage. If the amplifier 14-7 14
3.5-1.8 18
is to be plate-modulated, this last value must be
doubled to make it four times the dc plate voltage, 75 28-21 14
because both dc and rf voltages double with 14-7 18
3.5-1.8 22
lOG-percent amplitude modulation. At the higher
voltages, it is desirable to choose a tank circuit in 25 or less* 28-21 18
which the dc and modulation voltages do not 14-7 24
appear across the tank capacitor, to permit the use 3.5-1.8 28
of a smaller capacitor with less plate spacing. * Wire size limited principally by consideration of
Capacitor manufacturers usually rate their pro- Q.
ducts in terms of the peak voltage between plates. There are many factors that must be taken into
Typical plate spacings are shown in the following consideration in determining the size of wire that
table, 6-III. should be used in winding a tank coil. The
Output tank capacitors should be mounted as considerations of form factor and wire size that
close to the tube as temperature considerations will will produce a coil of minimum loss are often of
permit, to make possible the shortest capacitive less importance in practice than the coil size that
path from plate to cathode. Especially at the will fit into available space or that will handle the
higher frequencies where minimum circuit capaci- required power without excessive heating. This is
tance becomes important, the capacitor should be partiCUlarly true in the case of screen-grid tubes
mounted with its stator plates well spaced from the where the relatively small driving power required
chassis or other shielding. In circuits where the can be easily obtained even if the losses in the
rotor must be insulated from ground, the capacitor driver are quite high. It may be considered
should be mounted on ceramic insulators of size preferable to take the power loss if the physical
commensurate with the plate voltage involved and size of the exciter can be kept down by making the
- most important of all, from the viewpoint of coils small.
safety to the operator - a well-insulated coupling Transistor output circuits operate at relatively
should be used between the capacitor shaft and the low impedances because the current is quite high.
dial. The section of the shaft attached to the dial Coils should be made of heavy wire or strap, with
should be well grounded. This can be done connections made for the lowest possible resis-
conveniently through the use of panel shaft-bearing tance. At vhf stripline techniques are often
units. employed, as the small inductance values required
for a lumped inductance become difficult to
Table 6-111 fabricate.
Typical Tank-Capacitor Plate Spacings RF Chokes
Spacing Peak Spacing Peak Spacing Peak
(In.) Voltage (In.) Voltage (In.) Voltage The characteristics of any rf choke Will vary
0.015 1000 0.07 3000 0.175 7000 with frequency, from characteristics resembling
0.02 1200 0.08 3500 0.25 9000 those of a parallel-resonant circuit, of high
0.03 1500 0.125 4500 0.35 11000 impedance, to those of a series-resonant circuit,
0.05 2000 0.15 6000 0.5 13000 where the impedance is lowest. In between these
extremes, the choke will show varying amounts of
Tank Coils inductive or capacitive reactance.
In series-feed circuits, these characteristics are
Tank coils should be mounted at least their of relatively small importance because the rf
diameter away from shielding to prevent a marked voltage across the choke is negligible. In a
loss in Q. Except perhaps at 28 MHz it is not parallel-feed circuit, however, the choke is shunted
important that the coil be mounted quite close to across the tank circuit, and is subject to the full
the tank capacitor. Leads up to 6 or 8 inches are tank rf voltage. If the choke does not present a
permissible. It is more important to keep the tank sufficiently high impedance, enough power will be
capacitor as well as other components out of the abosrbed by the choke to cause it to burn out.
immediate field of the coil. For this reason, it is To avoid this, the choke must have a
preferable to mount the coil so that its axis is sufficiently high reactance to be effective at the
parallel to the capacitor shaft, either alongside the lowest frequency, and yet have no series
capacitor or above it. resonances near the higher-frequency bands.
166 HF TRANSMITTING
A TWO-BAND VFO-CONTROLLED TRANSMITTER
The degree of circuit sophistication used in
homemade amateur gear is usually decided on the
basis of operating convenience, academic interest
in circuit design, and the amount of money
available for a project. Certainly, the foregoing is a
self-evident piece of philosophy, but is worth
stating here to establish the reasons behind what
may appear to be extreme complexity in the design
of a 10-watt transmitter. The basic purpose here is
to expose a variety of circuit conveniences, many
of which can be applied to transmitters which the
reader may already have at hand. Bits and pieces of
this composite may be of interest to those who are
presently embarking upon a design venture for an
original circuit to fill a specific need. Those wishing Exterior view of the two-band 10-watt transmitter.
to duplicate the basic portion of this package A homemade aluminum box is used to house the
should have no reservations about deleting all parts circuit. The cover has been sprayed with black
of the circuit which do not relate directly to the paint. The panel is gray. White press-on decals are
VFO and main transmitter sections. The keyer, used to identify the controls. A small LE D is used
SWR inductor, break-in delay circuit, and sidetone as a panel lamp. It is located just above the on-off
switch.
oscillator need not be included in the project in
order to effect good performance. Similarly, the
circuit can be built for single-band operation (40 or amplifier was necessary to establish similar rms
20 meters), thus negating the need for a band output levels from the VFO on each band of
switch. operation. The remaining transistor of V 1 is
When used separately, this transmitter will unused. The CA3046 works very well at 7 and 14
provide plenty of operating pleasure, even for the MHz because the device has a rated IT of 550 MHz.
DX-minded amateur. If it is used in combination Three 10-ohm resistors are used (terminals 1, 5 and
with a tube-type or solid-state "pair of shoes" one 9) to discourage vhf parasitic oscillations. CRI is
should be able to elevate the output power of the outboard from the VFO box, and is saturated
station. As a low-power (QRP) transmitter, this during receive periods to shift the VFO frequency
unit qualifies nicely for portable work at camp some SO kHz away from the operating frequency,
sites, for Field Day operation, or for emergency thereby preventing the VFO from interfering with
use. It can be connected to a 12-volt car or NiCad reception of the incoming signal.
battery, or it can be powered from an ac-operated An RCA CA304S will work equally well at VI.
dc supply (preferably of the regulated variety). The terminal connections are the same. The only
Total current consumption is on the order of 1 difference in the IC types is that one is packaged in
ampere. a ceramic case, while the other is in a plastic
housing. Two of these les were obtained as surplus
The ICVFO for $1.
An RCA CA3046 transistor-array IC was Stability of the VFO is excellent. Total drift at
selected for use in the VFO portion of the rig (Fig. 7 MHz from a cold start to stabilization (3
1). The chip contains five npn bipolar transistors, minutes) was measured as 80 Hz. VRI keeps the
two of which are connected as a differential pair VFO operating voltage stabilized at 8.2 volts.
(emitters in parallel). It seemed like a good idea to
use the IC so that the differential pair could be
employed as a push-push doubler to multiply the Buffer, Driver and PA
fundamental 7-MHz VFO energy to 14 MHz. Since An untuned buffer is used at Q4, Fig. 3, to
the devices on the substrate of VI have uniform assure reasonable isolation between the VFO and
characteristics the doubler should work very well, the driver stage (QS) of the transmitter strip. A
and indeed it does. Very little 7-MHz energy low-cost 2N2222 transistor is used at Q3 because
appears in the output of the doubler. A parallel- they were available from Poly Paks at five for $1.
tuned trap was added to the 14-MHz output line to Transistors with similar electrical characteristics
remove the residual 7-MHz component at the should work equally well at Q3. A 2N4427 boosts
output port. the signal from Q3 to a level suitable for driving PA
One of the separate bipolar transistors on the transistor Q6. The tuned circuit in the collector of
chip is used as a Colpitts VFO. Another is used QS is resonant at 14 MHz until S2 is switched to
between the oscillator and the doubler as a phase the 40-meter position. At that time an additional
splitter, thus providing push-pull drive to the trimmer capacitor is placed in parallel with the
doubler. During operation on 40 meters the 20-meter trimmer, thus lowering the resonant
doubler B-plus voltage is removed and routed by frequency of the tank to 7 MHz. The collector of
means of SI to an R-C-coupled 7-MHz buffer QS is tapped down on L4 to effect an impedance
transistor, Q 1. Drive to Ql is taken from the match and to maintain the Q of the tuned circuit
emitter of the phase splitter. A 7-MHz buffer/ through reduced loading effects from QS.
A Two-Band Transmitter 167
u
a
>
~
+

~
UJ
>
ii":
<::>

~
::;;
0 0
",u..
~>
o
r-:

An RCA 2N5995 was chosen for the PA stage, 50-ohm value (44 ohms in reality). The 50-ohm
Q6, because it is a vhf transistor capable of 10 impedance level is much less difficult to work with
watts output. When used for hf-band applications, when doing network design with practical values of
it exhibits higher gain than at vhf. The increased L and C. The PA tank network consists of two pi
beta permits the device to deliver comparable sections in cascade. Each is designed for a QL of 4,
power output at drive levels considerably below and each network is built to match 50 to 300
those needed at vhf. The 2N5995 is "mismatch ohms. The 300-ohm ports are joined at the center
tested" by the manufacturer, and is unlikely to of the network, where a trimmer capacitor is used
burn out during temporary periods (30 seconds) of to tune the tank circuit to resonance. Because pi
no load, dead short, or somewhere between at the networks are low-pass filters, harmonic output
outpu t of the collector tank. from the transmitter is down 50 dB or more
The collector impedance of Q6 (7 watts out- (measured). In fact, no evidence of harmonic
put) is approximately 11 ohms, as determined currents could be observed on the output wave
from the formula, Z (collector) = Vce' .;- 2Po (W). form when checking for purity with a Tektronix
This condition called for use of a 4: 1 broadband 453 scope (50-MHz bandwidth). The loaded Q of
toroidal transformer to raise the impedance to a the tank is sufficiently low to permit operation
 168 HF TRANSMITTING

~__~.O~O~I~~________; -____~~____--, JI
+12V~ I-------"t---t-------------------,
to CI4
7-MHz TRAP
L3
14-MHz
OUTPUT

7.0-7.150
3~r CI582
MHz ~ __~~__- , L2 S.M.
,---1
I I
,I, ,,14KHz
1
~- --,.1

Rig CI7
TO 100
K2B XOOI
OF C18
01
(" 1<7~JHZ
2
FIG.3
S2A
~OUTPUT
J3
TO
RCVR. 100 .001

R20 ;:hC21
R32
3300 EXCEPT AS INDICATED; DECIMAL VALUES OF' C22 ;+;.001
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (JIF I ; TO KEY
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR JlJlFI; LINE
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k.IOOO,M:IOOOOOD.

Fig. 2 - Schematic diagram of the VFO and J1 - J3, incl. - Phono jack, single-hole mount.
sidetone circuits. Fixed-value resistors are 1/2 watt L1 - Shielded inductor, 3 to 7 /lH (J. W. Miller
composition unless specified differently. Fixed- 905 1>r equiv.).
value capacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise L2 - Shielded inductor, 1.5 to 3 /lH (J. W. Miller
indicated. C17, 21, 22 and 29 are feedthrough 9050 or equiv.).
types. The internal circuit of U1 is illustrated to L3 - Variable inductor, 5.5 to 8.6 /lH (J. W. Miller
aid the reader in understanding how the circuit 4505 or equiv.).
operates. Triangles containing numbers indicate R25 - Linear-taper 100,OOO-ohm composition
points within the circuit of Fig. 2 which are joined. control (mounted external to VFO on rear
Numbered components not appearing in the parts apron of the main chassis).
list are so numbered for pc-board identification RFC1 - 500-/lH rf choke (Millen J300-500 or
purposes only. equiv.).
S1 Spst momentary pushbutton switch
C6 - 60-pF miniature air variable, double-bearing (mounted on front panel of main chassis).
type recommended (J. W. Miller No. 1460 with U1 RCA transistor-array IC (CA3045 or
all sections in parallel). CA3046)'
CR1 - Silicon switching diode_ 1N914 or equiv. VR1 - 8.2-V, 1-W Zener diode.

across the 7- and 14-MHz cw bands without need side-tone board by means of the external key.
to retune the tank_ Elimination of the break-in circuit would require
A drive control is connected in the emitter the addition of an external antenna changeover
circuit of the driver stage, Q5, to enable the QRP relay or switch.
"purist" to reduce power to practically zero The delay circuit (Fig. 3) consists of two pnp
output. This feature is beneficial also when ad- bipolar switches, Q7 and Q8, which are saturated
justing power ou tpu t to the necessary level for simultaneously when the keying line is grounded.
driving an outboard amplifier. One can operate the Q7, when saturated, permits the flow of +12 volts
equipment from batteries by lowering the driving to buffer Q4, driver Q5, and the side-tone circuit.
power. At, say, the 2-watt rf output level, the The remaining solid-state switch, Q8, supplies a
current drawn by the transmitter will be on the charging voltage to the RC timing circuit between
order of 250 rnA. At reduced power the PA tank the base of relay driver Q9 and ground. CR2 acts as
network will no longer be optimum in terms of a voltage gate, and CR3 in series with CR4 bias Q7
impedance matching, but no ill effects will result. to cutoff under key-up conditions to enable Kl
and K2 to drop out when the 'charging voltage of
Break-In Delay the timing network decays. CR5 is used across the
Those not wanting to include the break-in delay relay field coils to prevent transients from reaching
circuit can "float" the key jack and make and the 12-volt bus as the relay field coils are de-
break the operating voltage to the driver stage and energized. The hold-in time of the delay circuit is
 14 101Hz
AMP. DRIVER PA L6 L7
(36 ~2C
:lr, j~
R43
2N5995 _
»
Q6~ -I
:E
o
OJ
III
:l
c..

IKEYED tl2V 1.
.
-I
III
:l
~ C38 III
ig~~DE- B3~A~-~~. ~~D ;+; .01 3
;:i:
TOVFOr
14-MHz
OUTPUT TO
VFO
KEY LINE
OF FIG.2
+12V O'--..,...--~--I KIA C53, C54 AND
Q6 ON ETCHED
.
ro+
(I)

7-MHz OUTPUT SIDE OF BOARD

K2A RSO ~ R51
C49 SO-OHM 150
J4
.:£!..i1 1:
rh' ( I -3d8 PAD IW
R52
2200

! EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VAWES OF

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (JIF l ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR J'JlF):
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
II s 1000, MclOOO 000.
K28 L
t
:2 ·
r_--1~_~TO VFO
OFFSET
O+12V
{") '<~~R.
;+, ~MUTE

Fig. 3 - Schematic diagram of the transmitter and J6 - SO-239 type coax connector.
break-in delay circuits. Fixed-value resistors are 1!2 Kl, K2 - Spdt 500-ohm relay. Relay fields
connected in series for 12-V use (Radio Shack! RFC2 - l-mH rf choke (Millen J300-1000 or
watt composition unless specified differently.
Archer No. 275-004 or equiv.). equiv.l.
Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless RFC3 - 50-/LH rf choke (Millen J300-50 or
otherwise indicated. Numbered components not L4 - 22 turns No. 24 enam. wire on Amidon
T-50-6 toroid core (2.4 /LH), tapped at 11 turns. equiv.).
appearing in the parts list are so numbered for RFC5 - 22-/LH rf choke (Millen 34300-22 or
pc-board identification purposes only. L5 - 4 turns No. 24 enam. wound over L4
winding. equiv.).
L6, L7 - 12 turns No. 20 enam. wire on Amidon S2 - 5-pole, 2-position rotary switch (phenolic or
T -68-6 toroid core (1.1 /LH). ceramic types suitable). SurplUS Grayhill type
L8, L9 - 18 turns No. 20 enam. wire on Amidon used in this transmitter.
C35, C36 - 37 to 250-pF mica compression T -68-2 toroid core (2.2 /LH). S3 - Opdt toggle or wafer switch.
trimmer (Elmenco 426 or equiv.). 05-08, incl. - RCA transistor. Use heat sinks on T1 - 4: 1 broadband toroidal transformer. 16 turns -
C44, C47 - 90 to 400-pF mica compression 05 and 06 transistors. No. 22 enam. wire, bifilar wound on Amidon 0-
trimmer (Elmenco 429 or equiv.l. R42 - 1000-0hm linear-taper carbon control T-68-2 toroid core. Connect windings as shown, 0()
J4 - Two-circuit phone jack (used only if built-in (mount on front panel). observing correct phasing as indicated by dots.
W7Z01 keyer not used). R48 - 10,000-ohm linear-taper carbon control Zl - SWR indicator. See text if module is used in
J5, J7 - Phono jack, single-hole mount. (mount on rear panel). transmitter being built.
170 HF TRANSMITTING
Inside view of the transmitter. The VFO and
side-tone circuits are contained in the box at the
upper center. The VFO tuning capacitor is visible
at the right center of the photograph. A metal
shield surrounds it to help keep rf energy (from the
driver and PA stages) out of the VFO. The
transmitter strip is in the lower foreground. A
homemade heat sink is used on 06 and is
prominent at the center of the pc board. The
break-in delay and SWR-indicator boards are
located between the main transmitter board and
the VFO box. Attached to the rear outer wall of
the VFO box is the W7Z01 keyer. The VFO offset
circuitry is assembled at the upper right of the
picture, just below the meter. L-shaped brackets
are used on the inner edges of the chassis to permit
attachment of the cover by means of No. 6
sheet-metal screws.

adjustable by means of a 1O,000-ohm control on to use a commercially made enclosure of almost

the rear apron of the chassis. identical appearance and dimensions can order one
by mail from Apollo Products. I
Side-Tone Oscillator Sections of double-clad pc-board stock were
used to form the VFO box. The sides are joined by
Fig. 2 shows the two-transistor sidetone circuit. soldering them at each corner (full length of seam)
A simple twin-T audio oscillator is used to generate while using a medium-heat iron. The VFO com-
a 700-Hz note which follows the keying rate partment measures (HWD) 2 x 3-3/8 x 4-1/2
without clicks or chirp. Output is taken from the inches. This box, and all edge-mounted pc boards,
junction of two resistors in the frequency- are secured to the chassis by means of No.6 spade
determining R-C network. Output can be obtained bolts.2
at three points in the circuit, but the best wave Aluminum shielding is used around the VFO
form available is found at the terminal used here. A tuning capacitor to help prevent stray rf (from the
sidetone level control is located on the rear panel high-level stages of the transmitter) from getting
of the transmitter, and can be adjusted to provide into the VFO. Feedthrough capacitors are
comfortable listening with the receiver being used. mounted on the walls of the VFO box and are used
to filter the dc-voltage leads which enter the
SWR Indicator compartment (also to eliminate unwanted rf in the
The SWR indicator was included as an VFO circuit). The VFO offset circuit is built on a
operating convenience for use afield when it might terminal strip, and is located in front of the VFO
be necessary to prune the length of a coax-fed box near the tuning capacitor.
antenna for lowest SWR. It is useful also in tuning All signal leads are made from RG-174/U
the transmitter for maximum output into the miniature coax cable. The shield braid should be
antenna being used. Complete circuit and pc-board grounded to the chassis at each end of each cable.
information for the module is given in QST for Unshielded wiring should be kept short and direct.
June, 1973, and will not be repeated here. A 3-dB The latter should be dressed close to the chassis.
T pad has been included in the line to the antenna A 2-inch-diameter vernier mechanism is
jack. It can be switched into the line for use while employed to operate the VFO tuning capacitor.
adjusting an external Transmatch. The pad The part used here is a Micronta No. 274-615. It
provides a nearly constant load for the PA until a was purchased from Radio Shack. Earlier Radio
50-ohm match is obtained. This part of the circuit Shack units of this product had dull-finish dial
can also be eliminated. plates, and contained a three-wheel friction drive.
One circuit appendage remains ... the built-in The preferred new model has a shiny dial plate,
keyer. This module can be left out of the package and uses a ball drive which appears to be a copy of
if the builder does not care to include it. The that used by Jackson Brothers. The latter is free of
circuit for the keyer was described by Hayward in backlash and has considerably more torque capa-
QST for November, 1971. Circuit boards for the bility than did the earlier version.
keyer, plus layout information, are available from The original knob and dial plate were discarded
W7Z0I for $3. and a 2-1/2 inch diameter homemade dial plate was
I Apollo Products, Model-G Dosy Box. Box
Assembly Information 245, Vaughnsville, OH 45893. Send for catalog.
A homemade aluminum chassis/cabinet was 2 Scale templates and parts layout for the VFO
and main transmitter boards are available by
formed from 1/16-inch stock. The dimensions writing to ARRL Hq. Send 50 cents and a large
(HWD) are 3 x 10 x 8-1/2 inches. Those wishing s.a.s.e. with order.
A Two-Band Transmitter 171
added (see photo). A piece of scrap plastic (white) Final checkout can begin after the VFO is
was used to make the new plate, but one could use installed in the main cabinet. Connect a 5(}ohm
a disk of pc board and spray it with white paint. dummy load to the transmitter output jack. Apply
Calibration marks were made with india ink. The operating voltage (12 to 13.5 V dc). Select the
vernier mechanism is mounted on the inner surface 7-MHz band. Set the drive control in the emitter
of the panel. circuit of Q5 for maximum resistance (minimum
An LED is used as a panel lamp (just above the power). Couple a wavemeter to the PA tank and
on-off switch). A clearance hole was drilled in the close the key. Next, adjust the tuned-circuit
panel, the lamp inserted, then epoxy cement was trimmers of the driver and PA for maximum
applied at the rear of the lamp to secure it to the indication on the wavemeter. Increase the drive to
panel. maximum and repeak the tuned circuits. If the
circuit is performing correctly there should be 6 or
7 watts of rf output from the transmitter (18 V
Final Details rms across the 5(}ohm load). Next, switch to 20
Checkout of the VFO should be undertaken meters and repeat the foregoing procedure. Output
prior to installing it in the main cabinet. Output power on both bands should be the same.
from the VFO can be monitored on a com- If the SWR indicator is included in the circuit,
munications receiver tuned to 7 MHz. With the it should be adjusted before installing it in the box.
VFO tuning capacitor fully meshed, adjust the Details on checking it out were given in the QST
oscillator-coil slug until output is heard at 7.0 article.
MHz. When the tuning capacitor is completely After determining that all circuits are working
unmeshed, output should appear at approximately properly, monitor the cw signal from the trans-
7.150 MHz. Thus, during 14-MHz operation the mitter to make certain there is no chirp or hum
range of the VFO will be twice that amount ... present. Final calibration of the VFO should take
14.0 to 14.3 MHz. An rf probe and VTVM can be place upon completion of the project.
used to measure the rms output voltage from the 7- Depending upon the characteristics of the
and 14-MHz VFO ports. The level should be transistors used, and to some extent the physical
approximately 1 volt on each band when a layout of the transmitter, there may be some
560-ohm terminating resistor is used. If a scope is "pulling" of the VFO frequency when the driver
available it can be used as a monitor while peaking and PA tanks are tuned. If this happens, tweak
the 14-MHz tuned circuit. The scope can be used them slightly (at full power output) so that the
while tuning the 7-MHz trap for best purity of the monitored cw signal has the same pitch during
14-MHz wave form. Alternatively, the 560-ohm operation as when the spot switch is actuated.
test termination can be replaced by a coil con- There will be no deterioration in transmitter
sisting of six turns of hookup wire, then a performance if this is done. The adjustment should
wavemeter can be coupled to the coil (wavemeter be made on both bands.
tuned to 7 MHz). for use as an indicator while Adjustment of the break-in delay and side-tone
adjusting the 7-MHz trap. Similarly, the wavemeter level controls can be done in accordance with the
can be used to observe the 14-MHz output when operator's personal tastes. Once this is done the
peaking the doubler tuned circuit. transmitter will be ready for use.

r---.----.-----......- - -..... -~+12V

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS { JlF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS I pf OR j.ljlFl;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k=IOOO,M.IQOO 000. ,..-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.....

1N41~2

4100
\~----------------------------------------~--~

Fig. 4 - Circuit diagram of the Hayward keyer.

 172 HF TRANSMITTING

A 75-TO 120-WATT CW TRANSMITTER

The transmitter shown in Fig. 1 is designed to The plate tank for the final amplifier uses the
satisfy the cw requirements of either a Novice or pi-section configuration for simple band switching.
higher-class licensee. The PA stage will operate at This network is tuned by C3, and C4 provides
75-watts dc input for the Novice. The rig provides adjustment of the antenna coupling. The pi-net-
station control and other operating features. work also assures excellent suppression of har-
Holders of General Class or higher licenses can run monics when properly terminated, typically 35 to
up to 12O-watts dc input. A SPOT position is 45 dB. All connection points to the transmitter are
provided on the FUNCTION switch which permits fIltered to "bottle up" harmonic energy, which, if
identifying the operating frequency in a band. The radiated, could cause television interference.
transmitter has been designed for ease of assembly, Silicon rectifiers are used in the "economy"
with the beginner in mind. power supply. A center-tapped transformer with a
The circuit diagram of the transmitter (Fig. 2) bridge rectifier provides all of the operating
shows the oscillator tube, VI, to be a 6GK6. This voltages for the transmitter. Depending upon the
pentode works "straight through" on some bands line voltage, the high-voltage supply will deliver
while multiplying in its plate circuit on others. An about 750 volts, key up, dropping to about 700
80-meter crystal will develop either 80- or volts under load. If the line voltage is above 120,
40-meter energy in the subsequent stage (6146B) these figures will be increased by about 50 volts.
grid circuit, depending on the setting of S2 and Cl. The screen supply to the 6146B is regulated by
Similarly, a 40-meter crystal will permit the two OB2 VR tubes.
oscillator to drive the final tube on 40, 20, 15 and The FUNCTION switch turns the transmitter
10 meters. The fmal amplifier is always operated on and selects the spot, tune or operate modes.
straight through for maximum power output. Since Leads from this switch are brought out to the rear
the amount of excitation will vary with the degree deck of the transmitter to mute the station receiver
of frequency multiplication, a screen-voltage- and key the antenna relay. Thus, Sl provides
adjustment control, R1, is included. one-switch transmit-receive operation. In the
To insure stability, the 6146B amplifier is OPERATE position, the oscillator and amplifier
neutralized. This is done by feeding back a small are keyed simultaneously by grounding the
amount of the output voltage, (out of phase) to common cathode circuit. A RC network across the
the 6146B grid through C2. The adjustment of this cathode line is included to shape the keying, thus
circuit is described later. Provision is included to preventing key clicks.
measure the grid and cathode current of the
amplifier stage. With the 6146B it is important to Construction
insure that the grid current is kept below 3 mA at An 11 X 7 X 2-inch aluminum chassis (Bud
all times; high grid currents will ruin the tube in AC-407) is used as the base for the transmitter. A
short order. The meter, which has a basic 0-1-mA
homemade aluminum U shield encloses the final
movement, uses appropriate multiplier and shunt amplifier. The chassis is fitted with an 11 X 7-inch
resistors to give a O-lO-mA scale for reading grid front panel which is cut from sheet aluminum. The
current, and 0-250 mA for monitoring plate panel is held to the chassis by the switches and
current.
panel bushings common to both units. Correct
placement of the various parts can be determined
by viewing the photographs. Only an experienced
builder should try to relocate the major compo-
nents. The rf compartment has 3/4-inch mounting
lips bent along the back side and the ends to give a
fmished size of 5 X 83/4 inches. This rear housing
is held to the chassis and front panel with 6-32
hardware, and a perforated metal cover is fastened
-~---,:;';'
-.-' to it with No.6 sheet-metal screws.
'---
------./
,

Fig. 1 - This 12D-watt cw transmitter can be

operated at 75-watts dc input for Novice-band use.
The slide switch puts the meter in the grid or
cathode circuit of the 6146B amplifier. Directly to
the right of the slide switch is the FUNCTION
switch and crystal socket. Continuing at this level,
farther to the right is the GRID TUNING, grid
BAND SWITCH, and the DRIVE level control. The
controls to the upper right are the final BAND
SWITCH, FINAL TUNING, and FINAL LOAD-
ING.
 OSCILLATOR/MULTI PLI ER
J3

o-n ANT.
....
:TIC
-,
»
""
U! I\l ......
(J1
~ I .!.
0.(")
(ii' ~.
1 SM
1000 RFC7
lm.H
J4
...
o
('"7<'''
") ....=. T''~SE
01 ~ _,ool~MurE REC, N
o
til a.
3 iii' .l 0Ei' rh ~
a
RFCB r
-'IC
"
• ~
OJ lmH J5
::03
~, 0
~ANT.
~
J2

~q'''~''''
en .....
....
Q :T :J;"
en '"
~O)
...-i
Q)
'"
..... .....
__ 0)
.1:> ::::I
en
':Jt1l
5, M.= SILVER
L4 - 21 turns, No. 20, 16 tpi, 1-inch dia, tapped at 3
:E .... MICA
+210V 9 turns in from the junction with L3 for 7 ~.
SCiJ
.... ::l
o" 3en
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS l.,I.IF I; OTHERS +750v
MHz, and using the entire coil for 3.5 MHz
(B&W 3015).
...
3 ;:+' ARE IN PICOFARA os ( pF OR J.I}lF') ~ +300 M1 - Milliammeter (Calectro 01-912).
'tl ....
iii ~ RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; P1 - Fused plug (use 3-A, 3AG fuses!'
a:o (")OJ 11-1000. Mt I 000000
R1 - 25,00().ohm, 5-W wirewound control (Mal-
::l'tl
• OJ
lory VW25K).
~, R2 - 10,ooQ.ohm, 25·W wirewound.
POWER SUPPLY
g RFC1, RFC2 - 2.2 mH (Miller 73F223AF).
U!
RFC3 - 500 J.lH (Millen 34300-500).
:E RFC4 -1 mH (Miller 34107),
;:+'
:T
RFC5, RFC7, RFC8 - 1 mH (Miller 4527).
'tl
o RFC6 - 2.5 mH (Miller 4532).
iii'
~ Sl - Ceramic rotary switch, 6 pole, 3 section, 6
;:t'
< position (5 used), non-shorting contacts (Cen~
3 tralab PA-2023).
~ S2 - Ceramic rotary switch, 2 pole (1 not used), 6
a
7<'
C1 - Air variable (Hammarlund APC·50B). J3, J4 - Phono connector, panel mount. position (1 not used) section, non-shorting
OJ C2 - Air variable (Johnson 16Q.104). L1 - 37 turns, No. 20, 16 tpi, 3/4·inch dia, tapped contacts (Centralab PA-2003).
@ C3 - Air variable (Hammarlund MC250M). at 4 turns from the tube end for 28 MHz, 6 S3 - Ceramic rotary switch 1 pole, 6 position (1
*'
~
C4 - Three-section broadcast variable, 365 pF per turns for 21 MHz, 12 turns for 14 MHz, and
using the entire coil for 7 MHz (B&W 3011).
not used), non-shorting contacts (Centralab

-
section, all sections connected in parallel (Miller 2501).
Q. 2113). L2 - 28 turns, No. 20, 32 tpi, 3/4-inch dia (B&W S4 - Opdt slide switch.
-:; CR1·CR4, inc!. -1000·PRV, 1·Asilicon. 3012). T1 - Power transformer, 117·volt primary, secon-
n' CR5 - Transient suppressor (GE 6RS2OSP4B4).
J1 - Crystal socket.
L3 - 12 turns, No. 18,8 tpi, 1-inch dia, tapped at
3 turns from the tube end for 28 MHz, 6 turns
dary 540 volts ct at 260 rnA, and 6.3 volts at
8.8 A (Stancor P-8356).
~
J2 - SQ·239-style connector, panel mount. for 21 MHz, and using the entire coil for 14 Z1 - 7 turns of No. 16 wire on a 10().ohm, 1-W
MHz (B&W 3014). composition resistor.
 174 HF TRANSMITTING
Adjustment
After the transmitter has been wired, check it a
second time for possible wiring errors. Next, the
two voltage-regulator tubes should be plugged in
their sockets. With SI at off, plug the line cord
into a 117-volt outlet. When SI is moved to
STANDBY, the VR tubes should glow. The high
voltage at RFC4 should measure about 7S0 volts.
The oscillator voltage, checked at pin 7 of the
6GK6, should be close to 300 volts. If it is not,
move the tap on R2 accordingly. Make all
measurements with care as these voltages are
dangerous. Then turn S 1 to off and make certain
\" ~~{1-:, the voltage drops to zero at RFC4, and at the
6GK6 socket. Normally, it will take at least a
','~~ minute for the high voltage to drop to near zero (A
fact which should be remembered during subse-
quent tests.).

- Remove the line cord from the outlet - never

work on a transmitter unless the ac power is
disconnected. Install the tubes and connect the
plate cap to the 6146B. Insert an 80-meter crystal
Fig. 3 - Top view with the perforated metal cover in 11 and set both band switches to the 80-meter
removed. The small capacitor beside the 61468 position. Set the FUNCTION swit~h to the t~ne
provides the neutralizing adjustment. L3 and L4 position, and plug the power cord mto the mams.
are mounted one above the other. The smaller tube After the tubes warm up, swing Cl through its
inside the rf compartment is the 6GK6 oscillator. range. If the oscillator stage is working, grid
current will be read on M1. Cl should be used to
The lead to RFC4 is routed through an peak the grid current. The total current drawn
insulated bushing. A small bracket supports a piece should be kept below 3 rnA. Use the DRIVE
of Lucite which insulates C2, the neutralizing control, Rl, to set the drive level. Change S2 to the
capacitor, from ground. Another bracket supports 40-meter position and confirm that the second
CI and S2. Cl is above ground for rf and dc, so an harmonic of the crystal frequency can be tuned.
insulated coupling (Millen 39016) is to be used on With a 40-meter crystal in 11, it should be possible
its shaft. Tie strips are used to support the small to obtain grid current with S2 set for 7,14,21 and
capacitors, resistors, and rectifier diodes. 28 MHz. The maximum grid current obtainable on
The S-volt winding of T1 is not used. the higher-frequency bands will be somewhat less
Therefore, these leads should be cut and taped to than on 80 and 40 meters (about 2.S rnA on 21
avoid accidental contact with the chassis. The filter MHz, and I.S rnA on 28 MHz). The latter value is
capacitors and bleeder resistors are mounted on tie not enough for full drive on the lO-meter band.
strips. Care should be used in making all The dc input power to the 6146B should be
high-voltage connections to prevent accidental limited to 90 watts on 10 meters, and this
shorts from occurring. Also, don't omit the "spike operating condition will provide approximately SO
prevention" Thyrector diode, CRS, as this unit watts output. On the other bands 60 to 70 watts
protects the supply from transient voltage surges. output will be possible. If an absorption wavemeter
is available it is a good idea to check the setting of
C 1 for each band to insure that the tuned circuits
are operating on the proper harmonic frequency. It
may be possible to tune to an incorrect harmonic .
frequency, which can lead to out-of band opera-
tion. Once the proper setting of Cl has been
determined, mark the front panel so that this point
can be returned to quickly when tuning up.
Lacking a wavemeter, a receiver (with the antenna
disconnected) can be used to check output on the

"J
..:;,:.-
various bands .

Fig. 4 - Looking inside the bottom of the

~ -- .•
~. ,?" transmitter, L1 and L2 are located at the center,
~ - ........ 'W-
r- next to the grid-tuning capacitor. All of the output
-='"

-..:;:=-;z, '- I jacks are spaced along the rear wall of the chassis.
The bottom cover has been removed in this
photograph. It should be kept in place during
operation.
 A High-Output Transistor VFO 175
R.F·(J a)

lOOK 10K

.01 .01

'OI~~JI J2

Fig. 5 - Circuit of an rf-powered keying monitor JJ

that may be built into the transmitter as an J4
operating accessory. Point marked "rf" connects to
the antenna jack, J3 in Fig. 2. This circuit can be ;:J; .01
used with any transmitter simply by selecting an
input resistor, R1, that gives about -6 vOlts at the
point shown. Only the desired output jacks need to
be included. light bulb will do. If an output indicator or 8WR
J1 - Phono jack for audio output from the bridge is available, it should be connected between
receiver. the transmitter and the load. The lamp is a fair
J2, J3 - Tip jacks for headphones or receiver. output indicator on its own. Adjust the transmitter
J4 - Phone jack for headphone connection. as outlined above for 2 rnA of grid current on the
Q1, Q2 - 2N406 or equivalent (pnp). desired band. With a key plugged in at 12, set C4 at
full mesh, and switch 84 to read plate current.
Watching the meter, close the key and adjust C3
With 82 and 83 set for 15 meters, tune Cl for for a plate-current dip. The dip indicates
maximum grid current. Then, set the indicated resonance. If the plate current dips below 150 rnA,
value to about 2 rnA with the DRIVE control. 8et decrease the capacitance setting of C4, and again
C4 at half scale, and slowly tune C3 while watching tune C3 for a dip. This dip-and-load procedure
the grid-current meter. At the point which C3 should be repeated until a plate current of 170 rnA
tunes the tank through resonance, a dip in grid is reached at resonance. If the Novice 75-watt
current will be seen, unless by chance the amplifier input limit is to be observed, the plate current at
is already neutralized. A slow rate of tuning is resonance must be held to 100 rnA. This can be
required, as the indication will be quite sharp. accomplished by using additional capacitance at
When the dip has been found, adjust C2 until no C4.
dip can be noted, or, at least, the dip is less than If extended operation is planned at 75 watts or
0.1 rnA. All preliminary tests should be made as less input, it is advisable to reduce the screen
quickly as possible, as the transmitter is operating voltage on the 6146B to insure that the rated
without a load, and extended operation can screen dissipation rating of this tube is not
damage the final-amplifier tube. exceeded. This can be done by using an OA2 in
When neutralization has been completed, and place of one OB2, jumpering the other VR-tube
all circuits appear to be operating normally, socket, and readjusting R2 so that the single VR
connect a load to the transmitter. Preferably, this tube draws about 25 rnA. The OA2 will deliver 150
should be a 50-ohm dummy load, but a 100-watt volts, regulated.

A HIGH-OUTPUT TRANSISTOR VFO

If a solid-state VFO is to be used with The basic VFO design was originally described
tube-type transmitters, it must have sufficient in QST, June, 1970.
output to drive a crystal-oscillator stage as a
doubler or tripler. Most of the Novice-class
transmitters require 10-25 volts of rf to produce Circuit Data
sufficient drive to succeeding stages. The VFO In the circuit of Fig. 2 are two completely
shown in Fig. 1 serves as a "crystal replacement" separate tuned circuits - one for 3.5 to 4.0 MHz,
for the type of transmitter that uses a 6GK6, and one for 7 to 7.35 MHz. A split-stator
6AG7, 12BY7 or similar tube in the oscillator. To broadcast-type variable, C3, is employed so that
provide sufficient output level, a two-watt there is no need to switch a single tuning capacitor
amplifier is added to the basic transistor VFO. To from one tuned circuit to the other. Also, the
reduce harmonic output and eliminate tuning of arrangement shown places the tuning-capacitor
the amplifier stage, a fixed-value half-wave tank is sections in different rarts of the circuit for the two
used as the output circuit, followed by broadband bands. The 7-MHz tuned circuit uses C3A from the
rf step-up transformers. The VFO will develop 20 junction of the feedback capacitor (Cl and C2) to
volts or more across a 5000- to 50,000-ohm load. ground. This gives the desired amount of
 176 HF TRANSMITTING

Fig. 1 - The two·band VFO. This unit operates on

3.5 to 4 and 7 to 7.3 MHz. I ncluded is a 2·watt
amplifier and broad·band rf transformers so that
the VFO can drive tube-type transmitters directly.
The bottom view of the VFO shows only
band~pread for 40-meter operation, but, when the two switches and the output transformers _
hooking the 80-meter tuned circuit up the same other components are mounted on the etched
way, only 200 kHz could be covered with C3B. So, circuit boards "topside."
for 3.5 to 3.8-MHz operation, C3B is connected.
from the high-impedance point on L2 to ground. takeoff point of Ql and the base of emitter-fol-
It will be noted that a rather high value of C is lower, Q2. Resistor R1 sets the forward bias of Q2
used in parallel with each of the inductors, L1 and by picking some dc voltage off the emitter of Ql.
L2. This measure was taken to enhance the Sufficient rf passes through R5 to drive Q2.
fre9uency stability of the VFO. By using a high CL The collector of Q2 is bypassed for high and
ratIo, small changes in the junction capacitance of low frequencies to assure stability _ A lOO-ohm
Ql have a less pronounced effect on the tuned collector resistor, R6, decouples the stages at rf.
circuit than would be experienced when using The drive signal for Q3 is taken from the
smaller values of capacitance. Silver-mica capaci- emitter of Q2 through a small-value capacitor, C7.
tors are used in the interest of good stability. So The larger the capacitance, the greater will be the
t~at the oscillator will start readily, despite the available output voltage across a given load, but the
high C to L ratio, Q1 was chosen to have high beta smaller the capacitance value used, the better will
an~ fT. However, the high gain and frequency be the VFO isolation from the succeeding circuit.
ratings caused the stage to be unstable at vhf- One should use only the amount of capacitance
approximately 150 MHz. As C3 was tuned vhf that will provide adequate peak output voltage.
oscillations could be seen on the output waveform. A.n RCA. 2N21.02 is used in the output
The vhf energy was tunable, and it was found that amplifier. This transistor has a power rating of 5
the lead from Ql 's base-blocking capacitor, C6, to watts, so it can be safely operated at two-watts dc
the arm of SIA, was long enough to act as a vhf input without a large heat sink. This stage operates
inductance, which was being tuned by C3. The Class C, using no fixed forward bias. A Zener
addition of a 3-ferrite-bead choke, RFC1, mounted diode, CRl, is used to prevent destruction of the
right at the circuit-board terminal for C6, cured the transistor if the load is inadvertently removed. The
problem. Ideally, RFC1 would be mounted on the PA tank is fixed tuned. The output is essentially
base .lead of Ql, with the beads up against the flat over the 80- and 40-meter bands. The
transistor body. However, this is not always a co~s~ants have been chosen for a 50-ohm output,
practical method of mounting, so one should so It I~ necessary to transform this impedance up to
attempt to get the beads as close to the base the high Z found at the transmitter tube grid.
co~e~~on as po.ssible, thus minimizing the Se.parate tuned circuits, L10 and L12, are used for
possibility of a vhf mductance being set up in that th.IS purpose. The length of the connecting cable
p~ o~ the circuit_ To further discourage parasitic will affect the tuning of the output stage; with the
oscillations a collector resistor, R2, was included. values shown, a 36-inch length of RG-58/U should
It would be connected as close to the collector be used.
terminal of Ql as possible, for the same reasons
given when discussing RFCI. Construction Information
Output from Q1 is taken across R4. Direct The VFO is built on a 9 X 7 X 2-inch chassis
coupling is used between the low-impedance which is fitted with a 9 X 4 1/2 X 4 1/4-inch box
A High-Output Transistor VFO 177
EXT.
CONTROL
J2.

R5
365

5. M.=SILVER MICA

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL.. "ALUES OF

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I jJF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR pJlF 1",
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS,
11'1000, M;IOOO 000.

Fig. 2 - Schematic diagram of the VFO. Resistors

are 1/2-watt composition; capacitors, except those
marked as silver mica, are disk ceramic. Parts not JI
listed below are marked for text reference. Layout
diagrams are available for the VFO, amplifier and OUTPUT
power-supply boards. * ~
C3 - Dual-section air variable, 365 pF per section
(Miller 2112).
CR1 - Zener, 36 V, 1 W.
J1 - Phono connector, panel mount.
J2 - 4-terminal ceramic strip (Millen E-304).
L1 0.68-1 .25 ~H, slug tuned (Miller L12 - 23 ~H (Miller 4407).
42A106CBI). 01 - HEP-55.
02 - HEP-728.
L2 - 2.24.1 ~,slug tuned (Miller 42A336CBI).
L3 - 2 ~H, 25 turns of No. 24 enam. wire on 03 - 2N2102.
RFC1 - Three Amidon ferrite beads on a 1/2-inch
Amidon T-50-2 toroid core (Amidon Associ-
length of No. 22 wire. A 15-ohm resistor may
ates, 12033 Otsego Street, North Hollywood,
serve as a substitute.
CA 91607).
RFC2 - Miniature choke (Miller J300-360).
L4 - 12 turns No. 22 hook-Up wire over L3.
RFC3 - Miniature choke (Millen 34300).
L5, L6 - 13 turns of No. 20 enam. wire on
RFC4 - 2.5 ~H rf choke (Millen J300-25).
Amidon T-68-2 core.
S1' - Home-assembled switch made from a Centra-
L7, L8 - 18 turns of No. 20 enam. wire on
lab PA272 kit and 3 Centralab R RD sections.
Amidon T -68-2 core.
(See Fig. 6-5).
L9 - 7 turns of No. 26 enam. wire over L10.
S2 - Ceramic rotary switch, 2 pole, 3 position, one
L10 - Approx. 3 ~H, Miller 4405 with slug and 4
section, non-shorting contacts (Mallory 3223J).
turns removed.
L11 - 7 turns No 26 enam. wire over L12. * See QST for December, 1970.

to house the rf assemblies. The VFO circuit board used to separate the various wafers so that they are
is mounted on two brackets (Fig. 3). The amplifier as close as possible to the circuits that they switch.
etched-circuit board is mounted over a hole cut in A second switch, S2, turns the power supply on, as
the chassis. All components for the power supply well as activating the VFO alone for zero-beating
(except the transformer) are mounted on a third purposes. In operation, external connections are
circuit board, which is mounted on short stand-off required from the station transmitter to 12 so that
pillars above the chassis. The power transformer is the VFO will come on simultaneously with the
positioned on the right-rear side of the chassis. transmitter.
SI is a homemade assembly built from
Adjustment
Centralab switch sections and parts. The mounting
bushing supports the front end of the switch, and The power supply section should be tested
an aluminum L bracket supports the rear. The before it is connected to the VFO. After the unit
ceramic spacers supplied with the PA272 kit are has been checked against the schematic diagram to
178 HF TRANSMITTING
to 4 MHz until the VFO signal is found. Then,
check the 7-MHz range to see that the VFO is also
operating in the 40-meter range. Connect a patch
cable between the transmitter and the VFO. If a
cable length other than the 36 inches is used, it
may be necessary to add or subtract turns from
LI0 to achieve maximum drive to the transmitter.
The slug in L12 should be set for maximum
80-meter drive to the following transmitter
oscillator stage.
Once the entire VFO has been tested, the next
step is calibration of the dial. With the plates of C3
set at about 95 percent of full mesh, adjust Ll for
7.0 MHz and L2 for 3.5 MHz. A receiver with a
crystal calibrator, or a BC-221 frequency meter can
be used during the dial calibration. When using a
VFO close to the band edge, always use some form
of secondary frequency standard to insure in-band
operation, in accordance with FCC regulations.
Once the calibration has been set, the VFO should
again be connected to the transmitter, and a
monitor receiver set up. In normal circumstances it
is necessary to ground the antenna terminal of the
Fig. 3 - Top view, with the cover removed, of the receiver to prevent overload from the nearby
rf compartment. The VFO board is mounted on transmitter. Even so, the signal heard from the
two aluminum brackets. All leads from this circuit receiver will be quite strong, so turn the rf gain
board should be made with heavy wire to minimize control back until a moderately-strong signal is
mechanical instability from vibration. The ampli- obtained. Then, key the transmitter and monitor
fier board is flush-mounted on the chassis. The the output signal with the receiver. The signal
dual-section broadcast variable is driven by a Miller should be clean (free from hum, chirp and clicks).
MD-4 dial. L1 and L2 are adjusted through holes The VFO-transmitter combination should be
cut in the left side of the shielded compartment. checked on 80 through 10 meters in this manner.
It is also useful to zero beat the VFO against
spot and correct any wiring errors, attach a the crystal calibrator in the receiver. The VFO
voltmeter (yOM or V1VM) to the power-supply should be left on for 15 minutes or more, and the
output. Plug PI into a 117-volt outlet, and switch drift, as evidenced by a change in the beat note,
S2 to SPOT. The voltmeter should read approxi- should be less than 50 Hz on either fundamental
mately 13.5 volts. Then connect a 47-ohm, 2-watt range. Drift will be most noticeable on the
resistor across the power supply output - the 10-meter band, as any .drift at 7-MHz will be
meter should continue to read the same voltage, multiplied by a factor of four in the transmitter. If
even with the heavy load. If the power supply excessive drift is found, it can usually be traced to
checks out correctly, remove the 47-ohm resistor a defective component. The process of finding such
and connect the supply to the VFO. With SI set a troublesome part is time consuming; more often
for 80-meter operation, tune a receiver across 3.5 than not, a defective capacitor will be the cause.

'),--...-.-0+ 13.5V

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (jJF ) ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR JlJ,lF):
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k-j OOQ, M~tOOO 000.

Fig. 4 - Power supply for the solid-state VFO. Pl - Fused plug (use l-A, 3AG fuses).
Capacitors with polarity marked are electrolytic, Ql - 40-watt npn power transistor (I nternational
others are disk ceramic. Resistors are 1/2-watt Rectifier TR-23CI.
compOSition. Q2 - Motorola HEP-24.
CR1, CR2 -l00-PRV, l-Asilicon. S2 - See Fig. 2.
CR3 - Zener, 15 V, 1 W. Tl - Filament transformer, 24 V ct at 1 A.
A 6-Band CW Transmitter 179
A 6-BAND TRANSMITTER FOR THE CW OPERATOR (T-ger)

Operating a transmitter and amplifier designed

with cw as an afterthought can make cw very dull.
Presented here is the T-ger, a hybrid circuit built
with cw as the prime mode of service. Included are
such features as full break-in, shaped keying, linear
VFO calibration, T-R switch, built-in power
supply, and a solid-state heterodyne conversion
scheme. The PA stage uses a pair of 6146Bs and is
capable of producing up to 240-watts input on 160
through 10 meters.

The Circuit
The VFO and buffer, Q1 and Q2 in Fig. 2, are
an adaptation of a unit previously described in
QST). Q3, a second buffer, provides additional gain
to assure adequate current to drive the base of the
mixer, Q5. The VFO range is 5.0 to 5.2 MHz. Fig. 1 - Front view of the cw transmitter. All met-
The heterodyne-frequency oscillator, Q4, oper- al work is done with sheet and cane-metal sections.
ates at one of six crystal-controlled frequencies
selected by the band switch. All of the crystals ignition of DS2 during high screen-voltage
chosen oscillate at a frequency above the operating conditions only_
band. For this reason, the VFO dial tunes in the A T-R switch, V4, permits using the same
same direction on each band. CR13 is included to antenna for transmitting and receiving. The theory
limit the oscillator voltage appearing at the mixer and operation of this unit was described in an
to 0.6. . earlier QST.2 An antenna relay is not required.
Voltage from the VFO and HFO are coupled to The operating conditions of the final-amplifier
the mixer, Q5, via C9 and C5, respectively. A stage may be checked with the panel meter, MI. A
tuned collector circuit operates at the difference 6-position switch allows monitoring of grid
frequency and provides a low-level signal to the current, relative output, screen, plate and bias
driver stage, VI. The VFO actually tunes voltages, and cathode current.
backwards with respect to the mixer output signal.
The bottom edge of each amateur band corres- The Power Supply
ponds to a VFO setting of 5.2 MHz. A silicon-diode full-wave bridge rectifier is used
A conventional grid-block system provides in the secondary of T1 to produce slightly over
clickiess, chirpless operation because neither 1000 V de during no-load conditions. Although
oscillator is keyed. Q6 activates the mixer only this is somewhat high for 6146Bs, it has not
when the key is depressed. The waveform shortened tube life. A choke-input filter is
transmitted is determined by R2 and Cll in the connected in the transformer center-tap lead to
grid circuit of VI. Since the 6GK6 keys at a obtain 300 volts for powering the driver tube and
slightly slower rate than the mixer, any clicks the T-R switch. Sixteen volts of de for operating
generated in the earlier stages are not heard. the solid-state circuitry are obtained by rectifying
Voltage from the mixer is sufficient to power and filtering the combined output of the two
the driver to nearly full output on all bands. The filament windings, which are connected in series. If
plate circuit uses separate slug-tuned inductors for the windings buck each other, producing no
160 through 20 meters. The 15- and lO-meter voltage, one set of leads should be reversed.
bands are covered with one coil. Neutralization of Final-amplifier screen and bias voltages are
the 6GK6 is not required. developed by T2. This part of the supply uses one
half-wave rectifier for each voltage.
Output Circuit
A pi-network output circuit is employed with a Construction
pair of parallei-connected 6146Bs. Six lO-ohm The transmitter is completely self-contained. It
resistors are connected between the cathodes and is built on a lOX 17 X 3-inch chassis with an
ground. Voltage developed across these resistors is 8 1/2-inch-high front panel. Shielding is used
used to indicate cathode current on the meter. between each stage and between each band-switch
The amount of screen voltage is determined by wafer as shown in the photograph. The final-
the position of S3. When this switch is closed, the amplifier section on top of the chassis is
screen voltage is 150. Releasing S3 places R13 in completely enclosed in a perforated aluminum
series with the screen bus, lowering the voltage to shield. Small pieces of circuit board are soldered
50. This lower voltage limits the transmitter input
to approximately 60 watts. A neon lamp, DS2, has 1 DeMaw, "Building a Simple Two-Band VFO,"
been included to indicate the position of S3. R15 QST, June, 1970. rf
~ Myers, "Stepping Up T-R Switch Pe onn-
and R16 form a voltage divider which allows ance," QST, December, 1967.
180 HF TRANSMITTING
VFO

L2

10k
1W ~
<--.4--:t:,-' 1W

X:KEY UP
G 56B g,P_________

:h ~~
.,..KEY DOWN
S.M.-SILVER MICA S
N C • NO CONNECTION
tOOk W
tOOk

Fig. 2 - Circuit diagram for the T-ger. Component designations not listed below are for text reference.

Cl - 200-pF air variable (Hamrnarlund HFA- L3, L16 - 1.0- to 4.1-pH slug-tuned inductor (J.
200A). W. Miller 42A 156CBI). Both coils are rewound
C2 - 100-pF air variable (Hammarlund MAPC- with the wire supplied: 3 turns spaced over a
100B). 3/4-inch length.
C3 300-pF air variable (Hammarlund L4, L9, L1 0, L11, L15 - 1.O-pH slug-tuned
RMC-325-5). inductor (J. W. Miller 21 A l06RBI).
C4 - 1200-pF air variable (J. W. Miller 21131. L5 - 2.2- to 4.1-pH slug-tuned inductor (J. W.
CR1-CR12, incl. - 1000-PRV,2.5-A (Mallory Miller 42A336BCI).
M2.5A or equiv.l. L6 - 1.6- to 2.7-pH slug-tuned inductor (J. W.
CR13 - Silicon small-signal switching diode Miller 21 A226RBII.
(1 N914 or equiv.). L7, L8, L13, L14, L18, L19 - 6.8- to 8.5-pH
051, DS2 - Neon indicator lamp, 117-V (Leecraft slug-tuned inductor (J. W. Miller 21 A686RBII.
32-211 I. L12, L17 - 1.5- to 1.B-pH slug-tuned inductor
Jl, J2 - Phono jack, single hole mount. (Miller 21 A 156 R BI).
J3 - Coax chassis connector, type SO-239. L20 - 91/2 turns, 8 tpi, 1 1/2-inch dia tapped
J4 - Open-circuit key jack. from tube end at 2 1/2 turns for 10 meters and
L 1 - 2.3-H filter choke (Stancor C-2304 or at 43/4 turns for 15 meters (B&W 30181.
equiv.). L21 - 38 turns, 10 tpi, 2-inch dia tapped from J3
L2 - 2.2- or 4.1-pH slug-tuned inductor (J. W. end at 18 turns for 80 meters, 28 turns for 40
Miller 42A336CBII. meters (B&W 3027).
 A 6-Band CW Transmitter 181

CR13
1N9l'

30'
10W

S4 l0CK

------~________________~F~~ ;:0
KEY
J.

Ml -l-mAdc.
Rl - 100,000-ohm, linear-taper, 2-watt carbon 56 - 2-pole, 6-position, single~ection rotary (Cen-
control (Allen Bradley l. tralab PA-2003):
R2, R4, R5 - 10.000-ohm, linear-taper, 2-watt Tl - 117-volt primary; secondary 760 volts at
carbon control (Allen Bradley). 220-mA, center tapped; 5-V at 3-A; 6.3-V at
R3 - 20,000-ohm, linear-taper, 4-watt, wire- 5-A (Stancor P-8170 or equiv.).
wound control (Mallory M20MPK). T2 - 117-volt primary; secondary 125 volts at 50
RFCl - Three Amidon ferrite beads threaded on a mA; 6.3-V at 2·A (Stancor PA-8421 or equiv.).
1/2-inch length of No. 22 wire. A 15-ohm T3 - Primary: 8.2- to 8.9-MH slug-tuned inductor
1/2-watt resistor may serve as a substitute. (J. W. Miller 46A826CPCl. Secondary: 2 turns
(Amidon Assoc., 12033 Otsego St., N. Holly- No. 22 enameled wire wound on the cold end of
wood, CA 91607). the primary.
RFC2 - l00-MH rf choke (Millen 34300-100). T4 - 20 turns No. 24 enameled wire wound on a l-
RFC3 - 500-MH rf choke (Millen J300-500l. inch long, 1/2-inch dia iron core from a slug-
RFC4 - l000-MH rf choke (Millen 34300-1000l. tuned coil form. The secondary is 3 turns No.
RFC5 - 750-J-!H rf choke (Millen 34300-752l. 24 enameled wire wound over the cold end of
RFC6 - l-mH rf choke (E. F. Johnson 102-752l. the pri mary.
RFC7 - 2.5-H rf choke (Millen 34300-2500l. Ul - Transient voltage suppressor, 120-volt (Gen-
RFC8, RFC9 - 50-MH rf choke (Millen 34300-50l. eral Electric 6RS2OSP4B4).
Sl-S4, incl. - Spst push button (Calectro E2-144l. Zl - 3 turns No. 22 wire space-wound on a
S5 - Ceramic rotary switch, 5 poles, 6 positions, 5 100-ohm, l-watt composition resistor.
sections (Centralab PA-272 index with 5 type Z2, Z3 - 5 turns No. 18 wire space-wound on a
XD wafersl. 100-ohm, 2- watt composition resistor.
182 HF TRANSMITTING

HIGH
VOLTAGE
(BEH I NO VFO) V
R2 CAPACITOR
BRACKET

L6

Fig. 3 - Top view of the cw transmitter.

together to form a compartment for the slug-tuned behind the tuning dial. In order to enhance
coils. The etched circuit board for the buffer, Q3, mechanical stability, the cover is made of
and the mixer, Q5, is mounted vertically between 3/16-inch-thick aluminum. A small hole is drilled
the slug-tuned coil compartment and the driver in the side of the cover to allow for adjustment of
tube, VI. An aluminum box measuring L1.
2 1/2 X 2 1/4 X 1 3/4 inches is used as a meter All of the wiring between stages is done with
enclosure. shielded cable. Additionally, all leads to the
Most of the power-supply components are meter-switch compartment are shielded.
mounted on the rear quarter of the chassis. The A capacitor constructed from a short piece of
bracket located next to the power transformer RG-59A/U is used for C5 (Fig. 2). The shield and
supports the three fIlter capacitors for the inner conductor overlap approximately 1 inch. If a
high-voltage supply. Accidental contact with the ceramic capacitor is used at this point it should
100a-volt line is prevented by the top lip. have a capacitance of roughly 3 pF, and a voltage
The T-R switch, V4, is mounted inside a rating of 3 kV.
Minibox attached to the rear of the amplifier shield
compartment. The signal-input connection to V4 is Adjustments
made through the shield. Five holes in the top of Before power is applied to the T-ger, resistance
the Minibox cover provide ventilation for the measurements should be made at several points to
6AH6. assure there are no wiring errors which could cause
The VFO is built on an etched circuit board damage to the power supply.
and is completely enclosed in the shield cover A general-coverage receiver is used to check the
ONE INCH operation of the heterodyne oscillator on each
CENTER OVERLAP No.18 crystal frequency. Then, the receiver antenna is
CONDUC.TOR / ' " HOOKUP WIRI:
coupled to pin 2 of VI through a lOa-pF
.-------...,
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ...J
capacitor. By setting the bandswitch at 160 meters
and adjusting the VFO signal to 5.2 MHz, a signal
SHIE.LD should appear at 1.8 MHz when the spotting switch
RG-59AjU
is depressed. Adjust L3 for maximum S-meter
Fig. 4 - A high-voltage capacitor is constructed reading. Tune L4 (80 meters) through L8 (10
from a 3-inch piece of RG-59A/U. A 1-inch overlap meters) in a similar manner. All of the tubes should
between the braid and center conductor provides be removed for these tests.
the correct amount of coupling for the T-R switch. The biggest pitfall in aligning the mixer is
A 6-Band CW Transmitter 183

S5E

Fig. 5 - Chassis bottom view. The opening next to S5E is needed to make connections to L20 and L21.

Perfonnance
tuning the output circuit to something other than Power output from the T-ger is roughly 150
the desired frequency. For instance, on 20 meters, watts on 160 through 20 meters. On 15 meters the
the mixer can be tuned to the third harmonic of output drops to 125 watts, and on 10 meters it is
the VFO, producing output at 15.6 MHz! There slightly over 100 watts. The reduced output on the
are a few similar combinations which might be higher bands is caused by marginal drive to the
encountered. 6GK6. It is not considered important enough to
After determining that the solid-state circuitry add another buffer stage with its associated
is functioning correctly on each band, the tubes are bandswitch wafer coils.
installed and the driver coils are adjusted. To set The screen voltage (SV) switch is included to
the [mal-amplifier bias, set the drive control at provide a low-power tune-up function. It is best
minimum (ccw), depress the key, and adjust R4 for not to operate (on the air) in the low-voltage
a PA cathode current of 5 rnA. position. If low power operation is desired, the
The entir(;l alignment must be "touched up" drive can be reduced during nonnal screen-voltage
under full-power output conditions. The hetero- conditions.
dyne oscillator coils should be detuned to a point Every effort has been made to produce a
TVI-free transmitter. The addition of a low-pass
where the power output drops approximately 2
filter should make harmonic radiation almost
percent. This procedure assures proper oscillator
injection at the mixer. When the rf alignment is immeasurable.
completed, a receiver should be connected to 12. If
Keying Wave-Fonn Adjustment
any backwave is heard under key-up conditions,
adjustment of Rl should eliminate it. A wide range of keying characteristics is
In a transmitter of this type, leads to the available. R2 should be adjusted while observing
bandswitch lugs contribute stray inductance and the transmitted signal on an oscilloscope. Typical
capacitance. For this reason, the builder is advised patterns are shown in the Code Transmission
to "tack" the mica capacitors across the inductors chapter. If an oscilloscope is not available, keying
until it is determined that the various circuits will adjustment could be made on the air with the help
resonate at the proper frequencies. Only then of a local amateur. These tests should be made on a
should the capacitor leads be soldered pennanently dead band, however, thus preventing needless
in place. QRM.
18.t!. HF TRANSMITTING
A SWEEP-TUBE LINEAR AMPLIFIER

CO-l cabinet. Any homemade or commercially

built cabinet of suitable size (more than
14 X 12 X 6-inch) may be employed.
Inductors RFCl, RFC2 and RFC3 are hand-
wound. RFC3, the plate rf choke, is wound for

- operation at low impedance over the range from

3.5 to 30 MHz. It was designed with the aid of an
RX meter and "looks" like 100,000 ohms on all
bands but 10 meters. On ten meters it looks like
25,000 ohms. RFC1 and RFC2 consist of 65 turns
of enameled wire on lengths of l/2-inch diameter
ferrite rod. Homemade brass anchors, lIS-inch
wide, are snapped onto each end of each rod and
are used as tie points for the ends of the windings.
RFCI and RFC2 are attached to chassis standoff
posts by means of plastic cable clamps. 11 is
mounted by means of bus-wire pigtails. RFC3
Fig. 1 - Front view of the SOo-watt amplifier. An is wound on a piece of' 3/4-inch diameter
LMB COol cabinet, Simpson 02640 meter, and polystyrene rod. A steatite rod can also be used.
Kurz-Kasch S-649-70L knobs are used, giving a (An H. H. Smith 2630 standoff would be suitable,
modern appearance. Coils are changed through the and it has a threaded hole at each end for attaching
door in the top of the cabinet. tenninals.)
This simple SOO-watt PEP sweep-tube amplifier L2 and L3 are made up as plug-in assemblies so
is designed for use on the 160-, SO-, 40-, and that the amplifier can be used as a single-band unit.
20-meter bands. It is a self-contained unit, Band-switching arrangements would not be practi-
complete with power supply and antenna relay. cal with the type of tank circuit used. A
Note that in some areas of the country this pi-network tank could be used, and switched, but
amplifier cannot be used at full input power on the because of the very low impedance of the plate
160-meter band. The amplifier is designed to be a circuit, the amount of capacitance required for the
low-cost companion to any of the single- and input and output capacitors of the pi-section tank
triband hf transceivers. (A 160-meter transverter is would be impractical if a satisfactory Q were to
described in Chapter 13.) Because only low-duty- result on 160, SO and 40 meters. The plug-in coils
cycle transmission is suitable for sweep tubes are mounted on James Millen 41305 jack-bar plugs.
operated at high power levels, this amplifier cannot C2 is a 160-pF transmitting-type variable tak;.en
be used for a-m, fm or RTTY service. from a surplus TV tuning unit. Any variable
capacitor with similar capacitance and plate
Circuit Data spacing (approximately lIS inch) can be substitut-
ed.
Four 6KD6 color-TV sweep tubes are used in A high-speed cooling fan is used to keep the
parallel in the circuit of Fig. 2. This grounded-grid tube envelopes at a safe temperature. The
amplifier operates in the Class-AB region. forced-air cooling also helps to prevent damage to
The extremely low plate-load impedance of this the plates of the tubes from excessive heating. The
amplifier - approximately 500 ohms - requires fan blades should be mounted close to the tubes
that special measures be taken to match the plate and should be capable of providing 100 ft 3 /m or
circuit to the load. A tapped-coil arrangement at better.
Ll aids in obtaining a suitable match. Individual
lO-ohm resistors are used in each cathode lead to Power Supply
aid in balancing the tubes for equal resting plate
currents. Bias is developed across Zener diode The primary side of T1 has a neon indicator
VRI. across the line, DS2, to serve as an on-off panel
Kl provides a "switch-through" feature which indicator. K2 and the 25-ohm resistor are used
pennits the antenna to be used during receive. when the supply is first turned on (S2 open) to
Also, by not activating K1 the transceiver can be provide protection to CR1 through CRS, inclusive,
used (bypassing the amplifier) while the amplifier while the filter capacitor bank charges. The relay
is kept ready for use. If the operator does not plan will remain open for a few seconds, gradually
to use this amplifier with a transceiver, the relay closing and shorting as the capacitors become
contacts can be rewired for antenna changeover - charged. VI, a G.E. Thyrector assembly, is bridged
the usual arrangement for separate transmitter and across the primary of Tl to knock down any
receiver setups. transients above the nonnal primary level, thus
offering protection to the diode string in the
Construction secondary circuit.
The general layout can be seen in the Eight diodes are used in a full-wave rectifier
photographs. The equipment is built in an LMB circuit at the secondary of Tl. Each diode has a
 Sweep-Tube Amplifier 185

ZI

1.8-14 MHz
KIC 1:8-14 MHz KIB

Y
OI

JI~
s.M.

INPUT
rC2 OUTPUT

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF 10

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS {JIF I ; IW
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR )lJlF):
+900V
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
.01
k21000, M=IOOO 000. J;.i:6K\i
S.MoSILVER MICA

560K

~
S2 HV
OSI
.01 ON

10K

6K06 6KD6 6KD6 6KD6

T2

Fig. 2 - Schematic diagram of the linear amplifier. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless
otherwise indicated. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition uless otherwise marked.
B1 - High-speed fan (Barber-Coleman OYAF 20 meters - 2 turns No. 12 wire, 2 inches dia.
761-110 with AYFA-403 blades suitable). Mount over ground end of L2.
C1 - 67-pF, 2000-V mica or ceramic transmitting M1 - 0 to 1-ampere dc meter (Simpson 1227
type. used).
C2 - Transmitting variable, 1/8-inch plate spacing RFC1 - 65 turns No. 20 enam. wire, close-wound
(see text). on a 4-inch length of 1/2-inch dia ferrite rod,
C3 - 3-section broadcast variable, 365-pF per approx. 200 J1H.
section; all sections connected in parallel (J. W. RFC2, RFC5 - 55 turns on Amidon T-130-2
Miller 2113 or equiv.l. toroid core. Core wrapped with 3M No. 27 glass
CR1-CR9, incl. - Silicon diode, 1000 PRV, 1 A. tape. Both windings on one core, using No. 16
OS1, OS2 - Part of S1 and S2, respectively. enam. wire.
J1, J2 - SO-239-type chassis connector. RFC3 - See text and Fig. 4.
J3 - 2-circuit terminal strip. RFC4 - 2.5 mH rf choke.
K1 - 24-volt dc relay with 1 O-A contacts. S1, S2 - Rocker switch with built-in neon indica-
K2 - 117-volt ac relay with 20-A contacts tor.
(double-pole unit with parallel-connected con- T1 - 1540 V ct at 375 mA (Stan cor P-8042
tacts suitable). suitable. Available from Arrow Electronics,
L1 - 160 meters - 40 turns, No. 14, 21/2- Inc.,900 Route 110, Farmingdale, NY, 11735).
inch dia, tap at 12 turns (B&W 3029). T2 25.2-V filament transformer (Stancor
80 meters·- 18 turns No. 12 wire, 21/2- P-8388l.
inch dia, 3 inches long, made from Polycoils U1 Thyrector transient suppressor (G.E.
1774 stock. Tap 6 turns down from C1 end. 20SP4B4l.
40 meters - 12 turns No. 12 wire, 2 1/2 inch VR1 - 6.9-V, 50 watt Zener diode.
dia, 3 inches long, made from P61ycoil stock. Z1-Z4, incl. - Parasitic choke. 8 turns No. 24
Tap 3 down from C1 end. 20 meters - 8 turns enam. wound on body of 56-ohm 1-watt
No. 10 wire, 1 1/4-inch 10,3 inches long. Tap carbon resistor. Use resistor pigtails as solder
3 turns from C1 end. terminals for ends of windings. Mount near
L2 - 160 meters - 11 turns No. 12, 3-inch dia, plate caps.
over the ground end of L1 (Polycoil 1779).80
meters - 5 turns No. 14 wire, 3-inch dia, 1 The pilot lamps and the three rocker switches
approx. 3/4 inch long. Mount over outside of used here are available from Carling Electric, Inc.,
505 New Park Avenue, West Hartford, CT 06110.
L2 at ground end. 40 meters - 3 turns No. 14 Order direct if not locally available. Catalog
wire, 3-inch dia. Mount over ground end of L2. available.
186 HF TRANSMlTTING

Tube end

16 Turns
--'
~Turns
30 TlJrns
4"

RFC3
Fig. 3 - The power supply is constructed along the Details for winding the plate choke,
Fig. 4
left-hand side. A flat sheet of aluminum is used as a
RFC3.
base. The four sweep tubes are mounted on a small
4 X 4 X 1 1/4-inch U-shaped bracket at the upper
right. The meter is mounted behind the panel using dip in plate current occurs. Increase drive until 300
a Simpson 01253 bezel mounting kit. rnA of plate current is indicated on Ml. Quickly
dip the plate current and remove drive. Warning:
resistor and a capacitor across it to offer protection Do not allow continuous plate current in excess of
in the event the voltage division across the diodes is 100 mA to flow for more than 30 seconds at one
unequal. 82 is the HV ON switch and has a time. Allow 30 seconds for cooling between tests.
transient suppressor across it to prevent damage to Next, apply drive until approximately 800 rnA of
the switch when it is cycled. plate current is obtained at dip. C3 should be
Three computer-grade capacitors are series- adjusted for proper loading, making the dip in
connected, at the output of the rectifier to provide plate current somewhat broad and shallow. The
110-pF at 1350 volts. Each capacitor has a amplifier is now ready for use and will have a dc
47,000-ohm resistor across it to assure equal input of 800 watts at this setting. Tests made with
voltage drop. DS2 is the high-voltage ON indicator. a spectrum analyzer showed that the IMD
Output from T2 is for the filament supply. (intermodulation distortion) was very good at this
power level. The third-order products were down
Operation
some 27 decibels, and the fifth-order products
Approximately 50 watts of peak driving power were down in excess of 50 dB. The second
are required to operate this amplifier at its rated harmonic product was measured at 35 dB down. If
800 watts (PEP) input. If the transceiver being the operator does not mind the risk of shortened
used as a driver has more IDwer output than 50 tube life, the power level can be 1000watts PEP
watts, merely turn the transceiver's audio-gain input. The efficiency of the amplifier is approxi-
control down until the power output is correct. mately 65 percent.
With a 50-ohm dummy load attached to 12, and Other types of tubes can be substituted in this
with operating voltages applied, apply a small circuit, but few will permit the power level
amount of drive until an increase in plate current is discussed in this amplifier. A good substitute might
evident (approximately 100 rnA). Adjust C2 until a be the 6LQ6.

A CONDUCTION-COOLED TWO-KILOWATT AMPLIFIER

One of the major concerns when dealing with blower, but this solution is generally noisy. By
high power amplifiers is heat and how to reduce it. using the principles of heat transfer, a noiseless
The usual method has been to use a large fan or amplifier can be made with the use of an adequate
heat sink and conduction-cooled tubes.
The amplifier shown in the photographs and
schematically in Fig. 1 uses a pair of recently
designed 8873 conduction-cooled triode tubes. The
circuit configuration is grounded grid and uses no
tuned-input tank components. When properly ad-
justed, the amplifier is capable of IMD character-
istics which are better than can be achieved by a
A 2-kW Amplifier
Top view of the aO-through la-meter conduction-
cooled amplifier. The chassis is 17 X 12 X 3 inches
(4~.2 X 30.5 X 7.6 cm) and is totally enclosed in a
shield. A separate partition was fabricated to
,. ;: '1f\
, '~,""~"'I\~
prevent rf leakage through the meter holes in the ~i" >~~
fron~ pa~el.. An old National Radio Company
vernier dial I~ used in conjunction with the plate
tUning. capacitor to provide ease of adjustment
(especially on 10 meters). The position of the dial
for each band is marked on the dial skirt with a
black pen and india ink.

typical exciter, therefore the added complexity of

band switching a tun\!d-input circuit was deemed
unnecessary.

Construction
The power supply is built on a separate chassis
Building an amplifier such as this is often an because the plate transformer is bulky and cum-
exercise in adapting readily available components bersome. A special transformer was designed for
to a published circuit. For this reason a blow- this amplifier by Hammond Transformer Co. Ltd.,
by-blow description of this phase of the project of Guelph, Onto Canada. The transformer contains
will not be given. An effort was made however to two windings, one is for the plate supply to be
use parts which are available generall;, and sho'uld used m a voltage-doubler circuit and the other is
the builder desire, this model could be copied for the tube filaments. The power supply produces
verbatim. 2200 volts under a load of 500mA, and is rated for
The most difficult constructional problem is 2000 watts. The Hammond part number is given in
that of aligning the tube sockets correctly. It is FIg. 1. All of the interconnections for power-
imperative that the sockets be aligned so that when supply control and the operating voltages needed
the tubes are mounted in place, the flat surfaces of
by the amplifier are carried by a seven-conductor
the anodes fit smoothly and snugly against the
cable. This excludes the B plus, however, which is
thermal-link heat-transfer material. Any mis-
connected between the units by means of a piece
alignment here could destroy the tubes (or tube)
of test-probe wire (5-kV rating) with Millen high-
the fIrst time full power is applied. The mounting
voltage connectors mounted at both ends. The
holes for the tube sockets are enlarged to allow
seven-conductor cable is made from several pieces
fmal positioning after the tubes are "socked" in
of two-conductor household wire (No. 10) avail-
place with the clamping hardware. Pressure must
able at most hardware stores. Since the main power
be applied to the anodes so that they are always
switch is mounted on the front panel of the
snug against the thermal link. The hardware used
amplifIer, the power supply may be placed in some
to pe~form this function must be nonconducting
remote position, out of the way from the operator
materIal capable of withstanding as much as
(not a bad idea!). A high-voltage meter was
250 o C. The pressure bracket used here was fabri-
included with the power supply so tharit could be
cated from several Millen jack-bar strips (metal
used with other amplifiers. It serves no purpose
clips removed) mounted in back-te-back fashion. with this system, The main amplifier deck has
The entire assembly is held in place by means of a provisions for monitoring the plate voltage.
long piece of No. 10 threaded brass rod which
passes through a small hole in the cen ter of the
heat sink. An attempt to give meaningful com-
ments about how tight the tubes should be
pressured to the copper and aluminum sink will
not be given. Suffice it to say that the tubes should
fIt flat and snugly against the thermal hardware.
The heat sink was purchased from Thermaloy and
is connected to a 1/4-inch thick piece of ordinary
copper plate. The total cost for the copper and the
aluminum sink is somewhat more than the price of
a good centrifugal blower ($30) but the savings
offered by not having to purchase special tube
sockets and glass chimneys overcomes the cost
differential.

Top view of the power supply built by WA1JZC

showing the technique for mounting the filter-
capacitor bank. The diodes are mounted on a
printed-circuit board which is fastened to the rear
of the cabinet with cone insulators and suitable
hardware.
 188 HF TRANSMITTING
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I J.lF ) ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR ppF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k·IOOO. M·IOOO 000.

~----r<ALC
.,.....01 lOUT
'" rJ:<J5

Fig. 1 - Circuit diagram for the 8873 conduction-cooled amplifier. Component designations not listed
below are for text reference. RFCl and RFC2 are wound on the same ferrite rod in the same direction;
three wires are wound together (Amidon MU·125 kit). Tube sockets for Vl and V2 are E.F. Johnson
124-0311-100. The thermal links are available from Eimac with the tubes. The heat sink is part number
2559-080-AOOO from Astrodyne Inc., 353 Middlesex Ave., Wilmington, MA 01887, and costs
approximately $20.

Cl - Transmitting air variable, 347 pF (E.F. L3 (Barker and Williamson 3025).

Johnson 154-0010-001). Ml - 200 mA full scale, 0.5-ohm internal resis-
C2 - Transmitting air variable, 1000 pF (E.F. tance (Simpson Electric Designer Series Model
Johnson 154-30). 523).
CR2-CR7, incl. - 1000 PRV, 2.5 A (Motorola M2 - 1 mA full scale, 43 ohms internal resistance
HEP170). (Simpson Electric, same series as Ml).
Jl - SO-239 chassis mounted coaxial connector. Rl - Meter shunt, .05555 ohms constructed from
J3, J4, J5 - Phono jack, panel mount. 3.375 feet of No. 22 enam. wire wound over
J6 - High-voltage connection (Millen 37001). the body of any 2-watt resistor higher than 100
Kl - Enclosed. three-pole relay, 110-volt dc coil ohms in value.
(Potter and Brumfield KUP14D15). R2 - Meter shunt, 0.2 ohms made from five
L 1 - 4-3/4 turns of 1/4-inch copper tubing, l-ohm, l-watt resistors connected in parallel.
1-3/4-inch inside diameter, 2-1/4 inches long. RFC1, RFC5, RFC6 2.5 mH (Millen
L2 - 12-1/2 turns, 1/4-inch copper tubing, 2-3/4- 34300-2500)'
inch inside diameter. tap at one turn from RFC3 - Rf choke (Barker and Williamson Model
connection point with L 1, 2-1/2 inches for 20 800 with 10 turns removed from the bottom
meters, 7-3/4 turns for 40 meters. end).
L3 - 11 -1/2 tu rns, 2-i nch diameter, 6 tpi (Barker RFC4 - 22 /lH (Millen 34300).
and Williamson 3025). Sl - High-voltage band-selector style. double pole,
L4 - 10 turns, 2-inch diameter, 6 tpi, with taps at six position (James Millen 51001 style).
3 turns for 10 meters, 3-1/2 turns for 15 Zl, Z2 - 2 turns 3/8-inch-wide copper strap
meters, 4-3/4 turns for 20 meters, 6-3/4 turns wound over three 100-ohm, 2-watt resistors
for 40 meters; all taps made from junction of connected in parallel.
 »
470K 470K 470K 470K N
~
1j~1 ,I ~ ,I ~ ,I ~ ,I I. 2500VOC06 +
»
*"
:E
3
"Eo.
~
Jl n;.
10A* 1000
1W
....
10A* EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
WHITE IN MICROFARADS (j/F) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR jlj/F);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k ,,000,101',000000

I B-

~
47 47

3I~~j:
2W 2W

6.3\1

GREEN
5
6 GNO
ALTERNATE 4 ALe (lOOV)VOLTAGE 140V
CONNECTIONS PI
FOR Jl
L---,1
7 }6.3V
AC
*' -TOCHANGE
~H -
TO 20 AHPS FOR mv AC
I-MEG. I-WATT RESISTORS IN SERIES
L - - - - - - - - - - - - - t 2 POWER SWITCH
ON AMP.
L - - - - - - - - - - - - ; 3 FRONT PANEL

Fig. 2 - Circuit diagram for the power supply. rated for 6.3 volts at 1.2 amperes. DS1 is a lamp does not glow properly, remove the ac cord,
The power transformer is available from Ham- 117-volt neon pilot lamp assembly. The tap at R1 allow suitable time for the high-voltage to bleed to
mond; type no. 101165. CRI through CR9 are should be set for 5000 ohms to the B minus lead. zero, and apply a screwdriver between the B-plus
2.5 A. 1000 PRV; see Fig. 1 for suitable part
number. T2 is Stancor part number P-8.190 and is
Adjustments to this tap cannot be made while
voltage is applied to the power supply. If the pilot
line and ground before making any adjustments!
-
CO
-0
190 HF TRANSMITTING
A conventional household light switch may be running, and there are no brightly illuminated
used for S4. If the switch is to be mounted tubes to warn the operator that the amplifier is
horizontally, be sure to use a contactor device and turned on. Except for the pilot lamp on the front
not a mercury type (which operates in a vertical panel, one might be fooled into believing the
position only). A double-pole switch was used with amplifier is turned off! 'And if the pilot lamp
both poles connected in parallel. The rating is 220 should burn out, there is absolutely no way to tell
Vat 10 A per section. if the power is turned on (with the resultant high
voltage at the anodes of the 8873s). Beware!
The RF Deck
The two sections of the pi-L network are Operation
isolated from each other by placing one of them
under the chassis. Although not shown in the Tuning a pi-L-output circuit is somewhat dif-
photograph, a shield was added to prevent rf ferent than tuning a conventional pi-network be-
energy from entering the control section cause the grid current should be monitored closely.
underneath the chassis. The shield divides the Grid current depends on two items, drive power
chassis between the tube sockets and the inductors. and amplifier loading. The procedure found to be
The loading capacitor is mounted directly beneath most effective is to tune for maximum power
the plate-tuning capacitor. This scheme provides an output with the loading sufficiently heavy to keep
excellent mechanical arrangement as well as a neat the grid current below the maximum level while
front-panel layout. adjusting the drive power for the proper amount of
The 8873s require a 60-second warmup time, plate current. The plate current for cw operation
and accordingly, a one-minute time-delay circuit is should be 4S0 rnA and approximately 900 rnA
included in the design. The amplifier IN/OUT under single-tone tuning conditions for ssb. This
switch is independent of the main power switch presents a problem since it is not legal to operate
and the time delay. Once the delay circuit "times under single-tone tuning conditions for ssb. Sixty
out," the amplifier may be placed in or out of the watts of drive power will provide full input levels.
line to the antenna, whenever desired. A safety For use with high-power exciters, see QST for
problem exists here: there is no large blower October, 1973.

A ONE-KILOWATT AMPLIFIER USING A 3-500Z

Circuit design for high-power linear amplifiers the hf amateur bands from 3.S to 30 MHz. The
hasn't changed much in recent years. The differ- Lie ratio of the tank circuit is designed for
ences between various types of grounded-grid units operation at 2S00 to 2800 volts. The T-R switch is
are usually more mechanical than electrical. The coupled to the tank circuit via Cl. This capacitor is
degree of circuit complexity is determined pri- constructed of RG-8A/U. A 2-inch overlap be-
marily by the number of features desired and tween the braid and center conductor provides the
whether or not the power supply and control correct amount of coupling for the T-R switch (see
circuits are included on the same chassis as the top view photograph).
amplifier. Described below is a power amplifier Filament voltage is applied to the 3-S00Z
designed to operate cw as the primary mode. A through a bifilar-wound rf choke. Drive power is
suitable exci ter is described earlier in the chapter. coupled to the filament circuit via C2, a com-
bination of three .01-J.LF disc ceramic capacitors in
parallel. A 7.S-volt Zener diode in the cathode-
The Amplifier Circuit return lead is used to develop grid bias. KID opens
A single 3-S00Z triode tube develops l-kW the cathode-return lead during standby, comJ?letely
input on cw and l-kW PEP on ssb. The output cutting off plate current.
circuit is a conventional pi network which tunes SI, located on the front panel, switches on the
fan motor, the pilot light, and activates the control
circuits. Input jacks for high voltage, as well as
filament and control voltages, are located on the
rear panel.

The Multimeter
A I-rnA meter is used to measure grid current,
cathode current, plate voltage, and power output.
R4, mounted on the rear chassis apron, allows
adjustment of the relative-output circuit sensi-
tivity. A voltage-dropping resistor network, R3,
provides a full-scale reading of S kV. RS maintains
a load at the meter end of R3 preventing full B+
from appearing across S2 when it is in one of the
three other positions. R3 consists of five 1-
A One-Kilowatt Amplifier Using a 3-500Z 191

Inside view of the amplifier built by

WA 1JZC. The unusual plate cap is
described in the text. A T·R switch is
included for break·in cw operation and is
mounted in a Minibox attached to the
rear compartment panel.

megohm, I-watt composition resistors connected aluminum chassis. The high-voltage power-supply
in series thereby reducing the voltage across any components and the 5-volt filament transformer
one resistor to less than 600. are mounted on a separate chassis (see chapter 5).
Grid current is measured by placing the meter The complete amplifier occupies slightly less than
in series with the grid (ground) and the cathode. 3/4 of a cubic foot, making a compact package
The grid meter shunt, R2, provides a full-scale that will fit on almost any operating desk. Loca-
reading of 200 rnA. R2 is equal to the internal tion of the various components is shown in the
resistance of the meter divided by 200. The photographs. All of the circuits carrying rf are
resistance of MI is 43 ohms; therefore R2 is 0.21 completely shielded to reduce any instability or
ohm. It is made by winding 24-1/4 inches of No. TVI. The amplifier exhibits no tendency to "take
30 wire on a I-megohm,' 2-watt composition off" when operated without a parasitic suppressor.
resistor. Cathode current is' measured by placing However, if problems with instability are encoun-
the meter in series with the cathode-return lead. tered, a suitable suppressor made of 3 turns, No.
Meter shunt RI was chosen to provide a full-scale 12, copper wire, I-1/4-inch dia. wound over three
reading of 1 Ampere. It is made by winding 12-1/2 ISO-ohm, 2-watt composition resistors can be
inches of No. 26 wire on a I-megohm, 2-watt inserted between the plate cap and the top of
composition resistor, for a shunt resistance of .043 RFCI.
ohms. R2 is the primary path for the high-voltage The rf-output circuit is completely shielded in a
negative lead to chassis ground. R6 provides compartment constructed of cane metal and sheet
protection in the event this meter shunt opens. aluminum. Perforated material is needed to allow
adequate air flow past the tube. The socket (E.F.
Construction Johnson Co. type 122-275 or equiv.) is mounted
1/2 inch above the chassis, allowing air to circulate
The amplifier is built on a 10 X 12 X 3-inch

Bottom view of the amplifier.

 T-R SWITCH
J4
-
000()
~

V2

,.t.OO!

0.21
GRID
METER
SHUNT

51
:I:
METER SWITCH FUNCTION '"T1
GNIOHA (200) \OCATHODEAHPS(1}
-f
.Oli 1\1" ;7; .01 Pl.ATE VOlTA6EO
(5OOOV)
ORELATIVE our
::0
J5 »
Z
AMPLIFIER
I en
~ CONTROL 3:
P2 -f
J7 -f
B- Z
C)
A One-Kilowatt Amplifier Using a 3-500Z 193
around the base connections an.d seal. The grid pins
of the socket are soldered to lugs mounted on the
chassis. When a standard Eimac plate cap is used
with the 3-500Z, the cap extends above the edge of
the cabinet. Therefore, a 1/4-inch thick aluminum
plate, 1-3/4 inches square, is used in place of the
Eimac unit.
The plate-tuning capacitor, C3, has too high a
minimum capacitance for proper operation on 10
and 15 meters. Removing 4 of its stator plates
reduces its minimum capacitance sufficiently. C4
has a shaft diameter of 3/8 inch, requiring special
attention. A standard 1/4-inch coupling with one
end drilled out slightly over 3/8 inch is used as an
adapter. Fine-mesh screen is placed between the
cabinet wall and the fan to maintain an rf-tight
enclosure. The screen does not appear to reduce
the air flow appreciably.
Finishing touches are added by selecting front-
panel knobs, painting the amplifier cabinet with
light avocado green paint, and applying appropriate
decals.

Hookup and Switch Functions

The Amplifier is designed to permit true cw
break-in operation when used with a separate
transmitter and receiver. In most commercially
made ssb/cw transmitter-receiver combinations, all
transmit-receive changeover functions on both
modes are handled by a VOX circuit, and relay
contacts inside the transmitter perform the receiver
antenna switching and muting duties. When using a
combination with this amplifier, the receiver an-
tenna terminal is connected directly to 13 on the
rear chassis apron, and a cable connects 14 and the
receiver antenna terminal of the transmitter. The
amplifier control relay contacts of the transmitter
are connected to 15, and the rf output of the
transmitter is connected to input jack 12. In this
configuration, the receiver is connected directly to
the antenna during standby, and during transmit,
the T-R switch takes over.
If the transmitter (such as the T-ger described
earlier in this chapter) does not incorporate a
relay-switching arrangement, then antenna change-
over is handled entirely by the T-R switch. The
receiver antenna is connected to 13, the transmitter
rf output connects to 12, and a shorted phono plug
is inserted in 15.
For use with a transceiver, the transceiver
output is connected to 12, and the amplifier
con trol relay contacts of the transceiver are con-
nected to 15. The transceiver operates "straight
through" when the amplifier is off, and Kl
provides the required antenna switching functions
when the amplifier is in use.

Operation
After the position of each tank-coil tap has been
determined, the relative-output sensitivity control,
R4, can be adjusted for 3/4 scale meter reading at
full power input. The amplifier should be tuned for
maximum power output into a 50-ohm nonreactive
load, which should coincide approximately with
the point of minimum plate current.
194 HF TRANSMITTING
TWO-KILOWATT AMPLIFIER USING A SINGLE 8877 TRIODE

The 8877 is a big brother to the new 8873

series of ceramic/metal power tubes. It is a
zero-biased high-mu triode having an oxide-coated
cathode. The plate dissipation is 1500 watts.
Heater-to-cathode capacitance is low eliminating
the need for filament chokes when operated below
30 MHz. An inexpensive 7-pin socket may be used
reducing the overall cost. The grid connection is
near the chassis level and permits low-inductance
grounding. Average IMD products for the 8877 in
linear service run 38 dB below one tone of a
two-tone test signal for 3rd order products, and
44.5 dB for 5th order products.
The cathode impedance of an The opening in a shield surface where blower
8877/3CX1500A7 is about 54 ohms. Direct coup- air enters the chassis may be a source of rf leakage.
ling from the exciter to the cathode without the In this amplifier, brass-wire screen is mounted in
use of a cathode-tuned circuit will work, but me air stream to minimize this leakage. Tiny globs
performance will be degraded. The reduced-drive of solder at several crossover points assure positive
requirements and improved distortion products connection on the screen. The disadvantage of this
make the small effort of putting a "flywheel" in method is the eventual collection of dust, restrict-
the input circuit worthwhile. ing air flow. It requires periodic cleaning.

INPUT CIRCUIT OUTPUT CIRCUIT

BAND NO. WIRE INDUCTANCE CIAND

MHz TURNS SIZE RANGE IN J.1lI F*MHz C2 CIO IND. Cll
3/8-inch Diameter Forms
3.5 14 24 1.64·4.58 5.05 (820) 273 8.54 1473
4.0 14 24 1.64 - 4.58 5.8 (750) 239 7.47 1289
7.0
14.0
- 10
7
24
16
0.96 - 2.32
0.44- .74
10.1
19.5
(430)
(220)
136
68
4.27
2.14
737
368
21.0 5 16 0.28 - 0.52 29.2 (150) 45 1.42 246
28.0· 4 16 0.17 - 0.34 40 (100) 34 1.07 184

* A grid dip meter should be used to assure that the inductor resonates at the indicated frequency.
These adjustments should be made with capacitors Cl and C2 out of the circuit.

Laboratory tests at Eimac indicate best per-

formance to be at an anode potential of 2700 to
3000 volts. The efficiency runs between 60 and 65
percent.
Plate impedance figures are based on a 2 kW
PEP input using 2700 volts at 740 milliamperes.
The grid current for the 8877 runs about 15
percent of the plate current. At full power input,
the grid current should be about 110 rnA.
When plate voltage is applied, the zero-signal
plate current should be about 95 rnA. Drive should
be applied through a directional coupler. On each
band, after fully loading the amplifier to the above
conditions, tune the input coil for minimum
reflected power. No further adjustment is required
and the directional coupler can be removed. For
additional construction details, see September,
1971, QST.

Top view of the 8877 Amplifier built by K6DC.

 3.5-29.7 MHz
AMPLIFIER .001
3.5-29.7MHz
C7 SKV
r- -- - - - - - - - - ------ - - - - -- - - -- ---; 3CX1500A7/8877 (8

(1* .:h ,1:;(2* RFC2

JI 20
0. 5 00
FROM I 010
0
EXCITER :
,!
~I
SIB

Tsoo'
C9
rh SKV

GRID RING

':[~ 8877 SOCKET

PIN LOCATIO N

100....LCl3
FROM
POWER RI 5KV.:J: ~RFC4
SUPPLY EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ().If I ;
(14 OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS {pf OR JlJlF'l;

--r SKV
500 RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS:

m *
10.< 1000, M~IOOO 000.
SEE TABLE FOR VALU ES
vox OR 117VAC +HV
ANT RELAY 2700V

Fig. 1 - Circuit diagram of the 2-kW amplifier. Component designations not listed below are for text reference. The values for Cl, C2, and L1 are given in Table 1.

Bl - Blower. (Dayton 4C012). C14 - 50o-pF, 5-kV (Centralab 850S). RFCl - 15-MH, l-A choke (Miller 4624).
C3-C6, incl. - .01-MF, 60o-volt disk ceramic. C15,C16,C17 - Feedthrough, .0015-pF,400-V. R FC2 - 160 turns, No. 24 Formvar, wound on a
C7,C8 - .001-MF, 5-kV (Centralab 858S). CRl - Zener diode, 8.2 V, 50 W (Motorola 3/4-inch dia ceramic insulator, 4 inches long.
C9 - 150o-pF, 5-kV (3 parallel 500-pF Centralab 1 N33071. RFC3 - 2.5 mH, 300 mA.
858S). Jl - BNC, chassis mount (Amphenol UG-l094/U). RFC4 - 10 turns, No. 14 wire, 1/4-inch 10, l-inch
Cl0 - Vacuum variable, 5-300 pF. J2 - SO-239 chassis connector. long.
Cll - 4-section broadcast variable, 365 pF per L2 - 10-meter coil (see text). Sl - Ceramic rotary switch, 2 pole, 6 position
section. All sections parallel-connected. (J.W. L3 - 15- and 2o-meter coil (see text). (Centralab PA-2045).
Miller 2104). L4 - 80- and 40-meter coil (see text). S2 - 1 pole,6 position (Millen 51001).
C12,C13 -100-pF, 5-kV (Centralab 850S). Ml - 0-1 A dc meter. Tl - 5-V, 10-A filament transformer.
M2 - 0-100 mA dc meter.
196 HF TRANSMITTING

A SOLID-STATE LINEAR AMPLIFIER

In this section a IS-watt solid-state linear In a push-pull circuit there is inherent

amplifier for 3.5 to 30 MHz is described. A filter at cancelation of the even harmonics. Laboratory
the amplifier output attenuates the harmonic measurements for the circuit in Fig. 1 show that all
energy. With the proper filter in place, no tuning is harmonics are in excess of 20 dB below the
necessary for complete coverage of each band. The fundamental signal. This figure is not acceptable
circuit utilizes two transistors that are available for harmonic rejection, so a low-pass fIlter design
surplus for $2.99 each. 1 The amplifier delivers (Fig. 6-IV) is shown that does provide sufficient
IS-watts peak power for ssb operation, or 15 watts attenuation of the harmonics. As long as the fIlter
on cwo The collector efficiency from 3.5 to 30 output is terminated by a 50-ohm load, the filter
MHz is no lower than 50 percent, but is input looks like S(}.ohms below the fIlter cutoff
approximately 57 percent on 80 meters. Inter- frequency. No tuning is necessary when changing
modulation distortion products for a two-tone test frequency within any given band. A bank of four
signal are down 30 dB from pep at all frequencies fIlters can be constructed to cover the 80- through
of operation. The amplifier showed a minimum l(}.meter ham bands. (Only one filter is needed for
gain of 16 dB. A maximum power of 375 mW is both the I(}' and IS-meter bands.) Band changing
required to drive the amplifier to IS-watts output. is accomplished simply by switching. in the
This excitation power is easily obtainable with a appropriate fIlter for the band of operation. If the
Class A driver. builder is interested in only one band the
A push-pull amplifier circuit is employed with remaining filters need not be constructed.
suitable forward base bias to eliminate cross-over Construction of the input and output trans-
distortion (see Fig. 1). The input and output formers is somewhat unconventional although not
transformers are designed to match the base too difficult. The transformers are built by placing
impedance to a S(}.ohm input impedance, and the two cylinders of 3E2A ferrite material side by side
collector load impedance to the 50-ohm output and running the wires for the windings through the
impedance. Since the gain of the transistors two holes in the cylinders as shown in Fig. 2. The
decreases as the frequency of operation increases, a wire running from A to A' would be one tum on
compensating network is placed at the amplifier the primary with the wire from B to B' being one
inpu t to attenuate the drive to the transistors as turn on the secondary. Since the ferrite cylinders
the operating frequency is lowered. The maximum aren't available at a reasonable price, they can be
SWR looking into the compensating circuit is constructed by stacking two toroids together for
1.2: 1, providing a constant 50-ohm load for the each cylinder of the output transformer and four
exciter. toroids together for the input transformer. The
1 Poly Paks, P.O. Box 942M, Lynnfield, MA Ferroxcube series 266 toroids are used for the
01940.

Topside view of the linear amplifier with the compensating network attached by means of BNC hardware.
A Solid-State Linear Amplifier 197

T2

rl~'

output transfonner, and the series 1041 toroids are Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the amplifier.
used for the input transformer. 2 In order to reduce Resistance is in ohms, resistors are 1/2 watt unless
flux leakage the center winding of the primary of otherwise indicated, except for R1 and R2 which
the output transfonner (and the secondary of the are 1/4 watt. SM = silver mica. Polarized capacitors
input transfonner) should be made of braid similar are electrolytic. C1, C2, and C3 are Aerovox Hi-Q
units, type CK05 (available from Newark Elec-
to the shield-diameter of small coaxial cable. A tronics, Chicago, I L, catalog No. 101). RFC1 and
broadband match to a low-impedance tennination RFC2 are small encapsulated chokes. See text for
is readily achieved with these transformers. discussion of other components shown here.
Following is a step-by-step procedure for
fabricating the output transfonner. First, slip a
l-inch-long piece of braid over a 2-inch-long 10-32 ratio. In this case the smaller Ferroxcube toroid
screw, preferably one that does not take solder core, series 1041, can be used. These cylinders are
easily. Next, place two of the cores over the braid, made by stacking 4 cores on top of each other.
pushing the cores tightly against each other. Now, With a total of two turns required on the
flare out the ends of the braid on each end of the secondary, only 1/2 tum of enameled wire is
cores and flow solder in the flared portions of the needed to complete the winding once the braid is
braid as shown in Fig. 3. After this step is through the cylinders. No. 28 wire is used on the
completed the excess braid can be clipped close to input transfonner. Four more turns of wire (with
the edge of the cylinders at one end. When both the leads extending out the other end of the
cylinders are constructed they can be individually transfonner) make up the primary winding of the
wrapped with tape and then taped together side by input transfonner.
side. On the end where the braid was left extending The amplifier is constructed on a 1/8-inch-thick
over the edge of the core, a solder connection is aluminum plate, 4 inches long by 3 inches wide.
made to join the two cylinders electrically. Of This plate should provide an adequate heat sink for
course, some pruning is necessary in order to get the duty cycle incurred with ssb or cw operation.
the two cylinders mechanically close to each other. The transistors are mounted 2 inches from the end
When this step is completed, the point where the
braid from the two cylinders is joined is the center
tap of the transfonner primary. If a total of 2 turns STACK~
is required on each side of the center tap, the braid
from the center tap to one end of one of the
cylinders is a half a tum. Therefore, 1 1/2 more
turns of No. 22 enameled wire must be added by
tacking the wire with solder to the end of the braid
and running the wire through the holes left in the
cylinders after removing the 10-32 screws.
Similarly, 11/2 turns are added from the other
cylinder end. Fig. 4 shows the transfonner. The
secondary is wound by running 4 turns of wire
through the same two holes in the cylinders but
with the leads extending out the opposite side of
the transfonner. ~ROIDS STAC~
The transformer at the input of the amplifier is TOP VIEW
constructed in a similar manner with a 4:2 turns
2 Elna Ferrite Laboratories, Inc., 9 Pine Grove Fig. 2 - Illustration of how the broadband
St., Woodstock, NY 12498. transformers are assembled.
198 HF TRANSMITTING
check should be made with an ohmmeter to insure
SOLDER HERE
there are no shorts between the primary and
secondary of the transformer. If all looks well at
that step, connect a 50-ohm load and apply dc
voltage. Always terminate the amplifier output
with a 50-ohm load before applying voltage;
otherwise instability may result. The amplifier
idling current, with no drive applied, should be
approximately 100 rnA. If this value is not
obtained, there is probably a short in one of the
transformers. If the correct idling current is
ENO VIEW OF ONE present, apply drive (375 mW cw or peak ssb), and
CYLINDER 15 watts of rf power should appear at the output.
If a two-tone signal is used for ssb tests, the output
level will indicate only 7.5 watts on an
Fig. 3 - Drawing of end view of one cylinder of
the broadband transformers. averaging-type wattmeter. Now, the amplifier is
ready to connect to the antenna (one with an SWR
of the plate and 3/8 inch off the center line below 1.5: 1). Operation in any part of any band is
running the length of the plate. Very short leads acceptable, as long as the filter for that band is
are maintained for the emitter resistors to used and the SWR is low.
minimize lead inductance. The two lOOO-ohm
biasing resistors, the biasing diode, and the 6.8-pF
capacitor are located on the bottom side of the
plate. The biasing diode used in the original circuit
is a Unitrode UT6105 rectifier diode. This diode is
fairly expensive, but any silicon rectifier diode
I)
rated at 3 A and 50 volts PRV should work.
A circuit diagram of the filters is shown in Fig.
5, and component values are given in Table 6-IV. L1
and C2 should be resonated at the proper
frequency before being placed in the rest of the
circuit. Ll, L2, and L3 can be wound on toroid Fig. 4 - Close-up view of the input transformer
used in the circuit of Fig. 1.
cores available from Amidon 3 when the inductance
values are too large for convenient air coils. Bibliography
Before applying voltage to the amplifier, a
Gray and Graham, Radio Transmitters, McGraw-
3 Amidon Associates,. 12033 Otsego Street, Hill Publishing Company, 1961.
North Hollywood, CA 91t>07. Hejhall, Solid·State Linear Amplifier Design,
Motorola Semiconductor Products Application
Note AN-546, 1971.
OUTPUT TO
50 OHM LOAD Orr, Radio Handbook,Editors and Engineers, 1970.
PitzaIis et ai, "Broadband 60-W HF Linear
Amplifier," IEEE Journal of Solid-State Cir-
cuits, June, 1971.
RCA Power Circuits, RCA Electronics Compo-
nents, Division of RCA, 1969.
Single Sideband for the Radio Amateur, American
Fig. 5 - Circuit diagram for a low-pass filter. Radio Relay League, 5th Edition, 1970.
Southerland, Care and Feeding of Power Grid
Tubes, Eimac Division of Varian, 1967.
TABLE 6-IV
Impedance 80M 40M 20M 15M & 10M
at fu fu=4MHz fu = 8 MHz fu = 15 MHz fu = 30 MHz
C1 -j50 800 pF 400 pF 210 pF 105 pF
C2 -j60 680 pF 340 pF 180 pF 90 pF
C3 -j18 2200 pF 1100pF 590 pF 300 pF
C4 -j14 2800 pF 1400 pF 750 pF 380 pF
C5 -j35 1150 pF 575 pF 300 pF 150 pF
l1 +j30 1.2 t-tH 0.59t-tH 0.32t-tH 0.16t-tH
l2 +j42 1.6t-tH 0.80t-tH 0.45 t-tH 0. 23 t-tH
l3 +j50 2.0t-tH 1.0t-tH 0.52t-tH 0.26t-tH
Resonant
Frequency 5.55 MHz 11.1 MHz 20.8 MHz 41.6 MHz
for l1 &
C2
Table of values for the filter shown schematically in Fig. 1.
 ~~.=-----------=---~--------~

CHAPTER 7

VHF and UHF Transm8tting

Before planning operation on the frequencies accessory devices, both ready made and home-
above 50 MHz, we should understand the FCC built. This started years ago with the vhf converter,
rules, as they apply to the bands we are interested for receiving. Rather similar conversion equipment
in. The necessary information is included in the
allocations table in the first chapter of this
Handbook and in The Radio Amateur's License
for transmitting has been widely used since ssb
began taking over the hf bands. Today the hf trend
is to one-package stations, called transceivers. The
I
Manual, but some points will bear emphasis here. obvious move for many vhf men is a companion
Standards governing signal quality in the box to perform both transmitting and receiving
S(}'MHz band are the same as for all lower amateur conversion functions. Known as transverters, these
frequencies. Frequency stability, modulation, key- are offered by several transceiver manufacturers.
ing characteristics, and freedom from spurious They are also relatively simple to build, and are
products must be consistent with good engineering thus likely projects for the home-builder of vhf
practice. Simultaneous amplitude and frequency gear.
modulation is prohibited. These standards are not
imposed by law on amateur frequencies from 144 Transverter vs. Separate Units
MHz up. This is not to say that we should not It does not necessarily follow that what is
strive for excellence on the higher bands, as well as popular in hf work is ideal for vhf use. Our bands
on 50 MHz, but it is important to remember that are wide, and piling-up in a narrow segment of a
we may be cited by FCC for failing to meet the band, which the transceiver encourages, is less than
required standards in 50-MHz work. ideal use of a major asset of the vhf bands -
A sideband signal having excessive bandwidth, spectrum space. Separate ssb exciters and receivers,
an a-m signal whose frequency jumps when modu- with separate vhf conversion units for transmitting
lation is applied, anIm signal that is also ampli- and receiving, tend to suit our purposes better than
tude-modulated, a cw signal with excessive keying the transceiver-transverter combination, at least in
chirp or objectionable key clicks - any of these is home-station service.
undesirable on any band, but they are all illegal on
50 MHz. Any of them could earn the operator an Future of Other Modes
FCC citation in 50-MHz work. And misinterpreta-
tion of these points in an FCC examination could It should not be assumed that ssb will monopo-
cost the would-be amateur his first ticket. lize voice work in the world above 50 MHz in the
The frequencies above 50 MHz were once a way that it has the amateur voice frequencies
world apart from the rest of amateur radio, in below 29 MHz. Sideband is unquestionably far
equipment required, in modes of operation and in superior to other voice modes for weak-signal DX
results obtained. Today these worlds blend increas- work, but where there is plenty of room, as there is
ingly. Thus, if the reader does not fmd what he in all vhf and higher bands, both amplitude and
needs in these pages to solve a transmitter problem, frequency modulation have merit. A low-powered
it will be covered in the hf transmitting chapter. a-m transmitter is a fme construction project for a
This chapter deals mainly with aspects of trans- vhf beginner, and fm has been gaining in popularity
mitter design and operation that call for different rapidly in recent years. A reprint of a very popular
techniques in equipment for 50 MHz and up. 4-part QST series describing a complete two-band
vhf station for the beginner is available from
DESIGNING FOR SSB AND CW ARRL for 50 cents.
The decline in use of amplitude modUlation has
Almost universal use of ssb for voice work in been mainly in high-powered stations. The heavy-
the hf range has had a major impact on equipment iron modulator seems destined to become a thing
design for the vhf and even uhf bands. Many of the past, but this should not rule out use of a-m.
amateurs have a considerable investment in hf Many ssb transceivers are capable of producing
sideband gear. This equipment provides accurate high-quality a-m, and one linear amplifier stage can
frequency calibration and good mechanical and build as little as 2 watts a-m output up to 200
electrical stability. It is effective in cw as well as watts or so, with excellent voice quality, if the
ssb communication. These qualities being attractive equipment is adjusted with care. It should be
to the vhf operator, it is natural for him to look for remembered that the transmitting converter (or
ways to use his hf gear on frequencies above 50 heterodyne unit as it is often called) is not a
MHz. sideband device only. It will serve equally well with
Thus increasing use is being made of vhf a-m, fm or cw drive.
199
200 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING
THE OSCILLATOR-MULTIPLIER hardly noticeable in hf work, are multiplied to
unacceptable proportions in the oscillator-
APPROACH multiplier type of transmitter. The fact that many
Where modes other than ssb are used, most vhf such unstable VFO rigs are on the air, particularly
transmitters have an oscillator, usually in the hf on 6 meters, does not make them desirable, or even
range, one or more frequency multiplier stages, and legal. Only careful attention to all the fine points
at least one amplifier stage. The basics of this type of VFO design and use can result in satisfactory
of transmitter are well covered in the preceding stability in vhf transmitters.
chapter, so only those aspects of design that are of
special concern in vhf applications will be discussed Frequency Multipliers
here. Frequency multiplication is treated in Chapter
6. The principal factor to keep in mind in
Oscilla tors multipliers for the vhf bands is the probability that
Because any instability in the oscillator is frequencies other than the desired harmonics will
multiplied along with the frequency itself, special be present in the output. These can be sources of
attention must be paid to both mechanical and TV! in vhf transmitters. Examples are the 9th
electrical factors in the oscillator of a vhf transmit- harmonic of 6 MHz and the 7th harmonic of 8
ter. The power source must be pure dc, of MHz, both falling in TV Channel 2. The 10th
unvarying voltage. The oscillator should run at low harmonic of 8-MHz oscillators falling in Channel 6
input, to avoid drift due to heating. Except where is a similar problem. These unwanted multiples can
fm is wanted, care should be taken to isolate the be held down by the use of the highest practical
oscillator from the modulated stage or stages. degree of selectivity in interstage coupling circuits
Crystal oscillators in vhf transmitters may use in the vhf transmitter, and by proper shielding and
either fundamental or overtone crystals. The fund- interstage impedance matching. This last is particu-
amental type is normally supplied for frequencies larly important in transistor frequency multipliers
up to 18 MHz. For higher frequencies the overtone and amplifiers. More on avoiding TV! will be found
type is preferred in most applications, though later in this chapter, and in the chapter on
fundamental crystals for up to about 30 MHz can interference problems.
be obtained on order. The fundamental crystal The varactor multiplier (see Chapter 4 ) is much
oscillates on the frequency marked on its holder. used for developing power in the 420-MHz band.
The marked frequency of the overtone type is Requiring no power supply, it uses only driving
. approximately an odd multiple of its fundamental power from a previous stage, yet quite high orders
frequency, usually the third multiple for frequen- of efficiency are possible. Two examples are shown
cies between 12 and 54 MHz, the fifth for roughly later in this chapter. A 220-MHz exciter tuned
54 to 75 MHz, and the seventh or ninth for down to 216 MHz makes a good driver for a
frequencies up to about 150 MHz. Crystals are 432-MHz varactor doubler. More commonly used is
seldom used for direct frequency control above a tripler such as the one described in this chapter,
about 75 MHz in amateur work, though crystals using 144-MHz drive. The output of a varactor
for 144-MHz oscillation can be made. multiplier tends to have appreciable amounts of
Most fundamental crystals can be made to power at other frequencies than the desired, so use
oscillate on at least the third overtone, and often of a strip-line or coaxial fIlter is recommended,
higher, with suitable circuits to provide feedback at whether the multiplier drives an amplifier or works
the desired overtone frequency. Conversely, an into the antenna directly.
overtone crystal is likely to oscillate on its funda-
mental frequency, unless the tuned circuit is AMPLIFIER DESIGN AND
properly designed. An overtone crystal circuit OPERATION
should be adjusted so that there is no oscillation at
or near one-third of the frequency marked on the Amplifiers in vhf transmitters all once ran Class
holder, nor should there be energy detectable on C, or as near thereto as available drive levels would
the even multiples of the fundamental frequency. permit. This was mainly for high-efficiency cw, and
It should be noted that the overtone is not quality high-level amplitude modulation. Oass C is
necessarily an exact multiple of the fundamental. now used mostly for cw or fm, and in either of
An 8000-kHz fundamental frequency does not these modes the drive level is completely uncritical,
guarantee overtone oscillation on 24.000 MHz, except as it affects the operating efficiency. The
though it may work out that way in some circuits, influence of ssb techniques is seen clearly in
with some crystals. Overtone crystals can also be current amplifier trends. Today Class ABI is
made to oscillate on other overtones than the popular and most amplifiers are set up for linear
intended one. A third-overtone 24-MHz crystal can amplification, for ssb and - to a lesser extent -
be used for its fifth overtone, about 40 MHz, or its a-m. The latter is often used in connection with
seventh, about 56 MHz, by use of a suitable tuned small amplitude-modulated vhf transmitters, having
circuit and careful adjustment of the feedback. their own built-in audio equipment. Where a-m
Variable-frequency oscillators are in great de- output is available from the ssb exciter, it is also
mand for vhf-transmitter frequency control, but useful with the Class ABI linear amplifier, for only
except where heterodyning to a higher frequency is a watt or two of driver output is required.
used, as opposed to frequency mUltiplication, the There is no essential circuit difference between
VFO is generally unsatisfactory. Small instabilities, the ABI linear amplifier and the Class-C amplifier;
Amplifier Design and Operation 201
only the operating conditions are changed for
different classes of service. Though the plate
efficiency of the·ABllinear amplifier is low in a·m
service, this type of operation makes switching
modes a very simple matter. Moving toward the
high efficiency of Class C from AB1, for cw or fm
service, is accomplished by merely raising the drive
from the low ABl level. In ABl service the
efficiency is typically 30 to 35 percent. No grid
current is ever drawn. As the grid drive is increased,
IN$,
and grid current starts to flow, the efficiency rises .OOlUf;J;
rapidly. In a well-designed amplifier it may reach
60 percent, with only a small amount of grid (A) BIAS s+
current flowing. Unless the drive is run well into AMP
the Gass C region, the operating conditions in the
amplifier can be left unchanged, other than the
small increasing of the drive, to improve the
efficiency available for cw or fm. No switching or
major adjustments of any kind are required for
near-optimum operation on ssb, a-m, fm or cw, if IN~
the amplifier is designed primarily for ABl service.
If high-level a-m were to be used, there would have
to be major operating-conditions changes, and very
much higher available driving power.
(B)
BIAS +400V.
Tank-Circuit Design
Except in compact low-powered transmitters, AMP.
conventional coil-and-capacitor circuitry is seldom
used in transmitter amplifiers for 144 MHz and
higher frequencies. U-shaped loops of sheet metal
or copper tubing, or even copper-laminated circuit
board, generally give higher Q and circuit efficien-
cy at 144 and 220 MHz. At 420 MHz and higher,
coaxial tank circuits are effective. Resonant cavi-
ties are used in some applications above 1000 MHz.
Examples of all types of circuits are seen later in
this chapter. Coil and capacitor circuits are com-
mon in 50-MHz amplifiers, and in low-powered, BIAS +400V.
mobile and portable equipment for 144 and even
220 MHz. Fig. 7-1 - Representative circuits for neutralizing
vhf single-ended amplifiers. The same techniques
are applicable to stages that operate in push-pull.
Stabilization At A, C1 is connected in the manner that is
Most vhf amplifiers, other than the grounded- common to most vhf or uhf amplifiers. The circuits
grid variety, require neutralization if they are to be at Band C are required when the tube is operated
satisfactorily stable. This is particularly true of above its natural self-neutralizing frequency. At B,
Cl is connected between the grid and plate of the
ABl amplifiers, which are characterized by very amplifier. Ordinarily, a short length of stiff wire
high power sensitivity. Conventional neutralization can be soldered. to the grid pin of the tube socket,
is discussed in Chapter 6. An example is shown in then routed through the chassis and placed
Fig.7-1A. adjacent to the tube envelope, and parallel to the
A tetrode tube has some frequency where it is anode element. Neutralization is effected by
inherently neutralized. This is likely to be in the varying the placement of the wire with respect to
lower part of the vhf region, for tubes designed for the anode of the tube, thus providing variable
capacitance at C1. The circuit at C is a variation of
hf service. Neutralization of the opposite sense the one shown at B. It too is useful when a tube is
may be required in such amplifiers, as in the operated above its self-neutralizing frequency. In
example shown in Fig. 7-1B. this instance, C1 provides a low-Z screen-to-ground
Conventional screen bypassing methods may be path at the operating frequency. R FC in all circuits
ineffective in the vhf range. Series-tuning the shown are vhf types and should be selected for the
screen to ground, as in 7-1C, may be useful in this operating frequency of the amplifier.
situation. A critical combination of fixed capaci-
tance and lead length may accomplish the same
result. Neutralization of transistorized amplifiers is frequency, and it cannot be neutralized out.
not generally practical, at least where bipolar Usually it is damped out by methods illustrated in
transistors are used. Fig. 7-2. Circuits A and B are commonly used in
Parasitic oscillation can occur in vhf amplifiers, 6-meter transmitters. Circuit A may absorb suffi-
and, as with hf circuits, the oscillation is usually at cient fundamental energy to burn up in all but
a frequency considerably higher than the operating low-power transmitters. A better approach is to use
202 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING
AMP.

~TPUT
(A) :J,'OO!Jd.
BIAS

AMP.
.---~--_f',
,
! m
Z2
B+
... ______ L.!'~~~.!n"-~~T~~RK

,,L________________
C 2. ,I
100 OHMS
'
I
:
~

500p~PUT
(B) RFC "! !
;r..ool,u.f
BIAS B+
AMP.

(c)
B+

+24V.
Fig. 7-2 - Representative circuits for vhf parasitic suppression are shown at A,
B, and C. At A, Zl (for 6-meter operation) would typically consist of 3 or 4
turns of No. 14 wire wound on a 100-ohm 2-watt non-inductive resistor. Zl
overheats in all but very low power circuits. The circuit at B, also for 6-meter
use, is more practical"where heating is concerned. Z2 is tuned to resonance at
the parasitic frequency by C. Each winding of Z2 consists of two or more
turns of No. 14 wire - determined experimentally - wound over the body of
a 1 DO-ohm 2-watt (or larger) noninductive resistor. At C, an illustration of uhf
parasitic suppression as applied to a 2-meter amplifier. Noninductive 56·ohm
2-watt resistors are bridged across a short length of the connecting lead
between the tube anode and the main element of the tank inductor, thus
forming Z3 and Z4.
The circuit at 0 illustrates how bypassing for both the operating frequency
and lower frequencies is accomplished. Low-frequency oscillation is
discouraged by the addition of the O.l-#-tF disk ceramic capacitors. RFCl and
RFC2 are part of the decoupling network used to isolate the two stages. This
technique is not required in vacuum-tube circuits.

the selective circuit illustrated at B. The circuit is At 144 MHz and higher, it is difficult to
coupled to the plate tank circuit and tuned to the construct a parasitic choke that will not be
parasitic frequency. Since a minimum amount of resonant at or near the operating frequency.
the fundamental energy will be absorbed by the Should uhf parasitics occur, an effective cure can
trap, heating should no longer be a problem. often be realized by shunting a 56-ohm 2-watt
Tips on ABl Linear Amplifiers 203
resistor across a small section of the plate end of With a-m drive the plate and screen currents
the tuned circuit as shown in Fig. 7-2, at C. The must remain steady during modulation. (The
resistor should be attached as near the plate screen current may be negative in some amplifiers,
connector as practical. Such a trap can often be so observation of it is simpler if the screen-current
constructed by bridging the resistor across a meter is the zero-<:enter type.) The plate, screen
portion of the flexible strap-connector that is used and grid meters are the best simple indicator of
in some transmitters to join the anode fitting to safe ABl operation, but they do not show whether
the plate-tank inductor. or not you are getting all you can out of the
Instability in solid-state vhf and uhf amplifiers amplifier. The signal can be monitored in the
can often be traced to oscillations in the If and hf station receiver, if the signal in the receiver can be
regions. Because the gain of the transistors is very held below the point at which the receiver is
high at the lower frequencies, instability is almost overloaded. Cutting the voltage from a converter
certain to occur unless proper bypassing and amplifier stage is a good way to do this. But the
decoupJing of stages is carried out. Low-frequency only way to know for sure is to use an oscillo-
oscillation can usually be cured by selecting a scope.
bypass-<:apacitor value that is effective at the One that can be used conveniently is the Heath
frequency of oscillation and connecting it in Monitor Scope, any version. Some modification of
parallel with the vhf bypass capacitor in the same the connections to this instrument may be needed,
part of the circuit. It is not unusual, for example, to prevent excessive rfpickup and resultant pattern
to employ a O.I-pF disk ceramic in parallel with a distortion; when using it for vhf work. Normally a
.OOI-pF disk capacitor in such circuits as the coupling loop within the scope, connected between
emitter, base, or collector return. The actual values two coaxial fittings on the rear of the instrument,
used will depend upon the frequencies involved. is used. The line from the transmitter to the
This technique is shown in Fig. 7-2D. For more on antenna or dummy load runs through these two
transmitter stabilization, see Chapter 6. fittings. For vhf service, a coaxial T fitting is
connected to one of these terminals, and the line is
TIPS ON AS1 LINEAR run through it, only. With full power it may even
AMPLIFIERS be necessary to remove the center pin from the T
fitting, to reduce the input to the scope still
As its name implies, the function of a linear is further, particularly in 144-MHz service.
to amplify an amplitude-modulated signal in a
manner so that the result is an exact reproduction Really effective adjustment of the linear ampli-
of the driving signal. (Remember, ssb is a form of fier, whether with ssb or a-m drive, involves many
amplitude modulation.) The nature of the a-m factors. The amplifier must be loaded as heavily as
signal with carrier is such that linear amplification possible. Its plate and grid circuits must be tuned
of it is inherently an inefficient process, in terms of carefully for maximum amplifier output. (Detun-
power input to power output, which is the ing the grid circuit is not the way to cut down
conventional way of looking at amplifier efficien- drive.) If the power level is changed, all operating
cy. But when all factors are considered, particular- conditions must be checked carefully again. Con-
ly the very small exciter power required and stant metering of the grid, screen and plate
elimination of the cumbersome and expensive currents is very helpful. One meter, switched to the
high-level plate-modulation equipment, "efficien- various circuits, is definitely not recommended. A
cy" takes on a different meaning. Viewed in this relative-power indicator in the antenna line is a
way, the Class-ABl a-m linear has only two necessity.
disadvantages: it is incapable of providing as much All this makes it appear that adjustment of a
power output (within the amateur pow~r limit of.l linear is a very complex and difficult process, but
kW) as the high-level-modulated amplifier, and It with experience it becomes almost second nature,
requires considerable skill and care in adjustment. even with all the points that must be kept in mind.
The maximum plate efficiency possible with an It boils down to keeping the amplifier adjusted for
ABl a-m linear is about 35 percent. The power maximum power output, and the drive level low
output in watts that is possible with a given enough so that there is no distortion, but high
amplifier tube is roughly half its rated plate enough so that maximum effici~ncy is o~tai~ed.
dissipation. If the first factor is exceeded the resu!t Practice doing this with the amplifier runmng mto
is poor quality and splatter. If the second IS a dummy load, and the process will soon become
ignored, the tube life is shortened markedly .. almost automatic. Your amateur neighbors (and
There being no carrier to worry about m ssb perhaps TV viewers nearby, as well) will appreciate
operation, the linear amplifier can run considerably your cooperation!
higher efficiency in amplifying ssb signals, and the
popUlarity of ssb has brought the adv~nt~ges of the About Driver Stages
linear amplifier for all classes of servICe mto focus. If the amplifier is capable of reproducing the
The difference between a-m with carrier and ssb driving signal exactly, it follows that. th~ dri~er
without carrier, in the adjustment of a linear, is quality must be above reproach. ~I~ IS qUite
mainly a matter of the drive level. Drive can never readily assured, in view of the low dnvmg power
be run up to the point where the stage begins to required with the ABl linear. Only about two
draw grid current, but it can run close with ssb, watts exciter power is needed to drive a grounded-
whereas it must be held well below the grid-<:urrent cathode ABl linear of good design, so it is possible
level when the carrier is present. to build excellent quality and modulation charac-
204 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING
Items 1,4 and 5 are receiver faults, and nothing
can be done at the transmitter to reduce them,
except to lower the power or increase separation
between the transmitting and TV antenna systems.
Item 6 is also a receiver fault, but it can be
alleviated at the transmitter by using fm or cw
instead of a-m phone.
Treatment of the various harmonic troubles,
Items 2 and 3, follows the standard methods
detailed elsewhere in this Handbook. It is suggested
that the prospective builder of new vhf equipment
familiarize himself with TVI prevention tech-
niques, and incorporate them in new construction
projects.
Use as high a starting frequency as possible, to
reduce the number of harmonics that might cause
trouble. Select crystal frequencies that do not have
harmonics in TV channels in use locally. Example:
The 10th harmonic of 8-MHz crystals used for
operation in the low part of the 50-MHz band falls
in Channel 6, but 6-MHz crystals for the same band
have no harmonic in that channel.
If TVI is a serious problem, use the lowest
transmitter power that will do the job at hand.
Keep the power in the multiplier and driver stages
at the lowest practical level, and use link coupling
Fig. 7-3 - The 6-meter transverter, with shield in preference to capacitive coupling_ Plan for
cover in place. Large knobs are for amplifier tuning complete shielding and fIltering of the rf sections
and loading. Small knob, lower right is for a meter of the transmitter, should these steps become
sensitivity control. The meter switch is just above necessary.
it. Use coaxial line to feed the antenna system,
teristics into the a-m driver or ssb exciter. If this is and locate the radiating portion of the antenna as
done, and the amplifier is operated properly, the far as possible from TV receivers and their antenna
result can be a signal that will bring appreciative systems.
and complimentary reports from stations worked,
50-MHZ TRANSVERTER
on both a-m and ssb.
With the increase in use of ssb on the vhf bands,
VHF TVI CAUSES AND CURES there is much interest in adapting hf ssb gear to use
on higher frequencies. The transverter of Fig_ 7-3
The principal causes of TVI from vhf transmit-
will provide transceiver-style operation on 50 MHz,
ters are as follows:
when used with a low-powered 28-MHz transceiver.
1) Adjacent-channel interference in Channels 2 The output of the transmitter portion is about 40
and 3 from 50 MHz. watts, adequate for much interesting work_ It can
2) Fourth harmonic of 50 MHz in Channels 11, be used to drive an amplifier such as the grounded-
12 or 13, depending on the operating frequency. grid 3-500Z unit described later in this chapter.
3) Radiation of unused harmonics of the oscil- The receiving converter combines simplicity, ade-
lator or multiplier stages. Examples are 9th har- quate gain and noise figure, and freedom from
monic of 6 MHz, and 7th harmonic of 8 MHz in overloading problems_
Channel 2; 10th harmonic of 8 MHz in Channel 6;
7th hannonic of 25-MHz stages in Channel 7; 4th Circuit Details
hannonic of 48-MHz stages in Channel 9 or 10; and
many other combinations. This may include i-f The receiving front end uses a grounded-gate
pickup, as in the cases of 24-MHz interference in JFET rf amplifier, Q1 in Fig_ 7-5, followed by a
receivers having 21-MHz i-f systems, and 48-MHz dual-gate MOSFET mixer, Q2_ Its 22-MHz injec-
trouble in 45-MHz i-fs. tion voltage is taken from the oscillator and buffer
4) Fundamental blocking effects, including stages that also supply injection for transmitter
modulation bars, usually found only in the lower mixing. The difference frequency is 28 MHz, so the
channels, from 50-MHz equipment. transceiver dial reading bears a direct 28-50 rela-
5) Image interference in Channel 2 from 144 tionship to the 50-MHz signal being received. For
MHz, in receivers having a 45-MHz i-f. more detail on the converter construction and
6) Sound interference (picture clear in some adjustment, see Fig. 9-9 and associated text. The
cases) resulting from rf pickup by the audio transverter uses the groundlld-gate rf amplifier
circuits of the TV receiver. circuit, while the converter referred to above has a
There are other possibilities, but nearly all can grounded source, bu t they are quite similar other-
be corrected completely, and the rest can be wise.
substantially reduced. The triode portion of a 6LN8, VIA, is a
50-MHz Transverter 205
22-MHz crystal oscillator. The pentode, VIB, is a
buffer, for isolation of the oscillator, and increased
stability. Injection voltage for the receiving mixer
is taken from the buffer output circuit, L8,
through a two-tum link, L9, and small-diameter
coax, to gate 2 of the mixer, through a lO-pF
blocking capacitor.
The grid circuit of the 6EJ7 transmitting mixer,
V2, is tuned to 22 MHz and is inductively coupled
to the buffer plate circuit. The 28-MHz input is
applied to the grid circuit through a link around
Lll, and small-diameter coax. The mixer output,
L12, is tuned to the sum frequency, 50 MHz, and
coupled to a 6GK6 amplifier, V3, by a bandpass
circuit, L12 and L13. The 6GK6 is bandpass-
coupled to the grid of a 6146 output stage, V4.
This amplifier employs a pi-network output stage.
The 6146 plate dissipation is held down during
the receiving periods by fixed bias that is switched
in by relay Kl. The mixer and driver tubes have
their screen voltage removed during receiving, by
the same relay, which also switches the antenna
and 28-MHz input circuits for transmitting and
receiving. The relay is energized by grounding pin 7 " ..
,'\ ~
of PI through an external switch, or by the VOX
'b
•. '~
relay in the transceiver. 'jf<,.~.

Construction
A 7 X 9 X 2-inch aluminum chassis is used for
the transverter, with a front panel 6 inches high, Fig. 7-4 - Top view of the transverter. The
made of sheet aluminum. The top and sides are receiving converter is inside the shield at the left.
enclosed by a one-piece cover of perforated alumi- The 22-MHz crystal oscillator and buffer are in the
num. The output-stage tuning control, C5, is on left rear portion of the chassis. In the right corner
the upper left of the panel, 2 inches above the is the transmitting mixer. Above it is the first
chassis. The loading control, C6, is immediately amplifier. The 6146 output amplifier is in the
shielded compartment at the left front.
below, under the chassis. The meter, upper right,
monitors either 6146 plate current or relative must be made for 12 volts dc for the receiving
output, as selected by the switch, Sl, immediately converter.
below it. A sensitivity control for calibrating the Injection voltage, signal input and i-f output
output-metering circuit completes the front-panel connections to the converter are made with small-
controls. diameter coax. These and the 12-volt wiring are
The output connector, 12, is centered on the brought up through small holes in the chassis,
rear apron of the chassis, which also has the input under the converter. As seen in Fig. 9-11, the input
jack, n, the 8-pin connector, PI, and the bias- JFET, Ql, is on the left. The mixer is near the
adjusting control mounted on it. center. The 28-MHz output coils, L5 and L6, are
The meter is a I-mA movement, with multiplier just to the right of Q2.
resistors to give a full-scale reading on a current of Note that there are two sets of relay contacts,
200 mAo The front cover snaps off easily, to allow KID and KIF, in series in the receiver line. This
calibration marks to be put on as desired. guarantees high isolation of the receiver input, to
An enclosure of perforated aluminum, 3 1/4 protect the rf amplifier transistor. Another protec-
inches high, 4 inches wide and 43/4 inches long tive device is the diode, CR I, across the coil of the
shields the 6146 and its plate circuit. There is also relay. If there are other relays external to this unit
an L-shaped shield around the 6146 socket, under that use the same 12-volt supply, it is advisable to
the chassis. put diodes across their coils also. Spikes of several
The receIVIng converter is built on a volts can be induced with making and breaking of
2 1/2 X 4 1/4-inch etched board, and mounted the coil circuits.
vertically in a three-sided shield of sheet aluminum.
Before mounting the converter shield, be sure to Adjustment
check for clearance with the terminals on the
meter. Remember, the meter has full plate voltage A dip meter is very useful in the preliminary
on it when the switch is set to read plate current, tuning. Be sure that L 7 and L8 are tuned to 22
even when the transverter is in the receiving mode. MHz and L12 and L13 are tuned to 50 MHz. The
Testing of the transverter was done with the driver and output circuits should also be tuned to
General-Purpose Supply for TranSceivers, described 50 MHz. Check to be sure that slug-tuned coils
in the power supply chapter. Separate provision really tune through the desired frequency. Quite
206 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING

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often troubles are eventually traced to coils where a 28-MHz receiver to the input, 11, and apply dc to
the circuit is only approaching resonance as the the converter. It should be possible to hear a strong
core centers in the winding. Such a circuit will local station or test signal immediately. Peak all
appear to work, but drive will be low, and spurious coils for best reception, then stagger-tune L5 and
outputs will tend to be high. This is a common L6 for good response across the fIrst 500 kHz of
trouble in overtone oscillators, with slug-tuned the band.
coils. Before applying plate voltage to the 6146, it is
Once the circuits have been set approximately, advisable to protect the tube during tuneup by
apply heater and plate voltage to the oscillator, and inserting a 1500- or 2000-ohm 25-watt resistor in
tune L 7 for best oscillation, as checked with a series with the plate supply. Connect a 50-ohm
wavemeter or a receiver tuned to 22 MHz. Connect load to the output jack, and energize Kl. Adjust
50-MHz Transverter 207
Fig. 7-5 - Schematic diagram and part information
for the 50-MHz transverter.
C1 - 10-pF subminiature variable (Hammarlund
MAC-101.
C2 - 5-pF sUbminiature variable (Hammarlund
MAC-51.
C3 - 2 1/2-inch length No. 14 wire, parallel to and
tl ,,-
1/4 inch away from tube envelope. Cover with
insulating sleeve.
C4 - 500-pF 3000-volt disk ceramic.
C5 - 10-pF variable (Johnson 149·3, with one
stator and one rotor plate removed).
C6 - 140-pF variable (Millen 221401.
CR1 -1N12Sdiode.
CR2 - 1 NS3A diode.
J1 - Phono jack.
J2 - Coaxial jack, SO-239.
K1 - 6-pole double-throw relay, 12-volt dc coil.
L 1 - 2 turns small insulated wire over ground end
of L2.
L2, L3, L4 - 10 turns No. 24 enamel closewound
on J. W. Miller 4500-4 iron-slug form.
L5, L6 - 12 turns No. 24 enamel on J. W. Miller
4500-2 iron-slug form.
L7, LS, L11 -Iron-slug coils adjustedfor4.1,5.5
and 5.5 J1H, respectively (Miller 4405).
L9, L 10 - 2 turns small insulated wire over ground
ends of LS and L 11.
L 12, L 13 - 1-J1H iron-slug coil J. W. Miller 4403, 3
turns removed.
L14 - 7 turns No. 20, 1/2-inch dia, 1/2 inch long
(B & W 3003).
L15 - Like L 14, but 6 turns.
L16 - 6 turns No. 20, 5/S-inch dia, 3/4 inch long
(B & W 3006).
P1 - S-pin power connector.
RFC1 - 68-J1H rf choke (Millen 34300).
RFC2 - S.2-J1H rf choke (Millen J-3001.
RFC3 - 5 turns No. 22 on 47-ohm 1/2·watt Fig. 7-6 - Bottom of the transverter, with the
resistor. 6146 socket inside the shield compartment at the
RFC4 - 4 turns No. 15 on 47·ohm 1·watt resistor. right. Three sets of inductively-coupled circuits are
visible in the upper-right corner. The first two, near
RFC5, RFC6, RFC7 - S.2-J1H rf choke (Millen
the top of the picture, are on 22 MHz. Next to the
34300).
S1 - Dpdt toggle. right and down, are the mixer plate and
first-amplifier grid circuits. The self·supporting
Y1 - 22-MHz overtone crystal (International
Crystal Co., Type EX). 6GK6 plate and 6146 grid coils are just outside the
amplifier shield compartment. The large variable
capacitor is the loading control.

the bias control for 25 to 30 mA plate current.

Apply a small amount of 28-MHz drive. A fraction Now apply full plate voltage. With no drive, set
of a watt, enough to produce a dim glow in a No. the bias adjustment for a 6146 plate current of 25
47 pilot lamp load, will do. Some output should be to 30 rnA. With the dummy load connected,
indicated on the meter, with the sensitivity control experiment with the amount of drive needed to
fully clockwise. Adjust the amplifier tuning and reach maximum plate current. Preferably, use a
loading for maximum output, and readjust all of scope to check for flat-topping as the drive is
the 50-MHz circuits likewise. increased. An output of 40 watts, cw, should be
After the circuits have been peaked up, adjust obtainable. The quality of the ssb signal is deter-
the bandpass circuits by applying first a 28.1-MHz mined first by the equipment generating it, but it
input and then a 28.4-MHz input, and peaking can be ruined by improper operation. Over driving
alternate coils until good operation is obtained the mixer or the 6146, and improper loading of the
over the range of 50.0 to 50.5 MHz. Most ssb amplifier will cause distortion and splatter. Contin-
operation currently is close to 50.1 MHz, so uous monitoring with a scope is the best preventive
uniform response across a 500-kHz range is not too measure.
important, if only this mode is used. If the Because of the frequencies mixed, and the
100meter transceiver is capable of a-m operation, bandpass coupling between stages, the output of
and you want to use this mode, coverage up to the transverter is reasonably clean. Still, use of an
50.5 with uniform output may be more desirable. antenna coupler or filter between the transverter
Adjust the position of the neutralizing wire, C3, and antenna is good insurance. The same treatment
for minimum rf in L16, with drive on, but no of the transverter output is desirable when driving
screen or plate voltage on the 6146. a linear amplifier.
208 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING
B1 - Small 15-volt battery.
C1 - 20-pF miniature variable (E. F. Johnson
160-110 suitable).
C2, C3, C5 - 10-pF per section miniature butterfly
(E. J. Johnson 167-21 suitable).
C4 - 5-pF per section miniature butterfly (E. F.
Johnson 160-205 suitable).
C6 - 20-pF miniature variable (same as C1).
11,12 - 117-Vac neon panel lamp assembly .
. J1-J3, incl. - SO-239-style coax connector.
J3 - Closed-circuit phone jack.
L 1 - 15 turns No. 28 enam. wire, close-wound, on
1/4-inch dia slug-tuned form (Millen 69058
form suitable).
L2 - 12 turns No. 28 enam. wire, close-wound, on
same type form as L 1.
L3 - 5 turns No. 18 wire space-wound to 7/8-inch
length, 112-inch dia, center-tapped.
Fig. 7-7 - Panel view of the 2-meter transverter. L4 - 3 turns No. 18 wire, 1/2-inch dia, 3/8-inch
This version is patterned after a transmitting long, center-tapped.
converter design by K9UI F. The on-off switches L5 - 5 turns No. 18 wire, 1/2-inch dia, 5/8-inch
for ac and dc sections of the power supply are long, center-tapped.
mounted on the front panel of the unit as are the L6 - 3 turns No. 18 wire, 1/2-inch dia, 5/8-inch
pilot lamps and plate meter for the PA stage. The long, center-tapped.
tuning controls for the various stages are accessible L7 - 4 turns No. 18 wire, 1/2-inch dia, 1/2-inch
from the top of the chassis. long, center-tapped.
L8 - 1-turn link of insulated hookup wire,
112-inch dia, inserted in cimter of L7.
A 2-METER TRANSVERTER L9 - 2 turns of insulated hookup wire over L3.
M1 - 0 to 200-mA dc meter.
This transverter is designed to be used with any P1 - 11-pin chassis-mount male plug (Amphenol·
14- or 28-MHz ssb exciter capable of delivering 86PM11).
R1 - 50,OOO-ohm linear-taper, 5-watt control.
approximately 20 watts peak output. It is stable RFC1-RFC3, incl. - 2.7-J.LH rf choke (Millen
both in terms of frequency and general operating 34300-2.7).
conditions. It can provide up to 20 watts PEP S1, S2 - Spst rocker-type switch (Carling
output at 144 MHz - sufficient, say, for driving a TIGK60).
pair of 4CX250 tubes in Class C for cw operation, Y1 - 43.333-MHz third-overtone crystal for
or the same pair of tubes can be operated AB! to 14-MHz input. If a 28-MHz transceiver will be
provide 1200 watts PEP input with this unit as a used, a 38.667-MHz crystal is required.
driver. The output signal is clean and TVI should
not be experienced except where receiver faults are
involved. After the 130-MHz and 14-MHz signals are
It is not recommended that beginners attempt mixed at V3, the sum frequency of 144-MHz is
this project since vhf ssb circuits require special coupled to the grids ofV4, the PA stage, by means
care in their construction and operation, some- of another bandpass tuned circuit - further reduc-
times a requirement that is a bit beyond the ing spurious output from the exciter. PA stage V4
inexperienced builder. operates in the AB! mode. Its idling plate current
is approximately 25 rnA. The plate current rises to
How It Operates approximately 100 rnA at full input.
Starting with VIA, the oscillator, Fig. 7-8, a If cw operation is desired, the grid-block keying
43.333-MHz or overtone crystal is used at Yl to circuit in the mixer stage (13) can be included. If
provide the local-oscillator signal for the exciter. ssb operation is all that is contemplated, the minus
Output from VIA is amplified by VIB to a 100-volt bias line can be eliminated along with 13,
suitable level for driving the tripier, V2. 130-MHz Rl, and the shaping network at 13. In that case the
or 116-MHz energy is fed to the grids of V3, a 15,000-ohm grid resistor from the center tap of L4
6360 mixer, by means of a bandpass tuned circuit, would be grounded to the chassis.
L3,Cl, and L4,C2. The selectivity of this circuit is The receiving section uses a low-noise uhf
high, thus reducing unwanted spurious energy at MOSFET as the rf amplifier and a second dual-gate
the mixer grids. MOSFET as the mixer. See Fig. 7-10. The gate-l
Output from the exciter is supplied through an and drain connections of the rf amplifier are
attenuator pad at J1 and is injected to the mixer, tapped down on the tuned circuits so that uncondi-
V3, at its cathode circuit, across a 270-ohm tional stability is achieved without neu tralization.
resistor. The attenuator pad can be eliminated if a Oscillator energy is sampled with a two-turn link
very low-power exciter is to be used. The values wound over L3. A short length of RG-58A/U
shown in Fig. 7-8 were chosen for operation with a carries the injection energy to Q2. The converter is
Central Electronics 20A exciter operating at full built in a 5 X 2 1/4 X 2 1/4-inch box constructed
input, or nearly so. The amount of driving power from four pieces of double-sided circuit board that
needed at the cathode of V3 is approximately 4 or have been soldered on all abutting edges. The unit
5 watts PEP. is mounted on the transverter front panel.
 :r>
N
Fig. 7-8 - Schematic diagram of the transmitting converter portion of the transverter. Fixed-value I
capacitors are disk ceramic unless noted differently. The polarized capacitor is electrolytic. Fixed-value
resistors are 1/2-watt carbon unless otherwise noted.
s:CD
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OTHERS ARE IN PICOFAfIIAOS(pf.ORppf.},
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210 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING
wide, 3 inches deep, and 12 inches long, is made
from flashing copper and installed along one edge
of the main chassis. This method makes it possible
to solder directly to the chassis for making positive
ground connections rather than rely on mechanical
joints. Shield partitions are made of copper and are
soldered in place as indicated on the schematic
diagram and in the photo. An aluminum bottom
plate is used to enclose the underside of the chassis
for confining the rf.
Feedthrough capacitors are used to bring power
leads into the copper compartment. Though this
adds somewhat to the overall cost of the project, it
provides excellent bypassing and decoupling, thus
Fig. 7-9 - Inside view of the converter. Shields are reducing unwanted interstage coupling. It also
used between the rf amplifier input and output contributes to TVI reduction. Most surplus houses
circuits, and between the latter and the mixer stock feedthrough capacitors, and offer them at
input circuit. The cable entering the bottom side of reasonable cost.
the enclosure carries the oscillator injection energy.
Output to the associated receiver or transceiver is Tune-Up
taken through the jack to the left.
An antenna-changeover relay and a set of
normally-open relay contacts, both operated by
Construction Notes
the exciter, must be provided. The remote control
The photographs show the construction tech- leads, from P2, should be connected to the relay
niques that should be followed for duplicating this contacts. With power applied to the converter, L12
equipment. The more seasoned builder should have should be set for maximum noise input to the
no difficulty changing the prescribed layout to fit transceiver. Then, using a signal generator or
his particular needs, but the shielding and bypass- off-the-air weak signal, peak L9, LID and Lll for
ing methods used here should be adhered to even if best signal-to-noise ratio.
changes are made. The transmitter section can be powered by the
An 8 X 12 X 3-inch aluminum chassis is used circuit of Fig. 7-12, or the builder can design a
for this equipment. An internal chassis, 5 inches supply of his own choice. Regulated voltages are

116 OR 130 MHz

J6

144 MHz

144MHz

J4 L9>-_ _-h""'-' J5

~
28MHz
OR 14MHz
TO TRANSCEIVER
ANT

~
1000

Ql,Q2
ISOK
CIO ::;r;-
G. +12V

D~G'
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF'
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( ).IF' 1 ~
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR jJjJF1:

5 RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;

ka 1000, M:IOOO 000.
S M' SILVER MICA
* = GATE PROTECTED

Fig. 7-10 - Diagram of the converter section. 1D. Tap at 3 turns up from the cold end for the
Resistors are 1/4-watt composition and capacitors 01 drain connection.
are disk ceramic, except as noted otherwise. L11 - 5 turns No. 18 tinned wire, 1/4-inch 10.
C7-C9, incl. - Air variable, pc mount (Johnson L12 -1.99-2.42-J.lH slug-tuned coil, pc mount, for
189-505-5J. 28-MHz output (J. W. Miller 46A226CPC); or,
C10 - Feedthrough type. for 14-MHz output, 7.3-8.9-J.lH (J. W. Miller
L9 - 4 1/2 turns, No. 18 tinned wire, 1/4-inch 10. 46A826CPC).
Tap at 1 1/2 turns up from the ground end for J4-J6, incl. - Phono type.
the antenna connection, and at 3 turns for the 01, 02 - RCA dual-gate MOSFET.
01 gate. Zl - 12-V miniature power supply, transistor
L10 - 41/2 turns, No. 18 tinned wire, 1/4-inch radio type.
A 2-Meter Transverter 211
Fig. 7-11 - Looking
into the bottom of
the chassis, the rf
section is enclosed
in a shield compart-
ment 'made from
flashing copper. Ad-
ditional divider sec-
tions isolate the in-
put and output
tuned circuits of the
last three stages of
the exciter. Feed-
through capacitors
are mounted on one
wall of the copper
compartment to
provide decoupling
of the power leads.

recommended for best operation_ and C4 for maximum indicated plate current at
With a dummy load connected to 12, apply Ml, then adjust C5 and C6 for maximum power
operating voltage. Couple a wavemeter to Ll and output to the dummy load. Cl, C2, C3 and C4
tune the oscillator plate for maximum output. should be readjusted at this point for maximum
Then, detune the slug of L1 slightly (toward plate current of the PA stage. Use only enough
minimum inductance) to assure reliable oscillator drive to bring the PA plate current up to 100 rnA
starting. Couple the wavemeter to L2 and tune for at maximum de input power.
peak output. With the wavemeter applied to L4, A closed-circuit keying jack is used at J3 so that
adjust Cl and C2 for maximum indicated output. the mixer stage is not biased to cutoff during voice
The next step is to connect the transceiver to operation. Inserting the key permits full bias to be
J1 and supply just enough drive to cause a rise in applied, thus cutting off V3. Rl should be adjusted
PA plate current of a few milliamperes. Tune C3 for complete cutoff of V3 when the key is open.

300 'T'+ 100,uF

5W rn 450V
51

11
cr. 10
+250V 1
+150V 2
t-___.-.:.+..:;IS::.:O::.:V~ 4 EX~~ER
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3A
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Fig. 7-12 - Schematic of the power supply section. On-off switches for the ac and dc circuits are
mounted in the rf deck along with the pilot lamps. Polarized capacitors are electrolytic, others are disk
ceramic. CR1 and CR2 are 1000-volt, 1-ampere silicon diodes. CR3 is a 200-PRV 600-mA silicon diode.
T1 is a power transformer with a 540-volt ct secondary at 120 mAo Filament windings are 5 volts at 3
A, and 6.3 volts at 3.5 A. T2 is a 6.3-volt, 1-ampere filament transformer connected back to back with
the 5-volt winding of T1. 51 is an 11-pin socket (female). A 10,OOO-ohm resistor and a .01-~F disk
capacitor are connected in series between the center tap of T1's secondary and ground for transient
suppression when 52 is switched to on. The suppressor is mounted at 82, in the rf deck.
212 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING
A SOO-WATT FM AND CW
TRANSMITTER FOR 220 MHZ

This 220-MHz transmitter was designed and

built by R. B. Stevens, WIQWJ, and was first
described in May 1969 QST. It is capable of 300
watts output, cw or fm, or the exciter portion can
be used alone to deliver approximately 8 watts
output.

The RF Circuits
Looking at the schematic diagram, Fig. 7-15, it
will be seen that the first three stages of the
transmitter look very much like any vhf transmit-
ter using vacuum tubes. A conventional 6CL6
crystal oscillator, VI, uses 6-, 8- or 12-MHz
crystals, multiplying in its plate circuit to 24 MHz Fig. 7-13 - The 220-MHz transmitter is set up for
(12 MHz crystals should be the fundamental type.) rack mounting on 83/4-inch panel. Meters at the
A 6BQ5, V2, triples to 73 MHz, and drives a 2E26 left can be switched to read driver plate, amplifier
amplifier, V3, straight-through on this frequency. screen and amplifier plate currents, and amplifier
A variable capacitor, C6, across the crystal, permits plate Voltage.
a small adjustment of the frequency.
A varactor tripIer, driven by the 2E26, is used
to get up to 220. Requiring no power supply of its heavy copper (or brass) construction offers con-
own, it is capable of more than enough power siderable heat sinking. Probably its only disadvan-
output at 220 to drive our 500-watt amplifier. tage is the necessity for feeding the high voltage in
The output of a varactor multiplier contains through some kind of rf bypassing device. This and
harmonics other than the desired one, so a strip- the other mechanical features of a good coaxial
line filter is connected between the varactor output tank are not readily made wi~h the simpler tools.
and the final amplifier grid circuit. The filter is a Details of the assembly are given in Fig. 7-19.
separate assembly mounted on the end of the The final grid circuit, visible in the end view
chassis, visible in two of the photographs. Full along with the varactor multiplier and the strip-line
details of the filter may be found in any edition of filter, is a half-wave strip-line. The fan blows
the VHF Manual, and in this Handbook. cooling air into the grid compartment, up through
The final amplifier is a 4CX250 series external- the 4CX250 socket, and out through the end of
anode tube, with a coaxial tank circuit. The B the tank assembly, by way of the hollow inner
version is used here, but the Rand F types have conductor, L10. The coaxial output fitting, J6, the
the same mechanical design. coupling loop, Lll, and its series capacitor, C21,
The coaxial plate circuit follows a standard are mounted on a small detachable plate bent to fit
design. Such a tank has extremely high Q, and the the curvature of the coaxial assembly, and mount-
ed near the outer end. The varactor tripler is built
1 BrayleY.h"Coaxial-Tank Amplifier for 220 and into the top of the amplifier grid assembly, and is
420 MHz," ,-!ST, May 1961. Also, VHF Manual,
Chapter 10. visible in the end view along with the final grid
circuit and the strip-line filter.

Generating the Frequency Modulation

Where only a small swing at the control
frequency is needed, as in a vhf or uhf transmitter
having a high order of frequency multiplication,
the modulation can be applied very easily. A
voltage-variable capacitor, CR1, changes capaci-
tance in relation to the audio voltage applied across
it, and this changing capacitance is used to "pull"
the frequency of the crystal oscillator slightly. A
good 8-MHz crystal can be pulled about 600 Hz in
this way. With 27-times frequency multiplication
this gives a maximum deviation in excess of 16 kHz

Fig. 7-14 - Rear view of the 220-MHz transmitter.

The exciter stages are on a circuit board in the
foreground. Chassis at the right side houses the
varactor tripler and the amplifier grid circuit. Air
blows into this compartment and out through the
center conductor of the coaxial plate-circuit
assembly.
 OSC 2 .....5M1fl' TRIPLER 7S-3SMHz AMP 73.MUHz
~

~
8ISO"HI
Cj'
:!:
I»
~
la 1.5 "'" "TI
3:
I»
j
~
~
Il!O\I
REG
n
:E

.~.001 ~ jA. ,.):,001

rFt
6.3V" C
KEY i:.l(CEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VAWES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (pF 1 ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS' pF OR JlJIIFl:
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; ... 1000.
...-4
I»
j
en
3
SPEECH
AMP ZI033111
LIMITER
i·...
~I
r~1,--'err
"'C ~ ....... '. IIlk
-
...o
N
N
o
3:
+12YDC
::t
L-------------Ir~-J~ 0 N

Fig. 7-15 - Schematic diagram and parts information for the W1QWJ 220-MHz exciter and frequency
modulator. Capacitors with polarity marked are electrolytic. Components not specified below are
marked for text reference purposes. C1 through C5 are dipped mica or silver mica.

C6 - 3().pF miniature trimmer (Johnson 160-1301. CR2, CR3 - Any silicon diode (Motorola 2105 or L3 - 7 turns No. 22, 1/2~inch dia, 3/8 inch long.
C7, C8 - 20-pF miniature trimmer (Johnson similar). Tap 4 turns from grid end.
160-110). J1 - Closed-circuit jack. L4 - 5 turns No. 16, 1/2-inch dia, 1 inch long.
C9 - 1 S-pF variable, double-spaced (Hammarlund J2 - BNC chassis fitting. Y1 - 81SO-kHz crystal, HC-6/U holder preferred.
HF-1S-X). L1 - 10 turns No. 22 enamel, closewound on 6112 kHz or 12223-kHz fundamental crystal

-...,
C10 - 140-pF variable (Hammarlund HF-140). 1/4-inch slug-tuned form. also usable. Frequencies given are for low-fre-
CR1 - Varicap diode. L2 - 4 turns No. 22, 1/2-inch dia, 7/16 inch long. quency end of the band. Use C6 for slight
frequency adjustment. W
214 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING

220MHI
L1

INPUT

,,~·~ro ..
J: i P<GRID

Fig. 7-16 - Circuit of the varactor multiplier, 73 to 220 MHz.

C11, C13, C14, C16 - 15-pF miniature variable L6 - 4 turns No. 16, 1/2-inch dia, 1/2 inch long.
(Johnson 160-107). Rotor of C11 must be L7 - 3 turns No. 16, 3/8-inch dia, 3/8 inch long.
insulated from chassis. L8 - 3 turns No. 16, 3/8-inch dia, 3/8 inch long,
C12 20-pF miniature variable (Johnson tapped at 1 turn from grounded end.
160-110). CR8 - Varactor diode (Amperex H4A/1 N4885).
C15 - 5-pF ceramic. J3, J4 - BNC fitting.
L5 - 8 turns No. 16, 1/2-inch dia, 7/8 inch long.

AMP
~~arr~s~
---~--~---- --.,------
I CI1 9I
-----1
I
I 1
I 4cx2!108 1
Fig. 7-17 - Schematic diagram and parts in- I +1000 10
2000V
formation for the 220-MHz final amplifier.
Decimal values of capacitance are in micro-
farads (J.LF); others in pF.
I

LQPl7 - -f2.~
•. 3
100
'---_..,..'v+OO2!IOV REG.
C17 20-pF miniature variable (Johnson VAt
TO
160-110). Stator supports end of L9. METER
WITCH
C18 - 15-pF silver mica. 2000
C19 - Capacitor built into socket assembly lOW 100
....--\N\,,_------6"",..,..--o-SOV liAS
(Johnson 124-109-1 socket, with 124-113-1
bypass ring and 124-111-1 chimney).
C20 - Disk-type tuning capacitor; see Fig. 7-19.
C21 15-pF miniature variable (Johnson
160-110). L10 - Coaxial line inner conductor; see Fig. 7-19.
C22 - Built-in bypass capacitor; see Fig. 7-19. L 11 - Output coupling loop made from 3 1/4
C23 - 500-pF, 5-kV or more. inches No. 16. Cover with insulating sleeving
J6 - N-type fitting. and bend to 3/4 inch high and 1 3/4 inch long.
L9 - Brass strip, 1/16 by 3/8 by 61/2 inches. See Fig. 7-1.
Bolts to grid terminal on socket. Tap C18 7/8 RFC4, RFC5 - 0.84 J.LH rf choke (Ohmite Z-235).
inch from grid. J5 - BNC fitting.

at the operating frequency, close to the optimum components could be altered to suit one's own
for most of the fm receivers currently in use in requirements, since the complete transmitter is
fixed-frequency service on 6 and 2. Lesser devia- made up of many sttbassemblies. Adjustment for
tion, for working into communications receivers, best results may be somewhat strange to anyone
most of them having about a 3-kHz bandwidth who has not had experience with varactor multipli-
today, is merely a matter of applying less audio. ers.
The first step is to get a good 52-ohm load. For
the present, it will have to handle a maximum of
Adjustment and Operation
about 10 watts. A good SWR bridge is also needed
This is not intended to be a beginner's project, for the tests. The first step is to adjust the exciter.
so detailed discussion of the mechanical layout will Procedure here is like that for any similar lineup of
be omitted. The mechanical arrangement of the tubes, but the 2E26 must be adjusted for optimum
A 500-Watt FM and CW Transmitter for 220 MHz 215

nvC01r---4II-.. . _. . .
AC
CR7
""""'"-o~~AS
lOW

Fig. 7-18 - Circuit details of the built-in power

supplies for amplifier bias (lower) and speech
amplifier-modulator (upper) for the 220-MHz
transmitter. Capacitors with polarity marked are
electrolytic. All diodes are 200-volt PRV, 1 A.
R1 and R2 are approximate values. Select for 12
a~d mi~u.s 51? volts output, respectively. Capa-
citance IS In microfarads.

Fig. 7-19 - Details of the

coaxial-line plate circuit of
the 220-MHz transmitter.

Jt-----·4"----<R

results when working into a 52-ohm load. Once an maximum output at 220 MHz. Adjustments in the
output of 10 to 12 watts is obtained in this way, multiplier interlock, and several passes through all
leave the tuning of the 2E26 and preceding stages adjustments may be needed for best output. But
alone thereafter. remember that the 2E26 is set for a 52-ohm load.
Now connect the SWR bridge output to 13 of Leave it alone, and make the multiplier adjust-
the varactor multiplier, and tune Cll and C12 for ments do the job. An indication of some 8 watts or
lowest SWR indication. Leave the 2E26 adjust- so of output should be obtained. Part of this will
ments alone. be harmonic energy, however, so the SWR bridge
Now connect a coaxial cable from J2 to 13, and should now be connected between the strip-line
connect the bridge or wattmeter in a line from J4 fJIter and the amplifier grid circuit, and the filter
to the dummy load. Adjust C13, C14 and C16 for adjusted for maximum forward power and the
216 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING

Fig. 7-20 - Looking

1)
i underneath the
chassis of the
22()'MHz transmit-
- ;,;/
1 ter, we see the
speech amplifier-
"" clipper at the lower
left, the exciter cir-
cuits across the top,
power supply com-
ponents at the up-
per left, and meter
switching, lower
right.

1
amplifier input circuit for minimum reflected. This Adjustment of the coupling loop, LU, and the
should result in maximum grid current in the final loading capacitor, C21, will be fairly critical when
amplifier. striving for the absolute maximum output. Follow-
It is likely that getting enough grid current for ing the manufacturer's recommendations as to
the 4CX250B will not be difficult, as the lineup maximum plate voltage and current, 2000 volts at
described gives more than ample drive. Up to 20 250 rnA, resulted in about 320 watts output.
rnA grid current has been obtained, but not this Raising the plate current to 300 rnA, by increasing
much is needed. In fact, with fm or cw operation, the screen voltage, netted 400 watts output. Even
only a slight increase in efficiency is noted after at this input the tube seemed to be operating well
the drive is raised beyond the point where grid and the tank circuit did not indicate excessive
current begins to flow. heating .

..l _

(
, ,m",

Fig. 7-21 - Looking

into the amplifier L
grid compartment.
The varactor tripler
is in the upper left
portion. Below the
compartment is the
22()'MHz strip-line
filter.
 A Varactor Tripier 217
A VARACTOR TRIPLER FOR 420 MHz
It is indeed fortunate that the 420-MHz band is
related harmonically to the 144-MHz band, since a
simple exciter or transmitter for the lower fre-
quency can be pressed into service as an exciter for
the higher band as well. Discussions and designs
using varactor diodes as frequency multipliers have
been seen in printed form many times, and all have
pointed out the ease of obtaining output at the
second, third, fourth or higher order of mul-
tiplication.
Many of the designs had some drawbacks that
prevented their acceptance to other than the avid
experimenter; the simple circuits had too many
unwanted frequencies in the rf output and the
"clean" designs were large physically. The tripler
presented in Fig. I is a step toward overcoming
some of these deficiencies.
Fig. 2 - The varactor tripler is assembled in a box
The Circuit made from double·sided pc board. Input is at the
The input circuit for this varactor multiplier right. The idler coil, L3, is mounted at right angles
to L1 and L2 to prevent undesired coupling. The
was chosen because it does its job well, and of no copper strips tune to the output frequency. Two
less importance, it is not as confusing in schematic tabs of copper provide coupling between the strips.
form. L1 is the input-coupling link and its reac- Output is taken from J2, at the bottom center. A
tance is tuned out by CI. L2-C2 form a con- piece of pc board with holes for access to C4 and
ventional series-resonant circuit tuned to the input C6 should be soldered to the end of the enclosure.
frequency. The combination of these circuits, then, Other pieces can be soldered to the top to provide
becomes the familiar tuned circuit with link- complete shielding, if desired. The box is 3-in. wide
coupled input. The link is coupled to the cold end X 5-1/4-in.long and 1-1/2-in. high.
of L2 and the amount of coupling is adjustable by
changing the position of Ll. It is easier to visualize
the end of L2 as being "cold" by remembering that Construction
the varactor diode is a low impedance device. Double-sided pc-board material was used as a
L3-C3 is the series-tuned idler circuit that is housing for the tripIer, shown in Fig. 2. 11, CI, C2
necessary for efficient harmonic generation, and and C3 are all mounted on one end of the box. The
L4-C4 is a series-tuned circuit for the output diode is mounted on the bottom of the enclosure,
frequency. L5 and C6 are resonant at the output fastened in place by means of a nut on the outside.
frequency also, with a small capacitor, C5, to A small piece of aluminum sheet, used as a heat
provide coupling to the diode output circuitry. sink, is placed over the diode mounting stud before

146 MHz
INPUT L2
Jl L1

~82K
~11
m 2W

L1 - 3 turns No. 16 enam., 3/8-in. ID X 3/8-in.

Fig. 1 - Schematic for the varactor tripler. long.
Cl, C2 - 2.2- to 34-pF miniature variable (E.F. L2 - 6·1/2 turns No. 16 tinned bus wire, 3/8·in.
Johnson 190·0010-001). ID X 7/8-in. long.
C3, C4, C6 - 1.4- to 9.2-pF miniature variable L3 - 3-1/2 turns No. 16 tinned bus wire, 3/8-in.
(E.F. Johnson 189-563·001). ID X 1/2-in. long.
C5 - Copper strip 1-in. long X 1/4·in. wide. Bend L4 - Copper strip, 3-1/4-in. long X 3/8-in. wide.
one end up to form a tab 3/8-in. long. Spacing Space 1/2-in. above ground.
between tabs approx. 1/8 inch. L5 - Copper strip, 3-3/8-in. long X 3/8-in. wide.
CRl - Varactor diode (Amperex H4A or equiv.). Space 1/2-in. above ground. Tap 1-3/8 in. from
J1, J2 - Coaxial connector. Type BNC suitable. ground end.
218 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING

Fig. 3 - 432-MHz transmatch diagram. Jl - BNC coaxial receptacle, chassis mounting.

J2 - Crystal socket.
Cl - 15-pF variable (Johnson 160-107l. L1 - Hairpin loop No. 14 wire; see above.
C2 - 8-8-pF dual-section variable (Johnson L2 - Hairpin loop No. 10 wire; see above; tap as
160-208). shown.

the nut is secured. The heat sink need be only two the intended input frequency, 292 MHz, if the
or three inches square for drive levels up to five or input is 146 MHz. Not many of the currently
six watts. For higher input power, the heat sink available dip meters will tune to 440 MHz, but a
should be larger; three or four inches on a side of pilot-lamp dummy load should provide an in-
fmned aluminum will be needed if the diode is dication of output when L4'(;4 is tuned while low
pushed to its rated limit. L4 is a copper strip with driving power is applied to II.
one end connected directly to the diode. C4 is The input circuits should be tuned for
mounted at the end of L4 opposite the varactor. minimum reflected power at 11, and then the
L5 is likewise a strip of copper, and is tuned by C6. output circuits adjusted for maximum output as
The ground end of L5 connects to a shield that shown by a lamp load or power meter. The copper
isolates the input circuitry from the rest of the tabs of C5 can be bent toward or away from each
compartment. Another shield is placed lengthwise other by means of an insulated tuning tool.
in the box to separate L4 and L5. The coupling Overcoupling is indicated by the tuning of C4 and
capacitor, C5, is made from two small tabs of C6 becoming quite broad or even out of range of
copper strip bent into an L shape. Coupling is their adjustments.
adjusted by bending the tabs slightly. Output is Efficiency of the tripler can be as high as
taken from a tap connection near the ground end 70 percent, but it is recommended that the tuning
ofL5. be set to a condition where the most stable output
results. If there is a sudden step, either up or down,
Adjustment in power output as the circuits are adjusted, the
input coupling, or the capacitance of C5, should be
Tune-up of the tripler is not difficult if a few
increased slightly to alleviate this critical condition.
pieces of test gear are available. An SWR indicator
With all circuits adjusted properly, the efficiency
will be needed for the input, and an output-power
will be in the vicinity of 60 percent. Moderate
indicator should be connected to 12. A grid-dip
temperature changes will have little effect on the
meter is also of great help. The flIst step should be
to tune the input, LI'(;l and L2'(;2, to resonance output. Spurious signals should be 45 dB below the
desired ou tpu t.
as indicated by the dip meter. Likewise, the idler
circuit should be tuned to the second harmonic of

(A)

(6)

Fig.4 - Test setups for checking varactor multipliers.

Grounded-Grid 50-MHz Amplifier 219

GROUNDED-GRID 50-MHZ AMPLIFIER

Increasing use of 50-MHz transceivers and

transmitters having outputs of 25 watts or more
has created a demand for amplifiers to be used
with such equipment as the driver. The grounded-
grid amplifier of Fig. 7-27 is designed for this use.
With 30 watts or more of driving power it will
deliver 600 watts cw output. As a Class-B linear,
single-tone conditions, its rated PEP output is 750
watts.

Circuit
The Eimac 3-500Z triode is designed for

~
grounded-grid service. As may be seen from Fig.
7-30, driving power is applied to the filament
circuit, which must be kept above rf ground by
means of high-current bifilar rf chokes, RFC1 and
RFC2. These are a central feature of the bottom
.~ .
view, Fig. 7-29. The input impedance is low, so the
input circuit, Ll,C1, tunes broadly! and the 50-ohm
j ,, '

~
i
line from the exciter is tapped well up on Ll. The
plate circuit is merely a coil of copper tubing, L2,
inductively tuned by means of a "shorted tum" of
copper strip, rotated inside its cold end. See Fig.
7-28. Tuning is smooth and the rotating loop
avoids many problems commonly encountered in
tuning high-powered amplifiers by conventional
methods. Plate voltage is shunt fed to the tube, to
prevent the high dc voltage from accidentally Fig. 7-27 - Table.top 50-MHz amplifier of
appearing on the output coupling loop or on the ' grounded-grid design, only 10 X 12 inches in size.
antenna line. Grid and plate current are monitored simultaneous-
Most of the lower part of the schematic ly. Knobs at the right are for input tuning, bottom,
amplifier loading, center, and plate tuning, top.
diagram has to do with control and metering, and
is largely self-explanatory. The exciter voice-
control relay shorts out R1, allowing grid current Connections to the grid terminals (on opposite
to flow, and making the amplifier operative, if the sides of the socket) are made with short 1/4-inch
filament and primary-control switches, Sl and S2, copper straps soldered to the pins and bolted to
have been closed. Feeding ac voltage to the the chassis with No. 6 screws, nuts and lock-
plate-supply relay through J4, J5 and PI makes washers. Be sure that a clean, tight rf ground
application of plate voltage without the filament results.
and blower being on impossible. In Fig. 7-28 it will be seen that the hot end of
L2 is supported on the top of the two blocking
Construction
capacitors, C3 and C4, which in tum, are mounted
The amplifier chassis is aluminum, 10 X 12 X 3 on the Teflon rod that serves as the form for
inches in size, with the tube socket centered 3 1/8 RFC3. The ground end of L2 is supported on a
inches from the front edge. The sheet-aluminum vertical post made of 3/B-inch copper tubing, 1 3/8
panel is 10 inches high. The decorative edging is inches high. The end of the coil can be fitted with
"cove molding," used by cabinet makers for a heavy copper lug, or pounded flat. A hole is
counter tops. Sides and back are also sheet drilled in the flat portion and a 2-inch brass bolt
aluminum. Where they need not be removable, runs through it and the post and chassis. Be sure
parts are fastened together by pop-riveting. Tools that there is a permanent solid rf ground at this
and rivets for this work can be found in most point.
hardware stores. Perforated aluminum (cane metal) The shunt-feed rf choke is effectively across the
is used for the top, and for covering the panel tuned circuit, so it must be a good one. Hand-
viewing hole. winding as described below is strongly recom-
Stretch the wire for the bifilar rf chokes, before mended, as no ready-made choke is likely to be as
winding. Then, with the wires side by side, under good. Teflon is slippery, so a light thread cut in the
tension, wind them on a form of wood or metal. form will help keep the winding in place. If this
This is left in until the choke ends are soldered in cannot be done, prepare and wind two wires, as for
position. Then remove the form and coat the the filament chokes. Feed the wire ends through
windings with coil cement, to help maintain tum one hole in the form, and wind a bifllar coil. Pull
alignment. the other ends through the finish hole, bending one
220 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING
voltage connector, 12, on the rear wall, and is
bypassed immediately inside the compartment
with a TV "doorknob" high-voltage capacitor, CS.
The blower assembly in the left rear corner of
the chassis draws air in through a hole in the back
of the compartment, and forces it down into the
enclosed chassis. The only air path is then back up
through the socket and chimney (Eimac parts
SK-410 and SK-406 recommended) and out
through the top of the enclosure. The data sheet
for the 3-S00Z specifies an air flow of at least 13
cubic feet per minute, when the tube is operated at

/r;·
SOO watts plate dissipation. The ac leads for the
blower motor come into the enclosure on feed-
through capacitors.
The meters are enclosed in a shield fastened to
the front and side panels. Meter terminals are
. . . . bypassed for rf inside the shield, and leads come
---'_ ... -.... through the chassis on feed through capacitors. The
':"-"" . rocker-type switches just below the meters have
built-in illumination. The high-voltage switch is not
meant to control the plate supply directly, but
rather through a relay, as in the 3000-volt supply
Fig. 7-28 - Interior view of the 50-MHz amplifier shown in Chapter S. The plate meter is in the
shows the shorted-turn tuning system, plate coil negative lead, so be sure that your supply is
and output coupling, upper right. The tuning and compatible with this arrangement. Do not use this
loading controls are mounted on a bracket to the system where a potential difference exists between
right of the 3-500Z tube and chimney. Meter the amplifler and power supply chassis. All power
shielding is partially visible in the left front corner. leads are made with shielded wire (Belden 8862)
and all exposed points are bypassed to ground.
back tightly at the hole edge. Remove the other
winding, which should leave a tight evenly-spaced Adjustment and Use
coil that makes an excellent vhf choke. Do not apply drive to the 3-S00Z without the
The blocking capacitors, C3 and C4, are mount- plate voltage being on. Also, it is recommended
ed between brass plates, one of which is fastened that initial testing be done with low drive, and with
to the top of the rf choke form with a sheet-metal a plate voltage of 1S00 or less. With a SO-ohm load
screw. The other plate is connected to the hot end
of L2 by means of a wrap-around clip of flashing
copper. The lead to the tube plate cap is made with
braid removed from a scrap of coax. A strip of
flashing copper about 1/4 inch wide is also good
for this. Use a good heat-dissipating connector
such as the Eimac HR6. .
The shorted-turn tuning ring is centered be-
tween the flrst two turns of L2. The ring is
attached to a ceramic pillar, and that to a 1/4-inch
shaft, the end of which is tapped for 8-32 thread.
This shaft runs through a bearing mounted in a
bracket 4 inches high and 23/4 inches wide,
fastened to the chassis and the side of the
enclosure. The output loading capacitor, C6, is also
mounted on this bracket. It is one inch above the
chassis, and the tuning-ring shaft is 3 1/4 inches
above the chassis. The input tuning capacitor, C1,
is mounted under the chassis, with equal spacing
between the three, for symmetrical appearance.
The output coupling loop, L3, is just inside the
cold end of L2. It can be adjusted for optimum
coupling by "leaning" it slightly into or out of L2.
Be sure that it clears the shorted turn throughout
movement of the latter.
The coaxial output jack, 13, is on the rear wall
of the enclosure. A small bracket of aluminum Fig. 7-29 - With the bottom cover removed, a Ibok
into the chassis from the rear shows the input
grounds it to the chassis, independent of the circuit, L1,C1, right, the bifilar filament chokes,
bonding between the chassis and the enclosure. foreground, filament transformer and control
Plate voltage enters through a Millen 37001 high- switches. Opening in the rear wall is for air intake.
Grounded-Grid 50-MHz Amplifier 221
.00
C3 5KV

50MHz 50MHz
C2

P
3 J3 OUTPuT
INPUT

CS
.0

J2 +HV
iOOO TO
3000 V DC
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL.
VALUES' OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (JIF I ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR )lJ,lF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS~
k ~IOOO

~
OREL'Y
IN HV
SUPPLY
Pi PRIMARY

Fig. 7-30 Schematic diagram and parts

information for the 50-MHz grounded-grid ampli-
fier.
Bl - Blower, 15 ft 3/min or more. Tuning ring is closed loop of 1/2-inch copper
Cl - 75-pF variable (Johnson 167-4). strip, 2 5/S-inch dia.
C2 - l000-pF dipped mica. L3 - 1 turn, 3-inch dia, and leads, made from one
C3, C4 - 500-pF 5-kV transmitting ceramic piece of lIS-inch copper tubing or No. Swire.
(Centralab S585-5OO). Ml - DC meter, 0-1 ampere (Simpson Wide-Vue,
C5 - 500-pF, 10-kV or more, TV "Doorknob." Model 1327).
C6 - 50-pF variable (Johnson 167-3). M2 - 0-300 mA, like Ml.
Jl - BNC coaxial receptacle. Pl - AC plug, on cable to power supply.
J2 - High-voltage connector (Millen 37001). Rl - 47,OOO-ohm 2-watt resistor.
J3 - Type N coaxial receptacle. RFC1, RFC2 - 21 turns each, No. 12 enam,
J4 - S-pin male power connector, chassis-mount- 1/2·inch dia, bifilar.
ing. RFC3 - 30 turns No. 20 enam, spaced wire dia, on
J5 - AC receptacle, chassis-mounting. 3/4-inch Teflon rod, 3314 inches long. Drill
Ll - 4 turns No. 12 enam, 1 inch long, linch dia. end holes 1/2 and 2 3/4 inches from top.
Tap 2112 turns from ground end. Sl, S2 - Spst, rocker-type, neon-lighted (Carling
L2 - 3112 turns 1/4-inch copper tubing, LTl L, with snap-in bracket).
31/2-inch dia, 5114 inches long. Diameter is Tl - Filament transformer, 5 V, 15 A (Stancor
finished dimension, not that of form used for P6433; check any electrical equivalent for fit
winding. See text and photo for turn spacing. under 3-inch chassis).

connected to 13, apply 1000 to 1500 volts through some experimentation with diameter and length of
12, and turn on the driver. Adjust the tuning ring L2 may be needed if you want other than the 49.8
inside L2 for a dip in plate current. Tune Cl for to 52.7 MHz obtained with the graduated turn
maximum grid current. Tune C6 and adjust the spacing visible in the interior view. The highest
position of L3 with respect to L2 for maximum frequency is reached with the ring in a vertical
output. If the amplifier seems to be running plane. Dimensions that affect tuning range are as
properly, connect an SWR bridge between the follows: Grounded support for L2 - 1 1/8 inches
driver and 11, and check reflected power. It should from right side of chassis, and 3 1/4 inches from
be close to zero. If otherwise, adjust the tap rear. RFC3 mounting position - 4 inches from rear
position on Ll. and 5 1/2 inches from left. Shorted turn approxi-
Tuning range of the plate circuit can be mately centered between turns 1 and 2 of L2. The
checked with a grid-dip meter, with the power off start of L3 bends from the stator of C6 to near the
the amplifier. The range is affected by turn spacing start of L2. The end toward 12 passes between the
overall, and at the cold end. The closer the first fust two turns of L2, clearing the tuning ring in
two turns are together the greater the effect of the any position of the latter.
tuning ring. No other tuning device is used, so Once the amplifier seems to work normally' 'llt"
222 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING
moderate plate voltages, apply higher, up to the Typical operating conditions given by the man-
maximum of 3000. Plate current, with no drive, ufacturer, and in the tube-data section of the
should be about 160 rnA. It can be lowered by Handbook, are guides to good practice. The ampli-
inserting 0.1 to 0.4 ohm in series with R1 and the fier works well with as little as 1000 volts on the
fIlament center-tap. A Zener diode, 2 to 9 volts, 10 tube plate, so varying the ac voltage to the
watts, could do this job, as well. plate-supply transformer is a convenient way to
Keep the amplifier tuned for maximum output. control power level. It is seldom necessary to run
Do not decouple to reduce output; cut down drive the maximum legal power in vhf communication,
and/or plate voltage instead. Adjustment for linear so some provision for this voltage control is
operation requires a scope. Maximum output, recommended. With just one high-voltage supply
minimum plate current and maximum grid current needeQ and no critical tuning adjustments, power
should all occur at the same setting of the plate variations from 100 to 600 watts output are
tuning. If they do not, the output loading is quickly and easily made. This amplifier was built
over coupled, or there is regeneration in the ampli- by Tom McMullen, WISL, and first described in
fier. The plate-current dip at resonance is notice- QST for November, 1970.
able and smooth, but not of great magnitude.

KILOWATT AMPLIFIER FOR 144 MHZ

The vast difference in design problems for the
two bands is highlighted in the nature of the 50-
and 144-MHz amplifiers described herewith. They
could hardly be more dissimilar, yet each is a
logical way to increase power. The 50-MHz amplifi-
er is a grounded-grid device, but a push-pull
amplifier of the grounded-cathode type is preferred
for 144-MHz service. External-anode tetrodes for
this application include the 4X150A, 4X250B,
4CX250B and R, and others having the same
basing. The 8122, 4CX300A, 4CX250K and others
have various basing arrangements. Except for heat-
er voltage and base design these types are much
alike. Early glass-insulated tubes of the 150-250
series (no C in the prefix) may have to run at
slightly lower maximum input than their ceramic-
insulated (CX) replacements.
Our 144-MHz.amplifier, Fig. 7-31, can be run in
Gass ABl, for a-m or ssb linear service; or Class C,
for high-efficiency a-m, cw or fm. Driver power
output should be 2 or 3 watts for AB 1, and 10
watts or more for Class C. For more on operating Fig. 7-31 - The' 144-MHz amplifier is built in
conditions, see information on linear amplifiers conventional rack·and-panel style, with the entire
earlier in this chapter, the tube manufacturer's data top of cane metal, to provide free air flow.
Controls are grid-circuit tuning, C2, lower left;
sheets, or the tube data section of this Handbook. output loading capacitor, C5, center; and plate-
circuit tuning, C4, with vernier dial, right. The
Construction slotted end of the Teflon shaft on C1 is visible as a
The principal difference between this amplifier white spot just below the loading control.
and its many predecessors using similar tubes lies in
the plate-circuit design. The inductor is cut from well. Angle stock along the back of the front panel
flat sheet brass, in the form of aU. The circuit is completes the enclosure. The gray-wrinkle alumi-
tuned by a simple handmade variable capacitor num panel is 7 inches high.
that avoids problems commonly encountered in The tube sockets are mounted 2 inches in from
this part of a high-powered vhf amplifier. The the right side, as seen in the photographs, and
circuit is practically identical to several previously 25/8 inches apart, center to center. The Eimac
described in QST, the VHF Manual and recent SK620A sockets, with their integral screen-ring
editions of this Handbook. shielding, are recommended. Other sockets may
The amplifier is built on a 17 X 8 X 3-inch require slightly greater spacing, and some modifica-
aluminum chassis, fitted with a bottom cover tion of the plate-circuit dimensions. The raised
which completes the shielding and directs the flow screen-ring shield is also a great aid in neu tralizing
of cooling air. The top portion of the enclosure is the amplifier. Some form of shield should be added
of similar size, except that it is 3 3/4 inches high, if early flat sockets are used. This need is particu-
and it has a cane-metal top. It was made by larly acute if the amplifier is to be operated in the
bending up the necessary sheet aluminum, but Class ABI mode, which is characterized by very-
angle stock and flat sheets could be used equally high-power sensitivity.
Kilowatt Amplifier for 144 MHz 223
The half-wave-line grid circuit, L2, is tuned at
the end away from the tubes by the split-stator
variable, C2, and balanced to ground by means of
C3, a differential capacitor. This is supported on its
stator tabs, which are soldered directly to L2,
immediately adjacent to C2. A strap of 1/4-inch
copper connects the rotor of C3 to the chassis, in
the shortest practical manner. The slotted shaft of
C3 is reached through a hole in the bottom cover
of the chassis. 1bis hole is sealed with black plastic
tape after the adjustment is completed, in order to
avoid air leakage.
Leads to the neutralizing tabs, C9 and CI0, are
tapped on the grid lines at a point 1 3/4 inches
from the grid end. Feedthrough bushings (not
visible in the photographs) are under the lines. The
crossover is made by copper strips from the lines to
the bushings. Variable capacitance to the plate line Fig. 7-32 - Interior of the 2-meter amplifier,
is provided by copper tabs 1/4 X 5/8 inch in size, showing the brass plate-inductor and vane-tuning
soldered to the top ends of the bushings, just system. Note the position of RFC1, at the far left,
out of the main rf field. The output coupling loop,
below the plate line, L3. Adjusting their position L4, just below the plate line and barely visible
with respect to L3 provides the required neutraliz- here, is connected to the output jack, J4, on the
ing capacitance. rear wall with a short section of coax, and to the
Connections to the grid ends of L2 are wrap- loading capacitor, C5, on the front panel by means
around copper clips slipped over the tubing ends of copper strip.
and fastened to the grid posts of the tube sockets
with screws. They are soldered to the line ends, for
permanence. The connections to C2 are made in assembly in the interest of clarity, but their
somewhat the same way, except that the tabs are position is clearly visible in the photographs. These
soldered to the stator lUgs. Note that the rotor of tabs are curved slightly after bending, to provide
C2 is not grounded. It is supported on ceramic more contact surface to the anode. Clamping rings
standoffs 5/8 inch high. made of flashing copper wrap around the anode
The grid-circuit isolating resistors, Rl and R2, structure and hold the tabs tightly to it. 1bis is a
are connected to L2 by means of spring clips which point of low rf current, so a large contact area is
are slid over the line before assembly. These can be not vital.
tube grid clips, if available. They are moved along The plate line was made flat originally, but
the line to the point of minimum rf voltage, using when the amplifier was tested it was found that
the familiar lead-pencil test. this did not allow room to adjust the output
The shaft of C2 is rotated through an insulating coupling loop, L4, to the optimum position. The
shaft, fitted with an insulating flexible coupling, to half-inch offset shown in Fig. 7-35 (but not in the
minimize any tendency to unbalance the grid photographs) netted a marked improvment in
circuit. The shaft from Cl is also insulating efficiency. The entire plate circuit was silver-plated
material, and it has a flexible coupling. The after the photography. Careful checks on perfor-
capacitor is not adjusted often, so the shaft end is mance indicated no difference, before and after
slotted, and is allowed to protrude through the plating. Plating may be desirable on a long-term
front panel. It is just visible in the front view, basis, as silver oxide is a good conductor, and other
below the output-loading control. oxides are not.
All power leads are made with shielded wire, The "stators" and the tabs for the anode
bonded together by frequent spot-soldering, and to connection were silver-soldered to L3. Ordinary
the chassis by means of grounding lUgs. Exposed soldering will be adequate, but it might be well to
terminals are bypassed wherever necessary, to use screws to hold the tabs onto L3, as a
prevent rf pickUp. precautionary measure. The stator plates have
Each cathode pin on the socket is grounded flat-head screws running through them and L3,
through a separate lug, and nothing else uses these into the insulating supports for the latter. These
lugs for a ground path. Minimum cathode-lead are I-inch ceramic pillars. The closed end of the
inductance is important. Even the shortest lead loop is supported on a 1 1/2-inch pillar.
shared with another circuit can cause unwanted The holes for these supports can be made
coupling in a vhf amplifier. slightly oval, to position the assembly so that no
The plate inductor, L3, is made of sheet brass, strain on tubes or sockets is caused when the anode
in the form of a U. Principal dimensions are given rings are tightened. The mounting hole in the
in Fig. 7-35. The stator plates of the tuning closed end of L3 is also elongated. The screw that
capacitor, C4, part A, are soldered to the plate line holds the line on its support has Teflon washers
with their right edges 5/8 inch from the tube above and below L3, to permit the line to move on
anodes. Connection to the latter is made with two its support, if expansion and contraction with
brass tabs, part B, at the tube ends of the line. heating and cooling of the line should be appreci-
These were omitted from the drawing of the able.
224 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING

mounting screws do not ground the loop, or come

• • • close enough to allow arcing to ground. Connec-

tion to the coaxial output jack, 12, is made with a
short piece of RG-8/U coax, using a shielding cone
at the 12 end. The coax shield is grounded to
chassis with a copper strap at the L4 end also, to
make the rf path to ground independent of the
chassis bonding. The rotor of C5 is also grounded
independently. A copper strap connects the stator
of C5 to the end of L4. After the final form and
size of L4 have been determined, the connection to
the strap should be soldered, to maintain a good rf
bond. These circuits carry high rf currents, and
permanent low resistance connections are impor-
tant. The performance of many amplifiers falls off
with aging, because factors like this were
overlooked.
Fig. 7-33 - The principal feature of the bottom An adequate supply of cooling air must be
view is the half-wave grid circuit. Its split-stator provided. The manufacturer stipulates 4.6 cubic
capacitor, C2, is at the left end of the line, L2. The
differential balancing capacitor, C3, is also across feet per minute, per tube, minimum, but much
the line, just to the right of C2. Isolating resistors more should be available. The blower used here has
in the grid circuit, R1, and R2, are near the middle a 3-inch diameter wheel, turning at 3300 rpm. It is
of the picture. The screen isolating resistors, R3 connected to the rear of the chassis by way of an
and R4, run to tie points on the right wall of the automotive defroster hose 2 1/8 inches in di-
chassis. ameter.

The rotor of C4 is in the form of a shallow box Adjustment

made of flashing copper. It is shown in flat form in Heater voltage (at the socket) should be 6.0
Fig. 7-36, along with other copper parts of the volts. This is adjusted by means of the slider on
plate circuit. Its ends, 1 inch high, provide the R5. Set the sliding clips on L2 at the approximate
variable capacitance to the stator plates on L3. midpoint. Now apply 1 to 2 watts drive to the grid
After the box is bent to the desired form, its circuit, adjusting the position of L1 and the tuning
adjoining surfaces are soldered for additional of C1 and C2 for minimum reflected power,
strength and rigidity. The edge away from the tube indicated on an SWR bridge connected between
anodes is supported on a fiber glass rod with 4-40 the exciter and J 1.
screws, the rod surface having been filed flat in this With enough drive so that grid current will be
area previously. Reducing couplers at each end of measurable, meter each grid separately, and adjust
the rod permit use of a 1/4-inch shaft bearing at the balancing capacitor, C3, for as near to the same
the rear, and a National Velvet-Vernier dial mecha- value for each grid as possible. Readjust C2 for
nism at the front. Do not use heat-sensitive rod each change. When the currents are approximately
such as Lucite or Plexiglas. Nylon and some types equal, the neutralization should be adjusted. With a
of Bakelite are unstable in strong rf fields, and are 50-ohm load connected to 12, and with the screen
also unsatisfactory. Teflon is probably good, but and plate circuits having some dc path to ground,
the fiber glass rod is stronger and easy to work. It such as through power supply bleeders, couple a
is 6 3/8 inches long, and may be 1/2 or 3/8 inch sensitive rf indicator to L3. Still with no plate or
in diameter. screen voltage applied, tune C2 and C4 for
Mechanical stops for the rotor are provided at maximum indication, then adjust the positions of
both ends of its normal travel. A 3/8-inch Teflon the neutralizing tabs, C9 and CW, carefully for
rod 1 3/8 inches high, fastened to the chassis minimum rf feedthrough. Recheck the grid circuit
between the neutralizing feedthrough bushings, balance and tuning each time a tab setting is
stops the rotor in the horizontal position. The changed.
rotor is prevented from "going through the roof' The points of connection of the resistors R1
by a I-inch setscrew in the vernier-drive hub, and a and R2 on the lines comprising L2 are not critical,
longer-than-normal screw for the lower left unless the exciter is low on output, but they
mounting screw for the driver assembly. should be near the points of lowest rf voltage on
The rotor in its horizontal position is approxi- the line. Check by running a pencil lead along the
mately 1/4 inch above L3, and the spacing at the line and watching the current. The point at which
end of the rotor is also 1/4 inch. The tubes are there is no change in·the meter indication is where
fitted with Eimac SK626 chimneys. The under the clip should be. Recheck all adjustments.
surface of L3 should just clear these. If it does not, The approximate tuning range of the plate cir-
raise it by putting washers on the screws that run cuit can be checked with a grjd-dip meter, with no
into the I-inch pillars. power on the amplifier. It should tune more than
The output loop, L4, is supported under L3 by the width of the 2-meter band. Now, with an out-
two l/2-inch ceramic insulators. If the threaded put indicator and a good 50-ohm load connected to
holes go the whole length, be sure that the 12, the amplifier is ready for power.
 Kilowatt Amplifier for 144 MHz 225
AMPL.IFI[R

Cl0
.l44-t,48 MHz

OUTPUT
J2

RFC 1

INPUT
J1

IN MICROFARADS (JlF) ; OTHERS

ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR JI.J.IF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
11-1000. ,.-1 000 000
GNO.

Fig. 7-34 - Schematic diagram and parts J1 - BNC coaxial jack.

information for the 144-MHz amplifier. Capacitors J2 - Type N coaxial jack.
not described are disk ceramic. J3 - B-pin power connector, male.
J4 - High voltage power connector (Millen
37S01 ).
C1 - 2S-pF miniature variable (Hammarlund L1 - Copper strip 1/4 X 4 inches. See Fig. 7-36.
MAPC-2SB). L2 - 1/4-inch copper tubing 101/2 inches long,
C2 - 2S-pF per section split-stator (Hammarlund 1S/16 inch center to center. Bend to Y shape 2
HFD-2SI. inches from tube end.
C3 - 1.S- to S-pF differential (Hammarlund L3 - .06S-inch sheet brass; see text and Fig. 7-3S.
MAC-50S). L4 - Copper strip 1S/16 X 7 1/2 inches, bent to
C4 - Vane-type tuning capacitor; see text and roughly elliptical shape. See text and Fig. 7-36.
photos. R1, R2 - 1 SO-ohm composition, 1/2 watt.
CS - 3S-pF variable (Hammarlund HF-3S). R3, R4 - 1 SO-ohm composition, 1 watt.
C6 - SOO-pF 10-kV TV "doorknob." RS - 20-0hm 10-watt, slider type.
C7, CS - Screen bypass; part of Eimac SK-620A RFC1 - 32 turns No. 24 enamel, closewound on
socket. 1/4-inch Teflon rod. See mounting position in
C9, C10 - Neutralizing tabs 1/4 X SIS-inch sheet interior photo.
copper, soldered to top of National FTB S1 - Spst toggle switch.
bushing. T1 - 6.3-V 6-A filament transfo~mer (Merit
11 - 117-volt neon pilot lamp. P-2947).

4 REQUIRED

Fig. 7-3S - Principal dimensions of the brass parts of the amplifier plate circuit. The U-shaped inductor
is shown in both top and side views, with the stator plates of C4 in place. These plates (A) are shown
before bending, at the upper right. The small brackets (B) make contact with the tube anodes. Slight
curvature, to fit tube anode, can be imparted by tapping with a small hammer, against a 1 1/2-inch pipe
or rod, used as an anvil.
226 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING

ANODE CLAMP
(2 REQ.1
,
.'
I

~.iL"_~
, •
,I
1
1 1
t: C4 ROTOR 'I
L,
1 1
I I
,
I
i." I

:"".J." oj
t: • I
1
~., "
16 x 7 L4

Fig. 7-36 - Flashing-copper parts used in the 2-meter amplifier. Broken lines indicate 90-{jegree bending
required. The surfaces of the C4 rotor are soldered together after bending, for rigidity. The anode
clamps, upper right, wrap around the tube cooling ring, and hold the brass tabs (Fig. 7-35) firmly in
place. L1 and L4 are shown in the approximate shape, after bending, at the right.

For initial tests, the plate voltage should be 800 Best results show at plate voltages between 1200
to 1000 volts. Screen voltage should be no more and 1800. The tube maker's typical operating
than 250, preferably regulated. There will be little conditions are the best guide to effIcient operation,
difference in tuning or output with the cover on or but they are only typical. If safe levels of grid,
off, so, with due regard for safety, leave it off, at screen and plate dissipation are not exceeded,
fIrst. Never reach inside the plate compartment many variations are possible. See "Tips on Linears"
when high voltage is applied. To be sure that it is earlier in this chapter.
off, short the plate inductor to ground with an This amplifIer was built by WISL, and
insulated screwdriver or other safe shorting device. described in February, 1971, QST.
Do this every time before touching anything inside
the compartment in any other way. Play it safe! References
Apply plate and screen voltage, in that order. The 50- and 144-MHz amplifIers described
Adjust bias so that the plate current is about 150 incorporate features from many previous QST,
rnA. Apply drive, and tune C4 and C5 for Handbook and VHF Manual projects.
maximum power output. With enough drive for Maer, "Perseids Powerhouse," QST, Oct., 1959
about 5 rnA grid current per tube, the plate (dual-band amplifIer for 50 and 144 MHz).
efficiency should approach 70 percent, after the "High-Efficiency 2-Meter Kilowatt," QST,
position of L4 with respect to L3 is adjusted with Feb., 1960 (PP 4CX300As).
some care. Loop position and all tuning adjust- Breyfogle, "Top Efficiency at 144 Mc. with
ments change with plate voltage and drive level, so 4X250Bs," QST, Dec., 1961.
in linear service all adjustments should be made "Kilowatt AmplifIers for 50 and 144 Mc.,"
under the conditions for which you want best QST, Feb., 1964. Basic information also in the
linearity. VHF Manual, all editions, and in this Handbook,
The shape and position of U are quite critical. 1966 through 1970. Metering and control informa-
Best efficiency was obtained with the loop roughly tion applies to the 144-MHz amplifier described
elliptical in shape, and about 3/8 inch below L3. here.

A RESONANT-CAVITY AMPLIFIER FOR 432 MHZ

The grid circuit of the amplifIer is as shown in

This highly-efficient 4CX250 amplifIer operates Fig. 7-39 and is pretty much a duplication of the
at approximately 63-percent efficiency when used one shown in the 2nd Edition of The Radio
with a plate supply of 1750 volts and a screen Amateur's VHF Manual (ARRL), page 257. The
supply of 255 volts. It can be operated with higher plate side of the circuit is a resonant cavity and is
voltage on its plate, but at reduced efficiency. It shown in representative form in Fig. 7-39. Detailed
provides power levels up to 500 watts input on cw information on how the plate circuit is built is
and fm. given in Fig. 740.
 A Resonant Cavity Amplifier for 432 MHz 227

Fig. 7-38 - Inside view of the amplifier. The grid

circuit and filament transformer are inside the
chassis. Plate and output-tuning adjustments are
made from the bottom of the cavity (far rightl.
Fig. 7-37 - View of the top of the assembled
amplifier. Teflon bushings hold the square assuring good continuity at the high-current points
capacitor plate in place on the wall of the cavity.
One bushing is not shown. The high voltage and rf of the cavity, and to enhance the tuning stability
choke connect to that bushing's screw when it is in of the plate circuit.
place. Plate-tuning adjustments are made from the The tube and socket are mounted 5/8 inch off
bottom of the cavity. The shaft for C3 is accessible center from the center of the cavity. The hole in
on the bottom wall of the cavity. This amplifier the top plate of the cavity should be large enough
was designed and built by H. E. Holshouser, Jr., in diame ter to assure a 31 l6-inch clearance all
K4QIF. around the anode of the tube. Care should be
taken to smooth the edges of the hole lest arcing
occur during operation. The home-built capacitor,
Construction C6, is formed by making a 3 7/8-blch square
Much of the information concerning the way copper or brass plate of l/8-inch thick stock and
the amplifier is built can be taken from the photos. placing a sheet of lO-mil teflon insulation between
The dimensions of the plate cavity are given in Fig. it and the cavity top plate. The plate has a
740. The cavity is constructed, cylindrical fashion, clearance hole for the anode of the 4CX250 and is
from l/8-inch thick copper or brass stock and has ringed with finger stock so that it contacts the
an inside diameter of 6 l/4-inches. The wall height tube's anode. Insulating bushings of teflon are used
of the cylinder is 1 1/2 inches. Both end plates are at each corner of the capacitor plate to secure it to
fashioned from l/8-inch thick copper or brass the wall ofthe cavity, Fig. 7-37.
stock. A firm bond is essential between the end An Eimac SK-600 tube socket is used, and no
plates and the cylinder to assure maximum chimney is needed. The socket has built-in bypass
efficiency. It would be wise to have the cylinder capacitors on the screen and filament terminals.
milled flat on each end to assure a good fit, then These are not shown on the schematic diagram.
use a liberal number of machine screws to hold the The bottom of the tube socket projects into the
end plates in place. Mechanical rigidity is main chassis where the grid circuit is located. The
imperative with this type of structure, thus output link, L3, is a straight piece of l/16-inch

------ -r--
BIAS Fig. 7-39 - Schematic of the amplifier. Cl and C2
are 9-pF miniature variables (Johnson 160-104!.
RFCl and RFC2 are each 8 turns of No. 16, enam,

INPUT
Jt

432 MHz.
±i1
I

I
I
CI
L2

11
C2

RFC2
Y
.001'
8M
1/2 inch diameter and 1 inch long. RFC3 is a
1.4-MH choke. L1 is a brass strip, 1/16 inch thick,
37/8 inches long, and 1 1/4 inches wide. L2 is a
loop of No. 12 wire, 6 inches overall. J1 and J2 are
type-N chassis connectors. B.M. ; button mica.

~I
I RFCI

: ~rl
L__ J __ _
s.sv. SCREEN H.V.
(SH 1i!xt> VOLTAGE
228 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING

Fig. 740 - Mechanical layout of the plate cavity Fig. 741 - Inside view of the K4QIF amplifier
and its dimensions. cavity. The stationary capacitors, C2 and C4, are
located on either side of the 4CX250 socket.

thick brass or copper, 1/8 inch wide, shaped as plate meter should an arc or short circuit occur.
shown in Fig. 740. The screen current should be metered so that at no
Two fixed capacitors are shown in the time an excessive amount of current will be
schematic diagram, C2 and C4. These capacitors permitted to flow. Heed the manufacturer's ratings
are not indicated on the mechanical drawing of at all times.
Fig. 740 as they were added as a modification The amplifier must always look into a
when some models of this amplifier showed a nonreactive load if damage is not to occur. It is
tendency toward arcing between the disk of C3 designed to work into a SO-ohm load, but a
and the cavity wall. C2 and C4 are disks of copper 7S-ohm load will be acceptable if the SWR is kept
which are 1 1/4 inches in diameter. They are low. Warning: The anode of the 4CX2S0 should be
spaced approximately 1/8 inch from the top wall covered with a perforated box of some type to
of the cavity. They are supported from the bottom prevent accidental contact with the high voltage. It
wall of the cavity by means of 3/8-inch diameter should allow the free passage of air from the
brass posts and are positioned generally as shown forced-air cooling system, which is piped into the
in Fig. 741. A word of caution: The tuning shaft grid compartment. The grid compartment should
of C3 should not pass through the grid be made as air-tight as possible to assure a heavy
compartment of the amplifier. The cavity assembly flow of air through the socket and the anode fins
is offset on the main chassis so that the shaft is of the tube.
accessible outside the grid compartment. The heater voltage for this type of tube is 6.0
The output tuning capacitor, CS, is a glass and not 6.3. It is satisfactory to use the 6-volt
piston trimmer with a maximum capacitance of 10 figure at the low frequencies, but at 432-MHz, the
pF. Do not try to use a plastic piston trimmer here voltage should be reduced to S.S to compensate for
as it will be destroyed because of its poor dielectric the back-bombardment that the cathode is
properties. Neutralization of this amplifier was not subjected to. The latter causes overheating, which
found to be necessary as no tendency toward in turn causes drifting of operating conditions and
instability was noted. shortened tube life. Other operating voltages and
currents for this amplifier must be chosen for the
Operation class of operation desired. It is best to consult the
It is suggested that a O.S-ampere fuse be used in manufacturer's published ratings for this informa-
series with the high-voltage lead to protect the tion.

GROUNDED-GRID AMPLIFIER FOR 1296 MHZ

There are few tubes available that will provide brothers the 2C39A, 2C39B, 3CXlOOAS, and
the radio amateur with low-cost construction while 7289. All look pretty much alike, but only the
at the same time delivering moderate power output early versions have appeared o,! the surplus market.
in the 121S-MHz region. One popular low-cost This amplifier uses 2C39As in a cavity assembly
tube is the 2C39. Also available are its newer and is capable of delivering 100 watts or more as a
linear amplifier, with a gaiu of 6 to 10 decibels. 1 It
1 Described in January 1968 QST. can be built with simple hand tools.
Grounded-Grid Amplifier for 1296 MHz 229

Amplifier Details
Uhf circuits, particularly those involving cavi-
ties, do not lend themselves well to conventional
schematic presentation, but the circuit diagram,
Fig. 7-43, may aid the reader in identifying the
components and understanding their functions.
The structural features of the amplifier are not all
apparent from the photographs, so are described in
some detail, using component designations of Fig.
7-45 in referring to the various parts.
This is a grounded-grid amplifier. The large
square box visible in the pictures houses the
cathode input circuit. The whole assembly is
shown from the top in Fig. 7-42, and from the
bottom in Fig. 7-44. Details of the principal metal
parts are given in Fig. 7-45. It will be seen that the
bottom cover of the cathode compartment (part D
in Fig. 7-45) is cut diagonally to permit access to
the cathode circuit for adjustment purposes. The
tuned circuit, LI-C2, is effectively a half-wave line, Fig. 742 - The 2-tube 1296·MHz amplifier. Two
tuned at the end opposite to the tubes. The 2C39As are used in this grounded-grid setup, The
large square base unit houses the cathode input
inductance, part E in Fig. 7-45, is tuned by means circuit. The plate cavity is not visible, as it is
of a beryllium copper spring fmger, visible in the obscured by the plate-bypass assembly seen here_
lower left corner of Fig. 7-44. It is actuated by an (Built by W6IOM)
adjustment screw running through a shoulder nut
mounted in the removable cover plate. Input
Construction
coupling is capacitive, through Cl, a small glass
trimmer at the center of the line, between the Major sheet-metal parts are cut from 0.04- or
tubes. An approximate input match is established 0.05-inch sheet-brass. The cutting, bending and
by adjustment of this capacitor. soldering can be done with hand tools. The
The plate circuit, L2-C3, is a square tuned soldering is done readily over a kitchen stove, or
cavity not visible in the pictures. It is made by with a 300-watt or larger soldering. iron. Silver
bending part G into a square, and soldering it to plating is recommended, to assure good rf contact
the top of part C and to the bottom of part B, with throughout. Several methods usable in the home
all lined up on a common center. The outside of are outlined in The Radio Amateur's VHF Manual.
the cavity is at rf ground potential. The tubes are All sheet-brass parts are shown in Fig. 7-45, with
mounted on a diagonal, at equal distances from the dimensions and hole locations. Note that the
center. The plate tuning capacitor, C3, is coaxial. bottom plate of the cathode assembly, part D, is
Its movable ele'ment is a 6-32 screw, running cut diagonally, and fitted with spring finger stock
through a shoulder nut in the top plate of the to assure good electrical continuity when the
bypass capacitor, C4, soon to be described. The assembly is closed.
fixed portion is a metal sleeve 5/16 inch inside On the smaller part of D is a 6-32 screw that
diameter and 5/8 inch high, soldered to the top runs through a shoulder nut soldered into the
side of part C. It is centered on a 6-32 binder-head sheet, with the head of the screw on the outside
screw, threaded into the center 'hole in part C. This when the cover is in place. The end of the screw
screw also holds a 3/8-inch insulating spacer that bears on the beryllium copper spring finger, 5/8
supports the cathode inductor, part E. Output inch wide, bent so that its position with respect to
coupling is by means of a fixed loop, L3, on a BNC the cathode circuit varies with the position of the
or TNC coaxial fitting mounted in the 3/B-inch screw. Its position and approximate size should be
hole in part G, the cavity wall. evident from Fig. 7-44. The bottom end is soldered
The bypass capacitor, C4, consists of the top to the inside of part C. The free end should be
cover of the plate cavity, part B, a layer of wrapped with smooth insulating tape, so that the
0.02-inch Teflon sheet, and the top plate, part A. cathode bias will not be shorted out if the
This combination does not act as a pure capacitor is closed down too far.
capacitance, because of the large size of the plates Spring finger stock is used to provide flexible
in terms of wavelength at 1296 MHz. It is low-inductance contact with the plate, grid and
important not to make substitutions here, as cathode elements of the tubes. Finger stock
variations in size of the plates or thickness of the numbers are given for stock obtained from
insulation may cause the capacitor to become Instrument Specialty Co., Little Falls, N.J. The
resonant. The plates are held together with nylon material used for tube contact purposes is No.
screws. Metal screws with insulating sleeving, and 97-380. That on the triangular cover plate is
insulating shoulder washers, may also be used. 97-134. If tubes with recessed grid rings are used
Nylon screws and other insulation, other than (example: the 7289) it is necessary to solder a
Teflon, may melt if the bypass capacitor becomes small piece of brass against the bottom of the grid
resonant. Nylon is very lossy at 1296 MHz. finger stock, to prevent the tube from being
230 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING
pushed in too far. Otherwise it is impossible to
remove the tube without damage to either the
finger stock or the tube. The finger stock used in 1296 Me.
the grid, plate and cathode holes should be J2
preformed to fit, and then soldered in with a
200-watt or larger iron. That on part D is soldered ~OUTPUT
to the outside of the plate. It may be necessary to
strengthen the cover plate with a strip of brass
soldered to the inside, opposite to the finger stock +
1100V. (MAX.)
to prevent bulging. This should protrude about ~-
1/16 inch from the edge of the cover plate. Any
intermittent contact here will detune the input
circuit severely.
The finger stock in the plate bypass should be RFCI RFC3
flush with the sheet metal on the side facing the
cavity. With the grid and cathode connections the
stock may protrude somewhat. The soldering of
the cavity parts should be done rust. The parts 6.oV.
should be lined up carefully, clamped together, and (NO GND.) 0 - - - - - - - '
then soldered in place over a gas flame for
preheating, doing the actual soldering with a small Fig. 743 Representative circuit of the
iron. Check alignment prior to final cool-down. 1296-MHz cavity amplifier. The plate cavity and
The output BNC. fitting can be soldered in at this tuning device are indicated by L2,C3. the cathode
inductance and tuning capacitor by L1,C2. Note
time, adding the coupling loop later. It is merely a that the heater supply must not be grounded.
strip of copper or brass, 3/8 inch wide, soldered
between the center pin of 12 and the cavity C1 - 5-pF glass trimmer.
bottom. The strip should rest against the Teflon C2 - Beryllium-copper spring finger; see text and
Fig. 744.
shoulder of the fitting, and extend 1/4 inch C3 - Coaxial plate capacitor (see textl
beyond the center pin before being bent 90 degrees C4 - Plate bypass capacitor, composed of parts A
down to the cavity bottom. Solder solidly to part and B, Fig. 745 separated by 0.02-inch Teflon
A, and to the full length of the pin on 12. Now put sheet. See text.
in the finger stock. If a small iron is used, C5, C6, C7 - Feedthrough bypass, 500 pF.
preheating with the gas flame, the heavy brass parts J1, J2 - Coaxial jack, BNC or TNC type.
will not come loose. The top cover of the plate L1 - Cathode inductor, part E, Fig. 745. See text
cavity, part B, is then soldered in place, using a and Fig. 744.
clamp as before. L2 - Plate cavity, composed of parts C, Band G of
Fig. 745. See text.
In cutting the Teflon insulation for the plate L3 - Copper strap 3/8 inch wide, from pin of J2
bypass, make tube holes only just large enough to to top side of part C.
clear the tube. There should also be some area of RFC1, RFC2, RFC3 - 10 turns No. 22 enamel,
insulation around the outer edges of the top plate. 1/8-inch dia, 1 inch long.
These precautions are helpful in preventing R1 - 50 to 100 ohms, 2 watts (see text).
arc-over.
Connection to the tube heaters is made by
bending a V-shaped piece of beryllium copper or
spring bronze to make a snug fit in the heater cup
at the end of the tube. The air-wound rf choke is
connected directly to this, with the other end
running to the feedthrough bypasses. The heaters
being brought out separately permits a check on
condition of tubes, by turning off the heaters one
at a time. Leaving the tube in place, but cold, does
not detune the system, and a comparison of the
tubes may be made in this way. Note that neither
side of the heater circuit can be grounded.

Fig. 744 - Bottom (or back) view of the cathode

circuit and housing showing the divided cover
plate, part 0 in Fig. 745. Inside are the cathode
inductance, part E, and the spring-finger tuning
capacitor plate, C2. The heater and cathode
feedthrough bypasses and the input coaxial fitting
are on the cover plate, near the center. The outside
surface of the removable cover plate is shown.
Grounded-Grid Amplifier for 1296 MHz 231
i-----s"'----o.i

r.- "---j
4

rI /'
4"
h,--:.7
7.~"6'",)4"
--(

~®- ~~",
Lf----e--
. "

Fig, 745 Principal two-piece bottom cover, D.

sheet-metal parts of the The long strip F forms the
1296-MHz amplifier: top side walls of the cathode
plate of the bypass capaci- assembly, and G forms the
tor, A; its bottom plate side walls of the plate cavi-
and top cover of the plate ty. both before bending in-
cavity, B; top plate of the to thei r square shape.
Cathode assembly, C; and

plate power, preferably at a lower voltage than the

Tuning and Operation maximum that will be used eventually. Apply
When construction is completed and checked drive, and tune the input circuit for maximum
out, apply heater power to the tubes, Connect a plate current, and the output circuit for maximum
milliammeter in series with the cathode resistor. output. A suitable indicator is an incandescent
Set the input glass trimmer at the middle of its 'lamp connected at the end of a 50-foot length of
range, and place the cover plate in position, but RG-58 cable. This will be so lossy that it will look
without putting in the screws as yet. Keep some like 50 ohms, regardless of the termination, and
pressure on it by hand to insure uniform contact. the lamp will show relative output. Maximum
Apply 10 to 20 watts of driving power, tune C2, output may not coincide with minimum plate
and observe the cathode current. Open the cathode current.
compartment, move the input trimmer, replace the Once the amplifier appears to be working
cover, and observe the current again. Repeat until normally, plate voltage may be increased. Recheck
highest current is achieved, but do not go over 120 the tuning adjustments for each change in plate
rnA. Reduce driving power, if necessary, to keep voltage, Use a value of cathode resistance that will
below this level. Fasten the cover plate in place, result in about 50 rnA plate current with no drive.
and recheck cathode current. With 1000 volts on the plates do not operate the
Supply cooling air, if this has not already been amplifier for more than a few seconds at a time
done. Be sure that adequate air flow is provided, under key-<iown conditions. With a normal cw
especially if the plate input is to be near maximum keying duty cycle you can run up to 400 rnA plate
ratings. If there is to be no cowling around the current. With ssb you may run up to 600 rnA peak
tube fins an air stream of some 150 ft 3 /min from a current, or a 300-mA indicated meter reading
low-pressure blower across the area of the tube fms during normal voice operation. With the expected
is required. With an enclosure confining the air 100 watts output, with 300 to 400 in, the RG-58
flow to a path through the fins a 30 ft 3 /min high- cable should melt in a few minutes. This is not a
pressure blower should suffice. In either case it very satisfactory method of measuring output, and
does no harm to have more. If you have a quiet some reliable power-indicating meter should be
blower it probably is not enough! used for at least an intermittent check, if at all
Connect a 50-ohm termination to 12 and apply possible.
232 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING
500-WATT AMPLIFIER FOR 432 MHz

One of the best tuned circuits, other than a

resonant cavity, for an amplifier in the 420-MHz
band is a coaxial line. To build a good one requires
some metal work, but the assembly described here
should not be difficult for the advanced worker.
Amplifiers of this type have been built and used by
W1QWJ and W1RVW, with excellent results. They
run up to 500 watts input on fm and cw, and the
amplifiers operate very much as they would on
much lower frequencies.
Input circuit details are given for both 144 and
432 MHz, permitting the stage to be set up for
tripling or straight-through operation. An inexpen-
sive 4X150A running as a tripler will drive any of
the 250-series tubes with ease.

Construction
The basic design should be clear from the
photographs, Figs. 7-46, 47 and 49. Structural
details may be obtained from Fig. 7-50. The Fig. 7-47 - Interior of the plate circuit assembly,
straight-through amplifier and the 144-MHz grid showing the center conductor with its ring of
circuit are shown schematically in Fig. 7-48. In the finger stock, the output-coupling loop, left, and
amplifier photographed, W1RVW used two separ- the disk-type tuning capacitor, right.
ate 8 by 12-inch chassis, with their 8-inch surfaces
fastened to a standard rack panel, 1 inch apart.
They are held in fum alignment by an aluminum The amplifier plate circuit is built in a 3 3/4-
plate fastened at the back. One chassis carries the inch section of 4-inch copper tubing. This is
amplifier, the other a regulated screen supply. mounted on a 5-inch square brass base plate. The
top is a copper disk with a 1 3/8-inch air hole at
the center. Inside the cover is a teflon-insUlated
capacitor plate, soldered to the inner conductor of
the plate circuit, L3 in Fig. 7-48. The latter is
1 1/2-inch copper tubing, 2 3/16 inch long. A ring
of finger stock extends 5/8 inch below the end of
L3, for making contact to the n03/4CX250B
anode. Eimac CF-300 Finger Stock, 31/32 inch
wide,is used.
The line is tuned by means of a brass-disk
capacitor, C3, details of which are shown in Fig.
7-50. The method of keeping tension on the
lead-screw may be of interest, since this is often a
problem with this type of tuning device. Two
methods have been used by the builders. The
amplifier shown has a piece of brass 1/2 inch
square and 3/4 inch long fastened to the outer
wall. The screw passes through this, and the lower
part of the block is slotted, up to the 1/4-inch
hole. A tension screw threaded into the block
makes it possible to pull the sides together slightly,
as required. The other tension system is shown in
Fig. 7-50. Here a springy piece of metal is threaded
onto the lead-screw, and then put under tension
slightly by screws at either end.
The capacitor plate, C5, at the top of the line is
insulated from the cover with teflon sheet, the
thickness of which is determined by the type of
operation intended. If the amplifier is to be
plate-modulated this sheet should be 1/32 inch.
Fig. 7-46 - Looking down at the coaxial plate
circuit of the 500-watt uhf amplifier. Air fed into For cw or fm 0.01 inch is satisfactory. Four
the screened intake, lower edge of the picture, ceramic buttons insulate the screws that hold the
flows through the enclosed chassis below, \Jp capacitor together. Dimensions are not given for
through the tube socket and out through the hole the holes required, as they will depend on the
at the end of the plate line. insulators available.
500-Watt Amplifier for 432 MHz 233
BIAS
7203/4CX250B

144-Mc.
INPUT CIRCUIT
:---y-- -~~:'---l
L. I C z .001 +-...,------ ---,
JI~ ,001
I I
I

~
tl : L,
+H.V.

2' f1FlLI
BIAS ~ ...---l-+...J
J1 .... - - - -F--
6.3V.
+C C
- H.V.
-SC.
7
I
SCREEN
VOLTAGE
6.3V.

Fig. 7-48 - Schematic diagram of the 432-MHz amplifier, as set up for straight-through operation. An
alternate 144-MHz input circuit for tripling is shown at the left.

C1, C2, C4 - 9-pF miniature trimmer (Johnson L3 - 1 1/2-inch copper tUbing, with finger stock.
160-1040r9M11). See Fig. 7-50.
C3 - Disk-type tuning capacitor, 1 1/2-inch dia L4 - No. 16 wire loop, 1/4 inch wide. Top is 1/4
brass. inch from C5.
C5 - Teflon-insulated high-voltage bypass. See L5 - 2 turns No. 16 enam., 1/2-inch dia, coupled
text. to L6.
C6 - 500-pF 20-kV TV-type capacitor. L6 - 4 turns No. 14 enam., 1/2-inch dia, 1 inch
C7, C8 - Built into socket. long, ct.
J1, J2 - Coaxial fitting. RFC1 - 8 turns No. Hl enam., 1/4-inch I D, 7/8
L1 - No. 12 wire loop, 6 inches overall. See Fig. inch long.
7-49-7-50. RFC2 - 8 turns No. 20 enam., on 1-watt 1-meg-
L2 - 1/16-inch brass, 11/4 by 37/8 inches. See ohm resistor.
Fig. 7-49. R FC3 - 1.4-J.LH rf choke.

Note that the high voltage is on these screws About the only variation from lower-frequency
when the amplifier is in operation. It is fed into practice is the need for keeping the heater voltage
one of them through a small rf choke, RFC2, the low. The rated voltage for these tubes is 6.0, not
outer end of which is supported on a TV-type 6.3, and at frequencies above 300 MHz it should be
500-pF high-voltage capacitor, C6. The lower end reduced. At 432 MHz the voltage should be 5.5.
of C6 is supported on a brass angle bracket With higher voltages the back-bombardment that
fastened to the side of the line assembly. the cathode is subjected to raises the overall tube
Output coupling from the line is by means of a temperature and shortened tube life results. The
small loop of wire, L4, mounted in a vertical drifting of operating conditions often observed in
position near the top of the line. It is series-tuned vhf and uhf amplifiers is likely to be traceable to
by C4, directly below it. excessive heater voltage.
Details of the 432-MHz grid circuit and its Be sure to use plenty of air flow through the
input coupling are given in Fig. 7-50. The input socket and tube anode. In the amplifier shown, air
capacitance of these tubes is high, so a half-wave
line must be used. Even with this type of grid
circuit, the inductance must be very low to tune to
432 MHz. Note that Ll is less than 4 inches long,
despite its 1 1/4-inch width.

Operation
Because of the high-efficiency coaxial plate
circuit, the amplifier operates almost as it would
on lower frequencies. The manufacturer's ratings
may be followed, using the maximum figures if
desired. It is usually desirable to make provision
for lowering the plate voltage in some way,
however, as the difference between the maximum
rating and something perhaps 25 to 50 percent
lower will make only a trifling difference in results, Fig. 7-49 - Bottom view of the amplifier, showing
except where contact is being maintained under the strip of brass used for the grid circuit induc-
marginal conditions. tance, L2.
234 VHF AND UHF TRANSMITTING
is fed into an opening in the top of the chassis. The
bottom has a tight-fitting cover, so that the only
air route open is through the socket and out
through anode and L3.
Adjustment of the position of the output
coupling loop, L4, with respect to the inner
conductor of the line is fairly critical, if maximum
efficiency is to be achieved. In one of the
amplifiers the coupling loop, the coaxial fitting and
the series capacitor were made into a single
assembly on a curved plate of copper or brass. This
could be removed at will, to permit adjustment of
the shape and position of the coupling loop. It is
fastened to the outside of the main cylinder with
small brass screws, covering a rectangular hole in
the cylinder cut for this purpose.

d'
I"
i6 BRASS

il£:f~
II--.- - 4 " "

~21!"---l
, .
--!3'L
I~I
TiBcass
•

-rr

Fig. 7-50 - Principal mechanical details of the

432-MHz amplifier. The coaxial tank circuit is
shown in cut-away form at the lower left, and in
outline, center. The top view of the assembly and
the capacitor plate for C5 are the other views.
Details of the strip-line grid circuit are at the lower
right.
 CHAPTER 8

Receiving Systems
The performance of a communications receiver
can be measured by its ability to pick up weak
signals and separate them from the noise and
interference while at the same time holding them
steady at the same dial settings. The difference
between a good receiver and a poor one can be the
difference between copying a weak signal well, or
perhaps not copying it at all.
Whether the receiver is of home-made or
commercial origin, its performance can range from
excellent to extremely poor, and high cost or
I
circuit complexity cannot assure proper results.
Some of the simplest of receivers can provide
excellent results if careful attention is given to
their design and properl)se. Conversely, the most
expensive of receivers can provide poor results if
not operated in a competent manner. Therefore,
the operator's success at sorting the weak signals
out of the noise and interference is dependent
upon the correct use of a properly designed,
correctly operated receiver.
Communications receivers are rated by their Fig. 8·1 - The success of amateur on·the·air
sensitivity (ability to pick up weak signals), their operation is, in a large part, determined by a
selectivity (the ability to distinguish between receiver. A good receiver, mated with a good pair
signals that are extremely close together in terms of ears, is an unbeatable combination.
of frequency), and by their stability. The latter
trait assures that once a stable signal is tuned in it suitable for copying only a-m and wide-band fm
will remain tuned without periodic retuning of the signals. Superheterodyne receivers are the most
receiver controls (especially the main tuning and popular and are capable of better performance
BFO controls). than the foregoing types. Heterodyne detectors are
A well-designed modem receiver must be able used for ssb and cw reception in the latter. If a
to receive all of the popular modes of emission if it regenerative detector is made to oscillate and
is to be truly versatile. It should be capable of provide a steady signal, it is known as an autodyne
handling cw, ssb, a-m, fm, and RTTY signals. detector. A beat-frequency oscillator, or BFO, is
The type of detection to be used will depend used to generate a steady signal in the superhetero-
on the job the receiver is called upon to do. Simple dyne receiver. This signal is applied to the detector
receivers consisting of a single stage of detection stage to permit the reception of ssb and cw
(regenerative detector) followed by a one- or signals.
two-stage audio amplifier are often adequate for Communications receivers should have a slow
portable and emergency use over short distances. tuning rate and a smooth-operating tuning-dial
This type of receiver can be quite compact and mechanism if any reasonable degree of selectivity is
light weight and can provide many hours of used. Without these features cw and ssb signals are
operation from a dry-battery pack if transistorized extremely hard to tune in. In fact, one might easily
circuitry is used. Similarly, superregenerative tune past a weak signal without knowing it was
detectors can be used in the same way, but are there if a fast tuning rate were used.

RECEIVER CHARACTERISTICS

Sensi tivi ty amateur, since it indicates how well a weak signal

In commercial circles "sensitivity" is defined as will be heard. However, it is not an absolute
the signal at the input of the receiver required to method, because the bandwidth of the receiver
give a signal-plus-noise output some stated ratio plays a large part in the result.
(generally 10 dB) above the noise output of the The random motion of the molecules in the
receiver. This is a useful sensitivity measure for the antenna and receiver circuits generates small

235
236 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
is usually given in decibels; it runs around 5 to 10
dB for a good communications receiver below 30
80
\ II MHz. Although noise figures of 2 to 4 dB can be
obtained, they are of little or no use below 30 MHz
except in extremely quiet locations or when a very
1\ II small antenna is used. The noise figure of a receiver
is not modified by changes in bandwidth.
J
Selectivity
\ II Selectivity is the ability of a receiver to
j discriminate against signals of frequencies differing
from that of the desired signal. The overall
\ II
II
selectivity will depend upon the selectivity and the
number of the individual tuned circuits.
The selectivity of a receiver is shown
graphically by drawing a curve that gives the ratio
\
, \ J
J 6 of signal strength required at various frequencies
o off resonance to the signal strength at resonance,
a 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 to give constant output. A resonance curve of this
KHz. OFF RESONANCE type is shown in Fig. 8-2. The bandwidth is the
width of the resonance curve (in Hz or kHz) of a
receiver at a specified ratio; in the typical curve of
Fig. 8-2 - Typical selectivity curve of a modern Fig. 8-2 the bandwidths for response ratios of 2
superheterodyne receiver. Relative response is
plotted against deviations above and below the and 1000 (described as "-6 dB" and "-60 dB") are
resonance frequency. The scale at the left is in 2.4 and 12.2 kHz respectively.
terms of voltage ratios, the corresponding decibel The bandwidth at 6 dB down must be sufficient
steps are shown at the right. to pass the signal and its sidebands if faithful
reproduction of the signal is desired. However, in
the crowded amateur bands, it is generally
advisable to sacrifice fidelity for intelligibility. The
voltages called thermal-agitation noise. Thermal- ability to reject adjacent-channel signals depends
agitation noise is independent of frequency and is upon the skirt selectivity of the receiver, which is
proportional to the (absolute) temperature, the determined by the bandwidth at high attenuation.
resistive component of the impedance across In a receiver with excellent skirt selectivity, the
which the thermal agitation is produced, and the ratio of the 6-dB bandwidth to the 60-dB
bandwidth. Noise is generated in vacuum tubes and bandwidth will be about 0.2 for code and 0.3 for
semiconductors by random irregularities in the phone. The minimum usable bandwidth at 6 dB
current flow within them; it is convenient to down is approximately 150 Hz for code reception
express this shot-effect noise as an equivalent and approximately 2000 Hz for phone.
resistance in the grid circuit of a noise-free tube.
This equivalent noise resistance is the resistance (at
room temperature) that placed in the grid circuit
of a noise-free tube will produce plate-circuit noise
equal to that of the actual tube. The equivalent DETECTOR
noise resistance of a vacuum tube increases with
frequency.
An ideal receiver would generate no noise in its
(A)
tubes or semiconductors and circuits, and the
minimum detectable signal would be limited only
by the thermal noise in the an tenna. In a practical
receiver, the limit is determined by how well the
amplified antenna noise overrides the other noise
of the input stage. (It is assumed that the first stage
(8)
of any good receiver will be the determining factor;
the noise contributions of subsequent stages should
be insignificant by comparison.) At frequencies DIRECT CONVERSION
below 20 or 30 MHz the site noise (atmospheric
and man-made noise) is generally the limiting (C)
factor.
The degree to which a practical receiver
approaches the quiet ideal receiver of the same
bandwidth is given by the noise figure of the
receiver. Noise figure is defined as the ratio of the
signal to noise power ratio of the ideal receiver to
the signal-to-noise power ratio of the actual
receiver output. Since the noise figure is a ratio, it Fig. 8-3 - Block diagrams of three simple receivers.
Detection and Detectors 237
Stability later in this chapter. Another way to increase
receiver sensitivity is to add one or more
The stability of a receiver is its ability to "stay rf-amplifier stages before the detector. This
put" on a signal under varying conditions of approach is called the tuned-radio-frequency, or
gain-control setting, temperature, supply-voltage TRF receiver, Fig. 8-3B.
changes and mechanical shock. The term "un- Another design which has become popular for
stable" is also applied to a receiver that breaks into use in battery-powered equipment is the direct-
oscillation or a regenerative condition with some conversion receiver, Fig. 8-3C. Here, a detector is
settings of its controls that are not specifically employed along with a variable-frequency oscilla-
intended to control such a condition. tor which is tuned just sligh tly off the frequency of
the incoming signal to produce a beat note. A
SIMPLE RECEIVERS
narrow-bandwidth audio filter located between the
The simplest receiver design consists of a detector and the aduio amplifier provides selectiv-
detector followed by an audio amplifier, as shown ity. However, the lack of automatic gain control
in Fig. 8-3A. Obviously, the sensitivity of the limi ts the range over which the receiver can handle
detector determines how well this receiver will strong signals unless a manual rf-gain control is
work. Various schemes have been developed to employed. FETs and ICs can be used as detectors
increase detector sensitivity, including the regener- to provide up to 90 dB of dynamic range -
ative and superregenerative detectors described typically 3 J1V to 100 mV of input signal.

DETECTION AND DETECTORS

Detection (demodulation) is the process of circuit at Fig. 8-4A includes the rf tuned circuit,
extracting the signal information from a modulated L2CI, a coupling coil, 11, from which the rf
carrier wave. When dealing with an a-m signal, energy is fed to L2CI, and the diode, CRl, with its
detection involves only the rectification of the rf load resistance, R I, and bypass capacitor, C2.
signal. During fm reception, the incoming signal
must be converted to an a-m signal for detection. L2
See Chapter 14.
Detector sensitivity is the ratio of desired
detector output to the input. Detector linearity is a
measure of the ability of the detector to reproduce
the exact form of the modulation on the incoming (AI
signal. The resistance or impedance of the detector
is the resistance or impedance it presents to the
circuits it is connected to. The input resistance is
important in receiver design, since if it is relatively
low it means that the detector will consume power,
and this power must be furnished by the preceding
stage. The signal-handling capability means the L2
ability to accept signals of a specified amplitude
without overloading or distortion.
LI
•. F. <>---:J
Diode Detectors INPUT~
(81
The simplest detector for a-m is the diode. A
germanium or silicon crystal is an imperfect form
of diode (a small current can usually pass in the
reverse direction), but the principle of detection in
a semiconductor diode is similar to that in a
vacuum-tube diode.
Circuits for both half-wave and full-wave diodes
are given in Fig. 8-4. The simplified half-wave

Fig. 8-4 - Simplified and practical diode detector

circuits. A, the elementary half-wave diode
detector; B, a practical circuit, with rf filtering and
audio output coupling; C, full-wave diode detector,
with output coupling indicated. The circuit, L2C1, (el
is tuned to the signal frequency; typical values for
C2 and R1 in A and Care 250 pF and 250,000
ohms, respectively; in B, C2 and C3 are 100 pF
each; R1, 50,000 ohms; and R2, 250,000 ohms. C4
is 0.1 J1F and R3 may be 0.5 to 1 megohm.
238 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
both halves of the rf cycle are utilized. The
MOOULATED full-wave circuit has the advantage that rf filtering
SIGNAL APPLIED (A) is easier than in the half-wave circuit. As a result,
TO DETECTOR
less attenuation of the higher audio frequencies
will be obtained for any given degree of rf filtering.
The reactance of C2 must be small compared to
the resistance of Rl at the radio frequency being
rectified, but at audio frequencies must be
.1 (8) relatively large compared to Rl. If the capacitance
of C2 is too large, response at the higher audio
frequencies will be lowered.
Compared with most other detectors, the gain
of the diode is low, normally running around 0.8 in
audio work. Since the diode consumes power, the
Q of the tuned circuit is reduced, bringing about a
reduction in selectivity. The loading effect of the
diode is close to one half the load resistance. The
detector linearity is good, and the signal-handling
capability is high.

Plate Detectors
The plate detector is arranged so that
rectification of the rf signal takes place in the plate
Fig. 8-5 - Diagrams showing the detection process. circuit of the tube or the collector of an FET.
Sufficient negative bias is applied to the grid to
bring the plate current nearly to the cutoff point,
The progress of the signal through the detector so that application of a signal to the grid circuit
or rectifier is shown in Fig. 8-5. A typical causes an increase in average plate current. The
modulated signal as it exists in the tuned circuit is average plate current follows the changes in the
shown at A. When this signal is applied to the signal in a fashion similar to the rectified current in
rectifier, current will flow only during the part of a diode detector.
the rf cycle when the anode is positive with respect In general, transformer coupling from the plate
to cathode, so that the output of the rectifier circuit of a plate detector is not satisfactory,
consists of half-cycles of rf. These current pulses because the plate impedance of any tube is very
flow in the load circuit comprised of Rl and C2, high when the bias is near the plate-current cutoff
the resistance of Rl and the capacitance of C2 point. The same is true of a JFET or MOSFET.
being so proportioned that C2 charges to the peak Impedance coupling may be used in place of the
value of the rectified voltage on each pulse and
retains enough charge between pulses so that the
voltage across Rl is smoothed out, as shown in C.
RFC .1
C2 thus acts as a filter for the radio-frequency L-..AUDIO
component of the output of the rectifier, leaving a r-'-'OUTPUT
dc component that varies in the same way as the
modulation on the original signal. When this Rrm-----~
varying dc voltage is applied to a following
amplifier through a coupling capacitor (C4 in Fig. INPU~_____ ~
8-4), only the variations in voltage are transferred,
so that the final ou tpu t signal is ac, as shown in D. (A)
In the circuit at 8-4B, Rl and C2 have been
divided for the purpose of providipg a more
effective filter for rf. It is important to prevent the
appearance of any rf voltage in the output of the
detector, because it may cause overloading of a
succeeding amplifier stage. The audio-frequency
variations can be transferred to another circuit
through a coupling capacitor, C4. R2 is usually a R,~----~ G
"potentiometer" so that the audio volume can be
adjusted to a desired level. INP~ ____ ~
Coupling from the potentiometer (volume
control) through a capacitor also avoids any flow
of dc through the moving contact of control. The
flow of dc through a high-resistance volume
control often tends to make the control noisy Fig. 8-6 - Circuits for plate detection. A, triode; B,
FET. The input circuit, L2C1, is tuned to the
(scratchy) after a short while. signal frequency. Typical values for R 1 are 22,000
The full-wave diode circuit at 8-4C differs in to 150,000 ohms for the circuit at A, and 4700 to
operation from the half-wave circuit only in that 22,000 ohms for B.
Heterodyne and Product Detectors 239
resistance coupling shown in Fig. 8-6. Usually 100 been paid to minimizing distortion and intermodu-
henrys or more of inductance are required. lation (1M) products. Product detectors have been
The plate detector is more sensitive than the thought of by some as a type of detector whose
diode because there is some amplifying action in output signal vanishes when the BFO signal is
the tube or transistor. It will handle large signals, removed. Although some product detectors func-
but is not so tolerant in this respect as the diode. tion that way, such operation is not a criterion. A
Linearity, with the self-biased circuits shown, is product is something that results from the
good. Up to the overload point the detector takes combination of two or more things, hence any
no power from the tuned circuit, and so does not heterodyne detector can rightfully be regarded as a
affect its Q and selectivity. product detector. The two input signals (i-f and
BFO) are fed into what is essentially a mixer stage.
Infinite-Impedance Detector The difference in frequency (after filtering out and
removing the i-f and BFO signals from the mixer
The circuit of Fig. S-7 combines the high output) is fed to the audio amplifier stages and
signal-handling capabilities of the diode detector increased to speaker or headphone level. Although
with low distortion and, like the plate detector, product detectors are intended primarily for use
does not load the tuned circuit it connects to. The with cw and ssb signals, a-m signals can be copied
circuit resembles that of the plate detector, except satisfactorily on receivers which have good i-f
that the load resistance, 27kS1, is connected between selectivity. The a-m signal is tuned in as though it
source and ground and thus is common to both were an ssb signal. When properly tuned, the
gate and drain circuits, giving negative feedback for heterodyne from the a-m carrier is not audible.
the audio frequencies. The source resistor is A triode product-detector circuit is given in Fig.
bypassed for rf but not for audio, while the drain S-SA. The i-f signal is fed to the grid of the tube,
circuit is bypassed to ground for both audio and while the BFO energy is supplied to the cathode.
radio frequencies. An rf filter can be connected The two signals mix to produce audio-frequency
between the cathode and the output coupling capa- output from the plate circuit of the tube. The BFO
citor to eliminate any rf that might otherwise ap- voltage should be about 2 V rms and the signal
pear in the output. should not exceed 0.3 V rms for linear detection.
The drain current is very low at no signal, The degree of plate filtering required will depend
increasing with signal as in the case of the plate on the frequency of operation. The values shown
detector. The voltage drop across the source resis- in Fig. S-SA are sufficient for 450-kHz operation.
tor consequently increases with signal. Because of At low frequencies more elaborate filtering is
this and the large initial drop across this resistor, needed. A similar circuit using a JFET is shown at
the gate usually cannot be driven positive by the sig- B.
nal. In the circuit of Fig. S-SC, two germanium
diodes are used, though a 6AL5 tube could be
HETERODYNE AND PRODUCT substituted. The high back resistance of the diodes
DETECTORS is used as a dc return; if a 6AL5 is used the diodes
must be shunted by I-megohm resistors. The BFO
Any of the foregoing a-m detectors becomes a signal should be at least 10 or 20 times the
heterodyne detector when a local-oscillator (BFO)
amplitude of the incoming signal.
is added to it. The BFO signal amplitude should be At Fig. S-SD a two-diode circuit, plus one
5 to 20 times greater than that of the strongest transistor, provides both a-m and product detec-
incoming cw or ssb signal if distortion is to be tion. This circuit is used in the Drake SPR-4
minimized. These heterodyne detectors are fre- receiver. Balanced output is required from the
quently used in receivers that are intended for a-m BFO. The a-m detector is forward biased to
as well as cw and ssb reception. A single detector prevent the self-squelching effect common to
can thus be used for all three modes, and elaborate single-diode detectors (caused by signals of low
switching techniques are not required. To receive level not exceeding the forward voltage drop of the
a-m it is merely neces~ary to disable the BFO diode). The IC detector given in Fig. S-SE has
circuit. several advantages. First, the BFO injection only
The name product detector has been given to
needs to be equal to the input signal, because of
heterodyne detectors in which special attention has
the additional amplification of the BFO energy
which takes place within the IC. Also, output
filtering is quite simple, as the double-balanced
6800 design reduces the level of i-f signal and BFO
voltage appearing in the output circuit. Motorola's
r-------- MCl496G has a dynamic range of 90 dB and a

Rm J:I

INP~---- S

,27K
~1 SOK
GAIN
AUDIO
OUTPUT
conversion gain of about 12 dB, making it a good
choice for use in a direct-conversion receiver.
A mUltipurpose IC i-f amplifier/ detector/ agc
system, the National Semiconductor LM373, is
shown in Fig. S-SF. A choice of a-m, ssb, cw, and
fm detection is available, as well as a 60-dB-range
agc system and i-f amplification of 70 dB.
Fig. 8·7 - The infinite-impedance detector. The
input circuit, L2C1, is tuned to the signal Recovered audio is typically 120 mY. LICI tune to
frequency. the i-f frequency.
240 RECEIVING SYSTEMS

47K 1000
...-.,.....---.MI'---Q +20V
PRODUCT
DETECTOR

100
Tc;--1I-r---i4-
/-F AMP. 1M

(A)

(c)
CW/SSB/AM
DETECTOR 820 1200

10K
TO /-F 2700 2700
AMP.

~-L::.....--::I...-.L::...., ,

sss/cw
FROM
LAST o--I--H-_-.!..I
, ;;;.005 1000

1- F AMP. ,.,...........,..,,---....1
........
2.2101
____'--.J ~A.M
IN270 ~
t--_2_N_33_94+-1 .1
(E)
PRODUCT DETECTOR
(D)
MULTI MODE DETECTOR

Fig. 8-8 - Typical product-

detector circuits. In the circuit
at F, R 1 and R2 are chosen to
provide the proper impedance
terminations for the filters used,
and L1/C1 resonate at the i·f
frequency to tune the quadra-
.I;t tu re detector.

(F)

+12V
Regenerative Detectors 241
REGENERATIVE DETECTORS circuits of this type and should have a frequency
rating which is well above the desired operating
By providing controllable rf feedback (regenera-
frequency. The same is true of the frequency rating
tion) in a triode, pentode, or transistorized-detec- of any FET used in the circuit at B.
tor circuit, the incoming signal can be amplified Superregenerative detectors are somewhat more
many times, thereby greatly increasing the sensitive than straight regenerative detectors and
sensitivity of the detector. Regeneration also can employ either tubes or transistors. An in-depth
increases the effective Q of the circuit and thus the discussion of superregenerative detectors is given in
selectivity. The grid-leak type of detector is most Chapter 9.
suitable for the purpose.
The grid-leak detector is a combination diode
rectifier and audio-frequency amplifier. In the ~ TO
circuit of Fig. 8-9A, the grid corresponds to the r---AUDIO
.w
diode plate and the rectifying action is exactly the C4
same as in a diode. The dc voltage from
rectified-current flow through the grid leak, R 1,
biases the grid negatively, and the audio-frequency
variations in voltage across R1 are amplified
RF~
INPUTJ

through the tube as in a normal af amplifier. In the +

plate circuit, R2 is the plate-load resistance and C3
(AI
and RFC a filter to eliminate rf in the output
circuit.
RFC
A grid-leak detector has considerably greater
sensitivity than a diode. The sensitivity is further
increased by using a screen-grid tube instead of a
triode. The operation is equivalent to that of the
triode circuit. The screen bypass capacitor should
have low reactance for both radio and audio
frequencies.
The circuit in Fig. 8-9B is regenerative, the
feedback being obtained by feeding some signal
from the drain circuit back to the gate by inductive
coupling. "The amount of regeneration must be
controllable, because maximum regenerative ampli-
fication is secured at the critical point where the
circuit is just about to oscillate. The ciritical point
in tum depends upon circuit conditions, which
may vary with the frequency to which the detector
is tuned. An oscillating detector can be detuned
slightly from an incoming cw signal to give
autodyne reception. The circuit of Fig. 8-9B uses a
control which varies the supply voltage to control
regeneration. If L2 and L3 are wound end to end
in the same direction, the drain connection is to
.I)JF;,;- .005
pF
the outside of the "tickler" coil, L3, when the gate -,\""'-+--1
.OK
connection is to the outside end of L2. REGEN.
Although the regenerative detector is more
sensitive than any other type, its many disadvan-
tages commend it for use only in the simplest
receivers. The linearity is rather poor, and the +
signal-handling capability is limited. The signal-
handling capability can be improved by reducing
R1 to 0.1 megohm, but the sensitivity will be diode Fig. 8-9 - (A) Triode grid-leak detector combines
detection with triode amplification. Al-
decreased. The degree of antenna coupling is often though shown here with resistive plate load, R2, an
critical. audio choke coil or transformer could be used.
A bipolar transistor is used in a regenerative (B) Feeding some signal from the drain circuit
detector hookup at C. The emitter is returned to back to the gate makes the circuit regenerative.
dc ground through a lOOO-ohm resistor and a When feedback is sufficient, the circuit will
SO,OOO-ohm regeneration control. The lOOO-ohm oscillate. The regeneration is adjusted by a
resistor keeps the emitter above ground at rf to 10,OOO-ohm control which varies the drain voltage.
(e) An npn bipolar transistor can be used as a
pennit feedback between the emitter and collector. regenerative detector too. Feedback occurs be-
A S-pF capacitor (more capacitance might be tween collector and emitter through the 5-pF
required) provides the feedback path. C1 and L2 capacitor. A 50,OOO-ohm control in the emitter
comprise the tuned circuit, and the detected signal return sets the regeneration. Pnp transistors can
is taken from the collector return through T1. A also be used in this circuit, but the battery polarity
transistor with medium or high beta works best in must be reversed.
242 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
Tuning oscillating is the most sensitive condition for code
For cw reception, the regeneration control is reception. Further advancing the regeneration
advanced until the detector breaks into a "hiss" control makes the receiver less prone to blocking,
which indicates that the detector is oscillating. but also less sensitive to weak signals.
Further advancing of the regeneration control will If the detector is in the oscillating condition
result in a slight decrease in the hiss. and an a-m phone signal is tuned in, a steady
Code signals can be tuned in and will give a audible beat-note will result. While it is possible to
tone with each signal depending on the setting of listen to phone if the receiver can be tuned to
the tuning control. A low-pitched beat note cannot exact zero beat, it is more satisfactory to reduce
be obtained from a strong signal because the the regeneration to the point just before the
detector "pulls in" or "blocks." receiver goes into oscillation. This is also the most
The point just after the detector starts sensitive operating point.

TUNING METHODS
Tuning Bandspreading
The resonant frequency of a circuit can be The tuning range of a given coil and variable
shifted by changing either the inductance or the capacitor will depend upon the inductance of the
capacitance in the circuit. Panel control of coil and the change in tuning capacitance. To cover
inductance (permeability-tuned oscillator, or PTO) a wide frequency range and still retain a suitable
is used to tune a few commercial receivers, but tuning rate over a relatively narrow frequency
most receivers depend upon panel-mounted range requires the use of bandspreading. Mechani-
variable capacitors for tuning. cal bandspreading utilizes some mechanical means
to reduce the tuning rate; a typical example is the
Tuning Rate two-speed planetary drive to be found in some
For ease in tuning a signal, it is desirable that receivers. Electrical bandspreading is obtained by
the receiver have a tuning rate in keeping with the using a suitable circuit configuration. Several of
type of signal being received and also with the these methods are shown in Fig. 8-10.
selectivity of the receiver. A tuning rate of 500 In A, a small bandspread capacitor, Cl (15- to
kHz per knob revolution is normally satisfactory 25-pF maximum), is used in parallel with capacitor
for a broadcast receiver, but 100 kHz per C2, which is usually large enough (100 to 140 pF)
revolu tion is almost too fast for easy ssb reception to cover a 2-to-l frequency range. The setting of
- around 25 to 50 kHz being more desirable. C2 will determine the minimum capacitance of the
circuit, and the maximum capacitance for band-
Band Changing spread tuning will be the maximum capacitance of
Cl plus the setting of C2. The inductance of the
The same coil and tuning capacitor cannot be coil can be adjusted so that the maximum-mini-
used for, say, 3.5 to 14 MHz because of the mum ratio will give adequate bandspread. It is
impracticable maximum-to-minimum capcitance almost impossible, because of the nonharmonic
ratio required. It is necessary , therefore, to provide relation of the various band limits, to get full
a means for changing the circuit constants for bandspread on all band~ with the same pair of
various frequency bands. As a matter of conveni- capacitors. C2 is variously called the bandsetting or
ence the same tuning capacitor usually is retained, main-tuning capacitor. It must be reset each time
but new coils are inserted in the circuit for each the band is changed.
band. If the capacitance change of a tuning capacitor
One method of changing inductances is to use a is known, the total fixed shunt capacitance (Fig.
switch having an appropriate number of contacts, 8-1OA) for covering a band of frequencies can be
which connects the desired coil and disconnects found from Fig. 8-ll.
the others. The unused coils are sometimes
short-circuited by the switch, to avoid undesirable Example: What fixed shunt capacitance will allow a ca-
self-resonances. pacitor with a range of 5 to 30 pF to tune 3.45 to 4.05
MHz?
Another method is to use coils wound on forms
that can be plugged into suitable sockets. These (4.05 - 3.45) : 4.05 = 0.148
plug-in coils are advantageous when space is at a From Fig. 8-11, the capacitance ratio is 0.38, and hence
the minimum capacitance is (30 5);- 0.38:" 66 pI-'. 'The
premium, and they are also very useful when 5-pF minimum of the tuning capacitor, the tube capootance

'm
considerable experimental work is involved. and any stray capacitance must be included in the 66 pF.

~
---.

Cz --- (C)
C,
(
, (.
----
Fig. 8-10 Essentials of the three basic bandspread tuning systems.
The Su perheterodyne 243
II 1 point at which C1 is tapped on the coil. The nearer
3.00
I I
/!' the tap to the bottom of the coil, the greater the
2.00
bandspread, and vice versa. For a given coil and
LLI W 1.00
! V tap, the bandspread will be greater if C2 is set at
higher capacitance. C2 may be connected perma-
:iUuZ ,70
r- nently across the individual inductor and preset, if
!= ~ .!S0
desired. This requires a separate capacitor for each
~~
<IlL
.30 , , band, but eliminates the necessity for resetting C2
(J ~ .20 each time.
Z
-::I
w:t .10
e>::I - -
~z .07 Ganged Tuning
.--
5i .05
V The tuning capacitors of the several rf circuits
.03 , -T
, may be coupled together mechanically and
V i ' I

--mi
.02 L I
operated by a single control. However, this
i)' I
.--LJ.J operating convenience involves more complicated
.0 I.00, 001 .01 .02 .03 .05 .07 .I .2 .3 .S construction, both electrically and mechanically. It
CHANGE IN FREQUENCY becomes necessary to make the various circuits
MAXIMUM FREQUENCY track - that is, tune to the same frequency for a
given setting of the tuning control.
Fig. 8-11 - Minimum circuit capacitance required
in the circuit of Fig. 8-10A as a function of the True tracking can be obtained only when the
capacitance change and the frequency change. inductance, tuning capacitors, and circuit induc-
Note that maximum frequency and minimum tances and minimum and maximum capacitances
capacitance are used. are identical in all "ganged" stages. A small
trimmer or padding capacitor may be connected
The method shown at Fig. 8-10B makes use of across the coil, so that various muumum
capacitors in series. The tuning capacitor, C1, may capacitances can be compensated. The use of the
have a maximum capacitance of 100 pF or more. trimmer necessarily increases the minimum circuit
The minimum capacitance is determined principal- capacitance but is a necessity for satisfactory
ly by the setting of C3, which usually has low tracking. Midget capacitors having maximum
capacitance, and the maximum capacitance by the capacitances of 15 to 30 pF are commonly used.
setting of C2, which is in the order of 25 to 50 pF. The same methods are applied to bandspread
This method is capable of close adjustment to circuits that must be tracked. The inductance can
practically any desired degree of bandspread. be trimmed by using a coil form with an adjustable
Either C2 or C3 must be adjusted for each band or brass (or copper) core. This core material will
separate preadjusted capacitors must be switched reduce the inductance of the coil, raising the
in. resonant frequency of the circuit. Powdered-iron
The circuit at Fig. 8-1OC also gives complete or ferrite core material can also be used, but will
spread on each band. Cl, the bandspread capacitor, lower the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit
may have any convenient value; 50 pF is because it increases the inductance of the coil.
satisfactory. C2 may be used for continuous Ferrite and powdered-iron cores will raise the Q of
frequency coverage ("general coverage") and as a the coil provided the core material is suitable for
bandsetting capacitor. The effective maximum- the frequency being used. Core material is now
minimum capacitance ratio depends on C2 and the available for frequencies well into the vhf region.

The Superheterodyne
In a superheterodyne receiver, the frequency of that the incoming signal is at 7000 kHz. Then the
the incoming signal is heterodyned to a new radio high-frequency oscillator frequency may be set to
frequency, the intermediate frequency (abbrevi- 7455 kHz in order that one side frequency (7455
ated "i-f"), then amplified, and finally detected. minus 7000) will be at 455 kHz. The high-frequen-
The frequency is changed by modulating the cy oscillator could also be set to 6545 kHz and give
output of a tunable oscillator (the high-frequency, the same difference frequency. To produce an
or local oscillator) by the incoming signal in a audible code signal at the detector of, say, 1000
mixer or converter stage to produce a side Hz, the heterodyning oscillator would be set to
frequency equal to the intermediate frequency. either 454 or 456 kHz.
The other side frequency is rejected by selective The frequency-conversion process permits rf
circuits. The audio-frequency signal is obtained at amplification at a relatively low frequency, the i-f.
the detector. Code signals are made audible by High selectivity and gain can be obtained at this
heterodyne reception at the detector stage; this frequency, and this selectivity and gain are
oscillator is called the "beat-frequency oscillator" constant. The separate oscillators can be designed
or BFO. Block diagrams of typical single- and for good stability and, since they are working at
double-conversion receivers are shown in Fig. 8-12. frequencies considerably removed from the signal
As a numerical example, assume that an frequencies, they are not normally "pulled" by the
intermediate frequency of 455 kHz is chosen and incoming signal.
244 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
ANT.
SINGLE CONVERSION

(A)
ANT.
DOU BlE CONVERSION
SPEAKER

Fig. 8-12 - Block diagrams of a (A) single- and (B) double-conversion superheterodyne receiver.

Images of the high-frequency oscillator may beat with

Each hf oscillator frequency will cause i-f signals far removed from the desired frequency to
response at two signal frequencies, one higher and produce output at the intermediate frequency;
one lower than the oscillator frequency. If the such spurious responses can be reduced by
oscillator is set to 7455 kHz to tune to a 7000-kHz adequate selectivity before the mixer stage, and by
signal, for example, the receiver can respond also using sufficient shielding to prevent signal pickup
to a signal on 7910 kHz, which likewise gives a 455- by any means other than the antenna_ When a
kHz beat. The undesired signal is called the image. strong signal is received, the harmonics generated
It can cause unnecessary interference if it isn't by rectification in the detector may, by stray
eliminated. coupling, be introduced into the rf or mixer circuit
The radio-frequency circuits of the receiver and converted to the intermediate frequency, to go
(those used before the signal is heterodyned to the through the receiver in the same way as an
i-t) normally are tuned to the desired signal, so that ordinary signal_ These "birdies" appear as a
heterodyne beat on the desired signal and are
the selectivity of the circuits reduces or eliminates
principally bothersome when the freque~cy of the
the response to the image signal. The ratio of the
incoming signal is not greatly different from the
receiver voltage ou tpu t from the desired signal to
intermediate frequency_ The cure is proper circuit
th~t froI? the i~age is called the signal-to-image
ratIO, or Image ratIO. isolation and shielding.
The image ratio depends upon the selectivity of Harmonics of the beat oscillator also may be
the rf tuned circuits preceding the mixer tube. converted in similar fashion and amplifIed through
Afso, the ~gher the intermediate frequency, the the receiver; these responses can be reduced by
higher the Image ratio, since raising the i-f increases shielding the beat oscillator and by careful
the frequency separation between the signal and mechanical design_
the image and places the latter further away from
~e ~esonance peak of the signal-frequency input
CIrCUItS.
MIXER PRODUCTS
Additional spurious products are generated
The Double-Conversion Superheterodyne during the mixing process, and these products are
At high and very-high frequencies it is difficult the most troublesome of all, as it is difficult indeed
to secure an adequate image ratio when the to eliminate them unless the frequencies chosen for
intermediate frequency is of the order of 455 kHz. the mixing scheme are changed. The tables and
To reduce image response the signal frequently is chart given in Fig. 8-13 will aid in the choice of
converted fIrst to a rather high (1500, 5000, or spurious-free frequency combinations, and they
even 10,000 ~Hz) intermediate frequency, and can be used to determine how receiver "birdies"
then - sometunes after further amplifIcation - are being generated. Only mixer products that fall
converted to a lower i-f where higher adjacent- close to the desired frequency are considered as
channel selectivity can be obtained_ Such a receiver they are the ones that normally cause trouble. The
is called a double-conversion superheterodyne (Fig horizontal axis of the chart is marked off in steps
8-12B). . from 3 to 20, and the vertical axes from 0 to 14.
These numbers can be taken to mean either
Other Spurious Responses kilohertz or megahertz, depending on the frequen-
cy range used. Both axes must use the same
In addition to images, other signals to which reference; one cannot be in kHz and the other in
the receiver is not tuned may be heard_ Harmonics MHz.
Mixer Products 245
Spurious Response Chart

T __ ~ 1I
'2----+----r---t--~----+_--~--~--_+
:--T-+~-
II~-

l0r---t -r

o L--+ -~ t--- ~ + t

:]
8 .------... +---t
I, I,

r,--r-
~'
~

~ 5.........--.r--·
+-- "l-

.. -r----
I
+
+

,.
FI ' l.ARGER FREQ

TABLE 1 TABLE 2

.r •
.,.. • •••
2
, , , , , • •

." .. ..
PROER 2 6 7 0 ORDER 2 6 1

,/ , ~~ .1 .J ~ :n 2/. 4, ., ,
'
, /2 ,0 •\ ~ :5 I 32 ., ' 2/7 ::~
'22 '" ,
• 2 .s>
7
II> 20 ',5 '/0
"
, /4
,/.
'0
.0
,'32
;5
~as
52

'02
'"
"
62 ./.
./4

-
--- f--
- C-
>2

C-
42
:~~
'44
'6,
'4

~K
, /6 .0 '70 72 6,
-
,/7 .:~
-- ~
.,
60 72
70 :~ ~
- -- r--- ~f- 43 -
-- - .- --
, /8 4/'
1/. 80
--- -~ ~
4/1
./<
-- -- r---- f-- . - .. -- ---.--.
I /10
,., ., .,
'0
-'--- -
21> 21
' .. -.NDICATESSUM MIXING
OTHER - OIFF MIXING
Reprmted WIth permission
of Collins Radio
Fig. 8-13 - Chart to aid in the calculation of
spurious frequencies generated during the mixing
process.

To demonstrate the use of the charl, going to be near the SO-meter band, plus the
suppose an amateur wanted to mix a 6- to 6th-order product of the 3/5 relationship.
6.5-MHz VFO output with a 10-MHz 8sb The exact frequencies of these products
signal to obtain output in the SO-meter can be found with the help of the two small
band (the same problem as with a receiver tables in Fig. S-13. The product orders from
that tunes 3.5 to 4 MHz, using a 6- to 1 to 9 are given for all the product lines on
6.5-MHz VFO to heterodyne to a 10-MHz the chart. The first digit of each group in a
i-f). Thus, F1 is 10 MHz and F2 is 6 to 6.5 box is the harmonic of the lower frequency 1
MHz. Examination of the chart shows the F2, and the second digit is the harmonic 01
the IlllJler frequency, Fl. The dot indicates
re~fi~~~~ar'lfe3'~i~ ~:t~i'A~ii~ U:e ~eas,!e~ sum Inlxing and no dot indicates products in
the transmitter, difference (subtractive) a difference mix. In the example, the chart
mixing is to be used. The order of the shows that the 2/3 relationship will yield a
products that will be close to the desired 3rd-order product 2F2-Fl, a 7th-order
mixer output frequency is given on each line product 4F2-3Fl, and an Sth-order product
in parentneses. A plus sian in front of the 5F2-3Fl.
Parentheses indicates the product order in a
sum (additive) mix, and a minus Sign the (Continued on next page)
order of a difference mix. For this example,
the chart indicates the 3rd-, 7th-, ana
Sth-order products in a 2/3 relationship are
246 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
(2 X 6) -10 = 2
(2 X 6.5) - 10 =3 (3rd order)

(4 X 6) - (3 X 10) =-6
(7th order) +40t.Jt!!!.o_-1-_-+
(4 X 6.5) - (3 X 10) =-4
(5 X 6) - (3 X 10) = 0 f. 2f.
~ 0 REFERENCE
(5 X 6.5) - (3 X 10) = 2.5 (8th order)
f.tfs
The 3/4 relationship produces a 6th-order lij-
product 4F2-2Fl. ::.: 2f.
""' -40 .....--+--I'--':.....:'-±-+.,.,.-f-=-...,
(4 X 6) - (2 X 10) = 4
(4 X 6.5) - (2 X 10) = 6 "
~
h: _aol--+---Ih-+~M=c.:::;'-I
Thus, the ranges of spurious signals near the
desired output band are 2 to 3 MH~. 6 to 4
MHz 0 to 2.5 MHz and 4 to 6 MHZ. The
~
S
negative sign indicates that the 7th-order <>::'120 1--+--I----¥-4:;:f'--*'f••t"'4f'.-t
product moves in the opposite direction to
the normal output frequency, as the VFO is
tuned. In this example pro:\>er mixer -160 ' - _ - L ._ _L._-L._......J'-._-'
operation and sufficient selectivlty follow- 1ST 2ND 3RD 4TH 5TH
ing the mixer should keep the unwanted
products sufficiently down in level without ORDER
the use of filters or traps. Even-order
products can be reduced by employing a Fig. 8-14 - Chart showing the relative levels of
balanced or doubly balanced mixer circuit, spurious signals generated by a 12AU7A mixer.
such as shown in Flg. 8-16.

The level of spurious products to be found in evident from the chart that multiples of the
the output of a 12AU7 have been calculated by V. oscillator voltage produce the strongest of the
w. Bolie, using the assumption that the oscillator undesired products. Thus, it follows that using a
injection voltage will be 10 times (20 dB) greater balanced-mixer design which reduces the level of
than the input signal. This information is given .in oscillator signal in the output circuit will decrease
Fig. 8-14 for 1st- to 5th-order products. It is the strength of the unwanted products.

MIXERS
A circuit tuned to the output frequency is "converter." In either case the function is the
placed in the plate circuit of the mixer, to offer a same.
high impedance load for the output current that is Typical mixer circuits are shown in Figs. 8-15
developed. The signal- and oscillator-frequency and 8-16. The variations are chiefly in the way in
voltages appearing in the plate circuit are rejected which the oscillator voltage is introduced. In
by the selectivity of this circuit. The ou tpu t tuned 8-15A, a pentode functions as a plate detector at
circuit should have low impedance for these the output frequency; the oscillator voltage is
frequencies, a condition easily met if neither is capacitance-coupled to the grid of the tube
close to the output frequency. through C2. Inductive coupling may be used
The conversion efficiency of the mixer is the instead. The conversion gain and input selectivity
ratio of output voltage from the plate circuit to rf generally are good, so long as the sum of the two
signal voltage applied to the grid. High conversion voltages (signal and oscillator) impressed on the
efficiency is desirable. The device used as a mixer mixer grid does not exceed the grid bias. It is
also should be low noise if a good signal-to-noise desirable to make the oscillator voltage as high as
ratio is wanted, particularly if the mixer is the first possible without exceeding this limitation. The
active device in the receiver. oscillator power required is negligible. The circuit
A change in oscillator frequency caused by is a sensitive one and makes a good mixer,
tuning of the mixer grid circuit is called pulling. particularly with high-transconductance tubes like
Pulling should be minimized, because the stability the 6CY5, 6EJ7 or 6U8A (pentode section).
of the whole receiver or transmitter depends Triode tubes can be used as mixers in grid-injection
critically upon the stability of the hf oscillator. circuits, but they are commonly used at SO MHz
Pulling decreases with separation of the signal and and higher, where mixer noise may become a
hf-oscillator frequencies, being less with higher significant factor. The triode mixer has the lowest
output frequencies. Another type of pulling is inherent noise, the pentode is next, and the
caused by lack of regulation in the power supply. multigrid converter tubes are the noisiest.
Strong signals cause the voltage to change, which In the circuit of Fig. 8-15A the oscillator
in turn shifts the oscillator frequency. voltage could be introduced at the cathode rather
than at the control grid. If this were done, C3
would have to be removed, and output from the
Circuits
oscillator would be coupled to the cathode of the
If the mixer and high-frequency oscillator are mixer through a .001·~ capacitor. C2 would also
separate tubes or transistors, the converter portion be discarded. Generally, the same rules apply as
is called a "mixer." If the two are combined in one when the tube uses grid injection.
tube envelope (as is often done for reasons of It is difficult to avoid "pulling" in a triode or
economy or efficiency), the stage is called a pentode mixer, and a pentagrid mixer tube
Mixers 247
provides much better isolation. A typical circuit is between conversion gain and good intermodula-
shown in Fig. 8-15B, and tubes like the 6BA 7 or tion-distortion characteristics. At this bias level a
6BE6 are commonly used. The oscillator voltage is local-oscillator injection of approximately 1.5 volts
introduced through an "injection" grid. Measure- is desirable for good conversion gain. The lower the
ment of the rectified current flowing in R2 is used oscillator-injection level, the lower the gain. High
as a check for proper oscillator-voltage amplitude. injection levels improve the mixers immunity to
Tuning of the signal-grid circuit can have little cross-modulation.
effect on the oscillator frequency because the A dual-gate MOSFET is used as a mixer at E.
injection grid is isolated from the signal grid by a Gate 2 is used for injecting the local-oscillator
screen grid that is at rf ground potential. The signal while gate 1 is supplied with signal voltage.
pentagrid mixer is much noisier than a triode or
pentode mixer, but its isolating characteristics
make it a very useful device.
Penagrid tubes like the 6BE6 or 6BA7 are
somtimes used as "converters" performing the dual
function of mixer and oscillator. The usual circuit
resembles Fig. 8-15D except that the No.1 grid
connects to the top of a grounded para11el-tuned
circuit by means of a larger grid-blocking capacitor,
and the cathode (without Rl and C3) connects to (A)
a tap near the grounded end of the coil. This forms
a Hartley oscillator circuit. Correct location of the
cathode tap is indicated by the grid current;
raising the tap increases the grid current because
the strength of oscillation is increased.
The effectiveness of converter tubes of the type
just described becomes less as the signal frequency
is increased. Some oscillator voltage will be
coupled to the signal grid through "space-charge"
coupling, an effect that increases with frequency.
If there is relatively little frequency difference +250V.
between oscillator and signal, as for example a 14- ( B)
or 28-MHz signal and an i-f of 455 kHz, this 2N3866
voltage can become considerable because the r-------,
I I
selectivity of the signal circuit will be unable to I-.OO-."lJU:"-~--'M--I I I
reject it. If the signal grid is not returned directly INPU~
to ground, but. instead is returned through a I ~TPUT
resistor or part of an agc system, considerable bias ___ ...I
can be developed which will cut down the gain.
For this reason, and to reduce image response, the L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~.O!.U~
i-f following the first converter of a receiver should L----0+9V
be not less than 5 or 10 percent of the signal (c)
frequency. MIXER
Diodes, FETs, ICs, and bipolar transistors can
be used as mixers. Examples are given in Figs. 8-15 100
and 8-16. A single-diode mixer is not shown here cc---ll-....-:"+t~
since its application is usually limited to circuits INPUT
operating in the uhf region and higher. A
discussion of diode mixers, plus a typical circuit, is
given in Chapter 9.
Oscillator injection can be fed to the base or 220
emitter elements of bipolar-transistor mixers, Fig.
8-15C. If emitter injection is used, the usual
emitter bypass capacitor must be removed. Because
the dynamic characteristics of bipolar transistors MIXER
prevent them from handling high signal levels, MPFI22

---nf
FETs are usually preferred in mixer circuits, OUTPUT
although they do not provide the high conversion
gain available with bipolar mixers. FETs (Fig.
8-15D and E) have greater immunity to cross-
modulation and overload than bipolar transistors,
and offer nearly square-law performance. The
__ yJ
150
circuit at D uses a junction FET, N-channel type, ..-6..../IJ\A_-.n+12V
with oscillator injection being supplied to the
source. The value of the source resistor should be (E)
adjusted to provide a bias of approximately 0.8
volts. This value offers a good compromise Fig. 8-15 - Typical single-ended mixer circuits.
 248 RECEIVING SYSTEMS

BAL. MIXER
+200Vo---VVv-~~

I W:
.---+"'--...,- - - - i OUTPUT
SIGNAL OUTPUT

~!__ ~j IN~II
.,...005
rh 7360
r ll~
(8)
~
INJ.
4 5 LEVEL
50
6.3V
osc.

-'~~ll
820 1200
+12V

l·OI

~~+"~"
OUTPUT

(C)
4700

Fig. 8-16 - Balanced and doubly balanced mixers.

,*.01
(D)
BAL 50K

TIris type of mixer has excellent immunity to the input transformer.

cross-modulation and overload. It offers better In the circuit of Fig. 8-16C, hot-carrier diodes
isolation between the oscillator and input stages are employed as a broad-band balanced mixer.
than is possible with a JFET mixer. The mixers at With careful winding of the toroid-core input and
D and E have high-Z input terminals, while the ou tput transformers, the inherent balance of the
circuit at C has a relatively low-Z input impedance. mixer will provide 40- to 50-dB attenuation of the
The latter requires tapping the base down on the oscillator signal. The transformers, Tl and T2,
input tuned circuit for a suitable impedance match. having trifIlar windings - using No. 32 enamel
wire, 12 turns on a 1/2-inch core will provide
operation on any frequency between 500 kHz and
BALANCED MIXERS 100 MHz. Using Q3 cores the upper-frequency
range can be extended to 300 MHz. CRI to CR4,
The level of input and spurious signals
inc, comprise a matched quad of Hewlett-Packard
contained in the output of a mixer may be
HPA 5082-2805 diodes. Conversion loss in the
decreased by using a balanced or doubly balanced
mixer will be 6 to 8 dB.
circuit. The balanced mixer reduces leakthrough
Special doubly balanced mixer ICs are now
and even-order harmonics of one input (usually the
available which can simplify circuit construction,
local oscillator) while the doubly balanced designs
as special balanced transformers are not required.
lower the level of spurious signals caused by both
Also, the ICs produce high conversion gain. A
the signal and oscillator inputs. One type of
typical circuit using the Signetics S5596K is shown
balanced mixer uses a 7360 beam-deflection tube,
in Fig. 8-16D. The upper frequency limit of this
connected as shown in Fig. 8-16A. The signal is
device is approximately 130 MHz.
introduced at the No. 1 grid, to modulate the
electron stream running from cathode to plates.
The beam is deflected from one plate to the other
THE HIGH-FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR
and back again by the BFO voltage applied to one Stability of the receiver is dependent chiefly
of the deflection plates. (If oscillator radiation is a upon the stability of the tunable hf oscillator, and
problem, push-pull deflection by both deflection particular care should be given this part of the
plates should be used.) At B, two CP625 FETs are receiver. The frequency of oscillation should be
used; these devices have a large dynamic range, insensitive to mechanical shock and changes in
about 130 dB, making them an excellent choice for voltage and loading. Thermal effects (slow change
either a transmitting or receiving mixer. Dc balance in frequency because of tube, transistor, or circuit
is set with a control in the source leads. The heating) should be minimized. See Chapter 6 for
oscillator energy is introduced at the center tap of sample circuits and construction details.
The Intermediate-Frequency Amplifier 249
THE INTERMEDIATE-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER

One major advantage of the superhet is that If the selectivity is too great to permit uniform
high gain and selectivity can be obtained by using a amplification over the band of frequencies
good i-f amplifier. This can be a one-stage affair in occupied by the modulated signal, some of the
simple receivers, or two or three stages in the more sidebands are "cut." While sideband cutting
elaborate sets. reduces fidelity, it is frequently preferable to
sacrifice naturalness of reproduction in favor of
communications effectiveness.
Choice of Frequency
The selectivity of an i-f-amplifier, and hence the
The selection of an intermediate frequency is a tendency to cut sidebands increases with the
compromise between conflicting factors. The lower number of tuned circuits and also is greater the
the i-f, the higher the selectivity and gain, but a lower the intermediate frequency. From the
low i-f brings the image nearer the desired signal standpoint of communication, sideband cutting is
and hence decreases the image ratio. A low i-f also never serious with two-stage amplifiers at frequen-
increases pulling of the oscillator frequency. On cies as low as 455 kHz. A two-stage i-f-amplifier at
the other hand, a high i-f is beneficial to both 85 or 100 kHz will be sharp enough to cut some of
image ratio and pulling, but the gain is lowered and the higher frequency sidebands, if good transform-
selectivity is harder to obtain by simple means. ers are used. However, the cutting is not at all
An i-f of the order of 455 kHz gives good serious, and the gain in selectivity is worthwhile in
selectivity and is satisfactory from the standpoint crowded amateur bands as an aid to QRM
of image ratio and oscillator pulling at frequencies reduction.
up to 7 MHz. The image ratio is poor at 14 MHz
when the mixer is connected to the antenna, but Circuits
adequate when there is a tuned rf amplifier I-f amplifiers usually consist of one or more
between antenna and mixer. At 28 MHz and on the stages. The more stages employed, the greater the
very high frequencies, the image ratio is very poor selectivity and overall gain of the system. In
unless several rf stages are used. Above 14 MHz, dou ble-conversion receivers there is usually one
pulling is likely to be bad without very loose stage at the first i-f, and sometimes as many as
coupling between mixer and oscillator. Tuned- three or four stages at the second, or last, i-f. Most
circuit shielding also helps. single-conversion receivers use no more than three
With an i-f of about 1600 kHz, satisfactory stages of i-f amplification.
image ratios can be secured on 14,21 and 28 MHz A typical vacuum-tube i-f stage is shown in Fig.
with one rf stage of good design. For frequencies 8-17 at A. The second or third stages would simply
of 28 MHz and higher, a common solution is to use be duplicates of the stage shown. Remote cutoff
double conversion, choosing one high i-f for image pentodes are almost always used for i-f amplifiers,
reduction (5 and 10 MHz are frequently used) and and such tubes are operated as Class-A amplifiers.
a lower one for gain and selectivity. For maximum selectivity, double-tuned transform-
In choosing an i-f it is wise to avoid frequencies ers are used for interstage coupling, though
on which there is considerable activity by the single-tuned inductors and capacitive coupling can
various radio services, since such signals may be be used, but at a marked reduction in selectivity.
picked up directly by the i-f wiring. Shifting the i-f Agc voltage can be used to reduce the gain of
or better shielding are the solutions to this the stage, or stages, by applying it to the terminal
interference problem. marked AGe. The agc voltage should be negative.
Manual control of the gain can be effected by
Fidelity; Sideband Cutting lifting the 100-ohm cathode resistor from ground
Amplitude modulation of a carrier generates and inserting a potentiometer between it and
sideband frequencies numerically equal to the ground. A lO,OOO-ohm control can be used for this
carrier frequency plus and minus the modulation purpose. A small amount of B-plus voltage can be fed
frequencies present. If the receiver is to give a through a dropping resistor (about 56,000 ohms
faithful reproduction of modulation that contains, from a 250-volt bus) to the junction of the gain
for instance, audio frequencies up to 5000 Hz, it control and the 100-ohm cathode resistor to
must at least be capable of amplifying equally all provide an increase in tube bias in turn reducing
frequencies contained in a band extending from the mutual conduction of the tube for gain
5000 Hz above or below the carrier frequency. In a reduction.
superheterodyne, where all carrier frequencies are An integrated-circuit i-f amplifier is shown at B.
changed to the fixed intermediate frequency, the A positive-polarity age voltage is required for this
i-f amplification must be uniform over a band circuit to control the stage gain. If manual gain
5-kHz wide, when the carrier is set at one edge. If control provisions are desired, a potentiometer can
the carrier is set in the center, at 10-kHz band is be used to vary the plus voltage to the age terminal
required. The signal-frequency circuits usually do of the IC. The control would be connected
not have enough overall selectivity to affect between the 9-volt bus and ground, its movable
materially the "adjacent-channel" selectivity, so contact wired to the age terminal of the IC.
that only the i-f-amplifier selectivity need be A dual-gate MOSFET i-f amplifier is shown at
considered. B. Application of negative voltage to gate 2 of the
250 RECEIVING SYSTEMS

I.F.AMP.

1600-KHz.
PLATE 0----..::.:...:....; I.F.TRANS.
r-- ------,
:
:
~I TONEXT
: STAGE
I
,1;--- --------'
R3 C3
B+o--JV\,."......
1000 .:t.Ol
A.G.C.o-------'
L..----L..::.:.__--o B +
lOOK
AG C Q-...JIJ'I/v-.....,r--,

+----v.IIr----o +12V
(8)
1000 2200
I.F. AMP.
+9V.o-------.JVVV-........iIIII.,......., 9-MHz.
I. F.TRANS.
r- - -------,

:I ~TONEXT
i STAGE
1
L. __

R3
L---\M----o+9V.
270
(c)
455 kHz
MILLER 8807

MI~R ~¥l---: r----ar:----i

I
:
I
I
TO
NEXT
STAGE
, OR
I "---1-+'r--'~ L ___; ; ; ___ " DET.
~--~---:i'~

Fig. 8-17 - Examples of typical i-f amplifiers, (D)

using tubes, transistors and integrated circuits. All
circuits shown have provisions for agc control. AGC D--'lAhr-_...J

Tubes for I-f Amplifiers

device reduces the gain of the stage. To realize
maximum gain when no agc voltage is present, it is Variable-tl (remote cutoff) pentodes are almost
necessary to apply approximately 3 volts of invariably used in i-f amplifier stages, since
positive dc to gate 2. Neutralization is usually not grid-bias gain control is practically always applied
required with a MOSFET in i-f amplifiers operating to the i-f amplifier. Tubes with high plate
up to 20 MHz. Should instability occur, however, resistance will have least effect on the selectivity of
gate 1 and the drain may be tapped down on the i-f the amplifier, and those with high mutual
transformer windings. conductance will give greatest gain. The choice of
High-gain linear ICs have been developed i-f tubes normally has no effect on the
specifically for use as receiver i-f amplifiers. A signal-to-noise ratio, since this is determined by the
typical circuit which uses the Motorola MC1590G preceding mixer and rf amplifier.
is shown at D; 70 dB of gain may be achieved using The 6BA6, 6B16 and 6BZ6 are recommended
this device. Agc characteristics of the IC are for i-f work because they have desirable remote
excellent. A 4-volt change at the agc terminal cutoff characteristics.
produces 60-dB change in the gain of the stage. When two or more stages are used the high gain
Agc action starts at 5 volts, so a positive agc system may tend to cause troublesome instability and
with a fixed dc level must be employed. oscillation, so that good shielding, bypassing, and
------------------.-- -
Automatic Gain Control 251
careful circuit arrangement to prevent stray circuits in amplifiers so constructed as to keep
coupling between input and output circuits are regeneration at a minimum:
necessary.
When vacuum tubes are used, the plate and grid Tuned Circuit Bandwidth, kHz
leads should be well separated. When transistors are Ckts. Freq. Q -6 dB -20 dB -60 dB
used, the base and collector circuits should be well 4 50 kHz 60 0.5 0.95 2.16
isolated. With tubes it is advisable to mount the 4 455 kHz 75 3.6 6.9 16
screen-bypass capacitor directly on the bottom of 6 1600 kHz 90 8.2 15 34
the socket, crosswise between the plate and grid
pins, to provide additional shielding. As a further
precaution against capacitive coupling, the grid and
plate leads should be "dressed" close to the chassis.
THE BEAT OSCILLATOR AND DETECTOR
The detector in a superheterodyne receiver
I-C Transformers functions the same way as do the simple detectors
described earlier in this chapter (Fig. 8-4), but
The tuned circuits of i-f amplifiers are built up
usually operates at a higher input level because of
as transformer units consisting of a metal shield
the amplification ahead of it. The detectors of Fig.
con tainer in which the coils and tuning capaci tors
8-4 are satisfactory for the reception of a-m signals.
are mounted. Both air-core and powered-iron-core When copying cw and ssb signals it becomes
universal-wound coils are used, the latter having necessary to supply a beat-oscillator (BFO) signal
somewhat higher Qs and hence greater selectivity to the detector stage as described in the earlier
and gain. In universal windings the coil is wound in section on product detectors. Suitable circuits for
layers with each turn traversing the length of the variable-frequency and crystal-controlled BFOs are
coil, back and forth, rather than being wound given in Chapter 6.
perpendicular to the axis as in ordinary single-layer
coils. In a straight multilayer winding, a fairly large AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL
capacitance can exist between layers. Universal
winding, with its "criss-crossed" turns, tends to Automatic regulation of the gain of the receiver
reduce distributed-capacitance effects. in inverse proportion to the signal strength is an
For tuning, air-dielectric tuning capacitors are operating convenience in phone reception, since it
preferable to mica compression types because their tends to keep the output level of the receiver
capacitance is practically unaffected by changes in constant regardless of input-signal strength. The
temperature and humidity. Iron-core transformers average rectified dc voltage, developed by the
may be tuned by varying the inductance received signal across a resistance in a detector
(permeability tuning), in which case stability circuit, is used to vary the bias on the rf and i-f
comparable to that of variable air-capacitor tuning amplifier stages. Since this voltage is proportional
can be obtained by use of high-stability fixed mica to the average amplitude of the signal, the gain is
or ceramic capacitors. Such stability is of great reduced as the signal strength becomes greater. The
importance, since a circuit whose frequency control will be more complete and the output
"drifts" with time eventually will be tuned to a more constant as the number of stages to which
different frequency than the other circuits, thereby the agc bias is applied is increased. Control of at
reducing the gain and selectivity of the amplifier. least two stages is advisable.
The normal interstage i-f transformer is loosely Carrier-Derived Circuits
coupled, to give good selectivity consistent with
adequate gain. A so-called diode transformer is A basic diode-ctetectorjagc-rectifier circuit is
similar, but the coupling is tighter, to give given at Fig. 8-18A. Here a single germanium diode
sufficient transfer when working into the finite serves both as a detector and an agc rectifier,
load presented by a diode detector. Using a diode producing a negative-polarity agc voltage. Audio is
transformer in place of an interstage transformer taken from the return end of the i-f transformer
would result in loss of selectivity; using an secondary and is filtered by means of a
interstage transformer to couple to the diode 47,000-ohm resistor and two 470-pF capacitors.
would result in loss of gain. At B, CRI (also a germanium diode) functions
Besides the conventional i-f transformers just as a detector while CR2 (germanium) operates as
mentioned, special units to give desired selectivity an agc rectifier. CR2 furnishes a negative agc
characteristics have been used. For higher-than- voltage to the controlled stages of the receiver.
ordinary adjacent-channel selectivity, triple-tuned Though solid-stage rectifiers are shown at A and B,
transformers, with a third tuned circuit inserted vacuum-tube diodes can be used in these circuits. A
between the input and output windings, have been 6AL5 tube is commonly used in circuits calling for
made. The energy is transferred from the input to two diodes (B), but a I-megohm resistor should be
the output windings via this tertiary winding, thus shunted across the right-hand diode if a tube is
adding its selectivity to the over-all selectivity of used.
the transformer. The circuit at C shows a typical hookup for agc
feed to the controlled stages. S 1 can be used to
Selec tivi ty
disable the agc when this is desired. For tube and
The overall selectivity of the i-f amplifier will FET circuits the value of RI and R2 can be
depend on the frequency and the number of stages. 100,000 ohms, and R3 can be 470,000 ohms. If
The following figures are indicative of the bipolar transistors are used for the rf and i-f stages
bandwidths to be expected with good-quality being controlled, RI and R2 will usually be
 252 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
455- KHZ..
LAST I. F. TRANS. A.G.C.
TO A.G.e.-
r7-,..-I--"'=-:, t---r~Wv-r--oCONrROLLED
STAGES.
(NEG. VOLTJ

I-'""-'------OTO A.F.AMP.

(A)
+ 12V
R.F.TRANS. GRID.GATE. I. F. TRANS. AGC RECT.
OR BASE r-------, GRID. GATE.
OR BASE

Jill
(R.F.AHP.)
(I.F.AMR)
AGe TO
TO 470K CONTROLLED
L;+._______ I DETECTOR G STAGES
OUTPUT -IOV
ON
.o!,td;t R2 10M 25K
C2. R3 FROM A.G.e. RF
RECT. 10K GAIN
AGC
(c) lON (D)

Fig. 8-18 - Methods for obtaining rectified voltage. At A the detector furnishes agc voltage. B shows
separate diodes being used for the detector and agc circuits. C illustrates how negative agc voltage is fed
to the rf and i-f stages of a typical receiver. D shows an audio-derived agc scheme. S1 is used to disable
the age when desired. R1. R2 and R3 in combination with C1. C2. and C3. are used for rf decoupling.
Their values are dependent upon the device being used - tube or transistor. CR1 and CR2 at A and Bare
germanium diodes.

between 1000 and 10,000 ohms, depending upon Cw and Ssb

the bias network required for the transistors used. Agc can be used for cw and ssb reception but
R3 will also be determined by the bias value the circuit is usually more complicated. The agc
required in the circuit. voltage must be derived from a rectifier that is
isolated from the beat-frequency oscillator (other-
Agc Time Constant wise the rectified BFO voltage will reduce the
The time constant of the resistor-capacitor receiver gain even with no signal coming through).
combinations in the agc circuit is an important part This is done by using a separate agc channel
of the system. It must be long enough so that the connected to an i-f amplifier stage ahead of the
modulation on the signal is completely filtered second detector (and BFO) or by rectifying the
from the dc output, leaving only an average dc audio output of the detector. If the selectivity
component which follows the relatively slow ahead of the agc rectifier isn't good, strong
carrier variations with fading. Audio-frequency adjacent-channel signals may develop agc voltages
variations in the agc voltage applied to the that will reduce the receiver gain. When clear
amplifier grids would reduce the percentage of channels are available, however, cw and ssb agc will
modulation on the incoming signal. But the time hold the receiver output constant over a wide range
constant must not be too long or the agc will be of signal inputs. Agc systems designed to work on
unable to follow rapid fading. The capacitance and these signals should have fast-attack and slow-
resistance values indicated in 8-18A will give a time decay characteristics to work satisfactorily, and
constant that is satisfactory for average reception. often a selection of time constants is made
available.
+SV
Audio-Derived Agc
Agc potential for use in a cw/ssb receiver may
also be obtained by sampling the audio output of
AGe CONTROL
VOLTAGE the detector and rectifying this signal. A typical
circuit is shown in Fig. 8-18D. The JFET stage
amplifies the audio signal; the output of the
HEP801 is coupled to the secondary of an audio
transformer, Ll. The time constant of the agc line
AGe SYSTEM is established by R1Cl. Manual gain control can be
accomplished by adding a variable negative voltage
Fig. 8-19 - An IC agc system. to the common lead of the audio rectifier.
Noise Reduction 253
An improved audio-derived agc circuit is shown "hang up" the agc system are sampled by the IC
in Fig. 8-19, using the Plessey Microelectronics inpu t circuit, activating a trigger which provides a
SL-621 integrated circuit. This design provides the fast-discharge path for the time-constant capacitor.
fast-attack, slow-decay time constant required for Thus, noise bursts will not produce a change in the
ssb reception. High-level pulse signals that might level of agc ou tpu t voltage.

NOISE REDUCTION
Types of Noise
In addition to tube and circuit noise, much of
the noise interference experienced in reception of
high-frequency signals is caused by domestic or
industrial electrical equipment and by automobile HIGH-Z
ignition systems. The interference is of two types PHONES
in its effects. The first is the "hiss" type, consisting
of overlapping pulses similar in nature to the
receiver noise. It is largely reduced by high
selectivity in the receiver, especially for code Fig. 8-20 - Circuit of a simple audio limiter/clip-
reception. The second is the "pistol-shot" or per. I t can be pi ugged into the headphone jack of
"machine-gun" type, consisting of separated the receiver. R1 sets the bias on the diodes, CR1
and CR2, for the desired limiting level. S1 opens
impulses of high amplitude. The "hiss" type of
the battery leads when the circuit is not being
interference usually is caused by commutator used. The diodes can be 1 N34As or similar.
sparking in dc and series-wound ac motors, while
the "shot" type results from separated spark
discharges (ac power leaks, switch and key clicks,
ignition sparks, and the like). circuit of a receiver. Such limiters also maintain the
The only known approach to reducing tube and signal output nearly constant during fading. These
circuit noise is through the choice of low-noise output-limiter systems are simple, and they are
front-end active components and through more readily adaptable to most receivers without any
overall selectivity. modification of the receiver itself. However, they
cannot prevent noise peaks from overloading
Impulse Noise previous stages.
Impulse noise, because of the short duration of
the pulses compared with the time between them, NOISE-LIMITER CI RCUITS
must have high amplitude to contain much average
energy. Hence, noise of this type strong enough to Pulse-type noise can be eliminated to an extent
cause much interference generally has an instantan- which makes the reception of even the weakest of
eous amplitude much higher than that of the signal signals possible. The noise pulses can be clipped, or
being received. The general principle of devices limited in amplitude, at either an rf or af point in
intended to reduce such noise is to allow the the receiver circuit. Both methods are used by
desired signal to pass through the receiver receiver manufacturers; both are effective.
unaffected, but to make the receiver inoperative A simple audio noise limiter is shown at Fig.
8-20. It can be plugged into the headphone jack of
for amplitudes greater than that of the signal. The
the receiver and a pair of headphones connected to
greater the amplitude of the pulse compared with
the output of the limiter. CRI and CR2 are wired
its time of duration, the more successful the noise
to clip both the positive and negative peaks of the
reduction. audio signal, thus removing the high spikes of pulse
Another approach is to "silence" (render noise. The diodes are back-biased by l.S-volt
inoperative) the receiver during the short duration batteries to permit R 1 to serve as a clipping-level
time of any individual pulse. The listener will not control. This circuit also limits the amount of
hear the "hole" because of its short duration, and audio reaching the headphones. When tuning across
very effective noise reduction is obtained. Such the band, strong signals will not be ear-shattering
devices are called "blankers" rather than and will appear to be the same strength as the
"limiters. " weaker ones. SI is open when the circuit is not in
In passing through selective receiver circuits, use to prevent battery drain. CRI and CR2 can be
the time duration of the impulses is increased, germanium or silicon diodes, but IN34As are
because of ,the Q of the circuits. Thus, the more generally used. This circuit is usable only with
selectivity ahead of the noise-reducing device, the high-impedance headphones.
more difficult it becomes to secure good pulse-type The usual practice in communications receivers
noise suppression. See Fig. 8-22. is to use low-level limiting, Fig. 8-21. The limiting
can be carried out at rf or af points in the receiver,
Audio Limiting as shown. Limiting at rf does not cause poor audio
A considerable degree of noise reduction in quality as is sometimes experienced when using
code reception can be accomplished by amplitude- series or shunt af limiters. The latter limits the
limiting arrangements applied to the audio-output normal af signal peaks as well as the noise pulses,
 254 RECEIVING SYSTEMS

~
DEl. 'Pf

CRI CR2 I~

"": [!r
I 'MEG. SOCK AMP.
AF
A"P. I GAIN

C
I"pfI : ? - C!'pf2

OFF
SI

J
.05 f.

A.G.C. o-.......k l V \ , - - - - - - - - I
LINE
470K
(AI
A.F. SHUNT

_________-I'~ TO A.G.C. RECT.,

,.. ~ PROD. DET., ANO
A.M.DET.

TO:
I.F.
AMP.
rfl---
:
I

1----- J
II
I
A.H.L.
OFF

A.G.C.

B+ (B)
R.F. SHUNT

Fig. 8-21 - Typical rf and af ani circuits. A shows the circuit of a self-adjusting af noise limiter. eR1 and
eR2 are self-biased silicon diodes which limit both the positive and negative audio and noise-pulse peaks.
S1 turns the limiter on or off; B shows an rf limiter of the same type as A, but this circuit clips the
positive and negative rf peaks and is connected to the last i-f stage. This circuit does not degrade the
audio quality of the signal as does the circuit of A.

(A) (8)

Fig. 8-22 - The delay and lengthening of a noise

pulse when passed through a 2-kHz wide amplifier
with good skirt selectivity (4 kHz at -60 dB). (B) a
3.75-MHz carrier modulated 30 percent, interfered
(e) with by noise pulses. The noise pulses were
originally 1000 times the amplitude of the signal;
they have been reduced (and lengthened) by
overload in the i-f. The i-f bandwidth is 5 kHz.
Sweep speed = 1 millisecond/em. (e) Same as B
but with a noise blanker on.
Signal-Strength and Tuning Indicators 255
giving an unpleasant audio quality to strong signals. rectification of the noise pulses that rise above the
In a series-limiting circuit, a normally conduct- peak amplitude of the desired signal. The clamp
ing element (or elements) is connected in the transistor, Q3, short circuits the positive-going
circuit in series and operated in such a manner that pulse "overshoots." Running the 40673 controlled
it becomes nonconductive above a given signal i-f amplifier at zero gate 2 voltage allows the direct
level. In a shunt limiting circuit, a nonconducting application of agc voltage. See July 1971 QST for
element is connected in shunt across the circuit additional details.
and operated so that it becomes conductive above
a given signal level, thus short-circuiting the signal
and preventing its being transmitted to the
remainder of the amplifier. The usual conducting
SIGNAL-STRENGTH AND
element will be a forward-biased diode, and the TUNING INDICATORS
usual nonconducting element will be a back-biased It is convenient to have some means by which
diode. In many applications the value of bias is set to obtain relative readings of signal strength on a
manually by the operator; usually the clipping level communications receiver. The actual meter read-
will be set at about 1 to 10 volts. ings in terms of S units, or decibels above S9, are
The af shunt limiter at A, and the rf shunt of little consequence as far as a meaningful report
limiter at B operate in the same manner. A pair of to a distant station is concerned. Few signal-
self-biased diodes are connected across the af line strength meters are accurate in terms of decibels,
at A, and across an rf inductor at B. When a steady especially across their entire indicating range. Some
cw signal is present the diodes barely conduct, but manufacturers once established a standard in which
when a noise pulse rides in on the incoming signal, a certain number of microvolts were equal to S9 on
it is heavily clipped because capacitors C1 and C2 the meter face. Such calibration is difficult to
tend to hold the diode bias constant for the maintain when a number of different receiver
duration of the noise pulse. For this reason the circuits are to be used. At best, a meter can be
diodes conduct heavily in the presence of noise and calibrated for one receiver - the one in which it
maintain a fairly constant signal output level. will be used. Therefore, most S meters are good
Considerable clipping of cw signal peaks occurs only as relative indicating instruments for compar-
with this type of limiter, but no apparent ing the strength of signals at a given time, on a
deterioration of the signal quality results. L1 at C given amateur band. They are also useful for
is tuned to the i-f of the receiver. An i-f "on-the-nose-tuning" adjustments with selective
transformer with a conventional secondary winding receivers. If available, a signal generator with an
could be used in place of L1, the clipper circuit accurate output attenuator can be used to calibrate
being connected to the secondary winding; the an S meter in terms of microvolts, but a different
plate of the 6BA6 would connect to the primary calibration chart will probably be required for each
winding in the usual fashion. band because of probable differences in receiver
sensitivity from band to band. It is helpful to
I-F NOISE SILENCER establish a SO-jJ.V reading at midscale on the meter
The i-f noise silencer circuit shown in Fig. 8-23 so that the very strong signals will crowd the high
is designed to be used ahead of the high-selectivity end of the meter scale. The weaker signals will then
section of the receiver. Noise pulses are amplified be spread over the lower half of the scale and will
and rectified, and the resulting negative-going dc not be compressed at the low end. Midscale on the
pulses are used to cut off an amplifier stage during meter can be called S9. If S units are desired across
the pulse. A manual "threshold" control is set by the scale, below S9, a marker can be established at
the operator to a level that only permits every 6 dB point.

TO DRAIN OF
NOISE PULSE
AGe AMPLIFIER DETECTOR SWITCH 1.
FIRST I-F

MPF-I02 .001
2.2M 2.2M Q3
G

10K

o
OFF
+12vo-__L-__________________________ ~L_ ____________________ ~

Fig. 8-23 - Diagram of the noise blanker. l1 and

Cl are chosen to resonate at the desired i·f.
 256 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
1ST OR 2ND FINAL 560 10K
I-F AMP. S-METER AUDIO AMP.
LAST
I. F. TRANS. so
r------ -,
TOI.F.~
AMP.o-Il.B
L ____ _

(B)
S-METER
100

J:.02
Fig. 8-24 - Practical examples of S-meter circuits.
At A, a meter measures the change in screen
AGe voltage of an i-f amplifier stage, caused by changes
LINE in the age voltage applied to the grid of the
amplifier. At B, the i-f signal is rectified by CRl
and is fed to a 50~I1A meter. A 1O,OOO-ohm control
sets the sensitivity and also functions as a
"linearizing" resistor to make the meter less
subject to the square-law response of CR1. At C,
an FET samples the voltage on the agc line and
drives an IC amplifier which provides the required
current swing to operate a l-mA meter.

Another simple approach is to meter the change

S-METER CIRCUITS in screen voltage of an i-f amplifier stage. The
A very simple meter indicator is shown at Fig. swing in screen potential is caused by changes in
8-24B. Rectified i-f is obtained by connecting CRI the agc voltage applied to the stage. A reference
to the take-off point for the detector. The dc is voltage is obtained from the cathode of the
filtered by means of a 560-ohm resistor and a aUdio-output stage. A I-rnA' meter is suitable for
.05-J..IF capacitor. A 10,000-ohm control sets the the circuit shown in Fig. 8-24A. At C, a more
meter at zero reading in the absence of a signal and complex design is employed which can operate
also serves as a "linearizing" resistor to help directly from the agc line of a transistorized
compensate for the nonlinear output from CRI. receiver. The sensitivity of the metering circuit is
The meter is a 50-JiA unit, therefore consuming adjusted by changing the gain of the IC meter
but a small amount of current from the output of amplifier. An FET buffer is employed to insure
the i-f. that loading of the agc line will be negligible.

IMPROVING RECEIVER SELECTIVITY

INTERMEDIATE-FREQUENCY results in distortion. The limit to useful selectivity

in code work is around 150 or 200 Hz for
AMPLIFIERS hand-key speeds, but this much selectivity requires
excellent stability in both transmitter and receiver,
One of the big advantages of the superhetero- and a slow receiver tuning rate for ease of
dyne receiver is the improved selectivity that is
operation.
possible. This selectivity is obtained in the i-f
amplifier, where the lower frequency allows more Single-8ignal Effect
selectivity per stage than at the higher signal In heterodyne cw (or ssb) reception with a
frequency. For nonnal a-m (double-sideband) superheterodyne receiver, the beat oscillator is set
reception, the limit to useful selectivity in the i-f to give a suitable audio-frequency beat note when
amplifier is the point where too many of the the incoming signal is converted to the interme-
high-frequency sidebands are lost. The limit to diate frequency. For example, the beat oscillator
selectivity for a single-sideband signal, or a may be set to 454 kHz (the i-f being 455 kHz) to
double-sideband a-m signal treated as an ssb signal, give a 1000-Hz beat note. Now, if an interfering
is about 2000 Hz, but reception is much more signal appears at 453 kHz or if the receiver is tuned
nonnal if the bandwidth is opened up to 2300 or to heterodyne the incoming signal to 453 kHz, it
2500 Hz. The correct bandwidth for fm or pm will also be heterodyned by the beat oscillator to
reception is detennined by the deviation of the produce a 100o-Hz beat. Hence every signal can be
received signal; sideband cutting of these signals tuned in at two places that will give a lO~O-Hz beat
Band-Pass Filters 257
(or any other low audio frequency). The band-pass characteristic is more desirable. A
audio-frequency image effect can be reduced if the band-pass filter is one that passes without unusual
i-f selectivity is such that the incoming signal, when attenuation a desired band of frequencies and
heterodyned to 453 kHz, is attenuated to a very rejects signals outside this band. A good band-pass
low level. filter for single-sideband reception might have a
When this is done, tuning through a given signal bandwidth of 2500 Hz at -6 dB and 4 kHz at -60
will show a strong response at the desired beat note dB; a filter for a-m would require twice these
on one side of zero beat only, instead of the two bandwidths if both sidebands were to be
beat notes on either side of zero beat characteristic accommodated, thus assuring suitable fidelity.
of less-selective reception, hence the name: The simplest band-pass crystal filter is one using
single-signal reception. two crystals, as in Fig. 8-25A. The two crystals are
The necessary selectivity is not obtained with separated slightly in frequency. If the frequencies
nonregenerative amplifiers using ordinary tuned are only a few hundred Hz apart the characteristic
circuits unless a low i-f, or a large number of is a good one for cw reception. With crystals about
circuits, is used. 2 kHz apart, a reasonable phone characteristic is
obtained. Fig. 8-2 shows a selectivity characteristic
Regeneration of an amplifier with a bandpass (at -6 dB) of 2.4
Regeneration can be used to give a single-signal kHz, which is typical of what can be expected
effect, particularly when the i-f is 455 kHz or from a two-crystal bandpass filter.
lower. The resonance curve of an i-f stage at critical More elaborate crystal filters, using four and six
regeneration (just below the oscillating point) is crystals, will give reduced bandwidth at -60 dB
extremely sharp, a bandwidth of 1 kHz at 10 times without decreasing the bandwidth at -6 dB. The
down and 5 kHz at 100 times down being resulting increased "skirt selectivity" gives better
obtainable in one stage. The audio-frequency image rejection of adjacent-channel signals. "Crystal-
of a given signal thus can be reduced by a factor of lattice" filters of this type are available commer-
nearly 100 for a 1000-Hz beat note (image 2000 cially for frequencies up to 40 MHz or so, and they
Hz from resonance). have also been built by amateurs from inexpensive
Regeneration is easily introduced into an i-f transmitting-type crystals. (See Vester, "Surplus-
amplifier by providing a small amount of capacity Crystal High-Frequency Filters," QST, January,
coupling between grid and plate. Bringing a short 1959; Healey, "High-Frequency Crystal Filters for
length of wire, connected to the grid, into the SSB," QST, October, 1960.)
vicinity of the plate lead usually will suffice. The Two half-lattice filters of the type shown at
feedback may be controlled by a cathode-resistor Fig. 8-2SA can be connected back to back as
gain control. When the i-f is regenerative, it is shown at B. The channel spacing of Y1 and Y2 will
preferable to operate the tube at reduced gain depend upon the receiving requirements as
(high bias) and depend on regeneration to bring up discussed in the foregoing text. Ordinarily, for ssb
the signal strength. This prevents overloading and reception (and nonstringent cw reception) a
increases selectivity. frequency separation of approximately 1.5 kHz is
The higher selectivity with regeneration reduces suitable. The overall i-f strip of the receiver is
the over-all response to noise generated in the tuned to a frequency which is midway between Y1
earlier stages of the receiver, just as does high and Y2. C1 is tuned to help give the desired shape
selectivity produced by other means, and therefore to the passband_ 11 is a bifilar-wound toroidal
improves the signal-to-noise ratio. However, the inductor which tunes to the i-f frequency by means
regenerative gain varies with signal strength, being of Cl. The values of Rl and R2 are identical and
less on strong signals. are determined by the filter response desired.
Ordinarily the ohmic value is on the order of 600
Crystal Filters; Phasing ohms, but values as high as 5000 ohms are
sometimes used. The lower the value of resistance,
A simple means for obtaining high selectivity is the broader and flatter will be the response of the
by the use of a piezoelectric quartz crystal as a filter. Though the circuit at B is shown in a
selective filter in the i-f amplifier. Compared to a transistorized circuit, it can be used with vacuum
good tuned circuit, the Q of such a crystal is tubes or integrated circuits as well. The circuit
extremely high. The crystal is ground resonant at
shows an i-f frequency of 9 MHz, but the filter can
the i-f and used as a selective coupler between i-f
be used at any desired frequency below 9 MHz by
stages. For single-signal reception, the audio-fre-
altering the crystal frequencies and the tuned
quency image can be reduced by 50 dB or more.
circuits. Commercial versions of the 9-MHz lattice
Besides practically eliminating the af image, the
filter are available at moderate cost. 1 War-surplus
high selectivity of the crystal filter provides good
FT-241 crystals in the 455-kHz range are
discrimination against adjacent signals and also
inexpensive and lend themselves nicely to this type
reduces the broadband noise.
of circuit.
Mechanical filters can be built at frequencies
BAND-PASS FILTERS below 1 MHz. They are made up of three sections;
A single high-Q circuit (e.g., a quartz crystal or an input transducer, a mechanically resonant filter
regenerative stage) will give adequate single-signal
ISpectrum International, P. O. Box 87,
cw reception under most circumstances. For phone Topsfield, MA 01983. Also, McCoy Electronics
reception, however, either single-sideband or a-m, a Co., Mount Holly Springs, P A.
258 RECEIVING SYSTEMS

I-F AMP.

TO 2ND
I-F AMP.

A~OC o-------------------------------~~~
L----'\IIAr----4.------o +12V
120K

+12V

2200

,7t>_-II--i---<>T~-2;O
STAGE

TO OSC. +12V

Fig. 8-25 - A half-lattice bandpass filter at A; 8 shows two half-lattice filters in cascade; C shows a
mechanical filter.

section, and an output transducer. The transducers serious practical consideration in the use of any
use the principle of magneto-striction to convert high-selectivity component is the prevention of
the electrical signal to mechanical energy, then coupling "around" the filter, externally, which can
back again. The mechanically resonant section only degrade the action of the filter.
consists of carefully machined metal disks support- The circuit at Fig. 8-25C shows a typical
ed and coupled by thin rods. Each . disk has a hookup for a mechanical filter. FLI is a Collins
resonant frequency dependent upon the material 455-FB-21, which has an ssb band-pass characteris-
and its dimensions, and the effective Q of a single tic of 2.1 kHz. It is shown in a typical solid-state
disk may be in excess of 2000. Consequently, a receiver circuit, but can be used equally as well in a
mechanical filter can be built for either narrow or tube-type application.
broad passband with a nearly rectangular curve. Placement of the BFO signal with respect to the
Mechanical mters are available commercially and passbands of the three circuits at A, B, and C, is
are used in both receivers and single-sideband the same. Either a crystal-controlled or self-excited
transmitters. They are moderately priced. oscillator can be used to generate the BFO signal
The signal-handling capability of a mechanical and the usual practice is to place the BFO signal at
IJIter is limited by the magnetic circuits to from 2 a frequency that falls at the two points which are
to 15 volts rms, a limitation that is of no practical approximately 20 dB down on the IJIter curve,
importance provided it is recognized and provided dependent upon which sideband is desired.
for. Crystal IJIters are limited in their signal-hand- Typically, with the filter specified at C, the center
ling ability only by the voltage breakdown limits, frequency of FLl is 455 kHz. To place the BFO at
which normally would not be reached before the the 20-dB points (down from the center-frequency
preceding amplifier tube was overloaded. A more peak) a signal at 453 and 456 kHz is required.
 Band-Pass Filters 259
TO MIXER 0 R.F. OR MIXER
P~ATE O"'--'""A~_--1r-::l:....----,
OR DRAIN. I 455 KHz.

8 Ll
7S0ph.
L....-::-I_---?J(NOMINAL)
.oy.d
,-------o+9v.
(8)
(A)
Fig. 8-26 - An i-f Q multiplier for use with a
bipolar transistor (AI. At B, a tube-type rf
Q multiplier which can be used at the first stage of
the receiver. The antenna coil is used for feedback +150
to V1, which then introduces "negative resistance"
to L2.

Q Multiplier receiver also, as shown at B in Fig. 8-26. The

The "Q Multiplier" is a stable regenerative stage enhancement of the Q at that point in a receiver
that is connected in parallel with one of the i-f greatly reduces image problems because the
selectivity of the input tuned circuit is increased
stages of a receiver. In one condition it narrows the
markedly. The antenna coil, Ll, is used as a
bandwidth and in the other condition it produces a
feedback winding to make VI regenerative. This in
sharp "null" or rejection notch. A "tuning" effect adds "negative resistance" to L2, increasing
adjustment controls the frequency of the peak or its Q. A 20,000-ohm control sets the regeneration
null, moving it across the normal passband of the of VI, and should be adjusted to a point just under
receiver i-f amplifier. The shape of the peak or null regeneration for best results. Rf Q multiplication is
is always that of a single tuned circuit (Fig. 2-42)
not a cure for a poor-quality inductor at L2,
but the effective Q is adjustable over a wide range. however.
A Q Multiplier is most effective at an i-f of 500
kHz or less; at higher frequencies the rejection T-Notch Filter
notch becomes wide enough (measured in Hz) to
reject a major portion of a phone signal. Within its At low intermediate frequencies (50 - 100
useful range, however, the Q Multiplier will reject kHz) the T-notch filter of Fig. 8-27 will provide a
an interfering carrier without degrading the quality sharp tunable null.
of the desired signal. The inductor L resonates with C at the
In the "peak" condition the Q Multiplier can be rejection frequency, and when R = QXL/4 the
made to oscillate by advancing the "peak" rejection is maximum. (XL is the coil-reactance
(regeneration) control far enough and in this and Q is the coil Q.) In a typical 50-kHz circuit, C
condition it can be made to serve as a might be 3900 pF making L approximately 2.6
beat-frequency oscillator. However, it cannot be mHo When R is greater than the maximum-attenu-
made to serve as a selective element and as a BFO ation value, the circuit still provides some
at the same time. Some inexpensive receivers may rejection, and in use the inductor is detuned or
combine either a Q Multiplier or some other form shorted ou t when the rejection is not desired.
of regeneration with the BFO function, and the At higher frequencies, the T-notch filter is not
reader is advised to check carefully any inexpensive sharp enough with available components to reject
receiver he intends to buy that offers a regenerative only a narrow band of frequencies.
type of selectivity, in order to make sure that the
selectivity is available when the BFO is turned on.
A representative circuit for a transistorized T-NOTCH
Q-multiplier is given in Fig. 8-26A. The constants
given are typical for i-f operation at 455 kHz. Ll
can be a J. W. Miller 9002 or 9102 slug-tuned
inductor. A 25,000-ohm control, Rl, permits
adjustment of the regeneration. Cl is used to tune
the Q-multiplier frequency back and forth across
the i-f passband for peaking or notching adjust-
ments. With circuits of this type there is usually a
need to adjust both Rl and Cl alternately for a
peaking or notching effect, because the controls
+12V
tend to interlock as far as the frequency of
oscillation is concerned. A Q-multiplier should be Fig. 8-27 - Typical T·notch (bridged-T) filter, to
solidly built in a shielded enclosure to assure provide a sharp notch at a low i-f. Adjustment of
maximum stability. L changes the frequency of the notch; adjustment
Q multipliers can be used at the front end of a of R controls the notch depth.
260 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLI FI ERS

While selectivity to reduce audio-frequency

images can be built into the i-f amplifier, Representative Circuits
discrimination against radio-frequency images can An example of a typical vacuum-tube rf
only be obtained in tuned circuits or other amplifier using a remote-cutoff pentode and agc is
selective elements ahead of the first mixer or given in Fig. 8-28 at A. The manual rf gain control,
converter stage. These tuned circuits are usually R 1, varies the bias on the stage, thereby changing
used as the coupling networks for one or more the gain of the tube.
vacuum tubes or transistors, and the combinations In the circuit at B, two junction field-effect
of circuits and amplifying devices are called transistors are used as a cascade rf amplifier. If
radio-frequency amplifiers. The tuned circuits sufficient isolation is provided between the input
contribute to the rf-image rejection and the and output tuned circuits, neutralization is seldom
amplifying device(s) determines the noise figure of
required below 30 MHz. Agc potential is applied to
the receiver. the gate of the second JFET. For efficient
Knowing the Q of the coil in each tuned circuit
operation as an rf amplifier, the transistors chosen
between the antenna and the first mixer or
should have an IT rating somewhat above the
converter stage, the image rejection capability can
desired operating frequency.
be computed by using the chart in Fig. 2-50. The Q A dual-gate MOSFET with built-in transient
of the input tuned circuit (coupled to the antenna)
protection is used in the circuit at C. Negative agc
should be taken as about one-half the unloaded Q
voltage is applied to gate 2. Zener diodes contained
of that circuit, and the Q of any other tuned
circuit can be assumed to be the unloaded Q to a within the 40673, bridged between the gates and
first approximation (the vacuum tubes will reduce the source/substrate connection, provide protec-
the circuit Q to some extent, especially at 14 MHz tion from transient voltages (up to 10 V pk-pk)
and higher). that might otherwise damage the device. The gate-!
In general, receivers with an i-f of 455 kHz can and drain connections are tapped down on their
be expected to have some noticeable image associated tuned circuits, a technique which
response at 14 MHz and higher if there are only produces stability without neutralization with only
two tuned circuits (or one rf stage) ahead of the a slight reduction in gain.
mixer or converter. Regeneration in the rf The rf amplifier shown in Fig. 8-28D is a
amplifier will reduce image response, but regener- broad-band type which produces approximately 12
ation usually requires frequent readjustment when dB of gain from 0.5 to 50 MHz. Because of the
tuning across a band. Regeneration is, however, a high drain-to-gate capacitance of high-current PETs
useful device for improving the selectivity of an rf such as the CP651, the transistor is operated in a
amplifier without requiring a multiplicity of tuned grounded-gate circuit to avoid the need for
circuits. neutralization. A passive input circuit and 4-to-l
With three tuned circuits between the antenna balun output transformer are employed. Details of
and the first mixer, and an i-f of 455 kHz, no the construction of balun transformers are given in
images should be encountered up to perhaps 25 Chapter 6.
MHz. Four tuned circuits or more will eliminate
any images at 28 MHz when an i-f of 455 kHz is FEEDBACK
used. Feedback giving rise to regeneration and
Obviously, a better solu tion to the rf selectivity oscillation can occur in a single stage or it may
problem (elimination of image response) is to use appear as an overall feedback through several
an i-f higher than 455 kHz, and most modem stages that are on the same frequency. To avoid
receivers use an i-f of 1600 kHz or higher. The feedback in a single stage, the output must be
owner of a receiver with a 455-kHz i-f amplifier isolated from the input in every way possible, with
can enjoy image-free reception on the higher the vacuum tube or transistor furnishing the only
frequencies by using a crystal-controlled converter coupling between the two circuits. An oscillation
ahead of the receiver and utilizing the receiver as a can be obtained in an rf or i-f stage if there is any
"tunable i-f amplifier" at 3.5 or 7.0 MHz. undue capacitive or inductive coupling between
For best selectivity rf amplifiers should use output and input circuits, if there is too high an
high-Q circuits and tubes with high input and impedance between cathode and ground or screen
output resistance. Variable-M pentodes and field- and ground, or if there is any appreciable
effect transistors (JFET and MOSFET) are impedance through which the grid and plate
practically always used, although triodes (neutraliz- currents can flow in common.
ed or otherwise connected so that they won't To avoid overall feedback in a multistage
oscillate) are often used on the higher frequencies amplifier, attention must be paid to avoid running
because they introduce less noise. However, their any part of the output circuit back near the input
lower plate resistance will load the tuned circuits. circuit without first fJItering it carefully. Since the
Pentodes and FETs are better where maximum signal-carrying parts of the circuit can't be filtered,
image rejection is desired, because they have less the best design for any multistage amplifier is a
loading effect on the tuned circuits. straight line, to keep the output as far away from
Cross Modulation 261
RFAMP
6DC6 l00~TO

W
.------v MI X ER
. GRID OR GATE

.oyuf
RF AMP.
+250V
R F GAIN 56K lOOK

(A)
~TO
~ MIXER
CASCODE RFAMP.

t-.....- J S:I~OER
BROAD BAN D R F AM P.

AGe +ISV

Fig. 8-28 - Typical circuits of rf-amplifier stages.

the input as possible. For example, an rf amplifier the desired signal. This effect is called cross mod-
might run along a chassis in a straight line, run into ulation, and is often encountered in receivers with
a mixer where the frequency is changed, and then several rf stages working at high gain. It shows up
the i-f amplifier could be run back parallel to the rf as a superimposed modulation on the signal being
amplifier, provided there was a very large listened to, and often the effect is that a signal can
frequency difference between the rf and the i-f be tuned in at several points. It can be reduced or
amplifiers. However, to avoid any possible eliminated by greater selectivity in the antenna and
coupling, it would be better to run the i-f amplifier rf stages (difficult to obtain), the use of FETs or
off at right angles to the rf amplifier line, just to be variable-J.l tubes in the rf amplifier, reduced gain in
on the safe side. Good shielding is important in the rf amplifier, or reduced antenna input to the
preventing overall oscillation in high-gain-per-stage receiver. The 6BJ6, 6BA6 and 6OC6 are
amplifiers, but it becomes less important when the recommended for rf amplifiers where cross mod-
stage gain drops to a low value. In a high-gain ulation may be a problem.
amplifier, the power leads (including the heater A receiver designed for minimum cross modula-
circuit) are common to all stages, and they can tion will use as little gain as possible ahead of the
provide the overall coupling if they aren't properly high-selectivity stages, to hold strong unwanted
mtered. Good bypassing and the use of series signals below the cross-modulation point. Cross
isolating resistors will generally eliminate any modulation often takes place in double-conversion
possibility of coupling through the power leads. Rf superheterodynes at the second converter stage
chokes, instead of resistors, are used in the heat.er because there is insufficient selectivity up to this
leads where necessary. point and at this point the signals have quite
appreciable amplitudes. Whenever interference
CROSS MODULATION drops out quite suddenly with a reduction in the
Since a one- or two-stage rf amplifier will have a setting of the gain control, cross modulation
bandwidth measured in hundreds of kHz at 14 should be suspected. Normally, of course, the
MHz or higher, strong signals will be amplified interference would reduce in amplitude in
through the rf amplifier even though it is not tuned proportion to the desired signal as the gain setting
exactly to them. If these signals are strong enough, is reduced.
their amplified magnitude may be measurable in
volts after passing through several rf stages. If an RF Gain Control
undesired signal is strong enough after amplifica- To avoid cross modulation and other overload
tion in the rf stages to shift the operating point of effects in the mixer and rf stages, the gain of the rf
a tube or transistor (by driving the grid into the stages is usually made adjustable. This is
positive region), the undesired signal will modulate accomplished by using variable-J.l tubes and varying
262 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
the dc grid bias, either in the grid or cathode amplifier, the mixer, and the oscillator - tune over
circuit. If the gain control is automatic, as in the a given range while each stage remains tuned to its
case of agc, the bias is controlled in the grid circuit. proper frequency at any specified point in the
Manual control of rf gain is generally done in the tuning range. This arrangement provides a single
cathode circuit. A typical rf amplifier stage with tuning control for bandset and bandspread
the two types of gain control is shown in schematic adjustments. To achieve proper tracking, it is
form in Fig. 8-28A. The agc control voltage usually necessary to have variable inductors and
(negative) is derived from rectified carrier or signal variable trimmer and padder capacitors for each of
at the detector before the audio amplifier, or in the the tuned circuits. A two- or three-section variable
case of a cw or ssb receiver it can be derived from capacitor is used for the tuning control.
rectified audio. The manual-gain control voltage Most modern receivers use a separate tuning
(positive with respect to chassis) is usually derived control for the local oscillator and this is called the
from a potentiometer across the B+ supply, since "main tuning." The rf and mixer stages are tracked
the bias can be changed even though little plate and use a two-section variable for front-end
current is being drawn. peaking adjustments. This control is frequently
called "preselector tuning." If the main tuning
Tracking
control is moved, the preselector is readjusted for a
Tracking refers to the ability of a receiver to peak signal response at the new frequency.
have all of its front-end stages - usually the rf

REDUCING BROADCAST STATION INTERFERENCE

Some receivers, particularly those that are generating spurious output if operating in a faulty
lacking in front-end selectivity, are subject to manner).
cross talk and overload from adjacent-frequency The most direct approach to the problem of
ham or commercial stations. This condition is broadcast-station interference is to install a
particularly common with simple receivers that use rejection filter between the antenna feed line and
bipolar transistors in the rf and mixer stages. With
the latter, the range of linear operation is small
compared to that of vacuum tubes. Large signals
send the transistors into the nonlinear operating r-- --- - ----- --- --,
I SIA I
region, causing severe crosstalk. I I
The most common cross-talk problem in ham I IN I
radio is that which is caused by the presence of I I
I I
nearby broadcast stations in the 550- to 1600-kHz I I
range. In some regions, the ham bands - when I I
tuned in on even the best receivers - are a mass of I I
I I
distorted "pop" music, garbled voices, and splatter. I
It should be pointed out at this juncture that the IJ2
I
broadcast stations themselves seldom are at fault,
(although in isolated instances they are capable of IN :
~

k
I: ( .002.OO2 ·002.002 I:
I I
I I
I L1 L3 LS I

Fig. 8-29 - Inside view of the broadcast trap. L__ ~__ ____ _J
Fig. 8-30 - Capacitance is in pF. Capacitors are
disk or tubular ceramic.
J1, J2 - Phono jack.
L1, L5 - 10-~H inductor, 43 turns, No. 26 enam.
wire on Amidon T-50-2 toroid core (available
from Amidon Associates, 12033 Ostego St.,
North Hollywood, CA91607).
L2, L4 - 33·~H inductor, 75 turns, No. 30 enam.
wire on Amidon T·68-2 toroid core.
L3 - 4.7-~H inductor, 30 turns, No. 26 enam. wire
on Amidon T·50-2 toroid core.
Sl - Spst toggle.
 ------ .----------------
Overload Protection 263
the input tenninals of the receiver. Such a filter, if ANT.
capable of providing sufficient attenuation, pre-
vents the broadcast-station signals from reaching
the ham receiver's front end, thus solving the
cross-talk problem. (A)
An effective band-rejection filter, containing
two constant-k sections in cascade, is shown in Fig.
8-30. It offers sharp rejection to signals in the 500- SERI ES· TUNED TRAP
to 1600-kHz range but does not impair reception ANT.
above or below the broadcast band. It is designed
for use in low-impedance lines, particularly those
that are 50 to 75 ohms.
The band-rejection filter is housed in a 3 1/2 X (B)
2 1/8 X 1 5/8-inch Minibox. Phono connections
are used for 11 and J2 - an aid to cost reduction. PARALLEL-TUNED TRAP
Di(ferent-style fittings can be used if the builder
ANT.
wishes. Standard-value components are used
throughout the filter and the values specified must
be used if good results are to be had.
In situations where a single broadcast station is
involved in the cross-talk problem, a simple series- (c)
or parallel-tuned wave trap, tuned to the frequency
of the interfering station, may prove adequate in
solving the problem. (Such a trap can be installed
as shown in Fig. 8-31.) The trap inductors can be Fig. 8-31 - Examples of series- and parallel-tuned
made from ferrite-bar broadcast radio loop single-frequency traps (installed) are shown at A
and B. At C, FL 1 represents the band-rejection
antennas and tuned to resonance by means of a filter described in the text. If possible, the filter
365-pF variable capacitor. Traps of this type used should be bolted to the chassis or case of the
should be enclosed in a metal box, as is true of the receiver. The receiver should have a good earth
band-rejection filter. ground connected to it.

FRONT-END OVERLOAD PROTECTION FOR THE RECEIVER

It is not uncommon to experience front-end Standard-value 1/2-watt resistors are used in the
overloading when the station receiver is subjected simple attenuator, which will give good results
to an extremely strong signal. Frequently, it from the broadcast band to 30 MHz. Isolation
becomes necessary to install some type of external between sections is not good enough to make this
attenuator between the antenna and the input of unit particularly effective above 30 MHz. The
the receiver to minimize the bad effects caused by
the strong signal, or signals. Ideally, such an
attenuator should be designed to match the
impedance of the antenna feed line and the input
impedance of the receiver. Also, the attenuator
should be variable, enabling the user to have some
control over the amount of attenuation used.
Manufacturers of some modem receiving equip-
ment build attenuators into the front end of their
receivers, offering benefits that are not available
-
from the nonnal rf gain-control circuit.
Examples of two such attenuators are given in
Figs. 8-34 and 8-35. In Fig. 8-35 a ladder-type
attenuator gives a 0- to 40-decibel range of control "
in five steps. A precision step attenuator is
illustrated in Fig. 8-34. The latter offers an
attenuation range of 3 to 61 decibels in 3-dB steps
by closing one or more of five toggle switches.
Both units are designed for use in low-impedance
lines. The one in Fig. 8-35 is designed for a
midrange impedance of 60 ohms, making it
satisfactory for use with receivers having a 50- or
75-ohm input. Although designed for an impe-
dance of 50 ohms, the attenuator of Fig. 8-34 will
work satisfactorily with 75-ohm receiver inputs if Fig. 8-32 - Two attenuators for receiver front-end
accurate attenuation steps are not required. protection.
 264 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
Fig. "8-33 - Inside view of the attenuators1' In the
upper unit the resistors are mounted directly on
the switch, using short pigtails wherever possible.
Wide strips of copper are used for the input and
output leads. The lower unit has each attenuator
section individually shielded. The entire assembly
is made up of double-sided circuit board material,
cut to form the necessary sections and soldered on
all abutting edges. All resistors should be
connected with the shortest possible leads. A
U-shaped piece of aluminum forms the base.

precision step attenuator, if carefully constructed Either attenUlitor can be used ahead of the
to reduce leakage to a minimum, will be effective receiver, or can be built into the receiver as an
to 150 MHz or higher. The smaller 1/4-watt integral part of the circuit. Such a device is
resistors are used as they have less inductance than particularly useful ahead of receivers that do not
the 1/2-watt types. have an rf gain control, such as simple regenerative
receiving sets.
ATrENUATOR
3dB 6dB 12dB 20dB 20dB
r------r------T------~-------r------,
1 I 1 I 1
:nin:Ol n : n
ill
Fig. 8-34 - Circuit
J2 diagram of the step

INP:>~Ti-::l--;ir-M'b=:" i f1'b,:\'~ i M'b

~:~ ! li~o:~:::=-!--~-'r<~UTPUT
attenuator. All re-
sistors are 1/4-watt
composition, 5-
percent tolerance.
Jl, J2 - Phone
I .............. I ...... "- I -./ I I plugs, or simi-
: I I I 11:, 11 lar.
IL _____ JI _______ IL ______ i_______ IL _____
~ ~
Sl-S5 - Miniature
toggle switch.

JI J2
INPUT OUTPUT
Fig. 8-35 - Schematic of the
attenuator. Resistance is in ohms.
Resistors are 1/2-watt composition,
51 POSITIONS
10-percent tolerance. Sl is a phenolic
A. a DB.
rotary l-section, 2-pole, 5-position
B. 10 DB. switch. J 1 and J2 are standard coax
C.20
o • 30
DB.
DB.
connectors. Approximate attenuation
E ·40 DB. in decibels is given for each switch
position.

IMPROVING RECEIVER SENSITIVITY

The sensitivity (signal-to-noise ratio) of a well as image rejection. The multigrid converter
receiver on the higher frequencies (above 20 MHz) tubes have very poor noise figures, and even the
is dependent upon the bandwidth of the receiver best pentodes and triodes are three or four times
and the noise contributed by the front end of the noisier when used as mixers than they are when
receiver. Neglecting the fact that image rejection used as amplifiers.
may be poor, a receiver with no rf stage is generally If the purpose of an rf amplifier is to improve
satisfactory, from a sensitivity point, in the 3.5- the receiver noise figure at 14 MHz and higher, a
and 7-MHz bands. However, as the frequency is good FET, or a high-gm pentode or triode should
increased and the atmospheric noise becomes less, be used. Among the pentodes, the best tubes are
the advantage of a good front end becomes the 6EH7, 6BZ6, and 6AK5. Of the triodes, the
apparent. Hence at 14 MHz and higher it is worth 6AN4, 6CW4, and 6DS4 are best. Among the
while to use at least one stage of rf amplification better field-effect transistors are the MPF 102,
ahead of the first detector for best sensitivity as 2N4417, 3N128, CP625, 3N200, and 40673.
The 80-10 F ET Preselector 265
When a receiver is satisfactory in every respect Gain Control
(stability and selectivity) except sensitivity on 14
In a receiver front end designed for best
through 30 MHz, the best solution for the amateur
signal-to-noise ratio, it is advantageous in the
is to add a preamplifier, a stage of rf amplification
designed expressly to improve the sensitivity. If reception of weak signals to eliminate the gain
image rejection is lacking in the receiver, some control from the first rf stage and allow it to run
selectivity should be built into the preamplifier (it "wide open" all the time. If the first stage is
is then called a preselector). If, however, the controlled along with the i-f (and other rf stages, if
receiver operation is poor on the higher frequencies any), the signal-to-noise ratio of the receiver will
bu t is satisfactory on the lower ones, a converter is suffer. As the gain is reduced, the gm of the first
the best solution. tube is reduced, and its noise figure becomes
Some commercial receivers that appear to lack higher. A good receiver might well have two gain
sensitivity on the higher frequencies can be controls, one for the first rf stage and another for
improved simply by tighter coupling to the the i-f (and any other rD stages. The first rf stage
antenna. This can be accomplished by changing the gain would be reduced only for extremely strong
antenna feed line to the right value (as determined signals, thus assuring a good noise figure.
from the receiver instruction book) or by using a
simple matching device.

THE 80-10 FET PRESELECTOR

It is often necessary to put new life into tired The .gain for each band has been set at
or inexpensive receivers, especially when operation approximately 20 dB by adjustment of the turns
is marginal on the three higher hf bands - 14, 21 ratio on the rf transformers. Although the cascode
and 28 MHz. A preselector of the type described circuit can provide up to 30 dB of gain, care must
here can pep up the front end of such receivers be taken so that the preselector does not overload
while at the same time offering additional the succeeding stages in the receiver.
selectivity on all the hf bands. The latter helps to
reduce images and generally improves the reception Construction
on some of the low-cost receivers. Often, signals The preselector is built on a 4 X 5-inch
heard on the amateur bands actually originate on etched circuit board which is housed in a 7 X 5 X
quite different frequencies. They appear on ham 3-inch homemade cabinet. The enclosure is made
sections of the dial as a result of im,age reception or from two V-shaped pieces of aluminum stock. Any
overload of a receiver mixer. of the popular commercially made cabinets may be
substituted. Also, point-to-point wiring using
terminal strips may be employed in place of the
Circuit Details
etched board. Whatever the assembly technique
This preselector is self-contained, except for the chosen, good isolation between the input and
power supply, and no modifications are required in output tuned circuits is of prime importance. Any
the receiver used. The diagram of the unit is shown stray coupling can cause instability. If trouble
in Fig. 8-37. Input and output tuned circuits
consist of the preselector tuning capacitor, C1, and
high-Q coils wound on small toroid cores. Each coil Fig. 8-36 - The 80- to 10-meter preselector is
has a trimmer capacitor for alignment purposes. A constructed in a cabinet made from two U-shaped
secondary winding is added which serves as the pieces of sheet aluminum. Press-on feet are used.
input or output 50-ohm link. Band changing is Panel decals (obtained from H. H. Smith) lend a
accomplished by Sl, a multipole miniature switch. "finished" appearance to the unit.
An "off" position is included so that the
preselector may be bypassed when it is not
required.
Two JFETs are operated in a cascode circuit.
The advantage of this arrangement is that the
capacitance between input and output is only a
fraction of a picofarad - so low that neu tralization
is not required in the hf range. Current drain is
low, so the preselector may be operated from a
9-volt transistor-radio battery if desired, with only " ,
a slight loss of gain and dynamic range. Otherwise, '"
a 12-volt miniature power supply, such as the type
sold for battery replacement, should be used. If
battery operation is contemplated it would be well
to add a power on/off switch; otherwise, current
will be drawn all of the time.
 1(+
~:v J3

Jl ~

J2

OUTPUT

~
Ql-Q2
BOTTOM VIEW
Fig. 8-38 - Inside view of the pre-
selector. The circuit board is held
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (jiF ) ; )QX
off the chassis with 1/4-inch stand- OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR JlPF): o S G
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
off pillars. The 80- and 40-meter k: 1000
coils are along the rear of the cir-
NC =NO CONNECTION
cuit board, with the 20-, 15-, and C2-Cll, incl. - See table.
10-meter input coils to the right of Fig. 8-37 - Schematic diagram of the selective CR1-CR2 - High-speed switching diodes.
the switch while the output coils preselector. Unless otherwise indicated, decimal Jl-J3, incl. - Phone jack, panel mount.
for the 14- to 28-MHz bands are values of capacitance are in P.F; others are in pF. L l-L20. inc!. - See table.
to the left. 01 is on the bottom Resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-watt composition and 01, 02 - HEP 802 or 2N5486.
left of the circuit board, with Q2 fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic. RFCl - Miniature choke (Miller 70Fl03Al).
just above. Cl - Split-stator variable, dual section (Hammar- Sl - Ceramic miniature rotary switch, 4 pole, 6
~
lund HFD-25). position, 2 section (Centralab PA-2011).
COIL TABLE
80 L 1, L12 - 5 turns No. 30 enam. L2, L11 - 85 turns No. 30 enam. C2, C7 - 7-80-pF
over L2, L11, respectively. on Amidon T-50-2 core. compression trimmer,
Calectro A 1-247 ::tI
40 L3, L14 - 3 turns No. 30 enam. L4, L 13 - 40 turns No. 30 enam.
m
over L4, L13, respectively.
C3, C8 - 4-40-pF n
on Amidon T-50-2 core. compression trimmer, m
Calectro A 1-246
20 L5, L16, - 2% turns No. 22 L6, L15 - 20 turns No. 22 enam. C4, C9 - 4-40-pF I
<
enam. over L6, L15, respec- on Amidon T-50-2 core. compression trimmer, 2:
tively. G)
Calectro Al-246 J
15 L7, L 18 - 2 turns No. 22 enam. L8, L17 - 13 turns No. 22 enam.
over L8, L17, respectively. on Amidon T-50-6 core.
C5, Cl0 - 4-40-pF
compression trimmer, ;
I en
-<
en
Calectro Al-246 -4
10 L9, L20 - 1 % turns No. 22
m
enam. over L10, L19, respec-
L10, L19 - 10 turns No. 22 enam.
on Amidon T-50-6 core.
C6, Cll ~ p.9-7-pF
compression trimmer,
s:
en
~ tively. Calectro A 1-245
Note: Amidon Associates, 12033 Otsego Street, North Hollywood, CA 91607
Squelch Circuits 267
develops, a shield between Ql and Q2 may be of severe damage will result to the coils and
help. transistors in the unit. If the transceiver has a
The band switch, Sl, is mounted on an separate receiving-antenna input, as some do, the
aluminum bracket which is, in tum, mounted at preselector can be connected to this jack, and the
the center of the circuit board. The toroid coils are feeder switched with an external antenna-change-
held in place with a drop of epoxy cement. The over relay.
shield that separates the two sections of Cl must
be grounded to the etched board with a short lead. SQUELCH CIRCUITS
This metal strip provides vital shielding between An audio squelch is one that cuts off the
sections A and B. The PRESELECTOR capacitor is receiver output when no signal is coming through
mounted directly to the front panel using hardware the receiver. A squelch is useful in mobile
supplied with the unit. All of the trimmer equipment where the no-signal receiver hiss noise
capacitors are mounted on the circuit board. may be as loud as some of the weak signals being
During assembly, whether or not a circuit board copied. Noise of this kind, when listened to over a
is used, a heat sink should always be employed sustained period, can cause considerable operator
when soldering the transistor leads. If excessive fatigue. A squelch is useful with certain types of
heat reaches the body of the transistor, the device fixed-station equipment too, especially where
can be ruined. continuous monitoring of a fixed vhf or uhf
The input, output, and power jacks are
frequency is desired.
mounted on the rear apron of the chassis. The rf
A practical vacuum-tube squelch circuit is given
protection diodes, CRlCR2, are connected right
in Fig. 8-39 at A. A twin triode (12AX7) serves as
across 11. Subminiature coax (RG-174A/U) is used
to connect the input and output jacks to the an audio amplifier and a control tube. When the
circuit board. Sockets for the transistors were agc voltage is low or zero, the lower (control)
included in the original model to facilitate triode draws plate current. The consequent voltage
experimentation; they may be omitted if desired. drop across the adjustable resistor in the plate
circuit cuts off the upper (amplifier) triode and no
Alignment signal or noise is passed. When the agc voltage rises
to the cutoff value of the control triode, the tube
The completed preselector is best adjusted with no longer draws current and the bias on the
a signal generator. However, if no test equipment is amplifier triode is now only its normal operating
available, on-the-air signals may be used. The bias, furnished by the WOO-ohm resistor in the
antenna or generator should be connected to Jl cathode circuit. The tube now functions as an
and a short patch cord run from J2 to the receiver. ordinary amplifier and passes signals. The relation
Start with the lO-meter band, and set C2 with the between the agc voltage and the signal tum-on
plates fully unmeshed. Then tune in a signal at the point is adjusted by varying the resistance in the
uppermost point in the band. Adjust trimmers C6 plate circuit of the control triode.
and C 11 for maximum indication on the receiver S The circuit shown at B employs a Schmitt-trig-
meter. Repeat this procedure for the other bands, ger input to achieve positive on-off gating of the
setting the appropriate trimmers. The lower-fre- audio signal. For ssb operation, the length of the
quency bands will appear to tune more broadly. squelch-gate on time after the input signal
However, the selectivity provided by the high-Q rf disappears is increased by switching in an
transformers is about the same on each band. electrolytic capacitor. The dc signal from the
If this preselector is to be used with a squelch gate controls an emitter follower which is
transceiver, the unit will have to be switched au t of connected between the receiver detector and the
the antenna line when transmitting. Otherwise first audio amplifier.

12AX7
SCHMITT EMITTER
TRIGGER GATE FOLLOWER
r------t-------t"-----,....---t"--o-12V

.01

(B)
Fig. 8-39 - Practical examples of squelch circuits
for cutting off the receiver output when no signal
is present.
268 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
AUDIO OUTPUT

AMPLIFIER
+12V 0---,.-------,

Z'J1.=loon
(15mV)
Fig. 8-40 - An audio module using an integrated
circuit which delivers up to four watts of power
output.
+ ~
(8) .l'5V
AUDIO CIRCUITS Fig. 8-41 - Audio output circuits using (A) a tube
The output of a receiver detector is followed by and (8) an Ie.
one or more audio amplifier stages to bring the
signal up to sufficient level to drive headphones or
a loudspeaker. Suitable low-level amplifier stages circuit at B employs an IC which incorporates the
are shown in Chapter 13_ For speaker operation, an preamplifier and power amplifier in a single stage.
audio power stage, such as those shown in Fig. The device delivers 2 watts - other similar ICs are
8-41, 'is needed. At A, a 6AQ5 tube provides 2 available for power levels from 0.25 to 5 watts. No
watts of output, which is coupled to the speaker transformer is needed between the IC and the
through a 5000/3.2-ohm audio transformer. The speaker.

TUNING A RECEIVER

CW Reception audio gain control, not the i-f gain control. Under
In a receiver without selectivity, it doesn't the above conditions, the selectivity of the receiver
much matter where the BFO is set, so long as it is is being used to best advantage, and cross modula-
within the pass band of the receiver. However, in a tion is minimized_ It precludes the use of a receiver
receiver with selectivity, the BFO should be offset, in which the gains of the rf and i-f stages are
to give single-signal code reception. The proper controlled simultaneously.
setting of the BFO is easy to find. In the absence
of incoming signals, it will be found that, as the Single-Sideband Phone Reception
BFO control is tuned, the pitch of the background The receiver is set up for ssb reception in a
noise will go from high to low and back to high manner similar to that for single-signal code
again. The setting that gives the lowest pitch reception, except that a suitable bandwidth for ssb
represents the setting of the BFO in the center of (2 to 3 kHz) is used_ The BFO must be set off to
the pass band. Setting the BFO for a higher pitch one side of the passband if good use is to be made
(to the noise) will give more or less single-signal of the selectivity_To determine which side to set
effect on incoming signals, depending upon the it, remember this rule: A selective receiver can be
selectivity of the receiver. If the receiver uses a set up for lower-sideband reception by setting the
crystal filter that has a "rejection notch" or BFO so that there is little or no signal on the
"phasing" control, setting the notch on the audio low-frequency side of zero beat when tuning
image will improve the single-signal effect. through a steady carrier or cw signal. Lower
The best receiver condition for the reception of sideband is customarily used on 3_9 and 7 MHz,
code signals will have the first rf stage running at upper on the higher frequencies.
maximum gain, the following rf mixer and i-f Unless the receiver has an agc system suitable
stages operating with just enough gain to maintain for ssb reception (fast attack, slow decay), the
the signal-to-noise ratio, and the audio gain set to operator must be very careful not to let the
give comfortable headphone or speaker volume. receiver overload. If the receiver does overload, it
The audio volume should be controlled by the will be impossible to obtain good ssb reception_
Tuning a Receiver 269
Run the receiver with as little rf gain as possible, higher audio frequencies, it is possible to use quite
consistent with a good signal-to-noise ratio, and high selectivity withou t destroying intelligibility.
run the audio gain high. As in code reception, it is advisable to do all tuning
Carefully tune in an ssb signal using only the with the filter in the circuit. Variable-selectivity
main tuning dial. When the voice becomes natural filters pennit a choice of selectivity to suit
sounding and understandable, the signal is properly interference conditions.
tuned. If the incoming signal is on lower sideband, An undesired carrier close in frequency to a
tuning the receiver to a lower frequency will make desired carrier will heterodyne with it to produce a
the voice sound lower pitched. An upper-sideband beat note equal to the frequency difference.
signal will sound higher pitched as the receiver is
tuned to a lower frequency.
If the receiver has excellent selectivity, 2.1 kHz
or less, it will be desirable to experiment slightly Spurious Responses
with the BFO setting, remembering that each Spurious responses can be recognized without a
adjustment of the BFO calls for a similar great deal of difficulty. Often it is possible to
adjustment of the main tuning control. If the identify an image by the nature of the transmitting
selectivity is quite high, setting the BFO too far station, if the frequency assignments applying to
from the pass band will limit the incoming signal to the frequency to which the receiver is tuned are
the high audio frequencies only. Conversely, known. However, an image also can be recognized
setting it too close will limit the response to the by its behavior with tuning. If the signal causes a
low audio frequencies. heterodyne beat note with the desired signal and is
actually on the same frequency, the beat note will
A-M Phone Reception
not change as the receiver is tuned through the
In reception of a-m phone signals, the nonnal signal; but if the interfering signal is an image, the
procedure is to set the rf and i-f gain at maximum, beat will vary in pitch as the receiver is tuned. The
switch on the agc, and use the audio gain control beat oscillator in the receiver must be turned off
for setting the volume. This insures maximum for this test. Using a crystal filter with the beat
effectiveness of the agc system in compensating for oscillator on, an image will peak on the side of zero
fading and maintaining constant audio output on beat opposite that on which desired signals peak.
either strong or weak signals. On occasion a strong Harmonic response can be recognized by the
signal close to the frequency of a weaker desired "tuning rate," or movement of the tuning dial
station may take control of the agc, in which case required to give a specified change in beat note.
the weaker station may disappear because of the Signals getting into the i-f via high-frequency
reduced gain. In this case better reception may oscillator harmonics tune more rapidly (less dial
result if the agc is switched off, using the manual rf movement) through a given change in beat note
gain control to set the gain at a point that prevents than do signals received by nonnal means.
"blocking" by the stronger signal. Harmonics of the beat oscillator can be
When receiving an a-m signal on a frequency recognized by the tuning rate of the beat-oscillator
within 5 to 20 kHz from a single-sideband signal it pitch control. A smaller movement of the control
may also be necessary to switch off the agc and will suffice for a given change in beat note than
resort to the use of manual gain control, unless the that necessary with legitimate signals. In poorly
receiver has excellent skirt selectivity. designed or inadequately shielded and filtered
A crystal filter will help reduce interference in receivers it is often possible to find BFO harmonics
phone reception. Although the high selectivity cuts below 2 MHz, but they should be very weak or
sidebands and reduces the audio output at the nonexistent at higher frequencies.

ALIGNMENT AND SERVICE OF SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS

I-F Alignment
is used as an indication, the agc of the receiver
A calibrated signal generator or test oscillator is should be turned on, but any other indication
a useful device for alignment of an i-f amplifier. requires that it be turned off. Lacking a test
Some means for measuring the output of the oscillator, a steady signal tuned through the input
receiver are required See Fig. 8-40. If the receiver of the receiver (if the job is one of just touching up
has a tuning meter, its indications will serve. the i-f amplifier) will be suitable. However, with no
Lacking an S meter, a high-resistance voltmeter or oscillator and tuning an amplifier for the first time,
a vacuum-tube voltmeter can be connected across one's only recourse is to try to peak the i-f
the second-detector load resistor, if the second transformer on "noise," a difficult task if the
detector is a diode. Alternatively, if the signal transformers are badly off resonance, as they are
generator is a modulated type, an ac voltmeter can apt to be. It would be much better to haywire
be connected across the primary of the transformer together a simple oscillator for test purposes.
feeding the speaker, or from the plate of the last Initial alignment of a new i-f amplifier is as
audio amplifier through a O.I-MF blocking follows: The test oscillator is set to the correct
capacitor. Lacking an ac voltmeter, the audio frequency, and its output is coupled through a
output can be judged by ear, although this method capacitor to the grid of the last i-f amplifier tube.
is not as accurate as the others. If the tuning meter The trimmer capacitors of the transfonner feeding
 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
An amplifier that is only slightly out of
alignment, as a result of normal drift or aging, can
be realigned by using any steady signal, such as a
local broadcast station, instead of the test
oscillator. One's 100-kHz standard makes an
excellent signal source for "touching up" an i-f
amplifier. Allow the receiver to warm up
thoroughly, tune in the signal, and trim the i-f for
maximum output as noted on the S meter, or by
tuning for peak af output.

Rf Alignment
The objective in aligning the rf circuits of a
gang-tuned receiver is to secure adequate tracking
over each tuning range. The adjustment may be
carried out with a test oscillator of suitable
Fig. 842 - Receiver alignment requires a stable frequency range, with harmonics from your
signal source (a signal generator) and voltmeter. 100-kHz standard or other known oscillator, or
Alignment of communications receivers should be even on noise or such signals as may be heard. First
checked at least once a year. set the tuning dial at the high-frequency end of the
range in use. Then set the test oscillator to the
frequency indicated by the receiver dial. The
test-oscillator output may be connected to the
the second detector are then adjusted for antenna terminals of the receiver for this test.
maximum output, as shown by the indicating Adjust the oscillator trimmer capacitor in the
device being used. The oscillator output lead is receiver to give maximum response on the
then clipped on to the grid of the next-to-the-last test-oscillator signal, then reset the receiver dial to
i-f amplifier tube, and the second-from-the-last the low-frequency end of the range. Set the
transformer trimmer adjustments are peaked for test-oscillator frequency near the frequency indi-
maximum output. This process is continued, cated by the receiver dial and tune the test
working back from the second detector, until all of oscillator until its signal is heard in the receiver. If
the i-f transformers have been aligned. It will be the frequency of the signal indicated by the
necessary to reduce the output of the test test-oscillator calibration is higher than that
oscillator as more of the i-f amplifier is brought indicated by the receiver dial, more inductance (or
into use. It is desirable in all cases to use the more capacitance in the tracking capacitor) is
minimum signal that will give useful output needed in the receiver oscillator circuit; if the
readings. The i-f transformer in the plate circuit of frequency is lower, less inductance (less tracking
the mixer is aligned with the signal introduced to capacity) is required in the receiver oscillator. Most
the grid of the mixer. Since the tuned circuit commercial receivers provide some means for
feeding the mixer grid may have a very low varying the inductance of the coils or the
impedance at the i-f, it may be necessary to boost capacitance of the tracking capacitor, to permit
the test generator output or to di~connect the aligning the receiver tuning with the dial
tuned circuit temporarily from the mixer grid. calibration. Set the test oscillator to the frequency
If the i-f amplifier has a crystal filter, the filter indicated by the receiver dial, and then adjust the
should first be switched out and the alignment tracking capacitance or inductance of the receiver
carried out as above, setting the test oscillator as oscillator coil to obtain maximum response. After
closely as possible to the crystal frequency. When making this adjustment, recheck the high-frequen-
this is completed, the crystal should be switched in cy end of the scale as previously described. It may
and the oscillator frequency varied back and forth be necessary to go back and forth between the
over a small range either side of the crystal ends of the range several times before the proper
frequency to find the exact frequency, as indicated combination of inductance and capacitance is
by a sharp rise in output. Leaving the test oscillator secured. In many cases, better overall tracking will
set on the crystal peak, the i-f trimmers should be result if frequencies near but not actually at the
realigned for maximum output. The necessary ends of the tuning range are selected, instead of
readjustment should be small. The oscillator taking the extreme dial settings.
frequency should be checked frequently to make After the oscillator range is properly adjusted,
sure it has not drifted from the crystal peak. set the receiver and test oscillator to the
A modulated signal is not of much value for high-frequency end of the range. First adjust the
aligning a crystal-filter i-f amplifier, since the high mixer trimmer capacitor for maximum hiss or
selectivity cuts sidebands and the results may be signal, then the rf trimmers. Reset the tuning dial
inaccurate if the audio output is used as the tuning and test oscillator to the low-frequency end of the
indication. Lacking the agc tuning meter, the range, and repeat; if the circuits are properly
transformers may be conveniently aligned by ear, designed, no change in trimmer settings should be
using a weak unmodulated signal adjusted to the necessary. If it is necessary to increase the trimmer
crystal peak. Switch on the beat oscillator, adjust capacitance in any circuit, more indicatance is
to the suitable tone, and align the i-f transformers needed; conversely, if less capacitance resonates
for maximum audio output. the circuit, less inductance is required.
An Active Filter 271
Tracking seldom is perfect tluoughout a tuning factory-built ham gear generally degrade its resale
range, so that a check of alignment at intermediate value, discouraging the owner from making circuit
points in the range may show it to be slightly off. improvements or improving his knowledge by
Normally the gain variation will be small, however, experimenting.
and it will suffice to bring the circuits into line at The complexity of the receiver need only be
both ends of the range. If most reception is in a such as to fIll the operator's needs. Some very basic
particular part of the range, such as an amateur home-made receivers perform better than poorly
band, the circuits may be aligned for maximum designed multitube commercial units. The receiv-
performance in that region, even though the ends ers described later in this chapter have been
of the frequency range as a whole may be slightly designed with the radio amateur's needs in mind,
out of alignment. yet no unnecessary circuitry has been added simply
to make them appear to be highly sophisticated.
RECEIVER SELECTION Many of the parts used in these receivers can be
Beginning amateurs often find themselves faced obtained from junked TV sets, war surplus stores,
with the dilemma of choosing between a junked war surplus equipment, and from the
home-built or store-bought receiver. Ideally, the workshop junk box. These possibilities should not
new ham would elect to build his own complete be overlooked, for a considerable amount of
amateur station, extracting the maximum value money can be saved by garnering small parts in this
from the project tluough the knowledge he would manner.
gain about electronics_ Additionally, home-built The fmal decision whether to buy or build will
equipment is more familiar in detail to its owner of course be up to the operator. If you're only
than is a manufactured receiver. Thus, he can interested in being a "communicator," then a
service his unit more rapidly and does not have to store-bought receiver will probably suffice. If,
consult with the manufacturer about servicing however, you want to experience the thrill of
details. If he wishes to add new circuits to the communicating by means of home-constructed
home-built receiver, or to modify existing cir- equipment, and if you want to learn by doing, then
cuitry, he need not worry about destroying the home-made receiving equipment should be con-
resale value of the equipment. For this reason the sidered. Such forthright endeavors are often the
owner may be encouraged to experiment more stepping stones to higher plateaus - a satisfying
with circuits, enhancing his overall knowledge of career in electronics, or the needed background to
electronics. qualify for radio schooling when in the military
Conversely, single-lot quantities of small parts service. Just having a good working knowledge of
are quite expensive these days, sometimes causing one's own station is rewarding in itself, and such
the constructor to spend more money on a simple knowledge contributes to an amateur's value
home-built receiver than he would on a complica- during public service and emergency operations.
ted commercially built unit. Modifications to

AN ACTIVE FI L TER

An audio filter is a receiver adjunct that can amplifier. The RC network provides a notch
greatly improve the overall selectivity of a receiving frequency so that when it is connected
system. Such a filter is particularly useful when between the input and output of the op amp the
operating an ssb transceiver on cw, as many of the gain at the notch frequency is quite high - close to
inexpensive ssb rigs do not have i-f bandwidths the open-loop gain of the active device - while at
narrow enough for comfortable cw operation. An all other frequencies the gain is near unity. An
audio filter can also be used as the primary attenuator is used at the input of each filter to
selectivity element in a direct-conversion receiver. reduce the gain, thus preventing cross-modulation
Large fixed-value inductors are normally used to effects. Also, the INVERTING terminal of each
achieve selectivity at audio frequencies. A more amplifier is loaded to insure stable operation.
modern approach is to use resistor/capacitor
networks combined with amplifiers to synthesize
the characteristics of an inductor. When this'
"inductance" is resonated with a capacitor, an
audio tuned circuit, called an active filter, results.
The circuit shown in Fig. 8-44 was designed by
WB2VXR. The two filter sections consist of a
notch network and a high-gain operational

Fig. 8-43 - The active filter is built on a piece of

electronic pegboard. The finished unit can be
mounted inside a receiver.
272 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
ACTIVE ACTIVE TO PIN 6 SIA BTl
FILTER FILTER
ANg~2o -9V o~ I'I' ~
~IIII~
2200 2200 2200 2200

BT2

10K
IO,uF HIGIH
~HEADPHONES
+ OR
2N2925
mr-O AMPLIFIER
AUDIO

INPUT

Fig. 8-44 - Schematic diagram of the audio filter.

Resistors are 1/4-watt composition. Capacitors are
ceramic or mylar, except those with polarity Assembly
marked, which are electrolytic. Construction is not particularly critical, and the
BT1, BT2 - 9-volt transistor-radio battery. builder should encounter no problems if a
S1 - Dpdt toggle.
U1, U2 - Motorola MC1741 op amp. straight-line layout is used. The original filter was
built on Vector-board-like material. Considering
the repetitive nature of the design, a printed-circuit
board would be an ideal method of fabrication.
The board could be mounted in an aluminum box
The two active-filter sections are coupled with switches and input-output jacks. Since the
through diodes which only pass peak voltages unit only draws 5 rnA of current, two small 9-volt
higher than the barrier potential of the diodes batteries would provide suitable power. The only
(approximately 0.6 V if silicon types are critical components in the filter are the resistors
employed). On either side of the input-amplifier and capacitors in the notch networks. Five-per-
resonant frequency the voltage falls off quickly, cent-tolerance components were used, although
and soon it goes below the level necessary to keep satisfactory results might be expected if ten-per-
the diodes conducting. The overall effect is to cent capacitors were substituted. Total cost should
improve the skirt selectivity. The 6-dB bandwidth be around $10, and the unit can be built in one or
is 62 Hz. two evenings.

AN AUDIO FI LTER FOR PHONE AND CW

Audio filters are useful in reducing the level of

unwanted energy which lies above and below the
speech-frequency range that is used in phone
communications work. For cw operation, only a
narrow frequency band around a selected beat tone
need be passed. The filter circuit of Fig. 8-46
provides several degrees of selectivity. LC filters,
~ ... using fixed-value capacitors and toroid coils, are
selected by a front-panel switch for 200-, 400-, and
3000-Hz selectivity. The filter adaptor may also be
switched out when high-fidelity audio response is
,. desired.
"
..
......,

7
Fig. 8-45 - The phone/cw audio filter. (The basic
filter designs were done by K1PLP, and the unit
shown was constructed by W1 ETU.l
An Audio Filter for Phone and CW 273
The Circuit
The cw filter is a 2-pole Butterworth type_ A
840-Hz center frequency has been chosen, with a
basic filter bandwidth of 200 Hz. The selectivity of
this filter is broadened to 400 Hz when S 1 switches
in additional RC components. The phone filter is a
5-pole Chebishev design with a sharp cut-off at
3000 Hz. Any low-frequency components below
300 Hz are attenuated by the amplifier stages
which have RC-coupling components chosen for a
low-frequency roll-off.
Q1, a source follower, will match a wide variety
of impedances to the input of the filters. After
filtering, the audio signal is amplified to sufficient
level for headphone use. Only high-impedance
headphones, 1000 ohms or more, will work. If
more output is desired, as would be required for a
speaker or low-impedance "cans," an alternate
output circuit may be used. A PA-237 IC amplifier,
shown in Fig. 847 will deliver one to two watts of
audio power with low distortion.

Construction
The audio filter is built into a Ten-Tee JW-7
enclosure. All parts, with the exception of the
panel controls, are mounted on a homemade
etched circuit board. Other assembly techniques
may be used, if desired. Sl is mounted on a
bracket near the center of the circuit board; short
jumper wires connect the switch contacts to the
board. Surplus telephone-type toroid coils are used
in the filters. These inexpensive inductors are
available through several sources that advertise in
QST Ham Ads. L4 must be modified by adding
140 turns of No. 30 enamel wire to the basic ~
88-mH coil, raising the inductance to 120 mHo The It)

toroids are bolted to the circuit board using No.6'

hardware and a large fiber washer over the top of
the inductor. The 6-32 toroid mounting bolt
should have spaghetti tubing over it to prevent the
bolt threads from damaging the insulation on the
coil windings. Use only enough tension to hold the
inductors snugly in place.
Power may be taken from a battery or dc
supply. An ac-operated supply is recommended if
the PA-237 amplifier is used. This IC draws
considerable current, so a battery would not enjoy
a long life.

'"..., >
N

Using the Filter

+
To install the filter, use a short patch cord to
connect 11 to the receiver HEADPHONE jack.
Keep the receiver audio output as low as possible.
Volume can be controlled with Rl. On phone
signals tge phone filter will reduce the level of
high-frequency hetrodynes and splatter. When
using the 200-Hz sharp cw filter, a tendency to
"ring" may be noticed. This is normal; the ringing
effect can be minimized by keeping the audio
input to the filter low.
274 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
~----~--------------~~--~+
12-24V

Fig. 8-47 - Alternate audio output circuit. Resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-watt composition, and capacitors
are disk ceramic, except those with polarity marked, which are electrolytic. Unless otherwise noted,
capacitance values are given in J.1F.
J4 - Phono jack, panel mount.
U1 - PA-237 General Electric integrated-circuit
audio amplifier.

Fig. 8-48 - Inside view of the filter. The individual

filter components are grouped in front of the
switch. The input source follower, Q1, is located at
the lower left, and the output amplifier is to the
upper right. Care must be used in mounting the
toroid coils so that no damage results to the
windings (see text).

A "UNIVERSAL" HF RECEIVING CONVERTER

The receiving converter shown in Fig. 8-49 can

be used as a "down converter" with an i-f output
of 3.5 to 4 MHz, as an "up converter" with an i-f
of 28 to 28.5 MHz, or as a front end for a
multiband hf receiver. The tuned circuits at the
front end will cover all of the hf amateur bands -
1.6 to 29.6 MHz. Thus, it is only necessary to
select an appropriate output network for the mixer
tuned circuits, for the crystal oscillator, and
crystals for the desired frequency coverage. WWV
or WWVH reception at 5, 10, 15 or 20 MHz may
be added. With the band-switch arrangement
shown, five amateur bands and one WWV
frequency can be selected with S1. A second
switch, S2, allows bypassing the converter. Suitable
coil and capacitor combinations are given in the
chart, Fig. 8-50, for all of the bands mentioned
above. Other 50G-kHz segments in the range from
1.6 to 30 MHz may be covered with an appropriate
conversion crystal and oscillator-tank circuit.

Front view of the hf converter. The upper knob

controls the PRESLECTOR capacitor, while the
lower control is for the band switch. The small
switch to the lower right disconnects the converter
from the antenna line.
 R F AMPLIFIER MIXER

».
C
::I

...en<'
CD

CIB
!!L .
J3
:r:
.....

:·
JI
AGC ::0
ANT.~
CD
GND. n
1375 Be R CD
:C.
-,

0
+12\1
FILTE ::I
CC
RFGI 5.'"
330 (')
I

~u;n2':.
s.M.1 0
3.2f'H t)RFC2 L2 ::I
<

~
3'2f<H
375
S.M.
L1 'CIA

cfi''' L8
.........
CD

CD
S2A ~ 4 24 L9
.001

24 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

L10 VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (jlF) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR jljlFl;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
II -IQOO. Ma 1000 000
Fig. 8-49 - Schematic diagram of the hf converter. S.M.= SILVER MICA Miller 46A225CPC and 46A 126CPC, respective-
Capacitors are disk ceramiC and resistors are *= GATE PROTECTED Iyl.
1/2-watt composition, unless otherwise noted. J1, J2 - Phono type, chassis mount. l12 - See table.
Capacitors with polarity marked are electrolytic. A J3 - 3-terminal strip, screw type (Millen E303). Q1, 02 - RCA dual-gate MOSFET.
template is available from the ARRL Technical L1 - 6 turns No. 28 enam. wound over L2. Q3 - Motorola JFET.
Department for fifty cents and a large self- L2, L6 - 52 turns No. 28 enam. on Amidon RFC1, RFC2 - Solenoid-wound rf choke, one turn
addressed stamped envelope. T-68-2 toroid core (Amidon Associates, 12033 removed (J. W. Miller 74F336AP).
C1 - Broadcast-type air variable, dual section, 365 Ostego St., North Hollywood, CA 91607). RFC3 - Solenoid-wound rf choke (J. W. Miller
pF per section, gear-reduction drive (J. W. L3, L8 - 46 turns No. 28 enam. wound on 74F336AP).
Miller 565-8). Amidon T-68-2 core. RFC4 - Solenoid-wound rf choke (J. W. Miller
C2-C4, incl. - Air variable, pc mount (Johnson L4, L9 - 20 turns No. 20 enam. wound on 74F476AP).
189-0509-0051. Amidon T-50-2 core. Sl - Assembly consisting of one Centralab PA-302
C5, C6 - For 3.5 MHz, 45 and 470 pF, L5, L10 - 13 turns No. 20 enam. wound on index section and 5 Centralab PA-1001 1-pole,
respectively. For 28 MHz, 15 and 150 pF. May Amidon T-50-6 core. 11-position phenolic sections.
be silver mica or disk ceramic. L7 - 13 turns No. 28 enam. wound over L6. S2 - Dpdt toggle.
C7 - See table (Fig. 8-50). III - For 3.5 MHz, 22.pH slug-tuned coil; for 28 VR1 - Zener diode, 9.8 V, 1 W. ~
CR1 - High-speed silicon switching diode. MHz, 1.2.pH slug-tuned coil, pc mount (J. W. Y1 - See table. .......
U1
 276 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
1.8 MHz 3.5 MHz 7 MHz 10 MHz 14 MHz 15 MHz 21 MHz 25 MHz 28 MHz 28.5MH-
YI 5.8 MHz N/A II MHz 14 MHz 10.5 MHz II MHz 17.5 MHz 29 MHz 32 MHz 32.5 MHz
For 3,5.-4 LI2 1.51'H 4.251'H 2.51lH 4.BIlH 4.251lH 2.51lH I.5I'H 1.51'H -1.51'H
MHzi-f 46AB26CPC N/ A 46A416CPC 46A216CPC 46A416CPC 46A416CPC 46A216CPC 46AI56CPC 46AI56CPC 46A156CPC
C7 100 pI' N/A 39 pF 41 pI' 39 pF 39 pI' IB pI' 10 pI' 5 pF 5 pF

YJ 30.3 MHz 32 MHz 35.5 MHz 38 MHz 42.5 MHz 43 MHz 49.5 MHz 53 MHz N/A N/A
For 28-28. Ll2 I.5I'H I.5I'H I.2I'H 1.0 I'H 0.B21'H 0.B21'H 0.541'H 0.551'H N/A N/A
MHz i-f 46A156CPC 46A156CPC 46AI26CPC 46A106CPC 46AB21CPC 46AB21CPC 46A516CPC 46A516CPC
C7 1 pI' 5 pI' 5 pF 5 pF 5 pF 5 pF 5 pF 5 pF N/A N/A

Fig. 8-50 - Table of values for the hf converter.

Design insuring maximum rejection of out-of-band signals.

The design of the converter has been optimized The tuned circuits exhibit some loss, a limiting
for strong-signal performance. All of the rf factor that determines the sensitivity of the
selectivity has been placed before the rf amplifier, converter. Average sensitivity is about 0.5 /lV for a
1 D-dB signal-plus-noise-to-noise ratio (S + N/N).
A second dual-gate MOSFET, Q2, functions as
the mixer. The amplified rf signal is fed to gate 1
The bottom view reveals the shielding sections of this device while gate 2 is coupled to the hf
which provide a mount for the switch, as well as oscillator, Q3. The dual-gate MOSFET is an
isolating the stages of the converter. These shields excellent transistor for mixer service as it has good
are made from 3 X 2·inch sections of double-sided
circuit board. C2, C3 and C4 are mounted on the conversion gain, provides isolation between the
bottom side of the main board so that they can be signal and oscillator inputs, and performs well
reached easily for alignment purposes. when handling strong signalS. The mixer has a
low-Q output tank to permit nearly constant gain
over a SOD-kHz tuning range, even when a 3.5 to 4
MHz i-f is chosen. A capacitive divider provides the
impedance transformation necessary to match
52-ohm cable. A short length of RG-58A/U is
suitable as an interconnecting cable to the
associated receiver.

Construction
All components, except for the dual-section
TUNING capacitor and the chassis-mount connec-
tors, are installed on a 3 1/2 X 8-inch etched
circuit board. A foil pattern and parts-placement
template may be obtained from the ARRL
Technical Department (see Fig. 8-49). A length of
sheet-aluminum stock, bent to form a
3 1/2 X 8 X 2-inch rectangle (with a 1/4-inch lip
around the top), provides a base for the pc board.
Sheet-metal screws are used to secure the board to
the base. The dual-section input-tuning capacitor,
Cl, is mounted on a small shelf supported by the
6 1/2 X 3 1/2-inch front panel - see the rear-view
photograph. Cl has a built-in reduction drive
which facilitates tuning on the 21- and 28-MHz
bands. The frame of Cl contains two small
trimmer capacitors, one for each section. The
trimmer closest to the tuning shaft is retained, but
the second one is disabled by removing the screw.
Trimmers C2, C3 and C4 are used instead to align
the front end for proper tracking. Three 25-pF
miniature variable capacitors are employed and are
mounted on the bottom side of the circuit board.
Before installation, the two solder tabs on each
capacitor are bent out at right angles to the
capacitor body. Correct positioning of these
capacitors is shown in the parts-layout diagram
offered in Fig. 8-49.
 A Receiving Package
Alignment
Before applying 12 volts to the converter,
check to see that the transistors are properly
oriented in their sockets and that no solder bridges
are shorting the foil sections on the pc board.
Check the resistance from 13 (pin 3) to ground; it
should be 250 ohms or higher. A low-resistance
reading indicates a fault which should be corrected
before power is applied.
The hf crystal oscillator is aligned fIrst. Some
means of detecting the oscillator signal, such as an
hf oscilloscope, general-coverage receiver or wave-
meter, will be needed. Whatever the indicating
device used, it should be loosely coupled to the
oscillator tank circuit to be checked. Oscillation is
started by varying the inductance of the tank
inductor, moving the slug in the coil form. Best
operation is achieved when the slug is set just
above the point of maximum oscillator output, on
the high frequency side of resonance. After an
oscillator coil has been set, the 12-volt supply
should be switched on and off a few times to see
that the oscillator starts reliably. If not, try a
setting that provides slightly less inductance.
Adjustment of the mixer-output circuit is the
next alignment task. The mixer tank circuit is
adjusted by moving the slug in Lll, which should
be set for maximum output noise when the
receiver is tuned to the center of the i-f band to be
used. A broad peak will be obtained. This is normal
and desirable.
Peaking the front-end circuits requires a Fig. 8-51 - The front-end tuning capacitor, C1, is
weak-signal source; a signal generator or on-the-air mounted on a small shelf just above the toroid
coils. The rear section of the main circuit board
signal may be employed. Align the 40-meter band contains the crystal oscillator. The crystals are
first. Using C1, peak the incoming signal for soldered directly into the board. The capacitors
maximum S-meter reading on the associated that go with the oscillator-tan k coils are connected
receiver. Next, peak C1C, the trimmer that is part across the terminals of the pc-mount coil forms.
of the TUNING capacitor, and C2. Then, rotate Cl Most of the chokes and resistors are mounted
and observe that only one peak occurs on the S vertically to save space.
meter. If a double peak is obtained, repeat the
adjustments of CIC and C2. Then align C3 and C4
on the 20- and lO-meter bands, respectively.
(Don't move the setting of CIC during these Because the 20- and IS-meter bands have the
adjustments.) oscillator set on the low-frequency side, they will
On the 160-, 40- and 10-meter bands the tune in the conventional manner. If the values
oscillator operates at a higher frequency than does shown in the chart are chosen for a 28-MHz i-f, all
the incoming signal. The receiver tunes in the bands will tune from 28.5 to 28 MHz, as the signal
reverse direction, when using an 80-meter i-f. Thus, is always lower in frequency than that of the hf
7 MHz is heard at 4 MHz and 7.5 MHz at 3.5 MHz. crystal oscillator.

A RECEIVING PACKAGE FOR 30 TO 144 MHZ

This solid-state equipment will enable the the bands from 160 through 15 meters (plus
operator to receive the amateur bands from 30 to WWV), an outboard "up-converter" works into
144 MHz, and has provisions for connecting tunable range No. I of the main receiver - 28 to
outboard converters to accommodate the bands 28.5 MHz. The "up converter" was described in
above 2 meters. The main portion of the receiver QST for January, 1971.
consists of a single-conversion lineup which tunes This is an advanced project, and inexperienced
from 28 to 30 MHz. This frequency spread is builders are not encouraged to attempt duplication
divided into four 500-kHz segments by means of a of the circuits given here. Circuit board patterns
band-switching arrangement. Converters for 6- and are not available. The constructor may choose to
2-meter reception are built into the main chassis of use point-to-point wiring rather than employ
the equipment. A selector switch enables the circuit boards. Or, a different packaging scheme
operator to receive 10, 6, or 2 meters without the may be desired by those who wish to miniaturize
necessity of external equipment. For reception of the equipment. If a smaller dial mechanism is used
 ....,
......
Jl
I.
I
28-30 MHz R F AMP MIXER 00
,
28-30 MHz
5':m1B22 .
L3 20 ~

'---X.- I .001

.001 0
ZI~~+I2V
:;~~SlB
Bt~OOI
.005

TO AGC LINE
ONX EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VAWES OF (+2 Tot9V)
+12V CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (jlF ) ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR JlPFl:
(A)
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS:
k:< 1000.

OSCILLATOR BUFFER BUFFER

RFCS
19-21 MHz 50)J-H RFC4 ,QQ1.
FT
,~+12V

TRIMMER

J3 :II
f
005
r < TO Tl OF m
DWG.A n
~
,J..,
19-21 MHz
(0.7V RMS)
m
TO BFO
SWITCH~
S
(FIG. 5-60 B) - Z
G')
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (pF ) ; en
(8)
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR jljlFl;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
-<
(I)
k~ 1000. -4
m
s:
(I)
Fig. 8-59 - Circuit diagram of the front end and
VFO sections of the receiver. Numbered compon-
Jl - SO-239 type coax chassis fitting.
J2, J3 - Phono jack.
S2 - Two-pole, 4-position, single-section, ceramic
rotary swi tch.
»
ents not in parts list are for text reference. L 1 - 3 turns No. 30 enam. over L2. S4 - Spst wafer switch. :tJ
Resistors are 1/2-watt composition. Fixed-value ca- CD
L2, L3, L5 - 13 turns No. 26 enam. on Amidon Tl - Broadband toroidal step-up transformer.
pacitors are disk ceramic unless otherwise stated. T-37-10 core. Tap L3 at 6 turns.(Amidon Secondary -(30 ~H) 75 turns No. 30 enam. on £
Assoc., 12033 Otsego St., North Hollyw':lOd, CA Amidon T-50-2 core. Primary - 20 turns No. ~:
91607). 30 enam. over sec. winding. :::l
CQ
Cl - Three-section miniature variable (J. W. Miller L4 - 8 turns No. 26 enam. over L5. Zl, Z2 - 6- and 2-meter converters described in
1460),20 pF per section. L6 - 5.5 to 8.6-~H inductor (Miller 4505). J. W. VHF receiving chapter of this book. ."
III
C2 - 3-30-pF ceramic or compression trimmer. Miller Co., 19070 Reyes Ave., Compton, CA Z3 - 100-kHz crystal standard (Radio Shop n
C3 - Miniature 32-pF air trimmer (4 required). (E.
F. Johnson Co. HiO-30 or Cardwell MAC-30will
90221.
L7 - 6 turns No. 30 enam. over B+ end of L6.
Frequency Marker kit used here. Outputs on 5,
10,25,50, and 100 kHz. Radio Shop Lab 1,48 '"
III
~
be suitable.)
C4 - Double-bearing 50-pF variable (James Millen
L8 - 7 turns No. 18 enam. close-wound on Miller
4400-2 ceramic slug-tuned form (0.4 to 0.62
Elm Street, New Canaan, CT 06840).
....
C
28050 MKBB used here). ~H). Four required. Cement turns with 0 dope. ~

C5 - Miniature pc-mount 16-pF variable (Johnson. RFC1, RFC4, RFC5 - Miniature 50-~H choke W
189-506-5), mounted on VFO board near 02. (Millen Co. J-300-50). o
r+
CRl - High-speed silicon switching diode. lN914
or equiv.
CR2 - 9.1-volt, l-watt Zener diode.
RFC2 - l-mH rf choke (Millen Co. J3OO-1000).
RFC3 - Three Amidon ferrite beads at drain
terminal of 02. Install on 1/2" length of No. 24
...
C

FL 1 - 9-MHz, 2.4-kHz - bandwidth ssb lattice bus wire. t

filter, KVG XF-9B. (Spectrum International, Sl - Single-section, 2-pole, 4-position phenolic 3:
Box 87, Topsfield, MA 01983), wafer switch. :J:
N
TO AGe
AMP. U4
(FIG.S-6204)
I-FAMP I-F AMP
9 MHz 9 MHz Fig. 8-60 - Schematic diagram of the
i-f amplifiers. Resistors are l/2-watt COI1l-
position. Fixed-value capacitors are

B FROM FLI
(FIG. 5-5804)
.01,:t
LI2

.:I.01
IN
,:tsr;r
SI

330"53 ,. TO DET
INPUT'
(FIG.5-60A)
disk ceramic unless noted differently.
C6-C8, incl. - Miniature pc-mount
air variable, 16 pF. (Johnson
189-506-5.1
L9 - 20 turns No. 24 enam. over
L 10 winding.
L10-L12, incl. - 30 turns No. 24
enam. on Amidon T-50-2 toroid
core .
. 001 U2, U3 - RCA integrated circuit.
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF ~+12V
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I JlF ) ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR JljlF):
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; TO AGe LINE
J:
IP 1000
(+2 TO +9V) ~
SM= SILVER MICA
.....
-0
280 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
2.4-kHz lattice filter whose center frequency is 9
MHz. Those desiring a-m bandwidth, or 500-Hz cw
bandwidth, can select the appropriate KVG filter
for the job, or can work out a suitable switching
arrangement to incorporate all three filters in the
i-f strip.1 If this is done, a third BFO crystal - for
cw reception - will have to be added to the circuit
of Fig. 8-61B.
.) Local Oscillator
An MPF102 JFET, Q2, is used as the VFO (Fig.
8-59B). Only one coil and trimmer capacitor, L8
and C3, are shown in the diagram. Actually, there
are four slug-tuned inductors and four identical
Fig. 8-58 - The Eddystone dial can be calibrated
to suit the operator's needs, or a frequency chart trimmers. Switch S2 selects anyone of four tuned
can be plotted for comparison with the two logging circuits to provide the four 500-kHz tuning ranges.
scales. The empty panel hole at the upper left can Diode CR1 helps to stabilize the gate voltage of
be used for mounting a VFO-£alibrate control. The Q2, and limits the transconductance on positive
control to the right of the phone jack is a spare, peaks to greatly reduce harmonic output from the
and in this model has no function. The panel is VFO. Zener diode CR2 holds the drain supply at
painted gray, and black Kurz-Kasch knobs, Series 9.1 volts to further aid stability. Direct-coupled
700, are used to achieve contrast with the panel. buffer stages Q3 and Q4 isolate the VFO from the
mixer. No "pulling" can be detected when tuning
the preselector or varying the rf/i-f gain control.
Diode CR3 operates as a switch to add C5 to
the circuit when switching from one sideband to
the dimensions of the chassis and panel can be the other. This action provides a frequency offset
greatly reduced. Similarly, the circuit boards can to assure that the BFO remains at zero beat with
be located closer together than was done in this the incoming signal when changing sidebands.
version, thus reducing the mass of the composite RFC3 is a ferrite-bead vhf parasitic choke.
unit. (An earlier treatment of the circuits
contained in the main portion of the receiver was I-F Circuit
given in January 1971 QST.) The 6- and 2-meter Fig. 8-60 shows the circuit of the i-f amplifier.
converters used in the front end of this equipment Two more differential amplifiers are used here, V2
are described in Chapter 9 of this book. (Also, see and V3. All three i-f tuned circuits are
QST for October of 1969.) toroidal-wound to lessen the chance of interstage
coupling and attendant instability. Capacitive
The Front End dividers are used across the inductors to provide an
Circuit for the rf and mixer stages of the impedance match at the input and output of the IC
tunable portion of the receiver is shown in Fig. amplifiers. Agc is applied to pin 7 of each IC, and
8-59A. Zl and Z2, the vhf converters, can be varies from +2 volts at minimum gain to +10 volts
switched into the receiver input by means of S1. during periods of maximum gain. The i-f signal is
The "up-converter" of Fig. 8-65 connects to the sampled at pin 1 of V3 and routed to age amplifier
auxiliary input jack, 12. For straight 10-meter V4 of Fig. 8-63A. The power gain of this i-f strip is
reception Sl routes the 28-MHz antenna to L1. approximately 65 dB. Those wishing additional
Calibrator Z3 connects to L1 to provide strong gain in this part of the receiver can add a third
markers. CA3028A, using circuit constants similar to those
Rf amplifier VI operates in a differential shown here.
configuration to provide good stability and gain.
Its input circuit consists of a double-tuned toroidal Detector Section
tank, L2, L3, and C1, and provides excellent A standard two-diode product detector is
selectivity. Agc is applied to bias terminal 7 of VI shown in Fig. 8-61A. It is changed to an a-m
simultaneously with the bias terminals of i-f detector by switching CR5 out of the circuit. Since
amplifiers V2 and V3. The agc circuit offers in there is no conversion gain realized during a-m
excess of 80-dB control of the dynamic range of reception, audio output from the receiver is rather
the three ICs. low when using the imported audio amplifier board
Mixer stage Q1 employs a dual-gate MOSFET employed in this model. If considerable a-m
with built-in transient suppressors. This device operation is planned, an additional stage of audio
assures good conversion gain and low cross-modula- amplification can be added between the detector
tion effects. Its input tuned circuit is ganged to and the main audio amplifier, Z4. Or, an audio
that of VI so that all three tuned circuits can be 'channel with more gain can be used at Z4.
peaked in one operation by means of CI, a
three-section variable. Oscillator injection (19 to 1 The KVG a-m filter number is XF-9C for
21 MHz) is supplied to Gate 2 of Q1 through a 3.75-kHz bandwidth, and XF-9D for 5-kHz
toroidal broadband step-up transformer, T1. bandwidth. The 500-Hz cw filter is numbered
XF-9M. Data sheet available from Spectrum
Output from the mixer is_ routed to FL1, a KVG International, P.O. Box 81, Topsfield, MA 01983.
A Receiving Package for 30 to 144 MHz 281
DETECTOR

FROM 113
I-FAMP.~
(FIG.5-59) rh ,t

1U BFO OUTPUT (LlS)

B FO-I

EXCEPT AS INDICATED 1 DECIMAL

VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (JlF) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR )ljlF};
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k-IOOO

SM=SllVER MICA

1 - . -.....- -_ _-4_ _-0 +12V

(8 )

Fig. 8-61 - Diagram of the detector and BFO L14 - 15 ~H nominal (Miller Co. 4506 slug-tuned
sections of the receiver. Fixed-value resistors are inductor).
1/2-watt carbon. Fixed-value capacitors are disk L15 - Same type as L 14.
ceramic unless otherwise indicated_ 05-07, incl. - Motorola semiconductor.
RFC6 - 50Q.~H rf choke (Millen Co. J300-500).
C9, Cl0 - Miniature pc-mount air variable Rl - 10,OOQ.ohm audio-taper carbon control.
(Johnson 189-506-5). S3 - 2-pole, 3-position, single-section phenolic
J7 - Closed-circuit phone jack, wafer switch.
J8 - RCA phono jack. Yl, Y2 - KVG matching crystals for FL 1.
L13 - 10 turns No. 30 enam. over center of L14 Z4 - Audio amplifier, 30Q.mW output or greater.
winding. (Radio Shack 277-1557 used here.>

The BFO
Separate BFO stages are used to provide upper-
and lower-sideband reception (Fig. 8-6IB). This
system permits dc switching, which is preferable to
crystal switching. A common buffer amplifier, Q7,
isolates the oscillators from the load while building
the BFO levels up to approximately 10 volts rms.
Trimmer capacitors C9 and CI0 are adjusted to
place the BFO signal in the proper part of the i-f
passband.

Fig. 8-62 - Looking at the top of the receiver

chassis the front-end circuit board is at the upper
right. The calibrator is attached to the back wall of
the front-end assembly. The 9-MHz i-f strip at the
top-center of the chassis is the VFO with its cover
removed. The power supply is at the lower left,
and the age board is at the upper left. Shield covers
are removed from the front end and i-f
compartments in this view.
282 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
A GC AMP DCAMP DC AMP

AGC RECT.

~ ______________~ AGC
+2TO+IOV

~ ___4-____________ +f2V
+f2V
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (jlF I ; OTHERS

S4Bh~I~O:
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR J.lJlF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
390K k -1000. M-' 000000
fSV
10K

.1 1M (A) S-METER LAMPS

~
70
2W

1 2

2N1970
PI J4 QIO

n7V~5
AC
2
1
3
~ ______ ___________________
~ ~~r:~ __ ~+f2V

REG .
loooF .SA

J
STBY 21-----0()
P2 ~ 25V.J:

~3
+12VTO 9
I-FAMP BOARO.......,J
(FIG. 5-59) EXT. + (B)
12V-

Fig. 8-63 - At A, the circuit for the agc system. CR14 - 14-volt, 1-watt Zener diode (see text).
The diagram at B shows the power supply section. J4 - 5-pin male plug (chassis mount).
Fixed-value resistors are 1/2-watt carbon. Capaci- M1 - 0 to 1 rnA S meter (Lafayette Radio 99E-
tors are disk ceramic. Those with polarity marking 255140 with built-in lamps).
are electrolytic. P1, P2 - 5-pin female cable-end plug.
CR6, CR7 - 1 N914 silicon switching diode. as, 09. Q10 - Motorola semiconductor.
CR8-CR13, incl. - 5(}'PRV, 1-ampere silicon RFC7 - 22-t.tH rf choke (Millen J300-22).
diode. R2 - 10,00(}.ohm, linear-taper 2-watt carbon
control (Allen Bradley).
R3, R4 - PC-mount, 10(}.ohr.n linear-taper carbon
control.
S4, S5 - 2-pole, 3-position, single-section phenolic
wafer switch.
T2 - 24-volt, 1.2-ampere transformer.

Fig. 8-64 - Bottom view of the receiver. The

imported audio-amplifier module is visible at the
upper left. Directly below it are the 6- and 2-meter
converters in their shield compartment. To the
right of the converters is the detector board in its
shield box. The BFO box is at the upper right of
the photo. A right-angle drive (top center) gangs
the VFO band switch to the front-panel knob. The
VFO coils and trimmers protrude through the
chassis around the right-angle drive. The power
supply is at the lower right.
A Receiving Package for 30 to 144 MHz 283
AGe and S Meter the main chassis of the receiver. Also, the input
and output transformers each have one lead
Fig. 8-63A shows the agc circuit. Agc amplifier
connected to the ground foil of the board. The
U4 operates in cascode to provide up -to 40-dB
ground foil should be cut away with a knife blade
gain. The 9-MHz i-f energy is amplified, then
so that the 8-ohm windings are floating with
rectified by doubler circuit CR6-CR7. The rectified
respect to the remainder of the board. This will
agc signal is then amplified by cascaded dc
permit normal connections to be made to the rest
amplifiers Q8 and Q9. Npn transistor Q8 is forward
of the receiver while using shielded audio cable.
biased by the agc voltage to provide a voltage drop
The audio channel shown for the beginner's
across its collector load resistor (47,000 ohms). receiver (earlier in this chapter) could be
This voltage drop (as the incoming signal increases) substituted for the imported board shown here.
biases pnp transistor Q9 more heavily in the The former uses a transformerless Motorola I-watt
forward direction to cause a large voltage drop IC, and a preamplifier. Almost any pair of I-watt
across its 680-ohm emitter resistor. This change in pnp transistors can be used in place of the
output voltage - +10 to +2 volts - ramps up and substituted 2N599s. They should have medium
down in accordance with the strength of the beta and a V ceo of at least 40.
incoming signal and changes the bias on U I, U2
and U3. The S meter is connected across a
100-ohm collector load at Q9 and measures
changes in the voltage in that part of the circuit. Construction
Control R3 sets the full-scale meter reading.
Trimmer R4 estabilishes the zero-signal meter The primary thought connected with the
reading. assembly of this equipment is that the signal
Rf gain control R2 changes the forward bias on modules are isolated from one another by means of
Q8 to vary the output of the two-stage dc shield compartments, feed through capacitors, and
amplifier. Minimum gain occurs when the arm of interconnecting leads of small-diameter coax. This
R2 is at its highest point above ground. Diode CR8 technique greatly reduces the possibility of
acts as a gate to prevent the rectified agc signal spurious responses and unwanted signal pickUp.
from being lost to ground through the rf-gain The placement of the various modules is not
control. critical when this method is used; hence, the
Switch S4 selects the agc characteristic desired builder can plan his own layout if he wishes. The
- NO AGC, FAST AGC, or SLOW AGC. The time audio amplifier, however, should be located as far
constants shown in Fig. 8-63A can be altered to away from the power supply as possible if hum is
suit the operator, but those given are suitable for to be reduced to a minimum. An iron shield
a-m, ssb, and cwo Both the attack and decay times compartment, made from galvanized furnace
can be changed by using different values of ducting or a tin can, could be used to enclose the
resistance. In the AGC-OFF position of S4 the audio system. This would greatly reduce the
operating voltage is removed from U4, but dc possibility of hum pick up. Alternatively, the
amplifiers Q8 and Q9 can still be controlled by R2. power supply can be enclosed in an iron box.
The receiver shown in the photos is assembled
on a 12 x 17 x 3-inch aluminum chassis. A
Power Supply and Audio Amplifier 10-I/2-inch aluminum rack panel contains the
Eddystone dial and panel controls. One inch of
The simple power supply of Fig. 8-63B delivers stock was removed from each end of the panel.
12 volts (regulated) at up to 500 rnA. Ripple is so The local oscillator is controlled by the
low that it could not be measured with a scope. Eddystone dial, and gives linear readout across
With the Zener reference shown the output voltage most of the tuning range. The 0-to-500 logging
is actually 13.5 volts. A 12-volt Zener diode will scale is used to read the 500-kHz band segments.
provide approximately 11.5 volts output, but the However, this range reads backwards when using
13.5-volt figure more closely approximates that of the up-converter, so one must interpolate. Of
a standard automotive system, so the receiver was course, the dial face can be calibrated to provide
designed for that potential. whatever readout is desired.
Operation from an external 12 to 13.5-volt One significant handicap resulting from the use
supply is a simple matter by merely disconnecting of this dial mechanism is that its control shaft is
PI from J4, then conne-cting the external battery situated rather high above the chassis when
to J4 by means of P2. mounted as shown. This feature made it necessary
The audio board used in this receiver delivers to house the VFO in a much higher box than was
up to 500 mW output with negligible distortion. It wanted. Despite the use of heavy gauge aluminum
is an imported assembly that was designed for stock for the VFO box, some mechanical
9-volt operation. 2 However, by changing the two instability results when the receiver is bumped. If
output transistors to 2N599s it was learned that this mounting and construction technique is used,
the module would perform safely at up to 13.5 the VFO should be secured to the panel as well as
volts. This amplifier is designed for use with a to the chassis, and the chassis should have a thick
positive ground, therefore, it must be isolated from aluminum plate mounted under the VFO box. The
plate should extend as far beyond the box as
2 Radio Shack Corp., 730 Commonwealth Ave., practical. A different dial mechanism could solve
Boston, MA, or 2725 W. 7th St., Fort Worth, TX. this problem . . . or a different layout with the
284 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
present dial assembly may be possible. The panel is two built-in trimmers of C1 for a peak in signal.
finished in gray, and press-on decals identify the Then peak with outboard trimmer C2. Continuing
controls. with a 28-MHz input signal, peak the i-f trimmers,
the detector input coil, and the BFO output coil,
US.
Operation The BFO crystal trimmers can be set by ear, so
The builder's ability to tune and adjust this to speak. Tune through a sideband signal and
receiver should be commensurate with his technical adjust the trimmers (C9 and ClO) so that the
aptitude, and since this is not a beginner's project sideband opposite the desired one shows no
little difficulty should be encountered during final response, or minimal response, depending on how
checkout and testing. much suppression of the unwanted sideband the
Perhaps the best point at which to start is to monitored signal has. Final touchup of the
test and align the VFO. Its output signal can be trimmers can be effected to obtain the most
monitored on a general-coverage receiver, and natural voice qUality. After this is done, switch
preferably with the aid of 100-kHz standard. Band from upper to lower sideband (after tuning a cw
position 1 should give VFO coverage from 19 to signal to zero beat) and adjust offset trimmer C5 so
19.5 MHz; band 2 from 19.5 to 20 MHz, and so that the signal remains at zero beat regardless of
on. The desired range can be obtained by tuning which sideband is selected.
C4 from one end of its rotation to the other, and The agc system should be operating properly at
alternately adjusting C3 and L8 (for each band this point, so switch to FAST AGe and tum the
position) until exactly 500 kHz are covered by C4 rf/i-f gain control to the minimum-gain setting
in each position of S2. (counter clockwise). Set S-meter control R3 for a
Next, feed a 28-MHz signal into J1 and tune C1 full-scale reading of Ml. Tum the rf/i-f control to
for a peak response. This should occur with the clockwise, disconnect the antenna from 11, then
plates of C 1 at approximately 1/3 mesh. Adjust the adjust R4 for zero reading of the S meter.

A HIGH-PERFORMANCE SOLID-STATE RECEIVER

The design is based on the "D.C. 80-10 Receiv- circuit boards, one for the converter and the other
er" described in QST for May, 1969. Changes and for the product detector, beat frequency oscillator
improvements include the addition of a stage of rf (BFO), and audio stages, comprise the receiver.
amplification and the use of a single integrated- The detector and the BFO tune 2_2 to 2_5 MHz -
circuit audio stage. The emphasis is on high the intermediate frequency (i-f) of the converters.
performance at minimum cost. An audio filter, employing an 88-mH telephone
Plug-in converters for 80,40, and 15 meters are toroid, provides good cw selectivity. Ssb signals
used to provide three-band coverage for the Nov- may also be tuned in and a-m reception is possible
ice. The lower 300 kHz of each band are covered by zero-beating the desired a-m signal. The receiver
so that all of the cw segments are included. Two may be run for relatively long periods of time from

.'.~

"
,( ""

Exterior view of the three-band beginner's receiver. The dimensions are 11 x 5-1/2 x
7 inches. The vernier dial is calibrated for 10 kHz per division. The front panel is
finished in dark blue. White press-on decals are used to identify the gain control and
phone jack. The receiver was built by WA 1COW.
A High-Performance Solid-State Receiver 285
RF AMP. MIXER
3.S AND 3.S AND
7MHz 7MHz

PI
~-++-------11 I-F OUT
,----1 2 GND.
3 +12V
4 ANT.

R4
220
6.0. 9.S OR
23.5MHz
L4

CI4~.~.
CI3
t---T'--I~TO L 2
~--Gr~~ TAP

C3
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL .01
01-Q3
VALUES OF CAPAC [TANCE ARE INCL.
IN MICROFARADS (.J.IF 1; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR ),pF);
RESISTANCES ARE I N OHMS;
~ 15-METER RFAMP. CIRCUIT
k·IOOO.
D s G Cl, C2, Cll, C12, C13 - See converter coil/capaci-
tor table.
Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the plug-in con- C8 - 3 to 30-pF mica compression trimmer.
verter front end. Rf amplifier Ql is wired different- L1, L2, L4 - See converter coil/capacitor table.
ly for operation on 21 MHz (see inset), otherwise L3 - 150-f.lH inductor; 90 turns No. 30 enamel
the circuit is the same for all three bands. Resistors wire wound on Amidon Assoc. T-80-3 toriod
are 1/2-watt composition. Fixed-value capacitors core (Amidon Assoc., 12033 Otsego Street, N.
are disk ceramic unless otherwise noted. Numbered Hollywood, CA 91607).
components not listed below are identified for RFCl - 1-mH rf choke (James Millen J300-1000
circuit-board layout purposes. or equiv.).

a battery supply, because of its low dc current configuration, except in the IS-meter converter
drain. where a grounded-source hookup is employed to
The use of only two controls (frequency tuning provide greater gain. Although a crystal-controlled
and audio gain) keep the operation of the receiver oscillator could have been used, a fixed-tuned self-
simple. More than enough audio is available to excited oscillator was chosen to minimize cost. It is
drive a pair of high-impedance headphones. which stable and easy to adjust.
are connected to a jack on the front panel. The basic receiver is laid out on a separate
circuit board, and consists of the integrated-circuit
product detector, a JFET BFO, and an integrated-
Circuit Information circuit audio amplifier. The detector tunes from
The design is fairly uncomplicated. A block dia- 2.2 to 2.5 MHz by means of L2, Cl, C2, and C3A.
gram in Fig. 3 shows the basic stages of the receiv- Use of the integrated circuit helps reduce size, cost,
er. An rf amplifier tuned to the appropriate ama- and complexity of this stage. The BFO tunes the
teur bands amplifies incoming signals. The mixer same frequency range as the detector. The beat-
"shifts", or heterodynes, these signals down to the frequency oscillator signal, injected through a 5-pF
intermediate-frequency range (2.2 to 2.5 MHz), capacitor, mixes with incoming i-f signals to pro-
which is the difference between the oscillator fre- vide a beat note for cw reception or furnishes a
quencyand the signal frequency. In the product carrier for ssb reception. The two stages are gang-
detector, the BFO signal beats with the i-f signal to tuned by means of C3, a dual-section lOO-pF vari-
produce low-level audio output. Audio amplifica- able capacitor. The Zener diodes, VRI and VR2,
tion is then necessary to raise the audio output to a help provide greater electrical stability by regula-
level sufficient for headphone operation. ting the supply voltages for both stages.
The cunverters for the three bands are basically The audio stage employs an operational
alike. The rf amplifier, mixer, and oscillator stages amplifier - an integrated circuit capable of high
each employ a JFET (junction field-effect transis- gain. Its level of output furnishes plenty of audio
tor). The rf amplifier operates in a grounded-gate for high-impedance headphone operation.
286 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
AF LOW-PASS
PROD. DET.
FILTER

2.2-2.5MHz

Jl
t
CONVERT. 2
CR2 J4
SOCKET
r---------~JVVV--~-------1_+~~~~------_r------~----~--T<+

r:' ,12V

J3
HI-Z
PHONES

;:0

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

01
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE

o/? IN MICROFARADS (,JJF I : OTHERS

ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR J.lJ.lF);
RESISTANCES
k -1000.
ARE IN OHMS;

Fig. 2 - Schematic diagram of the tunable i-f L3 - 88-mH telephone-type toroidal inductor (see
portion of the receiver. Capacitors with polarity QST Ham Ads for suppliers).
marked are electrolytic. Fixed-value capacitors are L5 - 14 turns No. 24 enameled wire over ground
disk ceramic unless otherwise noted. Numbered end of L4. Observe polarity of L4 and L5 as
parts not appearing below are so identified for discussed in the text.
pc-board layout purposes only. Ql - Motorola junction FET, 2N5459/MPF105.
Cl, C14 - 24 to 200-pF mica compression R3 - 10,000-ohm, audio·taper, carbon control.
trimmer (Elmenco Type 42 or equiv.l. Rl0 - 10,000·ohm, linear-taper, pc-board-mount
C3 - Air variable, 100 pF per section, split stator control (Mallory MTC14L1 or equiv.).
(James Millen 26100 RM or equiv.). ( James RFCl - l·mH rf choke (James Millen J300·1000
Millen Mfg. Co., 150 Exchange St., Malden, or equiv.).
MA. Direct orders accepted.l T1 - Miniature audio transformer, 10,000-ohm
CR2 - Silicon rectifier, 50 PRV at 1 A (lOR pri. to 1000-ohm secondary (Lafayette Radio
1 N4001, Motorola HEP161, or equiv.). 00T6124 or equiv., use 1/2 of secondary
Jl - 4-pin female chassis-mount socket to mate winding).
with Pl of Fig. 1 (Amphenol 77MIP4 or Ul - RCA CA3028A integrated circuit.
equiv.l. U2 - Motorola MC741 integrated circuit.
J2 - Chassis-mount coax receptacle, type SO·239. VR 1 - 9.1·volt Zener diode, 1 watt (lOR 1 Nl770,
J3 - 2-conductor phone jack (Switchcraft Little- Motorola HEP104, or equiv.l.
Jax or equiv.). VR2 - 6.2-volt Zener diode, 1 watt (lOR 1 N3828,
J4 - RCA phono connector, single-hole mounting. Motorola HEP103, or equiv.).
L1 - 5 turns No. 24 enameled wire wound over Note: Most of the components used in this receiver
ground end of L2. are available from Allied Electronics (see QST
L2, L4 - 45 turns No. 24 enamel wire on Amidon for July 1972, "The Ailing Emporium," for
Assoc. T-80-2 toroid core. addresses of parts suppliers).

Between the dectector and audio stages is an power supply terminal. The diode will conduct,
m.oerived audio low-pass filter. It is used to reject and thus allow the receiver to operate only when a
unwanted high-frequency responses to aid cw positive voltage is connected to the proper ter-
reception. It uses a singie telephone-type surplus minal.
88-mH toriod, which can be purchased from a
number of surplus houses. Construction Notes
Diode CR4, at the 12-volt dc input, prevents The converters are housed in S X 4 X 3-inch
accidental damage to the circuit should the opera- Miniboxes, such as a Bud CU-21OSA. Each circuit
tor connect the wrong-polarity voltage to the board, 3 1/4 X 4 1/2 inches in size, is mounted on
A High-Performance Solid-State Receiver 287

Top view of one of the converters. The

completed pc board is mounted inside a
Minibox. The assembly, with cover in-
stalled, plugs into the main chassis of the
receiver. Significant parts are identified
in this photo.

3lB-inch metal spacers. A four-prong plug is install- The detector, BFO, and audio circuitry are on a
ed on the bottom of each Minibox so that the 3 x 6-inch circuit board which is mounted directly
converters can be plugged into the main chassis of on top of the chassis. The chassis base, a Bud
the receiver when changing bands. Q1, Q2, and Q3 AC-407, measures 7 x 11 x 2 inches. The 5-1/2 x
are soldered directly to the board with leads as ll-inch front panel and the chassis cover were
short as possible to minimize unwanted stray homemade, although the cover is not strictly
inductance. Plug-in sockets for the FETs are not desirable or necessary if one frequently plugs in
recommended at these frequencies since the induc- and unplugs the converters to change bands. The
tance in the leads can cause feedback and thus, eight-pin integrated circuits are soldered directly to
unwanted oscillations. The circuit boards are pre- the boards, although sockets can be used if desired.
pared such that either the grounded-gate or the Full-size templates are given in QST for October,
grounded-source rf amplifier can be used in the 1972.
appropriate converters. It is only necessary to The main-tuning capacitor C3 is mounted on
change two jumper wires to employ either config- top of the chassis base. A Millen 26100RM is used
uration. Toroidal-wound coils are employed for all here although any equivalent dual-section capacitor
tuned circuits as their self-shielding property great- can be used instead. The Millen model is fitted
ly reduces unwanted coupling between the circuits. with its own Plexiglas mounting plate to insulate it
L1 and L2 are held in place on the circuit board by from a metal chassis, but it was necessary to mount
their respective leads. L3 is secured by an insulat- it on its side by means of two right-angle aluminum
ing washer and a screw which is passed through the brackets (in back and on the side of the capacitor)
toroid core from underneath the board. L4 is because of complications in mounting the tuning
fastened in a like manner to enhance the mechani- dial. The use of two mounting brackets as opposed
cal stability of the oscillator. to one also reduces tuning backlash by minimizing

View of the completed receiver. The

main-tuning capacitor is located at the
center of the chassis. The pc board at the
right is that of the tunable i-f, and audio
section of the receiver. Antenna and 03
power supply jacks are visible on the rear
apron of the chassis.
288 RECEIVING SYSTEMS
wobbling of the capacitor. The front-panel tuning is heard at exactly 2.2 MHz with the dual-section
mechanism is a two-speed Miller MD-4 dial, which main-tuning capacitor, C3, almost fully meshed.
provides 6: 1 and 36: 1 drive ratios - slow enough Then adjust C3 until it is fully unmeshed. The BFO
that signals are easily tuned in. Any panel dial with signal should be found at 2.5 MHz or slightly
a slow tuning rate can be used instead. higher (a little overlap of the 300-kHz segment is
In lieu of an outboard power supply, eight size desirable to assure complete coverage of the
C flashlight battp,ries can be series connected and desired tuning range).
strap mounted inside the chassis base (there is Next adjust the balance control, RIO, in the
ample room). The unit draws about 70 rnA at 12 audio stage so the dc voltage appearing across the
volts dc. headphone jack is 6 volts (one half the dc supply
voltage). Headphones can now be plugged into the
receiver. With the audio gain turned up, some hiss
Testing and Alignment should be clearly audible. If not, the audio stage is
not working properly.
First, the etched circuit boards should be With converters unplugged, feed a 2.2- to
inspected for possible breaks in the foil, unwanted 2.5-MHz signal into the detector through L1, either
solder bridges between adjacent conductors, or by direct connection to a signal generator output
poor solder joints. The one may proceed with the or by light coupling to a grid-dip oscillator. Adjust
alignment. A well-calibrated general-coverage re- the main-tuning dial until the signal from the rf
ceiver and an rf signal source, such as a grid-dip source is located. Peak trimmer capacitor Cl for
oscillator or a signal generator, are required. maximum received signal strength. This ensures
It is rust necessary to determine if the BFO is that the detector and BFO tuned circuits will track
functioning. With power applied, listen for the as they are tuned through their frequency range.
BFO signal on the general-coverage receiver in the One of the converters may be plugged in now.
range of 2.2 to 2.5 MHz. The carrier should be Despite the different frequencies involved, adjust-
strong enough that a few feet of wire will suffice as ment of each converter is the same. To determine
a pickup antenna for the monitor receiver. If no that the converter oscillator is working properly,
signal can be heard, check to see that L5 and L6 listen on the general-coverage receiver for oscillator
are wound in the same direction on their toroid its signal at approximately the frequency on which
core, Le., both coils are wound counterclockwise, it should be oscillating. Again the signal should be
or both clockwise, but not in opposite directions. strong enough to be plainly audible on the general-
Once the signal is found, adjust the BFO frequency coverage receiver. Adjust trimmer capacitdr C13
by means of trimmer capacitor C14 until the signal until the oscillator frequency is "on the nose."

Converter Coil and Capacitor Table

Band 80 Meters 40 Meters 15 Meters
Cll 470 pF, s.m. 220 pF, S.m. 100 pF, S.m.
C12 330 pF, s.m. 150 pF, s.m. 100 pF, s.m.
Cl,C2 470to 100-pF 7 to 100·pF 2 to 25-pF
trimmer trimmer trimmer
(Elmenco 423) (Elmenco 423) (Elmenco 421)
C13 1.8 to 16.7·pF min. 1.5 to 11.6-pF min. Same type as
air variable (Johnson) air variable (Johnson for 40 meters.
189-0506·005) . 189-0504-005 ).
Ll 55~H.l00turns No.28 10 ~H. 42 turns No. 30 5.5 ~H. 30 turns
enam. on Amidon T·80-2 enam. on Amidon T -68·2 No. 26 enam. on
toroid core. Ant. tap toroid core. Ant. tap Amidon T -68-2
at 10 turns above gnd. at 4 tu rns above gnd. toroid core. Ant.
Tap 01 source at 50 01 sou rce tap at 21 tap at 3-1/2 turns
turns above gnd. turns above gnd. above gnd. 01
sou rce tap at 12
turns above gnd.
L2 Same number of turns Same number of turns Same number of
and core material as and material core as turns and core
L 1. Tap at 50 turns. as L 1. Tap at 21 turns material as L 1 .
Tap at 12 turns.
L4 3.4 ~H. Use 23 turns 2.9 ~H. Use 21 turns 0.9~. Use 10
No. 20 enam. on Amidon No. 20 enam. on Amidon turns No. 18
T-68-2 toroid core. T·68·2 toroid core. enam. on Amidon
T-68-2 toroid core.
S.m. = silver mica. All toroid windings are spaced to occupy the
entire core circumference, and as uniformly as possible.
 A High-Performance Solid-State Receiver 289
Next, it is necessary to peak the converter by
listening to a signal in the amateur band covered by
the converter. Connect a signal source to the
antenna input. The main-tuning capacitor should
be set to approximately the center of its range, or
to the segment of the band to be used most
frequently. The 2.2-MHz i-f corresponds to the
high-frequency end of each segment and 2.S-MHz
to the low-frequency end. Tune the signal source
to this frequency and adjust trimmer capacitors
Cl, C2, and C8 in the converter for maximum
received signal strength. A definite peak should be
noted when tuning each capacitor - otherwise the Fig. 5 - Block diagram of the receiver. The arrows
associated tuned circuits are not adjusted to indicate the direction of signal travel.
resonance properly. If desired, an antenna may
instead be connected directly to the converter and
the converter can be peaked while listening to
on-the-air signals in the amateur band. Some ing on which side is more QRM-free. Ssb reception
"pulling" of the converter oscillator frequency may be accomplished by tuning to the proper
may be noted when peaking the rf and mixer sideband of the received signal and adjusting for
capacitors because of a small amount of interaction the desired voice pitch. A-m may be received by
between the three tuned circuits. C13 in the zero·beating the station and thereby eliminating
converter should then be retuned to bring the the beat note. Observe, however, that the audio
oscillator back on frequency. This completes align- filter is designed primarily for cw reception and
ment of the receiver. attenuates audio frequencies above 1000 Hz.
The receiver is simple to operate as there are Hence a-m or ssb signals will have somewhat
only two controls to adjust. The BFO is always on impaired audio quality, since effective voice fre-
for both cw and ssb reception. High-impedance quencies extend to 2500 Hz or so.
headphones should be used. Loudspeaker opera- Performance of this receiver compares favor-
tion is possible if a suitable matching transformer is ably with that of many modem superheterodyne
used. Its primary winding should be about 10,000 receivers. Measured sensitivity on 80 and 40 meters
ohms and should be connected to the headphone is 0.3 p.V for a 10 dB signal-plus-noise to noise
jack connected to the speaker, should match the ratio. Electrical stability is good and circuit-board
speaker impedance. The audio level from the construction enhances mechanical stability so that
loudspeaker is adequate for listening in a small, drift and instability are insignificant even in the
quite room. presence of mechanical vibrations. If desired, cw
To receive cw signals, one may tune to either selectivity may be improved by addition of an
side of zero beat of the desired cw signal, depend- outboard peak audio filter.
 Chapter 9

V~~ <Q][TiHO'l QJJe=a~ ~ec<afiV'fiU'ilg]

U <Be h OJ) D<OJ lUl <as
Adequate receiving capability is essential in vhf Choice of a suitable communications receiver
and uhf communication, whether the station is a for use with converters should not be made lightly,
transceiver or a combination of separate transmit- however. Several degrees of selectivity are desir-
ting and receiving units, and regardless of the able: SOO Hz or less for cw, 2 to 3 kHz for ssb, 4 to
modulation system used. Transceivers and fm 8 kHz for a-m phone and 12 to 36 kHz for fm
receivers are treated sep~rately in this Handbook, phone are useful. The special requirements of fm
but their performance involves basic principles that phone are discussed in Chapter 14. Good
apply to all receivers for frequencies above 30 mechanical design and frequency stability are
MHz. Important attributes are good signal-to-noise important. Image rejection should be high in the
ratio (low noise figure), adequate gain, stability, range tuned for the converter output. This may
and freedom from overloading and other spurious rule out 28 MHz with receivers of the single-
responses. conversion type having 4SS-kHz i-f systems.
Except where a transceiver is used, the vhf Broad-band receiving gear of the surplus
station often has a communications receiver fOl variety is a poor investment at any price, unless
lower bands, with a crystal-controlled converter for one is interested only in local work. The
the vhf band in question ahead of it. The receiver superregenerative receiver, though simple to build
serves as a tunable i-f system, complete with and economical to use, is inherently lacking in
detector, noise limiter, BFO and audio amplifier. selectivity. With this generai information in mind,
Unless one enjoys work with communications this section will cover vhf and uhf receiver "front
receivers, there may be little point in building this ends" stage by stage.
part of the station. Thus our concern here will be
mainly WIth converter design and construction.

RF AMPLIFIERS

Signal-to-Noise Ratio; Noise of one kind or not necessarily true. The primary function of an rf
another limits the ability of any receiving system amplifier in a vhf receiver is to establish the noise
to provide readable signals, in the absence of other figure of the system; that is, to override noise
kinds of interference. The noise problem varies generated in later stages. One good rf stage is
greatly with frequency of reception. In the hf usually enough, and two is the usual maximum
range man-made, galactic and atmospheric noise requirement.
picked up by the antenna and amplified by all Once the system noise figure is established, any
stages of the receiver exceeds noise generated in further gain required may be more readily obtained
the receiver itself. Thus the noise figure of the in the intermediate frequency stages, or even in the
receiver is not of major importance in weak-signal audio amplifier. Using the minimum rf gain needed
reception, up to at least 30 MHz. to set the overall noise figure of the receiver is
At SO MHz, external noise still overrides helpful in avoiding overloading and spurious
receiver noise in any well-designed system, even in responses in later circuits. For more on rf gain
a supposedly "quiet" location. The ratio of requirements, see the following section on mixers.
external to internal noise then drops rapidly with
increasing signal frequency. Above 100 MHz or so Stability; Neutralization or unilaterialization
external noise other than man-made is seldom a (see chapter on semiconductors) may be required
problem in weak-signal reception. Noise character- in rf amplifiers, except where the grounded-gate
istics of transistors and tubes thus become very circuit or its tube equivalent is used. Amplifier
important in receivers for 144 MHz and higher neutralization is accomplished by feeding the
bands, and circuit design and adjustment are more energy from the output circuit back into the input,
critical than on lower frequencies. in such amount and phase as to cancel out the
The noise figure of receivers using rf amplifiers effects of device capacitance and other unwanted
is determined mainly by the first stage, so solving input-output coupling that might cause oscillation
the internal-noise problem is fairly simple. or other regenerative effects. Inductive neutraliza-
Subsequent stages can be designed for selectivity, tion is shown in Fig. 9-1B and C. Capacitive
freedom from overloading, and rejection of arrangements are also usable. Examples of both
spurious signals, when a good rf amplifier is used. will be seen later in this chapter.
An rf amplifier may not actually oscillate if
Gain: It might seem that the more gain an rf operated without neutralization, but noise figure
amplifier has, the better the reception, but this is and bandwidth of the amplifier may be better with

290
Rf Amplifiers 291
GAIN 40673 Using RF Preamplifiers
OUTPUT It is important to design the front-end stages of

~
a vhf receiver for optimum performance, but we
often want to improve reception with equipment
already built. Thousands of fm receivers formerly
in commercial service, now revamped for amateur
work in the 50-, 144- and 420-MHz bands, were
built before modern low-noise tubes and transistors
ISOK were available. Though otherwise useful, these
(A) +12V
receivers have excessively-high noise figure. Many
other commercial and home-built vhf converters
and receivers are also not as sensitive as they might
be.
Though it would be better to replace the rf

s:
OUTPUT
stages of such equipment with more modern
devices, the simpler approach is usually to add an
outboard rf amplifier using a low-noise tube or
transistor. In the fm example, the quieting level of
some receivers can be improved by as much as 10
dB by addition of a simple transistor amplifier.
Similar improvement in noise figure of some
receivers for other modes is also possible;
I
particularly band-switching communications receiv-
ers that have vhf coverage.
1--'''<'-...,...-:-----, 220 MH z Common circuits for rf preamplifier service are
shown in Figs. 9-1, 2 and 3. Examples of amplifier
t-I'I--_-< ~UT construction are given later in this chapter. Circuits
shown in the vhf converters described can also be
adapted to preamplifier service.

e Circuit discussion is cumbersome if we use

(c) * GATE PROTECTEO +f2V
strictly-correct terms for all tube and transistor
amplifiers, so tube terminology will be used here
Fig. 9-1 - Typical grounded-source rf amplifiers. for simplification. The reader is asked to remember
The dual-gate MOSFET,A, is useful below 500
MHz. The junction FET,B, and neutralized
MOSFET,C, work well on all vhf bands. Except Amplifier Circuitry
where given, component values depend on
frequency_

OUTPUT
it. Any neutralization adjustment reacts on the
tuned circuits of the stage, so the process is a
repetitive cut-and-try one. The objective should be
greatest margin of signal over noise, rather than
~
maximum gain without oscillation. A noise
generator is a great aid in neutralization, but a +12V
weak signal can be used if the job is done with
care.
Overloading and Spurious Signals: Except when INPUT ~I 2NS486

1
some bipolar transistors are used, the rf amplifier is 100 S r¥0'-r---..
not normally a major contributor to overloading OUTPUT
problems in vhf receivers, though excessive rf'gain RFC ~~~n

can cause the mixer to overload more readily.

Overloading is usually a matter of mixer design,
with either transistors or tubes. Images and other
spurious responses to out-of-band signals can be
kept down by the use of double-tuned circuits
between the rf and mixer stages, and in the rf
amplifier input circuit. In extreme cases, such as
operation near to fm or TV stations, coaxial or Fig. 9-2 - Grounded-gate FET preamplifier tends
other high-Q input circuits are helpful in rejecting to have lower gain and broader frequency response
unwanted frequencies. than other amplifiers described.
 292 VHF AND UHF RECEIVING TECHNIQUES
lOa
_ _...AIIA_""AGC

1296 MHz

INPUT

1
r-~~--~v-------------~-o+9V
25K 22K
GAIN
+18V

432 MHz 432 MH:<

3'00 1000

bh ~
FT

(B)
4700
+9V

Fig. 9-3 - (A) Cascode amplifier circuit combines grounded-source and grounded-gate stages, for high gain
and low noise figure. Though JFETs are shown, the cascode principle is usable with MOSFETs as well. (B
and C) Examples of uhf preamplifier construction using bipolar transistors.

that "gate" may also imply "base" for bipolar triode or triode-connected tetrode can be used.
transistors, or "grid" for tubes. "Source" should be JFETs work well in grounded-gate circuits. In the
read as "emitter" for the bipolar, and as "cathode" grounded-grid amplifier, the tube heater becomes
for the FET. effectively a part of the tuned circuit, so some
Amplifiers may be the grounded-source type, form of high-current rf choke is required. Ferrite-
Fig. 9-1; grounded-gate, 9-2; or a combination of bead chokes work well.
both, 9-3. The dual-gate MOSFET circuit, 9-1A, The cascode circuit, Fig. 9-3, combined
works well up to 300 MHz, but JFET and bipolar grounded-source and grounded-gate stages, securing
devices are superior for 420 MHz and higher. The some of the advantages of both. Fig. 9-3B shows a
gain and noise figure of a dual-gate MOSFET are grounded-base bipolar transistor amplifer. The
adequate at 300 MHz, and it is simple and readily value of Rl should be chosen experimentally to
adapted to automatic gain control. achieve best sensitivi ty.
Triode tubes and FET transistors usually re-
quire neutralization for optimum noise figure with
the grounded-cathode circuit. Inductive' neutraliza- Front-End Protection
tion is shown in Fig. 9-1B, and the capacitive The first amplifier of a receiver is susceptible to
method shown at C works equally well. Examples damage or complete burnout through application
will be seen later in this chapter. The 58-MHz trap of excessive voltage to its input element by way of
circuit in Fig. 9-1 A is discussed in the following the antenna. This can be the result of lightning
section on mixers. discharges (not necessarily in the immediate
An alternative to neutralization lies in use of vicinity), rf leakage from the station transmitter
the grounded-gate circuit, Fig. 9-2. Its stage gain is through a faulty send-receive relay or switcb, or rf
lower and its bandwidth generally greater than power from a nearby transmitter and antenna
with the grounded-cathode circuit. The input system. Bipolar transistors often used in low-noise
impedance is low, and the input circuit is tapped to uhf amplifiers are particularly sensitive to this
provide a proper impedance match. A broad-band trouble. The degradation may be gradual, going
amplifier may be made with a low-impedance line unnoticed until the receiving sensitivity has
connected directly to the input element, if selec- become very poor.
tivity is not required at this point for other No equipment is likely to survive a direct hit
reasons. Tubes designed for grounded-grid service from lightning, but casual damage can be prevente!;1
include the 4l7A/5842, 4l6B, 7768 and the by connecting diodes back-to-back across the input
various "lighthouse" types, though almost any circuit. Either germanium or silicon vhf diodes can
 Rf Selectivity 293
be used. Both have thresholds of conduction well diodes such as the IN914 and hot-carrier types are
above any normal signal level, about 0.2 volt for suitable. A check on weak-signal reception should
germanium and 0.6 volt for silicon. The diodes be made before and after connection of the diodes.
used should have fast switching times. Computer

RF SELECTIVITY
The weakest point in any vhf or uhf receiver is
the front-end circuit. Solid-state devices with high
sensitivity, wide dynamic range and freedom from
overload are now available. Thus, the quality of a
front-end circuit is usually determined by how the
active devices are used and the degree of rf
selectivity included. High selectivity at vhf and uhf
is not easy to achieve. Many lumped-constant
tuned circuits are needed for even a moderate
degree of selectivity at the signal frequency.
Several tuned circuits before the first active stage b
(rf amplifier or mixer) will have sufficient loss to

~~l
limit the sensitivity of the receiver. If lumped-
constant circuits are employed, rf amplifiers can be
interspaced between the LC elements to make up
losses. High gain is not needed or desirable, so
FETs operated grounded-gate are preferred.
For improved rf selectivity a helical resonator, a I\IQ.
device which consists of a shield and a coil may be 4
employed. One end of the coil is attached to the
shield, as shown in Fig. 9-4, and the other end is
open-circuited, except for a tuning capacitor.
f
Helical resonators are electrically equivalent to a
Fig. 9-4 - Outl i ne sketch of resonator.

CHARACTERISTIC SHIELD RESONANCE SHIELD WINDING PITCH

TOUL IMPEDANCE INSIDE DU'M. FREOUENCY INSIDE DIA ... INCHES
TURNS OHMS INCHES MEGACYCLES INCHES UNLOADED PER TURN
N Z. 0 -f. 0 Q" 7:
150 0.004
200 .opoo O.OS
0.005
1000 0.04
1000 0.01 0.001
5000 0.0. 100
0.001
1000 0.01 0.010
'00 0.10
5000
300
10 4000
0.2 0.02
LOWEll 0.03
&0 3000 0.04 400
LIMIT O.OS 100 0.3 D.O'
50 G) 0.01
0.0' 0 .• 0.04
0.10 500 500
40 2000 0.3
0.6 0.05
0.2 600 0.06
30 O.S 0.'
0.08
--... ...... 0.5
D.• '.0 100
0.10
...... 0 .• 100
0.1
20
'000 --... --... 1.0 2 900
--... --... 10 '~O
100

100
...... ......
5
Z
3
••
50

-- -- 0.2

0.3
'0 500 1500 0.4
'0
" ...... O.S

--
• 00
, 20
30
" " 0
toDD
0.'
300 .0 0.'
~o 1.0
.0 20
10
4 100
200 30 3000

U~HR} 40
50
LIMIT J .. 000
'0
,0 •
4
2 100 1.0 100 5000

Fig. 9-5 - Design chart for quarter-wave helical resonators.

294 VHF AND UHF RECEIVING TECHNIQUES
,-
:
RF AMP.
Q1
MIXER
TO
XTAL

F1:,
I
I

!
I
I
I
I
ANT. I

'-----"''''-'-'-'--'''''--0+9 V

Fig. 9-6 - Schematic diagram of the Johnson 504 front-end circuit.

quarter-wave transmission-line resonator but are
physically much smallter. Resonators can be built
exhibiting Q of 1000 or more at vhf and uhf.
Because the Q is so high, front-end circuits can be
designed using helical resonators which provide a
-l
high degree of selectivity without high losses, at
least a low and moderate power levels.
The inductance element in a helical resonator
should be made as large as possible and capacitance
C /
I
kept to a minimum for best performance. Probe,
tap or aperture coupling may be employed. The [
basic form of a helical resonator is shown in Fig.
9-4. A low-loss air-insulated trimmer or disk Fig.9-7 - Close-up view of the helical resonators
plunger may be used to tune the resonator. The with the covers removed. The rf amplifier stage is
capacitor must be much higher Q than the resona- constructed on the outside wall of the upper-right-
tor to be useable. The usual precautions for hand resonator. Details are given in the text.
fabricating high-Q coils must be observed when
building a helical resonator. A protective silver An application of helical resonators in a
plating is recommended for the coil and shield for 146-MHz front-end circuit is shown in Figs. 9-6
unit~ to be used above 100 MHz. The shield should and 9-7. This circuit is used in the Johnson 504
be seamless and all joints should be effectively transceiver. The helical resonators consist of 5-3/4
soldered to keep resistance to a minimum. The coil turns of No. 12 wire contained in a rectangular 1
and shield should be made using heavy stock to X I X 2-inch cavity. Both the coil and enclosure
assure mechanical stability. are silver plated. The coil is 5/S inch inside
Fig. 9-5 can be used to obtain approximate diameter and 5/S inch long, tuned with a 7-pF
design information accurate to plus or minus ten miniature air-variable capacitor. The 50-ohm input
percent. Complete design equations for helical tap is at 1/4 turn from the ground end of the coil,
resonators are beyond the scope of this text, but an indication of the high impedance achieved.
they may be found in Macapline and Schildknecht, Coupling between individual resonators is through
"Coaxial Resonators with Helical Inner Conduc- a 1/2 X 1/4 -inch aperture, or "window." Layout
tor," Proceeding of the IRE,December, 1959. details can be seen in Fig. 9-7.

MIXERS
communications receiver that follows it. We are
Conversion of the received energy to a lower concerned here with the first mixer.
frequency, so that it can be amplified more
efficiently than would be possible at the signal Diode Mixer: There are many types of
frequency, is a basic principle of the superhetero- mixers, the simplest being merely a diode with the
dyne receiver. The stage in which this is done may signal and energy on the heterodyning frequency
be called a "converter," or "frequency converter," fed into it, somewhat in the manner of the
but we will use the more common term, mixer, to 1296-MHz example, Fig.9-SA. The mixer output
avoid confusion with converter, as applied to a includes both the sum and difference frequencies.
complete vhf receiving accessory. Mixers perform Either can be used, bu t in this application it is the
similar functions in both transmitting and receiving difference, since we are interested in going lower in
circuits, and mixer theory and practice are treated frequency.
in considerable detail elsewhere in this Handbook. With a good uhf diode in a suitable circuit, a
A receiver for 50 MHz or higher usually has at" diode mixer can have a fairly low noise figure, and
least two such stages; one in thc vhf or uhf this is almost independent of 1reQuencv. wen into
converter, and usually two or more in the the microwave region. The effectiveness of most
 Mixers 295
active mixers falls off rapidly above 400 MHz, so Conversion loss, around 7 dB, must be added to
the diode mixer is almost standard practice in the noise figure of the i-f system to determine the
amateur microwave communicatioh. All diode overall system noise figure. Unless a low-noise
mixers have some conversion loss. This must be preamplifier is used ahead of it, a communications
added to the noise figure of the i-f amplifier receiver may have a noise figure of about 10 dB,
following, to determine the overall system noise resulting in an overall noise figure of 17 dB or
figure. Low-noise design in the first i-f stage is thus worse for a vhf system with any diode mixer. A
mandatory, for good weak-signal reception with a good i-f preamplifier could bring the receiver noise
diode mixer having no rf amplifier preceding it. figure doWh to 2 dB or even less, but the system
Purity of the heterodyning energy and the level of noise figure would still be about 9 dB; too high for
injection to the mixer are other factors in the good reception.
performance of diode mixers. An amplifier at the signal frequency is thus seen
Balanced mixers using hot-carrier diodes are to be required, regardless of mixer design, for
capable of noise figures 1 to 2 dB lower than the optimum reeeption above 50 MHz. The rf gain, to
best point-contact diodes. Hot-carrier diodes are override noise in the rest of the receiver, should be
normally quite uniform, so tedious selection of greater than the sum of noise figures of the mixer
matched pairs (necessary with other types of and the i-f system. Since the noise figure of the
diodes) is eliminated. They are also rugged, and better rf amplifiers will be around 3 dB, the gain
superior in the matter of overloading. should be at least 20 dB for the first example in
The i-f impedance of a balanced hot-carrier the previous paragraph, and 12 dB for the second.
diode mixer (Fig. 9-8B) is on the order of 90 ohms, Tube and Transistor Mixers: Any mixer is prone to
when the oscillator injection is about one overloading and spurious responses, so a prime
milliwatt. Thus the mixer and a transistorized i-f design objective should be to minimize these
amplifier can be separated physically, and con- problems. FET mixers have become standard prac-
nected by means of 93-ohm coax, without an tice at vhf. JFETs are slightly better than
output transformer. MOSFETs, although the junction types require

I-F

L
+12V

INJECTION

~ I-F OUT,
90 OHMS

146 MHz

I-F

C (E)

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL YAWES OF

CAPACITANCE ARE IN a.uCROFARAOS ()IF) ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR JlJlF)~
(c) +12V
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k-IOOO, M.IOOO 000.

Fig. 9-8 - Vhf and uhf mixer circuits. A diode mixer for 1296 MHz, with a coaxial circuit for the signal
frequency. is shown in A. CR1 is a uhf diode, such as the 1 N21 series. A balanced mixer, as in B, gives
improved rejection of the signal and injection frequencies. If hot-carrier diodes are used for CR2, sorting
for matched characteristics is eliminated. Gate and source injection of a JFET mixer are shown at C and
D, respectively.
296 VHF AND UHF RECEIVING TECHNIQUES
40080

+
R T2V
~DC

(A)

TOO +
~r:-:::.r:.,;,=-....,.--"M--o T2V
DC
r-
9.T·VOLT
ZENER
TO
~8UFFER
SHiA1L STAGE
+T2V C
(REG.)
(c)
Fig. 9-9 - A simple overtone crystal oscillator for vhf converters, (A) has Zener voltage regulation. An
FET overtone oscillator and diode multiplier, fB) supply injection for a 144-MHz converter with a
14-MHz i-f. Series trap absorbs unwanted second harmonic at 86 MHz. A triode oscillator would use
essentially the same circuit. A tunable oscillator, as shown at C, would be suitable for a simple 50-MHz
receiver with a broad i-f system.

more power from the injection source. When the loading which, while superior to most tubes, is not
local-oscillator frequency is far removed from the as good as the best JFETs.
input frequency, the scheme of Fig. 9-8C can be Pentode or tetrode tubes make simple and
used. The diagram at 9-8D is needed if the effective mixers, up to 150 MHz or so. Triodes
oscillator frequency is within 20 percent of the work well at any frequency, and are preferred in
signal frequency. the high vhf range. Diode mixers are common in
The injection level from the oscillator affects the 42(}'MHz band and higher.
mixer performance. Until it affects the mixer
adversely in other ways, raising the injection level INJECTION STAGES
raises the mixer conversion gain. A simple check is Oscillator and multiplier stages that supply
made by observing the effect on signal-to-noise heterodyning energy to the mixer should be as
ratio as the injection is varied. At preferred stable and free of unwanted frequencies as
injection levels, the gain will vary but the signal- possible. Stability is no great problem in
to-noise ratio will not change. The injection should crystal-controlled converters, if the oscillator is run
then be set for conversion gain a few decibels at low input and its supply voltage is regulated.
above that at which lower injection causes a drop Simple Zener regulation, as in Fig. 9-9 A, is
in signal-to-noise ratio. adequate for a transistorized overtOTJe oscillator. A
Double-tuned circuits in the mixer and the rf higher order of regulation is needed for tunable
amplifier, as shown in several of the schematic oscillators. See Chapter 5 for suitable regulated
diagrams in this chapter, help to keep down mixer power supplies.
response to signals outside the intended tuning Unwanted frequencies generated in the injec-
range. tion stages can beat with signals that are outside
The insulated-gate FET is superior to other the intended tuning range. In a typical example,
transistors for mixer service in the matter of Fig. 9-9B, an FET overtone oscillator on 43.333
overloading. An example is given in Fig. 9-8E. An MHz feeds a diode tripler to 130 MHz. This
objection to the MOSFET, the ease with which it frequency beats with signals between 144 and 148
can be damaged in handling, has been taken care of MHz, to give desired responses at 14 to 18 MHz.
by building-in protective diodes in devices such as The multiplier stage also has some output at twice
the MPF122, 40673, and 3N187. Units so designed the crystal frequency, 86.666 MHz. If allowed to
require no special care in handling, and they work reach the mixer, this can beat with fm broadcast
as well as their more fragile predeccessors. signals in the 10(}'MHz region that leak through the
Insulated-gate MOSFETs have resistance to over- rf circuits of the converter. There are many such
I njection Stages 297
annoying possibilities, as any vhf enthusiast living lower. In Fig. 9-9C a simple JFET oscillator tunes
near high-powered fm and TV stations has found 36 to 40 MHz, for reception of the 50-MHz band
out. with a fixed 14-MHz i-f. Its stability should be
Spurious frequencies can be kept down by adequate for a-m or fm reception with a relatively
using the highest practical oscillator frequency, no broad i-f, but it is unlikely to meet the require-
multiplier in a 50-MHz converter, and as few as ments for ssb or cw reception, even for 50 MHz,
possible for higher bands. Some unwanted and certainly not for higher bands.
harmonics are unavoidable, so circuit precautions Practically all vhf reception with high selec-
are often needed to prevent both these harmonics tivity uses double-conversion schemes, with the
and the unwanted signals from reaching the mixer. tunable oscillator serving the second conversion.
Selective coaxial or helical-resonator circuits are Such hf oscillators are treated in Chapter 6. They
practical aids in uhf receivers. Trap circuits of should run at the lowest practical input level, to
various kinds may be needed to "suck out" energy minimize drift caused by heating. The supply
on troublesome frequencies. should be well-regulated pure dc. Mechanically-
The series trap in Fig. 9-5B reduces the level of rugged components and construction are manda-
the 86-MHz second harmonic of the crystal tory. The circuits should be shielded from the rest
frequency. A 58-MHz parallel-tuned trap, Fig. of the receiver, and coupling to the mixer should
9-lA, prevents the entry of Channel 2 TV signals be as light as practical. Drift cycling due to
that could otherwise beat with the second har- heating can be minimized if the oscillator is kept
monic of a 36-MHz oscillator in a 50-MHz con- running continuously.
verter that works into a 14-MHz i-f (36 X 2 -
14=58).
Unwanted frequencies also increase the noise THE SUPERREGENERATIVE RECEIVER
output of the mixer. This degrades performance in
a receiver having no rf amplifier, and makes the job Though the newcomer may not be too familiar
of an amplifier, if used, more difficult. with the superregenerative detector, the simple
Frequency multipliers in vhf receivers generally "rushbox" was widely used in early vhf work.
follow transmitting practice, except for their low Nothing of comparable simplicity has been found
power level. The simple diode multiplier of Fig. to equal its weak-signal reception, inherent
9-9B will often suffice. Its parallel-tuned 130-MHz noise-limiting and agc action, and freedom from
circuit emphasizes the desired third harmonic, overloading and spurious responses. But like all
while the series circuit suppresses the unwanted simple devices the superregenerator has limitations.
second harmonic. The trap is tuned by listening to It has little selectivity. It makes a high and
a spurious fm broadcast signal and tuning the series unpleasant hissing noise, and it radiates a broad
capacitor for minimum interference. The tripler interfering signal around its receiving frequency.
circuit should be peaked for maximum response to Adding an rf amplifier will improve selectivity
a 2-meter signal. Do not detune this circuit to and reduce detector radiation. High-Q tuned
lower injection level. This should be controlled by circuits aid selectivity and improve stability. Use of
the voltage on the oscillator, the coupling between superregeneration at 14 to 18, 26 to 30 MHz, or
the oscillator and multiplier, or by the coupling to some similar hf range, in the tunable element of a
the mixer from the 130-MHz circuit. simple superheterodyne receiver, works fairly well
as a simple tuner for vhf converters. None of these
Tunable Oscillators steps corrects the basic weaknesses entirely, so the
Any tunable vhf receiver must employ a variable superregenerator is used today mainly where sim-
oscillator. At this point the intermediate frequency plicity, low cost and battery economy are major
is fixed, and the oscillator tunes a range higher or considerations. Cw and narrow-band fm signals
lower than the signal frequency by the amount of cannot be received using a superregenerative recei-
the i-f. In the interest of stability, it is usually ver.

10K
".
.°1 ffi*O:~:r
1
+ 101(
GAIN

1000

(AI

(8)

Fig. 9-10 - Circuits of typical superregenerative detectors using a field-effect transistor, A, and a tetrode
tube, B. Regeneration is controlled by varying the drain voltage on the detector in the transistor circuit,
and the screen voltage in the tetrode or pentode. Values of L 1 and C1 should be adjusted for the
frequency involved, as should the size of the rf choke, RFC1.
C2, C3 - .OOl-tlF disk ceramic. Try different L2 - Small audio or filter choke; not critical.
values up to .005 for desired audio quality. RFC1 - Single-layer rf choke, to suit frequency.
R1 - 2 to 10 megohms. RFC2 - 85-mH rf choke.
298 VHF AND UHF RECEIVING TECHNIQUES
Typical superregenerative detector circuits are impedance. Fresh or well-charged batteries are
shown in Fig. 9-10. High-transconductance FET· ideal. Regeneration is controlled by varying the
and high-beta vhf transistors are favored. The gain of the stage.
power source should be well-filtered and of low

SERIES-RESONANT BYPASSING
Inexpensive disk-ceramic and "dog-bone" types
of capacitors are relatively ineffective for bypassing TABLE 9-1
above approximately 100 MHz. This is because of
their considerable lead inductance, even when they Values of capacitance in pF required for reso-
are connected as close to the elements to be nance of frequencies commonly encountered in
bypassed as possible. Actually this lead inductance amateur-band vhf work, for leads of 1/4, 1/2 and
can be used to advantage by selecting lead lengths I inch in length.
that make the capacitor series-resonant at the Frequency i/4-Inch i/2-Inch i-Inch
frequency to be bypassed. MHz Leads Leads Leads
TIlls approach is recommended by WA2KYF,
48-50 800 400 2.00
who supplied the information in Table 9-1, showing
72 390 180 91
capacitor and lead-length combinations for effec-
96 220 100 56
tive bypassing of rf energy at frequencies
144 100 47 25
commonly encountered in vhf work. The values are
220 39 20 10
not particularly critical, as a series-resonant circuit
is broad by nature. The impedance of a
series-resonant bypass is very close to zero ohms at
the frequency of resonance, and it will be lower
than most conventional capacitors for a consider- a IO().pF capacitor with 1/4-inch leads is a better
able range of frequency either side of resonance. bet than a 25-pF with I-inch leads, for bypassing at
A high-capacitance short-lead combination is 144 MHz. The series-resonant bypass is worth a try
preferable to a lower value with longer leads, in any circuit where instability is troublesome, and
because the former will be less likely to allow conventional bypassing has been shown to be
unwanted coupling to other circuits. For example, ineffective.

MOSFET PREAMPLIFIERS FOR 10,6, AND 2 METERS

Where an hf or vhf receiver lacks gain, or has a ten-meter receivers that many have pressed into
poor noise figure, an external preamplifier can service. A six-meter version is also very useful for
improve its ability to detect weak signals. This any of the modes of communication available on
preamplifier uses an RCA 40673 dual-gate that band.
MOSFET. Designs for using this device as a mixer The voltage dropping resistor, R4, and the
or as a preamplifier abound and many of them are Zener diode, VR I, may be of the value necessary
excellent. to obtain 9 to 12 V dc for operation of the unit.
When it comes to simplicity, small size, good By increasing the resistance and dissipation rating
performance, low cost, and flexibility, a design by of R4 and VRl, the preamplifier may be operated
Gerald C. Jenkins, W4CAH, certainly qualifies. from the 150- to 200-V supply found in many
Where the preamplifier really shines is in tube-type receivers.
pepping up the performance of some of the older The layout of the board is so simple that it is
hardly worth the effort of making a negative for
the photo-etch process. A Kepro resist-marking pen
was used with success on several boards. Another
approach - and one that is highly recommended -

Two versions of the preamplifier. The one in the

box is for 2-meter use. Toroids are used in the
si x-meter version (right) and in the ten· meter
preamplifier (not shown). Input is at the right on
both units. The extra rf choke and feedthrough
capacitor on the right end of the Minibox are for
decoupling a crystal-current metering circuit that is
part of a 2304-MHz mixer.
MOSFET Preamplifier for 10,6, and 2 Meters 299
(Al

"I"!~
28 .~O OR
144 MHz J2

Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram for

the preamplifier. Part designations
not listed below are for pc board
placement purposes. Alternative
input circuit for use with micro-
wave diode mixer is shown at B.
Cl, C4 - See Table I.
C2, C3, C5, C6, C7, C9 - Disk
ceramic.
.,47> C7

C8 - .001 feedthrough capacitor.

Jl, J2 - Coaxial connectors. C8
~
BOTTOM
Phono-type, BNC or SO-239 VIEW OF 01
.001
acceptable.

'(j. ---"'-~-l:,-~~~~t'
Ll, L2 - See Table I.
R4 - 3 turns No. 28 enam. on
ferrite bead. A 220-0hm, I j
1/2-watt resistor may be sub-
stituted. J
f--':J---.. . C9'00l
-li
L' I
I

:II
,:.., EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DE.CIMAL.
RFC2 - 33 !-tH, iron-core in- I VALUES OF CAPAC ITANCE ARE
1 RFC2 IN MICROFARADS (jlF); OTHERS
ductor. Millen J300-33 or J. .~g, ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR JlJlF);
W. Miller 70F335Al. TO ~ RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
CI~~~r: ,....J..., k -'000. Ma I 000 000

is to cover the copper with masking tape, transfer

the pattern with carbon paper, then cut away the
tape to expose the part to be etched. On small,
simple boards the masking-tape method is hard to
beat.
The pc board may be mounted in almost any
small enclosure. Construction is not tricky or
difficult. It should take only a few minutes to
complete the unit after the board is prepared. The -v
board is fastened in the enclosure by means of one
metal standoff post and a No. 4 screw and nut.
Input and output connectors are not critical;
phono-type jacks may be used in the interest of
low cost.
Adjustment is so easy that it almost needs no
description. After connecting the amplifier to a
receiver, simply tune the input (Cl) and the output
(C4) for maximum indication on a weak signal. Fig. 2 - Full-scale layout and parts placement
One possible area of concern might be that the guide for the pc board. Foil side shown.
toroids used in the ten- and six-meter versions are
not always uniform in permeability, as purchased
from various suppliers. However, it is an easy
matter to add capacitance or remove a turn as
required to make the circuits resonate at the
correct frequency.

Table I

28 MHz 50 MHz 144 MHz

L1 17 turns No. 28 enam. on 12 turns No. 26 enam. on 5 turns No. 20 tinned
Amidon T-50-6 core. Tap Amidon T-37-10 core. Tap 1/2-inch ID X 1/2-inch
at 6 tu rns from grou nd at 5 turns from ground long. Tap at 2 turns
end end. from ground end.
L2 Same as L1, without tap. Same as L1, without tap. 4 turns No. 20 tinned
like L1, without tap.
Cl, 15 to 60-pF ceramic 1.8- to 16.7-pF air variable. 1.5- to 11.6-pF
C4, trimmer. Erie 538-002F. E. F. Johnson 189-506-005. air variable.
E. F. Johnson
189-504-005.
 Fig. 1 - Completed six- and two-meter converters
(left and center) with power supply.

CONVERTERS FOR 50 AND 144 MHz

The converters described here are designed by 3) Sufficient gain to override the front-end
the Rochester VHF Group and details are pre- noise of most receivers.
sented by W2DUC and K2YCO. 4) Double-tuned bandpass interstage and out-
Because of the nature of the project, a universal put circuits to achieve a flat response over a
circuit-board design is used. One circuit board two-MHz portion of either band.
serves for either band, with only slight S) Filtering of the local oscillator chain in the
modification. Other specific design goals were: two-meter model to reduce spurious responses.
1) Low noise figure, less than 3 dB. 6) Small size and low power consumption.
2) State-of-the-art freedom from cross modu- 7) Freedom from accidental mistuning during
lation. the life of the converter.

~OMHz 50MHz 28MHz

Rl AMP. MIXER
270

I-F
~ __-+--oOUT
INPUT

-----------~-------~
OSC. ----~--
Q3
MPF102 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
o VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (j.lF) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR J'J'Fl;
RESISTANCES ARE I N OHMS~
k '1000. M.I 000000

R9
330
L-----~tv~-----------------4--_o+12V

Fig. 2 - Schematic diagram of the six-meter

converter. All resistors are 1/4-watt composition. tapped at 4 turns and 6 turns; L2, 13 turns; L3,
C2, C8, C10 and C15 are .OOlj.tF disk ceramic. C4 12 turns; L4, 18 turns; L5, 18 turns tapped at 4
is .Ol-j.tF disk ceramic, All other capacitors are turns from cold end; L6, 26 turns tapped at 6
dipped mica. turns from hot end.
L1-L6, incl. - All No. 28 enam. wire wound on Y1 - 22-MHz crystals. International Crystal Mfg.
Amidon T-30-6 cores as follows: L 1, 14 turns Co. type EX.
302 VHF AND UHF RECEIVING TECHNIQUES

RF
o

I: LI C2
I l° IR ...a.. ~ 1lR!5 Jce
09-!..-0
RI
I
I L2 • L C IS
I
IS\'
ICIO
'\L4
41

Gl o
RF I 0 3 0
+Jlfr
I
o \ 0
CI2 I-F
SHIELD YI 0 0- R9L __ G2 (A)
~ ~
-- 0
GND
o R ° CI31 9 C7 0 o
~I~
o
OR7 0 0 o +12V

o Q~ICI4lL:
a S D
0:° 0 o

o ...!.!... f 0 IR2 ~ ..£!.o O'jR!5Ice Ic 10 f9 0

~~ C21 IJlL20 i
{~l ICII ~O~T
{:I RI L3 0 S \4 LIS
RF
CJ~Do ~
G
QII(}}I
I 0
r---l
R3 0 I
IR ~
I-F
0' \

(B)
- - - __ ~L ___
SHIELD
o ~
YI L8
CI31 0
R8
..cHI:
--
at
CI7 C7
I R8
0
CI2
~ 0
RIO 0
I-F
aND

o
o R7 0
~I
~
0 tL1 ~{[L8--
R8---o OSo- - -0
+12V
0
03 G S D 0-- 04 G

Fig. 4 - Parts-placement guide for the six-meter converter, A, and the two-meter converter, B. View is
from the foil side of the board. Dashed lines show the location of shields that are soldered to
short pieces of wire which project through holes in the pc board. The shields may be fabricated from
sheet brass or copper, or scraps of copper-clad board material.

the tuning networks. Ll, L2, and L3 are air with a 30-pF value to resonate L6 near the crystal
wound, self-supporting, and are formed initially by frequency. Source-to-gate capacitance provides the
winding wire around the threads of a 1/4-20 bolt. feedback in this case. The drain tank is modified to
The turns of Ll are spread to permit adding taps provide output at the third harmoniC, thus
prior to mounting on the board. The degree of eliminating the need for a separate tripler stage. Q4
interstage coupling in the two-meter model is is used as an isolation amplifier running at very low
controlled by the positions of L2 and 13. Since current level (as controlled by R9) to provide
they are mounted at right angles, the coupling is attenuation of the adjacent harmonics. This stage is
very light. By changing the angle between these not needed for amplification of the oscillator signal
two coils, the passband may be optimized. but without the additional filtering, severe
In the two-meter oscillator stage, Q3 is changed "birdies" may result from nearby fm or TV
to an oscillator/tripler by replacing the source bias stations. In both the six- and two-meter versions, a
resistor with L6. Replace bypass capacitor, CD, number of printed-circuit pads will be left over
when construction is completed. These are the
result of providing both bands on a common pc
Rl R2 layout. For example, the isolation amplifier
FROM
CONVERTER R3 TO I-F following the oscillator is not used on six meters.
I-F OUT RECEiVER Therefore, this stage is bypassed by a jumper wire
from L6 to C7. Five additional holes are located in
the ground area along the centerline of the board
and between rf and mixer stages. Component lead
clippings are soldered into these holes to provide a
Fig. 5 - An i-f attenuator may be necessary if the
receiver following the converter is exceptionally mounting for the shield partitions, which are
hot. Values for 6 dB: R 1, R2 - 18 ohms; R3 - 68 soldered to the wires where they extend through
ohms. For 10 dB: R1, R2 - 27 ohms; R3 - 39 the board. Fig. 4 shows the parts layout for the six-
ohms. and two-meter converters. Notice that one lead of
 Converters for 50 and 144 MHz 301
144MHz R1 270 AMP. MIXER 2eMHz
r-'V"V'

I
I I-F
OUTPUT
I
I e12
t 47

I
I
I I
I L -____~I~------------~

-----------~--------~-----------
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
----,1.--
ose.
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
116MHz AMP. IN MICROFARADS (pF I ; OTHERS
Q3 ARE IN PICOFARA OS (pF OR ppF I;
MPF102 RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
o k -1000, M-I 000 000

RIO
330

L----------------------~--------------------_.--_o+12V

Fig. 3 - Schematic diagram of the two-meter L4 - 18 turns No. 28 enam. wound on Amidon
converter. All resistors are 1/4-watt composition. T-30-6 core.
C8, C10, C15 and C18 are .001-IlF disk ceramic. L5 - 18 turns like L4, tapped at 4 turns from cold
All other capacitors are dipped mica units. end.
L1, L2, L3, L7, L8 - All No. 20 enam. wire L6 - 0.68 IlH miniature inductor. Delevan 1025
formed by using the threads of a 1/4-20 bolt as series or J. W. Miller 9230-16.
a guide. L1, 5 turns tapped at 1-3/4 turns and Y1 - 38.666-MHz crystal. International Crystal
3/4 turn from cold end; L2, 5 turns; L3, 4 Mfg. Co. type EX.
turns; L7, and L8, 5 turns tapped at 2 turns
from hot end.

Other points considered were such things as toroid core. After alignment the coils are glued in
freedom from the necessity of neutralization and place with Silastic compound (sold as bathtUb
the use of moderately priced transistors. caulk).
Several breadboard models were constructed The rf amplifier, Ql, is used in a grounded-gate
and tested as the design evolved. Fig. 1 shows two configuration. The input circuit is tapped to
completed converters and a power supply. provide a proper match between the antenna and
source of the FET while maintaining a reasonable
Circuit Design Q. The six-meter interstage coupling network
consists of C3, CS, L2, and L3. Band-pass coupling
A schematic diagram for the six-meter con- is controlled by the capacitive T network of C3
verter is shown in Fig. 2, and for the two-meter and CS in ratio with C6. A 40673 dual-gate
model in Fig. 3. The configuration of the rf and MOSFET is used in the mixer circuit (Q2). Gate 1
mixer portions of the circuit are virtually identical receives the signal, while gate 2 has the local
for six and two meters, with the values of the -oscilla tor injection voltage applied to it through
frequency-determining components being scaled C7. A slight amount of positive bias is applied to
appropriately. The major difference between the gate 2 through R2. A top-coupled configuration,
two converters is a change in the local oscillator using toroid inductors, serves as the 28-MHz
chain. A minor change in the method of interstage output circuit of both converters.
co u piing was necessary to prevent stray- The oscillator circuit in the six-meter model is
capacitance effects from making the alignment straightforward, relying on the drain-to-gate capa-
critical on the six-meter converter. citance of the FET for feedback. A tap at four
All inductors in the six-meter model and the turns from the hot end of the toroid winding
two-meter output circuit are wound on Amidon provides the injection to the mixer through capa-
T-30-6 toroid cores. The tuned circuits are aligned citor C7. In the two-meter converter, Fig. 3, the rf
by spreading or compressing the turns around the stage is identical to the six-meter version except for
Converters for 50 and 144 MHz 303

Fig. 6 - Scale-size layout for the pc board. The

same pattern is used for either band. Foil side
shown here.

Table I - Performance Specifications

Parameter 6 Meters 2 Meters
Noise figure, dB 1.8 - 2.3 2.0 - 2.4
Conversion gain, dB 22 - 28 17 - 24
Spurious responses, dB -80' -60'
• Has a response • Responses at
-at 6 MHz 107 & 181 MHz
Freq. response, 49.8 - 51.5 MHz 143.9 - 146.4 MHz
.±- 1 dB
Current at 12 V dc 12 -18 mA 14 - 20 mA

~11
SWITCH AND TRANS-
FORMER NOT ON PC
BOARD
(Al

Fig. 7 - Schematic diagram and parts-placement

guide for the power supply to the converters. The
transformer is mounted external to the board. Pc
board size is identical to the one used for the
converters.
 304 VHF AND UHF RECEIVING TECHNIQUES
C3 must reach past the ground hole and connect to The transistors used in the rf stage were also
the foil. R3 is not used on the six-meter converter. subject to some variation in noise figure. When this
occurred, an rf PET was carefully traded with an
Alignment and Test oscillator PET, since performance of the-PET as an
oscillator was always satisfactory.
Perhaps the most difficult task in the project The performance specification range for the
was the test and tune-up of the finished converter.
converters is seen in Table I.
A single test setup using a sweep generator, diode
Small ceramic trimmers can be used in place of
probe, and oscilloscope was a necessity to assure the fixed-value mica capacitors in the tuned
the flat response over the tuning range. Com- circuits of these converters. The midrange of the
mercial attenuators were used to calibrate each trimmer should be approximately the value of the
converter by the substitution method. mica capacitors replaced. This procedure may
Tuning of the air-wound rf circuit for two simplify the tuning process of the converters where
meters was accomplished by spreading or com- a sweep generator setup is not available. A little
pressing the turns of the coils. After alignment, the careful tweaking should give a reasonably flat
windings were secured by a bead of Silas tic response.
compound along the oil to hold the turns in place. If trimmers are used, the rf input circuit should
The noise figure of each converter was checked be tuned to the center of the desired response,
using the Monode noise-generator technique. 1 A 50.5 MHz as an example. This circuit tunes broadly
final sensitivity check using a receiver (NC300) and' and is not too critical. The rf interstage circuits
a model 80 calibrated signal generator completed should be stagger tuned, one at 50.0 MHz and the
the checkout. other at 51.0 MHz, as an example, the output i-f
1 Guentzler, "The Monode Noise Generator," circuits can be tuned in a manner similar to the
QST, April 1967. interstage circuits.

HIGH PERFORMANCE 2-METER CONVERTER

How effective is your vhf converter? Experienced they will not maintain alignment from day to day.
vhf operators know that good results in receiving Thoughtful design can serve to eliminate most of
weak signals are proportional to the performance the performance problems common to vhf conver-
of the converter being used. A mediocre- quality ters, and the measures that need to be taken are
vhf receiving setup will almost always negate the not expensive or difficult. This section describes a
good features of the rest of the station equipment. smooth-performing solid-state 144-MHz converter
Unfortunately, many homemade converters are that is free of spurious responses, is uncondi-
poor performers at best. Some are simply of tionally stable, and has a low noise figure plus
inferior design, while others are so touchy that considerable overall gain. Construction and align-

Fig. 1 - View of the as·

sembled converter. The top
half of the cabinet has been
removed to show the place·
ment of the modules on the
• wa
main chassis. Two press·fit
U-shaped module covers are
visible in the foreground. The long narrow assembly at the top of the photo is the rf and mixer portion of
the converter. The oscillator chain is contained in the shielded box at the lower right. A 12·volt power sup·
Iy or Ie i·f amplifier (see text) can be built in the vacant space at the lower left of the chassis. The com·
pletely assembled unit is shown in the inset.
High Performance 2-Meter Converter 305
ment should be within the capability of anyone circuit can make or break an otherwise good
who has had a moderate amount of experience in c?nverter. Inj.ection to the mixer should be pro-
assembling ham equipment. Vided by a smgle path - the intended one. The
wave form being supplied to the mixer should be
pure, Fig. 2. Many converters rely on a diode
multiplier after the oscillator, and output from the
RF and Mixer Circuits multiplier is fed to the mixer without benefit of
Junction FETs are used in a cascaded common- selective circuits. Other circuits feed the oscillator
o~tput into a transistor multiplier, and then to the
gate rf amplifier, Fig. 2. Source bias (Rl and R2)
is used in each rf stage to reduce overloading in the mixer . .. again without filtering. When this is
presence of strong signals. The JFETs are able to done many frequencies are contained in the mixer
sustain up to 80 volts pk-pk from gate to source injection- voltage. This can result in birdies and
before junction damage occurs. Therefore, protec- poor mixer performance. Furthermore, when the
tive diodes aren't needed at the antenna input if a injection is taken from a doubler or tripler it is
good changeover relay is used for antenna often too low in level (at the desired frequency) to
switching. The rf stages, as stated earlier, are provide suitable mixer performance.
unconditionally stable in the common-gate mode, . The oscillator chain in Fig. 2 was designed for
thus eliminating the need for neutralization cir- high ~erformance. It has more output capability
cuits. A properly-adjusted common-gate rf ampli- than IS needed, the output waveform is pure, and
fier (one stage) can provide up to 16 dB of gain there are no spurious oscillations in the circuit. The
and have a low noise figure. strip is contained in its own shielded enclosure to
The antenna is tapped down on Ll for lowest prevent coupling to the rf and mixer stages of the
noise figure. The source of Ql is tapped near the converter by stray paths.
center of Ll to effect an impedance match. A Oscillator Q4 operates in the third-overtone
three-section bandpass tuned circuit, lightly cou- mode. An optional frequency-trimmer capacitor,
pled, is used between Ql and Q2 to establish a C36, is shown in dashed lines. Those wishing to
2-MHz passband (144 to 146 MHz). Inductors L1 place the oscillator dead on frequency may add
through L5 are stagger-tuned to provide a uniform this component. The crystal should be a high-
response across that range. Shield compartments accuracy commercial-standard type if this is done,
separate the tuned circuits to prevent mutual and should be ground for a load capacitance of 20
coupling, and to discourage input-output coupling pF. Capacitor C36 can be an NPO ceramic trim-
mer, mounted on the side wall of the oscillator box
at Ql and Q2. The latter conditionion could cause
instability of the rf amplifiers. Networks R2-C4 near YI.
Zener-diode regulaion of the oscillator supply
and R4-C12 prevent unwanted ac coupling be-
voltage is provided by CRI. The forward bias to
tween the stages via the 12-volt line. The com-
Q5 is also regulated by CRI. Regulation of this
bined gain of the rf amplifiers (after coupling losses
part of the supply is desirable if the main 12-volt
through the tuned circuits) is approximately 18 source is unregulated. This will help to keep the
dB. oscillator on frequency.
The mixer circuit, Q3, is by no means unique. Low-cost 40637 (careful, not 40673) bipolar
It employs an RCA 40673 dual-date MOSFET transistors are used at Q5 and Q6. Other types can
(metal-oxide silicon field-effect transistor) with be substituted if necessary, and performance
built-in gate-protection Zener diodes. Either gate should be about the same with the component
will handle up to 10 volts pk-pk (gate to source) values shown. Likely substitutes can include types
before damage occurs. Other MOSFETs, such as 2N4124, MPS3563, and HEP-53.
the 3N200 (uhf type), 3N187, or MFE3008, can The output level from the strip can be varied by
be used at Q3. The 40673 proved to be a good changing the value of R13. With the 470-ohm
performer at 144 MHz, so it was used in this unit. resistor shown, in excess of 100 mW can be taken
FETs, when compared to bipolar transistors, from amplifier Q6. In fact, this strip will work
offer superior overload and cross-modulation char-
nicely as a transmitter or exciter by changing R13
acteristics and perform almost as well as do the to 100 ohms. With that value of resistance the
best vacuum tubes. Gate 2 of Q3 is connected to
output was measured at 0.5 watt!
its source through R6 to obtain its bias. A separate
Output stage Q6 operates Class C. A 58-MHz
resistive divider can be used across the 12-volt line
parallel trap is used to filter out the oscillator
to obtain a more specific and stable bias voltage,
energy which feeds through the doubler and
but the method used here proved adequate for the
amplifier stages. Following the trap is a half-wave
performance characteristics desired. Low-impe-
low-pass filter whose center frequency is 116 MHz.
dance output to the tunable i-f receiver is provided
This filter removes any harmonic energy that is
by means of a capacitive divider across L6.
Conversion gain of this mixer is approximately present in the output of Q6.
12dB.

Construction Technique
Oscillator Strip Modular construction assures proper isolation
The toughest aspect of converter design usually between the two sections of the converter. Each
centers in the oscillator strip. This part of the piece is assembled on an etched-circuit board, and
 L6 - 2.96 to 3.64-/lH slug-tuned inductor (J. W.
Fig. 2 - Schematic diagram of the high·per- Miller 46A336CPC).
formance converter. Numbered components not L7 - 7 1/2 turns No. 26 enam. wire, close-wound
appearing below are so designated for pc-board at base end of Miller 46A0134 form.
layout purposes. Other fixed-value capaclt?rs are L8 - 4 1/2 turns No. 22 enam., close-wound at
disk ceramic. Resistors, unless noted otherwise, are base end of Miller 46A0134 form.
1/2-watt carbon. Dashed lines denote shielding. L9 - 16 turns No. 22 enam., close-wound,
C5, C7, C31 - Silver-mica type. self-supporting, 3/16-in. dia.
C29, C30 - 5- tp 25-pF ceramictrimmer (Erie 557 L1 0 - 6 turns No. 20 tinned copper wire, 3/8-in.
with phenolic flange trimmed off). dia x 5/8 in. long.
C35 - .001-/lF feedthrough capacitor mounted on L11 - 6 turns No. 22 enam., 3/16-in. dia,
wall of shield compartment. close-wound. See text.
C36 - 25-pF miniature air variable or ceramic L12, L13 - 4 turns No. 22 enam., 3/16-in. dia,
trimmer (Eire 557 NPO suitable). close-wound. See text.
CRl - 9.1-volt 1-watt Zener diode. R13 - Select value to provide required output
Jl - Chassis-mount coax fitting, type BNC. from 06. See text.
J2 - Single-hole-mount phono jack. RFC1, RFC2 - 8.2-/lH rf choke (James Millen
J3, J4 - Binding post, one red, one black. J300-8.2 or equiv.).
(Johnson 111-102 and 111-103 used here.) RFC3-RFC5, incl. - 10-/lH rf choke. 4 turns No.
L1-L5, incl. - 4 1/2 turns No. 22 tinned-copper 30 enam. wire looped through Amidon ferrite
wire. Space one wire dia between turns. Wind bead (Amidon Assoc., 12033 Otsego St., N.
on 1/4-in. dia ceramic form with brass slug (J. Hollywood, CA 91607).
W. Miller 46A013-5 form. Address: 19070 Sl - Spst toggle.
Reyes Ave., Compton, CA 90224). L 1 tapped Yl - 58-MHz 3rd-overtone crystal. (International
at 1 (ant.) and 2 (source) turns above ground. Crystal type GP.) Case style F-605. Interna-
L4 tapped at 2 turns. See text. tional Crystal PC-board socket F-BOS.

both units are enclosed in boxes made from The rf amplifiers and mixer are contained in a
double-sided circuit board. The modules can be long shield box which measures 7 3/4 x 1 3/8 x
mounted on a V-shaped piece of aluminum plate, 7/8 inches. The main pc board is slightly longer
or a chassis and cabinet arrangement of the type and wider than the box to provide a base on which
shown here can be used. The esthetic qualities of to solder the upper shield compartment. The main
the converter are of secondary importance, and can pc board for this module is double-sided, as is the
best be decided by the constructor. material used for the shield box. The layout
The oscillator section is con tained in a box patterns of Fig.6 show both sides of the board. The
which measures 2 1/2 x 5 1/4 x 1 3/4 inches. top foil provides copper segments to which the
The pc board is recessed into the compartment I walls of the box and the internal dividers can be
1/4 inches. No.6 spade bolts, 6 each, secure the soldered. It is suggested that the compartment and
box to the chassis. The corners of the box are its dividers be soldered in place prior to parts
soldered together by means of a IOO-watt iron with installation. The completed assembly is mounted
a slender tip. The bottom (foil side) of the pc above the main chassis on four 1/4-inch metal
board is soldered to the box walls on all four sides. spacers.
Capacitor C35 is mounted on the box wall just Both shield boxes have their top openings
above Ll3. enclosed by press-fit V-shaped aluminum covers.

Fig. 3 - Interior view of the rf amplifier and mixer section. The input stage is at the far left, and the mix-
er compartment is at the extreme right. Double-sided pc board is used to make the shield box and its com-
partment dividers. The main pc board is also double-sided.
 RF AMP. RF AMP. MIXER

LiO
AMP.

~
5SMHz TRAP

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (J.lF) : OTHERS
~J3
ARE IN PICOFARA OS (pF OR JlJlF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
L I=
I·
,,;T' ""
g-
12V DC
0---<'
k -lOaD. M'I 000000

--l
_________ _______________ JI I
308 VHF AND UHF RECEIVING TECHNIQUES
i-F AMP.

Fig. 4 - Circuit for an IC i-f amplifier that has

manual gain control, and which can be used of L11 for resonance at 58 MHz. In the same
between the converter of Fig. 1 and the tunable i-f
manner adjust coils L12 and L13 for resonance at
receiver. See the text for a discussion of this
circuit. This ampl ifier can provide an additional 25 116 MHz. Now, readjust C29 and C30 for
dB of gain. maximum output. When the circuit it working
properly there should be approximately 1.5 volts
pk-pk at the junction of L13 and C34. If not,
The supply-voltage terminals and the input and adjust trap coil Ll1 for a clean waveform. Coils L2
ou tpu t connectors are mounted on the rear lip of and L13 can be tweaked for maximum output at
the main chassis. The shield boxes shown here were 116 MHz while observing the waveform. Should
silver plated to prevent tarnishing and to make the particular set of transistors you install at Q5
soldering easier. This step, however, is not neces- and Q6 exhibit unusually high beta, you may have
sary. more than 2.5 volts pk-pk at R14. If so, select a
value of resistance at R13 that will limit the output
Converter Alignment of Q6 to the value specified.
A signal generator will be helpful during align-
This converter draws 100 mA when connected ment of the rf amplifiers and mixer. If one is not
to a 12-voIt de supply. The supply should be
available, tune in a weak 2-meter signal and use it
reasonably free from hum to prevent the oscillator
for tune-up purposes. Connect a receiver to J2 and
strip from being modulated by ripple.
set it up for tuning from 28 to 30 MHz. Apply a
With operating voltage applied to the converter, signal to 11 and adjust L1 for maximum response
couple a wavemeter to L7 and adjust the tuned at 145 MHz. Then, adjust L2 for peak response at
circuit for maximum output. Turn the supply on 144 MHz. Trim L3 for a peak at 146 MHz, L4 for
and off a few times to make sure the oscillator 144 MHz, and L5 for 145 MHz. There will be some
starts rapidly each time. If not, choose a slug interaction, so repeat the process a couple of times.
setting for L 7 that allows fast starts. Next, couple Set the slug in L6 for peak output at 29 MHz.
the wavemeter to L8 and adjust its slug for Optimization of the noise figure requires a
maximum output at 116 MHz. Adjust C29 and noise generator and careful adjustment of the input
C30 at Q6 for the same condition. circuit. The taps of Ll must be moved until the
A grid-dip meter will be needed for adjustment lowest noise figure is obtained. Do not adjust the
of the 58-MHz trap. Spread or compress the turns taps or the slugs of L1 and L2 for maximum
sensitivity. The lowest noise figure seldom coin-
cides with maximum gain. If you do not have a
noise generator, adjustment can be brought to a
ball-park figure by adjusting the taps on L1 while
listening to a weak signal.
This converter can be tuned up for a narrower

\ segment of the 2-meter band if coverage of the full

2-MHz spread is not desired. When set for the 144
to 146-MHz range, overall gain of the converter is
approximately 30 dB. The gain will increase
somewha t if the bandpass is decreased. Full band
coverage from 144 to 148 MHz can be had by
stagger tuning the front-end circuits. However, the

Fig. 5 - Interior view of the oscillator strip. The

crystal oscillator is at the far right. The output
stage and harmonic filter are at the left.
Double-sided pc board is used to form the shield
box.
High Performance 2-Meter Converter 309
Fig. 6 - Circuit-board patterns
and layout for the two modules. WITH FEW TWISTS OF fDRILL BIT
These drawings are 1/2 scale. REMOVE COPPER FROM R2,R4,RS AND
B + MOUNTING HOLES ON THIS SIDE

1ST 2ND
MIXER
RF RF

TOP !'OIL LAYOUT

(HALF SCALE)

DASHED LINES DENOTE

SHIELD COMPARTMENTS
ON TOP SIDE OF BOARD

L1 COAX TO
UPPER RI4,C34
TAP ON BOTTOM FOIL LAYOUT
L1 (HALF SCALE)

FOIL SIDE VIEW OF OSC. CHAIN

 310 VHF AND UHF RECEIVING TECHNIQUES
overall gain of the unit will drop to roughly 20 dB not needed, the stage helped to isolate the receiver
if this is done. from the converter mixer. The circuit used is
shown in Fig. 4. In some instances this effect can
Some Commen ts work in reverse. Energy from the converter oscil-
This converter was tried with a Collins 51S1 lator strip can leak past the mixer and enter the
receiver and an older Hallicrafters SX-71. No tunable receiver front end to cause sum and
birdies could be detected in the 28 to 30-MHz difference frequencies when beating with the tun-
tuning range. Some spurious responses were noted, able oscillator in the receiver. An effective cure for
however, when using the converter with some this is the installation of a low-pass filter between
receivers whose i-f was 455 kHz. This resulted from the converter output and the receiver input.
the receiver local oscillator being relatively close The noise figure of this converter can be set for
(455 kHz) to the tunable i-f frequency. The local the lowest value obtainable with the transistor used
oscilla tor energy apparently reached the converter at Ql. In this instance it is somewhere between 2
along the coupling cable and beat with the conver- and 2.5 dB . . . more than adequate for work on
ter oscillator energy at the mixer. A cure for this 144 MHz. Though this circuit may seem somewhat
resulted from the addition of an i-f amplifier stage more complex than need be, the performance
at the converter output. Though the extra gain was realized is well worth the few extra parts used.

COMPACT CONVERTER FOR 220 MHz

With the recent increase in repeater planning MHz. It has been common practice to convert
and, in some cases, activity on 220 MHz, there is a these rigs to work in the amateur 6- or 2-meter
need for receiving systems on that frequency. bands. Therefore, a most useful converter design
Many past designs for 220-MHz converters have would be one that could be adapted to use either
suffered from bulkiness in size, and complexity of of these bands as an i-f. This converter can be
circuits, that has made them unattractive for most constructed for either i-f with only small differ-
mobile installations. The converter described here ences in the components needed.
is small enough to be mounted in or near most
mobile receivers. Circuit Considerations
One decision that must be made when designing
a converter is what frequency to use as an i-f. For One of the important features of this converter
fm use the field is narrowed somewhat by the is the crystal oscillator and the multiplier stage that
availability of surplus equipment. Much of this follows it. As shown in Fig. 2, Q3 is the oscillator
equipment is in the "low-band" range of 30 to 50 and quadrupler. By using a crystal frequency of
MHz, or in the "high-band" range of 148 to 170 19.25 MHz, and tuning the collector circuit to 77
MHz, the transistor stage provides the injection
voltage to the mixer for an i-f of 147 MHz, or
high-band. For a low-band i-f, only one more stage
is needed - a frequency doubler. With a crystal
frequency of 21.5 MHz, the output of Q3 is 86
MHz. Q4 doubles this to 172 MHz, which is the
injection frequency for an i-f of 52 MHz. The
foreqoing figures assume an input or signal fre-
quency of 224 MHz. Crystal frequencies for other
input or output frequencies can be calculated as
follows:

For a low-band i-f,la = Is~ II

For a high-band i-f, 10 = Is -ll

4
Where 10 is the crystal frequency, Is is the signal
frequency to be received, and it is the i-f. If the
receiver to be used has several channels, an extra
one can be set up for use with the converter. Where
the choice of channels is limited, the one with least
Fig. 1 - The 220-MHz converter is mounted in a likelihood of feed through interference should be
box made from sheet aluminum. A phono jacl< at used. The severity of such interference will depend
the lower left is the input connection. Another
jack at the upper right is the output to the receiver. on the sensitivity of the receiver, shielding,
The i-f output coil shown here is for use with a grounding of the chassis, and the strength of the
lOW-band receiver. Changes necessary to work into repea ter signal.
-a 2-meter receiver are explained in the parts list A 40673 dual-gate MOSFET is used for the
and text. mixer, with the gate 2 connection tapped on the
 52 OR 147MH~
L4 N
N
o
INPUT
Jl S
I-F J:
N
LSqB°UTPUT (")
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
o
Fig. 2 - Schematic
diagram of the
220·MHz converter.
The components
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (JIF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS {pF OR JlJIFI:
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS:
k.l000.
°Ji·
*.GATE PROTECTED
-.f8
100
r - - - - - - - - - ALTERNATE 'I
"1l '" ::::l
~
~
...
CD

shown in the shaded

I
1 Jt
MPS3563 76 TO 8 [ 1 1 M 5
HZ DOUBLER C8 SEE TEXT 100
area are the frequen·
~ MP~~63

f
cy-doubler circuit and I90~y~MHZ I 5 I
can be omitted if the
converter is built for
use with a 2·meter reo
C4
L6 L7 C6
15
122 I
I
I T t
(
I L8
1
II
18 172 MHz
ceiver. Note that the ;r.,221
connection point for
C8 is also changed for 1 I
a high-band i-f. I Tn710 1
,...1;01 I
1
L_, _________ _ ____ J

,I00l

C1, C2, C3, C7 - 1.7- to 11·pF miniature variable J1, J2 - Coaxial connector, phono or other type. L6 - 6 turns No. 20 enam. wire, 1/4-in. lOx
(E. F. Johnson 187-0106-105). L1 - 4 turns No. 20 tinned wire, 1/4-in. ID x 1/2-in. long.
C4 - 5.5- to 18-pF ceramic trimmer (Erie 3/8-in. long, tapped 1-1/2 and 2-1/4 turns from L7 - 7 turns No. 20 enam. wire, 1/4-in. ID X
538-002A-5.5-18 or equiv.). ground end. 1/2-in. long.
C5 - 9- to 35-pF ceramic trimmer (Erie L2 - 4 turns No. 18 enam. wire, 1/4-in. ID x L8 - 5 turns No. 18 enam. wire, 3/16-in. ID X
538-002D-9-35 or equiv.). 1/2-in. long. 3/8-in. long.
C6 - 1.9- to 15.7-pF miniature variable (E.F. L3 - 3 turns No. 20 tinned wire, 1/4-in. ID X RFC1 - 2.2 J.LH choke, (J. W. Miller 70F225AI).
Johnson 187-0109-105). 3/8-in. long, tap 1-1/2 turns from ground end. Y1 - Crystal, 19- to 22-MHz fundamental (Inter-
C8 - 5-pF ceramic (see text). L4 - For 52 MHz, 9 turns No. 20 enam. wire, national Crystal type CS or equiv.). The etched
C9 - For 52 MHz, 20 pF ceramic; for 146 MHz, 1/4-in. ID X 5/8-in. long; for 146 MHz, 5 turns board layout will accept either 0.486 or 0.275
10 pF ceramic. No. 20 enam. wire, 1/4-in. I D X 3/8·in. long. pin spacing.

......
CR1 - Silicon diode, 50 PRV, 200 mA or greater. L5 - For 52 MHz, 3 turns No. 20 enam. wire,
Co,)
1/4-in. ID, closewound; for 146 MHz, 2 turns
No. 20 enam. wiJe, 1/4-in. 10, closewound.
312 VHF AND UHF RECEIVING TECHNIQUES

0-
270n.
I ..os 0~~ ~~
o I 00 0 o.O_L::S12=--_~O I~ ~ ~
o 500pF
_C~I .....
OL,3 0
looni
1 ~

c{,.: 1 l'oo~~
t
C4 01 l-270fl
o
~<!
I o
L6 L7 1100kO
~ G2~.f
I ~~~
o
YI 0o-L-o
c,s 0 o-J...--O

°fl~22t lfF
C8* 02 C9!

lC8 * IIOO.n~~
0
4

~50n."-o E~~4 r
RFCli ISa:,?OOJ ~ lC1
1500. !'J 0

oro ~Ioon
fa 1)01
*
TO J2
~
4700
VRI
82 pF
0 ,
lOOn.
0 0 ~

* CONNECT ca ACCORDING TO TEXT

Fig.3 - Scale drawing of the pc-board pattern for the 220-MHz converter. Foil side shown.

input-frequency coil. GATE I obtains injection Such circuits might be the oscillator, multiplier, or
voltage via a 5-pF capacitor from the output of the rf amplifier stages of the i-f receiver.
oscillator multiplier chain. The i-f ou tpu t circuit is Metal stand-off posts at each corner of the
connected to the drain of the MOSFET. This board serve to mount the converter and provide a
circuit is fixed-tuned for simplicity's sake. It can be good ground to the chassis. Phono connectors are
peaked for maximum output by squeezing or used for input and output. The 12-volt dc supply is
stretching the coil. connected to a feed through capacitor on the wall
The rf amplifier uses an MPF102 or 2N54S6 of the bos. A silicon diode in the supply lead offers
JFET in a grounded-gate configuration. The latter protection against damage caused by reversing the
device will give slightly better performance. A polarity, although in most mobile installations this
word of advice when using these transistors in such should not be a problem.
a circuit: The gate must be connected to ground The circuit board has been designed to include
with the shortest possible lead length. A stubborn parts placement for either high- or low-band i-f.
case of self-oscillation in the converter described For an output at 147 MHz, the injection coupling
here was cured by leaning the 2N5486 over so that capacitor, CS, is connected from the top of L7 to
the gate lead was just long enough to reach through gate 1 of the 40673. For a 52-MHz i-f, Q4 is added
the board and connect to the ground foil. to the board, along with its associated resistors,
capacitors, and L8. When the doubler is used, CS
must be connected in the alternative position
Construction (from the top of LS to gate 1) to provide injection
voltage.
The converter is built on a piece of glass-epoxy All of the coils are wound with wire large
board, S.8-cm wide by 9.9-cm long. In inches, that enough to be self-supporting. Vibration should not
works out to be just under 3-7/16 X 4. An be a problem, but a few drops of coil dope can be
aluminum box, 9-cm wide, 10-cm long, and 5-cm applied to each winding for further stiffening.
high was constructed as a housing. If the converter Some of the resistors are installed flat and some are
is to be installed inside a receiver, the box may not upright, depending on the space available. Power
be necessary. However, care should be taken to consumption of each stage is low enough that
assure that the converter is not mounted close to 1/4-watt resistors can be used, resulting in a more
circuits that would couple unwanted signals into it. neat-appearing board.
 A Low-Noise 432-MHz Converter 313
Tune-up and Performance amplifier and mixer stages can be peaked up on a
signal while monitoring the limiter current in the
As with most construction projects of this type,
receiver. The spacing between L2 and L3 should be
a grip-dip oscillator is an almost indispensable tool
adjusted a small amount at a time, and each circuit
to aid in getting the tuned circuits on the correct
retuned for maximum limiter current. The ultimate
frequency. A good quality crystal should be used
in adjustment requires a calibrated signal generator
for Yl. There is no oven to keep the crystal at a
and an audio-output meter to measure the amount
constant temperature, so a good commercial-grade of quieting that a given signal will provide. When
crystal is worth the price. If the oscillator has a low this converter was used ahead of a Motorola strip
output or shows a reluctance to start, it might need on 52 MHz, sensitivity was such that 0.28-micro-
a feedback capacitor connected from emitter to volt into the converter produced the sought-after
base. Something in the range from lO to 30 pF 20 dB of quieting. Under these condtions 0.1
should do, but use the smallest value that will microvolt would open the squelch of the receiver.
assure oscillation. Most of the transistors tried in Performance like this makes the converter equal to
this circuit did not require extra feedback. The many of the two- meter receivers now in use, and
oscillator performance should be checked to be better than some. Image rejection was more than
sure that its output is on the 4th harmonic of the 70 dB.
crystal, and not the third or fifth. An i-f amplifier was not needed with the strip
After the freque'ncy multipliers are tuned for used to test the converter. If the receiver needs a
maximum injection to the mixer, the converter can bit of help in the sensitivity department, it is an
be connected to the input of a receiver. If a easy metter to add a small amplifier. Single-stage
transceiver is to be used, the converter must be premaplifiers for 6 or 2 meters should be adequate.
ahead of the receiver portion only. Accidental Examples of such amplifiers can be found earlier in
keying of a transmitter with the converter con- this chapter.
nected to it can ruin several hours work! The rf

A LOW-NOISE 432-MHz CONVERTER

There is usually great emphasis on the need for cost and complexity of the converter, and its gain
a good low-noise uhf transistor in at least the first control, R2, is handy for setting the converter gain
stage of a 432-MHz converter, but the rf stage or to the optimum level for any receiver.
stages cannot do the whole job. Good front-end The injection system uses more transistors and
design is often hampered by deficiencies elsewhere components than most converters have for this
in the converter. These can include inadequate purpose, but the string of doublers is easy and
injection to the mixer, and poor noise figure in the inexpensive to build, and it produces injection
stage immediately following the mixer. The voltage to spare. Use of a starting frequency of
converter described here does well with a single rf 50.5 MHz makes checking the oscillator a simple
amplifier stage, because the mixer has plenty of
injection, and it is followed by a low-noise i-f
amplifier. The latter is especially important when
the intermediate frequency is in the 28-MHz range,
as some communications receivers have rather poor
noise figure and gain in this region,

Circuit
The rf amplifier uses a 2N5032 uhf bipolar
transistor, with grounded emitter, and neutraliza-
tion. This gives more gain than the commonly use~
grounded-base circuit, so only one rf s~age IS
needed to override mixer noise and establIsh the
noise figure of the system. Tuned lines are used in
the input, collector and mixer-input circuits, for
some selectivity and rejection of unwanted
frequencies. The segment of the band near 432
MHz used for weak-signal work is so narrow that rf
selectivity presents no problems. The amplifier
collector current is adjusted for optimum signal-
to-noise ratio by varying the base bias, by means of
RL The bias source is Zener-regulated by CRL
The mixer is a Schottky-barrier diode, CR2. It Fig. 1 - The 432-MHz converter is built on the
works into a 28-MHz i-f amplifier stage using an cover plate of a standard aluminum chassis. The
integrated circuit. The amplifier may not be "cigar-box effect" results from app!ica~i~n of
'needed with communications receivers that work contact paper with simulated wood-grain finish to
well in the 10-meter range, but it adds little to the all exposed surfaces.
 314 VHF AND UHF RECEIVING TECHNIQUES
Fig. 2 - Interior of the 432-MHz low-noise
converter, showing the rf and i-f amplifier
assemblies. Strip-lines in the rf assembly are, left to
right, L1, L3 and L4. The wire loop coupled to L3
is the neutralizing device, L2, with a capacitor tab
coupling to L1. The small mixer diode is just
visible, close to the right side of the rf assembly.
The 28-MHz i-f amplifier is the square circuit board
at the lower right.

tuned lines. Cover the wire with insulating sleeving

where it passes through the hole.
The coupling capacitor C4 is supported by its
own leads, between L3 and L4. The mixer diode,
o CR2, is tapped on L4, through a hole in the side of
the enclosure, and is supported on a small tie-strip,
outside the assembly. The 3-pF injection-coupling
matter if the builder has a 50-MHz receiver. A capacitor, one end of RFC2, and the end of the
tuned-line filter, loosely-coupled to the last small coax from the injection board are also
doubler, helps to suppress unwanted products of supported by this strip.
the multiplier system.
Adjustment
Construction Alignment of the oscillator-multiplier chain
The converter is built in three principal requires a dip meter or calibrated absorption
subassemblies, mounted on an aluminum plate that wave meter. To protect the amplifier transistor, Ql,
fits the top of a 5 X 9 1/2 X 2-inch chassis, thereby do not apply voltage to it, or the bias-adjusting
providing complete shielding. An L-shaped bracket, network, until all other stages are checked out. The
1 7/8 inches high and 8 1/2 inches long, supports oscillator should be checked to be sure that it is
the oscillator-multiplier assembly. The injection working only on the marked frequency. Improper
circuit board is mounted with 3-48 screws and adjustment of the coil L9 may allow oscillation on
short metal spacers, to provide lead clearance. the crystal fundamental, about 16.83 MHz, and
Output from the tuned-line filter, C14Ll7, is taken output at 50.5 MHz will be much too low to drive
off through L18 and small coax to the mixer. the following stages properly. There should be no
Small screws and spacers are also used to mount evidence of rf in the 16-MHz region, or on twice
the i-f amplifier to the cover plate. A small pc-type the fundamental frequency. Be sure that the core
control, R2, reached through a hole in the side of tunes L9 through the crystal frequency.
the chassis, is used for gain adjustment. If the Peak each doubler stage for maximum output
converter is to be used with several receivers, a at the desired frequency. If no indicator for 404
shaft-type control could be substituted, and MHz is available, a simple Lecher-Wire 1 setup can
mounted on the cover or chassis, to facilitate be used, with a diode and milliammeter, to be sure
readjustment, as needed. Lead lengths to R2 are
not critical. 1 A Lecher-Wire device is described in The
Radio A.mateuy's VHF Manual, Chapter 14. A
The rf amplifier enclosure and tuned lines are slotted lme that can be used for uhf frequency
made of flashing copper. Dimensions are shown in Ti::.'rement is described in QST for January.
Fig. 6. All holes should be drilled before cutting
the metal and bending it to shape. Comers are
soldered for rigidity and rf shielding. The lines, Ll,
L3 and L4, should be laid out and drilled before
cu tting the strips apart, as it is difficult to drill a
clean hole in a narrow strip of flashing copper. The
ends of the strips are bent up and soldered to the
inside of the box.
A shield partition isolates the input line from
the collector line, and also supports the transistor,
Ql, which is mounted in a small hole near one end
of the shield. The emitter lead is connected to the
input side of the shield and the case lead to the
collector side. Both leads are' grounded by a 2-56
screw and nut, with no soldering needed. The
entire assembly (the shield, Ql, Rl, C2 and L2) Fig. 3 - The oscillator-multiplier assembly is on
can be completed before it is fastened in place with a circuit board mounted on a full-length aluminum
small sheetmetal screws. Note the "sense" of the bracket that provides both support and shielding.
neutralizing loop, L2. The grounded end is toward The crystal oscillator is at the right end. The
strip-line at the left end is L17. the tuned circuit of
the transistor, and the hot end goes through a hole a 404-MHz filter in the output of the last doubler
in the shield, toward the grounded end of the stage.
A Low-Noise 432-MHz Converter 315

r----;P
I
I
I
I I-F AMP.
I
ICI
I
I
I
I
I
I I·F
JI

~'
I

INPUT

12V

Fig.4 - Schematic diagram and parts information for the rf and i·f portions of the 432·MHz converter.

L2 - No. 24 enamel 1 11/16 inches long, bent as

Cl - 7-pF cylindrical trimmer (Centralab 829-7). shown in Figs. 9-28 and 32.
C2 - Copper tab 1/4 inch square, about 1/8 inch L3, L4 - Copper strip 3/8 by 29/16 inches long
over L1, 1 5/8 inches from ground end. Adjust after bending. Tap L4 3/4 inch from ground
spacing for neutralization. end.
C3, C5 - 10-pF cylindrical trimmer (Centralab L5, L7 - 20 turns No. 30 enamel on .162-inch
829-101. slug-tuned form (Miller 27AOl3-7). Tap L5 10
C4 - 5-pF piston trimmer. turns from ground end.
C6, C7, C8 - .001-MF feedthrough (Erie 662-003- L6, L8 - 3 turns small enameled wire over cold
102K). C7 and a lug on the tie-strip serve as test ends of L5 and L7.
points, and should be joined by a jumper when Ql - Low-noise uhf npn transistor, Motorola
no meter is connected. 2N5032.
CRl - 6.2-volt Zener diode. Rl - 25K control, pc-type mounting (CTS R253B
CR2 - Hot-carrier diode (Hewlett-Packard 28111. - Alliedl.
CR3 -l-A,l00-PRV diode (Int. Rect. 5Al). R2 - lOOK control, pc-type mounting (CTS
Jl, J2 - BNC coaxial jack. Rl04B - Allied).
J3 - 2-pin polarized power connector. RFCl - .22-MH rf choke (Miller 45841.
L1 - Copper strip 3/8 by 2 1/4 inches after RFC2 - 6 turns No. 26 enamel 1/8-inch dia, 3/8
bending. Tap at 7/8 and 1 3/4 inches from inch long.
ground end. Ul - Motorola MC1550G integrated circuit.

TABLE 9-11
Crystal frequencies recommended for use with popular vhf and uhf converter i-fs
Band Crystal frequency for i-f range from
MHz 7 MHz 14 MHz 28 MHz 30.5 MHz
50 43.0 MHz 36 MHz 22.0 MHz 19.5 MHz
144 45.667 MHz 43.333 MHz 38.667 MHz 37.833 MHz
220 53.25 MHz 51.5 MHz 48.0 MHz 47.375 MHz
432 46.44 MHz 44.9 MHz 44.611 MHz
Other i-f tuning ranges can be used, but will require different crystal frequencies and suitable L-C com-
binations in the multiplier chain to effect proper resonance.
 -
w
0-

osc. DBLR DBLR DBLR

404 MHz

~'

330

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

<
::I:
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS t pF ) ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR JljlFl: 'TI
RESISTANCES ARE IN
k· 1000, .. -1000 000.
OHMS ~
»Z
C
Fig. 5 - Schematic diagram and parts information for the oscillator-multiplier stages of the 432-MHz converter. C
::I:
'TI
::IJ
m
(")
C10 - 35-pF ceramic trimmer. U2, U4 - 4 turns No. 22, 3/16-inch dia, 3/8 inch long. Mount on small tie-5trip at upper left m
C11, C12, C14 - 5-pF miniature trimmer (Johnson long. corner, as seen in Fig. 9-29.
189-504-5) . U3 - 4 turns No. 22, 1/4-inch dia, 3/8 inch long. 02-05, incl. - Vhf npn transistor (Motorola <
C13 - 1/4 by 31B-inch copper tab. See Fig. 9-32 U5 - 5 turns No. 28 enamel, on 1/2-watt resistor. MPS3563). Z
and text. U6 - 4 turns No. 22, 1/2-inch dia, 1/2 inch long. RFC3, RFC4, RFC5, RFC7, RFC8 - Small rf C)
CR4 - 9.1-volt Zener diode. U7 - Copper strip, 5/16 by 2 1/2 inches. Bend at chokes, values as indicated on drawing.
L9 - 6 turns No. 26 enamel on .162-inch ground end, so that when run through the RFC6 - 2 turns No. 26 enamel through ferrite -i
slug-tuned form (Miller 27A013-71. bead.
m
circuit board it will lie parallel to it, at the (")
UO - 6 turns No. 22, 3/16-inch dia, 1/2 inch long. height of the stator of C14. See Fig. 9-29_ Y1 - Third-overtone crystal, 50_5 MHz (Interna- ::I:
U1 - 7 turns No. 24 enamel, 3/16-inch dia, U8 - Hairpin loop, No. 24 enamel. Portion tional Crystal Type EX). Z
closewound. coupling to U7 is 3/8 inch wide and 5/8 inch
oC
m
en
 A Low-Noise 432-MHz Converter 317

TABLE 9-111
Required mixer injection frequencies from the oscillator chain when using the tunable i-f ranges listed
in Table 9-11. Ordinarily, the crystal frequency is multiplied 3 times in 144-MHz converters, 4 times
for 220 MHz and 9 times for 432.
Band Injection frequencies for i·fs of
MHz 7 MHz 14 MHz 28 MHz 30.5 MHz
50 43 MHz 36 MIz 22 MHz 19.5 MHz
144 137 MHz 130 MHz 116 MHz 113.5 MHz
220 213 MHz 206 MHz 192 MHz 189.5 MHz
432 418 MHz 404 MHz 401.5 MHz

that this circuit peaks properly. Injection on the transistors may require different values of collector
proper frequency should also cause a noise increase current. Usually it will be found that highest gain
in the communications receiver, at 28 MHz. The will occur with somewhat more collector current
copper tab, C13, provides loose coupling to the than that giving the best signal-to-noise ratio, so it
stator of C 12. Adjustment is not critical, and a
spacing of about 1/8 inch should be about right.
There is some coupling between the tuned line and
the chassis, causing detuning and loss of injection,
when the converter is assembled in its case. The
circuit can be repeaked through a small hole drilled
in the bottom of the chassis.
Moving the i-f gain control through its range
should cause a smooth change in noise level at 28
MHz. L5 and L7 can be peaked roughly on noise,
or on a 28-MHz signal.
The mixer tuning should result in a small noise
increase as C5 is peaked. This adjustment can be
made by using a harmonic of the dip oscillator, or
r
the third harmonic of a 2-meter transmitter, for a
test signal. HOLE SIZES
The rf amplifier can now be adjusted. Before A = :jIe"
voltage is applied to this stage, a 50-ohm resistor B = V4"
C =3;\6'
should be connected across Jl, or a signal 0= Vs"
generator with a built-in termination should be E = 313.
used. The bias-adjusting control, Rl, should be set
at maximum resistance, and a 100mA meter
connected in place of the jumper across the test
points in the lead to RFC1. Be sure that solid
connections are made, as accidental application of
base bias, with no collector voltage, can ruin the
transistor. A safer arrangement might be to use a 8end tip
lower-range meter, with a suitable permanent shunt 3sitfes
connected between the test points. The meter can
then be removed from the circuit safely.
The collector current should be set to around 2
rnA by adjustment of R1. Tune CI, C3, C4 and C5 .....-:1¥"i--
for maximum response to the test signal, watching f:~i
the collector current for any sign of change. Such ~}\6'
fluctuation, or bursts of noise or rough-sounding
notes in the receiver, indicates oscillation in the rf 1-~'-1'
stage. The positions of the coupling loop, L2, and L2 & CZ C13 ON I NJ EeTiON
No.24 ENAMEL6< BOARD - COPPER
the capacitor tab, C2, should be adjusted to stop
W' SQ, COPPER TAB
oscillation, if any is encountered.
After the converter has been stabilized, adjust Fig, 6 - Details of the copper parts of the rf
the collector current for best signal-te-noise ratio, amplifier and mi xer assembly. It is suggested that
using a weak test signal. The data sheet for the layout work and drilling be done before the sheet
2N5032 indicates that best noise figure should be of flashing copper is cut, as drilling of small pieces
obtained with about 1 rnA. Other good uhf of thin metal is difficult,
318 VHF AND UHF RECEIVING TECHNIQUES

02B~
0
c
o
04 C.
B~E
05
B0
o
[lc COPPER STRAP
L17
E E

Y1
10011.

Fig. 9-7 - Half-scale drawing of the injection board, foil side.

is important to make all tuning adjustments and

5pF current setting for the latter quality. Gain can be
made up in the i-f stage_
An additional check can be made to be sure
L5 that the oscillator-multiplier string is giving the
mixer adequate injection voltage. If it is, and if the
rf stage is working properly, the injection can be
Ul reduced enough to cause the converter gain to drop
several dB, before the signal-to-noise ratio is
PIN1 _01 adversely' affected. If adequate gain is available
elsewhere in the converter, the best overall
performance will generally be obtained with the
Fig. 9-8 - Half-scale drawing of, the i-f amplifier injection level toward the lowest that will give
board, foil side. good signal-to-noise ratio.
 CHAPTER 10
Mobile and
Portable I Emergency
Equipment and Practices
MOBILE AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT
Amateur mobile and portable operation pro- All portable and mobile equipment should be
vides many opportunities for one to exercise his assembled with more than ordinary care, assuring
skill under less than ideal conditions. Additionally, that maximum reliability under rough-and-tumble
the user of such equipment is available for conditions will prevail. All solder joints should be
public-service work when emergencies arise in his made well, stranded hookup wire should be used
community -- an important facet of amateur-radio for cabling (and in any part of the equipment
operation. Operating skill must be better than that subjected to stress). The cabinets for such gear
used at most fixed locations because the should be rugged, and should be capable of
mobile/portable operator must utilize inferior protecting the components from dust, dirt, and
antennas, and must work with low-power transmit- moisture.
ters in many instances.
Most modern-day hf-band mobile work is done ELECTRICAL-NOISE ELIMINATION
while using the ssb mode. Conversely, the fm
mode is favored by mobile and portable vhf One of the most significant deterrents to
operators, though ssb is fully practical for vhf effective signal reception during mobile or portable
operation is electrical impulse noise from the
service. Some amateurs operate cw mobile, much to
automotive ignition system. The problem also
the consternation of local highway patrolmen, but
arises during the use of gasoline-powered portable
cw operation from a parked car should not be ac generators. This form of interference can
overlooked during emergency operations. completely mask a weak signal, thus rendering the
High-power mobile operation has become station ineffective. Most electrical noise can be
practical on ssb because of the low duty cycle of eliminated by taking logical steps toward suppress-
voice operation, and because low-drain solid-state
mobile power supplies lessen battery drain ov.er
that of dynamotors or vibrator packs. Most mobile
a-m and fm operation is limited to 60 watts for
reasons of battery drain.
Portable operation is popular on ssb, cw and
fm while using battery-powered equipment.
Ordinarily, the power of the transmitt~r is limited
to less than five-watts dc input for practical reasons.
Solid-state equipment is the choice of most
modern amateurs because of its compactness,
reliability, and low power consumption. High-
power portable operation is practical ~nd desirable
when a gasoline-powered ac generator IS employed.
The secret of successful operation from
portable sites is much the same as ~at from a fixed
station - a good antenna, properly Installed. Power
levels as low as 0.5 watt are sufficient for covering
thousands of miles during hf-band ssb and cw
operation. In the vhf and uhf region of operation it
is common to work distances in excess of 100
miles - line of sight - with less than one watt of
transmitter output power. Of course it is import:mt
to select a high, clear location for such operah~n
on vhf and it is beneficial to use an antenna With Fig. 1()'1 - Effective portable operation can be
as mu~h gain as is practical. Low-nois~ receiving realized when using lofty locations for vhf or uhf.
Here, Wl CKK is shown operating a bat~ery­
equipment is the ever-constant companIOn of any powered, 15().mW output, 2-meter transce.. ve~.
low-power portable transmitter. ~at provides With only a quarter wavelength antenna. It IS
successful long-distance commurucatIons. Careful possible to communicate with stations 25 miles or
matching of the portable or mobile antenna to more away. Low-power transistor equipment like
obtain the lowest possible SWR is another secret of this unit will operate many hours from a dry-cell
the successful operator. battery pack.

319
320 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY

r engine block. This copper is quite soft and can be

form-fit to the contour of the distributor.
(Commercially-manufactured shielded ignition
cable kits are also available.) The shield braid of
I'
/ the spark-plug wires should be soldered to the
distributor shield if one is used. Also, the ignition
/ coil should be enclosed in a metal shield since the
top end of many of these coils is made of plastic. A
/
/ -'
/ small tin can can often be used as a top cover for
the coil or distributor. It should be soldered to the
./
/ ("
existing metal housing of the coil. Additional
,.i •.. -
reduction in spark-plug noise can be effected by
/ making certain that the engine hood makes positive
contact with the frame of the car when it is closed,
thus offering an additional shield over the ignition
1 system The engine block shOUld also be bonded to
the frame at several points. This can be done with

"----
;t ~. ____ ~ ___ -j the shield braid from coax cable. Feedthrough
(hi-pass) capacitors should be mounted on the coil
shield as shown in Fig. 10-6 to filter the two small
Fig. 10-2 High-power portable/emergency leads leaving the assembly.
operation can be made possible on all amateur
bands by using vacuum-tube transmitters, and Other Electrical Noise
powering them from a gasoline-operated ac
generator of one or more kW rating. (Shown here The automotive generator system can create an
is VE7ARV!7 during a Field Day operation.) annoying type of interference which manifests
itself as a "whine" when heard in the receiver. This
noise results from the brushes sparking as the
ing it. The fust step is to clean up the noise source commutator passes over them. A dirty commutator
itself, then utilize the receiver's built-in noise- is frequently the cause of excessive sparking, and
reducing circuit as a last measure to knock down can be cleaned up by polishing its surface with a
any noise pulses from passing cars, or from other fine grade of emery cloth. The commutator
man-made sources_ grooves should be cleaned out with a small,
Spark-Plug Noise pointed instrument. A coaxial feedthrough capaci-
tor of 0.1- to 0.5-MF capacitance should be
Spark-plug noise is perhaps the worst offender mounted on the generator frame and used to filter
when it comes to ignition noise. There are three the generator armoture lead. In stubborn cases of
methods of eliminating this type of interference - generator noise a parallel LIe tuned trap can be
resistive spark-plug suppressors, resistor spark used in place of the capacitor, or in addition to it,
plugs, or resistance-wire cabling. By installing tuned to the receiver's operating frequency. This is
Autolite resistor plugs a great deal of the noise can probably the most effective measure used for
be stopped. Tests have proved, however, that curing generator noise.
suppressor cable between the plugs and the
distributor, and between the distributor and
ignition coil, is the most effective means of curing
the problem. Distributed-resistance cable has an t
approximate resistance of 5000 ohms per foot, and "
consists of a carbon-impregnated sheath followed
by a layer of insulation, then an outer covering of
protective plastic sheathing. Some cars come
equipped with suppressor cable. Those which do
not can be so equipped in just a matter of minutes.
Automotive supply stores sell the cable, and it is
not expensive. It is recommended that this wiring
be used on all mobile units. The same type of cable I'
can be installed on gasoline-powered generators for > '!\..-
field use. A further step in eliminating plug noise is
the addition of shielding over each spark-plug wire,
and over the coil lead. It should be remembered
that each ignition cable is an antenna by itself, thus
radiating those impulses passing through it. By Fig. 10-3 - A typical homemade shielding kit for
fitting each spark-plug and coil lead with the shield an automotive ignition system. Tin cans have been
braid from a piece of RG-59/U coax line, put to use as shields for the spark coil and
grounding the braid at each end to the engine distributor. Additional shields have been mounted
on the plug ends of the wires for shilding the spark
block, the noise reduction will be even greater. An plugs. The shield braid of the cabling protrudes at
additional step is to encase the distributor in each end of the wires and is grounded to the engine
flashing copper, grounding the copper to the block.
 - ~-----------------

Electrical-Noise Elimination 321

the heat- and fuel-level indicators. Ordinarily. the
addition of a O.S-IJF coaxial capacitor at the sender

,
element will cure the problem.
Other noise-gathering accessories are turn
signals, window-opener motors, heating-fan motors
and electric windshield-wiper motors. The installa-
:'\'
..." tion of a 0.2S-1JF capacitor will usually eliminate
their interference noise .
.
~"
. ,
, ~.

Frame and Body Bonding

,
Sections of the automobile frame and body
that come in contact with one another can create
additional noise. Suspected areas should be bonded
together with flexible leads such as those made
from the shield braid of RG-8/U coaxial cable.
Trouble areas to be bonded are:
1 - Engine to frame.
2 - Air cleaner to engine block.
3 - Exhaust lines to car fame and engine block.
4 - Battery ground terminal to frame.
S - Steering column to frame.
6 - Hood to car body.
Fig. 104 - A close-up view of the distributor 7 - Front and rear bumpers to frame.
shield can. The shield braid over each spark-plug 8 - Tail pipe to frame.
wire is soldered to the top of the can, and the can 9 - Trunk lid to frame.
is grounded to the engine block.
Voltage regulators are another cause of mobile Wheel and Tire Static
interference. They contain relay contacts that jitter Wheel noise produces a ragged sounding pulse
open and closed when the battery is fully charged. in the mobile receiver. This condition can be cured
The noise shows up in the receiver as a ragged, by installing static-collector springs between the
"hashy" sound. Coaxial feedthtough capacitors can spindle bolt of the wheel and the grease-retainer
be mounted at the battery and armature terminals cap. Insert springs of this kind are available at
of the regulator box to fIlter those leads. The field automotive supply stores.
terminal should have a small capacitor and resistor, Tire static has a ragged sound too, and can be
series-connected, from it to chassis ground. The detected when driving on hard-surface highways. If
resistor prevents the regulator from commanding the noise does not appear when driving on dirt
the generator to charge constantly in the event the roads it will be a sure indication that tire static
bypass capacitor short-circuits. Such a condition exists. This problem can be resolved by putting
would destroy the generator by causing over-
heating.
Alternators should be suppressed in a similar '-
manner as dc generators. Their slip rings should be
kept clean to minimize noise. Make sure the
brushes are making good contact inside the unit. A
coaxial feed through capacitor and/or tuned trap
should be connected to the output terminal of the
alternator. Make certain that the capacitor is rated
to handle the output current in the line. The same
rule applies to dc generators. Do not connect a
capacitor to the alternator or generator field
terminals. Capacitor values as high as O.S IJF are
suitable for alternator filtering.
Some alternator regulator boxes contain solid-
state circuits, while others use single or double
contact relays. The single-contact units require a
coaxial capacitor at the ignition terminal. The
double-contact variety should have a second such Fig. 10-5 - Gasoline-powered ac generators used
capacitor at the battery terminal. If noise still for portable/emergency operation should be
persists, try shielding the field wire between the treated for ignition noise in the same manner as
regulator and the generator or alternator. Ground automobile engines are. The frame of the gas
the shield at both ends. generator should be connected to an earth ground,
and the entire unit should be situated as far from
Instrument Noise the operating position as possible. This will not
only reduce ignition noise, but will minimize
Some automotive instruments are capable of ambient noise from the power unit. (Shown here
creating noise. Among these gauges and senders are is K1GTK during Field Day operations.)
322 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY
transmitter and receiver. All antenna connections

f should be tight and weatherproof. Mobile loading

coils should be protected from dirt, rain, and snow
if they are to maintain their Q and resonant
frequency. The greater the Q of the loading coil,
the better the efficiency, but the narrower will be
the bandwidth of the antenna system.
Though bumper-mounted mobile antennas are
favored by some, it is better to place the antenna
mount on the rear deck of the vehicle, near the
rear window. This locates the antenna high and in
the clear, assuring less detuning of the system when
Fig. 10-6 - The automobile ignition coil should be the antenna moves to and from the car body.
shielded as shown here. A small tin can has been Never use a base-loaded antenna on a bumper
soldered to the metal coil case, and coaxial mount if an efficient system is desired. Many
feed through capacitors have been soldered to the operators avoid cutting holes in the car body for
top of the can. The "hot" lead of the coil enters fear of devaluation when selling the automobile.
the shield can through a modified audio connector. Such holes are easily filled, and few car dealers, if
any, lower the trade-in price because of the holes.
antistatic powder inside each tire. This substance The choice of base or center loading a mobile
is available at auto stores, and comes supplied with antenna has been a matter of controversy for many
an injector tool and instructions. years. In theory, the center-loaded whip presents a
slightly higher base impedance than does the
Corona-Discharge Noise base-loaded antenna. However, with proper imped-
Some mobile antennas are prone to corona ance-matching techniques employed there is no
build-up and discharge. Whip antennas which come discernible difference in performance between the
to a sharp point will sometimes create this kind of two methods. A base-loading coil requires fewer
noise. This is why most mobile whips have steel or turns of wire than one for center loading, and this
plastic balls at their tips. But, regardless of the is an electrical advantage because of reduced coil
structure of the mobile antenna, corona build-up
will frequently occur during or just before a severe
electrical storm. The symptoms are a high-pitched
"screaming" noise in the mobile receiver, which
comes in cycles of one or two minutes duration,
then changes pitch and dies down as it discharges
through the front end of the receiver. The
condition will repeat itself as soon as the antenna
system charges up again. There is no cure for this
condition, but it is described here to show that it is
not of origin within the electrical system of the
automobile.
Electronic Noise Limiters
Many commercially built mobile transceivers
have some type of built-in noise clipping or
cancelling circuit. Those which do not can be
modified to include such a circuit. The operator
has a choice of using af or rf limiting. Circuits of
this type are described in the theory section of the
hf receiving chapter.
Simple superregenerative receivers, by nature of
their operation, provide noise-limiting features, and
no additional circuit is needed. Fm receivers, if
operating properly, do not respond to noise pulses
of normal amplitUde; hence no additional circuitry
is required.

THE MOBI LE ANTENNA

The antenna is perhaps the most important
item in the successful operation of the mobile
installation_ Mobile antennas, whether designed for Fig. 10-7 - Here a mobile station is used as a
single or multiband use, should be securely portable/emergency station. As such, it can be
mounted to the automobile, as far from the engine connected to a full-size stationary antenna for
maximum effectiveness. The engine should be
compartment as possible (for reducing noise noise-sllppressed, and should be kept running
pickup), and should be carefully matched to the during operation of the station to assure full
coaxial feed line which connects them to the battery power. (WA3EQK operating.)
The Mobile Antenna 323
~ 'BralreltdpLug coated with liquid fiber glass, inside and out, to
make it weather proof. Brass insert plugs can be
installed in each end, their centers drilled and
-$~..o!!!!lirv--. tapped for a 3/8 X 24 thread to accommodate the
mobile antenna sections. After the coil winding is
Saki} pruned to resonance it should be coated with a
I~and high-quality, low-loss compound to hold the turns
lock washer securely in place, and to protect the coil from the
\ Phenolic taiJ·utiJ
weather. Liquid polystyrene is excellent for this. It
can be made by dissolving chips of solid
(A) %6 or ~" wafL polystyrene in carbon-tetrachloride. Caution: Do
thickness not breathe the chemical fumes, and do not allow
14' dtzWt. hole ~.~
.$
..~
.0 - -
Pluq fiJ make sn.t.Lg
fit in Wing
the liquid to come in contact with the skin. Carbon
tetrachloride is hazardous to health. Dissolve
sufficient polystyrene material in the liquid to
make the remaining product the consistency of
Q-dope or pancake syrup. Details for making a
btseetplug home-built loading coil are given in Fig. 10-8.

Impedance Matching
Fig. 10-9 illustrates the shunt-feed method of
obtaining a match between the antenna and the
coaxial feed line. For operation on 75 meters with
a center-loaded whip, L2 will have approximately
(8) 18 turns of No. 14 wire, spaced one wire thickness
between turns, and wound on a I-inch diameter
form. Initially, the tap will be approximately 5
turns above the ground end of L2. Coil L2 can be
inside the car body, at the base of the antenna,
Fig. 10-8 - Details for making a home-built mobile
loading coil. A breakdown view of the assembly is or it can be located at the base of the whip, outside
given at A. Brass end plugs are snug-fit into the the car body. The latter method is preferred. Since
ends of the phenolic tubing, and each is held in L2 helps determine the resonance of the overall
place by four 6-32 brass screws. Center holes in the antenna, Ll should be tuned to resonance in the
plugs are drilled and tapped for 3/8-24 thread. The desired part of the band with L2 in the circuit. The
tubing can be any diameter from one to four
inches. The larger diameters are recommended.
Illustration B shows the completed coil. Resonance
can be obtained by installing the coil, applying
transmitter power, then pruning the turns until the Fielti-strenf/th
lowest SWR is obtained. Pruning the coil for Adjustable meau; several
fiJp section feet away
maximum field-strength-meter indication will also from mobile
serve as a resonance indication. The chart in Fig. -SetScrew aI£t.
1()'10 will serve as a guide in determining the
number of turns required for a given frequency of
operation.

losses. A base-loaded antenna is more stable from Load0-9

L1 eoi/
the standpoint of wind loading and sway. If a
homemade antenna system is contemplated, either
system will provide good results, but the
base-loaded antenna may be preferred for its
mechanical advantages.

Loading Coils
There are many commercially built antenna
systems available for mobile operation, and some
manufacturers sell the coils as separate units.
Air-wound coils of large wire diameter are SHUNT FEED
excellent for use as loading inductors. Large
Miniductor coils can be installed on a solid Fig. 1()'9 - A mobile antenna using shunt-feed
phenolic rod and used as loading coils. Mini- matching. Overall antenna resonance is determined
ductors, because of their turns spacing, are easy to by the combination of L1 and L2. Antenna
adjust whe.n resonating the mobile antenna, and resonance is set by pruning the turns of L1, or
provide excellent circuit Q. Phenolic-impregnated adjusting the top section of the whip, while
paper or fabric tubing of large diameter is suitable observing the field-strength meter or SWR indica-
for making homemade loading coils. It should be tor. Then, adjust the tap on L2 for lowest SWR.
324 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY

Approximate Values for 8-foot Mobile Whip

Base Loading
Loading Rc(Q50) RC(Q300) RR Feed R* Matching
[kHz LpH Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms LpH*
1800 345 77 13 0.1 23 3
3800 77 37 6.1 0.35 16 1.2
7200 20 18 3 1.35 15 0.6
14,200 4.5 7.7 1.3 5.7 12 0.28
21,250 1.25 3.4 0.5 14.8 16 0.28
29,000 36 0.23

Center Loading
1800 700 158 23 0.2 34 3.7
3800 150 72 12 0.8 22 1.4
7200 40 36 6 3 19 0.7
14,200 8.6 15 2.5 11 19 0.35
21,250 2.5 6.6 1.1 27 29 0.29
Rc = Loading-<!oil resistance; RR = Radiation resistance.
* Assuming loading coil Q = 300, and including estimated ground-
loss resistance.
Sug~ested coil dimensions for the required loading inductance are
shown m a following table.

Fig. 10-10 - Chart showing inductance values used as a starting point for
winding homemade loading coils. Values are based on an approximate
base-loaded whip capacitance of 25 pF, and a capacitance of 12 pF for
center-loaded whips. Large-diameter wire and coils, plus low-loss coil
forms, are recommended for best Q.

adjustable top section of the whip can be

telescoped until a maximum reading is noted on
TABLE 10-1 the field-strength meter. The tap is then adjusted
on L2 for the lowest reflected-power reading on
Suggested Loading-Coil Dimensions the SWR bridge. Repeat these two adjustments
Req'd Wire Dia Length until no further increase in field strength can be
LJ.IH TUrns Size In. In.
obtained; this point should coincide with the
lowest SWR. The number of turns needed for L2
700 190 22 3 10 will have to be determined experimentally for 40-
345 135 18 3 10 and 20-meter operation. There will be proportion-
ately fewer turns required.
150 100 16 21/2 10
77 75 14 21/2 10 MATCHING WITH AN L NETWORK
77 29 12 5 41/4 Any mobile antenna that has a feed-point
40 28 16 21/2 2 impedance less than the characteristic impedance
40 34 12 21/2 41/4 of the transmission line can be matched to the line
by means of a simple L network, as shown in Fig.
20 17 16 21/2 11/4 10-11. The network is composed of CM and L M .
20 22 12 21/2 23/4 The required values of CM and LM may be
8.6 16 14 2 2 determined from the following:
8.6 15 12 21/2 3
C - 'Y RA(Ro-RpJ X 109
4.5 10 14 2 1 1/4 M - 2rr[kHz RARO pF and
4.5 12 12 21/2 4
2.5 8 12 2 2 L =Y RA fRo -RAJ X 103 "u
2.5 8 6 23/8 41/2 M 21T[kHz tAu

1.25 6 12 13/4 2 where R A is the antenna feed-point impedance and

1.25 6 6. 23/8 41/2 Ro is the characteristic impedance of the
transmission line.
 Matching with an L Network
325
As an example, if the antenna impedance is 20
ohms and the line is 50-ohm coaxial cable, then at
4000 kHz,
C = r 20 (50 - 20) X 10 9
M (6.28) (4000) (20) (50)
= r 600 X 10 4
(6.28) (4) (2) (5)
= 24.1 X 10 4 = 974 pF
251.2
L = r 20 (50 - 20) X 10 3
M (6.28) (4000)
= r25.12
600 = 24.5 =0 97 ,(LH
25.12 .
The chart of Fig. 10-12 shows the capacitive
reactance of CM, and the inductive reactance of
LM necessary to match various antenna impe-
dances to 50-ohm coaxial cable.
In practice, LM need not be a separate
inductor. Its effect can be duplicated by adding an
equivalent amount of inductance to the loading Fig. 10-11 - A whip antenna may also be matched
coil, regardless of whether the loading coil is at the to coax line by means of an L network. The
base or at the center of the antenna. inductive reactance of the L network can be
c.ombined in the loading coil, as indicated at the
Adjustment nght.
In adjusting this system, at least part of CM
should be variable, the balance being made up of and another check made with the SWR bridge. If
combinations of fixed mica capacitors in parallel as the SWR is less than it was on the first trial, CM
needed. should be readjusted in the same direction until the
A small one-turn loop should be connected point of minimum SWR is found. Then the
between CM and the chassis of the car, and the coupling between the line and the transmitter can
loading coil should then be adjusted for resonance be adjusted for proper loading. It will be noticed
at the desired frequency as indicated by a GDO from Fig. 10-12 that the inductive reactance varies
coupled to the loop at the base. Then the only slightly over the range of antenna resistances
transmission line should be connected, and a check likely to be encountered in mobile work.
made with an SWR bridge connected at the Therefore, most of the necessary adjustment is in
transmitter end of the line. the capacitor.
With the line disconnected from the antenna The one-turn loop at the base should be
again, CM should be readjusted and the antenna removed at the conclusion of the adjustment and
returned to resonance by readjustment of the slight compensation made at the loading coil to
loading coil. The line should be connected again, maintain resonance.

,
6

1 ./ V
2 V
Fig. 10-12 - Curves showing 30 L
V
inductive and capacitive react-
ances required to match a 50-ohm
VI
~ 28
/
coax line to a variety of antenna
resistances.
0
.!, 26 V
U

...~2 •
XL /xc
VI
(ii2 2 'L
'"a: 20
0
lL
<I
g 18 /
, L
I V
t.
2
I
L V
~o 24
i/28 32 5540 .... 4. ~2 &6 60 ' .... 727810
REACTANCE -OHMS
326 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY
"step-tapered" design is best. A typical step-taper-
ing technique for a variable-pitch helical whip
.lieal Whip -Helical Whip
antenna is to divide the total length of the radiator,
say 4 feet, into 6 equal parts of 8 inches each. The
helix is then wound with a 2-inch pitch for the first
8 inches, pitches of 1, 1/2, 1/4 and 1/8 inch,
respectively, for the next four 8-inch sections, and
finished with close winding of the final section.
Co, Body The resonant frequency will depend upon the rod
----i".,..'-.:-/"d,-;O c""pling loop diameter, wire size and number of turns. However,
-between cent., condo
and gnd.(coox removed} the variable-pitch 6-step taper approaches the ideal

~';dd;P
continuously-variable condition closely enough to
give a good 50-ohm match with a 4-foot antenna at
lijM.t., frequencies between 20 and 30 MHz.

Adjustment
A B With this design it is difficult to adjust the
resonant frequency by changing the turns near
Fig. 10-13 - The resonant frequency of the
antenna can be checked (A) with a grid-dip meter the base; however, the frequency may be adjusted
or (8) by finding the frequency at which minimum very readily by cutting off sections of the
feed-line SWR occurs. The latter method is more tightly-wound portion near the top of the whip.
accurate at high frequencies because it eliminates The technique to follow is to design for a
the effect of the coupling loop required in A. frequency slightly lower than desired and then to
bring the unit in on frequency by cutting small
sections off the top until it resonates at the desired
CONTINUOUSL V-LOADED frequency. Resonance can be checked either by the
HELICAL WHIPS use of a. grid-dip meter or by the use of a
A continuously-loaded whip antenna of the transmitter and SWR bridge. Reflected power as
type shown in Fig. 10-14 is thought to be more low as 2 to 5 percent can easily be obtained with
efficient than a center- or base-loaded system the units properly resonated even though it may
(QST, May 1958, W9KNK). The feed-point mean cutting an inch or two off the top
impedance of the helically-wound whip is some- closely wound section to bring the unit in on
what greater than the previously described mobile frequency. These values can be obtained in the 10-
antennas, and is on the order of 20 ohms, thus and IS-meter band with overall lengths of 4 feet
providing an SWR of only 2.5 when 50-ohm and in the 20- and 40-meter bands with a length of
coaxial feed line is used. The voltage and current 6 feet. In the 75-meter band it has been possible to
distribution is more uniform than that of obtain an SWR of 1.5 using a 6-foot tapered-pitch
lumped-constant antennas. The low SWR and this helical winding, although the bandwidth is
feature make the antenna more efficient than the restricted to about 60 kHz. This affords operation
center- or base-loaded types. Antennas of this comparable to the center coil loaded 12-foot
variety can be wound on a fiber glass fishing rod, whips. In general, the longer the radiator (in
then weatherproofed by coating them with liquid wavelengths), the greater the bandwidth. By
fiber glass, or by encapsulating them with arbitrarily restricting the physical length to 6 feet,
shrinkable vinyl-plastic tUbing. or less, we obtain the following results:

Tapered Pitch Resonant Bandwidth for

Band Length Freq. SWR SWR = 2.0
On frequencies below 28 MHz the radiation
resistance falls off so rapidly that for the desired 4- 10 meters 4 feet 29.00 MHz 1.3 800 kHz
and 6-foot whip lengths the resistance values are 15 meters 4 feet 21.30 MHz 1.4 500 kHz
not suitable for direct operation with 50-ohm lines. 20 meters 6 feet 14.25 MHz 1.3 250 kHz
It is desirable to raise the feed-point R to a value, 40 meters 6 feet 7.25 MHz 1.5 100 kHz
approaching 50 ohms so that a matched line 75 meters 6 feet 3.90 MHz 1.5 60 kHz
condition will exist. Based on extensive experimen- In the 15-, 20- and 40-meter bands the
tation, a tapered-pitch continuous-loading antenna bandwidths of the taper-pitch designs are good
is recommended. Since it is not feasible to wind enough to cover the entire phone portions of the
the helix with continuously varying pitch, a bands. The bandwidths have been arbitrarily

~375 DIA. FIBERGLASS WHIP ROD PLASTIC OVERCOATING

~h ZZZZ3f1ZZZfz% 1171!1/ 3~
r24~ 6"
~ s"
~ lOY.' IIYz"
Fig. 10-14 - Dimensions
o.275DIA./ for a 15-meter stepped-
i'cPITCH- Yi'PITCH- ;t.!" PITCH-+.....,o-::-:~:..,,---h--S....;O:.:.L:.:ID'---- pitch whip, wound with
No. 20 enameled wire.
Remote Antenna Resonating 327

Fig. 10-16 - A capac-

No. TO Ol" itance "hat" can be
/.afqez- used to improve the
wlfe performance of base- or
center-loaded whips. A
solid metal disk can be
used in place of the
skeleton disk shown
here.

loading coil removed from a surplus ARC-S

Fig. 10-15 - K1 MET prunes a capacity hat for transmitter. A standard coil and motor may be
antenna resonance at the low end of the 160-meter used in either installation at increased expense.
band. The Webster Big-K antenna is first tuned for The control circuit shown in Fig. 10-17A is a
the high segment of the band. The capacity hat is three-wire system (the car frame is the fourth
clipped on when operation on the "low end" is conductor) with a double-pole double-throw
desired. Fine adjustments can be made by switch and a momentary (normally off) single-pole
increasing or decreasing the spacing between the single-throw switch. S2 is the motor reversing
two No.1 0 wires. switch. The motor runs so long as S 1 is closed.
The circuit shown in Fig. 10-17B uses a latching
selected as that frequency spread at which the relay, in conjunction with microswitches, to
SWR becomes 2 on a 50-ohm line, although with reverse automatically the motor when the roller
most equipment SWR values up to 2.5 can be reaches the end of the coil. S3 and SS operate the
tolerated and loading accomplished with ease. relay, K1, which reverses the motor. S4 is the
Top-Loading Capacitance
Because the coil resistance varies with the
inductance of the loading coil, the resistance can
be reduced, beneficially, by reducing the number
of turns on the coil. This can be done by adding
capacitance to that portion of the mobile antenna
that is above the loading coil. To achieve
resonance, the inductance of the coil is reduced
proportionally. Capacity "hats," as they are often
called, can consist of a single stiff wire, two wires
or more, or a disk made up from several wires, like
the spokes of a wheel. A solid metal disk can also
be used. The larger the capacity hat, in terms of
mass, the greater the capacitance. The greater the
capacitance, the smaller the amount of inductance
needed in the loading coil for a given resonant
frequency.
There are two schools of tfiought concerning
the attributes of center-loading and base-loading. It
has not been established that one system is
superior to the other, especially in the lower part
of the hf spectrum. For this reason both the base-
and center-loading schemes are popular. Capacity-
hat loading is applicable to either system. Since
more inductance is required for center-loaded
whips to make them resonant at a given frequency,
capacity hats should be particularly useful in Fig. 10-17 - Circuit of the remote mobile-whip
improving their efficiency. tuning systems.
K1 - Dpdt latching relay.
REMOTE ANTENNA RESONATING 51, 53, 54, 55 - Momentary-contact spst,
normally open.
Fig. 10-17 shows circuits of two remote-control 52 - Dpdt toggle.
resonating systems for mobile antennas. As shown, 56, 57 - 5pst momentary-{;ontact microswitch,
they make use of surplus dc motors driving a normally open.
 328 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY
motor on-off switch. When the tuning coil roller control, S1 is used to start and stop the motor, and
reaches one end or the other of the coil, it closes S2, set at the "up" or "down" position, will
S6 or S7, as the case may be, operating the relay determine whether the resonant frequency is raised
and reversing the motor. or lowered. In the circuit shown in Fig. 10-17B, S4
The procedure in setting up the system is to is used to control the motor. S3 or S5 is
prune the center-loading coil to resonate the momentarily closed (to activate the latching relay)
antenna on the highest frequency used without the for raising or lowering the resonant frequency. The
base-loading coil. Then, the base-loading coil is broadcast antenna is used with a wavemeter to
used to resonate at the lower frequencies. When indicate resonance. (Originally described in QST,
the circuit shown in Fig. 10-17 A is used for December 1953.)

VHF MOBILE ANTENNAS

The three most popular vhf mobile antennas are

the so-<:alled halo, the turnstile, and the 1/4-wave-
length vertical. The same rules apply to the
installation and use of these antennas as for
antennas operated in the hf bands - mounted as
high and in the clear as possible, and with good
electrical connections throughout the system.
The polarization chosen - vertical or horizontal
- will depend upon the application and the area of
the USA where operation will take place. It is best
to use whatever polarity is in vogue for your
region, thus making the mobile signal compatible
with those of other mobiles or fixed stations.
Vertically-polarized mobile antennas are more
subject to pattern disturbance than horizontal
types. That is to say, considerably more flutter will
be inherent on the signal than with horizontal
antennas. This is because such objects as trees and
power poles, because of their vertical profIle, tend
to present a greater path obstacle to the vertical
antenna. It is becoming common practice,
however, to use omnidirectional, vertically-
polarized vhf mobile antennas in connection with (B)
fm/repeater mobile service, even in areas where
horizontal antennas are favored.
Both the turnstile and halo antennas are
horizontally polarized. The halo is physically small, Fig. 10-19 - Schematic representation of the Big
Wheel at B. Three one-wavelength elements are
connected in paraliel. The reSUlting low feed
impedance is raised to 52 ohms with an inductive
stub. Illustration A shows the bend details of one
element for 144-MHz use.

but is less effective than a turnstile. It is a

half-wavelength dipole bent into a circle, and
because the ends are in close proximity to one
another, some signal cancellation occurs. This
renders the antenna less efficient than a straight
c~nter-fed dipole. Halos do not offer a perfectly
clIcular radiation pattern, though this has been a
popular belief. Tests indicate that there is definite
directivity, though broad, when a halo is rotated
360 degrees over a uniform plane surface.
Turnstile antennas of the type shown in Fig.
10-20 more closely approach the desired circular
pattern of radiation, though the pattern is
somewhat like a poorly defined four-leaf clover.
~ere two dipoles are fed with a 90-degree phase
Fig. 10-18 - The Big Wheel, an omnidirectional difference, and the antenna has a gain equal to, or
horizontal antenna for the 144-MHz band designed better than a straight dipole. Of the three types
by W1 FVY and W1IJD. Radiating elements occupy discussed in the foregoing text, the latter is
an area approximately 40 inches in diameter. recommended.
Vhf Mobile Antennas 329

Fig. 1 - The new coil is tapped two turns from the

base end. It may be necessary to file the coil ends
so that the assembly will fit in the phenolic
covering.

antenna shown in Figs. 1 and 2 is a S/8-wavelength

2-meter whip. '
-r:here are a number of different types of CB
mobile antennas available. This particular antenna
Fig. 10-20 - Two-meter turnstile antenna shown to be modified consists of a clamp-on trunk
mounted on the front of an automobile. The mount, a base loading coil, and a 39-inch spring-
miniature coax cable which feeds the antenna is mounted, stainless-steel whip.
taped to its 1/4-inch diameter steel supporting rod.
The ends of the arltenna elements should be The modification consists of removing the
flattened, or rounded, to make them safer in the loadin~-coil inductance, winding a new coil, and
event of accidental contact with the human body. mountmg a 3-30 pF trimmer in the bottom
housing. The capacitor is used for obtaining a
precise match in conjunction with the base coil
If one does not object to having an antenna
tap.
that is likely to become a conversation piece The first step is to remove the weatherproof
because of its size and shape, it would be well to phenolic covering from the coil. Remove the base
consider using the "Big Wheel" antenna, designed housing and clamp the whip side of the antenna in
by WIFVY and WlIJD (September and October a vise. Insert a knife blade between the edge of the
QST, 1961, and ARRL Radio Amateur's VHF whip base and the phenolic covering. Gently tap
Manual). The "wheel" consists of three one-wave- the knife edge with a hammer to force the housing
length elements, Fig. 10-19, connected in parallel
away from the whip section.
and arranged as a cloverleaf. The antenna has a low Next, remove the coil turns and wind a new coil
feed-point impedance which is raised to SO ohms using No. 12 wire. The new coil should have nine
by means of an inductive stub. Each clover leaf is turns, equally spaced. The tap point is two turns
80 inches long overall (144 MHz), and can be made up from the base (ground) end on the antenna as
from aluminum tubing. Though the radiation
pattern is not perfectly circular, it offers a good
approach to that goal. Its performance greatly

1
surpasses that of the three previously described
antennas. It showed an increase in signal strength,
from ·a selected test site, of several dB over the
vertical whip, the halo, and the turnstile.
Polarization is horizontal, as was the fixed-station
antenna used in the tests.

TWO-METER 5/8-WAVELENGTH
VERTICAL
Probably the most popular antenna used by the
fm group is the S/8-wavelength vertical. As stated
previously, this antenna has some gain when 50-OHM
COAX
compared to a dipole. The antenna can be used in TO RIG
either a fixed location with radials or in a mobile
installation. An inexpensive antenna of this type Fig. 2 - Circuit diagram of the whip antenna. C1 is
can be made from a modified CB whip. The a 3- to 30-pF trimmer.
330 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY
assure uniform omnidirectional radiation. This
suggests that the center of the automobile roof is
the best place to mount it. Alternatively, the flat
Halo portion of the auto's rear trunk deck can be used,

~~ta:===~.'T
but will result in a directional pattern because of
Adiu. tahle car-body obstruction. Fig. 10-23 illustrates at A
.«:.oIP"iirl~:4a:J:.(J1o.mp and B how a Millen high-voltage connector can be
b - (jaHtHta I1U1.tdt used as a roof mount for a 144-MHz whip. The
(fIa'dia. Rod) hole in the roof can be made over the dome light,
Plteno!jc .£: k thus providing accessability through the uphols-
P/artic. owC
tery. RG-59/U and matching section L, Fig.
V-Bolts 10-23C, can be routed between the car roof and
1"-dia. Mast the ceiling upholstery and brought into the trunk
compartment, or down to the dashboard of the
To Tr:ans.
(A) car. Some operators install an SO-239-type coax
connector on the roof for mounting the whip. The
method is similar to that of drawing A.

VHF HALO ANTENNAS

The antenna of Fig. 10-22 can be built from
aluminum tubing of medium tensile strength. The
TYPICAL DIMENSIONS one-half-wavelength dipole is bent into a circle and
50 MHz. 144 MHz. fed with a gamma match. Capacitor c is shown as a
fA, = 105'/2" 38" fixed value, but a variable capacitor mounted in a
b = 18" 6" weatherproof box will afford more precise
C = 50pF
d = 3'12"
2SpF
1'/2"
(8')
e = 2'12" /3,14"

Fig. 10-22 - Details for building a halo antenna for

6- or 2-meter use are shown at A. Other mechanical
methods are possible, and the construction
technique used will be up to the builder. The open
end of the coax cable should be sealed against the
weather. At B, a schematic representation of the
r 19"
:fJT
(A) (B)

1
halo. Dimension a is set for 1/2 wavelength at the
operati ng frequency. The chart gives approximate
dimensions in inches, and will serve as a guide in a JaHtff1tfk"
building a halo. T T Col1l1eCtoc
~ RulJhecGasket

modified. The trimmer capacitor is mounted on a &f

terminal strip which is installed in the base
housing. A hole must be drilled in the housing to
allow access to the capacitor adjustment screw.
Initially, the tap on the coil was tried at three
turns from the bottom. The antenna was mounted
on the car, an SWR indicator was inserted in the 1 L= ~ x .66 (FEET)
(D)
feed line, and Cl and the whip height were
adjusted for a match. A match was obtained, but
when the phenolic sleeve was placed over the coil,
j (C) c

/~
it was impossible to obtain an adjustment that L
proved a match. Apparently the dielectric material
used in the coil cover has an effect on the coil. a 7s-OhmCoax 50-Ohm Lint'
After some experimenting it was found that with (AIHf. /ensth) (Ami length)
the tap two turns up from the bottom, and with 70 Tt:aHS. 70 Trans.
the cover over the coil, it was possible to get a
good match with 50-ohm line. Fig. 10-23 - At A and B, an illustration of how a
This antenna can be used in a fixed location byquarter-wavelength vertical antenna can be mount-
adding radials. The radials, three or four, should be
ed on a car roof. The whip section should be
slightly longer than 1/4-wave and should be soldered into the cap portion of the Millen
attached to the base mounting section. connector, then screwed to the base socket. This
handy arrangement permits removing the antenna
THE QUARTER-WAVELENGTH VERTICAL when desired. Epoxy cement should be used at the
two mounting screws to prevent moisture from
Ideally, the vhf vertical antenna should be entering the car. Diagrams C and D are discussed in
installed over a perfectly flat plane reflector to the text.
 Mobile Power Su pplies
331
L2
50 MHz 144 MHz material is recommended if an insulator/stabilizer
C'-IOOpF 35pF is used.
C2-Z5pF 15pF
u- 2 T, MlJ6 2 T, NO,IS
If 75-ohm transmission line is used for the
ENAM.. EHAM., vertical, a quarter-wavelength matching trans-
2-I/Z-DtA. 1-II2·DIA.
L2-5T,Nl.IO 4T,No.IO former, L, can be used to match the feed
1-1/2- DIA. ,01 .cIA. impedance of the whip approximately 30 ohms
- to that of the feed line. A section of 50-ohm
coax inserted as shown provides a close match to
the antenna. Coax fittings can be used at junction a
Fig. 10-24 - Schematic diagram of the 6- or
2-meter antenna-matching circuit for use at the to assure a flat line, and to provide mechanical
base of the quarter-wavelength vertical antenna. It flexibility. BNC connectors are ideal for use with
can be housed in a Minibox and mounted small coax lines. Illustration D shows how a series
permanently at the antenna base, inside or outside capacitor can be used to tune the reactance out of
the car. If used outside, it should be sealed against the antenna when using 50-ohm feed line. For
dirt and moisture. 144-MHz use it should be 35 pF. A 75-pF variable
will suffice for 6-meter antennas. An SWR bridge
adjustment of the SWR. Or, a variable capacitor should be connected in the line while c is tuned for
can be used initially for obtaining a 1: 1 match, minimum reflected-power indication.
then its value can be measured at that setting to A more precise method of matching the line to
determine the required value for fixed capacitor c. the antenna is shown in Fig. 10-24. This antenna
Fixed-value capacitor c should be a dipped silver coupler can match 50- or 75-ohm lines to any
mica. A 75-pF variable should be used for 6-meter antenna impedance from 20 ohms to several
antennas, and a 35-pF variable will suffice for 144 hundred ohms. It should be installed at the base of
MHz. the vertical, and with an SWR bridge in the line Cl
The tubing of a can be flattened to provide a and C2 should be adjusted for the lowest SWR
suitable mounting surface for attachment to the possible. The tap near the ground end of L2 should
insulating block of Fig. 10-22A. Gamma rod b can then be adjusted for the lowest SWR, readjusting
be secured to the same block by flattening its end Cl and C2 for minimum reflected power each time
and bolting it in place with 440 brass hardware. the tap is moved. A very compact tuner can be
The spacing at d can be varied during final built by scaling down the coil dimensions
adjustment to secure the lowest SWR. Better appropriately. Trimmer capacitors can be used for
physical stability will result if a high-dielectric Cl and C2 if power levels of less than 50 watts are
insulator is connected across area d. Steatite used.

MOBILE POWER SUPPLIES

Most modern-day mobile installations utilize winding. One winding serves for the driving motor,
commercially-built equipment. This usually takes while the output voltage is taken from the other.
the form of a transceiver for ssb on the hf bands, Dynamotors usually are operated from 6-, 12-,28-
and ssb or a-m for vhf operation. For fm operation or 32-volt storage batteries and deliver from 300 to
in the vhf bands, most transceivers are surplus units 1000 volts or more at various current ratings.
which were originally used by commercial Commutator noise is a common cause of poor
land-mobile services. Some home-built equipment reception when dynamotors are used. It can
is still being used, and it is highly recommended usually be cured by installing .002-MF mica bypass
that one consider building his own mobile capacitors from the dynamotor brushes (high-
installation for the technical experience and voltage end of armature) to the frame of the unit,
satisfaction such a project can afford. preferably inside the cover. The high-voltage
Many mobile transceivers contain their own output lead from the dynamotor should be fIltered
power supplies for 6- and 12-voIt dc operation. by placing a .01-MF capacitor in shunt with the line
Some internal power supplies will also work off the (a 1000-V disk), followed by a 2.5-mH rf choke (in
117-V mains. Vibrator power supplies are quite series with the line) of adequate current rating for
popular for low and medium power levels, but the transmitter or receiver being powered by the
solid-state supplies are more reliable and efficient. dynamotor. This network should be followed by a
Dynamotors are still used by some operators, but smoothing fIlter consisting of two 8-MF electrolytic
are bulky, noisy, and inefficient. The latter capacitors and a 15- or 3D-H choke having a low dc
imposes an extremely heavy drain on the car resistance. The commutator and its grooves, at
battery, and does not contribute to long-term both ends of the armature, should be kept clean to
mobile or emergency operation without having the further minimize noise. Heavy, direct leads should
engine running at fairly high rpm to maintain the be used for connecting the dynamotor to the
charge level of the battery. storage battery.

Dynamotors Vibrator Power Supplies

A dynamotor differs from a motor generator in The vibrator type of power supply consists of a
that it is a single unit having a double armature special step-up transformer combined with a
332 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY
CRI
positive output terminal when ~e . relative
polarities of primary and sec~ndary wmdmgs are
+HVOC
correct. The proper connections may be deter-
OUTPUT mined by experiment.
t----oO- The buffer capacitor, C2, acroSs the secondary
of T, absorbs spikes that occur on breaking the
current, when the magnetic field collapses almost
instantly and hence causes high voltages to .be
(A)
induced in the secondary. Without C2 excessive
sparking occurs at the vibrator contacts, shortening
["rh the vibrator life. Resistor Rl is part of the buffer
- +
6ORI2V
DC INPUT
and serves as a fuse if C2 should short out, thus
protecting the vibrator and transformer from
RI
damage. Values between 1000 and 5600 ohms, 1
watt, are commonly used. Correct values for C2 lie
+ HV
between .005 and .03 J.LF, and for 220-350-V
DC
OUTPUT
supplies the capacitor should be rated at 2000 V or
+---0- better, dc. The exact capacitance is critical, and
should be determined experimentally while observ-
ing the output waveform on an oscilloscope for the
least noise output. Alternatively, though not as
(B) effective a method, the capacitor can be selected
for least sparking at the vibrator contacts.
6ORI2V
OC INPuT
Vibrator-transformer units are available in a
variety of power and voltage ratings. Representa-
Fig. 10-25 - Basic types of vibrator power tive units vary from one delivering 125 to 200 volts
supplies. A - Nonsynchronous. B - Synchronous. at 100 rnA to others that have a 400-volt output
rating at 150 rnA. Most units come supplied with
"hash" fIlters, but not all of them have built-in
vibrating interrupter (vibrator). When the unit is ripple filters. The requirements for ripple fIlters are
connected to a storage battery, plate power is similar to those for ac supplies. The usual
obtained by passing current from the battery efficiency of vibrator packs is in the vicinity of 70
through the primary of the transformer. The percent, so a 300-volt 200-mA unit will draw
circuit is made and reversed rapidly by the vibrator approximately 15 amperes from a 6-volt storage
contacts, interrupting the current at regular battery. Special vibrator transformers are also
intervals to give a changing magnetic field which available from transformer manufacturers so that
induces a voltage in the secondary. The resulting the amateur may build his own supply if he so
square-wave dc pulses in the primary of the desires. These have dc output ratings varying from
transformer cause an alternating voltage to be 150 volts at 40 rnA to 330 volts at 135 rnA.
developed in the secondary. This high-voltage ac in
turn is rectified, either by silicon diode rectifiers or "Hash" Elimination
by an additional synchronized pair 'of vibrator
contacts. The rectified output is pulsating dc, Sparking at the vibrator contacts causes rf
which may be fIltered by ordinary means. The interference ("hash," which can be distinguished
smoothing fIlter can be a single-section affair, but from hum by its harsh, sharper pitch) when used
the output capacitance should be fairly large - 16 with a receiver. To minimize this, rf filters are
to 32 J.LF. incorporated, consisting of RFCI and Cl in the
Fig. 10-25 shows the two types of circuits. At battery circuit, and RFC2 with C3 in the dc output
A is shown the nonsynchronous type of vibrator. circuit.
When the battery is disconnected the reed is Equally as important as the hash filter is
midway between the two contacts, touching thorough shielding of the power supply and its
neither. On closing the battery circuit the magnet connecting leads, since even a small piece of wire
coil pulls the reed into contact with one contact or metal will radiate enough rf to cause
point, causing current to flow through the lower interference in a sensitive amateur receiver.
half of the transformer primary winding. Simulta-
neously, the magnet coil is short-circuited, TRANSISTORIZED POWER SUPPLIES
de-energizing it, and the reed swings back. Inertia Most present-day mobile equipment is powered
carries the reed into contact with the upper point, by solid-state dc-to-dc converters. They are
causing current to flow through the upper half of somewhat similar to vibrator supplies in that they
the transformer primary. The magnet coil again is use power transistors to switch the primary voltage
energized, and the cycle repeats itself. of the transformer. This technique eliminates
The synchronous circuit of Fig. 10-25B is sparking in the switching circuit, and offers greater
provided with an extra pair of contacts which reliability and efficiency. The switching transistors
rectifies the secondary output of the transformer, can be made to oscillate, by means of a feedback
thus eliminating the need for a separate rectifier winding on the transformer, and by application of
tube. The secondary center tap furnishes the forward bias on the bases of the switching
Mobile Power Supply for Transceivers 333
10 820
transistors. The switching rate can be set for any
frequency between 50 Hz and several thousand Hz
and depends to a great extent upon the
inductance of the transfonner windings. The
switching wavefonn is a square wave. Therefore,
the supply is capable of causing a buzzing sound in
transmitter or receiver output in much the same
fashion as with a vibrator supply. Rf filtering
should be employed as a corrective measure. At
higher switching rates the buzz becomes a whine
which sounds like that from a dynamotor.
High-frequency switching rates are preferred for
dc-to-dc converters because smaller transformer
cores can be used, and because less output filtering
is required. The efficiency of a well-designed
solid-state power suuply is on the order of 80
percent, an improvement over the usual 60 to 70
lev DC
percent of vibrator supplies, or the miserable 30 to
40 percent of dynamotors.
A typical transistorized supply is shown in Fig. Fig. 10-26 - Typical dc-to-dc converter. Ratings
for CR3-CR6, and the 100-J.LF filter capacitor can
10-26. The supply voltage is fed into the emitter be selected from data in the power-supply chapter.
circuit of Ql-Q2. A resistive divider is used to
obtain forward bias for the transistors through
base-feedback-winding 1. The primary switching the design of the feedback circuit, must be
takes place between the emitter and collector of sufficient to sustain oscillation under full-load
each transistor. Ql and Q2 are connected in conditions. During no-load conditions, the feed-
push-pull and conduct on alternate half cycles. As back voltage will reach its highest peak at the bases
each transistor is driven into conduction it of Ql and Q2. Therefore, the transistors must be
saturates, thus fonning a closed contact in that leg rated for whatever base-emitter reverse voltage that
of the circuit. The induced voltage is stepped up by occurs during the cutoff period. Since the
T, and high-voltage appears across winding 3. Zener transistors must be able to handle whatever peak
diodes CRl and CR2 protect Ql and Q2 from voltage occurs during the switching process, it is
voltage spikes. They should be rated at a voltage wise to stay on the safe side. Choose transistors
slightly lower than the Vce of the transistors. that have a Vceo rating of three or four times the
Diodes CR3 through CR6 fonn a bridge rectifier to supply voltage, keeping in mind that full) .;harged
provide dc output from winding 3. Some supplies automobile batteries can deliver as much as 14
operate at a switching rate of 2000 to 3000 Hz. It volts. Heat sinks should be used on Ql and Q2 to
is possible to operate such units without using prevent damage from excessive heating. The larger
output rectifiers, but good filtering is needed to the heat sink, the better. Under full-load
remove the ripple from the dc output. conditions the transistors should only be slightly
wann to the touch. If they are running hot, this
Transistor Selection will indicate inadequate heat sinking, too great a
The switching transistors should be able to secondary load, or too much feedback. Use only
handle the primary current of the transfonner. enough feedback to sustain oscillation under full
Since the feedback will diminish as the secondary loading, and to assure rapid starting under the same
load is increased, the beta of the transistors, plus conditions.

MOBILE POWER SUPPLY FOR TRANSCEIVERS

winding, as shown in Fig. 10-28. Assuming that Q2
Transceivers, such as the Heath SB-l02, and the
Drake TR4 require a separate power supply when conducts first, the base is driven negative by the
operated from l2-volts dc. Additionally, linear feedback winding (connections 6 and 7 on Tl).
amplifiers can be run from a separate dc supply toCRlS then conducts, thereby protecting the base
allow increased power operation from relatively of Q1. CR14 is back-biased to an open circuit
low-power transceivers. The unit described here, when Q2 is conducting. When Tl saturates
when operated from l2-volts dc, will deliver producing a square wave, the voltage at pins 6 and
approximately 900-voits dc at 300 rnA, 2S0-volts 7 of Tl reverses turning on Ql. When Q2 conducts,
current flows through the primary of T2 in one
dc at 200 rnA, negative ISO-volts dc at 40 rnA, and
an adjustable bias voltage from 10 to 150 volts ofdirection and as Ql conducts, current flows
dc. . through the primary of T2 in the other direction.
This reversal of current in the primary of T2
provides an alternating square-wave voltage which
The Circuit is stepped up by the secondary winding. Full-wave
A common-emitter configuration is used with rectification with current limiting is used with each
diodes to provide a return path for the feedback secondary winding.
 334 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY
The supply oscillates at about 1000 Hz and
audible noise is low. The main power to the supply
is applied through KIB. KIA can be connected in
parallel with the filament supply in the transceiver.
Hash filtering is provided by RFCI and its
associated bypass capacitors in the primary lead_
Transient suppression is assured by CR13, CR16
and CR17. Bleeder resistors are used on each
supply leg to provide a constant minimum load for
the circuit. The supply can be operated without
being connected to its load without fear of
damaging the diodes or transistors, although this is
not considered good practice. Input and output
connectors for interconnection to the battery and
the transceiver can be selected to meet the needs of
the particular installation.

Fig. 10-27 - The heat sinks are mounted on an Construction

aluminum panel. When installing a power supply of This circuit requires that the transistors be
this type, be sure to keep the heat sink fins in a insulated from the heat sink. Suitable insulators are
vertical position to provide best air circulation. All
of the filter capacitors are mounted in a row across included with the devices. Silicone grease should be
the front of the chassis. RFC1 is located next to used to help conduct the heat away from the
the transformer. Two sockets are mounted on the transistors.
chassis side wall to accept an interconnecting cable No attempt has been made to make the supply
from the transceiver. To the left of these sockets is small. It is built on a 12 X 6 X 3-inch chassis which
the bias voltage adjustment control, R3. This allows plenty of room for the heavy conductors.
model of the power supply was built by W8HS and The capacitors are mounted in a row along one side
assistance was given by W8DDO, W9IWJ (of Delco
Radio Corp.), and Jim Osborne (of Osborne
Transformer Co.).

Fig. 10-28 - Circuit diagram of the mobile power K1 - Spst contactor relay, 60-A, 12-volt de coil
supply. Polarized capacitors are electrolytic, others (Potter and Brumfield MB3D).
are paper or mica. Resistances are in ohms. 01, 02 - Delco 2N 1523 transistor (substitutions
Component designations not listed below are for not recommended). Delco insulator kits (No.
text reference.
7274633) are required. The heat sinks are
Delco part No. 7281366.
R3 - 100,000-ohm, 3-watt, linear-taper control.
CR1-CR13, incl. - 1000-PRV, 1.5-A silicon diode RFC1 - 20 turns, No. 10 enam. wire on a 1/4-inch
(Mallory MR 2.5 A or equiv." dowel.
CR14, CR15 - 5O-PRV, 3-A silicon diode (G.E. T1 - Feedback transformer, 1000-Hz (Osborne
A15F). 6784).
CR16, CR17 - 18-volt, 1-watt, Zener diode T2 - Hipersil transformer, 1000-Hz (Osborne
(Motorola 1 N47461. 21555).
 Dc- to- Ac Inverters 335
of the chassis. The heat sinks, shown in the Operation
photograph, are mounted on a 1/8-inch-thick
aluminum back plate. The power supply should be mounted as close
to the battery terminals as possible to minimize
The leads from the battery to the relay, and
voltage drop. If the supply is trunk mounted
from the relay to the transistors and T 1, should be
1/4-inch conductors should be used to connect it
No. 6 or No.8 conductors. All ground leads should
to the battery. A 30(}.voit tap is available on the
be connected to one point on the chassis. The
secondary of T2. If the transciever requires more
wiring !ay ou t is uncritical and no other special
precau tions are necessary. than 250 volts for proper operation, this tap can be
used.

DC-TO-AC INVERTERS

It is possible to convert the au tomotive battery

voltage from 12-volt dc to 117-volt ac, 60 Hz, by
using an inverter. The principle of operation is
substantially the same as for dc-to-dc converters,
but larger transformers are needed to handle the
lower switching rate. The primary circuit is the
same as for the dc converters, but the secondary
voltage is not rectified. Square-wave output is
obtained, though some commercial inverters are
aVailable with sine-wave output. The latter is
recommended for operating motor-driven equip-
ment. The square-wave types introduce some buzz
into the equipment they power, but a brute-force
line filter can be used to knock down some of the
harmonic energy from the square-wave output.
Inverters are useful for powering soldering irons,
light bulbs during portable/emergency operations, .. , ~'"

and to power small ac-operated transceivers. They

are commercially available at power levels up to
500 watts or more, but the larger the unit the
greater the demand on the car battery.
Fig. 10-29 - Top view of the dc-to-ac inverter. The
A HOME-MADE 175-WATT INVERTER transistors and their heat sink are at the right. Two
ac outlets are used, offering greater convenience
The unit shown here provides 60-Hz output, than would be possible with a single receptacle. A
square wave, and has taps for 110, 117 or neon lamp lights when the unit is operation.
125-volts. Because of the square-wave output,
some hash noise may appear in the output of wide, and 2 inches high. It was manufactured by
transmitters or receivers that are operated from the Delco Radio (part number 7281366). Any heat
supply. If so, some form of filtering may be sink of similar dimensions will work satisfactorily.
necessary at the output of the inverter'! Because the circuit is operated in a common-
collector configuration, the transistors need not be
Construction insulated from the heat sink, nor is it necessary to
The inverter is built on a homemade base which insulate the heat sink from the chassis. Silicone
measures 8 X 6 X 2 inches. A Bud CU-3009-A grease is used between the transistors and the heat
Minibox can be used as a chassis. Rubber feet are sink, and between the heat sink and the chassis.
attached to the bottom cover of the Minibox to This contributes to efficient heat transfer between
help prevent the assembly from scratching the the transistors and the thermal hardware.
automobile's finish if it is to be placed on the hood All leads carrying primary current should be of
or trunk. large circular-mil size in order to prevent a voltage
A large heat sink is used for cooling QI and Q2. drop in that part of the circuit. Parallel sections of
The unit shown here is 4 inches long, 3 inches ac zip cord are used in this model. They are used
1 A brute-force line filter is often helpful in between the input terminal block and the fuse
~~~~~ ~: a~~:bi!,f ~='m~~r:-:~f:~al~~~~s~! holder, between the fuse holder and the toggle
switch, and between the switch and the primary
(J. W. Miller Co., No. 7818). A homemade filter
might consist of two scramble-wound inductors leads of Tl. A dpst toggle switch is used at S I to
containinS 10 feet (each) of No. 12 enameled permit both sections to be used in parallel,
copper WIre. A coil would be Rlaced in each leg of
the ac output. Four 0.1-I,lF GOO-volt paper increasing the current-handling capacity.
capacitors would be needed. They would be Two ac outlets are located on the top-front of
connected between the ends of each coil and
ground. Such a filter could be built on the inverter the chassis so that more than one piece of
chassis, or contained in its own case, outboard
fashion. equipment can be plugged in at the same time.
336 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY
...L
SW.

~ +
sov. I1

J2
A.C·
OUTLET

~
OA' TBI
'---..,,---'>-<Y ON 1 + 12 VOLTS

~
c 2 - D.C.
4)04)
E B
eoTrOM
VIEW Ql,Q2

Fig. 10-30 - Schematic diagram of the inverter. 01, 02 - High-wattage power transistor. 2N278
Capacitance is in IlF. Polarized capacitors are used here. (2N678, 2N1146, 2N173 suitable.l
electrolytic. Resistance is in ohms. Sl - Dpdt toggle switch with sections in parallel.
Cl - l-IlF 600-volt capacitor (paper type only). Tl - Inverter transformer, 12 volts dc to 117 volts
DSl - Neon panel-lamp assembly with built-in ac (Triad TV-75Al.
droppi ng resistor. TBI - Two-terminal connector (Millen 37302
Jl, J2 - Standard female-type ac outlet socket. suitable).

Operation corders and record players will not function

In using the inverter, it is wise to have some satisfactorily from this inverter and should not be
kind of a load connected across the output of the used with it. Also, make certain that the
unit when it is turned on. Without a secondary equipment which is to be operated from the
load, voltage peaks can occur and cause the inverter does not draw more than 100 watts if
destruction of the switching transistors, Ql and continuous-duty operation is planned. The inverter
Q2. The best procedure is to attach the equipment should safely handle intermittent loads of up to
to the inverter's outlet receptacle, tum the 175 watts.
equipment on, then activate the inverter by turning For maximum efficiency, the inverter should be
it on with S 1. In turning the system off, this connected directly to the car-battery terminals by
process should be reversed - turning the inverter means of large-diameter conductors. The shorter
off rust, then the equipment. the conductor length, the less voltage drop there
Motor-operated equipment such as tape re- will be in the line.

n
1.8-30 MHz

LI

L2~JlM~+ 1N34.

'°1 0-100

~
L8a 3.5 MHz· 20JlH
7 MHz ·'OJIH
14 MHz- 3JlH
218 2B MHz- 2J1H

Fig. 10-32 - A band-switched field-strength meter

for tuning up the hf-band mobile antenna. It
should be assembled in a metal box. In use, it
Fig. 10-31 - A look at the underside of the chassis. should be placed several feet from the antenna
The resistors and capacitors are mounted between under test. Cl is tuned for a peak meter reading at
insulated terminal strips. Ac zip cord, paralleled, is the operating frequency. It can be detuned for
used for the heavy-duty primary wiring. varying the sensitivity.
A Portable Station for 3.5 and 7 MHz 337
A BAND-SWITCHING FIELD-STRENGTH
METER wound with 50 turns of No. 26 enamel wire. It is
tapped 10 turns from ground for 15- and lO-meter
The circuit of Fig. 10-32 can be used for tuning use, 18 turns from ground for 20 meters, and 36
the mobile antenna system to resonance. It covers turns above ground for 40 meters. The entire 50
a range from 1.8 to 30 MHz. A single toroidal turns are used for 80 and 160 meters. S2 adds a
inductor is used in the tuned circuit. The coil is 33D-pF capacitor for 160-meter operation. SI can
tapped to provide band switching by means of Sl. be a single wafer, single-pole, 5-position rotary
Cl is tuned for a peak meter reading at the switch of phenolic or ceramic insulation. S2 can be
transmitter's output frequency. The unit should be a spst slide switch. Cl is a Hammarlund HF-I00
housed in a metal utility box. A banana jack can be capacitor, or equivalent. (Amidon cores can be
used for attaching the short whip antenna. obtained from Amidon Associates, 12033 Otsego
An Amidon Associates E-core, No. T-68-2, is St., N. Hollywood, CA 91607.)

A PORTABLE STATION FOR 3.5 AND 7 MHz

The transmitter section of this solid-state
transceiver operates at 2-watts dc input to the PA
stage. A direct-conversion receiver permits recep-
tion of the two bands, and uses a dual-gate
MOSFET as the product detector. A built-in VFO
permits frequency coverage from 3.5 to 3.8 MHz,
and from 7 to 7.3 MHz. The VFO is the local
oscillator for the receiver (BFO), and functions as
the transmitter VFO when crystal-control opera-
tion is not desired. This QRP cw package should be
useful for fixed-station work as well as for portable
and emergency applications. It will operate from
11- to 14-volts dc, and requires less than 500 rnA
of current from the battery or ac-operated dc
supply. Fig. 10-33 - Front view of the cw transceiver. The
Though circuit-board construction is shown chassis and cabinet are homemade, and consist of
here, the older style chassis, socket, and point-to- two U-shaped pieces of thick aluminum stock. The
panel is painted dark green to permit the white
point hookup technique is acceptable. The main decal labels to stand out prominently.
consideration is that a neat layout be used, and
that signal leads be kept as short and direct as
possible (from August 1970 QS1). Audio preamplifier VI is an RCA kit module,
KC4000. In RCA's recommended hookup C12 of
The Receiver Section Fig. 10-34 is a 25-/lF unit. It was found that this
Referring to Fig. 10-34, the product detector is value, in combination with R7, set up a long time
an RCA 40673 MOSFET. The device has built-in constant. This introduced a troublesome delay in
transient suppressors to protect it from static- recovery time when switching from transmit to
charge damage, or from excessive levels of rf receive. The problem was cured by using a 1-/lF
voltage on its gates. Detector Ql provides good capacitor at C12. Those wishing to use bipolar
conversion gain, low-noise operation, and good transistors in place of V 1 can employ the circuit of
isolation between the input tuned circuit and the Fig. 10-35.
VFO. Audio ou tpu t stage V2 delivers 1 watt of
The rf gain control, Rl, is useful when strong output into an 8-ohm load when driven by a
local signals are present, preventing the receiver 4D-mV audio signa\. It operates constantly. During
from being overloaded. It can be omitted by those transmit it amplifies the sidetone monitor signal to
wishing to save a few coins. speaker volume. Strong signals will drive V2's
Input tuned circuit LlCl is quite selective, but current as high as 180 rnA, but the resting current
a double-tuned, bottom-coupled circuit could be is low - approximately 30 rnA. When high-
SUbstituted if more selectivity is desired. Output impedance phones are connected to 13 there is
from Q1 is fed to the cw ftlter through Tl. When little increase over the resting current, no matter
S7 is switched to SHARP a pronounced peak how loud the signal, because of the mismatch
response occurs at 800 Hz. In the remaining condition. The audio output will still be ample.
position the switch places a 5-/lF capacitor in This suggests the use of 200D-ohm phones when
parallel with C9 to broaden the response. The using a dry-cell pack if one wishes to prolong
capacitor :values for C8, C9 and Cll (Fig. 10-34) battery life.
are not standard. These Butterworth values can be An effort was made to match the receiver's
made by paralleling standard values which are performance to that of the transmitter. So, the
available, or C8 and Cll can be 0.47-/lF units, and audio amplifier portion of this unit is a bit
C9 can be a 0.1-/lF capacitor. There will be little marginal for that reason. Any cw signal that is 2
apparent difference in the performance if these /lV or greater in level will produce a readable beat
values are juggled. note during normal band conditions. In lab tests,
 Fig. 10-34 - Schematic diagram of the main
portion of the equipment. Assembly Zl is the VFO w
of Fig. 10-36. Part numbers in this diagram are w
0)
identical to some of those in Fig. 10-36, though no
similarity between the components necessarily
exists. Numbered parts in this diagram which are
not listed below are so numbered for circuit-board
identification and text discussion. Fixed-value
resistors are 1/2-watt carbon unless otherwise
noted. Fixed-value capacitors are mica or disk
ceramic unless otherwise indicated. Polarized
capacitors are electrolytic.
Cl, C28, C34 - 365-pF variable (J. W. Miller 2111
or similar).
C8, C9, Cll - See text for alternate values.
(Cornell-Dubilier DMF dipped polyester or
equivalent type.)
Cf - Feedback capacitor, silver mica (see
text).
CRl - 36-volt, 1-watt Zener (lOR 1 N4753 or
similar).
CR2 - 2-ampere, 50-volt silicon (lOR 20A05 or
equiv.).
Jl - Crystal socket.
J2, J3 - Open-circuit phone jack.
J4 - SO-239-type coax chassis connector.
J5 - RCA phono jack, single-hole mount. s:
J6 - Two-terminal connector (Amphenol 75PCl M otxI
audio connector used in this model). ".
1
L1, L6 - 7-pH toroidal inductor. 34 turns No. 24 r-
m
formvar-insulated Copper wire, single-Iayer-
wound on Amidon T-68-2 core. (Tap each coil 11°;
I
'" v.-<,.!....---~VVIrT-+-i. ) ."
four turns from ground end.)
I e, II L
~:~~ ~~H'~~~I~H7~________________~~______-,~~-.____~
C26J;.Ol
__________________ J _:::JTRANS I:!... o
L2, L3 - 88-mH telephone-type toroid inductor :xJ
(see QST Ham Ads for suppliers). Join either
pair of adjacent wires, and use remaining pair of : 1°' I - -O~~~T - - e2~' f~:? -1 -f
»
wires for circuit connection. I _J • 8, I to

-
L4 - 7-J1.H toroid inductor. 40 turns No. 26 ~ 10Q.!!. r-
formvar-insulated copper wire on Amidon tATE1§1OUIIC£.
.. ~
I

,
IU!! 6V

f-7---vl'. . ."
+1~\l1.l3 m
T-50-2 core. Tap 6 turns from B+ end.
L5 - 5 turns No. 26 insulated wire wound over L4
near tapped end. Use layer of insulating tape
between L4 and L5.
UTE 2
o
z
sue

.,
0

,
DA.UN (i?
[ • C
Q2
I

I
1000
l.Iel. I'm
~~ rh~
en
C24

e23
;:+; 01
I
I
•-J\ SPEAKER
0'

+1.2\1
m
s:
m
:D
L7 - 6 turns No. 24 insulated wire wound over
tapped end of L6. Use insulating tape between 03.Q4
I
-----
Jf J
G)
m
L6 and L7.
EOe
BOTTOM VIEW
B 11 82

~
E

••
Z
n
-<
 -
A Portable Station for 3.5 and 7 MHz
339
without. atmospheric noise and QRM present, a present at 14, or when the SWR is high. Either
O.3-tLV Signal was perfectly discernible while using condition could easily destroy Q3.
the speaker. Meter Ml monitors the collector current of Q3,
Transmitter and reads the supply voltage when S4 is switched
The input to Q2 is switched to allow VFO or to VOLTAGE. A 0- to I-rnA Simpson meter is used
crystal operation. Capacitor Cf is in the feedback in this unit, but otlier brands can also be
circuit, and should be chosen experimentally for employed. The Simpson meter requires a O.l-ohm
best results. In the author's circuit a value of 220 s~unt to give a full-scale current of 400 rnA (a
pF worked best, but the builder should try times 400 factor). A 20,000-ohm series resistor
different values (between 100 and 1000 pF) to R29, provides a full-scale reading of 20 volts (~
obtain the best cw note, and to prevent Q3 from times 20 factor). If other meters are used at Ml,
being driven too hard when crystals are used. Q3 R28 must be selected to give a 400-mA full-scale
should not draw more than 200 rnA at reading in accordance witli tlie meter's internal
collector-current dip. Off-resonance current should resistance. Rl here is 28-inch length of No. 26
not be allowed to exceed 250 rnA. VFO operation enameled wire, wound on the body of a
results in slightly lower drive, so no problem 100,000-ohm, I-watt resistor. The pigtails are used
should exist in that mode. Cf may not be needed if as anchor points for the winding.
a low-beta transistor is used at Q2. Always remove Antenna jacks 14 and J5 are in parallel. One is
the crystal from JJ during VFO operation. an SO-239-type coax fitting. The other is a phono
Tuned collector circuit L4-C28 covers both jack. The two types permit greater flexibility when
bands. C28 is set near maximum capacitance at 3.5 making connections to accessory equipment. A
MHz, and is adjusted for near-minimum plate polarity-guarding diode, CR2, prevents damage to
meshing at 7 MHz. Transistor switch Q4 turns the tlie semiconductors should the operator mistakenly
collector supply of Q2 on and off when its base is cross-connect the supply leads. Only positive
keyed at 12. The unijunction side tone oscillator, voltage will flow through CR2.
Q5, is also keyed by Q4, and its output is routed at The transmitter is protected from vhf and
low level to U2 for amplification to loudspeaker low-frequency instability. Ferrite beads are used as
volume. The pitch of the monitor signal is 1000 vhf chokes at Q2 and Q3 to tame tlie stages. Also,
Hz. the dc leads are bypassed and filtered to prevent
The PA stage, Q3, operates Class C. It uses a low-frequency oscillations. 2
toroidal tank inductor, as does Ql and Q2.1
Resonance on 80 meters occurs when C34 is TheVFO
almost fully meshed. For operation on 40 meters, This section of the transceiver was described in
L8, another toroid coil, is shunted across L6 to depth in June 1970 QST. Only tlie basic
lower the inductance. The normal40-meter setting information relating to it is given here. The circuit
for C34 is with its plate about 1/3 meshed. A is given in Fig. 10-36. and shows two separate
36'-volt, I-watt Zener diode, CR I, prevents tuned circuits - one for 3.5 to 3.8 MHz, and one
excessive collector rf voltage if the operator for 7 to 7.2 MHz. Component numbering used here
mistakenly keys the transmitter when no load is relates only to the VFO assembly and should not
1 Toroid cores and ferrite beads are available 2 DeMaw "Some Tips on Solid-State VFO
from Amidon Associates, 12033 Otsego Street, N. Design," QST, May 1970.
Hollywood, CA 91607.
 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY
340
ground at Q2, as measured with a Tektronix Model
R453 oscilloscope.
The collector of Q2 is bypassed for high and
low frequencies to assure stability. A 100-ohm
collector resistor, R6, decouples the stages at rf.
CII is a feed through capacitor that mounts on the
wall of the VFO enclosure, and is a further aid to
overall circuit stability. It helps to keep unwanted
rf from entering the VFO box along the 12-volt
line.
Output is taken from the emitter of Q2 through
a small-value capacitor, ClO. The larger the
capacitance, the greater will be the available output
voltage across a given load, but the smaller the
capacitance value used, the better will be the VFO
isolation from the succeeding circuit. One should
use only the amount of capacitance that will
provide adequate peak output voltage. Typical
peak-to-peak voltages across some known loads are
. given on the schematic diagram. These readings
were obtained with the 47-pF capacitor, ClO,
shown in Fig. 10-36. The load that Q2100ks into is
approximately 500 ohms, the base input impe-
dance of the keyed Class A amplifier stage.
Resistor R5 is mounted close to the base terminal
of Q2, and serves as a vhf parasitic suppressor.

Assembling the VFO

In the interest of mechanical stability this VFO
has most of its components mounted on a circuit
board. There is no reason why the builder cannot
Inside view of the assembled transceiver (below). use point-to-point wiring ifhe does not wish to use
The VFO is housed in the large box at the upper a circuit board, but the method shown here is
center. Directly below the VFO (edge mounted) is preferred.
the transmitter board. The audio preamp. and
side-tone oscillator boards are flush-mounted The circuit board measures 3 1/4 X 4 inches. 3
below the transmitter module. The main receiver The homemade aluminum box uses 1/16-inch-thick
board (with filter) is visible at the lower edge of stock to assure rigidity. The box is 3 inches high,
the chassis. The audio output board is mounted 3 3/8 inches wide, and is 4 1/8 inches deep. A
flush against the rear wall (left) of the chassis. U-shaped top cover is attached by means of six
sheet-metal screws. The bottom of the VFO is
be confused with similar numbers assigned to the enclosed by the chassis bracket upon which it is
components when in the main portion of the mounted. There are seven No. 6 spade bolts
transceiver. The VFO is shown as ZI in Fig. 10-34. attached to the lower portion of the box walls.
Output from Ql is taken across R4. Direct These are used to anchor the VFO to the chassis
coupling is used between the low-impedance bracket.
takeoff point of Ql and the base of emitter-fol- A half-scale layout for the VFO circuit board is
lower, Q2. Resistor R5 sets the forward bias of Q2 given in Fig. 10-37. The main body of the
by picking some dc voltage off the emitter of Ql. aluminum box requires four 90-degree bends, and
Sufficient rf passes through R5 to drive Q2, and it these can be made in a bench vise. The open ends
can be seen that there is no measurable loss in peak
voltage across R5. There are 6 volts, peak to peak, 3Circuit boards for this and other Handbook
projects are often available commercially. For a list
across the emitter resistor of Ql, and from base to of suppliers, send ARRL an s.a.s.e.
Fig. 10-35 - Suggested
1". + ~~
Use R14
Fig. 10-34of ~
circuit for those wishing to
TO L3
ANO Cll i1O~ II.
+
2N41.2~'!-.....

07
+ ~v
_ _"T"''-I~ .
ToR150f
substitute two bipolar tran-
sistors for the IC circuit
2700
shown in Fig. 10-34. Note
10t 'J'/' . 4700 Fig. 10-34
that the audio gain control
irv" has been moved from the
10.
spot it occupies in Fig.
10-34. Component values
here are not critical, so
almost any audio npn tran-
EXCEPT AS INDICATED. DECIMAL VAwES OF sistor will work in this
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (pF I ; circuit. Q6 and Q7 can be
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR jljlFI:
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
2N2925, MPS-A10,
k-IOOO, M-,OOD 000. 2N4123, or equiv.
A Porta!>le Station for 3.5 and 7 MHz 341
VFO BUFFER
7-7.2 MHI

3.5-3.8 AND
7-1.2MH,
OUTPUT
J1(

5.5-3.1 MHI
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, O(CIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN. MICROfARADS (,pF) ; ev* -OPEN
i~
&V* -560-11. LOAD
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR Jfjtf'l:
RESISTANCES ARE tN OHMS; lV* -100-n. LOAD
'-1000, .,-1000 000. S... SILVE1t MICA •
.!5V*- so-n. LQAD
•• PEAK TO PEAt( VOt. TI.

Fig. 10-36 - Schematic diagram of the two-band VFO. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic unless
otherwise noted. C9 is an electrolytic. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition. Numbered components not
appearing in the parts list are so numbered for circuit-board identification purposes.
C3 - Dual-section miniature variabl., 140-pF per it should have similar characteristics -Vceo of
section (Hammarlund HFD-140, or Millen 30, hFE 150 to 300, and fT aPPf'oximately 450
26140 RMI. MHz. PO = 310 mW.
J1 - RCA phono jack, singte-oote mount. RFC1 - Three Amidon ferrite beads threaded on a
L1 - 0.68- to 1.25-/-LH slug-tuned inductor (J_ W. 1/2-i·nch length of No. 22 wire. A 15-ohm,
Miller 42A106CBI. J. W. Miller Coo, 19070 1/2-wtItt resistor may serve as a substitute.
Reyes Ave., Compton, CA 902211. (Amidon Assoc_, 12033 Otsego St., N. Holly-
L2 - 2.2- to 4.1-/-LH slug-tuned inductCM' (J. W. wood, CA 91607)
Miller 42A336CBI)_ S1 - Dpelt slide switch (Oak 399278-278 or
01, 02 - Motorola MPS6S14. If substitute is used, equiv.).

of the stock are joined at the rear-center of the 10-34) for maximum collector current at Q3, as
box, and are secured by means of a single strip of noted on Ml. Then quickly tune C34 for a dip in
aluminum that is 1 inch wide by 3 inches long. The current. Make certain that C28 and C34 are set as
strip is bolted to the box with four 4-40 screws and outlined earlier. If not, a false peak or dip can
nuts. result, indicating that the oscillator or PA is
Tuning capacitor C3 attaches to the front wall doubling, rather than operating straight-through.
of the box by means of its threaded shaft bushing. When crystal-controlled operation is planned,
A small aluminum bracket secures the rear end of
C3 to the back wall of the box. Both ends of the
capacitor should be firmly attached to the box
walls as outlined. This will further enhance the
mechanical stability of the VFO.
Band switch SI is mounted on the side wall of
the box so that the leads between it and the circuit
board will be as short as possible. S1 is a two-pole
double-throw slide switch. - TO UB
7-MHZ
POI.
Operation
TO
The band switch for the VFO is accessible 51 A -1---110,\1
AlllA
through a 1-inch hole in the side of the transceiver
cabinet. It should be set for the desired band, then RFCl
Cl of Fig. 10-34 is tuned for a peak response in
signal. The peak is sharp, so tune carefully. There
will be a marked increase in volume as the BFO is
tuned across a signal, and this will occur at the o
filter's 800-Hz peak. Best results will be had after
learning how to tune for this peak in audio
response.
Transmitter tune-up is straightforward. It Q2-
would be wise to practice tuning into a 5<k>hm FOIL SlOE SHOWN
dummy load. Note the settings of the controls for ETCHED AIIEA SHADED
both bands. This will make the tune-up chore a bit
easier at future times. With the VFO set for the Fig.10-37 - Half-scale template of the VFO
desired band, close the key and adjust C28 (Fig. circuit board. A foil-side view is shown here ..
342 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY
spotting can be achieved by throwi.ng Sl (Fi~.
10-34) to the SPOT position, then turung the mam
dial until the signal is heard in the phones or
speaker. In the SPOT position the transmitter an~

--
receiver are both activated, but the antenna IS
disconnected from the receiver.

Concluding Remarks
The type of cabinet used to house the
transceiver is pretty much a matter of choice. TIlls
unit is larger than necessary, and the package could
certainly be made much smaller in the interest of
miniaturization. However, there is plenty of room
for circuit additions. Also, equipment that is very
small is often difficult to operate because of
crowded panel space. This cabinet is fashioned
from two V-shaped pieces of heavy-gauge alumi-
num. It is 12 inches wide, 8 inches deep, and 4 1/2
inches high. The speaker can be mounted inside the
case if desired.

".-
~...

... '$,-
..- 1:/
~
Templates for the major circuit boards can be
obtained from the ARRL by sending 50 cents and
a self-addressed stamped envelope. The template
package includes the product detector/filter, audio
The circuit board is attached to the side walls of output, and trarlsmitter boards.
the VFO case by means of homemade aluminum l A matching console for this transceiver,
brackets. The board is recessed one inch into the containing a QRP SWR bridge arid universal
enclosure. The dual-section tuning capacitor is antenna coupler/Transmatch, is described later in
attached to the front and rear walls of the box. this Chapter.

A PORTABLE TRANSCEIVER FOR 144 MHz

Here's a vhf transceiver that's truly portable, is opposite end of the wire is soldered to the drain
easy to build, and is capable of spanning many end of L 7. A junction-type FET is used at Q4 to
miles when used with a good antenna. It can be make it less subject to rf burnout than would be
operated from its internal 12-volt flashlight-cell the case if an IGFET (insulated-gate FET) were
pack, from the cigar lighter of any 12-volt used.
negative-ground car, or from an ac-operated 12-voit An IGFET is used as the detector, Q5. Since it
dc pack. The transmitter and the two-stage FET is isolated from the antenna circuit there is little
superregenerative receiver are assembled on etched chance of its being harmed by strong rf fields.
ciIcuit boards to simplify construction. The audio Quench-frequency voltage is provided by R14
section is a prewired "import" - also on a circuit and C26 in the source lead of Q5. Feedback for the
board. (From QST, August 1968.) detector is between gate and source, making it

Receiver-Section Circuit
Two FETs are used in the simple receiver
circuit of Fig. 3. A JFET (junction field-effect
transistor), Q4, operates as a common-gate rf
amplifier and offers a fair amount of detector
isolation while providing a few decibels of gain. Its
output is coupled to the detector, Q5, through
C19, which is a "gimmick" capacitor. The latter
consists of three turns of insulated hookup wire
wrapped around the ground end of L8. The

Fig. 1 - The 2-meter transceiver is housed in a

legal-bond box. A homemade dial-calibration chart
for the receiver is pasted on the inside of the lid.
Two plastic cable clamps serve as holders for the
two-5ection 1/4-wavelength whip antenna /inside
lid) when the unit is not in use. The antenna is held
together at the center by a homemade 1/4-inch
diameter threaded coupling.
 A Portable Transceiver for 144 MHz
343

Fig. 2 - Top-chassis
layout of the transceiver.
The receiver section is at
the left. Controls for re-
generation and modulation
are in the foreground near
the center of the chassis.
The audio module is at the
lower right, and the trans-
mitter board is near the
panel, directly under the
loudspeaker. The home-
made heat sinks are visible
at the left end of the audio
board.

necessary to keep the source above rf ground by frequencies up to 500 MHz. They have a beta
means of RFC4. spread of 20 to 200, and have a collector-
Af output from the detector is taken from the dissipation rating of 500 milliwatts. Other
drain through a quench-frequency filter consisting transistors can be substitu ted provided they have
of C24, C25, RFC5 and C27. The fIlter prevents similar specifications. Resistors R5 and R6
the quench voltage from reaching the audio establish Class A bias for Q2, making it easier to
amplifier. L9 isolates the af signal from the B-plus drive with the low output of Q1.
line, and R15 varies the drain-supply voltage to An RCA 2N35l2 is used in the power
control superregeneration. R16 is the af gain amplifier, Q3. It was selected because of its low
control. cost ($1.08) and high maximum dissipation rating
A word of caution at this point: When soldering of 4 watts. It is designed for high-speed switching
the IGFET, Q5, into the circuit, be sure to connect applications and has an iT of 375 MHz. Its hFE
a clip lead between the tip of the soldering iron rating is approximately 10. The low hFE makes it
and a good earth ground. This will help prevent easier to stabilize than would be the case if a
damage to the gate of the 3N128 should static high-beta transistor were used. Other transistors
charges be present. Also, do not handle the leads of can also be used at Q3; a40290, an HEP-75, and a
Q5. The leads should be removed from their 2N3553 were tried and performed as well as the
shorting collar by means of a non-plastic or 2N35l2, but are more costly. To assure good heat
nonmetallic tool. A wooden toothpick is recom- dissipation at Q3, a heat sink is clipped to the
mended for this, and for spreading the leads apart. transistor body. A Wakefield Engineering NF205
Once Q5 is soldered in place, it should be quite costs 27 cents and is ideal.
safe from static-charge damage. A capacitive divider, ClO and Cll, matches the
output of Q2 to the base of Q3. ClO tunes L3 to
resonance. Forward bias is used on the base of Q3
Transmitter Circuit to establish Class AB conditions. This provided
Referring again to Fig. 3, the transmitter greater output from Q3 than resulted with Class-C
section starts out with a Colpitts oscillator, Ql, operation, as is usually the case when the driver
which uses 72-MHz overtone crystals. Cl and the stage has low output. The collector tank of Q3 is a
internal base-emitter capacitance of Ql control the combination L and pi network. The L network,
feedback. RFCI keeps the emitter above rf ground. C12 and L4, matches the load to the collector. The
Bandpass coupling is used between Ql and Q2 to pi network is used for harmonic reduction, a
reduce harmonics in the driving signal to Q2. A necessary provision when clean output is desired
capacitive divider, C5 and C6, is used to match the from transistorized transmitters. el2 tunes the PA
collector of Ql to the low base impedance of Q2. tank to resonance; CIS serves as a loading control.
The high value of capacitance between the base of In order to assure suitable stability, the power
Q2 (C6) and ground helps to further reduce leads of the stages are decoupled by means of C3,
harmonic energy in that part of the circuit. Both C9 and C14 in combination with R4, R8 and Rll.
Ql and Q2 are low-cost Motorola transistors The three resistors also servtl as current-limiting
designed for amplifier or oscillator use at devices to protect Ql, Q2 and Q3.
344 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY
144 MHz
DBLR
osc 72MHz

C9
;];01

+12V

J31-__~______-z+I~V~________~X~T~ S4 S3

~~ :::~~~~.------B>
03
01,02 ~

fi?~
I8V
IW BTI-BTe,INC"='
\I2V TOTAL) -
I5"VI
EBe EBe 05
;J;

~~
OSG eAS€
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (JIF I : OTHERS
AFlE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR JlJlFJ;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OH"S~
II-'DOO.

Fig. 3 - Schematic of the 2-meter transceiver. Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic except those
with polarity marking, which are electrolytic. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition. Component
numbering is for identification of parts on the circuit-board templates. Significant parts are listed below
in the usual manner.
ARl - 200-milliwatt audio module (Round Hill L7 - 5 turns No. 22 enam. wire, close-wound on
Associates Model AA-l 00* l. 1/4-inch dia ceramic slug-tuned form (J. W.
BTl-BT8, incl. - Eight loS-volt size-D flashlight Miller 45005).
cells, series-connected and mounted inside box L8 - 4 turns No. 10 bare copper wire, 1 inch long,
by means of four Keystone No. 176 dual- 3/8-inch I D. (The tap shown is not a physical
battery clips. one; see text discussion of C19.)
Cl0, C12 - 5- to 25-pF ceramic trimmer (Erie L9 - Total primary winding of 500-ohm ct
822-CN or equivl. (Midget 3- to 30-pF mica transistor output transformer. The 8-ohm
trimmer also suitable.) secondary winding not used. (Argonne AR-l64
C15 - 8- to 50-pF ceramic trimmer (Erie 822-AN or similar.)
or equivl. (Midget 8- to 60-pF mica trimmer R15-R17, incl. - l00,Ooo-ohm audio-taper carbon
also suitable.) control.
C19 - Gimmick-type capacitor. See text. RFCl Miniature 50-t.tH choke (Millen
C20 - 15-pF subminiature variable (E. F. Johnson 34300-50*1.
160-107). RFC2-RFC4, incl. - Miniature 2.7-t.tH rf choke
C22 - S-pF min. variable (Hammarlund MAPC- (Millen 34300-2.71.
15B, all but one rotor and one stator plate RFC5 - Subminiature 10-mH rf choke (J. W.
removed). Miller 73Fl02AF).
CRl - 18-volt l-watt Zener diode (used for Sl, S4 - Spdt slide switch.
transient protection during mobile operation). S2 - 4-pole 2-position phenolic single-section
Jl - SO-239 coax fitting (chassis mountl. rotary wafer switch. (Mallory 3142J.l
J2, J3 - Two-terminal singleo{;ontact audio S3 - Spst slide switch.
connector (Amphenol 75PCl M or similar). Yl, Y2 - 72-MHz overtone crystal /international
L1, L2 - 3 turns No. 22 enam. wire spaced to Crystal Co. in HC-6/U holder*).
occupy 1/2 inch on 1/4-inch dia ceramic
slug-tuned form (J. W. Miller 4500-4*1.
L3 - 4 turns No. 20 bare wire, 1/2 inch long, 5/16
inch ID. NY * 1l}6':fr.d Hill Assoc., Inc., 434 Sixth Ave., NY,
L4 - 6 turns No. 20 bare wire, 1/2 inch long 5/16 * J. W. Miller Co., 19070 Reyes Ave.,
inch 10. Compton, CA 90221.
L5 - Same as L3. * International Crystal Co., 10 N. Lee St.,
Oklahoma City, OK 73102.
L6 - 8 turns No. 20 bare wire, 1 inch long, 5/16 * James ~illen Mfg. Co., 150 Exchan~e St.,
inch I D. Tap 5 turns from source lead of 04. Malden, MA 02148.
A Portable Transceiver for 144 MHz 345
144 MHz
DEl
PA

*-MODIFltATION
(SEE TEXT,

IN3754

MIC~OK
+12V

GAIN J2
o RI7 I HI-Z
2 Mle
!160

+12V

The Audio Section available, providing a SOO-ohm transformer wind-

ing for modulator service, and an 8-ohm winding
The audio channel, AR1, can be purchased for for driving a loudspeaker. The high-impedance
approximately $8.00. It has a 200-milliwatt output input connects to the microphone gain control,
rating at 9 volts, but by increasing the operating R17, during transmit, and is switched to the
voltage to 12, and adding heat sinks to the two receiver gain control, R16, during receive. The
output transistors, slightly more than 300 milli- 50-ohm tap is not used.
watts of output are available. This was done in the Because the module is designed for a
circuit of Fig. 10 positive-ground bus (pnp transistors are used), it is
ARI has two input impedances - 50 ohms and necessary to "float" the entire assembly above
100,000 ohms. Two output impedances are chassis ground to prevent short-circuiting the

Fig.4 _ Bottom view of the chassis. The receiver board is at the right. The transmitter board is at
the upper left. A 2000-pF 15-volt electrolytic is mounted near the rear lip of the chassis.
346 MOBILE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY
OlA. (SEE TEXT) All interconnecting rf leads are made with
II
l l
~:;-'
~ >-:
HEAT SINK
FOR 04AND Q~

''ri ~ ~ COPPER, ALUMINUM,

- ' -'~R BRAS~

Fig. 5 - Details of the homemade heat sinks

subminiature coax cable, RG-174/U (Belden
8216). Shielded audio cable should be used for all
af wiring which is more than a couple of inches in
length. A bargain-house import is used for t.he
receiver tuning dial. No slippage was noted WIth
the 2-inch-diameter model used here. The next
for AR1, smaller model is not recommended because it will
not handle the torque of the tuning capacitor.
A 2 1/2-inch-diameter loudspeaker is used. Its
protective grille can be made from perforated
power supply. Information on the mounting aluminum.
techniques and some modifications to the board Two 3-inch-long brass angle brackets, each with
are given later. 3/4-inch sides, are used as mounts for the
panel-chassis assembly inside the box. Two 6-32
Building the Transceiver nuts are soldered to the bottom side of each
The packaging of this circuit can be up to the bracket, directly under No. 10 access holes. Four
builder. In this instance a standard legal-bond box 6-32 X 3/8-inch screws hold the transceiver in
was chosen. It measures 5 X 6 X 11 1/2 inches. place. The brackets are attached to the sides of the
The chassis and panel are made from 16-gauge box with 4-40 hardware.
aluminum sheeting. An aluminum cookie tin from
a hardware store can be the source of the panel and
chassis stock. Many are made of heavy-gauge Tune-Up and Use
material and are large enough to assure that there The receiver should be tested first. With an
will be excess stock. The chassis measures antenna connected to 11, apply operating voltage
11 1/4 X 4 X 1 inch. The panel is 11 1/4 inches by and adjust RlS until a rushing noise is heard in the
4 3/4 inches. After the panel holes are drilled, a speaker. Do not advance RlS beyond this point as
coating of zinc chromate should be sprayed on it. the sensitivity of the receiver will decrease. Next,
Then, after thorough drying, a coat of spray-can tune in a weak signal from another ham station (or
enamel or lacquer can be added for the final touch.
The zinc chromate helps the finish coat of paint
adhere to the aluminum sheeting.
The receiver and transmitter are built on
etched circuit boards, but point-to-point wiring
could be used if done neatly and with short
connections. Etched-circuit templates are available
from the ARRL if desired.! They are to scale and
show where the various parts are mounted.
AR1 is insulated from the main chassis to
prevent short-circuiting the power supply. It has a
plus-ground bus; the rest of the transceiver circuit
uses a negative ground. A piece of cardboard is
mounted between the circuit board and the chassis
to prevent accidental contact between AR1 and
the chassis. AR1 is bolted to the chassis at four
points. The four mounting holes in the main
chassis contain small rubber grommets, each I'
serving as an insulator. Terminals 1 and 9 of the
audio board are common to its plus-ground bus.
These terminals must be disconnected from the
ground bus by removing the thin copper
connecting strip which joins the circuits. A pocket
knife works nicely for this job; the copper can then
be peeled off.
To operate AR1 at 12 volts it is necessary to
add heat sinks to the two transistors nearest the
output transformer. The sinks can be fashioned
from pieces of thin brass, copper, or aluminum.
They are 1 1/2 inches long and each is formed by
warping the stock around a drill bit which is
slightly smaller in diameter than the body of the Fig. 6 - Eight size D cells are series connected
transistor. to provide 12 volts. They are mounted in Keystone
holders on the back walt of the bond box. The
! Scale circuit-board templates and parts 1/4-inch diameter hole in the front of the cabinet
placement I!\lide are available nom ARRL for 25 (upper right of photo) permits final calibration of
cents and an s.a.s.e. Ready-made boards are otten
available commercially. For a list of suppliers, send the receiver (C20) after the installation is com-
ARRL an s.a.s.e. pleted. The hole is opposite the shaft of C20.
 p

Ultra portable CW Station 347

from a signal generator) and tune L7 for a peak position) to Ll and look for an indication of
response. Chances are that when the peak is output. Adjust the slug in Ll for maximum
reached, the detector will stop oscillating. If this output, then tum the transmitter on and off a few
happens, advance RlS until the hiss returns. If it times to make sure the crystal always kicks in. If
does not, detune L7 slightly until a compromise is not, detune Ll slightly toward the high-frequency
reached (L 7 usually loads the detector somewhat side of resonance until the oscillator does start
when it is tuned to the operating frequency). each time. Next, peak L2. CI0. C12 and CIS for
Alternatively, a 1000-ohm swamping resistor can maximum indication on the bUlb. There will be
be connected across L7 to reduce its effect on the some interaction between the circuits, so the
detector. Trimmer C20 is used to set the tuning foregoing steps should be repeated a few times to
range of C22. The turns of L8 can be spread or assure maximum output. Final adjustments should
compressed for additional frequency adjustment. be made with the antenna connected, and with an
The receiver should tune the entire 4-MHz of the SWR indicator in the line. 2
2-meter band, or nearly so. 2 A highly sensitive SWR indicator is needed at
A No. 49 pilot lamp makes a suitable dummy this power level. One of the Monirnatch indicators
with a 4-inch or longer line (air-dielectric element
load for visual tune-up of the transmitter, though type) can provide full-scale readings if a 100-JJ.A
somewhat reactive at 144 MHz. First, detennine meter is installed. Alternatively, see QST August,
1967 for a low-power bridge. Also, see the
that the oscillator, Ql, is operating by coupling a "Monimatch Mark II," QST, February, 1957.
wavemeter (or grid-dip meter in the diode-detector

AN ULTRAPORTABLE CW STATION FOR 40 METERS

the 2N30S3s never conduct on any part of the rf
cycle, thus minimizing loading of the oscillator.
With the components shown, the tuning range of
the receiver is 70 kHz eliminating the need for
vernier drive on the tuning control.
The receiver sensitivity is adequate for use with
the low-power transmitter. A one-microvolt signal
is easily copied and the selectivity is suitable for
most portable work. A high-perfonnance audio
filter connected between the receiver output and
the headphones is a useful accessory for home
station operation. 1 The receiver requires about 14
rnA at 12 volts.
1 Hayward, "An RC Active Audio Filter for
CW," QST, May 1970.
Operating under emergency or portable conditions
usually requires the equipment to be low powered
and lightweight. Shown in the photographs is a
40-meter transceiver designed and built by W7Z01
and K7TAU.

Receiver Circuit
Shown in Fig. 1 is a schematic diagram of the
receiver section. Following current trends, a
straightforward direct-conversion design is used
with a dual-gate MOSFET, Ql, as the product
detector. The usual LC low-pass audio filter is
eliminated. Instead, RC filtering is employed
throughout the three-stage audio amplifier, yield-
ing an audio bandwidth of approximately 2.S kHz.
The audio amplifier is stable and delivers a little
more than 90 dB gain. An extra transistor, Q6, is
included in the audio amplifier and is saturated
when the T-R switch is in the transmit position.
This serves to mute the receiver completely.
The local oscillator is a Colpitts circu it using a
single pnp transistor. In order to achieve mechan-
ical simplicity, the oscillator is varactor tuned by a
potentiometer which is mounted on ~e from
panel. Varactor diodes are not needed smc~ the
collector-base junctions of readily aVaIlable
2N30S3 transistors accomplish the same purpose. Top view of the W7Z01 and K7TAU 40·meter
The back-to-back diode arrangement assures that transceiver built by WA 1JLD.
 +12V DC
BOTTOM VIEWS w
01 ALL
OTHER DEVICES
~
CO

Q
01
40673
10k

<~]-r21A
RCVR.
f"J.,. SI

:s:
o~
r-
m
22k EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL ."
VALUES Of CA~ACITANC[ AilE o
1000
~2VDC
IN MICROFARADS I jJF I ; OTHERS :II

.Ox ARE IN PICOFARA OS I pF OR JlJlF J

IIESISTANCES All[ IN OHMS;
-t
»
~

-
VRI k -1000.
6.8V r-
N.c. m
m
:s:
m
labeled 01 and 02 respectively on the pc-layout :II
Fig 1 - Circuit diagram for the receiver section of G')
sheets available from the authors. L2 - 1.6-3.1 1lH, 19 turns No. 28 enam. on m
the Mountaineer. Component designations not L1 - 44 turns No. 28 enam. on Amidon T-50-2 1/4-inch dia ceramic form (J. W. Miller 4404 or
listed below are for text reference. CR1 and CR2 core. Z
are the collector-base junctions of 2N3053s and are L1 B - 4 turns No. 28 enam. over L1 A.
equiv.l. o
R1, R2- Linear taper, compostion. -<
 Ultraportable CW Station
349
R~C
+12VDC

2
3300

=:K
...Ery_ _.... EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
I IN MICROFARADS (JIF I ; OTHERS

~ ARE IN PICOFARA OS ( pF OR JlJIF);

RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k -1000.
Fig. 2 - Circuit diagram for the transmitter. L38 - 4 turns No. 28 enam. over L38.
Component designations not listed below are for L4 - 60 turns No. 28 enam. on T-50-2 Amidon
text reference. core.
L3A - 44 turns No. 28 enam. on Amidon T-50-2 L5 - 14 turns No. 22 enam. on T-50-2 Amidon
core. core.
Sl - Spdt slide.

Transmitter Design
during receive, pressing the key turns on 07,
Shown in Fig. 2 is the circuit diagram for the providing a convenient "spot" signal.
transmitter. 07 operates as a keyed crystal oscil-
lator and is used to drive Q8, the power amplifier.
The matching circuit in the amplifier output is a pi Construction and Operation
network designed for a Q of 3. When terminated in
50 ohms, a load resistance of about 80 ohms is Printed-circuit techniques are used exclusively.
presented to the collector of Q8. In spite of the The receiver easily fits on a 3 X 5-inch board. A
rig's simplicity, the output is exceptionally clean. smaller 1.8 x 4.8-inch board is used for the
The second and third harmonics are 32 and 60 dB transmitter and side tone oscillator. The entire
below the fundamental output respectively. With a transceiver (including a hand key) will fit con-
12.5-volt supply, the output power is 650 milli- veniently inside a standard 2 X 5 X 7-inch chassis.
watts and the total key-down current drain is With a little effort, 8 size AA penlight cells and a
approximately 100 rnA. suitable electronic keyer could be contained in the
The sidetone oscillator consists of Q9 and 010 same enclosure. The electrolytic capacitors are
which forms a relaxation oscillator similar to the dipped solidtantalum similar to the Kemet series E.
type used as a clock in an electro nic keyer. Q 11 is Silvered mica capacitors are used in the receiver
an impedance-transforming follower to drive the local oscillator; mica compression trimmers tune
headphones. The oscillator is activated by a voltage the receiver input and transmitter oscillator.
which is derived from the transmitter output. The Adjustment is very straightforward. The re-
sidetone frequency is directly proportional to the ceiver local oscillator is adjusted while listening to
rf output voltage. Hence, the circuit serves a dual the home station receiver. The input circuit of QI
role as a cw monitor and a sensitive output is peaked for maximum signal with an antenna
indicator. It eliminates the need for a meter. The connected to J 1. The tuning capacitor in the
diode in the outpu t of 011 isolates the receiver transmitter is adjusted for maximum power output
from the side tone oscillator. and clean keying into a 50-ohm dummy load.
Also shown in Fig. 2 are the details of the T-R Should there by any power-amplifier instability,
switching circuit. Supply voltage is always applied the 47-ohm base resistor may be reduced in value.
to the oscillator. However, power is applied to the The transmitter output network limits the power
amplifier only during transmit periods. Hence, to less than one watt.
350 MOBI LE PORTABLE/EMERGENCY

A TRANSMATCH FOR QRP RIGS

This equipment permits matching low-power
(five watts) transmitters to a wide range of
impedances encountered when using random-
length, single-wire antennas of the type common to
portable and emergency operation. The unit will
also match the transmitter to any coax line
regardless of the mismatch reflected from the
antenna to the feed end of the line.

Construction
The use of separate capacitors at Cl and C2,
Fig. I, requires slightly more manipulation during
tune-up than would be the case with ganged
capacitors, but once ball-park settings are found Exterior view of the QRP Transmatch. The cabinet
for each operating band it is a simple matter to log is homemade from solid sheet and perforated
them for future use. C2 and C3 must be mounted aluminum stock. The two controls at the far left
are 365-pF variables, as is the one at the lower left
so that their rotor and stator sections are above of the Simpson meter. At the upper left of the
chassis ground. This is accomplished easily by meter is the variable-inductance control. Directly
assembling them on a small piece of phenolic under the meter is the meter-sensitivity potentiom-
insulating board and using insulating shaft couplers eter. The bridge function switch is visible at the
(Allied Electronics No. 920-0120). upper right of the panel. Kurz-Kasch aluminum
Three small toroidal inductors and one air- knobs are used on the controls.
wound coil comprise the variable-inductor leg of
the circuit, Ll-L4, inclusive, and S2. With the ducting, often available in scrap sizes from furnace
constants specified for the circuit of Fig. 1 the repair shops. Rf shielding is not imperative when
tuner will give good performance from 80 through building housings for Transmatches.
10 meters. S2 is a low-cost imported component.
Ml can be any I-rnA instrument. A Simpson Preparation for Use
No. 2121 is shown in the photos, but may be a
trifle too dear in terms of cost for those wishing to It will be noted that the components for the
do the job at minimum investment. Many imported resistance bridge are mounted on a piece of
meters (Radio Shack No. 22-018 for one) can be single-sided pc board. This is not mandatory.
purchased at a fraction of the cost common to Point-to-point wiring (keeping the leads ultra
high-quality American made instruments. short) can be used if desired. Multilug terminal
SI, in the unit pictured, is a double-pole, strips should be fine for the latter. Whatever
four-position, two-section ceramic wafer switch of technique is adopted, the completed bridge should
the subminiature species. A piece of double-clad pc be tested prior to attaching it to the rf section of
board is visible between the wafer sections. It was the Transmatch. This can be done easily by placing
added to function as an rf shield between the two SI in the METER SET position, adjusting R4 for
sections of S 1, thereby helping to isolate the input minin:IUm meter sensitity (arm near ground), then
and output ports of the resistance bridge. Any applYing rf power from the transmitter at J1.
shorting-type double-pole, three-position switch Adjust the transmitter for peak output (5 watts
should be suitable, ceramic or phenolic insulation. maximum!), then advance R4 until full-scale de-
SI and S2 are the shorting variety, thus preventing flection occurs on Ml. Now, connect a 50-ohm
momentary no-load conditions from being seen by resistive load between the CRI-Rl junction and
the transmitter. The package dimensions are 7-1/2 ground. If all is well, the meter reading should drop
x 2-3/4 x 2-3/4 inches (18 x 6-1/2 x 6-1/2 cm).A to zero, indicating a null at 50 ohms. Values of
cover was made from a section of surplus per- load resistance above and below 50 ohms will cause
forated-aluminum stock. Solid aluminum stock
would be just as good. In fact, the entire enclosure
could be constructed from galvanized furnace

I.

Interi?r view of the Transmatch. The three variable

capacItors are grouped at the right. Note that two
of th.em are mounted on insulating board. Just to
the right of the meter one can see the inductance
SWItch on which three toroids and one air-wound
c.oll are. mounted. The resistance bridge and func-
tIon SWItch are located at the far left of the chassis.
 A Transmatch for QRP Rigs
351
52 POSITIONS
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL SI POSITIONS INOUCTANCE ' ... H)
VALUES OF CAPAC ITANC\;: ARE I-METER SET 1 -O.~ 0-4.0 10-11.0
J2
2-ANT. TUNE 2-1.0 6-4.~ 11-12.~
IN MICROFARADS I.!lF I; OTHERS 3-0PERATE 3-2.~ 7-$.~ 12-17.0
ARE IN PICOFARADS' pF OR ..,.!IF); 4-3.~ 8- 9.0
RESIST ANCES ARE I N OHMS; r------f~--~----~<J4
k -1000. M' I 000 000

Jl

TRANS. I
J3~

Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the Transmatch.

Fixed-value capacitors are desk ceramic. Fixed-
value resistors are composition types. L4 - 26 turns No. 24 enam. wire on Amidon
C1-C3, incl. - Miniature 365-pF variable (Archer/ T-68-2 toroid core. Tap at 6, 12 and 18 turns
Radio Shack No. 272-1341 or equiv.l. from L3 end.
CR1 - High-speed silicon diode, 1 N914 or equiv. M1 - 0- to 1-mA dc meter, 1-1/2 inches square_
J1, J2 - Phono connector, single-hole chassis See text.
mount. R1-R3, incl. - 51-ohm, 2-watt, 5-percent tol-
J3, J4 - SO-239 style coax connector. erance.
L1 - 15 turns No. 24 enam. wire, close-wound on R4 - Miniature 10,000-0hm control, audio or
1/4-inch ID form_ Remove form after winding. linear taper suitable.
L2 - 28 turns No. 24 enam. wire on Amidon S1 Two-pole, three-position, shorting-type
T-50-6 toroid core. Tap 7 turns from each end. rotary wafer switch. See text.
L3 - 27 turns No. 24 enam. wire on Amidon S2 - Single-pole, 12-position, rotary wafer switCh,
T-50-2 toroid core. Tap at 5, 10 and 15 turns shorting type (Radio Shack No. 277-1385 or
from L2 end. Calectro No. E-2-1621.

the meter to deflect in accordance with the SWR Summarization

tha t prevails. Rf connections within the box should be made
Connect the output port of the bridge to the with RG-174/U subminiature coax cable to assure
remainder of the circuit. Attach a 50-ohm load at satisfactory isolation between the input and output
12_ Place S 1 in the ANT_ TUNE position and juggle ports of the bridge. Be sure to ground the shield
the settings of C1, C2, C3 and S2 until zero braid at each end of each length of cable. Leads
deflection is indicated at M l. Repeat this process less than one inch in length need not be shielded_
for each band of interest. If the meter can be made Those wishing to utilize the bridge portion of
to read zero on each band, all is as it should be. this unit for adjusting antenna matching sections
Tuning the circuit with the antenna or feed line can add a coax connector on the rear panel and
connected to 12 is done in the same manner as connect it to the middle terminal of S lB. This will
with a dummy load. After the load is matched to permit the bridge to operate independently of the
the transmitter, turn Sl to the OPERATE position. rf-matching network which attaches to the arm of
This bypasses the bridge, which, if left in the line, SlB_ The function switch would be placed in the
will consume precious rf power. A word of METER SET position for independent use of the
caution: Always use the least amount of tuned- bridge. Similarly, with Sl in that position, the
circuit inductance (Ll through L4) that will impedance-matching portion of the Transmatch
provide an SWR of 1. This will assure maximum can. be used separately by connecting the open
power transfer to the antenna. A matched con- terminal of SIB to still another coax jack. The
dition can be realized at several settings of the estimated cost of the parts used in this project is
controls, but only the foregoing procedure should $12, provided low-priced imported components are
be followed in tuning the system. used where applicable.
 CHAPTER 11

Code Tt"ansmission
Keying a transmitter properly involves much the oscillator during the keying cycle. Chirp may
more than merely turning it on and off with a fast or may not be accompanied by drift.
manually operated switch (the key). If the output If the transmitter output is not reduced to zero
is permitted to go from zero to full instantaneously when the key is up, a backwave (sometimes called
(zero "rise" time), side frequencies, or key clicks, a "spacing wave") will be radiated. A backwave is
will be generated for many kilohertz either side of objectionable to the receiving operator if it is
the transmitter frequency, at the instant the key is readily apparent; it makes the signal slightly harder
closed. Similarly, if the output drops from full to to copy. However, a slight backwave, 40 dB or
zero instantaneously (zero "decay" time), side more below the key-down signal, will be discern-
frequencies will be generated at the instant of ible only when the signal-to-noise ratio is quite
opening the key. The amplitude of the side·fre- high. Some operators listening in the shack to their
quency energy decreases with the frequency sepa- own signals and hearing a backwave think that the
ration from the transmitter frequency. To avoid backwave can be heard on the air. It isn't necessar-
key clicks and thus to comply with the FCC ily so, and the best way to check is with an
regulations covering spurious radiations, the trans- amateur a mile or so away. If he doesn't find the
mitter output must be "shaped" to provide finite backwave objectionable on the S9+ signal, you can
rise and decay times for the envelope. The longer be sure that it won't be when the signal is weaker.
the rise and decay times, the less will be the When any circuit carrying dc or ac is closed or
side-frequency energy and extent. opened, the small or large spark (depending upon
Since the FCC regulations require that the voltage and current) generates rf during the
" . . . the frequency of the emitted wave shall be instan t of make or break. This rf click covers a
as constant as the state of the art permits," there frequency range of many megahertz. When a
should be no appreciable change in the transmitter transmitter is keyed, the spark at the key (and
frequency while energy is being radiated. A slow relay, if one is used) causes a click in the receiver.
change in frequency is called a frequency drift; it is This click has no effect on the transmitted signal.
usually the result of thermal effects on the Since it occurs at the same time that a click (if
oscillator. A fast frequency change, observable any) appears on the transmitter output, it must be
during each dit or dah of the transmission, is called eliminated if one is to listen critically to his own
a chirp. Chirp is usually caused by a nonconstant signal within the shack. A small rf ft\ ter is required
load on the oscillator or by dc voltage changes on at the contacts of the key (and relay); typical
circuits and values are shown in Fig. 11-2. To
check the effectiveness of the rf filter, listen on a
A band lower in frequency than the one the transmit-
ter is tuned to, with a short receiving antenna and
the receiver gain backed off.

What Transmitter Stage To Key

B
A satisfactory code signal, free from chirp and
key clicks, can be amplified by a linear amplifier
without affecting the keying characteristics in any
way. If, however, the satisfactory signal is ampli-
c fied by one or more nonlinear stages (e.g., a Class C
multiplier or amplifier), the signal envelope will be
modified. The rise and decay times will be decreas-
Fig. 11-1 - Typical oscilloscope displays of a code ed, possibly introdUcing significant key clicks that
transmitter. The rectangular-shaped dots or dashes were not present on the signal before amplifica-
(A) have serious key clicks extending many kHz tion. It is possible to compensate for the effect by
either side of the transmitter frequency. Using using longer-than-normal rise and decay times in
proper shaping circuits increases the rise and decay the excitation and letting tbe amplifier(s) modify
times to give. signals with the envelope form of B. the signal to an acceptable one.
This signal would have practically no key clicks.
Carrying the shaping process too far, as in C, Many two-, three- and even four-stage VFO-
results in a signal that is too "soft" and is not quite controlled transmitters are incapable of chirp-free
as easy to copy as B. output-amplifier keying because keying the output
Oscilloscope displays of this type are obtained stage has an effect on the oscillator frequency and
by coupling the transmitter rf to the vertical plates "pulls" it. Keying the amplifier presents a variable
and using a slow sweep speed synchronized to the load to its driver stage, which in turn is felt as a
dot speed of an automatic key.
variable load on the previous stage, and so on back

352
 .$

Transmitter Keying 353

Lr---lT------Tc-O~~~:~-
requires a source of negative voltage. Output stages
A that aren't neutralized, such as many of the
~>-T~Cl------Keyed Stage tetrodes and pentodes in widespread use will
usually leak a little and show some backwave
qrou;'d;J s;;k- regardless of h9W they are keyed. In a case like this
it may be necessary to key two stages to eliminate
backwave. They can be keyed in the cathodes with
blocked-grid keying, or in the screens. When dcreen
~-------- keying is used, it is not always sufficient to reduce

L~ te, Ke~~~
RFC 1
To Key Jack or the screen voltage to zero; it may have to be taken
B to some negative value to bring the key-up plate
__ current to zero, unless fixed negative control-grid
bias is used. It should be apparent that where two
grounded Side stages are keyed, keying the earlier stage must have
no effect on the oscillator frequency if completely
chirp-free output is the goal.
Fig. 11-2 - Typical filter circuits to apply at the
key (and relay, if used) to minimize rf clicks. The
simplest circuit (A) is a small capacitor mounted at
the key. If this proves insufficient, an rf choke can
be added to the ungrounded lead (B). The value of
C~ is .001 to .01 IlF; RFC1 can be 0.5 to 2.5 mH,
with a current-carrying ability sufficient for the
current in the keyed circuit. In difficult cases
another small capacitor may be required on the
other side of the rf choke. In all cases the rf filter
should be mounted right at the key or relay
terminals; sometimes the filter can be concealed
under the key. When cathode or center-tap keying
is used, the resistance of the rf choke or chokes
will add cathode bias to the keyed stage, and in
A
II
this case a high-current low-resistance choke may
be required, or compensating reduction of the
grid-leak bias (if it is used) may be needed.
Shielded wire or coaxial cable makes a good keying
lead.
A visible spark on "make" can often be reduced
by the addition of a small (10 to 100 ohms)
resistor in series with C1 (inserted at point "x").
Too high a value of resistance reduces the arc-sup-
pressing effect on "break."
B
to the oscillator. Chances of pulling are especially
high when the oscillator is on the same frequency
as the keyed output stage, but frequency multipli- Fig. 11-3 - The basic cathode (A) and center-tap
cation is no guarantee against pulling. Another (B) keying circuits. In either case C1 is the rf
source of reaction is the variation in oscillator return to ground, shunted by a larger capacitor,
supply voltage under keying conditions, but this C2, for shaping. Voltage ratings at least equal to
can usually be handled by stabilizing the oscillator the cutoff voltage of the tube are required. T1 is
supply with a VR tube. If the objective is a the normal filament transformer. C1 and C3 can be
completely chirp-free transmitter, the first step is about .01 IlF.
to make sure that keying the amplifier stage (or The shaping of the signal is controlled by the
values of R2 and C2. Increased capacitance at C2
stages) has no effect on the frequency. This can be will make the signal softer on break; increased
checked by listening on the oscillator frequency resistance at R2 will make the signal softer on
while the amplifier stage is keyed. Listen for chirp make.
on either side of zero beat, to eliminate the Values at C2 will range from 0.5 to 10 IlF,
possibility of a chirpy receiver (caused by line- depending upon the tube type and operating
voltage changes or BFO pulling). conditions. The value of R2 will also vary with
An amplifier can be keyed by any method that tube type and conditions, and may range from a
reduces the output to zero. Neutralized .stages can few to one hundred ohms. When tetrodes or
pentodes are keyed in this manner, a smaller value
be keyed in the cathode circuit, although where can sometimes be used at C2 if the screen-voltage
powers over 50 or 75 watts are involved it is often supply is fixed and not obtained from the plate
desirable to use a keying relay or vacuum tube supply through a dropping resistor. If the resistor
keyer, to minimize the chances for electrical shock. decreases the output (by adding too much cathode
Tube keying drops the supply voltages and adds bias) the value of R 1 should be reduced.
cathode bias, points to be considered where maxi- Oscillators keyed in the cathode can't be
mum output is required. Blocked-grid keying is softened on break indefinitely by increasing the
applicable to many neutralized stages, but it value of C2 because the grid-circuit time constant
presents problems in high-powered amplifiers and enters into the action.
 CODE TRANSMISSION
354
Fig. 11-5 - When the driver-stage plate voltage is
roughly the same as the screen voltage ~f a tetr~de
final amplifier, combined screen and drover k.eyon.g
is an excellent system. The envelope shapong IS
determined by the values of L1, C4, and R3,
TO tr(U1sml~ter although the rf bypass capacitors C1, C2 a.nd .C3
~--~..: cIto.ssis also have a slight effect. R1 serves as an ex,:'tatlOn
control for the final amplifier, by controllong the
screen voltage of the driver stage. If a triode driver
R,

R2 r~:;-
To Ke!l [------- To keIJ is used, its plate voltage can be varied for excitation
control. ..
The inductor L1 will not be too crttlcal, and
the secondary of a spare fi lament transform~r can
be used if a low-inductance choke is not available.
8LOCKING V(tTAGE 6 The values of C4 and R3 will depend upon the
- + inductance and the voltage and current levels, but
BlOCK I NG VOLTAGE
good starting values are 0 ..1 .J.J:F and 50 oh.ms.
Fig.11-4 - The basic circuit for blocked-grid To minimize the possibility of electrocal shock,
keying is shown at A. R1 is the normal grid leak, it is recommended that a keying relay be used in
and the blocking voltage must be at least several this circuit, since both sides of the circuit are
times the normal grid bias. The click on make can "hot." As in any transmitter, the signal will be
be reduced by making C1 larger, and the click on chirp-free only if keying the driver stage has no
break can be reduced by making R2 larger. Usually effect on the oscillator frequency. (The Sigma
the value of R2 will be 5 to 20 times the resistance 41 FZ-35-ACS-SI L 6-volt ac relay is well-suited for
of R 1. The power supply current requirement keying applications.) V
depends upon the value of R2, since closing the
key circuit places R2 across the blocking voltage
supply.
An allied circuit is the vacuum-tube keyer of B.
The tube V1 is connected in the cathode circuit of
the stage to be keyed. The values of C1, R1 and R2
determine the keying envelope in the same way
that they do for blocked-grid keying. Values to
start with might be 0.47 megohm for R1, 4.7
megohms for R2 and .0047 IlF for C1.
The blocking voltage supply must deliver sev-
eral hundred volts, but the current drain is very
low. A 6Y6 or other low plate-resistance tube is
suitable for V1. To increase the current-carrying
ability of a tube keyer, several tubes can be
connected in parallel.
A vacuum-tube keyer adds cathode bias and
:::::::::tJ KEYING RELAY
drops the supply voltages to the keyed stage and
will reduce the output of the stage. In oscillator
keying it may be impossible to use a VT keyer instructions for their adjustment. There is no
without changing the oscillator dc grid return from "best" adjustment, since this is a matter of
ground to cathode. personal preference and what you want your signal
to sound like. Most operators seem to like the
make to be heavier than the break. All of the
circuits shown here are capable of a wide range of
Shaping of the keying is obtained in several adjustment.
ways. Vacuum-tube keyers, blocked-grid and cath- If the negative supply in a grid-block keyed
ode-keyed systems get suitable shaping with proper stage fails, the tube will draw excessive key-up
choice of resistor and capacitor values, while current. To protect against tube damage in this
screen-grid keying can be shaped by using induc- eventuality, an overload relay can be used or, more
tors or resistors and capacitors. Sample circuits are simply, a fast-acting fuse can be included in the
shown in Figs. 11-3, 114, and 11-5, together with cathode circuit.

OSCILLATOR KEYING
One may wonder why oscillator keying hasn't The ou tpu t of the oscillator doesn't rise to full
been mentioned earlier, since it is widely used. A value immediately so the drive on the following
sad fact of life is that excellent oscillator keying is stage is changing, which in turn may reflect a
infinitely more difficult to obtain than is excellent variable load on the oscillator. No oscillator has
amplifier keying. If the objective is no detectable been devised that has no change in frequency over
chirp, it is probably impossible to obtain with its entire operating voltage range and with a
oscillator keying, particularly on the higher fre- changing load. Furthermore, the shaping of the
quencies. The reasons are simple. Any keyed-oscil- keyed-oscillator envelope usually has to be exagger-
lator transmitter requires shaping at the oscillator, ated, because the following stages will tend to
which involves changing the operating conditions sharpen up the keying and introduce clicks unless
of the oscillator over a significant period of time. they are operated as linear amplifiers.
Oscillator Keying 355
05C. commonly used by ssb stations. It does not permit
hearing the other station whenever the key is up, as
does full break-in.
Full break'-in with excellent keying is not easy
to come by, but it is easier than many amateurs
think. Many use oscillator keying and put up with
a second-best signal.

Differential Keying
The principle behind "differential" keying is to
turn the oscillator on fast before a keyed amplifier
stage can pass any signal and turn off the oscillator
fast after the keyed amplifier stage has cut off. A
Fig. 11-6 - Simple differential-keying circuit for a number of circuits have been devised for accomp-
crystal-controlled oscillator and power-amplifier lishing the action. The simplest, which should be
transmitter. applied only to a transmitter using a voltage-stable
Most simple crystal-controlled transmitters, (crystal-controlled) oscillator is shown in Fig. 11-6.
commercial or home-built, return the oscillator Many "simple" and kitted Novice transmitters can
grid-leak resistor, R1, to chassis, and "cathode
keying" is used on the oscillator and amplifier be modified to use this system, which approaches
stages. By returning the oscillator grid leak to the the performance of the "turner-onner" mentioned
cathode, as shown here, negative power-supply-Iead above insofar as the transmitter performance is
keying is used on the oscillator. A good crystal concerned. With separate transmitting and re-
oscillator will operate with only 5 to 10 volts ceiving antennas, the performance is comparable.
appl ied to it. A simple differential-keying circuit that can be
Using the above circuit, the signal is controlled applied to any grid-block keyed amplifier or
by the shaping circuit, C4-R3. Increasing the value tube-keyed stage by the addition of a triode and a
of R3 will make the signal "softer" on make; VR tube is shown in Fig. 11-7. Using this keying
increasing the capacitance of C4 will make the
signal softer on make and break. The oscillator will
continue to operate after the amplifier has cut off,
until the charge in C4 falls below the minimum
operating voltage for the oscillator.
The .01-MF capacitor and 47-ohm resistor re- OSCILl,ATOR AMPLIFIER OR TUBE KEVER
duce the spark at the key contacts and minimize
"key clicks" heard in the receiver and other nearby
receivers. They do not control the key clicks
associated with the signal miles away; these clicks
are reduced by increasing the values of R3 and C4.
Since the oscillator may hold in between dots
and dashes, a back wave may be present if the
amplifier stage is not neutralized.
Cl, C2 - Normal oscillator capacitors.
C3 - Amplifier rf cathode bypass capacitor.
C4 - Shaping capacitor, typically 1 to 10 MF, 250
volts, electrolytic -400
Rl - Oscillator grid leak; return to cathode instead
of chassis ground.
R2 - Normal amplifier grid leak; no change. Fig. 11-7 - When satisfactory blocked-grid or tube
R3 - Typically 47 to 100 ohms. keying of an amplifier stage has been obtained, this
RFC1, RFC2 - As in transmitter, no change. VR-tube break-in circuit can be applied to the
transmitter to furnish differential keying. The
constants shown here are suitable for blocked-grid
keying of a 6146 amplifier; with a tube keyer the
Break-in Keying 6J5 and VR tube circuitry would be the same.
With the key up, sufficient current flows
The usual argument for oscillator keying is that through R3 to give a voltage that will cut off the
it permits break-in operation (see subsequent sec- oscillator tube. When the key is closed, the cathode
tions, also Chapter 23). If break-in operation is not voltage of the 6J5 becomes close to ground
contemplated and as near perfect keying as pos- potential, extinguishing the VR tube and permit-
sible is the objective, then keying an amplifier or ting the oscillator to operate. Too much shunt
two by the methods outlined earlier is the solution. capacity on the leads to the V R tube and too large
For operating convenience, an automatic transmit- a value of grid capacitance in the oscillator may
slow down this action, and best performance will
ter "turner-onner" (see Campbell, QST Aug., be obtained when the oscillator (turned on and off
1956), which will turn on the power supplies and this way) sounds "clicky." The output envelope
switch antenna relays and receiver muting devices, shaping is obtained in the amplifier, and it can be
can be used. The station switches over to the made softer by increasing the value of Cl. If the
complete "transmit" condition where the first dot keyed amplifier is a tetrode or pentode, the screen
is sent, and it holds in for a length of time voltage should be obtained from a fixed voltage
dependent upon the setting of the delay. It is source or stiff voltage divider, not from the plate
equivalent to voice-operated phone of the type supply through a dropping resistor.
 CODE TRANSMISSION
356
OSCILLATOR value of C I will soften both "make" and "break."
KEYED STAGE The tube used at VI will depend upon the
available negative supply voltage. If it is between
.'---1I---r-+- 120 and ISO a OA3/VR 75 is recommended. Above
this a OC3/VRlOS can be used. The diode, CRI,
R2 can be any unit operated within its ratings. A type
IN400S, for example, may be used with screen
+RI, . voltages under 600 and with far greater bleeder
C ~+ currents than are normally encountered - up to 1
11 f"i9KEYING RELAY ampere.
Oicks in Later Stages
Fig. 11-8 - VR-tube differential keying in an It was mentioned earlier that key clicks can be
amplifier screen circuit. generated in amplifier stages following the keyed
With key up and current flowing through V1 'stage or stages. This can be a puzzling problem to
and CR1, the oscillator is cut off by the drop an operator who has spent considerable time
through R3. The keyed stage draws no current adjusting the keying in his exciter unit for clickless
because its screen grid is negative. C1 is charged
negatively to the value of the - source. When the keying, only to find that the clicks are bad when
relay is energized, C 1 charges through R 1 to a + the amplifier unit is added. There are two possible
value. Before reaching zero (on its way +) there is causes for the clicks: low-frequency parasitic oscil-
insufficient voltage to maintain ionization in V1, lations and amplifier "clipping."
and the current is broken in R3, turning on the Under some conditions an amplifier will be
oscillator stage. As the screen voltage goes positive, momentarily triggered into low-frequency parasitic
the VR tube ca'nnot reignite because the diode,
CR1, will not conduct in that direction. The oscillations, and clicks will be generated when the
oscillator and keyed stage remain on as long as the amplifier is driven by a keyed exciter. If these
relay is closed. When the relay opens, the voltage clicks are the result of low-frequency parasitic
across C1 must be sufficiently negative for V1 to oscillations, they will be found in "groups" of
ionize before any bleeder current will pass through clicks occurring at 50- to ISO-kHz intervals either
R3. By this time the screen of the keyed stage is so side of the transmitter frequency. Of course
far negative that the tube has stopped conducting. low-frequency parasitic oscillations can be generat-
(See Fig. 11-5 for suitable relay.)
ed in a keyed stage, and the operator should listen
system for break-in, the keying will be chirp-free if carefully to make sure that the output of the
it is chirp-free with the VR tube removed from its exciter is clean before he blames a later amplifier.
socket to permit the oscillator to run all of the Low-frequency parasitic oscillations are usually
time. If the transmitter can't pass this test, it caused by poor choice in rf choke values, and the
indicates that more isolation is required between use of more inductance in the plate choke than in
keyed stage and oscillator. the grid choke for the same stage is recommended.
Another VR-tube differential-keying circuit, When the clicks introduced by the addition of
useful when the screen-grid circuit of an amplifier an amplifier stage are found only near the transmit-
is keyed, is shown in Fig. 11-8. The normal screen ter frequency, amplifier "clipping" is indicated. It
keying circuit is made up of the shaping capacitor is quite common when fixed bias is used on the
CI, the keying relay (to remove dangerous voltages amplifier and the bias is well past the "cut-off'
from the key), and the resistors RI and R2. The + value. The effect can usually be minimized by
supply should be 50 to 100 volts higher than the using a combination of fixed and grid-leak bias for
normal screen voltage, and the .. voltage should be the amplifier stage. The fixed bias should be
sufficient to ignite the VR tube, VI, through the sufficient to hold the key-up plate current only to
drop in R2 and R3. Current through R2 will be a low level and not to zero.
determined by the voltage required to cut off the A linear amplifier (Class ABl, AB2 or B) will
oscillator; if 10 volts will do it the current will be I amplify the excitation without adding any clicks,
rnA. For a desirable keying characteristic, R2 will and if clicks show up a low-frequency parasitic
usually have a higher value than Rl. Increasing the oscillation is probably the reason.

KEYING SPEEDS

In radio telegraphy the basic code element is Speed (wpm) - dotJfin. = 2.4 x dots/sec.
the dot, or unit pulse. The time duration of a dot
and a space is that of two unit pulses. A dash is E.g.: A properly adjusted electronic key gives a
three unit pulses long. The space between letters is string of dots that count to 10 dots per second.
Speed = 2.4 X 10 = 24 wpm.
three unit pulses; the space between words or
groups is seven unit pulses. A speed of one baud is Many modern electronic keyers use a clock or
one pulse per second. pulse-generator circuit which feeds a flip-flop dot
Assuming that a speed key is adjusted to give generator. For these keyers the code speed may be
the proper dot, space and dash values mentioned determined directly from the clock frequency
above, the code speed can be found from Speed (wpm) = 1.2 x clock frequency (Hz).
 -
T·R Switches
357
For a quick and simple means of determining the 5-se~on~ period. This number, to a close approxi.
code speed, send a continuous string of dashes and matton, IS the code speed in words per minute.
count the number of dashes which occur in a

BREAK·IN OPERATION

Smooth cw break·in operation involves protect. Fi~. 11·9 -:- Prope~ method of interconnecting T-R
ing th~ receiver from permanent damage by the sWI~ch With vanous other station accessory
transmitter power and assuring that the receiver equipment.
will "recover" fast enough to be sensitive between
dots and dashes, or at least between letters and
words.

Separate Antennas
Few of the available antenna transfer relays are
fast enough to follow keying, so the simplest
break·in system is the use of a separate receiving
antenna. If the transmitter power is low (25 or 50
watts) and the isolation between transmitting and
receiving antennas is good, this method can be
satisfactory. Best isolation is obtained by mounting
the antennas as far apart as possible and at right
angles to each other. Feed-line pickup should be receiver is required, but if annoying clicks and
minimized, through the use of coaxial cable or thumps or excess volume occur at all settings of
300-0hm Twin·Lead. If the receiver recovers fast t!)e receiver controls during transmission, their
enough but the transmitter clicks are bothersome effect can be reduced with output audio limiting
(they may be caused by the receiver overload and (see Chapter 8).
so exist only in the receiver) their effect on the TVI and T·R Switches
operator can be minimized through the use of T-R switches generate harmonics of the
input and output limiters (see Chapter 8). transmitted signal because of rectification of the
energy reaching the input of the switch. These
ELECTRONIC TRANSMIT·RECEIVE harmonics can cause TVI if steps are not taken to
SWITCHES prevent it. Any T-R switch should be very well
shielded, and should be connected with as short as
When powers above 25 or 50 watts are used, possible a cable length to the transmitter. In
where two antennas are not available, or when it is addition, a low·pass filter may be required in the
desired to use the same antenna for transmitting transmission line :between the T-R switch and the
and receiving (a "must" when directional antennas antenna. Fig. 11-9 shows the proper method of
are used), special treatment is required for quiet interconnecting the various station accessory
break·in operation on the transmitter frequency. A equipment.
means must be provided for limiting the power
that reaches the receiver input. This can be either a Reduction of Receiver Gain During Transmission
direct short-circuit, or may be a limiting device like
an electronic switch used in the antenna feed line. For absolutely smooth break·in operation with
The word "switch" is a misnomer in this case; the no clicks or thumps, means must be provided.for
transmitter is connected directly to the antenna at momentarily reducing the gain through the
all times. The receiver is connected to the antenna receiver. The system shown in Fig. 11-10 permits
through the T-R switch, which functions to protect quiet break-in operation of high-powered stations.
the receiver's input from transmitted power. In It may require a simple operation on the receiver,
such a setup, all the operator need do is key the although many commercial receivers already
transmitter, and all the switching functions are provide the connection and require no internal
taken care of by the T·R switch. modification. The circuit is for use with a T-R
With the use of a T·R switch some steps should switch and a single antenna. Rl is the regular
be taken to prevent receiver blocking. Turn off the receiver rf and i-f gain control. The ground lead is
agc or avc, decrease the rf gain setting, and advance run to chassis ground through R2. A wire from the
the audio gain control. Use the rf gain control for junction runs to the keying relay, Kl. When the
obtaining the desired listening level. A little key is up, the ground side of Rl is connected to
experimenting with the controls will provide the ground through the relay arm, and the receiver is in
receiver settings best suited to individual operating its normal operating condition. When the key is
preferences. A range of settings can usually be closed the relay closes, which breaks the ground
found, just on the threshold of receiver blocking, connection from Rl and applies additional bias to
where comfortable levels of received signals are the tubes in the receiver. This bias is controlled by
heard, and where, without adjusting the controls, R2. When the relay closes, it also closes the circuit
the receiver can be used as a monitor during to the transmitter keying circuit. A simple rf filter
transmission. Usually no modification to the at the key suppresses the local clicks caused by the
 CODE TRANSMISSION
358
r- - - --Rf-- - -;:F- - - -----,
.OlpF I RECEIVER I
FROM
T-R • A II\--f.....--...-:-I..:l
I ANT.
O I
SWITCH ~ RFC , -L. OlpF I :

TOKE~
CIRCUIT IN
:
I
:
I
TRANS. I GND. I
I RFGA~ I
I ....--..tv'V'-.....WIr-... B + I
L ________ &. ________ J

~KEY
HII\-=1S,~
KIA .OI)JF

Fig. 11-10 -circuit for smooth break-in operation, power source can be used.
using an electronic T-R switch. The leads shown as R1 - Receiver manual gain control.
heavy lines should be kept as short as possible, to R2 - 5000- or 10,000-0hm wire-wound potentio-
minimize direct transmitter pickup. meter.
K1 - Spdt keying relay (Sigma 41 FZ-10000-ACS- RFC1, RFC2 - 1- to 2 1/2-mH rf choke, current
SI L or equiv.l. Although battery and dc relay rating adequate for application.
are shown, any suitable ac or dc relay and

relay current. This circuit is superior to any the agc circuits and will recover faster. A similar
working on the agc line of the receiver because the circuit may be used in the emitters or source leads
cathode circuit(s) have shorter time constants than of transistorized receivers.

TESTING AND MONITORING OF KEYING

In general, there are two common methods for a thump on "make" that is perceptible only where
monitoring one's "fist" and signal. The first type you can also hear the beat note, and the click on
involves the use of an audio oscillator that is keyed "break" should be practically negligible at any
simultaneously with the transmitter. point. If your signal is like that, it will sound good,
The second method is one that permits receiv- provided there are no chirps. Then have your
ing the signal through one's receiver, and this friend run off a string of fast dots with the bug - if
generally requires that the receiver be tuned to the they are easy to copy, your signal has no "tails"
transmitter (not always convenient unless working worth worrying about and is a good one for any
on the same frequency) and that some method be speed up to the limit of manual keying. Make one
provided for preventing overloading of the receiver, check with the selectivity in, to see that the clicks
so that a good replica of the transmitted signal will off the signal frequency are negligible even at high
be received_ Except where quite low power is used, si&nal level.
this usually involves a relay for simultaneously If you don't have any friends with whom to
shorting the receiver input terminals and reducing trade stations, you can still check your keying,
the receiver gain_ although you have to be a little more careful. The
An alternative is to use an rf-powered audio transmitter output should be fed into a shielded
oscillator. This follows the keying very closely (but dummy load. Ordinary incandescent lamps are
tells nothing about the quality - chirps or clicks - unsatisfactory as lamp resistance varies too much
of the signal). with current. The thermal lag may cause the results
The easiest way to find out what your keyed to be misleading.
signal sounds like on the air is to trade stations The first step is to get rid of the rf click at the
with a near-by ham friend some evening for a short key. This requires an rf filter (mentioned earlier).
QSO. If he is a half mile or so away, that's fine, but With no clicks from a spark at the key, disconnect
any distance where the signals are still S9 will be the antenna from your receiver and short the
satisfactory . antenna terminals with a short piece of wire. Tune
After you have found out how to work his rig, in your own signal and reduce the rf gain to the
make contact and then have him send slow dashes, point where your receiver doesn't overload. Detune
with dash spacing (the letter "T" at about 5 wpm). any. antenna trimmer the receiver may have. If you
With minimum selectivity, cut the rf gain back just can't avoid overload with the rf gain-control range,
enough to avoid receiver overloading (the condi- pull out the rf amplifier tube and try again. If you
tion where you get crisp signals instead of mushy still can't avoid overload, listen to the second
ones) and tune slowly from out of beat-note range harmonic as a last resort. An overloaded receiver
on one side of the signal through to zero and out can generate clicks.
the other side. Knowing the tempo of the dashes, Describing the volume level at which you
you can readily identify any clicks in the vicinity should set your receiver for these "shack" tests is a
as yours or someone else's. A good signal will have little difficult. The rf filter should be effective with
Monitoring of Keying 359
These photos show cw signals as observed on an
oscilloscope. At A is a dot generated at a 46.baud
rate with no intentional shaping while at B the
~haping circuit~ have been adju;ted for approx.
Imately 5·ms rise and decay times. Vertical lines (A)
are from a 1-kHz signal applied to the Z or
intensit~ axis for timing. Shown at C is a shaped
signal with the intensity modulation of the pattern
removed. For each of these photos, sampled rf
from !he transmitter was fed directly to the
deflection plates of the oscilloscope.
At. 0 may be ~een a received signal having
essentially .no shaping. The spike at the leading
~dge IS tYPical of ,?oor power-supply regulation, as
IS also the Immediately following dip and rise in
amplitude. The clicks were quite pronounced. This
pattern is typical of many observed signals, al-
though not by any means a worst case. The signal
was taken from the receiver's i-f amplifier (before (B)
detection) using a hand-operated sweep circuit to
reduce the sweep time to the order of one second.
(Photos from QST for October and November
1966.)
the receiver running wide open and with an
antenna connected. When you turn on the trans-
mitter and take the steps mentioned to reduce the
signal in the receiver, run the audio up and the rf
down to the point where you can just hear a little
"rushing" sound with the BFO off and the receiver
tuned to the signal. This is with the selectivity in.
At this level, a properly adjusted keying circuit will
show no clicks off the rushing-sound range. With (e)
the BFO on and the same gain setting, there should
be no clicks outside the beat-note range. When
observing clicks, make the slow-dash and dot tests
outlined previously.
Now you know how your signal sounds on the
air, with one possible exception. If keying your
transmitter makes the lights blink, you may not be
able to tell too accurately about the chirp on your
signal. However, if you are satisfied with the (0)
absence of chirp when tuning either side of zero
beat, it is safe to assume that your receiver isn't
chirping with the light flicker and that the obser-
ved signal is a true representation. No chirp either
side of zero beat is fine. Don't try to make these sounds. It is the least satisfactory because most
tests without first getting rid of the rf click at the hams are reluctant to be highly critical of another
key, because clicks can mask a chirp. amateur's signal. In a great many cases they don't
The least satisfactory way to check your keying actually know what to look for or how to describe
is to ask another ham on the air how your keying any aberrations they may observe.

AN RF-ACTUATED CW MONITOR

This unit permits the operator to monitor his turned up, you should hear a note. See Fig. ll-ll.
cw sending. Also, it can be used as a code-practice For headphone use, plug the phones into 13
oscillator. As an oscillator, connect a key to TBI, and plug PI into the receiver headphone jack.
and plug a set of phones into 13. To use the When receiving, the audio from the receiver will be
speaker, close SI and advance R2. For use as a piped through the monitor. When going to trans-
monitor, connect coax from your transmitter to 11 mit, you'll hear the multivibrator oscillator tone in
and route the antenna feed to J2. Set Rl so that the phones. The battery drain is about 2 rnA; it is a
the arm of the control is at the ground end. good idea to leave SI switched off when the
Connect a VTVM between terminal I on TBI and speaker is not in use. You don't have to disconnect
the chassis. Next, tune up the rig to the input and the monitor from the rf line in order to use the
adjust RI so that the VTVM reads -7 or -8 volts. unit as a code practice oscillator. (From QST, Nov.
The monitor should be generating a tone, and if 1968.)
you have SI turned on the audio gain control, R2,
360 CODE TRANSMISSION

AUDIO AMP.

LSI

11s:u1
51

L------------------------------------------1-
-=-
w
-BTl
iT,.

Fig. 11-11 - Circuit diagram of the cw monitor. Unless s~ecified, all resistors are 1/2 wa~t; resistan~es
are in ohms (K = 10001. All values of capacitors are in microfarads (/IF, all .01-/lF capacitors are disk
ceramic). Capacitors marked with polarity are electrolytic.

BT1 - 9-volt battery.

C1, C2 - 25-/lF electrolytic, 25 working volts or 01,02, OJ - 2N406, SK3003, or equiv.
more. R1 - 15,000-ohm, 2-watt control.
C3 - 0.1 /IF paper, 25 working volts or more. R2 - 5000-0hm control with single-pole, sin-
CR1 - 1 N277 or 1 N34A. gle-throw switch, S1, mounted on rear.
J1, J2 - Coax chassis receptacle, type SO-239. T1 - Output transformer, 2000- to 5000-ohm
J3 - Open-circuit phone jack. pri mary, 4- to 1O-ohm voice-coil secondary; see
LS1 - Speaker, 3-inch diameter, 4-ohm type. text (Lafayette 99 H 6101 or similar).
P1 - Phone plug. TB1 - Two-terminal connector.

A SOLID-STATE T-R SWITCH

One of the simplest approaches to T-R switch to turn Ql off. The dc voltage required to operate
construction is illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2. This Ql is obtained by rectifying 6.3 volts ac from the
circuit was designed by W4ETO and originally transmitter fIlament line. Connection to the line
described by WlICP in QST for April, 1971. A should be made to the ungrounded side of the
gate-protected dual-gate MOSFET couples an heater supply.
incoming signal to the receiver. When the
transmitter is keyed, a sample of the signal is used
Installation
Mount the T-R switch close to the transmitter
PA tank. The coupling capacitor, Cl, which should
have a voltage rating of at least twice the plate
voltage of the transmitter P A stage, should be
connected with one end to the input side of the
pi-network coil, as shown in Fig. 2. Mount a coax
chassis fitting on the back of the transmitter
chassis, and run a connecting line of coax from the
fitting to the T-R switch. (This length of coax is
shown in Fig. 1, extending out the right-hand side
of the photograph.) Make sure the coax braid is
grounded at the fitting and at the T-R switch. The
receiver antenna terminals can then be connected,
using coax, to the T-R coax terminal on the
transmitter.
With high-power transmitters, near the kilowatt
level, the value of Cl should be changed to no
Fig. 1 - The solid-state T-R switch constructed on more than 1 pF. Because of this light coupling, a
an etched circuit board of the pattern shown in broadly resonant input circuit may be required on
QSTfor April, 1971, p.32. The circuit could also the T-R switch in order to have adequate gain
be built on a piece of insulated or perforated board. during reception. This may be obtained by
 T-R Switch 361
connecting an inductor from the junction of Cl the 2.1- and 6-till inductors is grounded, and so on,
and R1 to ground. The following values are so that for 80-meter operation all 5 inductors in
suitable; 10 meters - 3 till; 15 meters - 5 till; 20 series are connected from the T-R switch input
meters - 11 till; 40 meters - 40 till; and 80 through the bandswitch to ground.
meters - 130 till. For operation on more than a One thing about this type of device should be
single band, a single-pole 5-position rotary band pointed out. The T-R switch is connected to the
switch may be used, with inductor values of 3.1 transmitter's tank circuit via Cl, a low-value
till, 2.1 till, 6.0 till, 29 till, and 90 till connected capacitor. If, as in the case of Class AB linear
in series. One end of the 3.1-till inductor is amplifiers, the amplifier plate current is not cut off
connected to the T-R switch input, and the when receiving, there may be enough noise
junction of this and the 2.1-till inductor is generated in the amplifier tube to be objectionable
grounded through the band switch for lO-meter during receive. Such noise should not be noticeable
operation. For J.5-meter operation, the junction of with Class C or with cathode-keyed amplifiers.

Fig. 2 - Circuit diagram of the EXCEPT AS INDICATEL), DECIMAL

C6
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
T·R switch. All resistors are IN MICROFARADS (jlFI; OTHERS
\r-_9-.!:.:.:...._~I-1,........:+~~&.3V
AC
1/2-watt composition. Parts ARE IN PICOFARADSlpF OR JI)lFl;
not listed below are for cir- RESISTANCES ARE IN·OHMS~

cuit-board identification. k -1000. Me I 000 000

Cl - 5- to 10-pF.
C6, C7 - 1OO-/.LF, 25-volt elec-
trolytic.
CR1, CR2, CR3, CR4 -
CR
lN9140requiv.
CR5, CR6 100 PRV,
100-mA silicon diode.
Jl - Coax chassis fitting.
Ql - Gate-protected dual-gate TRAMS. PLATE
BLOCKING CAPACITOR
------.
I'
MOSFET (RCA 40673 or r - - -.,- -i~-
...... .L..... ,..J
Motorola MPF121). ~;PFl21~
I'
,_.1_\ >_
>- G1 I G2
>--
'--
I

SELF-CONTAINED ALL-BAND ELECTRONIC T-R SWITCH

This vacuum-tube T-R switch differs in several maximum signal or background noise. A significant
ways from the preceding example. It contains its increase in signal or background noise should be
own power supply and consequently can be used observed on any band within the range of the
with any transmitter/receiver combination without coil/capacitor combination.
"borrowing" power. It will add gain and front:end
selectivity to the receiver. A homemade sWitch-
coil-capacitor is shown in the unit, enabling the
constructor to build his own.
In the circuit diagram of Fig. 2, one triode of a
12AU7 is used as an amplifier stage, followed by
the other triode as a cathode-follower stage to
couple between the tuned circuit an~ t~e rece~ver.
The triodes are biased during transmlSSlon penods cl
by rectified grid current, and. in~ufficie~t p.ower is
fed to the receiver to damage lts mput ClICUlt.
The T-R switch is intended to mount behind
the transmitter near its output terminal, so that the
connecting cable is short. The lead from the T-R
switch to the receiver can be any reasonable length.
Components are mounted above and below the
chassis. In wiring the switch, a lehgth of RG-58/U
should be used between the cathode-follower load
(resistor and rf choke) and the output jack J2, to
minimize "feed through" around the tube. A pair
of .01 JiF capacitors across the ac line where it
enters the chassis helps to hold down the rf that Fig. 1 - The knob at the I.eft i~ used for pea~ing
might otherwise ride in on the ac line. . the tuned circuit. At the right IS the bandswltch.
In operation, it is only necessary to. sWitch the Only four positions are shown; the 15-meter
unit to the band in use and peak capacltor C4 for position also covers 10 meters.
 CODE TRANSMISSION
362
CATH.
AMP. FOLLOWER
100 47
Jl

ANT.

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

VALUES OF CAPAC ITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (JIF I ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR JlPF):
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
It -1000. Mol 000000
117V.

Fig. 2 - Circuit diagram of the T-R switch. Unless otherwise specified, resistors are 1/2 watt; decimal
value fixed capacitors are disk ceramic, others are mica with the exception of C7, which is electrolytic. B
- method of using a half-wave transformer for T1. Circuit designations not listed below are for text
reference. Sl - Single-pole, four-position wafer switch
C4 - 100 pF variable (Millen 20100 or similarl. (Mallory 3115J, 3215J, or similarl.
C7A, C7B - 20/20-pF electrolytic 250 volts or S2 _ Spst toggle switch.
cR~obeR2 _ Silicon rectifier, 400 volts or more, T1 - Power transformer, full-wave, 125{}-125 25
a~y current rating over 40 rnA. rnA, 6.3 volts, 1 A (Stancor PS-8416, Knight
54A2008). B - half-wave, 125 V, 15 rnA, 6
J1, J2, J3 - Coax chassis receptacle, type SO-239. volts, 0.6 A (Stancor PS-8415, Knight 54-
L1 -See Fig. 3. A1410).

I-- . 44T - ----I

70junction of
C2,C3,and
statorofC4 :--4T
To Ground
21-18HHz /4MHz 7MHz
TO SI

Fig. 3 - L 1 and associated taps. L1 is 44 turns of

No. 24, 32 turns per inch, 1 inch diameter Fig. 4 - The power transformer and filter
(Miniductor 3016, Air Dux 832T). To solder the components are mounted at the upper right, Just
tap leads, indent each turn adjacent to the tap to the bottom of center is the socket for the
point. This will allow soldering room. 12AU7.

DELUXE ALL-SOLID-STATE KEVER

The Accu-Keyer is a modern keying device with a stiffly regulated power supply, a keying monitor,
deluxe features available on only the most expen- and provisions for solid-state keying of cathode-
sive of commercially available instruments, but it keyed transmitters.
may be built for less than $25. The Accu-Keyer was designed with these fea-
The basic circuit uses seven TTL integrated tures in mind:
circuits which may be purchased at "bargain"
1) Self-completing dots and dashes
suppliers for less than $ 3. Optional features which 2) Dot and dash memories
may be incorporated at the builder's discretion are
 Deluxe Solid-State Keyer
363
This version of the WB4VVF Accu-Keyer contains
~II optional. circuit features described in the text. It
IS h~used In a 9 X 2-1/2 X 3-1/S-inch Apollo
aluminum "shadow box," type BB (available from
Apollo Products, Box 245, Vaughnsville, OH
4~893). The low-profile cabinet with its black
Crinkle finish and simulated walnut front panel
provides an attractive as well as a very functional
keyer for the ham shack.

A synchronous input is provided (pin 2). If

3) Iambic operation both the SET and RESET inputs are high and the
4) Dot and dash insertion clock pulse (pin 3) goes positive, the state of the D
5) Automatic character space (with switching !npu~ (pin 3) will be transferred to the Q output,
provided to defeat this feature) I.e., 1f D was high, Q will go high. This transition
6) 5-50 wpm speed range can occur only on the positive-going edge of the
7) Low cost clock pulse.
The two- and three-input gates are NAND-type
A synchronized clock provides uniform starting gates. Outputs of these gates are low only if all the
for constant-width characters. Also the dot-dash inpu ts to the gates are high.
decision is made at the end of the space following
the bit, allowing maximum leeway in paddle Block Diagrams
operation.
Fig. 1 shows that the keyer is composed of four
sections. In the nonsychronous section the gates
Logic Description
change logic state when the paddle is moved, while
Three types of gates are used in the logic in the synchronous section the logic changes in
section of the keyer. There are three 7474 edge- step with the clock signal The output driver
triggered type D fli{rflops, three 7400 quad two- changes the logic levels into voltages that will key
input NAND gates, and one 7410 triple three-input the transmitter. The +5 volts is developed in the
NAND gate, for a total of seven dual-in-line Zener-diode-regulated power supply.
packages. The fli{rflops and gates that perform the
The 7474 is a clocked edge-triggered type D functions in the circuit are shown in the blocks. In
fli{rflop which has two modes of operation, the discussion that follows, a bit is defined as a
synchronous and nonsynchronous. Nonsynchron- single dot or dash and the space following.
ous inputs are the SET (pin 1) and the RESET (pin The present-bit memories store the information
4) connections. These inputs can be used to force as to which bit is being sent. These memories start
the Q and II outputs into either a high or low the bit by enabling the start-stop gates. These
condition. SET, when grounded, forces the Q outputs are fed through an OR gate to the output
output high and RESE'!'.,. when grounded, forces driver. A counter is also enabled at the start of a
the Q output low. The Q output is always in an bit and disables the output at the beginning of the
opposite state from the Q output. bit space.

NONSYNC'HRONOUS SECTION SYNCHRONOUS SECTION I OUTPUT

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
t---------
I SUPPLY
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

Fig. 1 - Block diagram of the Accu-Keyer.

 CODE TRANSMISSION
3M

+t!V
RS
4700

RIO
410

RI1
150

810 10V DC
OR S.3VAG

CR2
RIS IN4385
21

VRI +
I N5251 TC6,2000,AlF
,..J...., 1"V

Fig. 2 - Schematic diagram of the Accu-Keyer. R7 - Reverse-log-taper control; Mallory U-28

Resistances are in ohms; k = 1000. All capacitances suitable.
are in microfarads. All resistors may be 1/4 watt Sl - Spst toggle.
except R13, which should have a 2-W rating. Ul, U2, U6 - Quad 2-input NAND gate, type
Capacitors with polarity indicated are electrolytic; 7400.*
all others are disk ceramic. Parts not listed below U3, U4, U5 - Dual type D flip-flop, type 7474.*
are for text reference and circuit-board identifica- U7 - Triple 3-input NAND gate, type 7410.*
tion. VRl ~ 5.1-V, O.5-W Zener diode.
CRl - Small-signal silicon diode.
CR2 - Rectifier diode, 1/2 A or greater. * All ICs are dual-in-line package, 14 Pin. Note:
Ql, Q3 - Silicon npn, 250-mW, high-speed switch- All ICs are available from various manufactuerers
ing or rf-amplifier transistor. or as surplus. Motorola part numbers are prefixed
Q2 - Silicon pnp, 250-mW, high-speed switching by Me and suffixed by P. Texas Instruments parts
have an SN prefix and N suffix. Signetics Ies have
or rf-amplifier transistor. an N prefix and an A suffix. For example,
Q4 - Silicon pnp, 250-mW, high-voltage af- Motorola's MC7400P is equivalent to Texas Instru-
amplifier transistor. ments' SN7400N orSignetics' N7400A.

Next-bit memories allow the keyer to remem- 4) If neither is on, the keyer will assume a
ber one bit ahead. At the end of each bit four missing bit and automatically give two additional
conditions are possible with the next-bit memories. spaces.
The iambic gate is used to produce the correct
1) If the dot memory is on, the keyer will start input to the present-bit memories for condition 3
a dot. above. At the end of condition 4, the missing-bit
2) If the dash memory is on, the keyer will detector resets the clock and enables the initial
start a dash. dash-dot gates. These gates are used to start the
3) If both are on, the keyer will produce the keyer and synchronize the clock with the fust bit
opposite bit from the one it is sending. sent.
 Deluxe Solid-State Keyer
365
A peek inside the Accu-Keyer shows compact
construction in this deluxe version built by
Wl RML. The ac-operated power supply compon-
ents are located at the left, and the basic keyer
board at the right. The keying monitor is con-
structed on a separate vertically mounted circuit
board positioned near the center of the enclosure.
The pitch control is mounted inside the keyer on
this circuit board, as it is not adjusted frequently.
The speaker is mounted over a "grille" formed by
drilling many holes at the bottom of the enclosure,
and is nearly hidden by the filter capacitor in this
view. On the rear panel, in TO-3 style cases, are the
5-volt regulator IC and the cathode keying transis-
tor.
pleasing tone. The circuit is a modified version of
the code-practice osciJIator appearing in Chapter I.
The Circuit Equipped with such a monitor, the Accu-Keyer
becomes ideal for conducting code practice ses-
The schematic diagram of the Accu-Keyer is sions for small and medium-sized groups.
shown in Fig. 2. The voltage applied to CR2 for Fig. 3C shows a circuit which may be used for
powering the keyer may be either 8 to 10 volts de cathode-keyed or solid-state "QRP" transmitters.
or 6.3 volts ac, such as from the filament supply of The Delco keying transistor wiJI safely handle two
a transmitter or receiver. If de is applied, C6 is not amperes of current and a collector-to-emitter po-
required. If ac is applied to CR2, VRI functions tential of 800 V, and yet its cost is less than that of
more to protect the ICs from overvoJtage by a new mercury-wetted relay. The use of a transistor
limiting the amplitude of the ripple than it does for offers advantages over both vacuum-tube keying
voltage regulation. If a well-filtered and regulated and relay keying of cathode-keyed rigs; the voltage
supply is desired, the circuit of Fig. 3A may be drop across the transistor when saturated intro-
used in place of CR2, R13, and VRI and associat- duces negligible grid-cathode bias to the keyed
ed capacitors. Constructed with the components stage, and the keying is softened somewhat over
shown, that supply will handle the keyer require- relay keying because the transistor cannot go from
ments with power to spare. cutoff to saturation (or vice versa) instantaneously.
Should a keying monitor be desired, the dia- For QRP transmitters, Q6 may be a 300- or
gram of Fig. 3B may be used to construct a circuit 500-mW silicon npn transistor, such as a 2N2222
which will afford plenty of volume and a stable, or 2N4123.

U8
BRI DGE
RECTI FI ER

(A)
+sv
+5V

TO U7 5600 ~?$tw. TO "U7"'\I""..........,

PIN6 PIN 6 2200

(6 )
+sv
A
:x-{'
LM309K
BOTTOM VIEW

Fig. 3 - At A, optional ac-operated power supply Tl - Surplus filament transformer, l2.6-V l-A
circuit for the Accu-Keyer; At B, an optional secondary rating.
monitor, and at C a circuit for cathode keyi~g. U8 - Full-wave rectifier bridge, l-A 50-V (Moto-
LSl - Miniature speaker, 4-, 8- or 16-ohm Imped- rola 920-2, HEP 175, or equiv,). Four rectifier
ance. diodes in a bridge arrangement may be used
instead.
06 - High-voltage high-current silicon npn power U9 - Voltage-regulator IC, 5-volt (National Semi-
transistor (Delco DTS-801, -802, or -804 or conductor LM309K or equiv.).
equiv.). Ul0 - Signetics NE555 timer IC.
 CODE TRANSMISSION
366

o Ea C
w ALL TRANSISTOR
03 CONNECTIONS

t~~}{ W= WIRE JUMPER

00<1
~
o 0 0'
Fig. 4 - Etching
pattern and
001 0 U2 a
0 0 "
parts·layout dia·
<I Q 0 gram for the
~~~~~ W Accu·Keyer. Pat·
tern is actual

1 le~\R1JE.AsJ
j size, shown from
o 04
!5 \..:Rt1 7
JT
IN
If{
foil side of
board.

Construction and Operation input to remove rf. As shown on the diagram, the
inputs from the paddle are filtered by l50-ohm
A ready-made circuit board is available for the resistors bypassed by .001-JtF capacitors. In stub-
basic circuit of the Accu-Keyer. I Fig. 4 is an born cases it may be necessary to bypass the
actual·size board layout and parts-placement guide. paddle contacts at the paddle itself.
If the builder elects to use none of the optional Substitution of transistors for Ql and Q2 may
circuit features of Fig. 3, the complete keyer may require changing the value of R5 to make the first
be built into a 3 x 2 x 5-inch Minibox. The board clock pulse the same length as the rest. Both
pattern in Fig. 4 contains all parts of Fig. 2 except should be transistors with a beta of at least 60. Q3
the controls, the filter capacitor, and the rectifier is noncritical, and any good silicon transistor
in the power supply. should work. Q4 should be capable of withstanding
It is essential that all leads to the keyer be the transmistter key-up voltage. Any pnp silicon
shielded from rf. RG-174/V coax may be used. A device having a reasonable beta and meeting this
.01-JtF bypass capacitor is provided on the power requirement should work. The value of C 1 may be
I A glas9-epoxy board, pre-drilled, is available
juggled to change the range of the speed control.
for $3.50 from James M. Garrett, WB4VVF, 126 The value specified gives a range of approximately
W. Buchanon, Orlando, FL 32809. 5 to 50 wpm.

A SINGLE-IC ELECTRONIC KEVER

Electronic keyers, depending on the features keyer which uses only a single integrated circuit
they offer, can be quite simple or they can be and a single transistor, yet it makes the sending of
rather complex. This is a simple digital electronic perfect code a rather easy task. The dots and
dashes are self-completing, and code may be sent at
any speed between 10 and 40 wpm with adjust-
ment of the speed control. A weighting control is
provided, too, a desirable feature to compensate
for variations in wave shaping and time sequencing
in different transmitter circuits. Keying is done
with a high-voltage transistor, connected for use
with grid-block-keyed transmitters or transmitters
with equivalent solid-state circuits.
The keyer can be built for approximately $12.
By using batteries to power the circuit, the cost of

The single·le keyer is contained in a 2-118 x 3 x

5-1/4-inch metal box. The power switch is mount-
ed on the ratio or weighting control. Jacks for the
paddle and output keying, located on the rear of
the box, are not visible in this view.
Single-Ie Keyer 367
Because ther~ are relatively few components in the
keyer, there IS ample room even with the batteries
":J0u~ted inside the box. Although an etched
circuit board was used in this keyer built by
~1 RML. perforated board and point·to·point wir·
mg may be used in construction.

a power transformer is eliminated. The IC is

available for approximately $2 at industrial elec-
tronic supply houses.
The method of construction is shown in the
photographs. An etched circuit board was used for
this version, but perforated board and point-to-
point wiring work just as well if one uses care in
making connections to the IC. The builder may
find it desirable to use a socket for the IC rather
than to attempt to solder directly to the icpins.
The controls, jacks, and holders for the batteries with a single-pole switch is not satisfactory as
are mounted directly on the metal box. The IC and current will still flow from the batteries. In' the
the transistor, along with their associated compon- keyer shown in the photographs, SI is located on
ents, are mounted on the circuit board. the rear of the weight control. When the keyer is
The power switch, S 1, must be of a double-pole energized, the response is almost instantaneous, as
type, to provide complete electrical isolation of the there is nothing which must warm up before
negative terminals of the two battery supplies with operation can commence_
power off. Leaving these terminals connected The speed range of the keyer is determined by
together and ungrounding the common connection the values of the two electrolytic capacitors, shown
as 22 j.lF in the schematic diagram. If the builder
desires to change the range, these values may be
changed, always keeping the two equal. Smaller
values will provide for an increase in the range.
390 To avoid the possibility of rf entering the
k~ying enclosure, the key line should be shielded,
With the shield conductor providing the ground
return. Small-diameter coax such as RG-58/U or
RG-59/U, or the smaller RG-174/U, is ideal for this
purpose. The paddle line may be a twisted pair
with shield, and the shield should provide the
ground or common connection at the paddle itself_

~
The two .OI-j.lF bypass capacitors shown for the
paddle leads should be installed where the wires
KEVER from the paddle enter the keyer enclosure.
OUT
(GIlID8LlJCk Bibliography
KEYING)

Source material and more extended discussions

of topics covered in this chapter can be found in
t3.6V the references given below. In addition, a detailed
{L
_ 3 MERe.
bibilography of electronic keyer information is
- CELLS available upon request from ARRL Hq. Please
enclose a stamped self-addressed business-size en-
51:l;t; velope.
Garrett, "The WB4VVF Accu-Keyer," QST, Aug.,
1973 ...
Grammer, "Oscilloscope Setups for Transmitter
Testing," QST, October, 1964; "V. F.O. Stabili-
Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the single·IC keyer; ty _ Recap and postscript," QST, Sept. and
circuit courtesy of W9HFM. Resistances are in Oct., 1966; "Why Key Clicks?" QST Oct.,
ohms; k = 1000. All fixed resistors are 1/2·watt 1966; "Low-Level Blocked-Grid Keying," QST,
1 O-percent tol erance. Nov., 1966.
Q1 - Silicon pnp, 300-mW, 150·V af-amplifier McCoy, "Clicks and Chirps - Let's Clean 'Em
transistor. Up!" QST Sept., 1967; "An R.F.-Actuated
R1, R2 - Linear taper. C.W. Monitor," QST, Nov., 1968; "Simplified
S1 _ Dpst. (Type shown in photograph is Mallory Antenna Switching," QST, April, 1971.
US27, mounted on rear of R2, which is Mallory Wooten, "A Code Practice Oscillator for the
type U6.) Beginner," QST, Nov., 1972.
S2 - Spst toggle_ "A Relay Driver for Use with Solid-State Keyers,"
U1 _ Multifunction RTL IC, 1 !-K flip-flop, 1 Gimmicks and Gadgets, QST, Oct., 1971. Also
inverter, 2 buffers (Motorola MC787P or HEP- Feedback, QST for April, 1972.
C2503P or equiv.l.
Chapter 12

~m[O>~D~'ud<e Modu~<'OJVDon <OJnd

[Q)ouro~<e£3~Dd<ero(O]nd ~hone

As described in the chapter on circuit

fundamentals, the process of modulation sets up
groups of frequencies called sidebands, which
appear symmetrically above and below the
(A) frequency of the unmodulated signal or carrier. If
the instantaneous values of the amplitudes of all
these separate frequencies are added together, the
result is called the modulation envelope. In
amplitude modulation (a-m) the modulation
envelope follows the amplitude variations of the
signal that is used to modulate the wave.
For example, modulation by a 1000-Hz tone
will result in a modulation envelope that varies in
amplitude at a 1000-Hz rate. The actual rf signal
that produces such an envelope consists of three
frequencies - the carrier, a side frequency 1000 Hz
higher, and a side frequency 1000 Hz lower than
the carrier. See Fig. l2-l. These three frequencies
easily can be separated by a receiver hav.ing high
(8) selectivity. In order to reproduce the original
modulation the receiver must hilVe enough
bandwidth to accept the carrier and the sidebands
simultaneously. This is because an a-m detector
responds to the modulation envelope rather than
to the individual signal components, and the
envelope will be distorted in the receiver unless all
the frequency components in the signal go through
without change in their amplitudes.
In the simple case of tone modulation the two
side frequencies and the carrier are constant in
amplitude .' it is only the envelope amplitude that
varies at the modulation rate. With more complex
modulation such as voice or music the amplitudes
and frequencies of the side frequencies vary from
instant to instant. The amplitude of the mod Illa-
(e) tion envelope varies from instant to instant in the
same way as the complex audio-frequency signal
causing the modulation. Even in this case the
carrier amplitude is constant if the transmitter is
properly modulated.

A-M Sidebands and Channel Width

Fig. 12-1 - Spectrum-analyzer display of the rf
output of an a-m transmitter. Frequency is Speech can be electrically reproduced, with
presented on the horizontal axis (7-kHz total high intelligibility, in a band of frequencies lying
display width) versus relative amplitude of the between approximately 100 and 3000 Hz. When
signal component on the vertical axis. Shown at A these frequencies are combined with a radio-fre-
is the unmodulated carrier, which occupies but a quency carrier, the sidebands occupy the frequen-
single frequency. At B the carrier is 20-percent cy spectrum from about 3000 Hz below the carrier
modulated with a 100D-Hz tone. Each sideband frequency to 3000 Hz above - a total band or
may be seen to be at a level approximately 20 dB channel of about 6 kHz.
below the carrier. The signal bandwidth in this case
is twice the modulating frequency, or 2 kHz. Actual speech frequencies extend up to 10,000
Shown at C is the widened channel bandwidth Hz or more, so it is possible to occupy a 20-kHz
resulting from splatter caused by overmodulation. channel if no provision is made for reducing its
New frequencies, audio harmonics of the 1 ODD-Hz width. For communication purposes such a
modulating tone, extend for several kilohertz channel width represents a waste of valuable
either side of the carrier. spectrum space, since a 6-kHz channel is fully

368
 The Modulation Envelope
369
adequate for intelligibility. Occupying more than
the minimum channel creates unnecessary interfer-
ence. (A) T•
1
THE MODULATION ENVELOPE
W"""¥.,oe of
In Fig. 12-2 the drawing at A shows the ~ MotWlating vo/Iaj<
unmodulated rf signal, assumed to be a sine wave ~
of the desired radio frequency. The graph can be
taken to represent either voltage or current.
In B, the signal is assumed to be modulated by
the audio frequency shown in the small drawing
above. This frequency is much lower than the
carrier frequency, a necessary condition for good
~of
modulation. When the modulating voltage is ~ ModuIa.tIng Yo/mg.
"positive," (above its axis) the envelope amplitude
is increased above its unmodulated amplitUde;
when the modulating voltage is "negative," the
V
envelope amplitude is decreased. Thus the envelope
grows larger and smaller with the polarity and
amplitude of the modulating voltage. (c)
The drawing at C shows what happens with
stronger modulation. The envelope amplitude is
doubled at the instant the modulating voltage
reaches its positive peak. On the negative peak of
Fig. 12-2 - Graphical representation of (A) rf
the modulating voltage the envelope amplitude just output unmodulated, (S) modulated 50 percent,
reaches zero. (e) modulated 100 percent. The modulation
Percentage of Modulation envelope is shown by the thin outline on the
modulated wave.
When a modulated signal is detected in a
receiver, the detector output follows the modula-
tion envelope. The stronger the modulation, Power in Modulated Wave
therefore, the greater is the useful receiver output. The amplitude values shown in Fig. 12-2
Obviously, it is desirable to make the modulation correspond to current and voltage, so the drawings
as strong or "heavy" as possible. A wave may be taken to represent instantaneous values of
modulated as in Fig. 12-2C would produce more either. The power in the wave varies as the square
useful audio output than the one shown at B. of either the current or voltage, so at the peak of
The "depth" of the modulation is expressed as the modulation upswing the instantaneous power
a percentage of the unmodulated carrier amplitude. in the envelope of Fig. 12-2C is four times the
In either B or C, Fig. 12-2, X represents the unmodulated carrier power (because the current
unmodulated carrier amplitude, Y is the maximum and voltage both are doubled). At the peak of the
envelope amplitude on the modulation uppeak, downswing the power is zero, since the amplitude
and Z is the minimum envelope amplitude on the is zero. These statements are true of 100-percent
modulation downpeak. modulation no matter what the wave form of the
In a properly operating modulation system the modulation. The instantaneous envelope power in
modulation envelope is an accurate reproduction the modulated signal is proportional to the square
of the modulating wave, as can be seen in Fig. 12-2 of its envelope amplitude at every instant. This fact
at Band C by comparing one side of the outline is highly important in the operation of every
with the shape of the modulating wave. (The lower method of amplitude modulation.
outline duplicates the upper, but simply appears It is convenient, and customary, to describe the
upside down in the drawing.) operation of modulation systems in terms of
The percentage of modulation is sine-wave modulation. Although this wave shape is
seldom actually used in practice (voice wave shapes
% Mod. = Y XX X 100 (upward modulation), or depart very considerably from the sine form) it
lends itself to simple calculations and its use as a
% Mod. = X Xz X 100 (downward modulation) standard permits comparison between systems on a
common basis. With sine-wave modulation the
If the two percentages differ, the larger of the two average power in the modulated signal over any
is customarily specified. If the wave shape of the number of full cycles of the modulation frequency
modulation is such that its peak positive and is found to be 1-1/2 times the power in the
negative amplitudes are equal, then the modulation unmodulated carrier. In other words, the power
percentage will be the same both up and down, and output increases 50 percent with 100-percent
is modulation by a sine wave.
This relationship is very useful in the design of
modulation systems and modulators, because any
%Mod.= ~:~ X 100. such system that is capable of increasing the
average power output by 50 percent with sine-wave
 A-M AND DSB
370
up to the limit of the power-handling capability of
HIt",fo,,,, of the components, but it cannot very well be
/ " HctIuIatiI1f volt4fe
decreased to less than zero. The same thing is true
of the amplitude of an rf signal; it can be
modulated upward to any desired extent, but it
cannot be modulated downward more than 100
percent.
When the modulating wave form is unsymmetri-
cal it is possible for the upward and downward
modulation percentages to be different. A simple
case is shown in Fig. 12-3. The positive peak of the
modulating signal is about 3 times the amplitude of
the negative peak. If, as shown in the drawing, the
modulating amplitude is adjusted so that the peak
downward modulation is just 100 percent (Z = 0)
the peak upward modulation is 300 percent (Y =
4X). The carrier amplitude is represented by X, as
in Fig. 12-2. The modulation envelope reproduces
Fig. 12-3 - Modulation by an unsymmetrical wave the wave form of the modulating signal accurately,
form. This drawi ng shows 100-percent downward hence there is no distortion. In such a modulated
modulation along with 300-percent upward modu- signal the increase in power output with
lation. There is no distortion, since the modulation modulation is considerably greater than it is when
envelope is an accurate reproduction of the wave the modulation is symmetrical. In Fig. 12-3 the
form of the modulating voltage.
peak envelope amplitude, Y, is four times the
modulation automatically fulfills the requirement carrier amplitude, X, so the peak-envelope power
that the instantaneous power at the modulation (PEP) is 16 times the carrier power. When the
uppeak be four times the carrier power. Conse- upward modulation is more than 100 percent the
quently, systems in which the additional power is power capacity of the modulating system obvious-
supplied from outride the modulated rf stage (e.g., ly must be increased sufficiently to take care of the
plate modulation) usually are designed on a much larger peak amplitudes. Such a system of
sine-wave basis as a matter of convenience. modulation, often called "supermodulation," was
Modulation systems in which the additional power popular among amateurs in the early 1950s. (See
is secured from the modulated rf amplifier (e.g., bibliography at the end of this chapter.)
grid modulation) usually are more conveniently
designed on the basis of peak envelope power Overmodulation
rather than average power.
The extra power that is contained in a If the amplitude of the modulation on the
modulated signal goes entirely into the sidebands, downward swing becomes too great, there will be a
half in the upper sideband and half into the lower. period of time during which the rf output is
As a numerical example, full modulation of a entirely cut off. This is shown in Fig. 12-4. The
100-watt carrier by a sine wave will add 50 watts shape of the downward half of the modulating
of sideband power, 25 in the lower and 25 in the wave is no longer accurately reproduced by the
upper sideband. With lower modulation percen- modulation envelope, consequently the modula-
tages, the sideband power is proportional to the tion is distorted. Operation of this type is called
square of the modulation percentage, i.e., overmodulation.
50-percent modulation will add 12.5 watts of The distortion of the modulation envelope
sideband power, 6.25 watts in each sideband. causes new frequencies (harmonics of the modula-
Supplying this additional power for the sidebands ting frequency) to be generated. These combine
is the object of all of the various systems devised
for amplitude modulation.
No such simple relationship exists with
complex wave forms. Complex wave forms such as
speech do not, as a rule, contain as much average
power as a sine wave. Ordinary speech wave forms
have about half as much average power as a sine
wave, for the same peak amplitude in both wave
forms. Thus for the same modulation percentage,
the sideband power with ordinary speech will
average only about half the power with sine-wave
modulation, since it is the peak envelope
amplitude, not the average power, that determines
the percentage of modulation. Fig. 12-4 - An overmodulated signal. The
modulation envelope is not an accurate reproduc-
Unsymmetrical Modulation tion of the wave form of the modulating voltage.
This, or any type of distortion occurring during the
In an ordinary electric circuit it is possible to modulation process, generates spurious sidebands
increase the amplitude of current flow indefinitely, or "splatter."
Plate Modu lation 371
with the carrier to form new side frequencies that that occurs at the zero axis changes the envelope
widen the channel occupied by the modulated wave shape to one that contains high-order
signal, as shown in Fig. 12-1C. These spurious harmonics of the original modulating frequency.
frequencies are commonly called "splatter." These harmonics appear as side frequencies
It is important to realize that the channel separated by, in some cases, many kilohertz from
occupied by an amplitude-modulated signal is the carrier frequency.
dependent on the shape of the modulation Because of this clipping action at the zero axis,
envelope. If this wave shape is complex and can be it is important that care be taken to prevent
resolved into a wide band of audio frequencies, applying too large a modulating signal in the
then the channel occupied will be correspondingly downward direction. Overmodulation downward
large. An overmodulated signal splatters and results in more splatter than is caused by most
occupies a much wider channel than is necessary other types of distortion in a phone transmitter.
because the "clipping" of the modulating wave

AMPLITUDE MODULATION METHODS

circuit by transfer through the coupling trans-
MODULATION SYSTEMS former, T. For 100-percent modulation the audio-
As explained in the preceding section, ampli- frequency power output of the modulator and the
tude modulation of a carrier is accompanied by an turns ratio of the coupling transformer must be
increase in power output, the additional power such that the voltage at the plate of the of the
being the "useful" or "talk power" in the modulated amplifier varies between zero and twice
sidebands. This additional power may be supplied and dc operating plate voltage, thus causing cor-
from an external source in the form of responding variations in the amplitude of the rf
audio-frequency power. It is then added to the output. The tubes of Fig. 12-5 may be replaced
unmodulated power input to the amplifier to be with transistors, either bipolar or FET, for col-
modulated, after which the combined power is lector or drain modulation.
converted to rf. This is the method used in plate or
collector modulation. It has the advantage that the
rf power is generated at the high-efficiency charac-
teristic of Class C amplifiers - of the order of 65
to 75 percent - but has the accompanying
disadvantage that generating the audio-frequency
power is rather expensive.
An alternative that does not require relatively
large amounts of audio-frequency power makes use
of the fact that the power output of an amplifier
can be controlled by varying the potential of a
tube or transistor element - such as a control or
screen grid or a transistor base - that does not, in
itself, consume appreciable power. In this case the
additional power during modulation is secured by
sacrificing carrier power; in other words, a tube is
capable of delivering only so much total power
within its ratings, and if more must be delivered at
full modulation, then less is available for the
unmodulated carrier. Systems of this type must of
necessity work at rather low efficiency at the
unmodulated carrier level. As a practical working
rule, the efficiency of the modulated rf amplifier is
of the order of 30 to 35 percent, and the
unmodulated carrier power output obtainable with
. such a system is only about one-fourth to one-third
that obtainable from the same amplifier with plate
modulation.

PLATE OR COLLECTOR MODULATION Fig. 12-5 - Plate modulation of .a Class. C rf

amplifier. The rf plate bypass capacitor, ~, In the
Fig. 12-5 shows a system of plate modulation, amplifier stage should have reasonably high react-
in this case with a triode rf tube. A balanced ance at audio frequencies. A value of the order of
(push-pull Class A, Class AB or Class B) modulator .001 IlF to .005 IlF is satisfactory in practi.cally all
is transformer coupled to the plate circuit of the cases for vacuum-tube circuits. A conSiderably
modulated rf amplifier. The audio-frequency higher value will be required if the vacuum tubes
power generated by the modulator is combined are replaced by transistors - in the order of a few
with the dc power in the modulated-amplifier plate microfarads.
 A-M AND DSB
372
Audio Power
As stated earlier, the average power output of
the modulated stage must increase during modula-
tion. The modulator must be capable of supplying
to the modulated rf stage sine-wave audio power
equal to 50 percent of the dc input power. F~r
example, if the dc input power to the rf stage IS
100 watts, the sine-wave audio power output of
the modulator must be 50 watts.
Although the total power input (dc plus audio-
frequency ac) increases with modulation, the dc
plate or collector current of a modulated amplifier
should not change when the stage is modulated.
This is because each increase in voltage and current Fig. 12-6 - Plate and screen modulation of a Class
is balanced by an equivalent decrease in voltage C rf amplifier using a screen-grid tube. The plate rf
and current on the next half cycle of the modula- bypass capacitor, C1, should have reasonably high
ting wave. Dc instruments cannot follow the af reactance at all audio frequencies; a value of .001
variations, and since the average dc plate or to .005 fJ.F is generally satisfactory. The screen
collector current and voltage of a properly opera- bypass, C2, should not exceed .002 fJ.F in the usual
ted amplifier do not change, neither do the meter case.
readings. A change in current with modulation
indicates nonlinearity. On the other hand, a ther- screen currents. The plate voltage multiplied by the
mocouple rf ammeter connected in the antenna, or sum of the two currents gives the power input to
transmission line, will show an increase in rf be used as the basis for determining the audio
current with modulation, because instruments of power required from the modulator.
this type respond to power rather than to current Modulation of the screen along with the plate is
or voltage. necessary because the screen voltage has a much
greater effect on the plate current than the plate
Modulating Impedance; Linearity voltage does. The modulation characteristic is
nonlinear if the plate alone is modulated.
The modulating impedance, or load resistance
presented to the modulator by the modulated rf
amplifier, is equal to Choke-Coupled or Heising Modulation
Zm = ~b X 1000 ohms One of the oldest types of plate modulating
p systems is the choke-coupled Class A or Heising
modulator shown in Fig. 12-7. Because of the
where Eb =Dc plate or collector voltage relatively low power output and plate efficiency of
I =Dc plate or collector current (mA)
Eb and fp are measured without modulation. a Class A amplifier, the method is rarely used now
except for a few special applications.
The power output of the rf amplifier must vary The audio power output of the modulator is
as the square of the instantaneous plate or col- combined with the dc power in the plate circuit
lector voltage (the rf output voltage must be through the modulation choke, Ll, which has a
proportional to the plate or collector voltage) for high impedance at audio frequencies. This
the modulation to be linear. This will be the case technique of modulating the rf signal is similar to
when the amplifier operates under Class C con- the case of the transformer-coupled modulator but
ditions. The linearity depends upon having suf- there is considerably less freedom in adjustment
ficient grid or base excitation and proper bias, and since no transformer is available for matching
upon the adjustment or circuit constants to the impedances. The dc input power to the rf stage
proper values. must not exceed twice the rated af power output
of the modulator, and for lOO-percent modulation
Screen-Grid RF Amplifiers the plate voltage on the modulator must be higher
Screen-grid tubes of the pentode or beam-tet- than the plate voltage on the rf amplifier. This is
rode type can be used in Class C plate-modulated because the af voltage developed by the modulator
amplifiers by applying the modulation to both the cannot swing to zero without a great deal of
plate and screen grid. The usual method of feeding distortion. R 1 provides the necessary dc voltage
the screen grid with the necessary dc and drop between the modulator and the rf amplifier.
modulation voltages is shown in Fig. 12-6. The The voltage drop across this resistor must equal the
dropping resistor, R, should be of the proper value minimum instantaneous plate voltage on the
to apply normal dc voltage to the screen under modulator tube under normal operating condi-
steady carrier conditions. Its value can be tions. CI, an audio-frequency bypass across RI,
calculated by taking the difference between plate should have a capacitance such that its reactance at
and screen voltages and dividing it by the rated 100 Hz is not more than about one-tenth the
screen current. resistance of Rl. Without RI-CI the percentage of
The modulating impedance is found by dividing modulation is limited to 70 to 80 percent in the
the dc plate voltage by the sum of the plate and average case.
 Grid Modulation
373
!he modulator is required to furnish only the
CLASS C audio power dissipated in the modulated grid
AMP.
unde~ the operating conditions chosen. A speech
amplifier capable of delivering 3 to 10 watts is
usually sufficient.
Grid .modulation does not give quite as linear a
modulation characteristic as plate modulation
even under optimum operating conditions. Whe~
misadjusted the nonlinearity may be severe
Cl resulting in considerable distortion and splatter. '

Screen Grid Modulation

Screen modulation is probably the simplest and
most popular form of grid modulation, and the
least critical of adjustment. The most satisfactory
way to apply the modulating voltage to the screen
is through a transformer.
AUDIO With practical tubes it is necessary to drive the
INPUT screen somewhat negative with respect· to the
cathode to get complete cutoff of rf output. For
this reason the peak modulating voltage required
for 100-percent modulation is usually 10 percent
or so greater than the dc screen voltage. The latter,
in turn, is approximately half the rated screen
Fig. 12-7 - Choke-coupled Class A modulator. The
modulation choke, L1, should have a value of 5 H voltage recommended by the manufacturer under
or more. A value of .001 to .005 /J.F is satisfactory maximum ratings for radiotelegraph operation. The
for C2. See text for discussion of C1 and R1. audio power required for 100-percent modulation
is approximately one-fourth the dc power input to
the screen in cw operation, but varies somewhat
with the operating conditions.

GRID MODULATION Controlled Carrier

The principal disadvantage of plate modulation As explained earlier, a limit is placed on the
is that a considerable amount of audio power is output obtainable from a grid-modulation system
necessary. This requirement can be avoided by by the low rf-amplifier plate efficiency (approxi-
applying the modulation to a grid element in the mately 33 percent) under unmodulated carrier
modulated amplifier. However, serious disadvan-
tages of grid modulation are the reduction in the
carrier power output obtainable from a given rf
amplifier tube and the more rigorous operating
requirements and more complicated adjustment. .~'·T-'· __
INPUT
The term "grid modulation" as used here TO salEEM
applies to all types - control grid, screen, or
suppressor - since the operating principles are
1 SUPl'LY

exactly the same no matter which grid is actually

modulated. (Screen-grid modulation is the most
commonly used technique of the three types listed
here.) With grid modulation the plate voltage is
constant, and the increase in power output with
modulation is obtained by making both the plate
current and plate efficiency vary with the
modulating signal. The efficiency obtainable at the
envelope peak depends on how carefully the
modulated amplifier is adjusted, and sometimes
can be as high as 80 percent. It is generally less
when the amplifier is adjusted for good linearity, Fig. 12-8 - Circuit for carrier control with screen
and under average conditions a round figure of 2/3, modulation. A small triode such as the 6C4 can be
or 66 percent, is representative. The efficiency used as the control amplifier and a 6Y6G is
without modulation is only half the peak suitable as a carrier-control tube. T1 is an
interstage audio transformer having a 1-to-1 or
efficiency, or about 33 percent. This low average larger turns ratio. R4 is a 0.5-megohm volume
efficiency reduces the permisSible carrier ou tpu t to control and also serves as the grid resistor for the
about one-fourth the power obtainable from the modulator. A germanium diode may be used as the
same tube in cw operation, and to about one-third rectifier. R3 may be the normal screen dropping
the carrier output obtainable from the tube with resistor. C 1- Rl and C2-R3 should have a time
plate modulation. constant of about 0.1 second.
 A-M AND DSB
374
conditions. The plate efficiency increases with the rated plate dissipation of the tube, twice the
modulation since the output increases while the dc output obtainable with constant carrier.
input remahts constant, and reaches a maximum in It is desirable to control the power input just
the neighborhood of 50 percent with 100-percent enough so that the plate loss, without modulation,
sine-wave modulation. If the power input to the is safely below the tube rating. Excessive control is
amplifier can be reduced during periods when there disadvantageous because the distant receiver's avc
is little or no modulation, thus reducing the plate system must continually follow the variations .in
loss, advantage can be taken of the higher average signal level. The circuit of Fig. 12-S permIts
efficiency at full modulation to obtain higher adjustment of both the maximum and minimum
effective output. This can be done by varying the power input, and separates the functions of modu-
dc power input to the modulated stage in lation and carrier control. A portion of the audio
accordance with average variations in voice voltage at the modulator grid is applied to a Class
intensity, in such a way as to maintain just A "control amplifier," which drives a rectifier
sufficient carrier power to keep the modulation circuit to produce a dc voltage negative with
high, but not exceeding 100 percent, under all respect to ground. Cl filters out the audio varia-
conditions. Thus the carrier amplitude is controlled tions, leaving a dc voltage proportional to the
by the average voice intensity. Properly utilized, average voice level. This voltage is applied to the
controlled carrier permits increasing the carrier grid of a "clamp" tube to control the dc screen
output at maximum level to a value about equal to voltage and thus the rf carrier level.

DOUBLE-SIDEBAND GENERATORS

The a-m carrier can be suppressed or nearly Past issues of QST have given construction details
eliminated by using a balanced modulator. The on such transmitters (see, for example, Rush,
basic principle in any balanced modulator is to "ISO-Watt D.S.B. Transmitter," QST July, 1966).
introduce the carrier in such a way that it does not A dsb signal can be copied by the same methods
appear in the output but so that the sidebands will. that are used for single-sideband signals, provided
This requirement is satisfied by introducing the the receiver has sufficient selectivity to reject one
audio in push-pull and the rf drive in parallel, and of the sidebands. In any balanced-modulator
connecting the output in push-pull. Balanced circuit, no rf output will exist with no audio signal.
modulators can also be connected with the rf drive When audio is applied, the balance of the
and audio inputs in push-pull and the output in modulator is upset so that sum and difference
parallel with equal effectiveness. frequencies (sidebands) appear at the output.
Vacuum-tube balanced modulators can be Further information on balanced modulators is
operated at high power levels and the double-side- presented in Chapter 13.
band output can be used directly into the antenna.

CHECKING A-M PHONE OPERATION

USING THE OSCILLOSCOPE that follows the modulation envelope of the

Proper adjustment of a phone transmitter is transmitter output, provided the sweep frequency
aided immeasurably by the oscilloscope. The scope is lower than the modulation frequency. This
will give more information, more accurately, than produces a wave-envelope modulation pattern.
almost any collection of other instruments that
might be named. Furthermore, an oscilloscope that The Wave-Envelope Pattern
is entirely satisfactory for the purpose is not The connections for the wave-envelope pattern
necessarily an expensive instrument; the cathode- are shown in Fig. 12-9A. The vertical deflection
ray tube and its power supply are about all that are plates are coupled to the amplifier tank coil (or an
needed. Amplifiers and linear sweep circuits are by antenna coil) through a low-impedance (coax,
no means necessary. twisted pair, etc.) line and pickup coil. As shown in
In the simplest scope circuit, radio-frequency the alternative drawing, a resonant circuit tuned to
voltage from the modulated amplifier is applied to the operating frequency may be connected to the
the vertical deflection plates of the tube, usually vertical plates, using link coupling between it and
through blocking capacitors, and audio-frequency the transmitter. This will eliminate rf harmonics,
voltage from the modulator is applied to the and the tuning control provides a means for
horizontal deflection plates. As the instantaneous adjustment of the pattern height.
amplitude of the audio signal varies, the rf output If it is inconvenient to couple to the final tank
of the transmitter likewise varies, and this produces coil, as may be the case if the transmitter is tightly
a wedge-shaped pattern or trapezoid on the screen. shielded, the pickup loop may be coupled to the
If the oscilloscope has a built-in horizontal sweep, tuned tank of a matching circuit or antenna
the rf voltage can be applied to the vertical plates coupler. Any method (even a short antenna
as before, and the sweep will produce a pattern coupled to the tuned circuit shown in the
 Checking A-m Phone Operation
375
"~te~ate input connections" of Fig. 12-9A) that AnI. Circuit
will pIck up enough rf to give a suitable pattern
height may be used.
The position of the pickup coil should be varied
until an unmodulated carrier pattern, Fig. 12-10A,
of suitable height is obtained. The horizontal
sweep voltage should be adjusted to make the (A)
U
~
Idwp Loop To
v.,tlcal
PIa,..

width of the pattern somewhat more than half the

diameter of the screen. When voice modulation is

~rrV~~IC"
applied, a rapidly changing pattern of varying
height will be obtained. When the maximum height
of this pattern is just twice that of the carrier ~L.J.-Pla'"
AIIonIa!o _ _ 1001
alone, the wave is being modulated 100 percent.
This is illustrated by Fig. 12-1OC.
If the height is greater than twice the unmodu-
lated carrier amplitude, as illustrated in Fig.
12-10D, the wave is overmodulated in the upward
direction. Overmodulation in the downward direc-
tion is indicated by a gap in the pattern at the
2J @
~
lekUP Loop To
reference axis, where a single bright line appears on V.rtlcal
1'10...
the screen. Overmodulation in either direction may
take place even when the modulation in the other
direction is less than 100 percent.

The Trapezoidal Pattern

Connections for the trapezoid or wedge pattern
as used for checking a-m are shown in Fig. 12-9B.
The vertical plates of the CR tube are coupled to
the transmitter tank through a pickup loop,
preferably using a tuned circuit, as shown in the
Fig. 12-9 Methods of connecting the
upper drawing, adjustable to the operating oscilloscope for modulation checking. A -
frequency. Audio voltage from the modulator is connections for wave-envelope pattern with any
applied to the horizontal plates through a voltage modulation method; B - connections for trape-
divider, RI-R2. This voltage should be adjustable zoidal pattern with plate or screen modulation.
so a suitable pattern width can be obtained; a
0.25-megohm volume control can be used at R2
for this purpose.
The resistance required at Rl will depend on the modulation percentage, the wider and more
the dc voltage on the modulated element. The total pointed the wedge becomes. At 100-percent modu-
resistance of Rl and R2 in series should be about lation it just makes a point at one end of the
0.25 megohm for each 100 volts. For example, if a horizontal axis, and the height at the other end is
plate-modulated amplifier operates at 1500 volts, equal to twice carrier height. Overmodulation in
the total resistance should be 3.75 megohms, 0.25 the upward direction is indicated by increased
megohm at R2 and the remainder, 3.5 megohms, in height, at one end, and downward by an extension
Rl. Rl should be composed of individual resistors along the horizontal axis at the pointed end.
not larger than 0.5 megohm each, in which case
I-watt resistors will be satisfactory.
For adequate coupling at 100 Hz, the CHECKING A-M TRANSMITTER
capacitance in microfarads of the blocking
PERFORMANCE
capacitor, C, should be at least .05/R, where R is
the total resistance (Rl + R2) in megohms. In the The trapezoidal pattern is generally more useful
example above, where R is 3.75 megohms, the than the wave-envelope pattern for checking the
capacitance should be .05/3.75 = .013 [..IF or operation of the phone transmitter. However, both
more. The voltage rating of the capacitor should be types of patterns have their special virtues, and the
at least twice the dc voltage applied to the best test setup is one that makes both available.
modulated element. The trapezoidal pattern is better adapted to
Trapeziodal patterns for various conditions of showing the performance of a modulated amplifier
modulation are shown in Fig. 12-10,each alongside from the standpoint of inherent linearity, without
the corresponding wave-envelope pattern. With no regard to the wave form of the audio modulating
signal, only the cathode-ray spot appears on the signal, than is the wave-envelope pattern. Distor-
screen. When the un modulated carrier is applied, a tion in the audio signal also can be detected in the
vertical line appears; the length of the line should trapezoidal pattern, although experience in analyz-
be adjusted, by means of the pickup-coil coupling, ing scope patterns is required to recognize it.
to a convenient value. When the carrier is modula- If the wave-envelope pattern is used with a
ted, the wedge-shaped pattern appears; the higher sine-wave audio modUlating signal, distortion in the
 A-M AND DSB
376
modulation envelope is easily recognizable; how-
ever it is difficult to determine whether the
dist~rtion is caused by lack of linearity of the rf
stage or by af distortion in the ~od~lat~r. If the
trapezoidal pattern shows g?o.d hneanty. III such a
case, the trouble obviously 1S III the audio system.
It is possible, of course, for both defects t~ . be
present simultaneously. If they are, the ~f amplif1~r
should be made linear first; then any distortion III

~ ...
the modulation envelope will be the result of
improper operation in the speech amplifier or
modulator, or in coupling the modulator to the

~,.
modulated rf stage.

Rf Linearity
The trapezoidal pattern is a graph of the
modulation characteristic of the modulated ampli-
fier. The sioping sides of the wedge show the rf
amplitude for every value of instantaneous
modulating voltage. If these sides are perfectly
straight lines, the modulation characteristic is
linear. If the sides show curvature, the characteris-
tic is nonlinear to an extent shown by the degree
to which the sides depart from perfect straightness.
This is true regardless of the modulating wave
form. If these edges tend to bend over toward the
horizontal at the maximum height of the wedge,
the amplifier is "flattening" on the modulation
uppeaks. This is usually caused by attempting to
get too large a carr;er output, and can be corrected
by tighter coupling to the antenna or by a decrease
in the dc screen voltage. The slight "tailing off' at
the modulation down peak (point of the wedge)
can be minimized by careful adjustment of excita-
tion and plate loading.
Several types of improper operation are shown
in Fig. 12-10. The patterns at E show the effect of
a too long time constant in the screen circuit, in an
amplifier getting its screen voltage through a
dropping resistor, both plate and screen being
modulated. The "double-edged" pattern is the
result of audio phase shift in the screen circuit
combined with varying screen-to-cathode resistance
during modulation. This effect can be reduced by
reducing the screen bypass capacitance, and also by
connecting resistance (to be determined experi-
mentally, but of the same order as the screen
dropping resistance) between screen and cathode.
The pictures at the bottom, F, show the effect
of insufficient audio power. Although the trape-
zoidal pattern shows good linearity in ilie rf
Fig. 12-10 - Oscilloscope patterns showing various amplifier, ilie wave-envelope pattern shows flatten-
forms of modulation of an rf amplifier. At left, ed peaks (both positive and negative) in ilie
wave-envelope patterns; at right, corresponding modulation envelope even iliough ilie audio signal
trapezoidal patterns. The wave-envelope patterns applied to ilie amplifier was a sine wave. More
were obtained with a linear oscilloscope sweep speech-amplifier gain merely increases ilie flatten-
having a frequency one-third that of the sine-wave ing wiiliout increasing ilie modulation percentage
audio modulating frequency, so that three cycles in such a case. The remedy is to use a larger
of the modulation envelope may be seen. Shown at
A is an un modulated carrier, at B approximately modulator or less input to ilie modulated rf stage.
50-percent modulation, and at C, 100-percent In some cases ilie trouble may be caused by an
modulation. The photos at 0 show modulation in incorrect modulation-transformer turns ratio, caus-
excess of 100 percent. E and F show the results of ing ilie modulator to be overloaded before its
improper operation or circuit design. See text. maximum power output capabilities are reached.
 General-Purpose Amplitude Modulators 377
GENERAL-PURPOSE AMPLITUDE MODULATORS

The two modulator circuits shown in Figs. output transistors are operated at zero bias,
12-11 and 12-12 can be employed to deliver from providing excellent dc stability. Elaborate regulat-
3 to 70 watts of audio power. The basic designs are ed power supplies are not required. The comple-
taken from RCA's Audio Design Phase 2. The mentary-symmetry amplifier is limited to about 20
complementary-symmetry circuit, Fig. 12-11, is watts output because of the high level of heat that
characterized by a Class A driver and a the driver stage must dissipate. Component values
complementary pair (npn/pnp) of output transis- and transistor types are given in Table 12-1 for 3-,
tors. The primary advantages of this circuit are 5-,12-, and 20-watt designs.
simplicity and economy. Common conduction is For higher power levels, the quasi-comple-
minimized because the transistor which is "off" mentary circuit (Fig. 12-12) is usually chosen. Here
during half of the audio cycle is reverse biased. The a Class A predriver feeds a Class B npn/pnp driver

TABLE 12-1

PARTS VALUES FOR COMPLEMENTARY - SYMMETRY CIRCUIT

Power C3 C6
(WQtu) RI R3 R5 R7 R8 R9 RIO RI3 RI4 RI6 R/7 CI.!!'~~ __ ..!'!. Q4 Q5 Q6 TI
3 91k 68k 2.7k 3_9k 620 33k 5.6k 120 150 22 22k 0.1/6V 10 100 40611 40610 40609 ISV,IA (Stam:or TP4)
51k 68k 3.3k 3.9k 620 27k 3.6k 110 110 27 22k 0.25/6V 5 150 40616 40615 40614 17V,IA (StlillCor 11'4)
OW) (lW)
12 16k 91k 7.5k 2.7k 390 18k 1.8k 91 91 56 1/6V 10 220 40389 40622 40050 2SV.IA (Stancor TP-4)
(2W) (2W)
20 B.2k 91k 8.2k 2.2k 360 22k 1.3k 100 100 10Q 2/6V 10 270 40628 40627 40626 32V,1A (C. P. Eke. 10596)
(2W) (2W)

TABLE 12-11
PARTS VALUES FOR QUASI-COMPLEMENTARY-SYMMETRY CIRCUIT
Power R22 Q6
(Watts) R3 R7 R8 RlO Rll R23 Q4 Q5 Q7 Tl
25 12k 680 1800 2200 270 0.43(5W) 2N3568 2N3638 40632 37V 1.5A (c. P. Elec. 10596)
40 15k 560 2200 2700 390 0.39(5W) 40635 40634 40633 46V 2A (C. P. Elec. 10596)
70 18k 470 2700 3300 470 0.33(5W) 40594 40595 40636 60V 2.5A (C. P. E1ec. 10598)

27K RI2

4700
R7 RI3

RI TO MO~.
TZ STAGE

Rll
IIC+

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS {pF J; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARA OS {pF OR ppFl;
Fig_ 12-11 - General-purpose amplitude ~odula!or
RESISTANCES ARE iN OHMS, for 3 to 20 watts of audio power_ Capacitors With
k .,000. Mol 000 000 polarity indicated are electrolytic. See Table 12-1
for parts not listed below.
Sl - Spst toggle.
T2 - See text.
-----------------~ --------- - ---

378 A-M AND DSB

lN3754
leo

10K

40673

L-__________________ + __________ ____________

L-~__~~~~__~~~~------~-----4--~--~~ .~
...JC16;r, SOy
~

El(CEP'T AS INDICATED, D£CIMAL

VALUES Of CAPACITANCE ARE
.. MICROFARADS t ".',; OTHERS
ME IN IlICOfMAOSI,F OR J1J1":
IltESlSTANCES AM IN OHMS;
11-,000.,.-1000000

Fig. 12-12 - General-purpose amplitude modulator L1 - J. W. Miller 4622 or equiv.

for 25 to 70 watts of audio power. Capacitors with S1 - Spst toggle.
polarity indicated are electrolytic. See Table 12-11 T2 - See text.
for parts not listed below.

pair, which, in tum, activates the npn output Bibliography

transistors. The danger of damage to the output
stage from a short circuit is high, so protection is Audio Design Phase 2, RCA, Somerville, NJ, 1970.
included. Table l2-11 includes parts information for Preiss, "The '2-Meter QRP Mountain Topper',"
three power levels: 25, 40, and 70 watts. QST, May, 1970.
All amplifiers are designed for an 8-ohm ~ush, "180-Watt D. S. B. Transmitter," QST,
output, so T2 can be a standard audio output July, 1966.
transformer in "reverse." The secondary impe- Villard, " 'Supermodulation' - An Evaluation and
dance will depend on the impedance of the stage to Explanation," QST, December, 1950.
be modulated.
 Chapter 13

Single...,Sideband Transmission
GENERATING THE SSB frequencies in the output and hence minimize the
SIGNAL possibility of unwanted radiations. (Examples of
A fully modulated a-m signal has two thirds of filter-type exciters can be found in various issues of
QST and in Single Sideband for the Radio
its power in the carrier and only one third in the Amateur.)
sidebands. The sidebands carry the intelligence to
be transmitted; the carrier "goes along for the Phasing Method
ride" and serves only to demodulate the signal at The second system is based on the phase
the receiver. By eliminating the carrier and relationships between the carrier and sidebands in a
transmitting only the sidebands, or just one modulated signal. As shown in the diagram, the
sideband, the available transmitter power is used to audio signal is split into two components that are
greater advantage. To recover the intelligence being identical except for a phase difference of 90
transmitted, the carrier must be reinserted at the degrees. The output of the rf oscillator (which may
receiver, but this is no great problem with a proper be at the operating frequency, if desired) is
detector circuit. likewise split into two separate components having
Assuming that the same final-amplifier tube or a 90-degree phase difference. One rf and one audio
tubes are used either for normal a-m or for component are combined in each of two separate
single sideband, carrier suppressed, it can be shown balanced modulators. The carrier is suppressed in
that the use of ssb can give an effective gain of up the modulators, and the relative phases of the
to 9 dB over a-m - equivalent to increasing the sidebands are such that one sideband is balanced
transmitter power 8 times. Eliminating the carrier out and the other is augmented in the combined
also eliminates the heterodyne interference that so output. If the output from the balanced
often spoils communication in congested phone modulators is high enough, such an ssb exciter can
bands. work directly into the antenna, or the power level
Filter Method can be increased in a following amplifier.
Two basic systems for generating ssb signals are
shown in Fig. 13-2. One involves the use of a
Generally, the filter-type exciter is easier to
adjust than is the phasing exciter. Most home built
ssb equipment uses commercially made filters these
I
bandpass fllter having sufficient selectivity to pass days. The alignment is done at the factory, thus
one sideband and reject the other. Mechanical relieving the amateur of the sometimes tedious task
filters are available for frequencies below 1 MHz. of adjusting the fIlter for suitable bandpass
From 0.2 to 10 MHz, good sideband rejection can characteristics. Filter-type exciters are more
be obtained with filters using four or more quartz popular than phasing units and offer better carrier
crystals. Oscillator output at the filter frequency is suppression and alignment stability. It is still
combined with the audio signal in a balanced practical for the builder to fabricate his own
modulator, and only the upper and lower crystal-lattice filter by utilizing low-cost surplus
sidebands appear in the output. One of the crystals. This possibility should not be overlooked
sidebands is passed by the filter and the other if the builder is interested in keeping the overall
rejected, so that an ssb signal is fed to the mixer. cost of the home-built exciter at a minimum.
The signal is mixed with the output of a
high-frequency rf oscillator to produce the desired BALANCED MODULATORS
output frequency. For additional amplification a
linear rf amplifier must be used. When the ssb The carrier can be suppressed or nearly
signal is generated around 500 kHz it may be eliminated by using a balanced modulator or an
necessary to convert twice to reach the operating extremely sharp filter. In ssb transmitters it is
frequency, since this simplifies the problem of common practice to use both devices. The basic
rejecting the "image" frequencies resulting from principle of any balanced modulator is to
the heterodyne process. The problem of image
frequencies in the frequency conversions of ssb
signals differs from the problem in receivers
because the beating-oscillator frequency becomes
important. Either balanced mixers or sufficient
selectivity must be used to attenuate these

Fig. 13-1 - Single sideband is the most popular of

all the modes for amateur hf communication.
 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
380
FILTER GENERATOR ANT.

NOTE: Fig. 13-2 - Two ba-.

ArrowS indicate sic systems for gen-
di~ection of erating si ngle-side-
(A) Signal. band suppressed car-
rier signals.
PHASING GENERATOR
ANT.

introduce the carrier in such a way that it does not ohmmeter can be used to select matched pairs or
appear in the output, but so that the sidebands quads.
wilL The type of balanced-modulator circuit One of the simplest diode balanced modulators
chosen by the builder will depend upon the in use is that of Fig. 13-3A. Its use is usually
constructional considerations, cost, and whether limited to low-cost portable equipment in which a
diodes or transistors are to be employed. high degree of carrier suppression is not vitaL A
In any balanced-modulator circuit there will be ring balanced modulator, shown in Fig. 13-3B,
no output with no audio signal. When audio is offers good carrier suppression at low cost. Diodes
applied, the balance is upset, and one branch will CRl through CR4 should be well matched and can
conduct more than the other. Since any modula- be 1 N270s or similar. Cl is adjusted for best rf
tion process is the same as "mixing" in receivers, phase balance as evidenced by maximum carrier
sum and difference frequencies (sidebands) will be null. R 1 is also adjusted for the best carrier null
generated. The. modulator is not balanced for the obtainable. It may be necessary to adjust each
sidebands, and they will appear in the output. control several times to secure optimum suppres-
In the rectifier-type balanced modulators sion.
shown in Fig. 13-3, at A and B, the diode rectifiers Varactor diodes are part pf the unusual circuit
are connected in such a manner that, if they have shown in Fig. 13-3C. This arrangement allows
equal forward resistances, no rf can pass from the single-ended input of near-equallevels of audio and
carrier source to the output circuit via either of the carrier oscillator. Excellent carrier suppression, 50
two possible paths. The net effect is that no rf dB or more, and a simple method of unbalancing
energy appears in the output. When audio is the modulator for cw operation are features of this
applied, it unbalances the circuit by biasing the design. CRI and CR2 should be rated at 20 pF for
diode (or diodes) in one path, depending upon the a bias of -4 V. Rl can be adjusted to cancel any
instantaneous polarity of the audio, and hence mismatch in the diode characteristics, so it isn't
some rf will appear in the output. The rf in the necessary that the varactors be well matched. Tl is
output will appear as a double-sideband suppres- wound on a small-diameter toroid core. The tap on
sed-carrier signaL the primary winding of this transformer is at the
In any diode modulator, the rf voltage should center of the winding.
be at least 6 to 8 times the peak audio voltage for A bipolar-transistor balanced modulator is
minimum distortion. The usual operation involves shown in 13-3D. This circuit is similar to one used
a fraction of a volt of audio and several volts of rf. by Galaxy Electronics and uses closely matched
Desirable diode characteristics for balanced modu- transistors at Ql and Q2. A phase splitter (inverter)
lator and mixer service include: low noise, low Q3, is used to feed audio to the balanced
forward resistance, high reverse resistance, good modulator in push-pull. The carrier is supplied to
temperature stability, arid fast switching time (for the circuit in parallel and the output is taken in
high-frequency operation). Fig. 13-4 lists the push-pull. CRI is a Zener diode and is used to
different classes of diodes, giving the ratio of stabilize the dc voltage. Controls Rl and R2 are
forward-to-reverse resistance of each. This ratio is adjusted for best carrier suppression.
an important criterion in the selection of diodes. The circuit at E offers superior carrier
Also. the individual diodes used should have suppression and uses a 7360 beam-deflection tube
closely matched forward and reverse resistances; an as a balanced modulator. This tube is capable of
 BAL. MOD.
FROM
CARRIER OJ
I»

~"
Qj'
::l
BAL.
MOD. £c.
1N191
t12V ~
o
c.
c
Qj'
r+
1N191 1000 o
~~~~CHo-----+.I Cl ,{.
100
BAL.
FTr ~?a;:BANO
3~ ~
en
AMP. r-1 I FILTER

1000

(AI

+12V
AUDIO
AMP. + '2V.

TO 1st.
MIXER
~~u~o--Ji I,
.OlV
rI
BAL. MOD.

K
T0 9"Hz'
A"P. OR
45 FILTER

(Bl

BAL. Mon
t9VO ,

~~~~o--il+
l ... F
15V
470

-
Fig. 13-3 -- Typical circuits of balanced modula- CAl
tors. Representative parts values are given and CO
should serve as a basis for designing one's own
equipment.
(el
382 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
100 mV of injection is about optimum, producing
Ratio up to 55 dB of carrier suppression. Additional
Diode Type (M = 1,000,000) information on balanced modulators and other
Point-contact germanium (lN98) 500 ssb-genera tor circuits is given in the texts
Small-junction germanium (lN270) O.lM referenced at the end of this chapter.
Low-conductance silicon (lN457) 48M
High-conductance silicon (1 N645) 480M FILTERS
Hot-(,~Trier (HPA-2800) 2000M A home-built crystal lattice filter suitable for
use in an ssb generator is shown in Fig. 13-7. This
unit is composed of three half-lattice sections, with
Fig. 13-4 - Table showing the forward-to-reverse 2 crystals in each section, made with surplus hf
resistance ratio for the different classes of crystals. The 330-ohm resistor between sections
solid-state diodes.
two and three reduces interaction and smooths the
passband response. The leakage reactance between
providing as much as 60 dB of carrier suppression. the two halves of L2 and L3 is tuned out by the
When used with mechanical or crystal-lattice filters capacitors connected in series with the center taps
the total carrier suppression can be as great as 80 of these coils. L1 and L4, the input and output
dB. Most well-designed balanced modulators can coils, resonate with the calculated value of
provide between 30 and 50 dB of carrier terminating capacitance at 5060 kHz and reflect
suppression; hence the 7360 circuit is highly the needed inductance across the crystals. The
desirable for optimum results. The primary of 2000-ohm resistors complete the termination.
transformer T1 should be bifilar wound for best All the crystals were purchased as 5500-kHz
results. FT-243s and etched to the desired frequencies with
hydrofluoric acid. It is best to wash each crystal
IC Balanced Modulators with soap and water and measure its frequency
Integrated circuits (ICs) are presently available before etching. The crystals in each set of three
for use in balanced-modulator and mixer circuits. should be as close to each other in frequency as
A diode array such as the RCA CA3039 is ideally possible, and the separation between the two
suited for use in circuits such as that of Fig. 13-5A. groups should be about 1500 Hz.
Since all diodes are formed on a common silicon Tuning the filter is quite simple sirice all four
chip, their characteristics are extremely well adjustements can be peaked for maximum output
matched. This fact makes the IC ideal in a circuit at a fixed alignment frequency. This frequency
where good balance is required. The hot-carrier should be on the high side of the pass band and can
diode also has closely matched characteristics and be the carrier frequency used for lower-sideband
excellent temperature stability. Using broad-band transmission (5505.5 kHz in the case of the filter
toroidal-wound transformers, it is possible to described). Using the carrier frequency it is only
construct a circuit similar to that of Fig. 13-6 necessary to unbalance the balanced modulator to
which will have 40 dB of carrier suppression obtain a cw alignment signal. Of course, a signal
without the need for balance controls. T1 and T2 generator and rf-probe-equipped VTVM can also be
consist of trifilar windings, 12 turns of No. 32 used. C1, C2, L1 and L4 are adjusted for maximum
enam. wire wound on a 1/2-inch toroid core. output.
Another device with good inherent balance is the A slightly better shape factor can be had by
special IC made for modulator/mixer service, such detuning the carrier oscillator to a lower alignment
as the Motorola MC1496G or Signetics S5596. A frequency corresponding to about the 4-dB-down
sample circuit using the MC1496 can be seen in point on the high-frequency side of the pass band.
Fig. 13-5B. Rl is adjusted for best carrier balance. Fig. 13-8 shows the measured performance of the
The amount of energy delivered from the carrier filter when aligned at 5505.2 kHz. The 6-dB
generator effects the level of carrier suppression; bandwidth is 2750 Hz.

820 1200
....---r---'\M--r--.---...JVVIr_-.--.--<l + 12V
.1 +!QM
J:J: 15V 10K 2700

OSC.
e (60 m_V_)_---I'---.::!J
0

AU~
(300mV)
(A)
Fig. 13-5 - Additional balanced-
modulator circuits in which inte-
(B)
grated circuits are used.
 Filter Applications
383
BALANCED MODULATOR FREQUENCY.Hz
(4 ea) HPA-S082-5826
~'Ol

liPZM]rg~:M
"03 '504 5505 5506
FROM
or -il
CARRIER
GENERATOR -.l-
1
.:h.
01
oAUDIO
INPUT
2750 Hz

--+--t
Fig. 13-6 - Balanced modulator design using
!z -
- 12

16 --
t
~-.
-t-
!
hot-carrier diodes.
~
The (suppressed) carrier frequency must be Vl -20[-·--
~
adjusted so that it falls properly on the slope of the ~
Vl
filter characteristic. If it is too close to the filter Z - 24," ----
<I
mid frequency the sideband rejection will be poor; 0::
....
if it is too far away there will be a lack of "lows" - 28 -
in the signal.
Ordinarily, the carrier is placed on one side of -32
the curve, depending upon which sideband is
desired, which is approximately 20 dB down froin - 36
the peak. It is sometimes helpful to make
provisions for "rubbering" the crystal of the carrier
oscillator so that the most natural voice quality can
be realized when making initial adjustments. Fig. 13-8 - Measured selectivity characteristic of
the filter when aligned at 5505.2 kHz. The 6-dB
bandwidth is 2750 Hz and the 30-dB/6-dB shape
Using Commercial Crystal Filters factor is 1.44.
Some builders may not have adequate testing
facilities for building and aligning their own filters. fIlters the coupling between fIlter sections is
In such instances it is possible to purchase achieved by electrical means. In mechanical filters,
ready-made units which are prealigned and come mechanical couplers are used to transfer the
equipped with crystals for upper- and lower-side- vibrations from one resonant section to the next.
band use. Spectrum International 1 has two types At the input and output ends of the fIlter are
for use at 9 MHz. Another manufacturer, McCoy transducers which provide for electrical coupling to
Electronics Co.,2 sells 9-MHz models for amateur and from the fIlter. Most mechanical filters are
use, and other fIlters are available surplus. 3 designed for use from 200 to 600 kHz, the range
near 455 kHz being the most popular for amateur
Mechanical Filters use. Mechanical fIlters suitable for amateur radio
circuits are manufactured by the Collins Radio Co.
Mechanical filters contain elements that vibrate
and can be purchased from some dealers in
and establish resonance mechanically. In crystal
amateur radio equipment.
1 McCoy Electronics Company, Mt. Holly
Springs, P A. FILTER APPLICATIONS
2 Spectrum International, Topsfield, MA.
3 E. S. Electronic Labs, 31 Augustus, Excelsior Methods for using typical sideband filters are
Springs, MO. shown schematically in Fig. 13-9. In the circuit of

30

Fig. 13-7 - Circuit diagram of a filter. Resistances are in ohms, and resistors are 1/2-watt composition;
capacitors are disk ceramic except as noted.

C1, C2 - Mica trimmer. XR-81 or similar with powered·iron core

L 1, L4 - 50 turns No. 38 enamel, close-wound on removed), center tapped.
17/64-inch dia ceramic slug·tuned form (CTC Y1 Y2 Y3 - All same frequency (near 5500
LS·6, National XR-81 or similar). 'kHz):
L2, L3 - 60 turns No. 38 enamel, close wound on Y4, Y5, Y6 - All same frequen.cy and 1500 to
17/64-inch ceramic form (CTC LS·6, National 1700 Hz different from Yl, Y2, Y3.
384 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION

BAL. MOD. I.F. AMP.

455 kHz.
I. F. TRAN.

---j-iJ ~~ER
----:t-..J
OS
TO A.~.C.
I'
L.._ _ _ _ _ -<> +ZSO v.
BUS OR GNO.
+250V. (A)

tl5V t12V
R F SPEECH AMPLIFIER
CLIPPER

Fig. 13-9 - Typical

CLIPPING circuits showing how
lEVEL ssb filters are connect-
ed in the circuit.

~t-r--+"'-"'..e..-1
FROM
BAl. MOO. 10K

(c)
Fig. 13-9A a 455-kHz mechanical filter is coupled Another circuit which uses an hf crystal filter,
to the balanced modulator by means of two dc preceded by a dual-gate MOSFET operating as an
isolating capacitors. Cl is used to tune the input of rf speech clipper, is shown in Fig. 13-9C. The
FLl to resonance (if a Collins type 455-FB-21 is advantages of rf clipping are explained later in this
used). Frequently, a fixed-value 120-pF capacitor chapter. A second MOSFET amplifies the signal
will suffice at each end of the fIlter. C2 tunes the from the fIlter and provides a variable level of
output of the filter. A stage of i-f amplification output which is controlled by the alc line.
usually follows the filter, as shown, to compensate
for the insertion loss of the filter and to provide a CARRIER OSCILLATOR
stage to which agc can be applied for alc
(automatic level control) purposes. In the circuit The ssb-generation process starts with a
shown the operator can ground Rl if ale is not crystal-controlled oscillator, as shown in Fig. 13-2.
used. R2 can be lifted from ground and a In a filter-type generator, the oscillator frequency
5000-0hm control can be placed between it and is set on the low-frequency side of the filter
ground to provide a means of manual gain control bandpass to produce upper sideband and on the
for providing the desired signal level to the mixer. upper side when lower-sideband operation is
The circuit of Fig. 13-9B uses a 9-MHz crystal desired. Suitable oscillator circuits are shown in
filter, followed by an IC i-f amplifier. Either the Chapter 6.
McCoy or Spectrum International filters are
suitable. Most commercial ssb filters are supplied MIXER
with a data sheet which shows recommended input
A single-sideband signal, unlike fm or cw,
and output circuits for matching the impedance of
cannot be frequency multiplied. One or more
the filter .. All are adaptable to use with tubes or
transistors. mixer stages are employed in an ssb exciter to
386 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
10K

Fig. 13-12 - (A) Typical phase-inverter circuits for

transistor amplifier applications. (8) Transformer-
coupled audio amplifier. Parts values used will
depend upon transistors used, and upon the
frequency response desired.
FROW
PREAMP.

mouth, an omnidirectional microphone is ideal. If,

however, speech is generated a foot or more from
the microphone, a unidirectional microphone will
reduce reverberation by a factor of 1.7: 1. Some 40309DRIVER
_ _ __
types of unidirectional microphones have proxim- 2NZ869
ity effect in that low frequencies are accentuated ~ s,uf.
when the microphone is too close to the mouth. INPUT

Carbon Microphones
The carbon microphone consists of a metal
diaphragm placed against a cup of loosely packed
carbon granules. As the diaphragm is actuated by
the sound pressure, it alternately compresses and
decompresses the granules. When current is flowing
through the button, a variable dc will correspond
to the movement of the diaphragm. This (6) L -_ _ _ _ _ _--<~---012V.

fluctuating dc can be used to provide grid-cathode

voltage corresponding to the sound pressure. moves the coil through the magnetic field
The output of a carbon microphone is generating an alternating voltage.
extremely high, but nonlinear distortion and Dynamic microphones are essentially low-
instability has reduced its use. The circuit shown in impedance devices. For vacuum-tube input circuits,
Fig. 13-10 will deliver 20-30 volts at the they are generally supplied in high-impedance
transformer secondary. (25,000 ohms) output. Transistor circuitry usually
requires a relatively low impedarice to supply power
Piezoelectric Microphones rather than voltage. In either instance, a built-in
Piezoelectric microphones make use of the transformer provides the impedance match. When-
phenomena by which certain materials produce a ever long lines are necessary, a low-impedance
voltage by mechanical stress or distortion of the microphone with suitable coupling transformers
material. A diaphragm is coupled to a small bar of should be used.
material such as Rochelle salt or ceramic made of
barium titanate or lead zirconium titanate. The VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS
diaphragm motion is thus translated into electrical The important characteristics of a voltage
energy. Rochelle-salt crystals are susceptible to amplifier are its voltage gain, maximum un dis-
high temperatures, excessive moisture, or extreme torted output voltage, and its frequency response.
dryness. Although the output level is higher, their The voltage gain is the voltage-amplification ratio
use is declining because of their fragility. of the stage. The output voltage is the maximum af
Ceramic microphones are impervious to tem- voltage that can be secured from the stage without
perature and humidity. The output level is distortion. The amplifier frequency response
adequate for most modern amplifiers. They are should be adequate for voice reproduction; this
capacitive devices and the output impedance is requirement is easily satisfied.
high. The load impedance will affect the low The voltage gain and maximum undistorted
frequencies. To provide attenuation, it is desirable output voltage depend on the operating conditions
to reduce the load to 0.25 megohm or even lower, of the amplifier. The output voltage is in terms of
to maximize performance when operating ssb, thus peak voltage rather than rms; this makes the rating
eliminating much of the unwanted low-frequency independent of the waveform. Exceeding the peak
response. value causes the amplifier to distort, so it is more
useful to consider only peak values in working with
Dynamic Microphones amplifiers.
The dynamic microphone somewhat resembles
a dynamic loudspeaker. A lightweight coil, usually Resistance Coupling
made of aluminum wire, is attached to a Resistance coupling generally is used in
diaphragm. This coil is suspended in a magnetic voltage-amplifier stages. It is relatively inexpensive,
circuit. When sound impinges on the diaphragm, it good frequency response can be secured, and there
The Speech Amplifier 385
THE SPEECH AMPLIFIER
T1

liE The purpose of a speech amplifier is to raise the

level of audio output from a microphone to that
required by the modulator of a transmitter. In ssb
and fm transmitters the modulation process takes
' - - - - ' - - -.......-0+ place at low levels, so only a few volts of audio are
necessary_ One or two simple voltage-amplifier
(A) CARBON stages will suffice. A-m transmitters often employ
high-level plate modulation requiring considerable
MPS-A10 + 5%, audio power, as described in Chapter 12_ The
~"'X---H~ OUTPUT
microphone-input and audio voltage-amplifier
circuits are similar in all three types of phone
4700 transmitters, however.
When designing speech equipment it is neces-
sary to know (1) the amount of audio power the
modulation system must furnish and (2) the
~"I/\IIr.:.:+------"''----o+ 12V.
output voltage developed by the microphone when
CARBON it is spoken into from normal distance (a few
inches) with ordinary loudness. It then becomes
HEP801 possible to choose the number and type of
.005f.';F amplifier stages needed to generate the required
f---'T'------1H f--o OUTPUT audio power without overloading or undue
~:\1--A---. 101< distortion anywhere in the system_

MICROPHONES
'----o+12V The level of a microphone is its electrical
ou tpu t for a given sound in tensity _The level varies
(C) CRYSTAL,CERAMiC,OR Hi-Z DYNAMIC
somewhat with the type_ It depends to a large
extent on the distance from the sound source and
the intensity of the speaker's voice. Most
commercial transmitters are designed for the
median level. If a high-level mike is used, care
should be taken not to overload the input amplifier
stage. Conversely, a microphone of too Iowa level
must be boosted by a preamplifier.
The frequency response (fidelity) of a micro-
~-------~--o+12~ phone is its ability to convert sound uniformly into
(D) LO-Z DYNAMiC alternating current_ For high articulation it is
desirable to reproduce a frequency range of
Fig. 13-10 - Speech circuits for use with 200-3500 Hz. When all frequencies are reproduced
standard-type microphones. Typical parts val ues equally, the microphone is considered "flat." Flat
are given. response is highly desirable as peaks (sharp rises in
the reproduction curve) limit the swing or
heterodyne the output of a fixed-frequency ssb modulation to the maximum drive voltage, whereas
generator to the desired operating frequency. See the usable energy is contained in the flat part of
Chapter 8 for details of mixer design and sample the curve.
mixer circuits_ Microphones are generally omnidirectional, and
respond to sound from all directions, or unidirec-
tional, picking up sound from one direction. If a
microphone is to be used close to the operator's
100

Fig. 13-11 - A resistance-

coupled speech amplifier.
Component values are re-
presentative of a typical
circuit. .1

~
INPUT 100

1
PHONE-PATCH
INPUT
Voltage Amplifiers 387
MAP. SPEECH AMP.
r----~-_--~+9V

.I;.<.F MI&:; . .I......._-....<l

~PUT 1M
Z OUT= loon Fig. 13-13 - Typical
GAIN=60dB speech amplifier using
integrated circuits.
(A) (c)

SPEECH AMP. +IZV

150 M~.1
J2EL
IA~'--~"';+:.j~
OUTPUT
Z OUT=IOO.ll

(8)
1M (D)
is little danger of hum pick-up from stray magnetic single-ended and a push-pull stage.
fields. It is the most satisfactory type of coupling Several types of ICs have been developed for
for the output circuits of pentodes and high-p use in speech amplifiers. The Motorola MFC8040
triodes, because wi th transformers a sufficiently features very low noise, typically I pV, (Fig.
high load impedance cannot be obtained without 13-13A), while the RCA CA3020 has sufficient
considerable frequency distortion. A typical circuit power output - 500 mW - to drive low-impedance
is given in Fig. 13-11. loads (Fig. 13-13B). A transistor IC array can also
be put to work in a speech amplifier, as shown in
Phase Inversion Fig. 13-13C. This circuit uses an RCA CA3018,
with a high-gain Darlington pair providing high gain
Push-pull output may be secured with resis-
and high input impedance. A second transistor
tance coupling by using phase-inverter or phase-
within the IC functions as an emitter follower, for
splitter circuits as shown in Fig. 13-12. In this
low-impedance output. Most of the operational-
circuit the voltage developed across the emitter
amplifier ICs will work as high-gain speeCh
resistor of Q1 is equal to, but 180 degrees out of
amplifiers, using a minimum of external parts as
phase with, the voltage swing across the collector
shown in Fig. 13-13D. The pA741 has internal
resistor. Thus, the following two stages are fed
frequency compensation, but the popular 709
equal af voltages. The gain of Q1 will be quite low,
series of operational amplifiers requires external
if indeed the stage exhibits any gain at all. frequency compensation to prevent self-oscillation.
Transformer Coupling
Gain Control
Transformer coupling between stages ordinarily
is used only when power is to be transferred (in A means for varying the over-all gain of the
such a case resistance coupling is very inefficient),amplifier is necessary for keeping the final output
or when it is necessary to couple between a at the proper level for modulating the transmitter.
The common method of gain control is to adjust
+12V the value of ac voltage applied to the base or grid
ELECTRONIC of one of the amplifiers by means of a voltage
ATTENUATOR divider or potentiometer.
The gain-control potentiometer should be near
.47 .47 the input end of the amplifier, at a point where the
INP~ ~TPUT signal voltage level is so low there is no danger that
the stages ahead of the gain control will be
overloaded by the full microphone output. In a
high-gain amplifier it is best to operate the first
stage at maximum gain, since this gives the best
signal-to-hum ratio. The control is usually placed in
the input circuit of the second stage.
Remote gain control can also be accomplished
with an electronic attenuator IC, such as the
Fig. 13-14 - A de voltage controls the gain of this
Motorola MFC6040. A dc voltage varies the gain of
IC. eliminating the need for shielded leads to
the IC from +6 dB to -85 dB, eliminating the need
the gai n control.
 388 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
RFC sure that the terminal marked "outside foil," often
~TOFIRST indicated with a black band, is connected to
MIC. , .• -LM~ AUDIO AMP.
ground. This utilizes the outside foil of the
(A) ;1;220
capacitor as a shield around the "hot" foil. When
paper or mylar capacitors are used for coupling
33K
~TOHI-Z between stages, always connect the outside foil
MIC. .. ..L .. ~ AUDIO AMP. terminal to the side of the circuit having the lower
(8) ;]:;330 impedance to ground.

Fig. 13-15 - Rf filters using LC (A) and RC (B) DRIVER AND OUTPUT STAGES
components, which are used to prevent feedback
caused by rf pickup on the microphone lead. Few ssb transmitting mixers have sufficient
output to properly drive an output stage of any
for shielded leads to a remotely located volume significant power level. Most modern-day linear
control. A typical circuit is shown in Fig. 13-14. amplifiers require at least 30 to 100 watts of
exciter output power to drive them to their rated
Speech-Amplifier Construction power input level. It follows, then, that an
Once a suitable circuit has been selected for a intennediate stage of amplification should be used
speech amplifier, the construction problem resolves between the mixer and the pa stage of the exciter.
itself into avoiding two difficulties - excessive The vacuum-tube mixers of' Chapter 8 will
hum, and unwanted feedback. For reasonably provide 3 to 4 peak volts of output into a
humless operation, the hum voltage should not high-impedance load. Since most AB} exciter
exceed about 1 percent of the maximum audio output stages need from 25 to 50 volts of swing on
output voltage - that is, the hum and noise should their grids for nonnal operation, it is necessary to
be at least 40 dB below the output level. employ a driver stage to amplify the mixer output.
Unwanted feedback, if negative, will reduce the There are several high-transconductance pentode
gain below the calculated value; if positive, is likely tubes that work well as drivers. Among them are
to cause self-oscillation or "howls." Feedback can the 6CL6, the 12BY7, the 6EH7, and the 6GK6.
be minimized by isolating each stage with Since all of these tubes are capable of high gain,
decou piing resistors and capacitors, by avoiding instability is sometimes encountered during their
layouts that bring the fIrst and last stages near each use. Parasitic suppression should be included as a
other, and by shielding of "hot" points in the matter of course, and can take the fonn of a
circuit, such as high-impedance leads in low-level low-value noninductive resistor in series with the
stages. grid, or a standard parasitic choke installed directly
If circuit-board construction is used, high- at the plate of the tube. Some fonn of
impedance leads should be kept as short as neutralization is recorrimended and is preferred to
possible. All ground returns should be made to a resistive loading of the tuned circuits. The latter
common point. A good ground between the circuit method lowers the tuned-circuit Q. This in turn
board and the metal chassis is necessary. Complete lowers the stage selectivity and permits spurious
shielding from rf energy is always required for responses from the mixer to be passed on to the
low-level solid-state audio circuits. The micro- following stage of the exciter.
phone input should be decoupled for rf with a A typical driver and PA stage for modern
filter, as shown in Fig. 13-15. At A, an rf choke exciters is shown in Fig. 13-16. The PA is set upJor
with a high impedance over the frequency range of AB} amplifIcation. The AB} mode is preferred
the transmitter is employed. For high-impedance because it results in less distortion than does the
inputs, a resistor may be used in place of the AB2 or Class-B modes, and because driving power
choke. is not needed for AB} operation. A 6146 tube is
When using paper capacitors as bypasses, be used but an inexpensive TV sweep tube may be
employed if a higher level of IMD is pennissible.

flY
MIXER DRIVER PA

ANT.
.01
RFC RFC
2.5mk 2.5mh

+250V.

* R.F. VOLTAGE
S. M.· SILVER MICA
+300 -47V + 210V
(REG.)
+ 750V.

Fig. ~~16 - Sc~ema~ic ~iagram of a typical driver and final stage for ssb exciter. Neutralization and
parasltlc-suppresslon CirCUits have been included.
------------~=----------=~---- -
Power Ratings of SSB Transmitters 389
Some sweep tubes are capable of producing less neutralizing stubs and the tube envelopes provides
IMD than others, but if not overdriven most of the adjustment of these capacitors. Parallel dc feed
them are satisfactory for ham use. Among the is used in the mixer and driver stages to prevent the
sweep tubes useful as ABl amplifiers are the tuned-circuit Q from being lowered by dc current
following: 6DQ5, 6GB5, 6GE5, 6HF5, 6JE6, 6JS6, flow through L1 and L2. CIA and CIB are ganged,
6KD6, 6KG6, 6LF6 and 6LQ6. and slug-tuned inductors are used at Ll and L2 to
permit tracking of the mixer and driver plate tanks.
A Practical Circuit C3 and C4 form part of the neutralizing circuits.
The values shown are suitable for operation on 3.5
In the circuit of Fig. 13-16, a6GK6 and a6146 MHz but may require modification for use on the
are shown in a typical driver-amplifier arrange- other bands. Regulated dc voltage is recommended
ment. Each stage is stabilized by means of Rl in for the screen grids of the driver and rf stages.
the driver grid, and ZI in the PA plate, both for Typical rf voltages (measured with a diode rf probe
parasitic suppression. C2 and C5 are neutralizing and VTVM are identified with an asterisk. A circuit
capacitors and can take the form of stiff wires of this type is capable of up to 60 watts PEP
placed adjacent to, and in the same plane as the output. For more information on linear amplifiers
tube anode. Varying the spacing between the for sideband service, see Chapter 6.

POWER RATINGS OF SSB TRANSMITTERS

Fig. 13-17 is more or less typical of a few envelope over some significant period of time, such
voice-frequency cycles of the modulation envelope as the time of one syllable of speech.
of a single-sideband signal. Two amplitude values The power contained in the signal at the
associated with it are of particular interest. One is maximum peak amplitude is the basic transmitter
the maximum peak amplitude, the greatest rating. It is called the peak-envelope power,
amplitude reached by the envelope at any time. abbreviated PEP. The peak-envelope power of a
The other is the average amplitude, which is the given transmitter is intimately related to the
average of all the amplitude values contained in the distortion considered tolerable. The lower the

------r
signal-to-distortion ratio the lower the attainable
peak-envelope power, as a general rule. For splatter
reduction, an SiD ratio of 25 dB is considered a
border-line minimum, and higher figures are
desirable.
-T
AV.
The signal power, S, in the standard definition
PEAK of SiD ratio is the power in one tone of a two-tone

_~ ~J~
test signal. This is 3 dB below the peak-envelope
power in the same signal. Manufacturers of
amateur ssb equipment usually base their published
SiD ratios on PEP, thereby getting an SiD ratio
that looks 3 dB better than one based on the
(A) standard definition. In comparing distortion-
product ratings of different transmitters or
amplifiers, first make sure that the ratios have the
same base.

------1
-1-
When the output of an ssb transmitter is viewed
on a spectrum analyzer, the display shows the
power in the two tones separately, so that the level
of distortion products is 6 dB below the level of
either tone. However, commercial analyzers usually
PEAK have a scale over the display tube which is

___l JENV.
calibrated directly in dB below a single-tone test.
Readings may be converted to dB below. th~ PEP
level by subtracting 6 dB from the mdlcated
distortion levels.
------ -
Peak vs. Average Power
(8) Envelope peaks occur only sporadically during
voice transmission, and have no direct relationship
Fig. 13-17 - (A) Typical ssb voice-modulated sig- with meter readings. The meters respond to the
nal might have an envelope of the general nature amplitude (current or voltage) of the signal
shown, where the rf amplitude (current or voltage) averaged over several cycles of the modulation
is plotted as a function of time, which increases to envelope. (This is true in practically all cases, even
the right horizontally. (B) Envelope pattern after though the transmitter rf output meter ma~ be
speech processing to increase the average level of calibrated in watts. Unfortunately, such a callbra-
power output.
390 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION

__- .__~4N7v-~----~~~~-r----¢+6V
~ + + ~
15Y ;+; ;:s:; 15Y
FOLLOWER
AGe
CONTROL GENERATOR
HEP801
Ql
M~ Fig. 13-18 - Typical
solid-state compressor
.001
circuit.

(A)
output peak-to-average ratio, depends. on the v.oi~e
characteristics. Determination of the mput ratio IS
further complicated by the fact that there is a
resting value of dc plate input even when there is
no rf output. No exact figues are possible.
However, experience has shown that for many
types of voices and for ordinary tube operating
conditions where a moderate value of resting
current is used, the ratio of PEP input to average
input (during a modulation peak) will be in the
neighborhood of 2 to 1. That is why many
amplifiers are rated for a PEP input of 2 kilowatts
even though the maximum legal input is 1 kilowatt.

tion means little in voice transmission since the PEP Input

meter can be calibrated in watts only by using a
sine-wave signal - which a voice-modulated signal The 2-kilowatt PEP input rating can be
definitely is not.) interpreted in this way: The amplifier can handle
The ratio of peak-to-average amplitude varies dc peak-envelope inputs of 2 kw, presumably with
widely with voice of different characteristics. In satisfactory linearity. But it should be run up to
the case shown in Fig. 1,3-17 A the average such peaks if - and only if - in doing so the dc
amplitude, found graphically, is such that the plate current (the current that shows on the plate
peak-ta-average ratio of amplitudes is almost 3 to meter) multiplied by the dc plate voltage does not
1. The ratio of peak power to average power is at any time exceed I kilowatt. On the other hand,
something else again. There is no simple relation- if your voice has characteristics such that the dc
ship between the meter reading and actual average peak-to-average ratio is, for example, 3 to 1, you
power, for the reason mentioned earlier. should not run a greater dc input during peaks than
2000/3, or 660 watts. Higher dc input would drive
DC Input the amplifier into nonlinearity and generate
splatter.
FCC regulations require that the transmitter If your voice happens to have a peak-to-average
power be rated in terms of the dc input to the final ratio of less than 2 to 1 with this particular
stage. Most ssb final amplifiers are operated Class amplifier, you cannot run more than 1 kilowatt dc
AB! or AB2, so that the plate current during input even though the envelope peaks do not reach
modulation varies upward from a "resting" or 2 kilowatts.
no-signal value that is generally chosen to minimize It should be apparent that the dc input rating
distortion. There will be a peak-envelope value of (based on the maximum value of dc input
plate current that, when multiplied by the dc plate developed during modulation, of course) leaves
voltage, represents the instantaneous tube power much to be desired. Its principal virtues are that it
input required to produce the peak-envelope can be measured with ordinary instruments, and
output. This is the "peak-envelope dc input" or that it is consistent with the method used for
"PEP input." It does not register on any meter in rating the power of other types of emission used
the transmitter. Meters cannot move fast enough to by amateurs. The meter readings offer no assurance
show it - and even if they did, the eye couldn't that the transmitter is being operated within
follow. What the plate meter does read is the plate linearity limits, unless backed up by oscilloscope
current averaged over several modulation-envelope checks using your voice.
cycles. This multiplied by the dc plate voltage is I t should be observed, also, that in the case of a
the number of watts input required to produce the grounded-grid final amplifier, the I-kilowatt dc
average power output described earlier. input permitted by FCC regulations must include
In voice transmission the power input and the input to the driver stage as well as the input to
power output are both continually varying. The the final amplifier itself. Both inputs are measured
{lower input peak-to-average ratio, like the power- as described above.
Speech Processing 391
SPEECH PROCESSING
Four basic systems, or a combination thereof, pin 8.
can be used to reduce the peak-to-average ratio, Agc voltage for Ul is developed by the
and thus, to raise the average power level of an ssb SL620C. A suitable time constant for voice
signal. They are: compression or clipping of the af operation is established by the capacitors connect-
wave before it reaches the balanced modulator, and ed to pins 3,4 and 6, respectively. The IC provides
compression or clipping of the rf waveform after a fast-attack, slow-decay characteristic for the agc
the ssb signal has been generated. One form of rf voltage when voice signals are applied and a short
compression, commonly called alc (automatic level burst of agc voltage when a short noise burst
control) is almost universally used in amateur ssb occurs. Twenty transistors and four diodes are used
transmitters. Audio processing is also used to in U2.
increase the level of audio power contained in the The compressor will hold the output level
sidebands of an a-m transmitter and to maintain constant within 2 dB over a 40-dB range of input
constant deviation in an fm transmitter. Both signal. The nominal output level is 80 mY; the
compression and clipping are used in a-m systems, microphone used should develop at least 3 mVat
while most fm transmitters employ only clipping. the gate of Ql.
Fig. 13-18B shows an IC audio compressor
Volume Compression circuit using the National Semiconductor LM-370.
Although it is obviously desirable to keep the This IC has two gain-control points, pins 3 and 4;
voice level as high as possible, it is difficult to one is used for the input gain adjustment while the
maintain constant voice intensity when speaking other receives agc voltage whenever the output
into the microphone. To overcome this variable level exceeds a preset norm. R2 establishes the
output level, it is possible to use automatic gain point at which compression starts.
control that follows the average (not instanta-
neous) variations in speech amplitude. This can be Speech Clipping and Filtering
done by rectifying and filtering some of the audio In speech wave forms the average power content
output and applying the rectified and filtered dc to is considerably less than in a sine wave of the same
a control electrode in an early stage in the peak amplitude. If the low-energy peaks are
amplifier. clipped off, the remaining wave form will have a
A practical example of an audio compressor considerably higher ratio of average power to peak
circuit is shown in Fig. 13-18A. Ql is employed as amplitude. Although clipping distorts the wave
an impedance converter, providing coupling be- form and the result therefore does not sound
tween a high-impedance microphone and the input exactly like the original, it is possible to secure a
terminal of the Plessey SL630C audio-amplifier IC. worthwhile increase in audio power without
Low-impedance microphones can be connected sacrificing intelligibility. Once the system is
directly to the input of the SL630C. Ul has an agc properly adjusted it will be impossible to overdrive
terminal which allows logarithmic control of the the modulator stage of the transmitter because the
output level with a variable dc voltage. High- maximum output amplitude is fixed.
frequency cutoff is accomplished by connecting a By itself, clipping generates high-order har-
.002-1JF capacitor between pins 3 and 4. Manual monics and therefore will cause splatter. To
gain control is effected by applying a dc voltage to prevent this, the audio frequencies above those

2200
~ + ~-;..-Wlr----o +12V
15V ;J; 10K .002

MIC.

+12V
Fig. 13-19 _ This drawing illustrates use of JFETs or silicon diodes to clip positive and negative voice
peaks.
 392 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
needed for intelligible speech must be filtered out,
after clipping and before modulation. The filter
required for this purpose should have relativ~ly
little attenuation below about 2500 Hz, but high
attentuation for all frequencies above 3000 Hz. (A) ;:..",
:
The values of Land C should be chosen to form
a low-pass filter section having a cutoff frequency
of about 2500 Hz, using the value of the ter-
minating resistor load resistance. For this cutoff
frequency the formulas are:

L1 =7850
.JL and Cl =C2 = 63.6
R
where R is in ohms, Ll in henrys, and Cl and C2
in microfarads. (B)
There is a loss in naturalness with "deep"
clipping, even though the voice is highly
intelligible. With moderate clipping levels (6 to 12
dB) there is almost no change in "quality" but the
voice power is increased considerably.
Before drastic clipping can be used, the speech
signal must be amplified several times more than is
necessary for normal modulation. Also, the hum
and noise must be much lower than the tolerable
level in ordinary amplification, because the noise in
the output of the amplifier increases in proportion (c)
to the gain.

10r-------.-------~--------r_------,

6~----_+------+_----~~~~~
~7
~.~ 6f----+----+---:J'r--------1 CD:'.
~~s )
~~
~~4~------4-------~~------~~~--~
Q.~
~.!...3
~~2~----~~~~~~----~~~~~~~
<:II.!>
iii I Fig. 13-21 - Two-tone envelope patterns with
various degrees of rf clipping. All envelope patterns
5 10 15 20 are formed using tones of 600 and 1000 Hz. (A) At
DB. OF PEAK COMPRESSION OR CLIPPING (SSB) clipping threshold; (B) 5 dB of clipping; (C) 10 dB
of clipping; (0) 15 dB of clipping.
Fig. 13-20 - The improvement in received
signal-to-noise ratio achieved by the simple forms wave from approaches that of clipping. Speech
of signal processing. processing is most effective when accomplished at
radio frequencies, although a combination of af
In the circuit of Fig. 13-19B a simple diode
clipper is shown following a two-transistor clipping and compression can produce worthwhile
preamplifier section. The 1 N3 7 54s conduct at results. The advantage of an outboard audio speech
approximately 0.7 volt of audio and provide processor is that no internal modifications are
positive- and negative-peak clipping of the speech necessary to the ssb transmitter with which it will
be used.
wave form. A 47 ,OOO-ohm resistor and a .02-tLF
capacitor follow the clipper to form a simple R-C To understand the effect of ssb speech
filter for attenuating the high-frequency compon- processing, review the basic rf waveforms shown in
ents generated by the clipping action, as discussed Fig. 13-17 A. Without processing, they have high
earlier. Any top-hat or similar silicon diodes can be peaks bu t low average power. After processing, Fig.
used in place of the IN3754s. Germanium diodes 13-17B, the amount of average power has been
(IN34A type) can also be used, but will clip at a raised considerably. Fig. 13-20 shows an advantage
slightly lower peak audio level. of several dB for rf clipping (for 20 dB of
processing) over its nearest competitor.
SSB SPEECH PROCESSING Investigations by W6JES reported in QST for
January, 1969, show that, observing a transmitted
Compression and clipping are related, as both signal using 15 dB of audio clipping from a remote
have fast attack times, and when the compressor receiver, the intelligibility threshold was improved
release time is made quite short, the effect on the nearly 4 dB over a signal with no clipping.
 SSB Speech Processing 393
FINAL
AMP.I N A a f
F AMP.
RFC
(B)
CONTROL
+H.V. VOLTAGE o---~--~-t+-,
OUT
R2
IMEG.
(A)
6146{2EA)

+ 4011. - CONTROL
VOLTAGE
OUT
~200V

(D)

y---...,.--...,.~~-oOUTPUT

INPUTo-~n-----t

0-50 dB GAIN REDUCTION

ALC FOR o-20v ALC APPLI EO

(E) (F)

Fig. 13-22 - (A) Control voltage obtained by to primary, of 2 or 3 to 1. An inexpensive

sampling the rf output voltage of the final transformer may be used since the primary and
amplifier. The diode back bias, 40 volts or so secondary currents are negligible. CR1 may be a
maximum, may be taken from any convenient 1 N34A or similar; time constant R2C3 is discussed
positive voltage source in the transmitter. R1 may in the text.
be a linear control having a maximum resistance of (C) Control voltage is obtained from the grid of a
the order of 50,000 ohms. CR1 may be a 1 N34A Class ABl tetrode amplifier and amplified by a
or similar germanium diode. triode audio stage.
(B) Control voltage obtained from grid circuit of a (D) Alc system used in the Collins 32S-3
transmitter.
Class ABl tetrode amplifier. T1 is an interstage (E) Applying control voltage to the tube or (F)
audio transformer having a turns ratio, secondary linear IC controlled amplifier.

Increasing the af clipping level to 25 dB gave an receiver can thus be substantially improved by rf
additional 1.5 dB improvement in intelligibility. clipping. The effect of such clipping on a two-tone
Audio compression was found to be valuable for test pattern is shown in Fig. 13-21.
maintaining relatively constant average-volume Automatic level control, although a form of rf
speech, but such a compressor added little to the speech processing, has found its primary applica-
intelligibility threshold at the receiver, only about tion in maintaining the peak rf output of an ssb
1-2 dB. transmitter at a relatively constant level, hopefully
Evaluation of rf clipping from the receive side below the point at which the final amplifier is
with constant-level speech, and filtering to restore overdriven, when the audio input varies over a
the original bandwidth, resulted in an improved considerable range. These typical ale systems,
intelligibility threshold of 4.5 dB with 10 dB of shown in Fig. 13-22, by the nature of their design
clipping. Raising the clipping level to 18 dB gave an time constants offer a limited increase in
additional 4-dB improvement at the receiver, or transmitted average-to-PEP ratio. A value in
8.5-dB total increase. The improvement of the the region of 2-5 dB is typical. An alc circuit with
intelligibility of a weak ssb signal at a distant shorter time constants will function as an rf
394 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
in Fig. 13-22A (the .01 J.LF capacitor is simply an rf
bypass). A value of about 0.1 J.LF is representative.
The capacitive divider C1C2 should be designed
to apply about 20 volts peak to CRI when the
amplifier is delivering peak-envelope output. The
total capacitance of C1 and C2 in series should not
exceed 5 to 10 pF - i.e., should be small in
comparison with the tank tuning capacitance so
tuning will not be seriously affected. For
estimating values, the amplifier peak output rf
voltage can be assumed to be equal to 75 percent
of the dc plate voltage. For example, if the
amplifier dc plate voltage is 1500, the peak rf
voltage will be of the order of 0.75 x 1500 = 1100
volts, approximately. Since about 20 volts are
required, the divider ratio would be 1100/20, or 55
to 1. This is also (approximately) the ratio of the
capacitance of C2 to that of C1. Thus, ifCl is 5 pF,
Fig. 13-23 - Front view of the rf speech clipper. C2 should be 5 x 55 = 270 pF.
The unit is built in an LMB CO-3 cabinet.
Tetrode Grid Rectification
syllabic compressor, producing up to 6 dB The circuit of Fig. 13-22B is less flexible and
improvement in the intelligibility threshold at a can be used only with grid-driven tetrodes operated
distant receiver. The Collins Radio Company uses Class ABI. It makes use of the fact that a small
an alc system with dual time constants (Fig. amount of rectification occurs in the grid-cathode
13-22D) in their S/Line transmitters, and this has circuit of a tetrode ABI amplifier before the
proven to be quite effective. driving voltage actually causes the net grid voltage
Heat is an extremely important consideration in to be zero and the grid current becomes large
the use of any speech processor which increases the enough to cause flattening. This rectification
average-to-peak power ratio. Many transmitters, in causes a small audio-frequency current to flow in
particular those using television sweep tubes, the grid circuit.
simply are not built to stand the effects of In the circuit show, the current causes an af
increased average input, either in the final-amplifier voltage to be developed in the secondary of
tube or tubes or in the power supply. If heating in transformer T1; this voltage is rectified by CRI
the final tube is the limiting factor, adding a and filtered to negative dc by R2 and C3. The
cooling fan may be a satisfactory answer. resultant dc voltage is used to control an amplifier
or mixer as in Fig. 13-22E. The time constant of
ALC CI RCUITS R2,C3 should be chosen as described above.
Resistance-capacitance coupling can be substituted
Typical circuits are shown in Fig. 13-22. The for the transformer, although when this is done a
circuit at A can be applied to amplifiers using any voltage-doubling rectifier is generally used so the
type of tube or circuit - i.e., triode or tetrode, control voltage will be stepped up. Alternatively,
grid driven or cathode driven. It works directly an audio amplifier can be inserted between the grid
from the plate of the amplifier, taking a relatively circuit and the rectifier, as shown in Fig. 13-22C.
small sample of the rf voltage through the
capacitive voltage divider, C1C2. This is rectified Controlled Stage
by the diode, CR1, to develop a control voltage,
negative with respect to ground, across the The circuits shown here can be modified as
I-megohm load resistor. The diode is back biased necessary to suit individual amplifier and exciter
from a positive voltage source, the bias voltage circuits. The details will vary with the actual
being adjustable by means of the "level-set" equipment, but should not be difficult to work out
potentiometer R1. CR1 will be unable to rectify if the principles of the system are understood. Any
until the rf voltage exceeds the bias voltage, and by of the circuits are capable of developing the few
setting R1 properly no gain-control voltage will volts of control voltage necessary to prevent the
develop until the rf amplitude is close to the amplifier from being driven into the nonlinear
peak-envelope point. region. The greater the gain between the control
The dc control voltage is used to increase the ~mplifier and the stage at which the control voltage
negative bias on a low-level amplifier or mixer, IS taken off (usually the final amplifier) the less
preferably the former, as shown at E. The control voltage required. That is, the control
controlled tube should be of the variable-J.L type. voltage should be applied to an early stage in the
The time constant of the control-voltage circuit exciter. Preferably, too, the stage should be one
should be such that the control voltage will rise operating on a frequency different from that of the
rapidly when rectification begins, but will hold final stage, to reduce the possibility of unwanted
down the gain during syllables of speech. The time feedback. Examples of an IC (F) and tube
constant can be adjusted by shunting additional alc-controlled amplifiers (E) are shown in Fig.
capacitance, C3, across the I-megohm resistor, R2, 13-22.
An Rf Speech Clipper 395

which can spoil the clipping symmetry during the

transient conditions encountered in speech wave-
forms. An important feature is that the clipping
level is independent of line-voltage fluctuations.
Also, hard, flat clipping prevents overloading the
transmitter on the strongest peaks.
For 20 dB of clipping, a total voltage increase
of forty (32 dB) is required. The amplifier should
be biased so that the control grid does not go
positive on peaks. The inductor 11 in the plate
circuit resonates with stray capacitance, about 25
pF, at the i-f. This adjustment may be made
with a small one-tone input. Before clipping
the plate load is essentially 15,000 ohms. During
clipping the plate load drops to less than 100
ohms. After all adjustments are completed, recheck
the resonance of the tuned circuit. On cw it is best
to switch the clipper out of action altogether.
The clipper unit is built on a small chassis

w which is bolted to the exciter cabinet for good

grounding. The coax leads must be kept very short
to prevent distortion of the filter response.
Leakage paths around the filter must be eliminated
by careful shielding and lead dress. The filter
should be kept away from both ac and dc magnetic
fields. A soft-iron cover for the filter may be
needed. Stray rf from high-power amplifiers should
not be allowed to sneak in and gum up the works.
When first starting out with a clipper it is easy
for the operator to get confused because of the
irregular behavior of meters and scope patterns
AN RF SPEECH CLIPPER with speech signals. The best place to begin is to
The speech-processor circuit of Fig. 13-24 was tune up the transmitter on a two-tone audio signal
described in July 1967 QST by Sabin, W0IYH. with the clipper in the "tune" position. The level
The signal input to the rf clipper unit should be of the two-tone signal should be set just below the
about 0.25 volt peak envelope. The signal at the point at which clipping begins (see Fig. 13-21).
clipper diodes should be enough to make up the This measurement is made with a scope at the
loss in the drive control, cathode follower and clipper test jack. The drive control and all
filter, and to drive the rig to full output. The diode succeeding adjustments may then be set for best
clipper circuit shown gives flat clipping, good output and linearity, in the usual way. If alc is used
symmetry and freedom from rectification effects the peak envelope signal should be set, using the
 396 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION

drive control, right at the point where ale begins.

Now switch over to microphone input. Turn up
the mic. gain until the same peak output is
indicated on the output monitor scope. The alc
meter will flicker occasionally. Now turn the
switch on the clipper to the "clip" position. You
now have about 20 dB of peak clipping. While
talking steadily into the microphone, adjust the
drive control so that the proper peak level is
maintained. The peak-envelope meter will kick up
on scale very frequently and the final plate meter
will kick up to a level which is just abou t equal to
that obtained in the two-tone test; that is to say,
on voke peaks the peak-to-average ratio will
approach 3 dB for short intervals. The ratio over a
longer period will be about 9 dB.
The mike gain control can be used to make
minor adjustment of clipping. A little experience
will enable the operator to set the gain for good
quality and ·lively meter action. Avoid the Fig. 13-25 - The audio processor shown in Fig.
13-26 is constructed in a Ten-Tec JW-4 enclosure.
temptation to run the gain way up. The rig won't
flat-top, of course, but distortion and room noise AN AUDIO SPEECH PROCESSOR
can become excessive and communications effec-
tiveness is hardly improved at all. Figs. 13-25 and l3-26 show an audio speech
Any change of gain after the clipper due to processor developed from designs by W6ZEM and
mistuning or line-voltage changes will cause the WB2EYZ. This unit is intended to be used
peak level to become too high or too low. If alc is outboard from an ssb transmitter. It combines
applied to the exciter after the clipper, it can be audio compression and clipping to produce up to 3
used to adjust the drive level. One or two dB of dB improvement (double) in the average transmit-
fast-attack, slow-release type ale should be used. If ter output power. In practice, the processor proves
alc is applied ahead of the clipper, it will be to be worthwhile on any circuit where the received
worthless. signal at the distant station is weak or fading.

I
I
~9V.- I
1000 I
_J
I~'
fh~
I80K ISOK

.01

.6K
4700

+ lOOp,.
lOY.""

CR1-CR5, incl. - 1 N270 or equivalent.

L1 - 3-3.5 henrys, miniature type desirable.
Fig. 13-26 - Circuit diagram of the speech 01-05, incl. - 2N1375'or equivalent.
compressor. Capacitances are in J1F; capacitors R1 - 10,OOO-ohm control, audio taper.
with polarity marked are electrolytic, others are R2 - For text reference.
ceramic. Resistances are in ohms (k = 1000); fixed R3 - 50,OOO-ohm control, linear taper.
resistors are 1/2-watt composition. S1 - 3-pole double-throw toggle switch.
 Single Sideband Transceivers
397
a V.TC DOT-S choke; however, any choke having
an mductance approximately 3 H should perform
satisfactorily.

Construction
As in the construction of most audio devices
layou.t o~ components is not critical. For example:
.the CIrCUIt components can be laid out physically
Just as they are depicted in the schematic with
satisfactory results. Layout details are left to the
reader. Other than good construction practices
there are no restrictions about component
placement.

Adjustment
The limitations of the processor must be
realized. The best that it can do is double your
average output when using good-quality equipment
that already includes such features as alc. Beyond
this point there will be noticeable deterioration of
the voice quality and an objectionable increase in
background noise. The optimum setting is just
below the level where these two conditions occur.
Only one adjustment actually exists, since R3
Fig. 13-27 Interior view of the audio merely serves to set the output initially. Experi-
compressor/clipper. All small components are ence has shown that the optimum adjustment for
mounted on an etched circuit board, although Rl is about 1/4 to 1/3 tum (100 ohms on an
point-to-point wiring can be used if desired. audio-taper potentiometer). Once set, this adjust-
ment should satisfy all operating conditions from
Ql is connected as an emitter follower, armchair ragchewing to pulling out the rare ones. A
allowing the use of high-impedance microphones condition that can justify a higher setting of R 1 is
by raising the base input impedance of the when an operator is distant from the microphone,
transistor to about 50,000 ohms. A second audio provided that background noise is nonexistent.
amplifier, Q2, is gain controlled by a dc voltage fed Tests performed on the air verified that although
to the base of Q3. Q3 raises or lowers the gain of more dc plate current could be drawn, the punch
Q2 by varying the effect of the emitter bypass power no longer increased when the limiting
capacitor. The control voltage is developed by Q4 control R 1 reached the point of noticeable
and Q5 and rectified by CRI-CR3, inc!. The distortion.
slow decay time constant for the compressor is Adjustment of the processor can be facilitated
provided by the 25-JJ.F capacitor connected from if you are equipped with a hi-fi system. By
the base of Q3 to ground. The audio output from connecting the processor to the auxiliary input of
the compressor section is clipped by CR4 and CR5. the amplifier and attaching headphones to a
Harmonic audio frequencies above 3 kHz that are suitable output, one can actually hear the optimum
produced in the clipping process are removed from adjustment while speaking.
the output by a pi-section filter. The filter includes

SINGLE SIDEBAND TRANSCEIVERS

A "transceIver" combines the functions of Although the many designs available on the
transmitter and receiver in a single package. In market differ in detail, there are of necessity many
contrast to a packaged "transmitter-receiver," it points of similarity. All of them use the filter type
utilizes many of the active and passive elements for of sideband generation, and the filter unit furnishes
both transmitting and receiving. Ssb transceiver the receiver i-f selectivity as well. The carrier
operation enjoys widespread popularity for several oscillator doubles as the receiver (fixed) BFO. One
justifiable reasons. In most designs the transmis- or more mixer or i-f stage or stages will be used for
sions are on the same (suppressed-carrier) frequen- both transmitting and receiving. The receiver S
cy as the receiver is tuned to. The only practical meter may become the transmitter plate-current or
way to carryon a rapid mUltiple-station "round output-voltage indicator. The VFO that sets the
table" or net operation is for all stations to receiver frequency also determines the transmitter
transmit on the same frequency. Transceivers are frequency. The same signal-frequency tuned
ideal for this, since once the receiver is properly set circuits may be used for both transmission and
the transmitter is also. Transceivers are by nature reception, including the transmitter pi-network
more compact than transmitter-receivers, and thus output circuit.
lend themselves well to mobile and portable use. Usually the circuits are switched by a
 398 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION

ISOLATION
AMP. I-F AMP
4700
tU50V
50 TO
(--0 MIXER
TRANS.

,-- --------
3.59SMHz
-.
m:~R.
I
I
I
I ! 2ND. I-F
22' L_ ____ ___ J
"iii

+300V

.oos
;J:
U8 (A)
TO
TO
Ave
ALe
MECHANICAL
I-F AMP. FILTER

GROUND (R!:C)
+lOV (TRANSl
(8)

MIXER

r---------~~:----'-'-[C-~
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
,....._~L:.;-~- __ ..J

HOV
(e)

Fig. 13-28 - Transceiver circuits where a section is

made to operate on both transmit and receive. See
text for details.

multiple-contact relay, which transfers the antenna the first i-f amplifier. The output of this stage is
if necessary and also shifts the biases on several transformer coupled to the second i-f amplifier.
stages. Most commercial designs offer VOX During transmit, Kl is closed, turning on the
(voice-controlled operation) and MOX (manual isolation amplifier that links the balanced modula-
operation). Which is preferable is a controversial tor to the band-pass filter. The single-sideband
subject; some operators like VOX and others prefer output from the mter is amplified and capaci-
MOX. tance-coupled to the transmitter mixer. The relay
Circuits contacts also apply alc voltage to the first i-f stage
and remove the screen voltage from the second i-f
The use of a mter-amplifier combination amplifier, when transmitting.
common to both the transmitter and receiver is Bilateral amplifier and mixer stages, first used
shown in Fig. 13-28A. This circuit is used by the by Sideband Engineers in their SBE-33, also have
Heath Company in several of their transceiver kits. found application in other transceiver designs. The
When receiving, the output of the hf mixer is circuits shown in Fig. 13-28B and C are made to
coupled to the crystal filter, which, in tum, feeds work in either direction by grounding the bias
 Testing a Sideband Transmitter 399
divider of the input transistor, completing the bias drift slightly. The control for this function is
network. The application of these designs to an usually labled RIT for receiver independent tuning.
amateur transceiver for the 80-10 meter bands is Other transceivers include provision for a crystal-
given in the 5th Edition of Single Sideband for the controlled transmitter frequency plus full use of
Radio Amateur. the receiver tuning. This is useful for "DXpedi-
The complexity of a multiband ssb transceiver tions" where net operation (on the same
is such that most amateurs buy them fully built frequency) may not be desirable.
and tested. There are, however, some excellent
designs available in the kit field, and any amateur
able to handle a soldering iron and follow SSB Bibliography
instructions can save himself considerable money Single Sideband for the Radio Amateur, by the
by assembling an ssb transceiver kit. American Radio Relay League, 5th Edition, 1970.
Some transceivers include a feature that permits Hennebury, Single Sideband Handbook, Technical
the receiver to be tuned a few kHz either side of Material Corporation, 1964.
the transmitter frequency. This consists of a Pappenfus, Bruene and Schoenike, Single Sideband
voltage-sensitive capacitor, which is tuned by Principles and Circuits, McGraw-Hill, 1964.
varying the applied dc voltage. This can be a useful Amateur Single Sideband. by Collins Radio
device when one or more of the stations in a net Company, 1962.

TESTING A SIDEBAND TRANSMITTER

To observe the rapidly changing levels in a generator will do; one often can be borrowed from
sideband transmitter an oscilloscope is absolutely local RTTYers or high-fi buffs, or a simple audio
necessary. No meter can keep up with the dynamic generator may be constructed to give a selection
variations encountered with the human voice. of frequencies. See Chapter 17.
There are monitor scopes sold that will fill the bill The generator should have good sine-wave
completely, or any shop-type scope which has an output and low distortion. A two-tone generator
internal horizontal sweep generator and external makes testing even easier.
vertical deflection-plate connections may be used For the service-type oscilloscope an rf pickUp
with the tuning unit to be described. Several unit is used to sample the output of the
inexpensive scope kits are also available. transmitter, and a tuned circuit builds up the rf
An audio generator is the other piece of test voltage to provide adequate vertical deflection for
equipment required. The standard sort of audio the scope. See Figs. 13-29 and 13-31. The pickup
unit is constructed in a 4 X 2 1/2 x 2 1/2-inch
Minibox. The tuning unit has link-coupled input;
each link is made by winding turns of hookup wire
around the center of the coil and cementing it
down. The shaft of the variable capacitor must be
insulated from ground. In the unit in the
photograph, the capacitor is mounted on a
3/4-inch standoff insulator.
Ot:tly a small amount of energy is used by the
tuning unit, so the pickup may be left in the
transmitter-output line for on-the-air monitoring.
A typical test setup is shown in Fig. 13-30. All
testing should be done with a dummy load. The
audio or two-tone generator is connected to the
microphone jack of the transmitter, except when a
mike is used for speech patterns. The generator
should be adjusted so that its output is about at
the level of the microphone normally used. Gain
adjustments should be made at the transmitter
with the mike gain control. The pickup unit is
inserted between the transmitter and dummy load,
and the tuning unit should be placed so short
connections can be made to the scope. Don't
forget to ground the scope to the tuning unit. A
length of RG-58/U or RG-59/U is used to connect
the tuning unit to the pickup unit.
The transmitter to be tested should be tuned up
in the cw position, or in the sideband position with
Fig. 13-29 - An oscilloscope adaptor permits a single audio tone injected for normal input. Then
monitoring of the output rf envelope from an hf adjust the tuning unit to give about half-scale
transmitter. Any shop-type oscilloscope may be deflection on the scope face, and adjust on the
used. horizontal sweep generator in the oscilloscope.
 400 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION

TRANSMITTER

Fig. 13-30 - A typical test setup

AUDIO for a sideband transmitter.
OSCILLATOR
lOR 2 TONE

o
SCOPE
""--VERTICAL
PLATES

Speech Patterns resulting in clipping of the voice peaks as the final

tube reaches plate-current saturation. Underloading
Speech patterns offer a rather poor way of the final stage will produce the same result.
telling what is going on in the sideband transmitter Operating a transmitter this way will produce a lot
because they come and go so fast. Yet with a little of splatter, making you unpopular with your
experience one can learn to recognize signs of
neighbors on the band. Usually, reducing the gain
transmitted carrier and flattening. These are useful
later in monitoring on-the-air operation with a control setting a little will remove all signs of flat-
scope. tening. Try different settings of the gain control
Connect a microphone to the transmitter, set until you can tell a correct pattern from one show-
the oscilloscope sweep for about 30 Hz and say a ing clipping.
few words. The number "five" will produce a
"Christmas tree" pattern similar to Fig. 13-33.
Each different word will produce a different
pattern, which is one of the reasons why speech
patterns are so hard to interpret. The important
thing here is to observe the peaks to see if they are
sharp, as in Fig. 13-33A. Fig. 13-33B is the number
"five" again but this time the mike gain is set way
too high; the final stage is being overdriven

VERTICAL
OEFL. AMP.

o
SlA SiC

TO
) ' T - - . J BAND
PICKUP SWITCH TO
BOx
'----------0 SCOPE

Fig. 13-31 - Schematic diagram of the oscilloscope TOS~

TUNER
adaptor. Output connections are made through

~
nylon binding posts (Johnson 111-102). Capaci-
tance is in picofarads (pF).
C2
Cl - Small variable (Hammarlund HF-l00).
Jl - Phono type.
L 1 - Link wound over L2 using hookup wire as
follows: 3.5 MHz, 3 turns; 7 MHz, 2 turns; 14,
21 and 28 MHz, 1 turn. (8)
L2 - 3.5 MHz: 35 turns No. 24, 1 1/4-inch dia., 32
turns per inch (B&W Miniductor 3020). 7 MHz:
21 turns No. 20, l-inch dia., 16 turns per inch Fig. 13-32 - Modifications to a general-purpose
(B&W 3015). 14 MHz: 6 turns No. 20, 3/4-inch oscilloscope to allow direct input to the vertical
dia., 16 turns per inch (B&W 3011).21 MHz: 8 deflection plates. A, connection for a scope where
turns No. 18, 5/B-inch dia., 8 turns per inch centering is done in the B-plus lead and B, where
(B&W 3006). 28 MHz: 4 turns No. 18, 1/2-inch centering is accomplished at the cathodes of the
dia.,4 turns per inch (B&W 3001). vertical amplifier tubes. The capacitors used for Cl
Sl - Phenolic rotary type, 3-pole, 3-section, 2-6 and C2 should have a rating of 1000 volts or more.
position (5 used) non-shorting contacts (Centra- Connections can be brought out to the front or
lab 1421). rear panel of the oscilloscope.
 Chapter 14

Frequency Modulation and

Repeaters
Methods of radiotelphone communication by The effectiveness of fm and pm for communica-
frequency modulation were developed in the 1930s tion purposes depends almost entirely on the
by Major Edwin Armstrong in an attempt to receiving methods. If the receiver will respond to
reduce the problems of static and noise associated frequency and phase changes but is insensitive to
with receiving a-m broadcast transmissions. The amplitude changes, it will discriminate against most
primary advantage of fm, the ability to produce a forms of noise, particularly impulse noise such as is
high signal-to-noise ratio when receiving a signal of set up by ignition systems and other sparking
only moderate strength, has made fm the mode devices. Special methods of detection are required
chosen for mobile communications services and to accomplish this result.
quality broadcasting. The disadvantages, the wide Modulation methods for fm and pm are simple
bandwidth required and the poor results obtained and require practically no audio power. There is
when an fm signal is propagated via the ionosphere also the advantage that, since there is no amplitude
(because of phase distortion), has limited the use variation in the signal, interference to broadcast
of frequency modulation to the 10-meter band and reception resulting from rectification of the
the vhf/uhf section of the spectrum. transmitted signal in the audio circuits of the bc
Fm has some impressive advantages for vhf receiver is su bstantially eliminated.
operation, especially when compared to a-m. With
fm the modulation process takes place in a Frequency Modulation
low-level stage. The modulation equipment re- Fig. 14-2 is a representation of frequency
quired is the same, regardless of transmitter power. modulation. When a modulating signal is applied,
The signal may be frequency multiplied after the carrier frequency is increased during one
modulation, and the PA stage can be operated half cycle of the modulating signal and decreased
Class C for best efficiency, as the "final" need not during the half cycle of opposite polarity. This is
be linear. indicated in the drawing by the fact that the rf
In recent years there has been increasing use of cycles occupy less time (higher frequency) when
fm by amateurs operating around 29.6 MHz in the the modulating signal is positive, and more time
10-meter band. The vhf spectrum now in popular (lower frequency) when the modulating signal is
use includes 52 to 53 MHz, 146 to 147.5 MHz, 222 negative. The change in the carrier frequency
to 225 MHz, and 440 to 450 MHz. (frequency deviation) is proportional to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal,
FREQUENCY AND so the deviation is small when the instantaneous
PHASE MODULATION amplitude of the modulating signal is small, and is
greatest when the modulating signal reaches its
It is possible to convey intelligence by peak, either positive or negative.
modulating any property of a carrier, including its As shown by the drawing, the ampli,tude of the
frequency and phase. When the frequency of the signal does not change during modulation.
carrier is varied in accordance with the variations in
a modulating signal, the result is frequency Phase Modulation
modulation (fm). Similarly, varying the phase of If the phase of the current in a circuit is
the carrier current is called phase modulation (pm). changed there is an instantaneous frequency
Frequency and phase modulation are not change during the time that the phase is being
independent, since the frequency cannot be varied shifted. The amount of frequency change, or
without also varying the phase, and vice versa. deviation, depends on how rapidly the phase shift
is accomplished. It is also dependent upon the total
amount of the phase shift. In a properly operating

Fig. 14-1 - The use of vhf fm mobile rigs in

conjunction with repeaters has improved the
communications of many amateur emergency
groups. Here F2BQ relays traffic being received via
2-meter fm on a 40-meter ssb link.
A Transceiver for 160 419
BUFFER PA

.h~:S
T5
'22K
LB L9 R70
S~OOI
~ (FIG2)
TRA_NS, C641. CDS .L .
(FIG.2) 390;J: 470.l

;.~ ...._--()o +
TRANS. 12V DC
(FIG,2) ~_

BIAS
ADJ.
+12VDC

an output signal. Clear-sounding ssb signals should Fig. 8 - Schematic diagram of buffer and PA. If a
~e heard when listening to the general-coverage broad-band ampl ifier or antenna circuit is to follow
receiver. This completes the ssb alignment. T5, a low-pass fi'iter may be necessary to reduce
unwanted harmonic energy.
Place a jumper from either the USB or LSB
L8 - 27 MH, 66 turns of No. 30 enam. wire on
position ofS2A to the cw position ofS2A. Set the Amidon T-50-3 (gray) toroid core.
general-coverage receiver to the USB position. Tum L9 - 37 MH, 76 turns No. 30 enam. on T-50-3
the transceiver to the cw position and tune until a core.
readable ssb signli! is heard. Key the transceiver and R73 - Control, pc-mounting type.
depending upon the settings of Cl2 and C30, a RFC9 - 2,7 MH minimum. Slip a ferrite bead over
tone should be heard. C30 will determine the each end of a small rf choke (Millen 34300L
amount of output. Adjust Cl2 until the desired T4 - Stack two Amidon Husky (7 mm) beads and
wind a 5-turn primary and a 3 turn secondary
side tone is obtained. This will require retuning the
through both 'cores. Use No_ 26 enam. wire.
receiver for readable usb after each adjustment. Make a second transformer similar to the first
When the adjustment is correct, a proper-sounding "one. Parallel the primaries, and series connect
ssb signal can be heard in the cw position and the the secondaries observing the polarities shown
desired note will also be heard when the trans-' on the diagram.
mitter is keyed. Remove the jumper from S2A. T5 - 24 turns No. 26 enam. wire !trifilar wound)
This completes alignment of the transceiver. on Amidon 1-68-3 ,core.
418 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
SPEECH AMP. TO CARRIER
OSC. BOARD
(FIG.e)
R59 111 SIF
~ __--~~~~~~~~~~4-~~~TRANS
820 (FIG. 2)

~C55 1167
2700
v ~ RF~ ~,~~-+~~
1M
AUDIO
GAIN ·!........-.!o SIA
il"-.....,-=-_~;:j~;;;--+-j..--TRANS
C63 (FIG. 2)

SAL. MOD.

Fig. 7 - Schematic diagram of the speech amplifier The preselector module should be aligned fIrst.
and the balanced modulator boards. Connect a signal source to the general-coverage
C62 - Mica Compression trimmer, 50 pF. receiver and tune in the signal. Next, connect the
R52, R68 - Control, pc-mounting type. preselector between the generator and the receiver
RFC8 - 3 ferrite beads over microphone-input
lead. and adjust the slugs until the signals peak. For
correct alignment, Cl should be fully meshed at
the low end (1.8 MHz) of the band. The VFO
should be adjusted by setting its range for 10.8 to
11 MHz as indicated on either a general-coverage
receiver or a frequency counter. The preselector
and LO/mixer modules may be mounted inside the
cabinet and interconnected. See blocks (a) and (b)
in Fig. 2. The external receiver should be con-
nected to the output of T2. When power is applied
rf amplifier, making it small enough to mount on
to the transceiver and S 1 is set for Rev, signals
the back of the capacitor with spacers and screws.
and noise should be heard at 9 MHz as the VFO
Layout for this board (and the remaining ones) will
and preselector are tuned. The 9-MHz filter board
be successful if the following rules are observed.
should be installed and the receiver connection
First, keep all component leads as short as possible
moved from T2 to the output of the filter. See
(especially IC leads) and second, layout the stages
block (d) in Fig. 2. Peak C24 and C25 for
in a straight line as shown in the photograph. Also maximum signal. The carrier-oscillator board may
assure that input and output leads are kept as far be checked by listening with the general-coverage
away from each other as is practical. If the receiver to the two crystal frequencies (8.999 and
isolated-pad construction technique is used, a drill 9.001). Mount the carrier-oscillator and receiver
press (bench style) is handy. However, either a boards, connect a headphone set and adjust L7
hand-held electric drill or a crank-type hand drill for maximum receiver sensitivity. This completes
may be used. Once the preselector module is the alignment of the receiver. See block (c) in Fig.
completed, perform the alignment procedure 2 for details.
before going on to the next board. Complete and Refer to block (h) in Fig. 2 and mount the
test the remaining boards before mounting them speech amplifier. Install the appropriate power,
permanently in the cabinet. input and output connections. Couple a headset to
the output of this circuit through a 0.5-/LF
Alignment capacitor and speak into the microphone. Speech
While the transceiver could be tested after it is should be heard. Install and connect the balanced-
completed, the procedure outlined here will assure modulator board. Refer to block (g) in Fig. 2. Ssb
each module is working before the next one is signals should be detected at the output terminal
mounted in the cabinet. Necessary test equipment of T3. Adjust R68 and C62 for minimum carrier.
includes a signal source and receiver covering 1.8 to Interconnect the buffer and PA modules, and
2.0 MHz, and 9 to II MHz. The receiver should be connect a dummy load (with an output indicator)
capable of receiving ssb signals. Other suggested to the antenna jack. A small pilot light (No. 47)
equipment would be a VTVM, a monitor scope will suffice if the PA shown in Fig. 8 is used. R73
which can be used with the receiver to check should be set for minimum collector current. A
modulation, and a frequency counter. short whistle into the microphone should produce
A Transceiver for 160 417
BFO
BUFFER
220 TO 52C(FIG.2) TO RCVR BOARD
CARRIER INPUT
~~~~~~~~~~J[-;~~.USB/CW
b 22
C41 C42
(FIG.6 )

SM
1
TO '1to~~gD.
r----"vVI..-1-~2-:"2..,....:::..:.=.jF(FIG.7 )
TC39 L6 15K INPUT
rl-t ISf<H R31

BFO
+12V

Fig. 5 - Carrier oscillator board. the various components available will determine
C30, C33 - Miniature pc-mount air variable the final layout but care should be taken to keep
(Joh nson 189-506-5, Allied Electronics all leads as short as possible.
828-1219l. It is a good idea to start with the receiver
L6 - 15 /lH nominal (Miller 4506 or equiv.l.
RFC7 - 500-/lH rf choke (Millen J300-500l. portion of the transceiver (the rf amplifier and
Yl, Y2 - KVG matching crystals for FL 1. preselector is the simplest module to build).
Carefully unwind (and save) the wire from the two
ferrite-loop antenna coils.
Wind a one-layer coil (35 turns) back on each
form and solder it in place. Paint each coil with Q
Where interconnecting shielded cables are used dope to keep the turns from unwinding. Mount the
(such as the connections on S I and other rf leads), completed coils (L2 and L3) using heavy wire leads
small coaxial cable is ideal. RG-174/U was used in on the 365-pF capacitor as shown in the photo-
the unit shown and it is good practice to tie the graph. Ll and L4 consist of 2 turns of hook up
ground leads to one point where two or more wire wound on the cold end of L2 and L3
cables come together. An example would be the respectively. Next, layout the circuit board for the
switch connections at S1. Regular hook-up wire
can be used for the power-supply leads going to
each board.
While the general layout should not be critical,
the one shown in the photograph is suggested. The Fig. 6 - Receiver board. This includes the i-f
amplifier, product detector, and audio amplifier.
cabinet is a Ten-Tec MW-I0 and the dial assembly Audio power is sufficient for high-impedance
can be obtained from Allied/Radio Shack. The earphones.
rootary switches for SI and S2 are surplus minia- L7 - Slug-tuned inductor, 1.6 /lH nominal, 13
ture types with glass-epoxy insulation. The size of turns No. 26 enam. on 1/4-inch form.

CARRIER

TO 51F RCVR
(FIG.2) • :E !9#E. O+12V 1
I N PUT (FIG. e)

C45
1 f5V
DC
C49
.1 PROD. DET.
tl2VOC
~~~~----~--~--~---o
t12V R33
o C O--,\II/'v~-"I'I/Ir...,
1000 R45
2700

~
15V C53
+
R47 AUDIO AM P.
+12VDC

~600

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF tl2V R48

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I JJF ) ; DC O--'v"""..............
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR JlJlFl;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS:
k-IOOO. M-IOOO 000.
416 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
VFO
RFC3 110 47 RFC5
+12V

L5

'""'1"
TO SIC 1.8-2.0 101Hz

~~_--1;2~--'
9101Hz
TOS10
(FIG.2)

Fig. 3 - Schematic diagram of LO and mixer The low-pass filter shown in Fig. 8 is used to
module. If greater bandspread is desired, a smaller eliminate unwanted rf energy (LO, carrier os-
value capacitor could be substituted for C10 with cillator, and other products) above 2 MHz before
C11 increased by an appropriate amount to set the going to the buffer transistor Ql1. While various
low-frequency end of the tuning range to 10.8 transistors are suitable for cw service in the hf
MHz.
range, many will not perform well as linear power
C10 - Air variable, 104 pF maximum (J.W. Miller
2101 or equiv.). amplifiers. The variation in transistor current gain
L5 - 1.1-IlH slug tuned (Millen 69054-0.91 or over a large dynamic range is too great. This results
equiv.L in distortion or imposes severe biasing problems.
RFC2 - Three Amidon ferrite beads at drain Generally speaking, uhf types are the best ones to
terminal of 03. Install on 1/2-inch length of use. The amplifier used with the transceiver is
No. 24 bare wire. capable of approximately one-watt output with
RFC3, RFC4, RFC5 - Miniature 50-IlH choke good IMD characteristics.
(Millen Co. J300-50L
T2, T3 - 25 turns No. 28 (trifilar wound) on
Amidon T-50-3 toroid core.
Construction
A modular-type layout was used that allows the
builder to pretest various sections of the trans-
ceiver before installation in the cabinet. Single-
sided pc board or Vectorbord construction should
Fig. 4 - The 9-MHz filter board. Physical layout
be avoided since unwanted capacitive and inductive
should keep input and output leads separated.
coupling may cause spurious oscillations. Use
C22, C25 - 3- to 35- pF mica compression
trimmer. double-sided pc board, or, as in the case of the unit
RFC6 - Miniature 100-IlH choke (Millen Co. shown, isolated-pad construction. The latter is
J300-100). highly recommended. The individual boards are
FL1 - 9-MHz crystal filt~r, 2.1-kHz bandwidth then mounted in the cabinet with small "L"
(KVG XF-9B Spectrum International, Box 87, brackets or in the case of the VFO module, with
Topsfield, MA 01983). screws.

RFC6 100 t12

C21 ~~~ ____
~ ______- J
l00;<H C26 .01 R24
X· Ol
TOSIA .01
(FIG.2) ~~_~--1
(20
 A Transceiver for 160 415
LeMHz RF AMP.
C2
TO(FIG.2)

~? '-_'-~~_J RFCI

:cs
(See TeKt)
S~4-~~1=~~~-------1
Rev
(FIG.z)

~
ANT.

Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the rf amplifier and L1, L4 - 2 turns of plastic-coated wire over cold
preselector. In this and succeeding diagrams, com- ends of L2 and L3 respectively.
ponent designations not mentioned in the captions L2. L3 - Modified Ferri-Tenna Coil (Radio Shack
are for text and layout references only. Unless No. 270-1430). Remove coupling coil and all
otherwise noted, resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-watt but 35 turns of fine wire on core (see text).
composition and capacitors are disk ceramic. RFC1 -' 2.5 mH rf choke pc-board mounting type
(Millen J302-25001.
C1 - Air variable, 365 pF per section (J.W. Miller T1 - 40 turns over Amidon T-68-3 toroid (gray
2112 or equiv.). core) of bifilar-wound No. 26 enamel wire.

the same mixer is used but rf energy from the oscillator and VFO offset is used. The carrier-
balanced modulator and filter board at 9-MHz is oscillator offset pulls the crystal frequency into the
converted to the 1.8-MHz band. passband of the filter slightly, while the VFO
Because of the relationship between the LO and offset can be adjusted for the desired tone, on
the i-f, a sideband inversion occurs. This means receiving. Keying is accomplished by unbalancing
that the carrier oscillator crystals will be opposite the 1496 IC balanced modulator. Wave shape is
that usually marked on the filter package. Cw determined by the time constant of R62 and C59
operation is in the usb mode and both carrier- in Fig. 7.

(d)
9-MHz
FILTER BOARD

1.8-2.0 MHz

ANT.
(b)
PRESELE.CTOR AND j.:O:::::UT~---I
RF-AMPlIFIER MODULE
ReVP-.
1.8-2.0 MHZ
lS8
ee) o
S2B
BUFFER AMP.
PA MODULE

~----~-+~4---o+12VDC

Fig. 2 - Block diagram & switching logic of the transceiver.

414 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION

A SOLID-STATE TRANSCEIVER FOR 160 METERS

electrically short on 160 meters, can still make
excellent receiving antennas if a balancing network
is used. The balancing transformer (Tl) shown in
Fig. 1 can be used for both transmitting and
receiving, thus reducing ground-loop currents. A
simple loading coil in one side of the feed line can
be used to tune out the antenna capacitive reac-
tance.
Adequate front-end selectivity is also necessary
to assure that unwanted rf energy is rejected before
it reaches the active elements in the receiving
section of the transceiver. The preselector shown in
Fig. 1 may be built from readily available parts.
Some experimentation with the number of turns
on Ll in receive-only applications may be nec-
essary. Use the minimum number of turns that give
sufftcient sensitivity without signs of overloading.
This preselector could also be used with existing
receivers with inadequate front-end selectivity on
160.

Circuit Details
The circuit diagram of the transceiver is shown
in Fig. 1 and Figs. 3 through 8 incl. The block
This ssb transceiver is suitable for QRP opera-
diagram and switching logic of the transceiver are
tion from batteries or as a main frame for
shown in Fig. 2. This arrangement eliminates the
ftxed-station use. Its circuitry is simple enough to
need for relays and provides excellent isolation
permit easy duplication (or substitution of com-
around the 9-MHz filter board. The full capabilities
ponents where necessary) by proftcient builders
of a good receiving filter may be reduced con-
with only limited experience in solid-state design.
siderably by undesirable stray paths. Rf energy
rejected by the filter goes around it through the
Some 160 Notes unwanted paths. In the receive position, signals
Technically speaking, 160 meters is interesting from 1.8 to 2 MHz are mixed with the LO (10.8 to
since it is the only amateur band in the mf range. 11 MHz) to give a 9-MHz i-f. Greater bandspread
Phone operation is similar to that encountered on can be achieved by using a smaller value for CI0
the hf bands but the use of cw is somewhat and increasing L5 or Cll. This would reduce the
different. Split-frequency operation is common band coverage, however. In the transmit position,
and one should avoid transmitting within the DX
"window" from 1825 to 1830 kHz when the band
is open. While cw operation is possible with a
transceiver, the above precaution should be noted.
Because of the LORAN (Long Range Navigation)
service, the band is split up according to geo-
graphical area and one should observe the fre-
quency range and power limit for his region (See
Chapter 1).
LORAN, proximity to the broadcast band,
QRN, and interference from TV sets often imposes
severe requirements on receiving devices for this
band. While little can be done with sky-wave
signals, experimentation with various antenna
systems can reduce local interference to a great
extent. Proximity and orientation of the antenna
to the interfering source are the prime factors here.
Because of latter consideration, separate trans-
mitting and receiving antennas may be necessary.
Hf-band dipoles, even though they may be

Interior view of the transceiver.

Fig. 4 - The large circuit
board below the VFO box
contains most of the receiver
and exciter circuits. The i-f
crystal filter is located on the
board adjacent to the rear
deck. Bolted to the rear deck
is a pc board which contains
the cw crystal oscillator, re-
ceiver front end, and the trans-
mitter mixer. The small pc
board mounted atop the VFO
enclosure holds the RIT-
circuit components. The PA
tank coil is wound on a cera-
mic form - visible at the
lower left in this view. ,,

oscillator with excellent stability, free from pulling voltage, preferably with an oscilloscope, switch to
and other disturbing effects. The slow-motion drive TUNE/CW, and set C4 to give a satisfactory
is a Jackson Bros. 36:1 epicyclic ball drive giving a indication, say,S V peak to peak.
final frequency shift of 40 kHz/turn of the main Detune L7 well below 2.9 MHz and L9 well
tuning control. The receiver incremental tuning above 5 MHz. Tune to 3,500 kHz (5,500 kHz) and
(RIT) is affected by varying the reverse bias on the adjust L8 for a mafimum. Tune to 4,000 kHz
variable capacitance diode CRI. Only a small (5,000 kHz) and adjust LlO for a maximum. Check
portion of the characteristic is used, with the result that as the VFO is tuned from 3,500 kHz (5,500
that the shift is linear withou t resorting to a kHz) to 4,000 kHz (5,000 kHz) the signal remains
nonlinear control. With the values shown, the shift constant. Tune to 3,500 kHz (5,500 kHz) and
is +4.6 kHz and -5 kHz maximum. adjust L7 until the PA grid voltage just starts to
fall, then back off until the voltage has just
Variable Frequency Oscillator returned to its previous value. Tune to 4,000 kHz
(5,000 kHz), switch to ssb and with no audio
The excitation control, C8, is provided to allow input, adjust L9 for minimum VFO feedthrough,
optimum adjustment of the feedback to ensure adjusting the oscilloscope sensitivity as required. If
satisfactory operation with almost any combina- the filter is to be aligned prior to insertion in the
tion of production tolerance found on 2N3819 rig, detune L7 and L9 as before, and adjust L8 for
FETS. To adjust, temporarily shunt VR2 with a a maximum at 3.5 MHz and LIO for a maximum at
4.7-V Zener, and with power applied to the VFO, 4.0 MHz. Then set the signal generator to 2.0 MHz
gradually increase C8 until oscillation just starts. and adjust L7 for a minimum; tune the signal
Check that oscillation commences promptly each generator to 5 MHz and adjust L9 for a minimum.
time power is applied; if not, increase C8 until this Switch to TUNE/CW, tune to 3,650 kHz, and
is achieved. Remove the 4.7-V Zener and check adjust the PA tune and load controls for maximum
that operation is satisfactory at the higher supply power into a 50-ohm dummy load. Adjust C4 for a
voltage. plate current of 60 mAo
Set C7 to mid travel, set the main tuning
capacitor to 30 degrees before maximum, and Carrier Insertion Oscillator
roughly adjust C6 for an output frequency of 5 The carrier oscillator is best adjusted by lis-
MHz. Rotate the main tuning capacitor C5 to 30 tening to a known signal. It is quite normal to have
degrees before minimum capacitance and measure to adjust the frequencies to suit the voice charac-
the new frequency. If it is less than 5.5 MHz the teristics of the user. The input to the receiver
inductance of Lll is too small, if the frequency is product detector is temporarily broken, and the
higher than 5.5 MHz the inductance of Lll is too output from the filter emitter follower is con-
large. When the correct conditions have been nected in its place. A tape recorder with a loop of
achieved the VFO should be accurately aligned, the tape having on it a known voice signal (preferably
final corrections being performed using C7. To one's own voice) is connected to the audio input of
align the cw oscillator, set C4 to minimum, switch the transmitter speech amplifier and balanced
to TUNE/CW, and adjust C3 for an output modulator. With both the receiver product detec-
frequency of 9 MHz. tor and af amplifier and transmitter speech ampli·
fer/balanced modulator energized, the original sig-
Bandpass Filter nal is fed to one earpiece and the up-converted and
In the following procedure, the indicated fre- demodulated signal is fed to the other earpiece of
quency is given first, and the appropriate VFO headphones. Carefully adjust the trimmers Cl and
frequency appears in brackets after, i.e. tune to C2 until the recovered signal matches that of the
3.650 kHz (5,350 kHz). Monitor the PA grid original for both usb and lsb.
412 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION

used. With too high a value for Rl, the input stage
(continued from previous page)
will act as an attenuator, which is also undesirable.
R3 - Linear-taper composition control, 1/2 watt, The method of obtaining the bias voltage for
pc mount. the PA stage is a little unusual, but has proved
R6 - Log taper composition control, 1/2 watt, quite satisfactory in operation. The graphical es-
panel mount.
R7 - Select to provide proper current scale on Ml timate for the grid voltage was 7.4 V and with the
(1.8 ohms used). particular Zener diode used, the resting plate
RFC1-RFC3, incl. RFC6, RFC15 - 20 turns No. current is 25 rnA, slightly higher than the design
30 enam. on ferrite bead. figure. It will be observed that no neutralizing
RFC4, RFC14, RFC16 - l-mH miniature rf choke components are present, none were found to be
(James Millen J300-1 000), necessary. Many tests were conducted to establish
RFCS - 2.S-mH rf choke (J. W. Miller 70F2S3AI). this point, and it was found that with this tube,
RFC7-RFC12, incl. - Ferrite bead (Amidon Asso-
ciates). and layout, fed from this relatively low value of
RFC13 - 44 turns, No. 26 enam. wire on Amidon source impedance, the output stage was uncondi-
T-SO-2 toroid core. tionally stable at all settings of the plate tuning and
Sl,S2 - Spdt toggle. loading capacitors and at all drive levels. In
S3 - Rotary or lever switch, 2 pole, 3 position, particular, it was noted that the change in grid
single section, phenolic. voltage as the anode tuning capacitor was rota ted
Tl - Push-pull driver transformer, 9 MHz, turns through resonance was greater with neu tralizing
ratio is not critical. components present than with them absent. These
Ul, U2 - RCA IC. tests were conducted with seven different final
U3 - Motorola IC.
U4-U7, incl. - Plessey IC. VRl -9-V Zener, 1 W. tubes, with the same result.
VR2 - S.6-V Zener, 1 W. The VFO signal suppression is about 20 dB
VR3 - 8.2-V Zener, 1 W. referenced to peak output of the transmitter
VR4 - 6.8-V Zener, 1 W. mixer, U2. Further attenuation is provided by the
VRS - 200-V Zener, lOW. bandpass filter, L 7 to LlO. The coupling element
VR6 - 6-V Zener, 1 W. employed is a wide-band toroidal transformer.
Yl-Y3, incl. - Crystals to match FLl (see above L5-L6. The bandpass filter is provided to ensure
for sou rces).
adequate filtering of all undesired signals (spurious
(continued [rampage 409) mixer products, VFO leakage) prior to the driver
transformer type TT6 was found to be suitable as a and PA stages. The inclusion of this type of filter is
coupling transformer, Tl, but almost any push-pull preferable to employing a number of gang-tuned
driver transformer should be equally suitable as the circuits. By utilizing modern design techniques, it
ratio is uncritical. The Radiospares unit will prob- is often much easier to obtain the required stop
ably not be available in most areas_ band attenuation with a filter than by using
The source resistor, Rl of Ql (the speech cascaded stagger-tuned circuits. This filter provides
amplifier), will need to be chosen to suit the FET more than 20 dB of attenuation for frequencies
used. It should be adjusted to give a drain voltage higher than 5 MHz and lower than 2.5 MHz, while
of about 6 to 8 V. The value of resistance required passing frequencies between 3.5 MHz and 4 MHz
to achieve this must lie within the range 3300 to with less than 1 dB.
8200 ohms for satisfactory operation of Ql. If the The VFO was constructed on a small piece of
value is too low, the gain of this stage will be too copper-clad laminate after etching the required
high, and clipping of the input signal may result, circuit pattern, and the whole assembly mounted
especially if a high-output crystal microphone is in an Eddystone die-cast box. The result is an

Fig. 3 - The VFO is contained in the

die-cast box which is attached to a
U-shaped bracket which is, in turn,
bolted to the front panel. An L-shaped
bracket encloses the PA section; the
output tube is mounted through this
shield.
Fig. 2 - Schematic diagram of the high-perfor-
mance 75-meter transceiver. Resistors are 1/4- or
en
1/2-watt composition and capacitors are disk cer-
S·
cc
amic, except those with polarity marked, which are CD
electrolytic, unless otherwise indicated. en
Cl-C4, C6-C8, incl. - Air variable, pc mount (E. F. Q;
Johnson 189 series or equiv.l. CD
C5 - Air variable, panel mount. go
C9 - Air variable, panel mount, 1000-V spacing ::s
c..
between plates.
Cl0 - Mica-insulated compression trimmer, panel
mount.
.
-I
I»
::s
CR1, CR2 - Varicap diode, capacitance change of CIO
approximately 100 pF (surplus silicon diodes
2
:c.
checked for high-Q Varicap action where used
here I.
FL1 - 9-MHz crystal filter, 2.1-kHz bandwidth.
An Inoue filter with matching usb and Isb carrier-
..
CD

generator crystals used here - obtained from Lowe

Electronics, 119 Cavendish Road, Matlock, Derby- 6~1----------------~
shire, England. The KVG XF-9B and matching
crystals obtained from Spectrum International,
Box 87, Topsfield, MA 01983 are also suitable.
Jl - Phono connector, panel mount.
J2 - 3·drcuit microphone jack, panel mount. L9 - Approx. 21.5 11H, variable inductor, pc
J3 - 3·drcuit power connector, panel mount. mount (J.W. Miller 46A225CPCI.
Kl - Miniature relay, 6 pole, 2-A contacts, 12-V L10 - Approx. 10.5 11H, variable inductor, pc
coil. mount, (J.W. Miller 46A105CPCI.
L1 - 30 turns, No 28 enam. wire on toroid core. L 11 - 39 turns No. 28 enam. wire on toroid core,
(The cores used in this project were cut from cup tapped 13 turns from ground end.
cores used in surplus i-f transformers. The Amidon- L12 - 8 turns No. 28 enam. wire on toroid core.
EKCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
Amidon Associates, 12033 Otsego St., N. Holly- L 13 - 5 turns No. 28 enam. wire over L 12. CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS t JlF J ;
wood, CA 91607 - T-50-2 cores can be used L 14 - Approx. 1611H, 25 turns No. 22 tinned wire OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS t pf ~ JlJlFl:
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
although the number of turns employed may have on 3-cm-<lia ceramic form. +6V k.IOOO, .. _lOaD 000.

to be altered slightly. This note applies to all of the L 1.5 - 21 turns No. 28 enam. wire on toroid core, *=GATE PROTECTED
Ne; NO CONNECTION
coils listed below which specify toriod cores.) tapped at 8 turns from the ground end. SM=SILVER MICA
L2 - 6 turns No. 28 enam. over L 1. L16 -1 turn of hookup wire over L15.
L3 - 15 turns No. 28 enam. wire on toriod core, L17 - Approx. 4.6 11H, variable inductor, pc
center tapped. mount (J.W. Miller 46A476CPCI.
L4- 30 turns No. 28 enam. wire over L3. L 18 - 5-H miniature power choke. 08,015 - RCA transistor.
L5 - 20 turns. No. 28 enam. wire on toroid core. LS1 - Imported speaker, 8-ohm impedance. 013 - RCA dual-gate MOSFET.
L6 -10 turns No. 28 enam. wire over L5. M1 - Imported milliammeter. R1 - Select for drain voltage of approximately 7 V.
L7 - Approx. 44 11H, variable inductor, pc mount 01, 02, 05, 09-011, incl. - Texas Instuments
,.
--
(J.W. Miller 46A475CPCI. R2, R4, R5 - Linear-taper composition control,
JFET.
1/2 watt or more, panal mount.
L8 - Approx. 14 11H, variable inductor, pc mount 03, 04, 05, 09-011, 014 - Texas Instrument
(J.W. Miller 46A 155CPCI. transistor. (continued on next pagel
 BANDPASS
osc. 220
MIXER FILTER
~ I2V(T)

t--~r----'13.5'4 MHz
-
0l=Io
o

CARRIER
OSC.

~
Z
G')
I-F AMP.
r-
m
'---r---t---+---;z'---O+ '2V(R) VJ
o
m
III
»Z
o
-I
::c
»
zen
s:
~
o
z
A Transceiver for 75 409
changes in plate current will be smooth. If a C7 for minimum. When all of the steps listed above
number of dips or peaks occur, one or more stages have been completed, reconnect the 6146 plate-
are probably self-oscillating, and neutralization will and screen-voltage leads.
be required. Adjustment of the driver stage should Cw operation is accomplished by keying the
be accomplished first. With the plate and screen associated transmitter or transverter. To tune up,
voltages removed from V2, V3 and V4 and with a insert sufficient carrier to bring the plate current
wavemeter coupled to L8, adjust C5 for maximum up to about 220 mAo Dip and load the final in the
indicated rf. C4 should then be set for a minimum usual manner. For ssb operation, the output of the
reading on the wavemeter. Reconnect the plate and transverter should be monitored on an oscilloscope
screen voltage to the 6GK6 and place the to determine the correct level of drive. The final
wave meter near L9. Repeat the neutralization should not be driven to flat topping, even on voice
process, peaking C8 for maximum reading and then peaks.

A 75-METER TRANSCEIVER USING ICs

The transceiver shown in Fig. 1 was designed From the rf amplifier in the receiver section,
and constructed by Adrian Ryan, G3VJN. A which is used mainly to enhance the agc perfor-
sligh tly different version was described by Ryan in mance, an incoming signal is capacitively coupled
Radio Communication (the journal of the Radio to a MOSFET mixer. The device chosen for the
Society of Great Britain) in the September 1971 mixer stage, the 40673, has given excellent perfor-
edition. Integrated circuits have been used wherev- mance. Being a dual-gate FET, there is very good
er possible to simplifY the circuit and to improve isolation between the local-oscillator injection ter-
reliability. G3VJN has extensively field tested the minal, G2, and the signal terminal, Gl. Moreover,
unit on trips to Scotland, the Channel Islands, the transfer characteristics of this device when used
Germany and California; excellent results were as a mixer very closely approximate the ideal
obtained from each location. square law. Thus the third and higher order mixer
The circuits used in the unit follow those products are very low and cross-modulation effects
described in Chapters 4, 6 and 8. Only the unusual are minimized. The excellent agc characteristics of
aspects of the design will be mentioned here. the receiver also help in this respect, by closely
Builders are advised to obtain specification sheets controlling the signal level applied to the mixer. In
for each of the integrated circuits to have complete the prototype, a source bypass capacitor was not
details about the devices on hand. Circuit boards required as the receiver had plenty of gain. With
are not available for this project. the source resistor unbypassed the mixer has an
insertion loss of approximately 6 dB; bypassing
Circuit Description this resistor gives a mixer gain of 10 dB.
The i-f amplifier, Fig. 2, provides the majority
The 75-meter transceiver is a conventional filter-
type circuit, with the VFO and crystal filter of the rf amplification for the receiver, and from
here the signal is applied to the balanced product
common to both transmit and receive paths.
detector which uses a CA3028A IC. This device
Specifications for the unit are as follows:
makes an excellent product detector provided it is
fed with sufficient carrier signal to ensure that the
RECEIVER constant F1 current source transistor is driven
1 JlV input for 15 dB s+n/n ratio. between saturation and cutoff. This requires ap-
1 JlV cw input for 65 mW af output. proximately 1 V pk-pk at pin 2 of the IC. After
AGe threshold 1 JlV. many experiments with this IC the optimum load
AGC compression: 5 dB increase in af output for when used as a mixer or product detector was
100 dB increase in rfinput above 1/J V. found to be about 500 ohms. A Radiospares
(Text continued on page 412)
TRANSMITTER
Single tone power input: 18 W.
Single tone rms power output: 9.2 W.
Carrier and unwanted sideband suppression: 50dB,
measured with I-kHz modulating tone.
Frequency stability: less than 20-Hz drift in any
20-min. period.

Fig. 1 - The transceiver is constructed in a

homemade cabinet. A 36:1 gear reduction dial is
employed. Other packaging arrangements may be
used to fit a particular home- or mobile-station
requirement.
 408 SINGLE·SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION
Tune Up
Provision must be made to reduce the power
output of most 75-meter transceivers that might be
....... used with the transverter, as only about 5-watts
....-. drive is required. Too much rf can damage VIB
1 't :
and will "smoke" the input loading resistors.
Approximately 30 volts of rf will appear between

\:,"1·
_.
the transmitting-mixer cathode and ground when
.' the correct level of 3.8-MHz energy is applied .
. ~ ...., ; Some transceivers are capable of supplying
sufficient drive by removing the screen voltage
,;
from the PA stage. Or, it may be practical to
disable the PA and obtain a sample of driver

•
output by means of link coupling.
Before testing the transverter, assure that the
changeover relay, Kl, is connected to the
remote-keying terminals of the 75-meter equip-
ment. Then connect an antenna to 12 and listen for
signals. Peak the incoming signals with the
PRESELECTOR control. The slugs of L2 and L4
should be adjusted for the highest S-meter reading
The transverter is shown here removed from its on the 75-meter transceiver. L5 should be set for
case. The smaller knob at the lower center of the maximum output at 3.7 MHz. If the receiving
panel controls the receiver preselector. Controls to converter is functioning properly, it will be
the left are DRIVER TUNE (small knob), PA possible to copy a O.I-,uV cw signal or a 0.3-,uV ssb
TUNE and PA LOAD. signal without difficulty in areas where atmos-
10 X 14 X 3 inches is used as the base for the pheric and man-made noise is at a minimum. If no
transceiver. A homemade panel and cabinet enclose signals can be heard, check VIA to make certain
the unit. The panel is 75/8 inches high and 14 that it is working properly. A wavemeter or
inches wide. The layout employed should be general-coverage receiver can be employed to see if
apparent from the accompanying photographs. All the crystal oscillator is operating.
long runs of rf wiring should be made with Attach a 50-ohm dummy load to 12 before
subminiature coaxial cable (RG-I74/U or similar). testing the transmitter section. Set Rl for an
The converter is constructed on an etched indicated resting plate current of 50 rnA on Ml.
circuit board, which is housed in a This adjustment should be made without drive
4 X 2 1/4 X 2 1/4-inch Minibox. Short leads are applied but with Kl energized. Next, apply about
run from the circuit board to the PRESELECTOR 2 watts of 3.8-MHz cw drive at 11. Then, tune L6,
capacitor which is located on the underside of the L 7 and L8 for maximum meter reading. L6 should
chassis. The final amplifier is housed in a be detuned slightly after peaking to insure that the
7 X 5 X 3 I/2-inch enclosure. The particular ca- oscillator will start each time that power is applied.
pacitor used for C8 can be rotated so far that the While monitoring the plate current, tune C8 for a
rotator plates will short to the stator mounting dip. C9 is the PA LOADING control, and it should
rod. To prevent an accidental short, the travel of be adjusted so that the dip in plate current is rather
the capacitor shaft is limited by a long bolt broad, an indication of tight coupling. When the
extending from the PA cage, which prevents the PA capacitors are properly adjusted the plate
long bolt protruding from the shaft coupling from current will be about 220 rnA.
moving by. See the front-view photograph. If the driver and final stages are stable, the

Looking into the bottom of the

chassis, the sockets for the 61468
tubes are at the lower right. A shield
isolates the oscillator and driver
stages. The power-supply com-
ponents are located along the left-
hand wall.
 407
Table 13-1
Tuned-Circuit Data

LJ L2/IA L3 L6 L7/L8 L9
11 turns 18-41,uH C.t. 22 turns 5-8.1,uH 18-41,uH 16,uH
1.8 MHz No. 28 Miller No. 28 Miller Miller 30 turns
enam. 42A335CBI enam. 21A686RBI 42A335CBI B&W 3022
3 turns 1.5-1.9,uH C.t. 2 turns 1-1.9,uH 1.5-1.9,uH .9,uH
21 MHz No. 28 Miller No. 22 Miller Miller 4 turns
enam. 42A156CBI enam. 21A156CBI 42A156CBI B&W 3025
3 turns 1.5-1.9,uH C.t. 2 turns 1-1.9,uH 1.5-1.9,uH .72,uH
28 MHz No. 28 Miller No. 22 Miller Miller 4 turns
enam. 42A156CBI enam. 21A156RBI 42A156CBI B&W 3025
(6 t. removed)
CI C2 C3 YI
1.8 MHz 150 pF 220 pF 220 pF 5.800 MHz
21 MHz 43 pF 18 pF 18 pF 17.500 MHz
28 MHz 5 pF 18 pF 5 pF 32.500 MHz

output is obtained when the windings are measuring the voltage drop across a 51-ohm,
connected, merely reverse the leads of one 5-percent resistor connected in series with the
winding. The 11.3-volt ac is rectified by CR6 and plus-B lead to the final plate circuit. The
filtered by an RC pi section. 1500-ohm, 5-percent multiplier resistor, R3,
Bias voltage is obtained for V3 and V4 by produces a 450-mA full-scale reading on Ml, using
connecting a 6.3-volt filament transformer in a basic meter movement of 0 to 15 rnA. Other
back-to-back fashion with the 6.3-volt winding of meters may be employed with suitable changes of
Tl. The 125-volt ac output from T2 is rectified, R2 and R3, as described in the Measurements
filtered, and then routed to the bias-adjust control, chapter.
Rl, to establish a PA resting plate current of 50
rnA. Construction
The metering circuit indicates plate current by An aluminum chassis which measures
r-____~----~--~+~9~OO~v~--~5

25
lOW

25K
lOW
+300V
3
25K
5W

-JOov

117VAC
CONTROL
J3

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

VALUES OF CAPAC tTANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (JlF) : OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR JlJlFl;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k -1000. M.I 000000

Fig. 13-40 - Diagram of the power-supply section. (Potter and Brumfield MTP23Dll or similar).
Resistors are 1/2-watt composition. Capacitors are L10 - Power choke, 130 mA (Allied 6X24HF or
disk ceramic, except those with polarity marked, equiv.).
which are electrolytic. Sl - Spst toggle.
CR2-CR5, incl. - Silicon, 1000 PRY, 1 A. Tl - Power transformer, 117-V primary; secon-
CR6, CR7 - Silicon, 400 PRY, 1 A. dary windings 740 V ct at 275 mA, 6.3 Vat 7
CR8 - Transient suppressor (GE 6RS20SP4B4). A, and 5 V at 3 A (Stancor P-6315 or equiv.).
J3 - Phono type, chassis mount. T2 - Filament transformer, 117-V primary; 6.3-V,
Kl - 6 pdt relay, 2-A contacts, 12-V dc coil l-A secondary.
 ..-/'
PA
61468 ~
osc. MIXER DRIVER TUNE o
6T9 0.

51
R2<SW2W ~
, R3
LI
KIE
Z
KIB
1500
5% ,...
c;)

m
-IOOV +900
EXCEPT AS INDrCATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS t JlF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS I pI' OR JlJlF):
en
.4 5
RESISTANCES
It.
ARE IN OHMS;
1000 ... ·,000 000. He a NO CONNECTION o
* .. uSED ONLY ON 1.8 MHz m
OJ
BOTTOM VIEW
S M "'SILVER MICA
»
z
NC o
Fig. 13-38 - Scl)ematic diagram of the transverter. Ql, 02 - RCA MOSFET. -f
Resistors are 1/2-watt composition and capacitors CRl - Zener, 6.8 V, 1 W, 1 N4736. Rl - linear-taper 5-W wire-wound control. :xl
are disk ceramic, unless otherwise noted.
Cl-C3, incl. -See table.
Jl - Phono type, chassis mount.
J2 - Coaxial receptacle, chassis mount.
R2, R3 - 5-percent-tolerance composition.
RFC1, RFC3 - Miniature rf choke (Miller
»Z
C4, C5 - Dual-section air variable, 100 pF per Kl - See Fig. 13-40. 73Fl03AFI. en
section. L1-L4, incl. - See table. RFC2 - Miniature rf choke (Millen 34300). s:
C6 - Pc-mount air variable (Johnson 189-501-5). L5 16-26-J.LH slug-tuned coil (Miller RFC4 - 2QO.mA rf choke (Miller 4530).
C7 - Air variable (Johnson 16().102 or equiv.1. 21 A225RBI). RFC5 - Plate rfchoke (Johnson 102-7521. ~
Yl - See table.
C8 - Air variable (Hammarlund MC-250-MI.
C9 - Dual-section broadcast variable, 365 pF per
L6-L9, incl. - See table.
Ml - Milliammeter, panel mount (Simpson 06350 Zl, Z2 - 2 ,turns, No. 18 enam. wound over oz
section, both sllctio(1s connected in parallel. or similar). 47-ohm, 2-watt composition resistor.
A Transverter for 1.8, 21, or 28 MHz 405
from a 600-ohm speaker lead, or if the receiver has use with portable radios or tape recorders should
a high-impedance audio output, the Q4 amplifier do. A "stiff' supply is not necessary. The VOX
stage may not be necessary. does draw quite a bit of current, however, so small
Construction batteries are not suitable. Tests indicate that any
voltage between 5 and 15 volts will provide
The VOX unit, except for the controls and satisfactory operation.
connection jacks, is built on a small etched circuit
board. This board has a long, narrow shape, giving Operation
a modern shape factor to the VOX housing. Parts
layout is not critical and it may be adjusted to suit Connecting the VOX is easy. The microphone is
one's individual requirements. plugged into one of the mic jacks, J 1 or 12, and a
The case for the VOX is homemade. Two pieces patch cord is used to connect the remaining mic
of sheet aluminum, cut to size, are bent into U jack to the transmitter, as shown in Fig. 13-37 A.
shapes. Small L brackets, fastened to each end of The relay contact leads are connected to the
the base, are the points into which the sheet-metal transmitter PTT input, from 16. If a separate
screws that hold the cover are fastened. The overall receiver is to be used, connect a cable from J 5 to
size of the housing is I 1/2 X 7 X 3 inches. Phone the receiver mute connections. The receiver audio
jacks are used for the microphone connections, and can be sampled at the speaker terminals and fed to
other input connections are made through 13. The GAIN control, R19, should be advanced
phono-type jacks. The types of connectors used until even softly spoken words produce VOX
should mate with the other plugs and jacks used in operation. The DEL AY time (R22) can be set to
an individual's ham shack. Unwanted rf pickup is suit one's personal preference. The anti-VOX
always a potential hazard with transistor equip- adjustment is set last. Place the microphone near
ment. So, standard rf suppression techniques are the speaker, and tune in a loud signal. Then,
used on the circuit board, and all connection advance the ANTIVOX control until the signal
points to the unit are bypassed. from the speaker does not operate the relay, even
A wide variety of npn transistors can be used; during periods when loud pops and static crashes
almost any of the small-signal, high-beta types are are present.
suitable. The bias resistors for the 2N2925s may A VOX adaptor can also be put to work to
have to be changed if a different type of transistor provide semibreak-in for cw operation. The
is substituted, however. When soldering connec- connections for this are shown in Fig. 13-37B.
tions to the etched board, care should be exercised, Output from an audio oscillator or the audio signal
as excessive heat can damage transistors and from the monitor in an automatic keyer is needed
diodes, as well as cause the copper foil to lift off to key the VOX. Only a low-level sample of the
the board. Also, correct polarity should be oscillator output is required; .01 volt will assure
observed when installing the electrolytic capaci- good operation. If no oscillator is available, one
tors. The unit's power supply is a 12-volt can be built from a commercial kit such as the
transistor-radio-battery eliminator, the Midland RCA KC4002. Of course, both the audio oscillator
18-112. Any of the 9- or 12-volt supplies sold for and the transmitter must be keyed simultaneously.

A TRANSVERTER FOR 1.8,21, OR 28 MHZ

Owners of mono- or triband transceivers often couple the output of V2 to the grid of the
get the urge to try "top band," or to chase DX on parallel-connected 6146 tubes. The PA stage
the 15- and 100meter bands. Converting a delivers approximately 100-watts PEP output.
transceiver to cover a frequency range for which During receive, an incoming signal is amplified
the rig was not designed is difficult indeed. A far by Ql, a dual-gate, diode-protected MOSFET. The
better approach is to build an outboard transverter, output from the rf amplifier is mixed with
such as described here, for the desired band. local-oscillator energy by Q2 to produce a receiving
i-f of 3.5 to 4 MHz. Operation on the 10- and
The Circuit IS-meter bands is achieved in the same way. The
A schematic diagram of the transverter is given inductance of the coils, the value of the capacitors,
in Fig. 13-38. VIA operates as a crystal oscillator and the frequency of the crystal in frequency-
to produce 5.8-, 17.5-, or 32.5-MHz local-oscillator determining circuits are the only changes required
energy. to change bands. Changeover from transmit to
This stage operates continuously. Output from receive is accomplished by K1, which is controlled
VIA is fed to the transmitting mixer, V1B, and to by the associated transceiver.
the receiving mixer, Q2. During transmit on the The popular "economy" design shown in the
160-meter band, for example, 3.9 MHz ssb or cw Power Supply chapter of this Handbook is
energy is supplied to the cathode of VIB. This employed for the power supply. The 6.3- and
signal is mixed with the 5.8-MHz output of the 5-voit windings of Tl are series-connected to
local oscillator at VIB, producing a 160-meter provide 11.5 volts to power K1 and the receiving
output which is amplified in the following 6GK6 converter. The windings must be phased properly
and 6146B stages. A high-Q tuned circuit is used to to prevent cancellation of the voltages. If no
 INPUT AUDIO RECTIFIER DC RELAY ~
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER DRIVER RECTIFIER AMPLIFIER CONTROL o
~
100 J4

'
~
""j"OPHONE ~r.
~
',-h
J2
1'00'

C2
22~

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

fF
.001~N~.
C17

tUB
cls I J,s(
.OOJ.~N.O.
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE

~
IN MICROFARADS I pF) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR jljlFl;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k -1000. M= I 000 000

EBC "17
Q
0... 0
10'
G SO
ECB
MPF10Z 2N2925 2N1302 (I)
HEP51
Z
Fig. 13-36 Schematic diagram (A) and J3 G)
etched circuit board layout (B) of the VOX unit. r
Unless otherwise noted, resistors are 1/2-watt rh} J3
VOX
m
~
composition. Capacitors with polarity marked are SPEAKER
electrolytic; others are disk ceramic_ Numbered (5A)
components that are not listed below are for (A) o
circuit-board reference. m
C9 - Mylar or other low-leakage type. OJ
CR1-CR4, incl. - Germanium diode, 1N67A or »z
similar.
CR5 - Silicon, 50 PRV or more_ AUDIO
vox o
J1, J2 - Phone jack, panel mount. OSC. t-_ _ _..:J.:,lIMIKE TRANS
IJ6 IPTT TRANSMITTER I (5B) -I
KEY
J3-J6, incl. - Phono type. RCVR :IJ
K1 Reed relay, spdt contacts, 12-V coil
(Magnecraft W1 04MX-2).
(B)
J51
TO
RCVR
KEY
»Z
en
R19 -
MLC254LL
Linear-taper carbon control (Mallory
~----------------~I~.~ 3:
R20, R22 - Linear-taper carbon control (Mallory en
MLC14LL Fig. 13-37 - Typical connections for the VOX sa
Sl - Miniature toggle (Radio Shack 275-1546 or adaptor when used for (A) phone and (B) cw o
275326). operation_ z
 Transistorized Vox 403

TRANSISTORIZED VOX

Voice-operated relay (VOX) provides automatic

transmit-receive switching. It is a useful accessory,
and one that can add to the pleasure of operating.
Owners of commercially made transmitters that
have been designed only for push-to-talk operation,
and home constructors who are "rolling their own"
rigs, will fmd that this unit, shown in Fig. 13-36,
provides excellent VOX operation and that it can
be used with their existing station equipment.

The Circuit
Operation of a VOX circuit is not complicated. the audio-signal input ceases. This delay keeps the
A JFET transistor, Ql in Fig. 13-36, operates as relay from chattering or opening during the short
the fIrst audio amplifier. The high input impedance pauses between words or syllables. The length of
of this type of transistor is desirable, because the the time delay is determined by the value of C15
use of high-impedance microphones is nearly and the setting of the DEL A Y control, R22. The
universal in the amateur service. Q2 and Q3 advantage of ON5FE's circuit is that a relatively
provide additional amplification of the audio low value of capacitance can be used. Other
signal. The gain of these two stages is high. But, if circuits, which use delay capacitors of 50- to
additional gain is needed, bypass capacitor C7 may 200-tLF, have slow tum-on action because series
be added across the emitter resistor of Q2. With all resistances used in the circuits prevent the
but the low-output dynamic microphones, how- large-value delay capacitor from charging instanta-
ever, this capacitor should not be necessary. The neously. A slow tum-on time is defInitely
audio output from Q3 is rectified by CRI and undesirable, as it results in clipping of the first
CR2. word spoken.
The dc output from the audio-signal rectifIer is Audio output from a station receiver can key
amplified by Q5 and fed to Q6. With no signal on the VOX; to prevent this problem, an anti-VOX
its base, Q6 draws no collector current, holding the circuit is included. A sample of the receiver audio
voltage on the base of Q7 near zero until the input is amplified by Q4 and rectifed by CR3 and CR4.
signal reaches a sufficient level to tum the The output of this rectifier is negative in polarity
transistor on. Q7 will then tum on, drawing and opposes the positive voltage developed by CRI
collector current through the relay coil, closing Kl. and CR2. Thus, when controls R19 and R20 are
The transistor that operates the relay is protected correctly set, any pickup from the speaker does
by CR5 from transient spikes generated as the not activate the VOX, as the positive and negative
current changes in the coil of Kl. Provision is made voltages cancel, and Q5 does not operate. A short
for turning Kl on with a front-panel switch, SI, time constant is desirable on the ou tpu t of the
which holds the relay closed for a period of anti-VOX rectiller; Cll provides this function.
• transmitter tuning or other adjustments. Receivers with 4- to 16-ohm speakers require
A delay circuit, borrowed from ON5FE, is amplification of the audio signal sampled across
included to hold Kl closed for a short time after the speaker leads. If the receiver audio is taken

Interior view. With

the exception of the
controls, connection
jacks, and rf bypass
capacitors. all com-
ponents are mount-
ed on an etched-
circuit board.
402 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION

good idea to draw the correct pattern carefully on

a piece of tracing paper, which may be placed over
the actual pattern on the scope face for
comparison. Remember that this test will show
major defects in th6 transmitter only.
To make the test, apply the output of the
two-tone generator to the mike jack, set the 'scope
sweep for about 200 Hz, and check the pattern to
see that both tones are of equal level. If they are
not equal level, the valleys of the wave form will
not meet at a single point on the zero line. Fig.
l3-34A shows the correct pattern; note that the
crossover is in the form of an X. Another way to
obtain a two-tone test signal is to use a single audio
tone and unbalance the carrier to the point where
it forms the pattern shown in Fig. l3-34A.
Examine closely Fig. 13-34A - this is the
correct pattern. Note the clean rounded peaks and
straight sides of the envelopes, and again how an X
is formed at the crossover. Fig. l3-34D shows mild
flattening of the peaks. The cause is an amplifier
• stage being overdriven or underloaded. Cutting the
drive level or increasing the loading should result in
II t,
the Fig. 13-34A pattern.
Incorrect bias adjustment can also cause a stage
to be nonlinear. This defect will show up as

\/:.,.'_iI!!!HIlI,a
__ SSZ.t _I....·" rounding of the crossover points as in Fig. l3-34E ..,
The manufacturer's instruction manual should be
consulted for the proper bias value and the
location of the bias control. This control should be
Fig. 13·35 - I nterior view of the tuning unit and adjusted for the proper operating bias. Incorrect
its pickup box. The variable capacitor is used to bias will also show up as high or low values of
adjust the vertical deflection on the scope. The resting plate current. If a correct resting current
tuning unit should be mounted near the scope so
that short interconnecting leads may be used. The and pattern cannot be obtained the tube may be
pickup box consists of a No. 16 conductor forming bad and should be replaced.
a single-turn loop. Next to this loop is placed a If the two tones used are not of equal
two-turn second loop of plastic-covered hookup amplitude, the pattern of Fig. 13-34C results. Fig.
wire. 13-34B is a correct pattern showing hum
modulation.
If, when the mike gain is reduced to zero, the
scope pattern shows you still have some output, Carrier Balance
you may be transmitting carrier. Adjustment of the
balanced modulator, which will be covered later, For carrier-balance adjustments only one tone
will be necessary. is used. The carrier shows up as a sine-wave
modulation, similar to what you may have seen in
a-m. The carrier-balance control(s) should be
Two-Tone Tests
adjusted until the sine-wave modulation disappears.
A sideband transmitter should be a linear device Fig. 13-34A shows the single-tone test with
from mike jack to output connector - for each sine-wave modulation caused by a partially
audio frequency put in you should get out an rf suppressed carrier.
frequency with no distortion of the wave form. The The location of the carrier-balance controls
basis of a two-tone test is that you inject two audio may be found in the instruction manual if they are
signals, from which you should get out only two rf not located on the front panel. Phasing rigs usually
signals; No tube is ever perfectly linear, so some have two controls, while the filter types have one
mixing of the two tones will occur, but all of the control and a variable capacitor. In either case the
new signals produced should be so weak in action of these adjustments is somewhat interlock-
comparison with the main output of the ing. The first should be adjusted, then the second,
transmitter that you cannot detect their presence repea ting in turn un til the carrier is nulled ou t.
in a scope pattern. What you will see is the pattern Carrier balance may also be adjusted with the
of two sine-wave signals as they add and subtract, aid of a communications receiver if it has an S
forming peaks and valleys. meter. The receiver should be coupled to the
A two-tone test's main advantage is that it will transmitter so you have a strong, S9 signal. Then
produce a stationary pattern that may be examined adjust the balanced modulator as before for the
for defects. It is not easy to tell with your eye least amount of indicated signal on the S meter.
exactly what is a pure sine wave on a scope. During this test the mike gain should be reduced to
Complex patterns are even more difficult, so it is a zero, so no modulation appears on the carrier.
 Testing a Sideband Transmitter 401

(A) (8)

Fig. 13-33 - (A) Speech pattern of a correctly adjusted sideband transmitter. (B) The same transmitter
with excessive drive causing peak clipping in the final amplifier.

(A) (6)

(C) (0)

(E) (F)

Fig. 13-34 - Sideband two-tone test patterns. (A) Output pattern of a properly-adjusted transmitter. (B)
A similar pattern to A, but showing hum on the signal. (e) Unequal tones (see text). (D) Excessive drive,
causing flattopping and distortion. (E) Final amplifier incorrectly biased. (F) Single-tone shOWing
modulation pattern caused by a partially suppressed carrier.
 421
Fig. 14-2 - Graphical representation of frequency
modulation. In the unmodulated carrier at A, each
rf cycle occupies the same amount of time. When
the modulating signal, B, is applied, the radio
f.requency is increased and decreased according to
the amplitude and polarity of the modulating
signal.

Fig. 14-3 shows how the amplitudes of the

carrier and the various sidebands vary with the
modulation index. This is for single-tone modula-
tion; the first sideband (actually a pair, one above
and one below the carrier) is displaced from the
carrier by an amount equal to the modulating
frequency, the second is twice the modulating
frequency away from the carrier, and so on. For
pm system the amount of phase shift is example, if the modulating frequency is 2000 Hz
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the and the carrier frequency is 29,500 kHz, the first
modulating signal. The rapidity of the phase shift is sideband pair is at 29,498 kHz and 29,502 kHz,
directly proportional to the frequency of the the second pair is at 29,496 kHz and 29,504 kHz,
modulating signal. Consequently, the frequency the third at 29,494 kHz and 29,506 kHz, etc. The
deviation in pm is proportional to both the amplitudes of these sidebands depend on the
amplitude and frequency of the modulating signal. modulation index, not on the frequency deviation.
The latter represents the outstanding difference Note that as shown by Fig. 14-3, the carrier
between fm and pm, since in fm the frequency strength varies with the modulation index. (In
deviation is proportional only to the amplitude of amplitude modulation the carrier strength is
the modulating signal. constant; only the sideband amplitude varies.) At a
modulation index of approximately 2.4 the carrier
FM and PM Sidebands disappears entirely. It then becomes "negative" at
The sidebands set up by fm and pm differ from a higher index, meaning that its phase is reversed as
those resulting from a-m in that they occur at compared to the phase without modulation. In fm
integral multiples of the modulating frequency on and pm the energy that goes into the sidebands is
either side of the carrier rather than, as in a-m,
consisting of a single set of side frequencies for
each modulating frequency. An fm or pm signal
taken from the carrier, the total power remaining
the same regardless of the modulation index.
Since there is no change in amplitude with
I
therefore inherently occupies a wider channel than modulation, an fm or pm signal can be amplified
a-m. without distortion by an ordinary Class C
The number of "extra" sidebands that occur in amplifier. The modulation can take place in a very
fm and pm depends on the relationship between low-level stage and the signal can then be amplified
the modulating frequency and the frequency by either frequency multipliers or straight-through
deviation. The ratio between the frequency amplifiers.
deviation, in Hertz, and the modulating frequency,
also in Hertz, is called the modulating index. That
is, I.0r-_ _ •

0.8
Modulation index Carrier frequency deviation
Modulating frequency
Example: The maximum frequency devia·
..
~OA
0.,

tion in an f.m. transmitter is 3000 Hz. either ~

side of the carrier frequency. The modulation ~

index when the modulating frequency is 1000
Hz. is
0.2

~ o~~======::::~~~::::::::~~~ __
.. d 3000. -0.2
Modulatlon ln ex - 1000 = ~
At the same deviation with 3000·Hz. modula· 1.0 2.0 3.0
tion the index would be 1; at 100 Hz. it WOOUI.ATlOh IND[X
would be 30 and so on.
t

In pm the modulation index is constant Fig. 14-3 - How the amplitude of the pairs
of sidebands varies with the modulation
regardless of the modulating frequency; in fm it index in an fm or pm signal. If the curves
varies with the modulating frequency, as shown in were extended for greater values of
the above example. In an fm system the ratio of modulation index it would be seen that the
the maximum carrier-frequency deviation to the carrier amplitude goes through zero at
highest modulating frequency used is called the several points. The same statement also
deviation ratio. applies to the sidebands.
422 FM AND REPEATERS
If the modulated signal is passed through one or The rule-of-thumb for determination of bandwidth
more frequency multipliers, the modulation index requirements for an fm system is:
is multiplied by the same factor that the carrier
2 (£::, F) + F Amax
frequency is ·multiplied. For example, if modula-
tion is applied on 3.5 MHz and the final output is where I'F is one half of the total frequency
on 28 MHz, the total frequency multiplication is 8 deviation, and F Amax is the maximum audio
times, so if the frequency deviation is 500 Hz at frequency (3 kHz for communications purposes).
3.5 MHz it will be 4000 Hz at 28 MHz. Frequency Thus, for narrow-band fm, the bandwidth equals
multiplication offers a means for obtaining (2) 5 + 3 or 13 kHz. Wide-band systems need a
practically any desired amount of frequency 33-kHz receiver bandwidth.
deviation, whether or not the modulator itself is
capable of giving that much deviation without Comparison of FM and PM
distortion. Frequency modulation cannot be applied to an
amplifier stage, but phase modulation can; pm is
therefore readily adaptable to transmitters employ-
Bandwidth ing oscillators of high stability such as the
FCC amateur regulations (Part 97.61) limit crystal-controlled type. The amount of phase shift
the bandwidth of F3 (frequency and phase that can be obtained with good linearity is such
modulation) to that of an a-m transmission that the maximum practicable modulation index is
having the same audio characteristics below about 0.5. Because the phase shift is proportional
29.0 MHz and in the 50.1- to 52.5-MHz
to the modulating frequency, this index can be
frequency segment. Greater bandwidths are
allowed from 29.0 to 29.7 MHz and above used only at the highest frequency present in the
52.5 MHz. modulating signal, assuming that all frequencies
will at one time or another have equal amplitudes.
Taking 3000 Hz as a suitable upper limit for voice
If the modulation index (with single-tone work, and setting the modulation index at 0.5 for
modulation) does not exceed 0.6 or 0.7, the most 3000 Hz, the frequency response of the speech-
important extra sideband, the second, will be at amplifier system above 3000 Hz must be· sharply
least 20 dB below the unmodulated carrier level, attenuated, to prevent excess splatter. (See Fig.
and this should represent an effective channel 14-4.) Also, if the "tinny" quality of pm as
width about equivalent to that of an a-m signal. In received on an fm receiver is to be avoided, the pm
the case of speech, a somewhat higher modulation must be changed to fm, in which the modulation
index can be used. This is because the energy index decreases in inverse proportion to the
distribution in a complex wave is such that the modulating frequency. This requires shaping the
modulation index for anyone frequency com- speech-amplifier frequency-response curve in such
ponent is reduced as compared to the index with a a way that the output voltage is inversely
sine wave having the same peak amplitude as the proportional to frequency over most of the voice
voice wave. range. When this is done the maximum modulation
The chief advantage of fm or pm for index can only be used to some relatively low
frequencies below 30 MHz is that it eliminates or audio frequency, perhaps 300 to 400 Hz in voice
reduces certain types of interference to broadcast transmission, and must decrease in proportion to
reception. Also, the modulating equipment is the increase in frequency. The result is that the
relatively simple and inexpensive. However, assum- maximum linear frequency deviation is only one or
ing the same unmodulated carrier power in all two hundred Hz, when pm is changed to fm. To
cases, narrow-band fm or pm is not as effective as increase the deviation for narrow band requires a
a-m with the methods of reception used by many frequency multiplication of 8 times or more.
amateurs. To obtain the benefits of the fm mode, a
good fm receiver is required. As shown in Fig.
14-3, at an index of 0.6 the amplitude of the first
sideband is about 25 percent of the unmodulated-
carrier amplitude; this compares with a sideband
amplitude of 50 percent in the case of a 100
percent modulated a-m transmitter. When copied
on an a-m receiver, a narrow-band fm or pm
transmitter is about equivalent to a 100-percent
modulated a-m transmitter operating at one-fourth
the carrier power. On a suitable (fm) receiver, fm is
as good or better than a-m, watt for watt.
Three deviation amounts are now standard
practice: 15, 5 and 2.5 kHz, which in the current
vernacular of fm users, are known as wide band,
narrow band, and sliver band, respectively. (See
box above.) The 2.5-3 kHz deviation (called nbfm
by OTs) was popular for a time on the vhf bands Fig. 14-4 - Output frequency spectrum of a
and 10 meters after World War II. Deviation figures narrow-band fm transmitter modulated by a 1-kHz
are given for the frequency swing in one direction. tone.
Frequency Modu lation Methods 423
It is relatively easy to secure a fairly large a great deal of frequency multiplication.) The chief
frequency deviation when a self-controlled oscilla- problem is to maintain a satisfactory degree of
tor is frequency-modulated directly_ (True frequen- carrier stability, since the greater the inherent
cy modulation of a crystal-controlled oscillator stability of the. oscillator the more difficult it is to
results in only very small deviations and so requires secure a wide frequency swing with linearity.

METHODS OF FREQUENCY MODULATION

Direct FM However, the voltage across C3 will lag the current

by 90 degrees. The rf current in the drain circuit of
A simple and satisfactory device for producing
the modulator will be in phase with the grid
fm in the amateur transmitter is the reactance
voltage, and consequently is 90 degrees behind the
modulator. This is a vacuum tube or transistor
current through C3, or 90 degrees behind the rf
connected to the rf tank circuit of an oscillator in
tank voltage. This lagging current is drawn through
such a way as to act as a variable inductance or
the oscillator tank, giving the same effect as though
ca pacitance. an inductance were connected across the tank. The
Fig. 14-5A is a representative circuit. Gate I of frequency increases in proportion to the amplitude
the modulator MOSFET is connected across the of the lagging plate current of the modulator. The
oscillator tank circuit, CILI, through resistor RI audio voltage, introduced through a radio-frequen-
and blocking capacitor C2. C3 represents the input
cy choke, varies the transconductance of the
capacitance of the modulator transistor. The
transistor and thereby varies the rf drain current.
resistance of RI is made large compared to the
The modulated oscillator usually is operated on
reactance of C3, so the rf current through RIC3
will be practically in phase with the rf voltage a relatively low frequency, so that a high order of
appearing at the terminals of the tank circuit. carrier stability can be secured. Frequency
multipliers are used to raise the frequency to the
final frequency desired.
A reactance modulator can be connected to a
REACTANCE MODULATOR crystal oscillator as well as to the self-controlled
OSC. TANK type as shown in Fig. 14-5B. However, the
TO 05C .
.001 I-"C:.::2_--1~F-;_-1 resulting signal can be more phase-modulated than
+12V
it is frequency-modulated, for the reason that the
frequency deviation that can be secured by varying
the frequency of a crystal oscillator is quite small.
The sensitivity of the modulator (frequency
change per unit change in grid voltage) depends on
the transconductance of the modulator transistor.
It increases when RI is made smaller in comparison
with C3. It also increases with an increase in L/C
ratio in the oscillator tank circuit. However, for
highest carrier stability it is desirable to use the
largest tank capacitance that will permit the
(Ai desired deviation to be secured while keeping
within the limits of linear operation.
A change in any of the voltages on the
VARACTOR REACTANCE modulator transistor will cause a change in rf drain
MODULATOR current, and consequently a frequency change.
Therefore it is advisable to use a regulated power
OUTPUT supply for both modulator and oscillator.
15
11-__o__o_"'1 f-o
Indirect FM
RFC
sof'JI The same type of reactance-tube circuit that is
used to vary the tuning of the oscillator tank in fm
can be used to vary the tuning of an amplifier tank
and thus vary the phase of the tank current for pm.
Hence the modulator circuit of Fig. 14-5A or
+l2V 14-6A can be used for pm if the reactance
transistor or tube works on an amplifier tank
instead of directly on a self-controlled oscillator. If
(B) audio shaping is used in the speech amplifier, as
described above, fm instead of pm will be
generated by the phase modulator.
Fig. 14-5 - Reactance modulators using (A) a The phase shift that occurs when a circuit is
high-transconductance MOSFET and (B) a varactor detuned from resonance depends on the amount of
diode. detuning and the Q of the circuit. The higher the
424 FM AND REPEATERS
PHASE MODULATOR that the actual frequency deviation increases with
RF
the modulating audio frequency in pm makes it
1-........_ ........._00--11 ~PUT
necessary to cut off the frequencies above about
3000 Hz before modulation takes place. If this is
RFC
lmH not done, unnecessary sidebands will be generated
at frequencies considerably away from the carrier.
SPEECH PROCESSING FOR FM
The speech amplifier preceding the modulator
(A) follows ordinary design, except that no power is
taken from it and the af voltage required by the
AUDIO INPUT modulator grid usually is small - not more than lO
or 15 volts, even with large modulator tubes, and
only a volt or two for transistors. Because of these
PRE - EM PHASIS modest requirements, only a few speech stages are
+ needed; a two-stage amplifier consisting of two
DE-EMPHASIS bipolar transistors, both resistance-coupled, will
7500 more than suffice for crystal ceramic or hi-Z
.75H
sara
~AUDIO
TO dynamic microphones. For more information on
speech amplifiers see Chapter 13.

+ Ip.F
F~~~'''~An
DISCRIMINATOR 1.01
JL _. AMP.
Several forms of speech processing produce
worthwhile improvements in fm system perfor-
f-tFOUT (c)
mance. It is desirable to limit the peak amplitude
of the audio signal applied to an fm or pm
modulator, so that the deviation of the fm
(8) transmitter will not exceed a preset value. This
peak limiting is usually accomplished with a simple
audio clipper which is placed between the speech
Fig. 14-6 - (A) The phase-shifter type of phase amplifier and modulator. The clipping process
modulator. (8) Pre-emphasis and (e) de-emphasis produces high-order harmonics which, if allowed to
circuits. pass through to the modulator stage, would create
unwanted sidebands. Therefore, an audio low-pass
Q, the smaller the amount of de tuning needed to filter with a cut-off frequency between 2.5 and 3
secure a given number of degrees of phase shift. If kHz is needed at the output of the clipper. Excess
the Q is at least 10, the relationship between phase clipping can cause severe distortion of the voice
shift and detuning (in kHz either side of the signal. An audio processor consisting of a
resonant frequency) will be substantially linear compressor and a clipper, such as described in
over a phase-shift range of about 25 degrees. From Chapter 13, has been found to produce audio with
the standpoint of modulator sensitivity, the Q of a better sound (i.e., less distortion) than a clipper
the tuned circuit on which the modulator operates alone.
should be as high as possible. On the other hand, To reduce the amount of noise in some fm
the effective Q of the circuit will not be very high communications systems, an audio shaping net-
if the amplifier is delivering power to a load since work called pre-emphasis is added at the
the load resistance reduces the Q. There must transmitter to proportionally attenuate the lower
therefore be a compromise between modulator audio frequencies, giving an even spread to the
sensitivity and rf power output from the energy in the audio band. This results in an fm
modulated amplifier. An optimum figure for Q signal of nearly constant energy distribution. The
appears to be about 20; this allows reasonable reverse is done at the receiver, called de-emphasis,
loading of the modulated amplifier and the to restore the audio to its original relative
necessary tuning variation can be secured from a proportions. Sample circuits are shown in Fig.
reactance modulator without difficulty. It is 14-6.
advisable to modulate at a low power level. FM EXCITERS
Reactance modulation of an amplifier stage
usually results in simultaneous amplitude modula- Fm exciters and transmitters take two general
tion because the modulated stage is detuned from fonus. One, shown at Fig. 14-7A, consists of a
resonance as the phase is shifted. This must be reactance modulator which shifts the frequency of
eliminated by feeding the modulated signal an oscillator to generate an fm signal directly.
through an amplitude limiter or one or more Successive multiplier stages provide output on the
"saturating" stages - that is, amplifiers that are desired frequency, which is amplified by a PA
operated Class C and driven hard enough so that stage. This system has a disadvantage in that, if the
variations in the amplitude of the input excitation oscillator is free running, it is difficult to achieve
produce no appreciable variations in the output sufficient stability for vhf use. If a crystal-con-
amplitude. trolled oscillator is employed, unless the amount
For the same type of reactance modulator, the that the crystal frequency is changed is kept small,
speech-amplifier gain required is the same for pm it is difficult to achieve equal amounts of
as for fm. However, as pointed out earlier, the fact frequency swing.
Testing an FM Transmitter 425

(A)

Fig. 14-7 - Block diagrams of typical fm exciters.

The indirect method of generating fm shown in The quantities to be checked in an fm

Fig. 14-7B is currently popular. Shaped audio is transmitter are the linearity and frequency
applied to a phase modulator to generate fm_ As deviation and the output frequency, if the unit
the amount of deviation produced is very small, uses crystal control. The methods of checking
then a large number of multiplier stages is needed differ in detail.
to achieve wide-band deviation at the operating
frequency _ In general, the system shown at A will Frequency Checking
require a less complex circuit than that at B, but The crystal-controlled, channelized operation
the indirect method (B) often produces superior that is now popular with amateur fm users requires
results. that a transmitter be held close to the desired
channel, at least within a few hundred Hertz, even
TESTING AN FM TRANSMITTER in a wide-band system_ Having the transmitter on
Accurate checking of the operation of an fm or the proper frequency is particularly important
pm transmitter requires different methods than the when operating through a repeater. The rigors of
corresponding checks on an a-m or ssb set. This is mobile and portable operation make a frequency
because the common forms of measuring devices check of a channelized transceiver a good idea at
either indicate amplitude variations only (a three-month intervals_
milliammeter, for example), or because their Frequency meters generally fall in two categor-
indications are most easily interpreted in terms of ies, the hererodyne type and the digital counter. For
amplitude. amateur use, the vhf/uhf counterparts of the

PEAK DEVIATION METER

TO
DISCRIMINAToR

(A)

Audio Deviation Produced

Frequency 1st Null 2nd Null 3rdNull
905.8 Hz ±2_18 kHz ± 5_00 kHz ± 7.84 kHz
1000.0 Hz ±2,40 kHz ± 5.52 kHz ± 8.65 kHz
1500.0 Hz ±3.61 kHz ± 8.28 kHz ±12.98 kHz
1811.0 Hz ±4.35 kHz ±10.00 kHz ±15.67 kHz
(6) 2000.0 Hz ±4.81 kHz ±11.04 kHz ±17.31 kHz
2079.2 Hz ±5.00 kHz ±11,48 kHz ±17.99 kHz
2805.0 Hz ±6.75 kHz ±15,48 kHz ±24.27 kHz

Fig. 14-8 - (A) Schematic diagram of the deviation meter. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition and
capacitors are ceramic, except those with polarity marked, which are electrolytic. CR1-CR3, incl. are
high-speed silicon switching diodes. R1 is a linear-taper composition control, and S1, S2 are spst toggle
switches. T1 is a miniature audio transformer with a 10,OOO-ohm primary and 20,OOO-ohm center-tapped
secondary (Triad A31 X). (B) Chart of audio frequencies which will produce a carrier null when the
deviation of an fm transmitter is set for the values given.
426 FM AND REPEATERS
popular BC-221 frequency meter, the TS-174 and until Ml reads half scale, SO J.lA. To check the peak
TS-17S, will provide sufficient accuracy. Frequen- deviation of an incoming signal, close both SI and
cy counters that will work directly up to SOO MHz S2. Then, read the meter. Opening first one switch
and higher are available, but their cost is high. The and then the oth~r will indicate the amount of
less expensive low-frequency counters can be positive and negative deviation of the signal, a
employed using a scaler, a device which divides an check of deviation linearity.
input frequency by a preset ratio, usually 10 or
100. The Heathkit IB-I02 scaler may be used up to Measurement of Deviation Using Bessel Functions
17 S MHz, using a counter with a 2-MHz (or more)
upper frequency limit. If the counting system does Using a math. relationship known as the Bessel
not have a sufficient upper frequency limit to Function it is possible to predict the points at
measure the output of an fm transmitter directly, which, with certain audio-input frequencies and
one of the frequency-multiplier stages can be predetermined deviation settings, the carrier
sampled to provide a signal in the range of the output of an fm transmitter will disappear
measurement device. Alternatively, a crystal-con- completely. Thus, by monitoring the carrier
trolled converter feeding an hf receiver which has frequency with a receiver, it will be possible by ear
accurate frequency readout can be employed, if a to identify. the deviation at which the carrier is
secondary standard is available to calibrate the nulled. A heterodyne signal at either the input or
receiving system. receiver i-f is required so that the carrier will
produce a beat note which can easily be identified.
Deviation and Deviation Linearity Other tones will be produced in the modulation
process, so some concentration is required by the
A simple deviation meter can be assembled operator when making the test. With an audio tone
following the diagram of Fig. 14-8A. This circuit selected from the chart (Fig. 14-8B), advance the
was designed by K6VKZ. The output of a deviation control slowly until the first null is
wide-band receiver discriminator (before any heard. If a higher-order null is desired, continue
de-emphasis) is fed to two amplifier transistors. advancing the control further until the second, and
The output of the amplifier section is transformer then the third, null is heard. Using a carrier null
coupled to a pair of rectifier diodes to develop a dc beyond the third is generally not practical.
voltage for the meter, Ml. There will be an For example, if a 90S.8-Hz tone is used, the
indication on the meter with no signal input transmitter will be set for S-kHz deviation when
because of detected noise, so the accuracy of the the second null is reached. The second null
instrument will be poor on weak signals. achieved with a 280S-Hz audio input will set the
To calibrate the unit, signals of known transmitter deviation at IS.48 kHz. The Bessel-
deviation will be required. If the meter is to be set function approach can be used to calibrate a
to read O-IS kHz, then a 7.S-kHz deviation test deviation meter, such as the unit shown in Fig.
signal should be employed. Rl is then adjusted 14-SA

RECEPTION OF FM SIGNALS

Receivers for fm signals differ from others detector must be capable of converting frequency
principally in two features - there is no need for variations in the incoming signal into amplitude
linearity preceding detection (it is, in fact, ad- variations.
vantageous if amplitude variations in signal and Frequency-modulated signals can be received
background noise can be "washed out") and the after a fashion on any ordinary receiver. The
receiver is tuned to put the carrier frequency
DEVIATION
partway down on one side of the selectivity curve.
liMITS When the frequency of the signal varies with
~ modulation it swings as indicated in Fig. 14-9,
I I reSUlting in an a-m output varying between X and
I I
I I
I I Y. This is then rectified as an a-m signal.
I .I Wi th receivers having steep-sided selectivity
II curves, the method is not very satisfactory because
I the distortion is quite severe unless the frequency
I deviation is small, since the frequency deviation
I
I and output amplitude is linear over only a small
I
part of the selectivity curve.

The FM Receiver
D +
FREQUENCY Block diagrams of an a-m/ssb and an fm
receiver are shown in Fig. 14-10. Fundamentally,
Fig. 14-9 - Fm detector characteristics. Slope to achieve a sensitivity of less than one microvolt,
detection, using the sloping side of the receivers an fm receiver requires a gain of several million -
selectivity curve to convert fm to a-m for too much total gain to be accomplished with
subsequent detection. stability on a single frequency. Thus, the use of the
 Reception of FM Signals 427
A-M RECEIVER

Fig. 14-10 - Block diagrams of (A) an a-m (B) an

fm receiver. Dark borders outline the sections that
are different in the fm set.
F M RECEIVER

superheterodyne circuit has become standard i-f system and phase tuning of the detector are
practice. Three major differences will be apparent required to achieve good noise suppression. Fm
from a comparison of the two block diagrams. The receivers perform in an unusual manner when QRM
fm receiver employs a wider-bandwidth filter, a is present, exhibiting a characteristic known as the
different detector, and has a limiter stage added capture effect. The loudest signal received, even if
between the i-f amplifier and the detector. it is only two or three times stronger than other
Otherwise the functions, and often the circuits, of stations on the same frequency, will be the only
the rf, oscillator, mixer and audio stages will be the transmission demodulated. By comparison, an 89
same in either receiver. a-m or cw signal can suffer noticeable interference
In operation, the noticeable difference between from an 82 carrier.
the two receivers is the effect of noise and
interfere~ce on an incoming signal. From the time Bandwidth
of the first spark transmitters, "rotten QRM" has Most fm sets that use tubes achieve i-f
been a major problem for amateurs. The limiter selectivity by using a number of overcoupled
and discriminator stages in an fm set can eliminate transformers. The wide bandwidth and phase-
a good deal of impulse noise, except that noise response characterisitic needed in the i-f system
which manages to acquire a frequency-modulation dictate careful design and alignment of all
characteristic. Accurate alignment of the receiver interstage transformers.

F M FILTERS

Center Nonimal Ultimate Impedance Ir) Insertion Crystal

Manufacturer Model Frequency Bandwidth Rejection In Out Loss Discriminator

KVG (I) XF·9E 9.0 MHz 12 kHz 90 dB 1200 1200 3 dB XD9'()2

KVG (I) XF-107A 10.7 MHz 12 kHz 90 dB 820 820 3.5 dB XD107'()1
KVG (I) XF·107B 10.7 MHz 15 kHz 90 dB 910 910 3.5 dB XD107'()1
KVG (I) XF-107C 10.7 MHz 30 kHz 90 dB 2000 2000 4.5 dB XD107-01
Heath Dynamics (2) 21.5 MHz 15 kHz 90 dB 550 550 3 dB
Heath Dynamics (2) 21.5 MHz 30 kHz 90 dB 1100 1100 2 dB
E.S. (3) FB-6D 10.7 MHz 15 kHz 80 dB 950 950 2 dB AB-1C
E.S. (3) lO-MA \0.7 MHz 30 kHz 80 dB 2000 2000 4 dB AB-IC
E.S. (3) EL·3A 11.5 MHz 36 kHz 70 dB 50 50 4 dB AL-\
E.S. (3) DR-9 21.4 MHz 20 kHz 40 dB 750 750 5 dB AR-10
Clevite (4) TCF4-12D3CA 455 kHz 12 kHz 60 dB 40k 2200 64B
Clevite (4) TCF4-18G45A 455 kHz 18 kHz 50 dB 40k 2200 6 dB
C1evite (4) TCF6-30D55A 455 kHz 30 kHz 60 dB 20k 1000 5 dB

Fig. 14-11 - A list of fm-bandwidth filters that are available to amateurs. Manufacturer's addresses are as
follows: 3) E. S. Electronic Labs, 301 Augustus, Excelsior
1) Spectrum International, P. O. Box 87, Tops- Springs, MO 64024.
field, MA 01983. 4) Semiconductor Specialists, Inc., P. O. Box
2) Heath Dynamics, Inc., 6050 N. 52nd Avenue, 66125, O'Hare International Airport, Chicago,
Glendale, AZ 85301. I L 60666. (Minimum order $5.00.)
428 FM AND REPEATERS
PLATE
CuRRENT
limits when it is of sufficient amplitude so that
lttoollTER OUTPUT diode action of the grid and plate-current
saturation clip both sides of the input signal,
/ /1 producing a constant-amplitude output voltage. .
GRID
VOLTAG E
/ "-=
Obviously, a signal of considerable strength IS
required at the input of the limiter to assure full
clipping, typically several volts for tubes, one volt

~l
;
NOISE
puLSES
for transistors, and several hundred microvolts for
ICs. Limiting action should start with an rf input
of 0.2 /lV or less, so a large amount of gain is
required between the antenna terminal and the
INPUT SIGNAL limiter stages. For example, the Motorola 80D has
eight tubes before the limiter, and the solid-state
Fig. 14-12 - Representation of limiter action. MOTRAC receivers use nine transistor stages to get
Amplitude variations on the signal are removed by
the diode action of the grid- and plate-current sufficient gain before the first limiter. The new ICs
satu rati on. offer some simplification of the i-f system as they
pack a lot of gain into a single package.
For the average ham, the use of a high-selectivi- When sufficient signal arrives at the receiver to
ty filter in a homemade receiver offers some start limiting action, the set quiets - that is, the
simplification of the alignment task. Following the background noise disappears. The sensitivity of an
techniques used in ssb receivers, a crystal or fm receiver is rated in terms of the amount of
ceramic filter should be placed in the circuit as input signal required to produce a given amount of
close as possible to the antenna connector - at the quieting, usually 20 dB. Current practice using the
output of the first mixer, in most cases. Fig. 14-11 new solid-state devices can produce receivers which
lists a number of suitable filters that are available achieve 20 dB quieting with 0.15 to 0.5 /lV of
to amateurs. Prices for these filters are in the range input signal.
of $10 to· $30. Experimenters who wish to "roll A single tube or transistor stage will not provide
their own" can use surplus hf crystals, as outlined good limiting over a wide range of input signals.
in ARRL's Single Sideband for the Radio Amateur, Two stages, with different input time constants,
or ceramic resonators. are a minimum requirement. The first stage is set
One item of concern to every amateur fm user to handle impulse noise satisfactorily while the
is the choice of i-f bandwidth for his receiver, as second is designed to limit the range of signals
both 15- and 5-kHz deviation are now in common passed on by the first. At frequencies below 1 MHz
use on the amateur bands. A wide-band receiver it is useful to employ untuned RC-coupled limiters
can receive narrow-band signals, suffering only which provide sufficient gain without a tendency
some loss of audio in the detection process. toward oscillation.
However, a wideband signal will be badly distorted
when received on a narrow-band rig. At this point
it seems reasonable to assume that increasing fm
activity and continued production of commercial
narrow-band transceivers may gradually shift
amateur operation to a 5-kHz deviation standard.
But, as with the a-m operators, the wide-band (A)
enthusiasts will be around for some time to come,
lured by inexpensive surplus wide-band gear.
Limiters
When fm was first introduced, the main selling
point used for the new mode was the noise-free
reception possibilities. The circuit in the fm
receiver that has the task of chopping off noise and
amplitude modulation from an incoming signal is
the limiter. Most types of fm detectors respond to
both frequency and amplitude variations of the
signal. Thus, the limiter stages preceding the
detector are included to "cleanse" the signal so
that only the desired frequency modulation will be
demodulated. This action can be seen in Fig.
14-13.
Limiter stages can be designed using tubes,
transistors, or les. For a tube to act as a limiter,
the applied B voltages are chosen so that the stage
will overload easily, even with a small amount of Fig. 14-13 - (AI Input wave form to a limiter stage
signal input. A sharp-cutoff pentode such as the shows a-m and noise. (61 The same signal, after
6BH6 is usually employed with little or no bias passing through two limiter stages, is devoid of a-m
applied. As shown in Fig. 14-12, the input signal components.
Reception of FM Signals 429
+250V

1ST LIMITER 2ND LIMITER

(A)
+250Y

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VAL.UES OF

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I )IF ) ;
Fig. 14-14 - Typical limiter circuits using (A) OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR j,ljlF):
tubes, (8) transistors, (C) a differential IC, (0) a RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
high-gain linear IC. kal 000, Ma10eD 000.

1ST LIMITER 2ND LIMITER

2.N641 2N641
455 KHz 455 KHz
1500

1000
(B)
22K

+o---~------~~--~------~~--~
12Y
4.7jJ.F
~ ISY

LIMITER
r-~ ____ ~~ __ ~ ____--o+9V
FROM ----J .01
.001A; l-F V""""l
27K 560 AMP.

.001
AJDS.........---I' ~ TO
r--"OETECTOR

(C) (0) +l1Y

Fig. 14-14A shows a two-stage limiter using

sharp-cutoff tubes, while 14-14B has transistors in
two stages biased for limiter service. The base bias
on either transistor may be varied to provide
limiting at a desired level. The input-signal voltage
required to start limiting action is called the
limiting knee, referring to the point at which
collector (or plate) current ceases to rise with
increased input signal. Modem ICs have limiting
knees of 100 mV for the circuit shown in Fig.
14-14C, using the CA3028A or MC1550G, or 200
IlV for the Motorola MC1590G of Fig. 14"-140.
Because the high-gain ICs such as the CA3076 and
MC1590Gcontain as many as six or eight active
stages which will saturate with sufficient input, one
of these devices provides superior limiter perfor-
mance compared to a pair of tubes or transistors. Fig. 14-15 - The characteristic of an fm discriminator.
430 FM AND REPEATERS
DISCRIMINATOR
TI
r-------------, .1
FF-~M o--+--........~ :
AMP. EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (jJF I; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS tpF OR J'jJF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k .~IOOO. M; I 000 000

+6 RFC

Fig. 14-16 - Typical frequency-discriminator circuit used for fm detection. T1 is a Miller 12-C45.

Detectors In the search for a simplified fm detector, RCA

The first type of fm detector to gain popularity developed a circuit that has now become standard
was the frequency discriminator. The characteristic in entertainment radios which eliminated the need
of such a detector is shown in Fig. 14-15. When the for a preceding limiter stage. Known as the ratio
fm signal has no modulation, and the carrier is at detector, this circuit is based on the idea of
point 0, the detector has no output. When audio dividing a dc voltage into a ratio which is equal to
input to the fm transmitter swings the signal higher the ratio of the amplitudes from either side of a
in frequency, the rectified output increases in the discriminator-transfonner secondary. With a detec-
positive direction. When the frequency swings tor that responds only to ratios, the input signal
lower the output amplitude increases in the may vary in strength over a wide range without
neg'!tive direction. Over a range where the causing a change in the level of output voltage _
discriminator is linear (shown as the straight fm can be detected, but not a-m. In an actual ratio
portion of the line), the conversion of fm to a-m detector, Fig. 14-17, the dc voltage required is
which is taking place will be linear. developed across two load resistors, shunted by an
A practical discriminator circuit is shown in electrolytic capacitor. Other differences include
Fig. 14-16. The fm signal is converted to a-m by the two diodes, which are wired in series aiding
transfonner Tl. The voltage induced in the Tl rather than series opposing, as in the standard
secondary is 90 degrees out of phase with the discriminator circuit. The recovered audio is taken
current in' the primary. The primary signal is from a tertiary winding which is tightly coupled to
introduced through a center tap on the secondary, the primary of the transformer. Diode-load resistor
coupled through a capacitor. The secondary values are selected to be lower (5000 ohms or less)
voltages combine on each side of the center tap so than for the discriminator.
that the voltage on one side leads the primary The sensitivity of the ratio detector is one half
signal while the other side lags by the same . that of the discriminator. In general, however, the
amount. When rectified, these two voltages are transfonner design values for Q, primary-secondary
equal and of opposite polarity, resulting in coupling, and load will vary greatly, so the actual
zero-voltage output. A shift in input frequency perfonnance differences between these two types
causes a shift in the phase of the voltage of fm detectors are usually not significant. Either
components that results in an increase of ou tpu t circuit can provide excellent results. In operation,
amplitude on one side of the secondary, and a the ratio detector will not provide sufficient
corresponding decrease on the other side. The limiting for communications service, so this
differences in the two changing voltages, after detector also is usually preceded by at least a single
rectification, constitute the audio output. limiting stage.

RATIO DETECTOR
FROM
I-F o--~
AMP, PLATE

J;330

AUDIO Fig. 14·17 - A ratio detector of the type often

+6
OUTPUT used in entertainment radio and TV sets. T1 is a
ratio-<letector transformer such as the Miller 1606.
 Reception of FM Signals 431
Fig. 14-18 - Crystal discriminator, C1 and L1 are CRYSTAL DISCRIMINATOR
resonant at the intermediate frequency. C2 is equal
in value to C3. C4 corrects any circuit imbalance so ,- - - - - - - - - - - - - -tOOK - - - - - - ---,
that equal amounts of signal are fed to the detector
diodes. To
r--.,....--t-~-I~'-...-""">A,- __....!.-oAudio
Amp,
feom c)---~-l-_~
Limi.tet

.x C4

tOOK
I
I
~-------------------------~

New Detector Designs A basic phase-locked loop (Fig. 14-19A)

The difficulties often encountered in building consists of a phase detector, a ftIter, a dc amplifier,
and aligning LC discriminators have inspired and a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The
research that has resulted in a number of VCO runs at a frequency close to that of an
adjustment-free fm detector designs. The crystal incoming signal. The phase detector produces an
discriminator utilizes a quartz resonator, shunted error voltage if any difference in frequency exists
by an inductor, in place of the tuned-circuit between the VCO and the i-f signal. This error
secondary used in a discriminator transformer. A voltage is applied to the VCO. Any changes in the
typical circuit is shown in Fig. 14-18. Some frequency of the incoming signal are sensed at the
commercially-made crystal discriminators have the detector and the error voltage readjusts the VCO
input-circuit inductor, 11, built in (Cl must be frequency so that it remains locked to the
added) while in other types both Ll and Cl must intermediate frequency. The bandwidth of the
be supplied by the builder. Fig. 14-18 shows system is determined by a ftIter on the
typical component values; unmarked parts are error-voltage line.
chosen to give the desired bandwidth. Sources for Because the error voltage is a copy of the audio
crystal discriminators are listed in Fig. 14-11. variations originally used to shift the frequency of
the transmitter, the PLL functions directly as an
fm detector. The sensitivity achieved with the
ThePLL Signetics NE565 PLL is good - about 1 mV for
Now that the phase-locked loop (PLL) has been the circuit shown in Fig. 14-19B. No transformers
reduced to a single IC package, this circuit is or tuned circuits are required. The PLL bandwidth
destined to revolutionize some facets of receiver is usually two to ten percent of the i-f for fm
design. Introduction by Signetics of a PLL in a detection. Components RI-Cl set the VCO to near
single flat-pack IC, followed by Motorola and the desired frequency. C2 is the loop-ftlter
Fairchild (who are making the PLL in separate capacitor which determines the capture range -
building-block ICs), allows a builder to get to work that range of frequencies over which the loop will
with a minimum of bother. acquire lock with an input signal, initially starting
PLL DETECTOR

FROM
I-F
AUDIO
OUTPUT
(A)

~~------~~--~+5V
C2

10
AUDIO
p:..-----o OUTPUT.
Fig. 14-19 - (A) Block diagram of a
PLL demodulator. (B) Complete PLL
circuit.
(8)
-5V
 432 FM AND REPEATERS
out of lock. The NE565 has an upper frequency Alignment
limit of 500 kHz; for higher frequencies, the
NE561, which is usable up to 30 MHz, can be "Lining up" the adapter takes time and test
employed. equipment. A VTVM or microammeter plus a
signal generator are required. Good alignment
cannot be accomplished by ear; if the necessary
FM RECEIVING ADAPTERS test instruments aren't available, they should be
borrowed.
To put the older tube receivers such as the 75A, To start, check the alignment of the communi-
HRO and Super Pro models into fm service, the cations receiver, following the manufacturer's
receiving adapter shown in Fig. 14-21 was instructions, to be sure that the rf and i-f stages are
designed. Filament and plus B voltages are taken "peaked" before the fm adapter is installed. Two
from the companion receiver. Obviously, the better simple internal modifications are required in the
the basic receiver, the better will be the receiver, as shown in Fig. 14-21 Band C. If the
performance of the fm receiving system. For this receiver has a wide i-f bandwidth, a sample of the
application sets with high-gain i-f amplifier sections i-f signal can be taken from the plate of the last i-f
and a broad-band selectivity position (such as the stage. Otherwise, the tap should be made at the
SP-400, SP-600, SX-73, and R-390) are excellent plate of the first i-f amplifier, and an extra stage, a
choices. Receivers that have only a 6-kHz or duplicate of VI, included in the adapter. Short
narrower bandwidth may need an extra i-f lengths of shielded cable are used to carry the i-f
amplifier stage in the fm adapter in order to tap signal to the adapter and to return audio to the
the receiver i-f at the output of the second mixer. receiver - see Fig. 14-21C. Some units (75A2,
Of course, a converter will also be required with HRO-50) which have provision for fm adapters
the basic receiver if copy of vhf fm signals is already have a front-panel switch wired for this
desired. purpose.
A sample of the receiver i-f signal is passed to Connect the signal generator to the receiver,
Tl, a 455-kHz i-f transformer, which feeds and set the generator to produce an S9 reading on
amplifier/limiter VI. A low screen voltage and the receiver signal-strength meter. The receiver
signal bias enhance the limiting characteristic of crystal filter should be switched to its most
the tube. Further "hard" limiting action is selective position to insure that the incoming signal
provided by the two sections of V2, a 12AT7. A is being heterodyned to exactly 455 kHz. Then,
sample of the grid current of V2A is available at with a voltmeter or micro ammeter connected to
TPl, a test point used during alignment. A TPl, adjust both sections of n, and 11, for
commercially made discriminator transformer maximum limiter current. The receiver i-f stage
converts the fm signal to a-m; the a-m is detected being "tapped" should also be realigned to
by CRI and CR2. An RC de-emphasis network is compensate for the capacitance of the adapter
included to match the standard pre-emphasis used cable.
on fm transmitters. Audio amplification is To align the discriminator, set the receiver
provided by V3 - in some receivers with high-gain selectivity at the broad position, and connect the
audio systems this stage may not be necessary. voltmeter to TP2. Voltage at this test point will
The adapter is constructed on an aluminum swing both plus and minus, so a zero-center meter
channel which is 11 inches long, 2 inches wide, and or VTVM with a lead-reversing switch should be
1 3/4 inches high. A 1/4-inch lip is included on one employed. Set the secondary of the discriminator
side as a mounting foot. A Minibox or a standard transformer for a zero-voltage indication on the
chassis is also suitable as a base. The layout of the meter. Then vary the signal-generator frequency
stages should be kept in a straight line so that rf plus or minus 15 kHz. Going off center frequency
feedback paths can be avoided. Point-to-point in one direction will produce positive voltage at
wiring is used throughout. TP2, while going in the other direction generates
negative voltage. The primary of the transformer
must be set so that, for example, if a shift down in
frequency by 5 kHz produces plus 2 volts, then a
change of 5 kHz in the other direction should
produce minus 2 volts. Unfortunately, the two
adjustments on the discriminator transformer are
interlocking, so considerable experimentation is
required. Also, the tuning of the preceding stages,
if not centered on 455 kHz, will affect the
discriminator linearity. The first time around, a
half hour or more of alignment and realignment is
usually required to achieve equal swings in output
voltage for equal swings in frequency - a linear
response.
One further check of the discriminator is
required. An impulse-generating device, such as an
electric shaver, should be switched on, and the
Fig. 14-20 - The fm adapter, wired for connection receiver, set for a-m detection, tuned to a point in
to a Collins 75A2. the spectrum where the noise is strong. Then,
 FM Commu nications 433
I"F AMPLIFIER LIMITER
455 KHz DISCRIMINATOR
455 KHz
455KHz:

JI

FROM
RECVR.

.001
TPI

.:h.01 1500

6DC6,6AB4
.::h .01
+250V (A)

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS t JlF ) ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR JljJF)~ AUDIO
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; OUT
ka 1000. M-IOOO ODD,

Fig. 14-21 - (A) Schematic diagram of the

455-kHz fm adapter. Resistors are 1/2-watt
~ composition; capacitors are disk ceramic, except
those with polarity marked, which are electrolytic.

--0--1
___
, 1
__J1
J2.
J1, J2 - Phono jack, panel mount.
L1 - 430-850-pH slug-tuned variable inductor
(Miller 42A684e81).
R1 - Audio-taper composition control.
T1 - I-f tr<lnsformer, 455 kHz (Miller 913-e1).
T2 - Discriminator transformer, 455 kHz (Miller
(8) 913-eD).
,-, TP1, TP2 - Tip jack (Johnson 105-XX).
,+. ,-
"o-f+---<~TO AUDIO (8) Diagram of the connections to use the fm
FROM
REC. 0
DET. yPM J.,
AMP. adapter with a communications receiver. The
tap to the i-f stage is through a 50-pF disk-ceramic
capacitor. If the receiver has a wide-band i-f
system, the connection should be made to the last
(e) intermediate-frequency amplifier; for narrow i-fs,
tap the first i-f stage. (e) Audio connections.
switch to the fm adapter and adjust the narrow-band reception. However, builders wishing
discriminator transformer for best suppression of a wideband version can use the J. W. Miller 8811
the noise pulses. If the alignment with the signal miniature coils which are combined with a 12-pF
generator has been completed properly, only a half coupling capacitor to form a wide-band trans-
a turn or so of the slugs will be needed to complete former.
the phase tuning of the discriminator.
FM COMMUNICATIONS
A SOLID-STATE ADAPTER Although information on fm theory and
Tubes are seldom used in current designs. For construction has been available to the amateur for
those builders who prefer to be "up with the a number of years, this mode has been largely
times," a solid-state version of the 455-kHz adapter neglected. But now large quantities of used
was constructed. Using IC limiter/amplifier, and commercial fm mobile equipment have become
miniature i-f transformers, the unit requires only available for amateur use, creating new interest.
25 rnA at 12 V for power. See Fig. 14-24A. The Originally designed to cover frequency ranges
Motorola MC1590G provides 70 dB gain, and hard adjacent to amateur bands, this equipment is easily
limiting action superior to that obtained with the retuned for amateur use.
tube version. One feature of fm is its noise-suppression
The unit is built on a 2 X 6 1/2-inch circuit capability. For signals above the receiver threshold,
board; a template is given in Fig. 14-24B. Because wideband fm has a signal-to-noise ratio advantage
of the high gain of the IC stage, a shield is required over a-m as a result of its greater "intelligence
across pins 4 and 6 to isolate the input from the bandwidth." This same increased bandwidth,
output. Alignment and installation are the same as however, results in a much more abrupt signal
for' the tube version. The bandwidth of the threshold effect, causing weak signals to suddenly
miniature transformers restricts this adapter to disappear. The generality can be made that a-m has
434 FM AND REPEATERS

Fig. 14-22 - In this bottom view, the input

transformer is to the left, followed by the i-f
amplifier, limiter and detector. On the far right are Fig. 14-23 - The solid-state fm adapter is
the audio amplifier stage and gain control. constructed on a 6 X 2-inch etched-circuit board,
mounted on a homemade chassis.

a greater range in weak signal work but that ers have not proven satisfactory because of the
wideband fm will provide greater noise suppression requirement for precise frequency netting. An
in local work. However, in practice, vhf fm mobiles off-frequency signal will be received with distor-
experience greater range than previously found on tion and will not have full noise rejection.
a-m due to the output powers employed which are Channelized operation with squelched receivers
considerably higher than those common on a-m. permits continuous monitoring of the active
frequencies. Long, time-consuming calls and CQs
Operating Practices are not necessary (or appreciated) to establish
Amateur fm practice has been to retain the communications, as all receivers on the channel
fixed-frequency channelized capability of the "come alive" with the operator's first word.
commercial equipment. VFOs and tunable receiv- Natural, short transmissions are usually encour-
DISCRIMINATOR
AM PLI FIER/LlMITER LIMITER
455 KHz
455 KHZ.
T1
4700
FROM R6
i-F
AMP. 6.8K
R8

ExCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

VALUES OF CAPAC trANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (jlFI; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOfARADS (pF OR )lJlF)~
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k *'000, M-j 000 000 (A)

C9
(8)
R10
Fig. 14-24 - (A) Diagram of the 455-kHz R1 - Miniature 1/2-watt composition control.
narrow-band adapter. Resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-watt T1 - Miniature 455-kHz i-f transformer (Miller
composition and capacitors are disk ceramic, 8807).
except those with polarity marked, which are T2 - Miniature discriminator transformer, 455
electrolytic. Components with reference numbers kHz (Miller 8806).
that are not listed below are noted for U1 - Motorola MC1590G.
circuit-board location. (8) Template for the solid-state adapter (not to
J1, J2 - Phono receptacle, panel mount. scale).
Repeaters
aged. The old monopoly switch routine, where the
operator gabs to himself for 10 minutes at a time,
will get him invited off a busy fm channel. Some
channels are calling channels on which extended
ragchewing is discouraged, whereas other channels,
or the same channel in another area, may be alive
with chatter. This is a matter of local determina-
tion, influenced by the amount of activity, and
should be respected by the new operators and the
transient mobile operator alike. Some groups have
adopted the use of the "10 code" which was
originated for law enforcement communications.
However, plain language in most cases is as fast and
requires no clarification or explanation to anyone.

Standards Fig. 14-25 - A homemade fm transceiver. The

transmitter section uses the solid-state exciter and
Standard channel frequencies have been agreed amplifier shown in Chapter 10.
upon to permit orderly growth and to permit
communications from one area to another. On two input of an associated transmitter tuned to a
meters, it has been agreed that any frequency used second frequency. In this way, everything received
will fall on increments of 60 kHz, beginning at on the first frequency is retransmitted on the
146.01 MHz. 146.94 MHz (or "nine-four") is the second frequency. But, certain additional features
national calling frequency. On six meters, the are required to produce a workable repeater. These
national calling frequency is 52.525 MHz, with are shown in Fig. 14-28A. The "COR" or
other channels having a 40-kHz spacing beginning carrier-operated relay is a device connected to the
at 52.56 MHz. Ten-meter fm activity can be found receiver squelch circuit which provides a relay
on 29.6 MHz. Recommendations for 10 meters and contact closure to key the transmitter when an
220 MHz are for 40 kHz channel spacing starting at input signal of adequate strength is present. As all
29.04 and 220.02 MHz. Usage of the 420-MHz amateur transmissions require a licensed operator
band varies from area to area, as it is used for to control the emissions, a "control" switch is
control channels, repeaters, and remote bases, as provided in the keying path so that the operator
will be discussed later. In the absence of any other may exercise his duties. This repeater, as shown, is
local standard, usage should begin at 449.95 MHz
and proceed downward in 50-kHz increments.
Two deviation standards are commonly found.
The older standard, "wide band," calls for a
maximum deviation of 15 kHz. The newer
standard, "narrow band," imposed on commercial
users by the splitting of their assigned channels, is
5 kHz. The deviation to be employed by amateurs
on frequencies where fm is permitted is not limited
to a specific value by the FCC, but it is limited by
the bandpass filters in the fm receivers. In general,
a receiver with a filter for 5-kHz deviation will not
intelligibly copy a signal with 15-kHz deviation. In
some areas, a compromise deviation of 7 or 8
kHz is used with some success with both wide and
narrow receivers. When necessary, receiver filters
can be exchanged to change the bandpass.

REPEATERS
A repeater is a device which retransmits
received signals in order to provide improved
communications range and coverage. This com-
munications enhancement is possible because the
repeater can be located at an elevated site which
has coverage that is superior to that obtained by Fig. 14-26 - This typical 144-MHz amateur
most stations. A major improvement is usually repeater uses GE Progress-Line transmitter and
found when a repeater is used between vhf mobile receiver decks. Power supplies and metering
stations, which normally are severely limited by circuits have been added. The receiver located on
their low antenna heights and resulting short the middle deck is a 440-MHz control receiver, also
communications range. This is especially true a surplus GE unit. A preamplifier, similar to that
where rough terrain exists. shown in Fig. 1444, has been added to the 2-meter
The simplest repeater consists of a receiver with receiver to improve the sensitivity so that 0.2 p.V
its audio output directly connected to the audio of input signal will produce 20 dB quieting.
436 FM AND REPEATERS
but is basically a simplex device. That is, it
transmits and receives on a single frequency in
FM JARGON (Fig. 14·27) order to communicate with other stations also
operating on that frequency. The operator of the
Duplex - Simultaneous transmissions be· remote base listens to his hilltop receiver and keys
tween two stations using two frequencies. his hilltop transmitter over his nO-MHz or higher
Simplex - Alternating transmission between control channels (or telephone line). Fig. 14-29A
two or more stations using one frequency. shows such a system. Control and keying features
Low band - 30 to 50 MHz. Also, the six· have been omitted for clarity. In some areas of
meter amateur band. high activity, repeaters have all but disappeared in
High band - 148 to 174 MHz. Also, the favor of remote bases because of the interference
two-meter amateur band. to simplex activity caused by repeaters unable to
Remote base - A remotely controlled sta- minitor their output frequency from the trans-
tion, usually simplex (see text).
mitter location.
Machine - Either a repeater or a remote
base. Also called a "box." Complete System
Vault - Building that houses the machine.
COR - Carrier-operated relay (see text). Fig. 14-29B shows a repeater that combines the
CTCSS - Continuous tone-controlled best features of the simple repeater and the remote
squelch system. Continuous subaudible base. Again, necessary control and keying features
tone (250 Hz or lower) transmitted along have not been shown in order to simplify the
with the audio to allow actuation of a re- drawing, and make it easier to follow. This repeater
peater or receiver only by transmitters so is compatible with simplex operation on the
equipped. More frequently referred to output frequency because the operator in control
by various trade names such as Private monitors the ou tpu t frequency from a receiver at
Line, Channel Guard, and Quiet Channel the repeater site between transmissions. The
Down channel - Communications circuit control operator may also operate the system as a
from the machine to the control point. remote base. This type of system is almost
Up channel - Communications and/or con- mandatory for operation on one of the national
trol circuit from the control point to the calling frequencies, such as 146.94 MHz, because it
machine. minimizes interference to simplex operation and
Open repeater - A machine where transient permits simplex communications through the
Operators are. welcome. system with passing mobiles who may not have
Qosed repeater - A machine where use by facilities for the repeater-input frequency.
non-members is not encouraged. (When The audio interface between the repeater
heavy expenditures are involved, free- receivers and transmitters can, with some equip-
Loaders are not popular.) ment, consist of a direct connection bridging the
transmitter microphone inputs across the receiver
speaker outputs. This is not recommended,
suitable for installation where an operator is however, because of the degradation of the audio
present, such as the home of a local amateur with a quality in the receiver-output stages. A cathode
superior location, and would require no special
licensing under existing rules.
In the case of a repeater located where no
licensed operator is available, a special license for
remote control operation must be obtained and
provisions made to control the equipment over a
telephone line or a radio circuit on 220 MHz or
higher. The licensed operator must then be on
hand at an authorized control point. Fig. 14-28B
shows the simplest system of this type. The control
decoder may be variously designed to respond to
simple audio tones, dial pulsed tones, or even
"Touch-Tone" signals. If a leased telephone line
with dc continuity is used, control voltages may be
sent directly, requiring no decoder. A 3-minute
timer to disable the repeater transmitter is
provided for fail-safe operation. This timer resets
during pauses between transmissions and does not
interfere with normal communications. The system
just outlined is suitable where all operation is to be
through the repeater and where the frequencies to
be used have no other activity.

Remote Base Stations

The remote base, like the repeater, utilizes a Fig. 14-28 - Simple repeaters. The system at A is
superior location for transmission and reception, for local control. Remote control is shown at B.
Practical Repeater Circu its 437

(A)

/
Fig. 14-29 - A remote base is shown
at A. A repeater with remote-base
operating capability is shown at B.
Control and keying circuits are not
shown. Telephone-line control may (S)
be substituted for the radio-control
channels shown.
follower connected to each receiver's first squelch- The choice and usage is a matter for local
controlled audio amplifier stage provides the best agreement.
results. A repeater should maintain a flat response In some cases where there is overlapping
across its audio passband to maintain the repeater geographical coverage of repeaters using the same
intelligibility at the same level as direct transmis- frequencies, special methods for selecting the
sions. There should be no noticeable difference desired repeater have been employed. One of the
between repeated and direct transmissions. The most common techniques requires the user to
intelligibility of some repeaters suffers because of transmit automatically a 0.5-second burst of a
improper level settings which cause excessive specific audio tone at the start of each
clipping distortion. The clipper in the repeater transmission. Different tones are used to select
transmitter should be set for the maximum system different repeaters. Standard tone frequencies are
deviation, for example, 10 kHz. Then the receiver 1800,1950,2100,2250, and 2400 Hz.
level driving the transmitter should be set by
applying an input signal of known deviation below PRACTICAL REPEATER CIRCUITS
the maximum, such as 5 kHz, and adjusting the
Because of their proven reliability, commercial-
receiver audio gain to produce the same deviation
at the repeater output. Signals will then be ly made transmitter and receiver decks are
generally used in repeater installations. Units
repeated linearly up to the maximum desired
deviation. The only incoming signal that should be designed for repeater or duplex service are
preferred because they have the extra shielding and
clipped in a properly adjusted repeater is an
fIltering necessary to hold mutual interference to a
overdeviated signal.
minimum when both the receiver and transmitter
The choice of repeater input and output
are operated simultaneously.
frequencies must be carefully made. On two
Wideband noise produced by the transmitter is
meters, 600-kHz spacing between the input and
a major factor in the design of any repeater. The
output frequencies is common. Closer spacing
use of high-Q tuned circuits between each stage of
makes possible interference problems between the
the transmitter, plus shielding and filtering
repeater transmitter and receiver more severe.
throughout the repeater installation, will hold the
Greater spacing is not recommended if the user's wideband noise to approximately 80 dB below the
transmitters must be switched between the two ou tput carrier. However, this is not sufficient to
frequencies, as happens when the output frequency prevent desensitization the reduction in
is also used for simplex operation, either for sensitivity of the receiver caused by noise or rf
short-range communications, or to maintain overload from the nearby transmitter - if the
communications when the repeater is not function- antennas for the two units are placed physically
ing. A 5-MHz spacing is recommended on 440 close together.
MHz. Desensitization can easily be checked by
Careful consideration of other activity in the monitoring the limiter current of the receiver with
area should be made to prevent interference to or the transmitter switched off, then on. If the limiter
from the repeater. Many "open" or general-use current increases when the transmitter is turned
repeaters have been installed on one of the national on, then the problem is present. Only physical
calling frequencies. On two meters, a 146.94 MHz isolation of the antennas or the use of high-Q
output is usually paired with a 146.34-MHz input,
tuned cavities in the transmitter and receiver
and many travelers have made good use of this
antenna feedline will improve the situation.
combination where it is found. Where 146.94-MHz
simplex activity has not permitted a repeater on Antenna Considerations
this frequency, 146.76 MHz has been used as an
alternative. On six meters, several choices of input The ultimate answer to the problem of receiver
frequencies have been paired with 52.525 MHz. desensing is to locate the repeater transmitter a
 438 FM AND REPEATERS
circuit is shown in Fig. 14-31A. This unit may be
operated by the grid current of a tube limiter or
the dc output of the noise detector in a solid-state
receiver.
Normally a repeater is given a "tail"; a timer
(A) holds the repeater transmitter on for a few seconds
after the input signal disappears. This delay
prevents the repeater from being keyed on and off
by a rapidly fading signal. Other timers keep each
°OL---2~O---4~O~~6LO--~670~
transmission to less than three minutes duration
VERTICAL SPACING (FEET) (an FCC requirement), turn on identification, and
control logging functions. A simple timer circuit is
shown in Fig. 14-31B.

(B) Logging and Identification

Current FCC rules require that a log be kept of
20 '-'-__-'--__-L-__ ~ __...J
repeater operations showing each time the repeater
o fOO 200 300 '400 is placed in (or taken out 00 service. Individual
HORIZONTAL SPACING (FEET) transmissions, however, need' not be entered. Al-
though regulations do not require logging of
Fig. 14-30 - Charts to calculate the amount of individual transmissions through a repeater, some
isolation achieved by (A) vertical and (B) repeater committees have tape recording equip-
horizontal spacing of repeater antennas. If 600-kHz ment connected to the repeater system in order to
separation between the transmitted and received record a small portion of each transmission. The
frequencies is used, approximately 58-dB attenua- tapes provide an "unofficial" record concerning
tion (indicated by the dotted line) will be needed. repeater usage. A two track tape recorder may have
one of the tracks connected to a receiver tuned to
WWV or CHU if the repeater committee is inter-
mile or more away from the receiver. The two can ested in having time information.
be interconnected by telephone line or uhf link.
Another effective approach is to use a single AMP. DELAY SWITCH
antenna with a duplexer, a device that provides up ,--------...,...--------'T-------O-12 V
to 120 dB of isolation between the transmitter and
receiver. High-Q cavities in the duplexer prevent INPUT CRI
transmitted signal energy and wideband noise from
degrading the sensitivity of the receiver, even
though the transmitter and receiver are operating
K2B
on a single antenna simultaneously. A commer- --0
cially made duplexer is very expensive, and La
constructing a unit requires extensive metal-work-
--0
ing equipment and test facilities.
If two antennas are used at a single site, there L.o
K2C
will be a minimum spacing of the two antennas (A)
required to prevent desensing. Fig. 14-30 indicates
KI8
the spacing necessary for repeaters operating in the

*~
50-, 144-, 220-, and 420-MHz bands. An examina- .---------......----.._-0 +12V
tion of 14-30 will show that vertical spacing is far
more effective than is horizontal separation. The
chart assumes unity-gain antennas will be used. If
RI
some type of gain antenna is employed, the pattern 5M
of the antennas will be a modifying factor. A TIME
SET
rugged repeater antenna was described in QST for
January, 1970.
Control
(B)
Two connections are needed between the
repeater receiver and transmitter, audio and Fig. 14-31 - (A) COR circuit for repeater use. R2
transmitter control. The audio should be fed sets the length of time that Kl will stay closed
through an impedance-matching network to insure after the input voltage dissappears. Kl may be any
that the receiver ou tpu t circuit has a constant load relay with a 12-volt coil, although the long-life reed
while the transmitter receives the proper input type is preferred. CRl is a silicon diode. (B) Timer
impedance. Filters limiting the audio response to circuit using a Signetics NE555. R1, C1 sets the
timers range. C1 should be a low-leakage type
the 300- to 3000-Hz band are desirable, and with capacitor. Sl, S2 could have their contacts para-
some gear an aUdio-compensation network may be lleled by the receiver COR for automatic START
required. A typical COR (carrier-operated relay) and RESET controlled by an incoming signal.
Practical Repeater Circu its 439

Fig. 14·32 - (A) Schematic diagram of the

"electronic whistle." The main diagram is for
high-impedance output. The lower portion has an
emitter-follower added, for use with transmitters
having low-impedance speech input circuits. All ~I-t-+--i
values of capacitance are in /IF; polarity indicates
electrolytic. (B) Tone·burst decoder. Resistors are R5
1/2-watt composition and capacitors are mylar. K1
is an spst reed relay with a 6·volt coil (C. P. Clare
PRA·2010l.

Identification of the repeater itself may be +13V

done by users, but lest a forgetful operator leave
the repeater unknown, some form of automatic 10
is preferred; A tape deck with a short loop tape for +6V
voice 10 or a digital cw generator has proven to be
effective. A suitable solid-state cw generator was TONE
described in QST for June, 1970. DECODER
Many repeaters use a form of tone control so
that a carrier on the input frequency will not
inadvertently key the transmitter. The most
popular form of tone control is known as tone
burst, often called whistle on because an operator
with a good ear for frequency can use a short
whistle instead of an electronically generated tone KIB
~~TOEXT.
CIRCUIT
to key the repeater. A better approach, however, is
a simple transistor tone generator, such as shown in
Fig. 14-32A.
The whistle-on device was built for use with a (B)
Motorola 30-0 transmitter, on a 1 1/2 X 2 1/2-inch
piece of Vectorbord. It is nothing more than an
astable multivibrator, triggered by a one-shot.
When the push-to-talk switch is closed, actuating
the transmitter relay, Kl, Ql goes from saturation
to cutoff, and the multivibrator, Q2-Q3, begins
oscillating with a period dependent on the values
of R3, RS, C2 and C3. Values given result in a
"whistle" of roughly 6S0 Hz.

Low High Tone

Tone (Hz) 1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477Hz 1633 Hz
697 1 2 3 cFO Fig. 14-34 - Typical connections to
770 4 S 6 F use a Touch-Tone pad for repeater
852 7 8 9 I control. Resistances are in ohms. R1
941 0 # p is a linear·taper composition control
* and J1 is a panel-mounted phono
jack. Capacitors are electrolytic;
Fig. 14-33 - Standard Touch-Tone frequencies for color coding on the wire leads from
the 12-digit pad. the pad is shown in parentheses.
440 FM AND REPEATERS
Oscillation ceases when Q1 turns on again. This The PLL, a Signetics NE567, may b.e operated
is regulated by the values of R2 and C1, and is from 0.1 Hz to 500 kHz. C2 establishes the
roughly 0.25 second with the values shown. The bandwidth of the decoder, which can be set
470-0hm resistor, R1, protects the base of Q1 from between one and fourteen percent of the operating
current surges when the PIT is released. frequency. C3 smooths the output signal, and,
The lower right portion of Fig. 14-32A shows when this capacitor is made a high value, provides a
an emitter-follower added, for use with transmit- delay in the turn-on function when a tone is
ters employing carbon microphones. The value of received. Up to 100 rnA may be drawn by the '567
C4 can be adjusted to give the appropriate output output circuit, enough to key a relay directly or to
level. drive TTL logic. The PLL contains 62 transistors.
Most of the component values are not critical,
except the RC products which determine timing. Autopatch and Touch Tone
Since the frequency is low, almost any bipolar Some repeater groups have provided an
transistors can be used. Npn types are shown, but interconnection to the public telephone network
pnp will work with opposite voltage polarity. The through a device called an auto patch. Details on all
beta rating should be at least twice R3/R4, to phases of phone patching are contained in Chapter
insure saturation. 15. Such interconnection has led to the
Most narrow-bandwidth tone decoders current- widespread use of the telephone company's Touch
ly used in amateur repeater and remote-station Tone system of tone signaling for repeater control
applications employ several bulky LC circuits to functions, as well as telephone dialing. Because all
achieve the required audio selectivity. The of the Touch Tone frequencies are within the voice
phase-locked loop (PLL) ICs, pioneered by band, they can be transmitted by any amateur
Signetics, have simplified the design and reduced voice transmitter.
the size of tone decoders so that a complete The Touch Tone control system consists of
Touch-Tone demodulator can be built on a pairs of tones (see Fig. 14-33) for each of 10
3 X 5 l/2-inch etched circuit board (about the size numbers and the two special functions. One tone
for a single-tone decoder using LC components). from the high-frequency group is generated
A typical PLL single-tone decoder, such as simultaneously with one tone from the low-fre-
might be employed for tone-burst entry control at quency group to represent each number or
a repeater, is shown in Fig. 14-32B. One RC function. The Touch Tone generator pad from a
network establishes the frequency to which the standard telephone instrument is usually em-
PLL is tuned, according to the relationship: ployed. See Fig. 14-34 for connections. A simple
frequency = RIb Touch Tone decoder using ICs throughout was
described in July 1971 QST.

A LOW-POWER TRANSMITTER FOR 29.6 MHZ FM

The transmitter shown in Fig. 14-36 has been amplifiers. The high-impedance audio input circuit
designed to produce wide- or narrow-band fm in is suitable for dynamic, crystal or ceramic
the 10-meter band. Power output is about 6 watts, microphones. After voltage amplification the audio
yet only three tubes are used. The unit is suitable signal is passed through a full-wave clipper, which
for fixed-station or mobile use. consists of CRI, CR2 and associated resistors. Use
of the audio clipper will insure that peak fm
Circuits deviation does not exceed a preset amount. The
output of the clipper is fIltered in a pi-section to
Two section, VIA and VIB, of a triple-triode
remove high-order audio harmonics generated
Compactron tube are used as audio voltage
during the clipping process.
The audio signal is applied to a varactor diode,
CR3, producing a capacitive change. This variation
in capacitance shifts the frequency of the 7.4-MHz
oscillator, V2A, in a manner proportional to the
modulating signal. The frequency of the fm energy
thus produced is doubled in the plate circuit of the
oscillator, and then doubled again by the second
section of V2, delivering output in the 10-meter
band. V3, a 6GK6 tube, amplifies the signal,

Fig. 14-35 - The front view of the lO-meter fm

transmitter reveals only the plate-current meter,
microphone-gain control and microphone jack.
 29.6 MHz
14.8 MHz 29.6 MHz
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF r-
0
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (pF I ~
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR jlJ.lF)~
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; RFCI :e1
2.5
11._1000, M~1000 000. mH '"C
0
S.M. , SILVER MICA
N C = NO CONNECTION :eCD
KIB JI
...
7.4 MHz
GA~ J2
...-i
III
~
en
ANT. 3
;::j:
NC ~ REC. r+
...CD
l KlC J3

J5 q R FMUTE
C
47K
lW
+300V
C3....:t~
J:450V
~GROUND
4.7M
3 +12V
4 CONTROL

~
p'::J;.OOI..L
616.3VAC
Ne 6GK6

100 .05
6CI0

Fig. 14-36 _ Schematic diagram of the fm CR3 - Varactor diode, 20-pF nominal capacitance 12
transmitter. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition (Motorola HEP-R25031.
and capacitors are disk ceramic, except those with J1-J3, incl. - Phono type.
J4 - 3-circuit microphone jack. L3 - 1.35-2.75-tLH slug-tuned coil (J. W. Miller
polarity marked which are electrolytic. 42A226CBI).
C1 - Miniature air variable (Johnson 189-501-5 or K 1 - 3 pdt relay, 3-A contacts, 12-volt coil (Potter
and Brumfield KHP17D111. L4 - 2Q-H filter choke, 15 rnA (Stancor C-1515 or
similar). similar).
C2 - Mica-insulated padder (J. W. Miller 160-E or L1, L5 - 1-1.87-tLH slug-tuned coil (J. W. Miller
42A156CBI). M1 - Milliammeter (Simpson 06171). J:I,.
similar).
C3, C4 - Tubular electrolytic.
CR1, CR2 - 1N67A or similar germanium diode.
L2 - Approx. 0.9 tLH slug-tuned coil, J. W. Miller
42A 156CBI with 5 turns removed.
R1 - Audio-taper composition control.
R2 - Linear-taper composition control. ....
J:I,.
442 FM AND REPEATERS

';
:1';>-) ,

l..-,.,.-

Fig. 14-37 - Bottom view of the transmitter. The Fig. 14-38 - Either a single OA2 or two OA3 VR
audio components are grouped on the right-hand tubes may be used to regulate the screen voltage
side of the chassis, while the exciter section runs for the oscillator. In this model two regulators are
from top to bottom along the left-hand chassis used, the two tubes located at the lower-right side
wall. All external connections are brought out to of the chassis. The control just below the meter is
the rear-deck jacks, with the exception of the the DEVIATION adjustment.
microphone connector which is located on the
front panel.

running about 9-watts input power. A pi-section check to see that the OA2 (or two OA3s)
network couples the final amplifier to the antenna. voltage-regulator tube is operating properly. Check
Send-receive switching is accomplished by KI, the screen-voltage lead for the oscillator to see that
which is activated by a PIT switch on the it supplies 150 volts.
microphone. Use a 40-meter receiver to monitor the
oscillator signal. With no audio applied, the
Construction Details oscillator should produce a clean carrier. Adjust L5
The transmitter is built on a 7 X 7 X 2-inch until the frequency of the oscillator is close to 7.4
chassis (Bud AC-405), using a 7 X 5-inch front MHz. A wavemeter, coupled to LI and L2, should
panel. The plate-current meter, MI, is a useful be employed to tune up the oscillator and doubler
tune-up accessory, but it may be replaced by a test tank circuits, respectively. Insure that these tuned
jack in the interest of economy. After the initial circuits are in fact resonated at the frequencies
adjustments have been accomplished, the rig will indicated on the diagram. Mistuning can result in
seldom need "touching up." The inexperienced spurious signals being radiated outside the amateur
builder should follow the general layout shown in baJ'\ds. Then, adjust L3 and C2 for maximum
the photographs. All tuned circuits except the output power to a 50-ohm dummy load. An rf
oscillator are housed in shielded cans (J. W. Miller power bridge or Monimatch can be used to check
S-32). A shield isolating the input and output pins the output level.
of the V3 socket is a good idea. Long audio leads Erratic plate current readings usually indicate
should be run through shielded cable to prevent instability in the PA stage. If such a problem
hum and rf pickup. develops, disconnect the screen-voltage lead of the
6GK6. Couple a wavemeter to L3 and adjust the
Tuning neutralizing capacitor, CI, for minimum rf energy
at L3. Then, reconnect the screen lead.
The fm transmitter may be operated from an ac With a test audio signal applied, the MIC. GAIN
or mobile power supply. Suitable designs are given control should be advanced until clipping action
in Chapter 5. After checking the wiring for a starts (monitor the output of the clipper stage on
second time for errors, apply filament power and an oscilloscope). Then, set the DEVIATION
allow the tubes to warm up. Then key KI on, and control for the desired amount of fm. Note: FCC
A Receiver for lO-Meter FM 443
regulations require that the deviation of an MHz. Methods of setting deviation are discussed
amateur fm transmitter be held to 2.5 kHz or less earlier in this chapter. With the microphone
below 29 MHz. Above 29 MHz larger amounts of connected, the MIC. GAIN control should be
deviation may be employed; 5 and 15 kHz are the advanced until about 10 dB of speech clipping is
current standards for the operation around 29.6 produced, when speaking in a normal voice.

A RECEIVER FOR lO-METER FM

A block diagram of the 10-meter receiver is

outlined in Fig. 14-40. The front-end circuit uses
40673 dual-gate MOSFETs for the rf amplifier and
mixer. Toroid coils were chosen for the signal
circuits because of their self-shielding properties. A
crystal-controlled JFET oscillator provides injec-
tion voltage for Q2. Trimmer C3 is included to
move the oscillator frequency "on channel."
A single-conversion scheme using a high i-f was
chosen for simplicity, although having 120 dB of
gain at 11.5 MHz requires careful layout and good
bypassing techniques to insure stability. Three
Motorola MC1590Gs are used, although two can
achieve the required gain. Three stages, each with
resistive loading, exhibited far better stability than
two '1590s running "flat out."
The i-f amplifier circuit board uses extensive
shielding. The finished product looks more like a
piece of vhf gear than an i-f amp., but with high
Fig. 14-39 - Front view of the complete receiver
gain special precautions are necessary. The front for 10-, 6-, or 2-meter fm. The unit is housed in an
end and i-f amplifier proved to be easy to build and LMF 10 X 5 X 2-inch cabinet. Knobs are Kurz-
adjust. The squelch circuit was a bother from the Kasch 5·748-1 L.
beginning. The basic circuit used for the
noise-operated squelch is borrowed from the variation from the indicated values will cause a full
Motorola MOTRAC series. Output from the crystal squelch condition where the audio gate will not
discriminator proved to be quite a bit lower in level open, or, no squelch operation at all.
than would be obtained from an equivalent Le A commercial amplifier module was chosen for
discriminator. Also, ZI (Fig. 14-42) wants to "look the audio output section. It delivers two watts
into" an impedance of 100,000 ohms or more. The (rms) to an 8-ohm load when u~ing a 12-volt
first version of the squelch circuit had far too little supply. Sufficient audio output i~ available for
gain, so a redesign was required. The final version comfortable copy of weak stations when operating
of the circuit is shown in Fig. 14-42. The voltages mobile. An inexpensive imported 0.5-watt audio
noted at the audio gate, Q8, are critical; any amplifier may be substituted if the receiver will be

AUDIO
BUFFER

ARROWS INDICATE
SIGNAL DIRECTION
SQUELCH
GAIN

Fig. 14-40 - Block diagram of the 10-meter fm receiver using a crystal discriminator.
444 FM AND REPEATERS
RF AMPLIFIER MIXER
11.5 MHz

29.6 MHz 3.2.V Q1

~Itr
Fig. 14-42 - Schematic diagram of the fm receiver.
Unless otherwise noted, resistors are 1/2·watt
composition and capacitors are disk ceramic,
except those With polarity marked, which are
electrolytic.

Cl-C6, incl. - Miniature air variable (Johnson

189-507-5).
C7 - Miniature air variable (Johnson 189-509-5). L4 - 13 turns No. 22 enam. on Amidon T-50-6
C8-Cl0, incl. - Feedthrough type. (ye"ow code) for 29 MHz; use 6 turns for 52
FL 1 - For a wide-band 11.5-MHz i-f, ESEL MHz.
ME L-3A; narrow-band 11.5-MHz i-f, ESEL L5 - 2.96-3.14-J.lH variable inductor (J. W. Mi"er
DL-llA; wide-band 10.7-MHz i-f, KVG 46A336CPC).
XF-l07D; narrow-band 10.7-MHz i-f, KVG L6 - For 18-MHz crystals (10-meter operation)
XF-l07B. If 10.7-MHz i-f is used, add 15-pF 1.99-2.42-J.lH variable inductor (J. W. Mi"e;
ceramic capacitors across L5, L7, L9, L 11 and 46A226CPC); for 41-MHz crystals (6-meter
L13. (See Fig. 14-11 for a complete list of filter operation) 0.37 to 0.47-J.lH variable inductor (J.
choices and addresses of the filter manufac- W. Mi"er 46A397CPC).
turers). L7, L9, L 11 - 36 turns No. 26 enam. on Amidon
Jl, J2 - Phone type, panel mount. T-50-2 (red code) core.
L1 - 5 turns No. 22 enam. over L2 for 29 MHz· L8, L10, L12 - 16 turns No. 26 enam. over L7, L9
use 2 turns for 52 MHz. ' and L11, respectiviely.
L2 - 21 turns No. 22 enam. on Amidon T-50-6 L13 - 24 turns No. 22 enam. on Amidon T-50-2
toroid core (ye"ow code) for 29 MHz; use 11 (red code) core.
turns for 52 MHz (Amidon Associates, 12033 L 14 - 88-mH surplus telephone loading coil.
Otsego St., North Ho"ywood, CA 91607). 01, Q2 - RCA dual-gate MOSFET.
L3 - 8 turns No. 22 enam. on L4 for 29 MHz; use Q3 - Motorola rf JFET.
4 turns for 52 MHz. Q4 - Motorola audio JFET.
05 - GE audio bipolar.
06-09, incl. - Motorola audio bipolar.
Rl - Linear-taper composition control.
RFCl - 50-J.LH miniature choke (Millen 34300).
RFC2-RFC7, inc!. - 500-J.lH miniature choke (J.
W. Mi"er 70F504A 1).
Sl - Spst miniature toggle.
TPl - Vector T2.8 terminal.
Ul-U3, incl. - Motorola IC.
U4 - ESEL AL-1A for 11.5-MHz i-f, KVG 107-01
for 10.7 MHz.
Yl - International Crystal type EX.
Zl - 2-watt audio amplifier, l-volt sensitivity
(Amperex PCA-1-14).

F.ig. ~4-41 - Top view of the receiver. The etched

~Ircult board containing the front-end components
IS at the lower left, while the i-f amplifier/detector
circ.uit board is bolted to the rear wall of the Fig. 14-43 - The bottom view of the i-f board
cabinet. shows the shielding and filtering used.
 ~------ --
..

A Receiver for 10-Meter FM 445

2..3VSO
OY SE NOISE
DETECTOR SQUELCH NOISE AMPLIFIER

2
J2 51
12~~?N~--------~------~------~------~------~~--~~33~--!-------~------------1+~
~.OOI
_
, A.
NOTE: SO, SQUELCH OPEN
SE=SQUELCH ENGAGED '*-r- 25V

used only in a ham shack. Power requirements for up. Check the voltages given in Fig. 14-42 against
the receiver are 12 to 13.5 volts at 70-mA drain those found on the audio gate.
(squelch engaged) and 200 rnA (at full audio With a cw input signal, adjust C4, C5 and C6
output). Since automobile electrical systems can for a maximum reading on the VTVM. Then set Cl
have voltages as high as 16 volts, a series regulator and C2 for maximum indicated output voltage. Set
should be included for mobile operation. the signal to 29.585 and note the VTVM reading.
Alternate values for the rf and oscillator coils Then set the generator to 29.615 MHz and adjust
are given for 6-meter operation. To set the receiver C7 for a VTVM reading of the same magnitude,
for the 6-meter calling frequency, 52.525 MHz, a but opposite polarity, from that obtained on the
41.025-MHz crystal is required. When built for "low side" of 29.6 MHz. Repeat the procedure
29.6 MHz, this unit can be used for 2-meter several times to assure a correct adjustment.
reception by adding any 144- to 148-MHz With the basic alignment completed, inject a
converter, having 100meter i-f output, ahead of the 29.600-MHz signal - the output of a 100-kHz
fm receiver. Suitable designs are shown in Chapter calibrator will do. Then set C3 so that the VTVM
Nine. With a converter i-f of 28 to 32 MHz, a reads zero voltage. This completes the rf and i-f
19.44-MHz crystal would be needed in the alignment. Connect an antenna and advance the
100meter receiver for reception of 146.94 MHz. squelch control, Rl, until the background noise
disappears. The squelch should close the audio gate
at one-third to one-half scale rotation of R 1.
Alignment With the winter openings on 10 meters
A signal generator and a VTVM are required for providing signals from many parts of the country,
receiver alignment. The VTVM should be connect- the receiver copies both local and "skip" stations
ed to terminal TPI and set to read 0-3 V dc. The using just an eight-foot length of wire for an
generator should be set to about 29.6 MHz, and antenna. Fm is particularly susceptible to phase
connected to J1 on the receiver. Rotate Fl fully distortion when signals are propagated via the
counter clockwise, and you should hear noise in ionosphere. This causes the severe distortion often
the speaker. If no noise is heard, place your finger heard· on some 100meter fm transmissions. Both
on the input terminal of Zl. If the audio module is wide- and narrow-band fm are in use on 29.6 MHz,
working, a loud hum will be heard. No noise so the wideband i-f filter is the best choice, because
output indicates that the squelch may be locked it allows copy of stations using either deviation.
446 FM AND REPEATERS
IMPROVING FM RECEIVER grounded-gate circuit. Both amplifiers are adjusted
PERFORMANCE by peaking all tuned circuits for maximum limiter
current while receiving a weak signal.
Many older fm receivers, and some new models, A receiver will have a poor limiting characteris-
do not have sufficient sensitivity or limiting tic if the gain before the limiter circuit is
capability. Also, the transceivers designed for the insufficient, or if the limiter itself is of poor design.
mobile telephone service do not have a squelch or The circuit of Fig. 14-48 can be added to a receiver
audio power-amplifier circuit. Suitable accessory to replace an existing limiter stage. The new limiter
units can be easily constructed to improve the uses an RCA CA3011 integrated circuit. Care must
performance of a rig deficient in any of these areas. be used in the installation and layout of this
A simple preamplifier, such as shown in Fig. high-gain IC to insure stability. The CA3011 will
14-45 for 146 MHz and in Fig. 14-47 for 440 MHz, provide a "hard" limiting characteristic with about
may be added to a receiver to increase its 100 mV of signal input.
sensitivity and to improve limiting (as the overall
gain before the limiter will be increased by 10-15
dB). The 2-meter version uses a dual-gate MOSFET
while the 440-MHz unit employs two JFETs in a

Fig. 14-44 - The 2-meter preamp. may be

mounted in a small Minibox or connected directly Fig. 14-46 - The 44O-MHz preamplifier is
inside an fm receiver. constructed in a 3 X 3112 X l-inch box made of
double-sided circuit board. All abutting edges are
soldered to complete the enclosure. Two
3 X 15/16-inch shields separate the tuned lines.
R4 TAP
PREAMP. 100 L2
\ .---<>=-=-:0 C6

L1
C1 L3
TO J1 =-"--@Jj

~ l,L.-J4)~~~-t12V
~"=:i-R5

14~:t
(B)
(A) FOIL SIDE
(HALF SCALE)

Fig. 14-45 - Circuit diagram (A) and pc-board L1 - 5 turns, No. 16,5/16 inch dia, 1/2 inch lon&.
layout (8) for the 2-meter preamplifier. Resistors Tapped at 2 turns for the antenna connection,
are 1/4-watt composition and capacitors are disk and 4 turns for Gl.
ceramic unless otherwise noted. Components not L2 - 4 turns, No. 16,5/16 inch dia, 3/8 inch long.
listed below are given designators for circuit-board Tapped at 2 turns.
location purposes. L3 - 1 turn, plastic-covered hookup wire, 5/16
C2, C6 - Air variable (Johnson 189-506-5), inch dia, placed between two turns of L2.
Jl, J2 - Phono type, panel mount
Improving FM Receiver Performance 447
440 MHz PREAMP

Jt

tN~ L1 ~TPUT
I
I
t

ETii:..=.:H~I---4----() + 12V
RFCS

Fig. 1447 - Schematic diagram of the uhf (on L 1 and L3) are 1/2·inch up from the
preamplifier. Capacitors are disk ceramic unless ground end. Drain taps for 01 and Q2 on L2
otherwise noted. and L3, respectively, are made just below C2
C1-C3, incl. - 1.4 to 9.2-pF miniature variable and C3.
(Johnson 189-0563-001). RFC1, RFC2 - 420-MHz choke (Miller 4584).
C4, C5 - Feedthrough type. RFC3, RFC4 - Two ferrite beads on a short piece
J1, J2 - BNC type, chassis mount. of No. 20 hookup wire. (Beads are available
L1-L3, incl. - 25/8 X 1/4-inch strip of brass, from Amidon Associates, 12033 Otsego St., N.
soldered 'to the enclosure on one end and to the Hollywood, CA 91607.)
capacitor at the other. I nput and output taps RFC5 - Three ferrite beads on No. 20 hookup wire.
01,02 - Motorola JFET.

LI MITER t-F FM Bibliography

Goldsmith et ai, Frequency Modulation, in two
volumes, RCA Review, RCA, 1948.
Rider and Uslan, FM Transmission and Reception,
John F. Rider Publisher, 1948.
Wolf, FM Schematic Digest, Two-Way Radio Engi-
neers, 1970.
Pre·Progress Line Diagrams, in two volumes, Mobile
Radio Department, General Electric Company,
1968.
Fig. 1448 - Diagram of a limiter which may be Hund, Frequency Modulation, McGraw-Hill Book
added between the last i·f stage and the detector of Company, 1942.
a receiver. Lytel, Two- Way Radio, McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany,1959.

A SOLID-STATE FM TRANSMITTER FOR 146 MHz

In an effort to shrink the dimensions of the energy. The MK-II version is as clean as was the
solid-state fm transmitter treated earlier in QST, MK-I model.
and in the 1972 ARRL Handbook, it became A logical approach to reducing the area
necessary to eliminate one stage of the rf section, occupied by the speech amplifier and clipper was
and to reduce the size of the speech amplifier and the employment of a transistor-array IC as opposed
clipper. The product of that effort is shown to the use of discrete components. The latter
schematically in Fig. 1. technique was used in the MK-I example.
A slightly different electrical approach was
taken, wherein the oscillator was called upon to Circuit Highlights
deliver a fair amount of power. The increas~d
output from Ql permitted the deletion of a driver Generally, the circuit of Fig. 1 follows the
stage ahead of the PA. The change made it classic sonobuoy format given in RCA's Power
necessary to pay particular attention to the design Circuits, DC to Microwaves. 1 Some of the circuit
of all networks between stages, providing adequate changes made are radical; others are subtle. The
selectivity to assure suppression of unwanted out- 1 Recommended for amateur libraries. Order
put frequencies. The criterion was met, as from local radio store, or write RCA Electronic
~videnced by a spectral display of the output Components, Harrison, NJ 07029. Price: $2.
 448 FM AND REPEATERS

osc. PA

e1 •
.~
RFC 1 RFca

12V
e2'
,l::01
AF AMP./ CLIPPER
+~
~,+,
08 e20 o. 01&

HI-Z 4100 1M 1000

Mle

~
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUE! OF CAPAC fTANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS« pF) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS t pF OR )1.1''';
RESISTANCES ARE I N OHMS;
It-'OOO.M.IOOOOOO

Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the 2-meter fm resistor pigtails as anchor points for ends of
transmitter, Fixed-value capacitors are disk ceramic winding.
unless otherwise marked. Polarized capacitors are L5 - 5 turns No. 16 tinned bus wire, 5/16 10 X
electrolytic. Fixed-value resistors are l/2-watt com- 1/2 inch long_
position. Numbered components not appearing in 01-03, incl_- RCA transistor.
parts list are so numbered for pc-board layout R17 - 10,OOO-ohm pc-board carbon control linear
purposes only. Use crown type heat sink on 01, taper (Mallory MTC l4L1 or equiv.).
larger style on 02 and 03. RFCl l-mH miniature rf choke (Millen
Cl, C2, C6, Cll, C15, C18 - 7- to 25-pF J300-25).
miniature ceramic trimmer (Erie 538-0028-7-25 RFC3, RFC4 - 10-MH miniature rf choke (Millen
or equiv. Avail. new from Newark Electronics_ J300-10).
Avail. surplus from Reliance Merchandising Co., RFC5 - 1 O-M H miniature rf choke (Millen J300-
Phila. PAl. 10) with one Amidon ferrite bead over ground-
C19 - 15- to 60-pF miniature ceramic trimmer end pigtail.
(Erie 538-002F-15-60 or equiv.l. RFC6, RFC9 - 4 Amidon ferrite beads on
C31 - l00-pF silver mica. '1/2-inch length of No. 24 wire (Amidon Asso-
CRl - Voltage-variable capacitor (Varicap) diode. ciates, 12033 Otsego St., No. Hollywood, CA
CR2 - High-speed silicon switching diode. 91607).
L - 1 to 2 MH inductor. 20 turns No. 30 enam. RFC7, RFC8 - Same as RFC6 but with three
close-wound on 100,000 ohm, l-watt resistor_ beads on 3/8-inch length of wire.
L 1 - 5 turns No. 16 tinned bus wire, 1/4-inch I D Sl - Spdt slide or rotary switch.
x 5/8 inch long. Tap at 1-1/2 turns from Ul - RCA integrated circuit.
l2-volt end. VRl - 9.1 volt, l-watt Zener diode.
L2 - 3 turns No. 16 tinned bus wire, 1/4-inch ID Y 1, Y2 - 18-M Hz crystal (I nternational Crystal
x 3/8 inch long. Tap at 1/2 turn from C13 end. Co. ground for 20-pF load capacitance.
L3 - 4 turns No. 22 enam. wire, close-wound, HC-25/U holder. Use International FM-2 pc-
1/4-inch ID. board crystal socket). High accuracy .002 per-
L4 - 25 turns No. 28 enam. wire, close-wound on cent temperature-tolerance crystal recommen-
body of 100,OOO-ohm, l-watt resistor. Use ded.
146 MHz FM Transmitter 449
boiled-down version is based on amateur-band taken from the junction of R3 and R4). As the
performance criteria and the more commonly audio voltage is impressed across CRI, the junction
available supply voltage of 12. Emphasis has been capacitance of the diode shifts above the steady-
placed on good frequency stability, narrow-band state value which exists when no af voltage is
deviation (up to 6 kHz), and relative freedom from present. The change in capacitance shifts the
spurious outpu t. crystal frequency above and below its nominal
Low-cost transistors are used at Ql and Q2. A value to provide fm.
ballasted transistor (mismatch protected) is used at
Q3 to prevent burnout resulting from temporary Construction
open- or short-circuit conditions in the antenna
There are no special instructions provided the
system. The current OEM price (single lot) for the builder follows the template pattern offered. 4
2N5913 is $3.63. Over-the-counter prices will be However, it is worth mentioning that the QST
sligh tly higher, bu t it is recommended that the
builder use the '5913 if he wishes to have the 4Template available from ARRL Hq., 225 Main
Street, Newington, CT 06111. Send 50 cents and a
circuit perform as specified here. Substitutes for s.a.s.e.
any of the devices used in the circuit should be
employed only by those who are experienced in
semiconductor work. The wrong choice can lead
to dismal results with the circuit - instability, low
output, or destruction of one or more of the
transistors.
Ferrite beads are used generously in the circuit,
for decoupling of the dc bus and as rf chokes. 2 The
beads provide low-Q impedances and are superior
to solenoid-wound inductors in preventing circuit
instability caused by tuned-base-tuned-collector
conditions. A further aid to stability is provided
through the use of high and low values of
capacitance (combined) in various parts of the
circuit. This standard technique helps to assure
stability at hf and vhf, and is necessary because of
the high IT of the transistors used. 3
Transistor sockets should not be used at QI, Q2
or Q3. The additional lead lengths resulting from
the use of sockets could lead to instability prob-
lems. Those wishing to use a socket at VI may do
so by redesigning the pc board to allow a socket to
be installed (bringing the twelve holes for the IC
closer together). Alternatively, one might employ
an IC socket which has fairly long lugs, bending the
lugs outward to mate with the holes in the
pc-board.

Speech Amplifier ....o

'-'
VI consists of four bipolar transistors on a :l
common substrate. Two of the transistors are o
>
connected for use as a Darlington pair. The .!!!
remaining two are separate from one another. In €co
the circuit of Fig. I the Darlington pair serves as a 0-
'tl
preamplifier for a high-impedance crystal, ceramic, c:
co
or dynamic microphone. One of the separate Q)
'-'
transistors is used as a diode in the clipper circuit co
(an outboard silicon diode is used to clip the C.
E
opposite side of the af sine wave), and the
remaining transistor amplifies the clipped audio
f!!
after it is fIltered by an R-C network. Deviation is
set by adjustment of a pc-board potentiometer,
R17.
The processed audio is fed to CRI, the varactor
diode modulator. Some reverse bias is used on CRI
to assure greater linearity of modulation (3 volts dc,
2 See parts list for ordering information.
3 The higher the fT (upper-frequency rating) of
a transistor, the greater will be its gain capability at
lower frequencies, thus giving rise to unwanted hf
or If oscillations.
450 FM AND REPEATERS
model was built on glass-epoxy circuit board. lamp should illuminate to slightly more than
Those attempting to use phenolic or other types of normal brilliance. Power output into a 50-ohm
pc board may encounter difficulty in obtaining load should be between 1-1/2 and 2 watts Current
proper circuit performance. The dielectric pro- drain will be between 200 and 250 rnA, speech
perties of the various board materials are different, amplifier included.
thereby causing different values of capacitance to . Adjustment of the transmitter frequency and
exist between pc-board foil strips. The condition deviation can best be done while using a vhf
can cause instability, unwanted coupling, and frequency counter and deviation meter. Alter-
tuned circuits that will not hit resonance. Some natively, one can put the transmitter in service and
builders of the MK-I transmitter learned this the ask one of the other fm operators in the area to
hard way! observe his receiver's discriminator meter while
Transistors Q2 and Q3 require fairly hefty heat you adjust your crystal trimmer for a zero reading.
sinks if good efficiency and longevity of the Deviation can be set reasonably close to the desired
devices is to be realized. Homemade sinks are amount by comparing your modulation against
shown in the photo. Each consists of a piece of that of other local stations, having a third operator
1/16-inch thick aluminum (brass or copper is ok) report the comparisons.
formed over a drill bit slightly smaller in diameter This transmitter is well suited as a companion
than a TO-5 transistor case. The aluminum can be unit to the fm receiver described in Chapter 3, and
crimped in a bench vise until it fits snugly around in QST.5 The two units can be packaged to form a
the drill body. Silicone grease should be used to trans-receiver for portable, mobile, or fixed-station
coat the transistor bodies prior to installation of use. The transmitter can be used to drive a
the heat sinks. The height of the sinks is 1 inch. high-power solid-state 2-meter amplifier, described
The ID is approximately 1/4 inch. later in this chapter, if one wishes to pu t on a pair
Lead lengths of the wires going from the pc of "boots."6
board to S 1 should be kept short - preferably less A scale-size template is available from ARRL
than 1-1/2 inches long. Coaxial cable (50-ohm for 50 cents and a large s.a.s.e. Ready-made pc
impedance) should be used between the antenna boards may be available from Spectrum Research
terminals on the pc board and the antenna con- Laboratory. 7
nector. The shield braid must be grounded at each
end of the cable. Similarly, shielded cable should 5DeMaw, "A Single-Conversion 2-Meter FM
be employed between the microphone jack and the Receiver," QST, August, 1972.
aUdio-input terminals on the pc board. 6 Hejhall, "Some 2-Meter Solid-State RF
Power-Amplifier Circuits," QST, May, 1972, p. 40.
Checkout and Use 7 Write: Spectrum Research Laboratory, Box
5824, Tucson, AZ 85703.
Initial checkout should be undertaken at re-
duced supply voltage. Apply a voltage of between
6 and 12, making certain that a dummy load of
approximately 50 ohms is connected to the output 2-METER SOLID-STATE
of Q3. A 56-ohm 2-watt resistor or a No. 47 pilot RF POWER-AMPLIFIERS
lamp will suffice. Using a wavemeter tuned to 73
MHz, adjust the collector tank of Ql for a peak The majority of the commercially made 2-
reading on the wavemeter. Next, set the wave meter meter fm transceivers available today have rf
for operation at 146 MHz and adjust the collector power-output levels of 1 to 15 watts. There are
tuned circuit of Q2 for maximum meter indication. many occasions when an fm operator would like to
The tank circuit of Q3 should be adjusted for have a little more power to be able to work over
maximum power output as observed on an rf greater distances. Described here are two ampli-
wattmeter 'or Monimatch-type SWR indicator. A fiers, one for 25 watts and another for 50 watts
rough check can be made by using a No. 47 lamp output for the 2-meter band. Both amplifiers use a
single transistor and operate directly from a
as a load, adjusting for maximum bulb brilliancy.
13 .6-volt vehicular electrical system.
The next step is to raise the supply voltage to 12
and repeat the tweaking procedure outlined above.
Circuit Description
If all stages are functioning normally, a No.4 7
The amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 14-53
utilizes a single 2N6084 transistor operated in a
Class-C, zero-bias configuration. This mode of
operation has the advantages of high collector

~,'l\i~ efficiency at full output and zero dc current drain

when no rf driving signal is applied. The reader
'.
,..:
'.
...............
.~'.

.... ~'t ~.•.•

,
should note that zero-bias operation yields an
amplifier that is not a "linear." It is designed for

~~~ - ,~, '

__ 'f
Fig. 14-52 - An end view of the breadboard
version of the 50-watt 2-meter amplifier. The input
circuit is at the lower right, and the output
network is at the upper left.
• II
 An Fm Transmitter for 2 Meters 451
Fig. 14-53 (A) - Diagram of the amplifier which
provides 40 to 50 watts output and its associated
COR circuit. Capacitors are mica unless otherwise
noted. The heat sink is a Thermalloy 6169B (Allied
Electronics No. 957-2890). "--T--..-~+ 13.6 v
C1, C7 - 5- to 80-pF compression trimmer (alco
462 or equiv.).
C2, C4-C ,C8, inc!. - Mica button (A)
J-l0l ).
146 MHz.
Jl

L1 - 12 nH, No. 10 tinned wire, 1 1/4-inch long

C3, C9 - 9- to 180-pF compression trimmer (Arco straight conductor.
463 or equiv.). L2 - 30 nH, 1 3/4 turns, No. 10 tinned wire, 3/8
C10 - Feedthrough type. inch 10,314 inch long.
Cll - Tantalum. L3 - 15 nH, No. 14 tinned wire, 3/4-inch long
C12, C15, C16 - Ceramic disk. straight conductor.
C13, C14 - 39-pF mica (Elmenco 6ED390J03 or L4 - 2 turns of No. 18 tinned wire 1/4-inch 10,
equiv.). 0.2 inch long (approximately 44 nH).
CRl - 100-PRV or more, 500-mA or more silicon 01 - Motorola silicon power transistor.
diode (Motorola 1 N4001 or equiv.). 02 - Npn silicon Darlington transistor, hFE of
CR2,CR3 - High-speed, low capacitance 100-PRV 5000 or more (Motorola MPS-A13 or equiv.).
silicon diode (Motorola MSD7000 dual package R1 - 15 ohm, l-watt composition.
used here). R2 - 4700 oh m 1 12-watt composi tion
J1)2 - Coaxial connector, panel mount. RFC1 - 17 turns, No. 16 enam. wire wound on
K 1 - 4pdt open-frame relay, 12- V contacts (Co- Amidon T-80-2 toroid core.
ma r C R 0-1 603-4S35 or equiv., Sigma RFC2 - Molded rf choke (J. W. Miller 9250-15).
67R4-12D also suitable), modified as described RFC3 - Ferrite bead (Ferroxcube 56-590-65/3B
below. or equiv.).

RELAV TOP VI EW
+ 13.6v
;:I 0 0 0

c 0
o 0 '"SHORTI NG

~g~~~~
coo 0 -' ADDED
BARS
Q 0 0 0
r--"t-i---<)TRANSCEIVER

(e)
~_+-_-oAMPLIFIER RELAY SIDE VIEW
INPUT

(B) COR circuit. Capacitors are disk ceramic.

The COR relay is modified by removing the
connecting wires from all four wiper arms and
adding two shorting bars, as shown. Only the
stationary-contact connections are used.
CR1- 100-PRV or more, 500-mA or more silicon
diode (Motorola 1 N4001 or equiv.).
t2f
FI LTE R
/
)
REMOVE
NNECTING
WIRES

CR2, CR3 - High-speed, low-capacitance 100-PRV Ll

silicon diode (Motorola MSD7000 dual package 0- f'YYY'I 0
used here).
K1 - 4pdt open-frame relay, 12-V contacts (Co-
mar CRD-1603-4S35 or equiv., Sigma
INPUT
(II 1c2 OUTPUT

I I
67R4-12D also suitable), modified as described
below. (0)
02 - Npn silicon Darlington transistor, hFE of
5000 or more (Motorola MPS-A13 or equiv.).
(C) The COR relay is modified by removing the (D) Pi-section output filter, Cl and C2 are 39-pF
connecting wires from all four wiper arms and mica capacitors (Elmenco 6ED390J03 or equiv.),
adding two shorting bars, as shown. Only the and Ll consists of 2 turns of No. 18tinned wire,
stationary-contact connections are used. 1/4 inch 10,0.2 inch long (approximately 44 nH).
452 FM AND REPEATERS
RG-58A/U

OUTPUT METER
CONNECTOR JACKS (2)
MOUNTED
IN VERTICAL
BULKHEAD

OUTPUT
FILTER
INPUT
CONNECTOR
MOUNTED
IN VERTICAL
BULKHEAD

THESE FOUR AREAS REQUIRE AN ISOLATED CONNECTION POINT.

THIS CAN 8£ FORMED BY ETCHING A MOAT IN PC 80ARD OR BY
ATTACHING A SMALL SQUARE OF PC BOARD ON TOP OF MAIN PC BOARD

Fig. 14-54 - Parts-layout diagram for the 50-watt amplifier (not to scale). A 4 X 6-inch pc board is used
as the base.

fm (or cw- operation only, and would produce

mechanical mounting of the transistor, emitter
objectional distortion and splatter if used to
grounding, heat sinking, and decoupling of the
amplify either a-m or ssb signals.
supply-voltage leads. Most of the com~onent~ used
The amplifier operates directly from an auto- are conventional items which are readily available,
mobile electrical system, so no additional power
with two exceptions. The fixed mica capacitors,
supply is required for mobile operation. The input
Underwood type J-IOI, are a special mica unit
and output-tuned circuits are designed to match designed for high-frequency applications. The core
the impedances of the transistor to a 50-ohm for RFCI and the rf bead used for RFC3 are
driving source and to a 50-ohm antenna system,
available from Elna Ferrite Labs, Inc., 9 Pine Grove
respectively. Since both the input and output
St., Woodstock, NY 12498.
impedances of the transistor are extremely low (in
The amplifier is constructed on a pc board
the 1- to 5-ohm region), the matching networks
which is bolted to a heat sink. A few islands can be
employed are somewhat different than those used
etched on the board for tie points, a t the builder's
with tubes. The networks chosen for the amplifier
discretion; a complex foil pattern is not required.
are optimized for low-impedance matching, and
In the amplifier shown in the photo, islands were
they perform their tasks efficiently. The network
etched only for input and output tie points.
designs for this amplifier were done with the aid of
Circuit-board islands may also be etched for the
a computer.
transistor base and collector leads. However, an
The elaborate decoupling network used in the
interesting alternative method was used in the
collector dc feed is for the purpose of assuring
author's breadboard amplifier. The base and collec-
amplifier stability with a wide variety of loads and
tor islands were formed by attaching small pieces
tuning conditions. The 2N6084 transistor is conser-
of pc board to the top of the main board. This
vatively rated at 40 watts output (approximately
procedure added a few tenths of a pF of capaci-
60 watts dc input). The amplifier can readily be
tance at the connection points, so if you choose to
driven to power ou tpu t levels considerably higher
etch islands directly on the main board you may
than 40 watts, but it is recommended that it be
want to increase the value of C6 slightly. (The
kept below 50 watts output. If your transmitter or
values of C4 and C5 are not critical.)
transceiver has greater than 10 watts output, an
A word about the care of a stud-mount rf
attenuator should be used at the amplifier input to
power transistor: Two of the most importa~t
keep the output from the amplifier below 50
watts. mounting precautions are (1) to assure that there IS
no upward pressure (in the direction of the ceramic
cap) applied to the leads, and (2) that the nut on
Construction Details
the mounting stud is not over-tightened. The way
Construction of the amplifier is straight- to accomplish item I is to install the nuts first and
forward. The usual precautions that must be solder the leads to the circuit later. For item I, the
observed when building a solid-state final amplifier recommended stud torque is 6 inch-pounds. For
are followed. These precautions include proper those who don't have a torque wrench in the
An Fm Transmitter for 2 Meters 453
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF RFCI
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( jJF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR jJjJFI; ' - - -__- - < l + 13.6
RESISTANCES ARE fN OHMS;
VDe
k·IOOO. M·IOOO 000.

J2
JI
OUTPUT
INPUT

180

Fig. 14·55 - Circuit diagram of the 25·watt J1, J2 - Coaxial connector, panel mount.
amplifier. Capacitors are disk ceramic unless other- L1 - Hnch length of No. 14 tinned wire.
wise noted. Q1 - Motorola silicon power transistor (2N5591
C1 - 5· to 80-pF compression trimmer (Arco 462 or HEP S3007 for 25 W output, 2N5590 or
or equiv.l. HEP S3006 for 10 W output).
C2 - 2- to 50-pF compression trimmer (Arco 461 RFC1 - Ferroxcube VK200-19/4B ferrite choke.
or equiv.l. RFC2 - Molded rf choke (J. W. Miller 9250-15).
C3 - Button mica (Underwood J-101). RFC3 - Ferrite bead (Ferroxcube 56-590-65/38
C4, C5 - 9- to 180·1-pF compression trimmer or equiv.).
(Arco 463 or equiv.l. T1 - See Fig. 14-56.

output, if the driving source has an output impe-

shack, remember that it is better to under tighten dance of approximately 50 ohms. However, a
than to over tighten the mounting nut. better procedure consists of tuning the ou tput tank
The transistor stud is mounted through a hole circuit for maximum rf output and tuning the
drilled in the heat sink. A thermal compound, such input circuit for minimum SWR as measured
as Dow Corning 340 heat-sink grease, should be between the exciter and the final amplifier. This
used to decrease the thermal resistance from tune-up procedure has the added advantage of
transistor case to heat sink. See the excellent assuring that the amplifier presents a 50-ohm load
article by White in QST for April, 1971, for details to the exciter. A dc ammeter to check collector
of heat-sink design. current is a useful tune-up aid. Since tuning is for
Series impedance in the emitter circuit can peak output, a Monimatch-type SWR bridge is
drastically reduce the gain of the amplifier. Both adequate for the job. Also, the wattmeter de-
transistor emitter leads should be grounded as close scribed in Chapter 22 would be an excellent
to the transistor body as is practical. choice. The best tuning procedure is to monitor
The wiring for the dc voltage feeder to the simultaneously both output power (absolute or
collector should have extremely low dc resistance. relative) and the SWR between the exciter and
Even a drop of one volt can significantly reduce amplifier.
the power output of the amplifier. A good goal is First, apply dc voltage with no rf drive. No
less than 0.5 volt drop from the car battery to the collector current should flow. Then apply a low
transistor collector. With operating currents of level of rf drive - perhaps 25 percent or less of the
several amperes, a total dc resistance of only a rated 10 watts maximum drive - and tune the
fraction of an ohm is needed. A standard commer- input network for maximum indicated collector
cially made heat sink is used for the 50-watt current. The networks may not tune to resonance
amplifier, and it is adequate for amateur communi- at this low drive level, but you should at least get
cations. Forced-air cooling across the heat sink an indication of proper operation by smooth
should be used for any appliation requiring long- tuning and lack of any erratic behavior in the
term key-down operation at 40 watts or more of collector-current reading. Gradually increase the
output. drive, retuning as you go, until the rated 7-10 watts
input and 40 to 50 watts output are obtained. As
Tune-Up Procedure power input is increased, use th.e recommended
Generally, the best way to tune a transistor tuning procedure of maximum output from the
final is for maximum rf power output. If this output tank and minimum input SWR for the
approach results in exceeding the power ratings of inpu t circuit.
the transistor, then the power output should be There is danger of low-frequency oscillations
reduced by reducing the drive-level, not by de- with most transistor amplifiers. A scope of 5-MHz
tuning the final. In the case of an outboard PA or more bandwidth connected to the dc feeder at
stage, such as described here, both the input and point A makes an excellent indicator of any
output networks can be tuned for maximum rf low-frequency oscillation. It is possible to have
454 FM AND REPEATERS
T1 rectified by two high-speed switching diodes; the
dc output from the rectifier is applied to Ql, a
Darlington-connected transistor pair. When suf-
ficient current is developed in the base circuit, Ql
will turn on, activating Kl. A transient-suppression
diode is included across the relay coil to prevent
voltage-spike damage to Ql.
DARK WIRE " .... LIGHT WIRE
TO POINT A "-... TO POINT B The switching circuits needed to take the
DARK WIRE amplifier in and out of the circuit- are somewhat
complex. The cost of four coaxial relays would be
prohibitive. But, an open-frame relay can cause
Fig. 14-56 - Transmission-line output transformer sufficient loss at 146 MHz to severely degrade the
consisting of 2 4-inch long conductors, No. 20 sensitivity of the associated receiver. To get around
enam. wire, twisted to 16 crests per inch, using an this problem the author modified an inexpensive
electric drill. The conductors should be color relay. The long leads to the wiper arms were
coded, one with one color and one with a second removed and discarded. Two shorting bars were
color. Form the twisted pair into a 1/2-inch dia added, as shown in the drawing. External connec-
circle. Unwind the leads so that only the portion of tions were made only to the stationary contacts.
the pair forming the circle remains twisted. Con-
Received signal loss through the modified relay
nect the leads of each color as shown.
measured 0.4 dB - an insignificant amount.
Second-harmonic output from the 50-watt am-
signal output on all hf and vhf amateur bands and plifier measured 34 dB down from the level of the
all TV channels, simultaneously, when a bad case 146-MHz energy. Thus, the computer-design out-
of parasitic oscillation occurs. For those who may put network compares favorably with the pi-
have access to one, the best indicator of parasitic
section tank circuits often used in hf transmitters.
oscillation is a wide-band spectrum analyzer.
To assure that harmonic energy didn't cause a
problem to other services, a simple pi-section
An Additional Design output filter was added. This filter is designed for
For those who own a low-power fm transceiver, 50-ohm input and output impedances; it can be
an intermediate amplifier stage or a final amplifier used with any two-meter amplifier. The insertion
providing 10 to 25 watts may be desired. The loss of the filter at 146 MHz is 0.2 dB, while it
circuit of Fig. 14-55 is suitable for the 2N5591 or provides 46 dB attenuation at 292 MHz and 25 dB
HEP S3007 transistors (25 watts), and the 2N5590 at 438 MHz.
or HEP 3006 transistors (10 watts). An unusual
feature of this circuit is the use of a transmission-
line transformer in the output network. The Appendix A
construction and tune-up procedures for the ampli- 1) Amidon toriod cores are available from
fiers of Fig. 14-55 is similar to that described Amidon Associates, 12033 Otsego Street, No.
earlier for the 50-watt amplifier. Hollywood, CA 91607_
2) Ferroxcube components can be purchased
from Elna Ferrite Laboratories, Inc., 9 Pine Grove
Accessories Street, Woodstock, NY 12498.
3) J. W. Miller chokes are available from
When an amplifier stage is used with an fm distributors, or directly from J. W. Miller, 19070
transceiver, a method of automatic transmit/re- Reyes Ave., Compton, CA 90224.
ceive switching is needed. A simple carrier-operated 4) Underwood mica capacitors must be ordered
relay (COR), such as shown in Fig. 14-16 can be directly from the manufacturer, Underwood Elec-
tric and Manufacturing Company, Inc., P. O. Box
employed for the amplifiers described in this 188, Maywood, IL 60153. Price for the J-101 units
article. The level of input rf required to operate the specified in this article is approximately $1.20 each
COR is determined by the value of Rl. One to two (specify the value - in pF - desired).
5) A circuit board for the 50-watt amplifier will
watts of 2-meter energy will operate K 1 when a be available from Spectrum Research Labs, P. O.
4700-ohm resistor is employed. The rf signal is Box 5824, Tucson, AZ 85703.

2-METER FM RECEIVER
An fm purist is not likely to settle for second- The single-conversion solid-state fm receiver
rate receiver performance in this day of vhf-band described here is intended as a mate for the
saturation. A satisfactory fm receiver must be able transmitter shown in Fig. 14-50. This design
to separate the various repeater output frequencies centers around a multifunction IC, the CA3089E.
without being affected by IMD and overload Circuit simplicity, good performance, and low cost
problems. The sensitivity must be good, and so are the keynotes in this project.,
should the limiting characteristics. Few low-cost
designs satisfy the foregoing criteria. The circuit of
Fig. 14-58 represents a practical compromise be- Circuit Highlights
tween cost and circuit complexity, yet provides A JFET was chosen for rf amplifier Ql, Fig.
performance which is comparable to that of many 14-58. Neutralization is unnecessary provided the
commercial fm receivers in use by amateurs. gate and drain elements are tapped down on their
2-Meter Fm Receiver 455
Fig. 14-57 - This photo
shows the fi nal breadboard
version of the fm receiver.
Some of the bypass capaci-
tors are located on the foil
side of the pc board in this
example. The template and
parts-layout sheet provides
for topside mounting of
the capacitors. The dif-
ferences between the re-
ceiver shown here and the
final model are quite
minor.

respective tuned circuits. For simplicity s sake only It is recommended that transistor and IC
two tuned circuits are used ahead of the mixer, sockets be avoided except at Q4 and V3. Short
which uses a dual-gate MOSFET. The combination leads between the bodies of the devices and the pc
of FETs Ql and Q2 assures low IMD and provides board must be maintained to prevent unstable
good immunity to overloading. Output from the operation. The use of sockets will cause instability
mixer is supplied to FL1. This is a four-pole unless low-profile receptacles are used. Similarly,
1O.7-MHz i-f fIlter which is fed from a 900-ohm the pigtails on the bypass capacitors should be kept
tap point on tuned circuit C9-ClO-L3. as short as possible in all parts of the rf circuit.
The oscillator/multiplier stage, Q3, is a carbon The wiring which connects the audio and
copy of that used by Pearce-Simpson in their squelch controls to the circuit board should be of
Gladding 25 fm transceiver. It is one of the the shielded variety. If the board is cut into two
sim plest circuits one can use, yet it performs well. sections, as mentioned earlier, use shielded cable
Injection to the mixer is supplied at 157 MHz between VI and V2, routing the i-f signal from pin
(l0.7-MHz H plus the frequency of the received 6 of VI to pin 1 of V2. Don't leave out C16.
signal). The oscillator crystal frequency is one half The leads from SI to the crystal sockets must
the injection frequency - 78 MHz in this example. be kept as short as possible - less than 1-1/2 inches
No netting trimmers are necessary if crystals for each. As a further aid to circuit stability mount the
the Gladding circuit are ordered and used. Fre- pc board on a metal cabinet wall or chassis by
quency doubling from 78 MHz is accomplished in means of four or six metal standoff posts. This
the collector circuit of Q3. technique is beneficial in preventing rf ground
I-f amplifier VI is a CA3028A wired for loops.
cascode operation. FLI connects to input terminal
2 through a .01-J.LF blocking capacitor. Terminating
resistor R 7 is selected for the characteristic impe- Checkout and Alignment
dance of the filter used. The KVG filter has a It should be stressed that there is no simple way
91O-ohm bilateral impedance, so if precise to align an fm receiver. A stable signal genera tor
matching is desired one can use a 910-0hm unit at will be required, preferably one with fm capability.
R7. Output from VI is fed to multifunction chirp Initial alignment cannot be properly effected by
V2, across R 11. using off-the-air fm signals. A weak-signal source
Audio output from V2 is amplified by Q4 can be built by using the modulator and crystal
before being routed to V3, a transformerless I-watt oscillator stage of the low power transmitter
output IC. Though the MC1454 is designed to described in Fig. 14-50. Whatever method is used,
work into a 16-ohm speaker, good results can be make certain that the test signal is no farther off
had when using an 8-ohm speaker. frequency than 200 Hz from the desired frequency
of reception. Ideally, the signal source should be
Construction exactly on the chosen input frequency of the
How the receiver is packaged can best be receiver.
decided by the builder. Two choices are offered: Connect the signal generator to J 1. Attach a
dividing the board in two parts and stacking one meter across 12 and 13. Make certain that a speaker
section above the other on standoff posts. If this is is hooked to the output of V3. Assuming that an
done it will be necessary to cut the board midway ohmmeter check shows no shorted or open circuits
between VI and V2. If compactness is not neces- in the completed assembly, connect a 12-volt dc
sary the constructor can follow a one-piece as- supply to the receiver. With the squelch turned off
sembly format, keeping the board its 8 x (maximum hiss noise) adjust C2, C4, and C44 for
2-11/16-inch size. an upward deflection of the relative-signal-strength
Those who desire additional crystal positions meter (at 12 and 13). Next, adjust CI0 for
can make the board slightly longer. This will maximum meter reading. Repeat these steps two
provide room for more crystal sockets, but will more times. All tuning adjustments should provide
require that a switch with more positions be used fairly sharp peaks when the circuits are tuned to
for S1. resonance.
 ~
0.

RF AMP. MIXER
CASCOOE I-F
AMP.
146 11Hz
146MHz:

EXCEPT AS INDICATED. DECIMAL

VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MtCROFARADS' JlF); OTHERS.
ARE IN PI(OFARA OS CpF OR JlJJF I
REstSTAHCES ARE IN OHMS;
• ·'000 .... 1000000
+12V

78MHz

t T 140 \;: AF PREAMP. ,_, AF AMP.

,-,

51
x x
11.12 "T1
s:
Y
200JolF

~(1~8_0H"
~ SPKR.
l>
2
R2.
100).lF 10 C
C3~fi. :JJ
m
"'0
+12Y m
~
m
:JJ
Cf)
2-Meter Fm Receiver 457
A frequency-modulated signal will be required
for on-the-nose adjustment of the detector (L4 and
C24). C24 should be adjusted slowly until the
point is found where best audio quality occurs.
Audio recovery will be the lowest at this point,
creating the illusion of reduced receiver sensitivity.
If no fm signal is available for this part of the
alignment, tune the detector for minimum hiss
noise as heard in the speaker. After the detector is
aligned, readjust CIO for best audio quality of a
received fm signal. It may be necessary to go back
and forth between CIO and C24, carefully
tweaking each capacitor for the best received-signal
audio quality. The detector should be adjusted
while a strong signal (100 JJ.V or greater) is being
supplied at J1.
Adjustment of the squelch control should
provide complete muting of the hiss noise (no
signal present) as approximately midrange in its
rotation. If the audio channel is functioning
properly one should find that plenty of volume
occurs at less than a midrange setting of R18.

Performance
In two models built, both identical to the
circuit of Fig. 14-58, sensitivity checked out at
roughly 0.8 JJ.V for 20 dB of quieting. This
sensitivity figure is by no means spectacular, but is
quite ample for work in the primary signal contour
of any repeater. The addition of a dual-gate
MOSFET preamplifier ahead of QI resulted in a
sensitivity of 0.25 JJ.V for 20 dB of quieting. The
barefoot receiver requires approximately 0.5 JJ.Vof
input signal to open the squelch. A more elaborate
circuit would have provided greater sensitivity, but
at increased cost and greater circuit complexity.
Hard limiting occurs at signal input levels in
excess of 10 JJ.V, with 3 dB of limiting exhibited at
I JJ.V. Addition of an outboard preamplifier will
greatly improve the limiting characteristics, and
this would benefit those who are dealing primarily
with weak signals.
A KVG XM 107S04 i-f filter (FL1)1 is used in
the circuit of Fig. 14-58. However, any 10.7-MHz
filter with suitable handwidth characteristics for
amateur fm reception can be substituted for the
unit specified. During the development period a
Piezo Technology Comline filter was used at FL1.2
The model tried was a PTI 2194F, which sells for
$10 per unit in single lots. Club groups may wish
to take advantage of the 5 to 9 price break ..
$5.95 each. The PTI 2194F gave performance
similar to that of the KVG unit.
Each brand of filter has its own characteristic
impedance, so if substitutions are made it will be
necessary to change the tap position on L3 to
assure a proper match between Q2 and FL!.
Similarly, the ohmic value of R 7 will have to be
changed.
1 A product review describing the filter's char-
acteristics was given in QST for June .. 1972, p. 56.
The filter sells for $15.95 and can be ordered from
Spectrum International, Box 87, Topsfield, MA
01983. A drilled printed circuit board is available
for $5 from: D.L. McClaren, W8URX, 19721
Maplewood Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44135.
2 Piezo Technology Inc., Box 7877, Orlando,
FL 32804.
 Chapter 15

SpeciaUzed Commun8caiQon~
Systems
The field of specialized amateur communica- 160 meters. It is a completely electronic system,
"tions systems includes radioteletype, amateur tele- however; no photographic techniques are required.
vision, amateur facsimile, phone patching, and Pictures are transmitted in 8 seconds or less.
space and satellite communications. Radio control Amateur facsimile operation, under present
of models is not a "communications" system in the U.S. regulations, is permitted only above 50.1
amateur (two-way) sense. The specialized hobby of MHz. Operation in the 6- and 2-meter bands is
radio control does have a large following, but restricted to the use of shifting audio tones with an
"citizen-band" provisions for frequency allocations amplitude-modulated carrier (A4 emission), so
and operator registrations divorce it from the operation through an fm repeater on these bands is
strictly ham-radio field (unless one wishes to avoid prohibited. Facsimile operation is undertaken pri-
the QRM). marily by groups in heavily populated areas.
By far the greatest activity in the specialized Amateur satellites - called Oscars for Orbiting
fields is to be found in radioteletype ~~TIY). Satellifes Carrying Amateur Radio - offer another
Operation using frequency-shift keying teOfniques way of extending the range of vhf and uhf stations.
is permitted on all amateur bands except 160 Satellites can also operate in the hf region to
meters. provide communication during times of poor iono-
Activity in amateur TV (ATV) can be found spheric conditions.
primarily in a number of popUlation centers Phone patches permit third parties to communi-
around the country. Most of the work is based on cate via amateur radio, through an interconnection
converted entertainment receivers and manufac- between the amateur's station equipment and his
turer's-surplus camera tubes (vidicons). ATV is telephone line. With voice operation in use, phone
permitted on the amateur bands above 420 MHz, patching may be conducted in any amateur voice
and this and the broadband nature of the transmis- band between domestic stations, or between sta-
sions precludes extensive DX work. tions of any two countries permitting third-party
Slow-scan TV (SSTV) is a narrow-band system communications.
that is permitted in any of the phone bands except

RADIOTELETYPE(RTTY)
Radioteletype (abbreviated RTIY) is a form of The teleprinter machines used for RTTY are far
telegraphic communication employing typewriter- too complex mechanically for home construction,
like machines for (1) generating a coded set of and if purchased new would be highly expensive.
electrical impulses when a typewriter key corres- However, used teletypewriters in good mechanical
ponding to the desired letter or symbol is pressed, condition are available at quite reasonable prices.
and (2) converting a received set of such impulses These are machines retired from commercial ser-
into the corresponding printed character. The vice but capable of entirely satisfactory operation
message to be sent is typed out in much the same in amateur work. They may be obtained from
way that it would be written on a typewriter, but several sources on condition that they will be used
the printing is done at the distant receiving point. purely for amateur purposes and will not be resold
The teletypewriter at the sending point may also for commercial use.
print the same material. Some dealers and amateurs around the country
make it known by advertising that they handle
parts or may be a source for machines and
accessory equipment. QST's Ham-Ads and other
publications often show good buys in equipment as
amateurs move about, obtain newer equipment, or
change interests.
Periodic publications are available which
are devoted exclusively to amateur RTTY.
Such publications carry timely technical articles
",and operating information, as well as classified ads.

The Teletype Corp. Model 28ASR teleprinter is

used by many amateurs. In addition to the
keyboard and page printer, this model contains
facilities for making and sending perforated tapes.
Radioteletype (RTTY) 459
Over the years QST has carried a number of articles ,
on all aspects of RTTY, including a detailed series MARK
- r---
,UTTElI '0'

by Hoff in 1965 and 1966. For a list of surplus-

equipment dealers, information on publishers of I
RTTY periodicals, and a bibliography of all articles
on RTTY which have appeared in QST, write to
SPACE
I
I START
I
i , z • • •
I I STOP
RTTY T.I.S., ARRL Headquarters, 225 Main 22M5+22 .. S.- 22"5.- 22M5.+2M5.+22M5.+3IM5.
Street, Newington, CT 06111. U.S. residents 163"5.
should enclose a stamped business-size envelope
bearing a return address with their request. Fig. 15A-l - Pulse sequence in the teleprinter
code. Each character begins with a start pulse,
Types of Machines always a "space," and ends with a "stop" pulse,
always a "mark." The distribution of marks and
There are two general types of machines, the spaces in the five elements between start and stop
page printer and the tape printer. The former determines the particular character transmitted.
prints on a paper roll about the same width as a
business letterhead. The latter prints on paper tape, Teleprinter Code
usually gummed on the reverse side so it may be In the special code used for teleprinter opera-
cut to letter-size width and pasted on a sheet of tion, every character has five "elements" sent in
paper in a series of lines. The page printer is the sequence ..Each element has two possible states,
more common type in the equipment available to either "mark" or "space," which are indicated by
amateurs. different types of electrical impulses (i.e., mark
The operating speed of most machines is such might be indicated by a negative voltage and space
that characters are sent at the rate of either 60, 67, by a positive voltage). At 60 wpm each element
75 or 100 wpm depending on the gearing ratio of a occupies a time of 22 milliseconds. In addition,
partiCUlar machine. Current FCC regulations al- there is an intial "start" element (space), also 22
low amateurs the use of any of these four speeds. ms long, to set the sending and receiving mecha-
Interchangeable gears permit most machines to nisms in operation, and a terminal "stop" element
operate at these speeds. Ordinary teletypewriters aTe (mark) 31 ms long, to end the operation <ind ready
of the start-stop variety, in which the pulse-form- the machine for the next character. This sequence
ing mechanism (motor driven) is at rest until a is illustrated in Fig. l5A-l, which shows the letter
typewriter key is depressed. At this time it begins G with its start and stop elements.
operating, forms the proper pulse sequence, and At maximum machine speed, it takes 163 ms to
then comes to rest again before the next key is send each character. This is the equivalent of 368
depressed to form the succeeding character. The operations per minute. At 75 wpm with this same
receiving mechanism operates in similar fashion, code, 460 operations per minute result, and 600
being set into operation by the first pulse of the for 100 wpm. The letter code as it appears on
sequence from the transmitter. Thus, although the perforated tape is shown in Fig. 15A-2, where the
actual transmission speed cannot exceed about 60 black dots indicate marking pulses. Figures and
wpm (or whatever maximum speed the machine is arbitrary signs - punctuation, etc. - use the same
geared for), it can be considerably slower, depend- set of code impulses as the alphabet, and are
ing on the typing speed of the operator. selected by shifting the carriage as in the case of an
It is also possible to transmit by using perforat- ordinary typewriter. The carriage shift is accomp-
ed tape. This has the advantage that the complete lished by transmitting either the "LTRS" or
message may be typed out in advance of actual "FIGS" code symbol as required. There is also a
transmission, at any convenient speed; when trans- "carriage return" code character to bring the
mitted, however, it is sent at the machine's normal carriage back to the starting position after the end
maximum speed. A special tape reader, called a of the line is reached on a page printer, and a "line
transmitter-distributor, and tape perforator are feed" character to advance the page to the next
required for this process. A reperforator is a device line after a line is completed.
that may be connected to the conventional tele-
typewriter for punching tape when the machine is Additional System Requirements
operated in the regular way. It may thus be used To be used in radio communication, the pulses
either for an original message or for "taping" an (dc) generated by the teletypewriter must be
incoming message for later retransmission. utilized in some way to key a radio transmitter so
they may be sent in proper sequence and 'Usable
form to a distant point. At the receiving end the
Fig. 15A-2 - Teleprinter letter incoming signal must be converted into dc pulses
code as it appears on perforated suitable for operating the printer. These functions,
tape; start and stop elements do
not appear. Elements are num- o
>-,'"
bered from top to bottom; dots ~ ~. w
indicate marking pulses. Numer- UPPER CASE - :3 8 9 21 1 4 5 7 2 / 6 ~ ~~~~
als, punctuation, and other arbi- WWER CASE-r~A~B~C~D~E~F~G~H~I_J~K~L~M~N~o~p~a~R~S~T~U~V~W~X~y~Z~U~~~~~~~~~
trary symbols are secured by ~m ~ : • • • • • • • ::. .: •• :.: • • • • ::
carriage shift. There are no HOLES •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

lower-case letters on a teletype- 1 .:. : •... : :: ••.... : : .• : •.

5. • • ••• • • • •• • • • • •
writer using this 5-unit code.
460 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
Below 50 MHz, Fl or fsk emission must be
used. The carrier is on continuously, but its
frequency is shifted to represent marks and spaces.
General practice with fsk is to use a frequency shift
of 850 Hz, although FCC regulations permit the
use of any value of frequency shift up to 900 Hz.
The smaller values of shift have been shown to
have a signal-to-noise-ratio advantage, and 170-Hz
shift is currently being used by a number of
amateurs. The nominal transmitter frequency is the
mark condition and the frequency is shifted 850
Hz (or whatever shift may have been chosen) lower
for the space signal.

RTIY with SSB Transmitters

A number of amateurs operating RTTY in the
hf bands, below 30 MHz, are using audio tones fed
into the microphone input of an ssb transmitter.
With properly designed and constructed equipment
which is correctly adjusted, this provides a satisfac-
tory method of obtaining Fl emission. The user
should make certain, however, that audio distor-
Fig. 15A-3 - Block diagram showing the basic tion, carrier, and unwanted sidebands are not
equipment required for amateur RTTY operation. present to the degree of causing interference in
receiving equipment of good engineering design.
shown in block form in Fig. 15A-3, are performed The user should also make certain that the equip-
by electronic units known respectively as the ment is capable of withstanding the higher-than-
frequency-shift keyer or RTTY modulator and normal average power involved. The R TIY signal is
receiving converter or RTIY demodulator. transmitted with a 100-percent duty cycle, i.e., the
The radio transmitter and receiver are quite average-to-peak power ratio is 1, while ordinary
conventional in design. Practically all the special speech waveforms generally have duty cycles in the
features needed can be incorporated in the keyer order of 25 percent or less. Many ssb transmitters,
and converter, so that most ordinary amateur such as those using sweep-tube final amplifiers, are
equipment is suitable for RTIY with little or no designed only for low-duty-cycle use. Power-supply
modification. components, such as the plate-voltage transformer,
may also be rated for light-duty use only. As a
Transmission Methods general rule when using ssb equipment for RTIY
It is quite possible to transmit teleprinter operation, the dc input power to the final PA stage
signals by ordinary "on-off' or "make-break" should be no more than twice the plate dissipation
keying such as is used in regular hand-keyed cw rating of the PA tube or tubes.
transmission. In practice, however, frequency-shift
keying is preferred because it gives definite pulses FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYERS
on both mark and space, which is an advantage in The keyboard contacts of the teletypewriter
printer operation. Also, since fsk can be received actuate a direct-current circuit that operates the
by methods similar to those used for fm reception, printer magnets. In the "resting" condition the
there is considerable discrimination against noise, contacts are closed (mark). In operation the
both natural and manmade, distributed uniformly contacts open for "space." Because of the presence
across the receiver's passband, when the received of dc voltage across the open keyboard contacts in
signal is not too weak. Both factors make for such an arrangement, they cannot normally be
increased reliabili ty in printer operation. used directly to frequency -shift-key another cir-
cuit. Isolation in the form of a keying relay or
Frequency-Shift Keying electronic switching is ordinarily used.
On the vhf bands where A2 transmission is
permitted, audio frequency-shift keying (afsk) is Saturated-Diode Keying
generally used. In this case the rf carrier is Perhaps the simplest satisfactory circuit for
transmitted continuously, the pulses being trans- frequency-shift keying a VFO is the one shown in
mitted by frequency-shifted tone modulation. The Fig. 1. This uses a diode to switch a capacitor in
audio frequencies used have been more-or-less and out of the circuit, and is intended for use in a
standardized at 2125 and 2975 Hz, the shift being transmitter which heterodynes the VFO signal to
850 Hz. (These frequencies are the 5th and 7th the operating frequency. Because of the small
harmonics, respectively, of 425 Hz, which is half number of parts required for the modification,
the shift frequency, and thus are convenient for they can often be mounted on a small homemade
calibration and alignment purposes.) With afsk, the subchassis, which in turn is mounted alongside the
lower audio frequency is customarily used for VFO tube. Connection to the VFO circuit can be
mark and the higher for space. made by removing the tube from its socket,
Frequency-Shift Keyers 461
VFO OR
P.TO

Fig. 1 - Frequency-shift keyer

using saturated diodes SHIFT 8S0NFSK
SELECTOR
51 .OOI,uFI
FROM >---......-O'~~
~~~ER ~ ~
R FC1, R FC2 2.5 mH (Na-
tional R-1000requiv.). 0 ___ _
S - Spdt rotary, toggle, or
slide.

C W KEY (FOR NARROW

SHIFT C W I D.'

wrapping the connecting lead around the tube's tiplication in such transmitters changes from one
cathode pin, and reinserting the tube in its socket. amateur band to another, and to maintain a
The variable capacitors are adjusted for the desired constant transmitted frequency shift readjustment
shifts. Once set, the shifts will remain constant for is necessary during band changes. In this circuit the
all bands of operation. With this circuit the VFO natural VFO frequency is used for mark, and for
frequency will be lower on space when the fsk space the frequency is lowered somewhat depend-
driver of the RTTY demodulator shown later is ing on the current flowing through CRL Rl
used_ If VFO "sideband inversion" takes place in a adjusts this current, and therefore controls the
mixer stage of the transmitter, it will be necessary amount of frequency shift. As shown, the circuit
to key from the afsk driver output of the demodu- may be keyed by the fsk driver stage of the RTTY
lator to send a signal which is "right side up." demodulator shown later. If a keying relay is
Be sure to use an NPO type miniature ceramic used, Ql may be omitted and the keying contacts
trimmer for best stability. Use only an rf choke (closed on mark, open on space) connected direct-
wound on a ceramic form. Ferrite or iron-core ly from the junction of Rl and R2 to ground_
types are not suitable because of excessive internal Leads inside the VFO compartment should be
capacitance, so the National type R-lOO is recom- kept as short as possible_ Lead length to the
mended_ Use only the IN270 diode specified. This remainder of the circuit is not critical, but to avoid
diode is a special high-conductance computer type inducing rf or 60-Hz hum into the circuit, shielded
which provides maximum circuit Q, avoiding varia- wiring should be used for runs longer than a few
tions in oscillator output level. inches_ Positive voltages other than 150 may be
used for the bias supply; the value and wattage of
"Shift-Pot" Keying Circuit R3 should be chosen to supply a current of 2 mA
The circuit of Fig. 2 may be used with or more to the 6.5-V Zener diode.
transmitters having a VFO followed by frequency- AN RTTY DEMODULATOR
multiplying stages. The amount of frequency mul-
Fig. 1 on page 462 shows the diagram of a
solid-state demodulator which can be built for
+ 150 v approximately $50. Using surplus 88-mH toroidal
inductors,1 the discriminator filters operate with
audio tones of 2125 and 2975 Hz for copying
850-Hz shift. The addition of Cland S5 will
permit one to switch-select 170-Hz-shift operation,
eRZ using tones of 2125 and 2295 Hz.
1 N710
The demodulator is intended to be operated
from a 500-0hm source. If only a 4- or 8-ohm
'SK
speaker output is available at the receiver, a small
DRIVER line-to-voice-coil transformer should be used be-
I.M.= Sll-VER MICA tween the receiver and the demodulator to provide
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
the proper impedance match. An integrated-circuit
IN MICROFARADS (pF) ; OTHERS operational amplifier, having very high gain capa-
ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR j.lpF); bility, is used for the limiter. The discriminator
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k -1000. M~ I 000 DOD
mters and detectors convert the shifting audio
tones into dc pulses which are amplified in the
slicer section. The keyer transistor, Q5, controls
Fig. 2 - "Shift-pot" frequency-shift keyer circuit. the printer's selector magnets, which should be
The shift-adjustment control may be remoted from wired for 60-mA operation. The teleprinter key-
the VFO circuit. board is to be connected in series with the printer
CR2 - Zener, 6.5-V 400 mW (1 N710 or equiv.).
R1 - Linear-taper control, low wattage. magnets, both being connected to the demodulator
Q1 - Audio transistor, npn silicon (Motorola 1 Toroids may be purchased from Typetronics,
MPS3394 or equiv.). Box 8873, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33310.
462 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

INPUT LIMITER

R7

AUOlO R8
INPUT

SLICER
OPTIONAL
KEVER FSK DRIVER

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

OPTIONAL TUNING-INDICATOR VALUE:S OF CAPACt"':"ANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS I.jJF1; OTHERS
CIRCUIT
ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR ).IJlF'l;
+12V
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
SCOPE k ~IOOO. M~ t 000 000
(MARK)

Parts for optional tuning-indicator circuit:

CR22, CR23 - Silicon diode, 50 PRY or greater
(1 N4816 or equiv.'.
M1 - 0-1 mA dc meter (Shu rite 8336 or equiv.).
031 - Audio transistor, npn silicon (Motorola
SCOPE MPS3394 or equiv.).
(SPACE)
R12 - 2000-ohm linear-taper control, subminia-
ture, for horizontal circuit-board mounting
(Mallory MTC-23L4 or equiv.).

via 13_ Typing at the keyboard will then produce Adjustments

local copy on the printer, and will also produce With a VTVM, measure the +12-V supply
voltages at 11 and 12 for frequency-shift keying a potential. Ground the audio input to the demod-
transmitter or an audio oscillator. ulator, and connect the VTVM to pin 3 of the IC.
The autoprint and motor-delay section provides Adjust RI through its total range, and note that
optional features wltich are not necessary for basic the voltage changes from approximately 1.6 V at
operation. Tltis section provides a simulated mark either extreme to about +6 V at the center
signal at the keyer when no RTTY signal is being setting of Rl. Perform a coarse adjustment of Rl
received, preventing cw signals and random noise by setting it for a peak meter reading, approxi-
from printing "garble" at the printer. The motor- mately +6 V. Now move the VTVM lead to pin 6
control circuit energizes the teleprinter motor in of the lC. Slowly adjust RI in either direction, and
the presence of an RTTY signal, but turns off the note that adjustment of just a small [raction of a
motor should there be no RTTY signal present for turn causes the voltage to swing from approxi-
approximately 30 seconds. mately +1 V to +ll V. Carefully perform a fine
 An RTTY Demodulator 463

AUTOPRINT AND MOTOR DELAV

+3V +12V +160V

'* C1 AND S5 OPTIONAL FOR ST-3

ONLY. SEE DlSCR. fiLTER SECTION OF
TEXT. # OMIT C3 ANO J1 IF AFSK
OUTPUT IS NOT USED
120V AC

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

POWER SUPPL V VALUES OF CAPAC ITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (jJ;;) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS \pF OR }JJlF);
RESISTANCES ARE I N OHMS;
k ..-1000 • M = I 000 000
)-__ ~ __-r__ ~+160

lOOK CR21 - Zener diode, 4.3-V, 400-mW (1 N4731 or

'iW
equiv.).
J1, J2 - Phone jacks. Omit J1 if af keying output
is not used.
J3 - Phone jack, single circuit, shorting.
K1 - 110-V dc relay, dpdt contacts with 10-A
)-IW\-1~'V'v...... --..,..+-o+ 12 V minimum rating (Potter and Brumfield type
KA11 DG or equiv.l.
+3V L1, L2 - 88 mH toroid.

"';;r
01, 06, 08, 09, 011, 021 - Audio transistor, npn
silicon (Motorola MPS3394 or equiv.).
02, 07, 010 - Audio transistor, pnp silicon
(Motorola MPS3702 or equiv.).
120 VAC Q5,Q12 MJE340 03, 04 - General-purpose transistor, npn silicon
BRASSPLAT~ (Motorola MPS2926 or equiv.l.
05, 012 - Audio transistor, npn silicon, 300-V
BRASS PLATE ft:ff'
15 CONNECTED TO COLLECTOR
collector-emitter rating (Motorola MJE340 or
equiv.).
R1, R2 - 10,000-ohm linear taper control, sub-
miniature, for horizontal circuit-board mount-
ing (Mallory MTC-14L4 or equiv.).
R3 - 5600 ohms.
C1 - Optional R4 - 18,000 ohms.
C2 - .033 J1F, paper or Mylar, 75- or 100-volt R5 - 82,000 ohms.
rating. R6 - 0.1 megohm.
C3 - .01 J1F Mylar or disk, 600 volt. Omit if af R7 - 1000 ohms.
keying output is not used. R8 - 560 ohms.
CR1, CR2, CR7, CR8, CR9, CR15-CR18, incl., S1-S5, incl. - Spst toggle. S5 optional.
CR20 - Silicon diode, 50 PRVor greater(1N4816 T1 - Power; primary 120 V; secondary 125 V
or equiv.) (Chicago-Stan cor PA-8421 or Triad N51-X or
CR3-CR6, incl. - Germanium diode, type 1 N270. equiv.l.
CR10-CR14, incl. - Silicon rectifier, 400 PRVor T2 - Power; primary 120 V; secondary 12 V, 350
greater (1N4004 or equiv.l. rnA (Chicago-8tancor P8391 or equiv.l.
CR19 - Zener diode, 12-V, 1-W (Sarkes-Tarzian U1 Integrated-circuit operational amplifier,
VR-12 or equiv.l. J1A741 , TO-5 package.

Fig. 1 - The ST-3 RTTY demodulator (by Hoff - from QST, April 1970). Unless otherwise indicated,
resistors are 1/4-watt 10 percent tolerance. Capacitors with polarity indicated are electrolytic. Dc
operating voltages are indicated in the limiter, slicer, keyer, and autoprint and motor delay circuits. All
voltages are measured with respect to chassis ground with a VTVM. In the slicer and keyer stages, voltage
values above the line should appear with a mark tone present at the demodulator input, while values
below the line appear with a space tone present. In the autoprint and motor delay circuit, voltage values
above the line occur with a mark or space tone present while those values below the line are present with
only receiver noise applied at the demodulator input.
 The RTTY demodulator may be constructed on a
large circuit board which is mounted inside a
standard aluminum chassis, as shown here. A
decorative self-adhesive paper provides the
grained-wood appearance. The meter is optional
and provides a tuning indication for use in the hf
amateur bands.

on the space frequency. Adjust R2 until the

vol tages are equal.
With afsk at vhf, audio tones modulating the
adjustment of Rl by setting it for a voltmeter carrier are fed from the receiver to the RTTY
reading of half the supply voltage, approximately demodulator. At hf, the BFO must be energized
+6 V. Next, again measure the voltage at pin 3. If and the signal tuned as if it were a lower-sideband
the potential is approximately +6 V, Rl is properly signal for the proper pitches. If the tuning-
set. If the potential is in the range of +2 V or less, indicator meter is used, the hf signal should be
Rl is misadjusted, and the procedure this far tuned for an unflickering indication. A VTVM
should be repeated. connected at point A of Fig. l5A-7 will give the
Next connect the VTVM to point A, and open same type of indication. An oscilloscope may be
S5. With a mark-tone input, adjust the tone connected to the points indicated in the filter
frequency for a maximum reading, around -2.5 section and used for a tuning indicator, as shown in
volts. Then change the tone for maximum reading the accompanying photographs.

Oscilloscope presentations of the type obtained

when the scope mark and scope space connections
in the filter section are made. For these displays
the mark frequency is displayed on the horizontal
axis and the space frequency on the vertical axis.
The signals appear as ellipses because some of the
mark signal appears in the space channel and vice
versa. Although only one frequency is present at a
given instant, the persistence of the scope screen
permits simultaneous observation of both fre-
quencies. The photo at the left shows a received
signal during normal reception, while the photo at
the right shows a signal during unusual conditions
of selective fading, where the mark frequency is
momentarily absent.

AMATEUR TELEVISION (ATV)

Television is not exactly new to amateur radio. offer proof that there was amateur television
Enterprising amateurs have been playing with this before many of our present-day amateurs were
branch of the electronics art for a matter of 45 born. The methods used then bore little resem-
years or more. Files of QST dating back to the '20s blance to the techniques employed today, but
hams were sending and receiving pictures (or trying
to) two generations ago.
QST carried many articles on television from
1925 on, and there was plenty of interest. But the
work was being done by the motor-driven scanning
disk method, and it was doomed to failure. Though
many dollars and man-hours were spent on the
problem, nobody succeeded in developing mechan-
ical systems that were completely practical. As
early as 1928, a QST author was pointing out the
possibili ties of electronic television, using the then
rare-and-expensive cathode-ray tube. The days of
the scanning disk were numbered.
But predicting the coming of electronic tele-
vision and bringing it about were two quite
different matters. Though it had become fashion-
able, by 1931, to say that "Television is just
around the corner," the cathode-ray tube was a
laboratory curiosity, and it was to remain so for
An actual 440-MHz TV picture transmitted with some years to come, as far as most amateurs were
the equipment shown in Fig. 158-2. concerned. Not until 1937 was the subject of
 Amateur Television (ATV) 465
VIDrD AUP.

BLANKING

VIDEO AND BLANKING

TO
1 - - - -... ANTENNA

Fig. 15B-1 - Block diagram of the television system used by W2BK, formerly W2LNP. (From QST,
June, 1950.)

television to appear again in QST. By then the A Novel Way to Get Started
problems involved in electronic television were The cost and complexity of TV gear has so far
gradually being solved. Usable components were left most amateurs convinced that television is not
beginning to appear, and television experimental for them, but ways have been found to cut corners.
work loomed as a possible field for the more There have been several ideas developed for bring-
advanced amateur. For more than two years almost ing the transmission of television nearer to the
every issue of QST carried something on television, abilities of the average experienced ham_ One such
but it was mostly concerned with the receiving simplified system was developed by J. R. Popkin-
end_ The generation of a television picture for Clurman, W2LNP, later to become W2BK. This
transmission was still considered to be beyond the system simplifies matters for the ham who would
radio amateur, until moderately priced iconoscope like to transmit transparencies (film negatives or
tubes were introduced for amateur use in 1940. positives, movies, diagrams, visual messages) with-
Television transmitter and camera design were out going into the complexities of cameta design
treated extensively in QST for 1940. and construction. It also lets a local TV station and
The highly involved and expensive process a standard TV receiver do some of the work, as
required in getting on the air for actual television shown in block-diagram form in Fig. l5B-L A
communication was just too much for most ama- standard TV receiver is tuned to a local station and
teurs, and progress in amateur television slowed to the lead from the receiver video amplifier to the
a standstill until well into the postwar period. At cathode-ray tube is disconnected and the output of
that time, availability of most of the needed the amplifier is fed to a blanking generator. The
components on the surplus market gave amateur output of the blanking generator is applied to the
television the push that it had always needed, and receiver cathode-ray tube, the raster of which is
the period since 1948 has seen more amateur TV used as a light source.
activity than existed in all previous years com- In the simplest form of picture transmission, a
bined. By 1960, color-TV signals were being transparency is placed directly on the face of the
transmitted by amateurs. cathode-ray tube, which for this purpose can be
From several cities in this country has come almost any type, including those with P-7 phos-
news of activity in amateur television. Much of the phor_ Light from the raster, passing through the
effort has been concerned with transmitting. The transparency, is picked up by a photo tube and
trend in this country has been to use transmitting multiplier and fed to a video-amplifier unit that
systems that would tie in with those employed in includes a high-frequency peaker and possibly a
commercial services, so that ordinary home tele- video phase inverter- The latter is used only if it is
vision receivers could be used for amateur work by desired to transmit negatives in positive form_
the addition of a simple converter. In this country After passing through a clipper and blanking
amateur TV is limited to the frequencies from 420 inserter and a mixer, the signal is ready for the
MHz up, because of the bandwidth involved. modulator and transmitter. Sound and video are

Fig. 15B-2 - The transmitting portion of a

complete ATV station. The video system utilizes a
modified RCA TV Eye closed-circuit camera and
control unit, shown at the left_ The 440-MHz
TV signal comes out the BNC connector at the end
of the mixer-amplifier chassis_ The power supply
and bias battery are also visible in the photograph.
(From QST, November, 1962)
466 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
transmitted on the same channel, first by frequen- and collecting the reflected light with a condens-
cy modulating a 4.5-MHz oscillator. The 420-MHz ing-lens system for the photo tube. Considerably
transmitter is modulated simultaneously with this greater light is needed than for transparencies, and
signal and the video, by means of the video-sound a 5TP4 or a 5WP15 projection cathode-ray tube,
modulator. with its associated high voltage, is suitable.
The signal thus transmitted has all the charac-
teristics of a commercial video transmission, and Adapting Oosed-Circuit TV Systems
may be received on any standard home television
By adapting closed-circuit TV systems, a num-
receiver equipped with a 42()'MHz converter. In
ber of amateurs have been able to get a picture on
the absence of a local TV station it is merely
the air without having to struggle with cut-and-try
necessary to derive the sync and blanking from the
methods, not to mention the mechanical problems
receiver's own sweep circuits. In this case the
of camera construction. A manufactured TV cam-
picture will have only 262 lines, noninterlaced. It
era and control unit are used, along with home-
retains the same horizontal resolution, but the
built rf sections necessary for the ATV station.
vertical resolution is reduced. In this type of
operation it is desirable to sync the vertical to the Such a system is not restricted to sending slides or
stills. It is capable of transmitting a moving picture
6()'Hz power supply, to reduce hum effects.
The photo tube may be a 931-A multiplier of professional quality. Such a station is shown in
Fig. 15B-2.
type, available as surplus. The output of the photo
tube is fed into a series of video amplifiers, one of Many closed-circuit TV cameras provide a
which is a high-frequency peaker. This is necessary picture signal on any regular TV channel from 2 to
to compensate for the build-up and decay times of 6, inclusive. In a typical system, the camera
the cathode-ray tube's phosphor screen. contains a vidicon camera tube, a three-stage video
The rf section of the transmitter is crystal- amplifier, a video output stage, a 55- to 85-MHz
controlled. The receiver has a crystal mixer and a tunable oscillator, and a modulator stage that
6J 6 oscillator, followed by a casco de amplifier combines the rf, video, and sync signals from a
working into a home television receiver. The control unit. The control unit contains the hori-
channel used for the i-f should be one that is not in zontal and vertical deflection circuits for the
use locally, and should be in the low· TV band for vidicon tube, a protective circuit that prevents
best results. damage to the vidicon in the event of a sweep-
The system may be adapted for transmission of circuit failure, a blanking and vertical sync stage,
movies. A fllm-projector light source is removed, and the power supply. For use in an ATV station,
and the photo tube installed in its place. A 6()'Hz most amateurs choose to modify the camera
synchronous motor is used to drive the film oscillator circuit to provide crystal-controlled op-
sprocket and the fllm is run at 30 frames per eration on a locally unused low TV channel. In this
second instead of 16 or 24. It is necessary to blank way, a regular TV receiver can be used as a
the raster during the fllm pull-down time. PictUres monitor. The video-modulated rf signal from the
of live subjects may also be transmitted by camera is fed through amplifier and mixer stages to
projecting the light from the raster on the subject derive the transmitted video signal. For reception,
a converter is used ahead of a regular TV receiver.

SLOW-SCAN TELEVISION (SSTV)

Because of the required bandwidth, amateur amateur in this mode, or for him to work into a
TV transmissions in this country are limited to the local group which may already be active if he did
frequencies above 420 MHz. With essentially line- not wish to transmit pictures merely for his own
of-sight propagation of signals at these frequencies, amusement. For this reason, ATV has had little to
it has always been necessary for an amateur offer to the amateur who lives in a sparsely
wishing to engage in ATV to interest another local populated area, perhaps hundreds of miles from
any large city. Slow-scan TV, on the other hand,
Fig. 51 C-1 - A typical slow-scan TV picture. offers a great deal. By using voice-channel band-
widths, SSTV transmissions may be used in any
amateur band except 160 meters. The amateur in
the sparsely populated area can exchange pictures
with the fellows in the big city, the next state, or
even with fellows in other countries.
Work in the area of SSTV was pioneered by a
group of amateurs headed by Cop thorne Mac-
donald, W4ZII (later to become in succession,
WA2BCW, WA0NLQ, WA2FLJ, and WIGNQ).
The first of Macdonald's several articles on the
subject appeared in QST in 1958. Early on-the-air
tests took place in the then-available II-meter
shared band, the only hf amateur band where
"facsimile" transmissions were permitted. The
video information was transmitted as amplitude
Slow-Scan Television (SSTV) 467
modulation of a 2000-Hz subcarrier tone, which in
turn was fed into the speech-amplifier circuits of a
conventional transmitter.
The loss to V.S. amateurs of the 27-MHz band
in September 1958 did much to dampen the
enthusiasm of would-be slow scanners. However,
special temporary authorizations were granted by
the FCC to a few amateurs for the purpose of
making experimental SSTV transmissions, first on
10 meters, and later on 20 meters. Tests by
WA2BCW and others in 1959 and 1960 indicated
that signal fading and interfering transmissions
from other stations caused considerable degrading
of pictures received from subcarrier a-m (scam) The SSTV Viewing Adapter with the top cover
transmissions. This led to experiments with subcar- removed. The adapter may be constructed on
rier fm (scfm) transmissions, and the superiority of Vectorbord, as shown. The transformer near the
this technique for average propagation conditions rear (left) is in the power supply circuit; the one
was immediately recognized. The resulting stan- near the front is in the video detector stage. On the
dards proposed by Macdonald in January 1961 front panel are the power switch and indicator, the
manual vertical-sweep push button, and vertical
have since been adapted and are in use today (see sync control. Phono jacks on the rear panel are for
Table I). In the scfm system, the frequency of the connections to the oscilloscope and receiver. Two
audio tone conveys the video information, with banana jacks are used for the CRT connections.
1500 Hz representing black and 2300 Hz represent- (Originally described in QST for June, 1970, by
ing white. Intermediate shades of gray are transmit- W7ABW and W7FEN.)
ted with intermediate.,frequency tones. Tones of
1200 Hz (ultrablack) are used to transmit vertical making two-way picture transmissions while
and horizontal sync pulses. The success of experi- equipped with nothing more than a receiving
ments in the mid '60s on 20 meters with scfm, and monitor and a tape recorder, in addition to
especially the fact that SSTV occupies a normal ordinary station equipment. In lieu of a camera,
voice-channel bandwidth with no side-frequency they enlist the aid of a friend having the proper
products to cause interference on adjacent chan- equipment to prepare a taped program which is
nels, led to changes in the FCC rules. sent during transmissions. Because of the slow
frame rate with SSTV (one picture every 7 or 8
seconds), live pictures of anything except still
SSTV Emissions subjects are impractical. Viewing a series of SSTV
Since August 1968, narrow-band AS and F5 frames has frequently been compared to viewing a
emissions (SSTV) have been permitted in the series of projected photographic slides.
Advanced and Extra Class portions of 75, 40, 20 Experiments are currently being made with the
and 15 meters, in all but the cw-only portions of transmission of color pictures by SSTV. Various
10, 6, and 2 meters, and the entire amateur range techniques are being used, but in essence the
above 220 MHz. The regulations permit the trans- process involves the sending of three separate
mission of independent sidebands, with picture frames of the same picture, with a red, a blue, and
information contained in one sideband and voice in
the other. Few amateurs today are equipped for TABLE I
this type of operation, however. The usual practice
is to intersperse picture transmissions with voice
transmissions on single sideband. Amateur Slow-Scan Standards
A stipulation in the V.S. regulations limits the
60-Hz Areas 50-Hz Areas
bandwidth of AS or F5 emissions below 50 MHz;
they must not exceed that of an A3 single-sideband Sweep Rates:
Horizontal 15 Hz 162/3 Hz
emission, approximately 3000 Hz. This precludes (60 Hz/4) (SO Hz/3)
the use of an a-m transmitter with the standard Vertical 8 sec. 7.2 sec.
SSTV subcarrier tones. Most amateurs operating in No. of Scanning Lines 120 120
the hf bands feed the video information as a Aspect Ratio 1:1 1: 1
varying-frequency tone into the microphone input Direction of Scan:
of an ssb transmitter, and with carrier suppression, Horizontal Left to Right Left to Right
F5 emission results. A seldom-used. but quite Vertical Top to Bottom Top to Bottom
feasible alternative is to frequency modulate an rf Sync Pulse Duration:
oscillator with video signals from the camera. Horizontal 5 millisec. 5 millisec.
Because of the narrow bandwidth used, tape Vertical 30 millisec. 30 millisec.
recordings of SSTV video signals can be made with Subcarrier Freq.:
Sync 1200 Hz 1200 Hz
an ordinary audio tape recorder running at 3 3/4 Black 1500 Hz 1500 Hz
inches per second. Nearly every slow scanner White 2300 Hz 2300 Hz
preserves some of his on-the-air contacts on tape, Req. Trans.
and most prepare an interesting program to be Bandwidth 1.0 to 2.5 kHz 1.0 to 2.5 kHz
transmitted. A good number of amateurs begin
 468 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

VIDEO AMP DETECTOR

-15V

.002

OSCILLOSCOPE
1- - - - ---""1
I I

SYNC
SEPARATOR SWEEP
FOLLOWER +15Y
2200

4700 IN914

IN9r4

+ UI
I·~F
25V
rl7

BOTTOM VIEW EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAl VALUES O~

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( jJF 1 ;

OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR jJjJF)",
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS k~ 1000.
-15V I

Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the slow-scan adapter. Capacitors with polarity indicated are electrolytic,
others are ceramic or paper, except as indicated. Variable resistors are composition controls, linear taper.
Resistors are 1/2-watt.
Cl - 4-fJ.F, 25-volt, nonpolarized tantalum. Ql-09, incl. - 2N718, 2N697, 2N2222, or
C2 - 2-fJ.F, 25-volt, Mylar. 2N3641-3.
Jl-J3, inc!. - Phono jack. Tl - 6.3-volt, low current, 3000-volt insulation.
L 1, L2 - Variable inductor, approx. 200 mH Ul - Operational amplifier (Fairchild fJ.A700,
(Miller 6330, UTC HVC-S, or Stancor WC-14). Texas Instruments SN6715 or Motorola
L3 - 10-H, low-current choke, 3000-volt insula- SC4070G).
tion from ground (Burstein-Applebee 18A959).

a green filter successively placed in front of the The oscilloscope's horizontal scan must be able
camera lens for each of the three frames. At the to synchronize from an external trigger at 15 Hz.
receiving end of the circuit, corresponding filters The scope should have a dc vertical input that will
are used and each frame is photographed on color accept 10 volts. If the scope does not have a dc
film. After a tricolor exposure is made, the input, the vertical deflection amplifier may be able
photograph is developed and printed in the normal to be driven directly. The circuit shown in Fig. 3
manner. The use of Polaroid camera equipment was used with the Heath 10-18. This arrangement
with color film is popular in this work because it should be adaptable to other scopes not having a
affords on-the-spot processing. Color reproduction dc input, but Rl and R2 would have to be scaled
by this technique can be quite good. to provide proper centering.
Most oscilloscopes have cathode-ray tubes with
a PI phosphor. The PI phosphor is of short
SLOW-SCAN TV VIEWING ADAPTER persistence, which is not suitable for slow-scan TV.
FOR OSCILLOSCOPES Therefore, the PI tube should be replaced with a
The slow-scan TV adapter shown in Figs. 1-4, P7-phosphor tube which has the long persistence
incl., permits the ham with an oscilloscope to required. The last two characters of the CRT type
view slow-scan TV with a minimum of investment usually indicate the phosphor, and most types are
and effort. The adapter has been used successfully available in several different phosphors. The Heath
with several oscilloscopes, including the Tektronix 10-18 uses a 5UPI which was replaced with a 5UP7
514, Dumont 304, Heathkit 10-18, Heathkit at a cost ofless than $15.00. 1 If a direct substitute
10-10, and a Navy surplus scope, OS-8B. cannot be found, it may be possible to find a
 Slow-Scan Television (SSTV) 469
EXISTING ADDED EXISTING CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
I +15V 5600

c~~~~: r+~i~~~~--~--~--
_L_1_

50' &.epF I
I
I
I
I

1N914

Fig. 2 - At A, a circuit which may be added to increase the contrast of the SSTV adapter, and at B, an
alternative circuit using surplus 88-mH toroidal inductors for L1 and L2. If the circuit of A is used, the
18,000- and 22,OOO-ohm resistors shown connected to the base of Q1 in Fig. 1 are unnecessary.

surplus CRT of another type which will function. for manually triggering the vertical sweep with a
The Dumont 304 used a 5ABP1 CRT, which was front-panel push button, Sl, in case a vertical sync
replaced with a 5CP7. This CRT was obtained on pulse is missed. The multivibrator triggers a transis-
the surplus market for less than $5.00. 2 If the tor switch, Q6, that instantaneously charges C2
purchase of a new oscilloscope is anticipated, a every time a vertlcal sync pulse is received. This
P7-phosphor cathode-ray tube should be requested. capacitor is discharged at a linear rate through Q7.
The base of Q7 is biased by two diodes at 1.2 volts.
Adapter Circuit Design Thus, the current through the 0.47-megohm
The schematic diagram of the slow-scan TV emitter resistor is held at a constant value, giving a
converter is shown in Fig. 1. The slow-scan signal linear voltage discharge across C2. This sawtooth
from the audio output of a communications voltage is sampled by a Darlington transistor
receiver, tape recorder, or other source is fed into follower, Q8 and Q9, whose output will sweep
the input of an integrated-circuit operational amp- from 10 to 5 volts de when receiving slow-scan TV.
lifier having a gain of 300. Therefore, a O.l-volt ac The value of 5 volts was chosen so that when a
peak-fo-peak sigoal causes the amplifier to limit at sigoal is not present, the dot on the scope CRT will
the supply voltages, and the limited output will be be off the screen.
approximately 28 volts ac peak-to-peak. The limit- If the capability for high contrast is desired, the
ed sigoal is then fed to a series video discriminator. video signal level may be increased by adding a
The output of the video discriminator is fed to Q1, 2N718 transistor ahead ofQ1, as shown in Fig. 2A.
a video amplifier with a 6.3-volt ac mament For those who wish to use 88-mH toroids in place
transformer as a collector load. The transformer is of the variable inductors, Ll and L2, the circuit of
used to provide voltage step-up. A transformer Fig. 2B may be used.
with 3000-volt insulation from ground is used, as
the CRT grid circuit has a 1400-volt potential
which must be insulated from ground. The video is Construction
then full-wave rectified and fed to a 1000-Hz filter. The layout is relatively noncritical with the
The output video dc is then connected across the exception of the 6-volt ac filament transformer
scope CRT's series grid resistor to modulate the which will have high voltage on the secondary, so
CRT intensity. necessary precautions must be taken. It should be
The output of the video discriminator is also mounted away from the power transformer to
fed to a 1200-Hz sync discriminator. This circuit minimize hum pickUp. High-voltage wire is used to
passes only the 1200-Hz sync pUlses. The 1200-Hz bring the CRT grid connection into the unit.
sync pulses are then rectified, filtered and fed to a Sockets were used for the IC amplifier and
two-stage amplifier, Q2 and Q3. The,output of this transistors; however, the components can be
squarer provides IS-volt sync pulses. soldered directly into the circuit. The vertical-scan
A 5-volt sawtooth voltage is required for output lead should be shielded. Several types of
vertical sweep on the oscilloscope. This voltage transistors may be used; the circuit was designed
should have a very fast rise time and a linear decay. f~r devices with a minimum beta of 50. A variety
A sync separator circuit is used to separate the of integrated operational amplifiers may be used;
30-ms vertical pulses from the 5-ms horizontal however, the 709 was chosen because of its low
pulses. The vertical pulses are fed into the vertical cost and availability.
trigger, a one-shot multivibrator. Provision is made
1 Available from Barry Electronics, 512 Broad-
Scope Modification
way New York, NY 10012. The potential between the CRT's control grid
:! Catalog SC2799P7A Fair Radio Sales, P. O.
Box 1105, Lima, OH 45 .. 02. and the cathode varies the intensity. The control
 470 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
470k tor coil L2 for maximum indication on the scope.
Connect a dc voltmeter between the collector of
+1I5V Q3 (sync level) and ground. With a l300-Hz tone
FROM SCOPE
POWER SUPPLY fed to the input of the adapter, adjust the 50,000
ohm sync adjust control to the point where the dc
750" voltmeter just reads + 15 volts.
RI
4) Make the connections from the adpater to
the oscilloscope's external sync, vertical input, and
the CRT grid.
5) Connect the adapter's input to the receiver
or tape recorder.
6) Set the contrast control at midposition and
+15V
the sync control to maximum.
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (}JF 1 : OTHERS
T 7) Adjust the scope's sweep to 15 Hz for
trigger lock.
ARE IN PICOFARA OS ( pF OR JlJIF I; 8) Adjust the size of the raster with the scope
BOTTOM
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
VIEW horizontal and vertical size controls until a square
k-IOOO.
raster is obtained.
9) Adjust the adapter contrast and the scope
~ig. 3 - Amplifier circuit to provide a dc vertical
mput for ac-only oscilloscopes. Capacitors are intensity controls until a clear picture is obtained.
ceramic, and resistors are 1/2-watt. The switch, S1, If the picture is negative, the connections to the
may be any convenient type. The operational CRT grid should be reversed.
amplifier, U1, is a Fairchild p.A709. R1 and R2 10) When a picture is obtained, the sync
should be adjusted in value to give proper level should be adjusted to a point just before
centering, if necessary. sync is lost. This will eliminate false triggering
when copying weak signals and, if a vertical sync
grid usually has an isolation resistor in series with pulse is missed, the manual trigger can be used.
the negative voltage lead_ Video from the converter The finished adapter can be finally tested in
is connected across this resistor to vary the several ways:
intensity of the CRT. This resistor should be at 1) Tune to one of the SSTV frequencies listed
least 100 kil. If it is not this large in the existing below and look for a station transmitting SSTV.
scope circuit, it should be changed. This will have Tune the signal as you normally would for ssb. It is
no effect on the scope's operation, since this a good idea to tape-record a few pictures off the air
control grid draws no current. There is usually - they then can be played back as often as
ample room on most scopes to install two addition- necessary while adjusting the adapter.
al insulated jacks on the terminal board that has 2) Send a blank recording tape (with return
the direct deflection-plate connections. postage) to any amateur who is equipped with an
SSTV flying-spot scanner or camera. All amateurs
Adjustment in this field are happy to make a tape to get a
1) Connect the scope's vertical input to test newcomer going.
point l. 3) Listen to the SSTV frequencies. You may
2) Connect a 2350-Hz signal to the input and find a nearby amateur is on the air with SSTV.
adjust the video discriminator coil 11 for minimum You can take your adapter to his shack to try it
indication on the scope. This is usually with the directly on a picture generator.
slug fully inserted. The slow-scan TV adapter has given good
3) Connect the scope to test point 2. Change pictures on the scopes tried. A hood should be
the input to 1200 Hz and peak the sync discrimina- provided around the CRT face for direct viewing.
Scopes with CRT tubes that have an accelerator
will provide a brighter scan. The Heath 10-18 scope
uses a CRT without the accelerator, and the
brightness was noticeably less than others tried.

At the present time, most SSTV operation

takes place on 20 meters, on or above
14,230 kHz. Local nets operate on 3845
Fig. 4 - Power supply for the adapter. Capacitors kHz. Other hf calling and working frequen-
are electrolytic. Resistors are 1/2-watt unless other- cies are 7171, 21,340, and 28,680 kHz. (In
wise specified. the U.S., SSTV emissions are authorized in
CR1-CR4, incl. - Silicon type, 200 PRV or greater the Advanced and Extra Class portions of all
(Motorola 1 N4002, 1 N4004 or 1 N4007). hf phone bands.) Stations from all conti-
CR5, CR6 - 15-volt, 1-watt Zener (Centralab nents are to be found on SSTV. The OX
R41284, Unitriode Uz7151. capability of SSTV is being demonstrated
P1 - Fused line plug. daily by picture exchanges between the U.S.
S1 - Toggle. and Canada and foreign amateurs.
T1 - 4o-volt ct, 100 rnA (Triad F90Xl.
Facsimile 471
FACSIMILE

A4 emission is permitted on six meters in the

frequency range between 50.1 and 54 MHz, on two
meters between 144.1 and 148 MHz, and on all
amateur frequencies above 220 MHz. F4' emission
is permitted on all amateur frequencies above 220
MHz. What this means is that facsimile (FAX)
transmissions may be made on 6 and 2 meters if
you have, an a-m rig, and you can use either an a-m
or an fm rig on the 220-MHz band and up in
frequency.
Printed and handwritten information may be
sent by FAX. Transmission and reception are done
by electromechanical means. At the transmitting
end of the circuit, the page containing the material
to be sent is placed around a cylinder or drum. In
operation the drum revolves, and is scanned by a
very narrow light beam. A photoelectric cell, acting
on light picked up from the surface of the material
being transmitted, converts the changing light
intensities into a changing dc voltage level. This The Telefax transceiver with cover removed. The
"modulated" dc voltage controls the frequency of shaft along which the drum traverses is visible at
the left of the drum. The photo-optic assembly
a voltage-controlled audio oscillator. Each revolu- may be seen on the right-hand side of the chassis,
tion of the drum provides one scanning line of the just behind the drum. The lamp and its focusing
material being sent. As the drum revolves, it is lens system appear at the right, while the photo-
slowly moved laterally by a lead screw, causing electric cell is housed behind its lens system inside
slight separation of adjacent scanning lines. (In a light shield with appropriate opening.
some systems the light beam and pickup mechan-
ism, rather than the drum, are moved laterally to
obtain scanning-line separation.) In this manner, heat-sensitive material, or a light-sensitive material.
the scanning beam is in the form of a helix at the In the case of heat- and light-sensitive materials,
surface of the drum. such material is placed on a revolving drum which
At the receiving end of the circuit, the varying- is synchronized. to the drum of the transmitting
audio-tone information is demodulated in a dis- machine. The dc voltage is used to vary the
criminator type of circuit. The output of the intensity of a beam of light directed at the
demodulator is a varying or "modulated" dc revolving drum. Light-sensitive materials may be
voltage corresponding to that from the photo- developed by ordinary photographic methods.
electric cell at the transmitting end. This dc voltage Heat-sensitive materials have the image "burned
may be used to reproduce a copy of the original on" directly from a high-intensity lamp placed
material in any of a number of ways. The methods close to the material. A voltage-sensitive electro-
often used employ a voltage-sensitive material, a static paper changes color at the point where a
potential is placed across its thickness, and in this

Telefax

Western Union Telefax transceiver. Machines of A "QSL" card sent via FAX. To be valid for an
this type are available as surplus for less than $20. operating award, however, it must bear an original
The drum accommodates a sheet of paper measur- (not a reproduced) signature of the sending opera-
ing approximately 4 1/2 X 6 1/2 inches. tor.
472 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
'OK

BLACK MOTOR
[email protected]
, I
RED
.002

8L lod

EXCEPT AS INOleATED, DECIMAL VAUlES Of'

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I JjF I :
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR ....... ,,:
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS,
117V AC kolOOO, "01000 000.
Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the modified Telefax transceiver. ).' OPENEO CONNECTION

type of system a scanning electrode traverses the Remove the exciter lamp, clean its opening, and
drum. Other similar methods employ moist volt- set it aside in a safe place. These lamps are hard to
age-sensitive paper or other papers where current obtain. Carefully remove the lamp telescope, then
actually passes from the scanning electrode remove the lenses, and clean them. Be sure to
through the paper to the drum. Many modern replace the lenses in the same direction as they
facsimile recorders use· a "flat paper" process came out. Replace the telescope and exciter lamp.
whereby it is not necessary to place the sensitive Plug in the 117-V line cord and push the white
recording material around a cylinder. Instead, the OUTGOING button to turn on the lamp. Focus
paper is continuously drawn from a roll across a the light spot on the drum by moving the telescope
flat "writing surface," and an electrode moves back and forth.
across tltis surface in synchronism with the drum Remove the photo-tube telescope and clean
revolution speed at the transmitter. both lenses, then reassemble. Turn on the lamp and
The drum speed, total number of scanning focus the telescope image on the pinhole at the
lines, type of recording material used at the back of the telescope tube assembly. Put a paper
receiver, and bandwidth limitation of the transmit- with typed letters on the cylinder. Focus the edge
ted signal all affect the resolu tion obtainable from of a letter on the pin hole. This is very important if
the system. With slow drum speeds (in the order of you are to send sharp pictures.
several minutes per picture) and very fine light Remove the bottom plate and solder a .Ol-J.LF
beams, excellent-quality photographs can be trans- disk capacitor from the junction of the 2000-ohm
nUtted in a communications-bandwidth channel. and 2700-ohm resistors in the cathode circuits of
the 12AX7 tube to ground. This keeps rf out of
CONVERSION OF TELEFAX TRANS- the video amplifier. Clip one of the leads of the
CEIVERS TO AMATEUR SERVICE 51-ohm 2-watt resistor on the INCOMING push-
button switch. The other two leads can also be
Conversion of a telefax transceiver is easy to clipped and the switch can be used to switch the
do. First, remove the cover and check the tubes in line between your mic and the receiver's audio
a tube tester. Check to see if you have a stylus. If output.
necessary, replace the stylus with carbon-steel wire Clip the wire coming from relay LR, the
only. A wire brush is a common source of stylus normally closed contact, and going to relay HR,
wire. the moving contact. Clip the wire on the rear of
Facsimile 473
the OUTGOING push button, the normally open PHOTO TUBE
PROJECTION
contact. Run a wire from this contact to the OF PIN HOLE C">
moving contact of ~elay HR just made available.

8
See Fig. I. These changes assure proper operation
of the transmit-receive relay.
Remove the ACKNOWLEDGE push button,
solder the leads together, and insulate them with
spaghetti or tape. In the push-button hole, mount a
spdt toggle switch. Disconnect the leads going to PHOTO' TUBE
TELESCOPE
the contacts of relay LR (line relay). Run three
wires from the spot switch to the three leads at
relay LR, replacing the relay function with the DRUM
switch. Now, when you close the switch, the
carriage mechanism for the drum will feed. If your
Fig. 2 - Addition of a fiber-optics light pipe for
transmitter is keyed with a push-to-talk switch, transmission of positive pictures.
you may use a dpdt switch, with the second pQle
to key the PTT line. This will key the transmitter
automatically at the start of the scan. Posi tive Pictures
Carefully remove the line transformer and
remount it on the rear apron of the chassis in a Fig. 2 shows a modification for sending positive
vertical position behind relay LR. In the original pictures. Mount a short piece of fiber-optics light
position, the "gray motor" on the chassis above pipe between the exciter lamp and the chopper
the line transformer will induce hum into the video wheel. The light pipe is easily held in place by
signal. Solder the shield leads at the old line- wrapping it with No. 14 wire, placing the wire
transformer location, red to red and black to black. under the two telescope screws, as shown in Fig. 2.
Run two shielded leads from the secondary of the Carefully position the light pipe so it shines
line transformer through the nearby hole in the through a slot in the chopper wheel when the
rear apron and to the LINE terminal strip. Hook a pin-hole light is cut off by the chopper. Connect an
shielded lead to the LINE terminals of the line oscilloscope or ac voltmeter to the LINE leads and
transformer for connection to your rig's mic jack move the light pipe nearer to or farther from the
and speaker leads. exciter lamp until the scope or meter shows a null.
It may be necessary to replace the stylus Fig. 3 shows an experimentally derived circuit
shielded lead. The old rubber-insulated shield may which will send sync pulses when in the OUT-
have become very leaky. Also it's a good idea to GOING mode before picture scanning begins.
replace the lead from the 6V6 tube to the plate This circuit also receives sync pulses before scan
choke. begins to ~ynchronize the drum angle.

EXISTING LEAD
, - - - - - - 0 TO lI7V AC
COMMON

LR~O:;V6
Y.12AT7 I
ACK

EXISTING LEAD ---''---.-~

TO N.O. POWER RELAY
3

SPKR
RCVR

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

Fig. 3 - Circuit modification for sending or CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS t pF J :
receiving sync information before picture scan OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR jlpFl;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
begins. These modifications were originally describ- )Is 1000, M.l00Q 000.
ed by W7QCV in QSTfor May. 1972.
474 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
SPACE COMMUNICATIONS
The use of vhf and uhf frequencies for inter-
mediate and long distance communications has
become possible through space communications
techniques. There are basically two types of
systems: passive and active. A passive system uses a
celestial object such as the moon or an artificial YOUR MAP
RANGE
reflecting satellite to return signals to earth. An
active system consists of a space vehicle carrying an
electronic repeater.
CONTACT MAY
THE MOON AS A PASSIVE START HERE
REFLECTOR Fig. 15E-2 - Satellite passes through the range of
Communication by reflecting signals off the two stations, enabling contact.
lunar surface has drawn the interest of an increas-
ing number of amateurs in recent years, despite the tential for any two points on earth where the
considerable challenge such work represents. The moon is above the horizon. A surprising number of
requirements for earth-moon-earth (EME) com- amateurs have accepted this supreme challenge,
munication are fairly well known. Overcoming the and before the end of 1970, all amateur bands
extremely high path loss of the EME circuit calls from 144 to 2300 MHz had been employed
for close to the maximum transmitter power successfully for lunar communications.
output obtainable with one kilowatt input, the
best possible receiver, and very large high-gain SATELLITES
antennas. The highest practical receiver selectivity Exciting communications possibilities are af-
is helpful, and visual signal-readout is often em- forded through the use of amateur satellites. They
ployed. function much in the same way as terrestrial
These requirements contribute their own prob- repeaters, to relay signals over greater distances
lems. Narrow bandwidth demands exceptional fre- than normally feasible. (See chapter 14.) With
quency stability and calibration accuracy in both satellites, the area is usually international in scope.
transmitter and receiver. High antenna gain means Thus, DX communication on frequencies unable to
narrow beamwidth, in a system where a slowly support ionospheric propagation is possible.
moving target that is often invisible must be hit. Three amateur communications satellites have
And even when all demanding conditions are been orbited to date. Oscar 3, used in early 1965,
satisfied, the best one can expect is a signal barely was a 144-MHz in-band repeater; Oscar 4, launched
distinguishable in the noise. in late 1965, repeated 144-MHz signals in the
But the rewards are considerable, for the EME 420-MHz band; Oscar 6, launched in October,
circuit provides vhf and uhf communications po- 1972, is a long-lifetime translator, repeating
144-MHz signals in the 28-MHz band. Oscars 1,2,

~ :~I--+--\
and 5 were beacon sa telli tes for scientific and
training purposes.
Current amateur plans for satellite systems
------j-.I--+-+--_+___ involve the use of the 28-, 144-, and 42o-MHz
bands. Crossband repeaters are favored. Thus,
expected combinations might be: 144 uplink, 28
~ 700~-- t -----+ downlink; 420 uplink, 144 downlink; or 144
~! ! I
uplink, 420 downlink. There is a trend toward
designing amateur satellites with higher system

t-~
"' 6001---
~
gains (Le., higher sensitivity and greater output).
t:; The objective is to permit the use of these satellites
: ,oo~- -. T by average-sized amateur ground stations. Future

!::t· t i=i=
satellite lifetimes of one year or more can be
expected. Effort will be made for successive
satellites to utilize similar frequency combinations
to alleviate the need for equipment changes in
ground stations.
d MAP RANGE· ~~6 COS-I R~H I A principal factor in determining how far one
~
U')
200t

ol
• ---

~_
'
R- EARTH RADIUS (3960 STAT. WI.)
H- SATELLITE ALT. (STAT. MI.l

-=t -+

_. __2500
J
f---

.~-----'
-1
I can communicate via a particular satellite is the
orbit. Higher altitude orbits put the satellite within
Jioo-of..sight of greater areas of the earth. Fig. 15E-l can
be used to determine your map range for a satellite
according to its altitude. For example, a satellite at
o I~OO 2000 3000
910 miles would give a map range of 2450 miles.
MAP RANGE IN STATUTE MILES
For illustration, draw on a map a circle centered on
Fig. 15E-l - Satellite altitude above earth versus your location with a radius equal to the map range.
ground station map range (statute miles!. Each time the satellite is directly over any point
Space Communications 475
500r---,-----r--.,..--~-~
satellite's signal will continue to drop lower in
frequency as the satellite moves away.
400r---r-~--t-__~L-~ There are two types of repeaters likely to be
employed in future amateur satellites. A channel-
ized repeater for fm would operate much like the
ground-based fm repeaters used by amateurs; one
station could use a channel at a time. Several
contacts could be accommodated by a multi-
channel satellite. The other approach is called a
frequency translator. It receives a segment of one
band, say 100 kHz at 144 MHz, and retransmits
the segment on another band, say 28 MHz. With a
frequency translator, as many contacts as can be
o 5 10 15 20 25 accommodated by the translator's bandwidth can
MAXIMUM DOPPLER SHIFT (kHz) take place simultaneously, and all modes can be
Fig. 15E-3 - Satellite transmitter frequency versus used. Doppler shift from the fm repeater would be
Doppler shift for satellite in 200- or 1000-statute- the same as expected for a transmitter on its
mile orbits. For a translator, use the difference downlink frequency. With a- translator, however,
between uplink and downlink frequencies as the the amount of Doppler shift is influenced by both
"frequency _" the up- and downlinks. By employing a frequency
inversion technique in the satellite's design, these
within this circle, you will be able to use it for amounts of Doppler will subtract; the resulting
communication. Contact can be made with any shift is then found from Fig. 15E-3 by using the
other station having the satellite within its range at frequency difference between up- and downlinks.
the same time. This is shown in Fig. 15E-2. Thus, the An aid to satellite communication is to monitor
maximum map distance for communication would your own downlink signal coming from the satel-
be about two times your map range. lite, while you are transmitting. This permits you
The time duration for which a satellite will be to avoid interference from other stations, to
within your range depends on two factors: the compensate, where appropriate, for Doppler shift,
satellite's altitude and the distance between the and to adjust your transmitter power and antenna
subsatellite point (the point on the earth directly direction for maximum efficiency in sharing the
below the satellite) and your station. Higher satellite's output.
altitude orbits increase the size of your range or Best results in satellite communications are
acquisition circle, thus providing longer exposure achieved when the ground-station antenna is point-
to the satellite. Also, the longest duration for any ed directly at the satellite. Movement of the
given altitude will occur on orbits which pass antenna in elevation as well as azimuth is neces-
directly over the station location. For example, a sary. An easier alternative, providing adequate
satellite in a 1000-mile orbit would be line-of-sight results, is also available. It is the use of a
to a ground station for about 25 minutes on an medium-gain antenna (about 10 dB) pointed at a
overhead pass. At a map range of 1000 miles the fixed elevation of about 30 degrees and rotatable
duration would be 20 minutes, and at 2000 miles, in azimuth. The beamwidth of such an antenna will
availability would be about 10 minutes.
Conventional transceiver-type operation may 1700 ~.
offer some problems with satellites because of the
Doppler phenomenon. Separate frequency control 1500
\ ;

"
of the ground station's transmitter and receiver is
desirable. (In some cases an "incremental tuning" 1300 \ "
feature on a transceiver will suffice.) Doppler is a
frequency-shifting effect resulting from the motion
z;
~ 1100 \, ","
~
of the satellite. It is a function of the transmitting
frequency and the velocity of the satellite relative ~ 900
/ \
to the observing station. (Velocity is further a func- i2 / '\
tion of satellite's altitude.) Fig. 15E-3 compares ~ 700

"
"
'"
Doppler shifts for frequencies up to 500 MHz for v
satellites in 200- and 1000-statute-mile orbits. ~ 500 ""
The reason why Doppler shift requires a special
~"'a
,/-,0"/
consideration with transceiver operation is because i2j:::: 300
~<,,;/

two stations in contact would go through a series ..... / "\

of frequency compensations, thus "walking" them- " 100
,- "-
" SPEED (METERS/SEC)
selves across (and perhaps out of) the band! The bOOO- 62 0 - 6500- 6750 - 7000 - 7250- 7S0(}- 7750- 80 o
frequency of a satellite moving toward a ground IL-__-LI____LI____L-__-L____LI____L-__-LI__~I
station appears higher than the actual satellite 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
transmitter frequency. It drops as the satellite PERIOD (MINUTES)
nears the ground station. At the exact point of
closest approach, the observed frequency will be Fig. 15E-4 - Satellite altitude versus its period
the same as the true frequency. Past this point, the (time for one revolution) and speed.
476 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
allow satisfactory performance with most passes of tal or vertical) antennas. This is called Faraday
the satellite. In the case of synchronous satellites, rotation. A circularly polarized antenna (such as a
where the spacecraft maintains the same position crossed-dipole, crossed-yagi, or a helix) at either
relative to the observer, even the azimuth rotation the ground station or the satellite serves to
can be eliminated ~ the antenna can be in a fixed minimize the effect.
position. However, greater antenna gain will most
likely be needed in this case to compensate for the Late Information
greater path loss from a satellite in such a QST carries information about recent develop-
high-altitude orbit. ments in Oscar. Since ground station requirements
Another antenna consideration for satellite are dependent on the bands, modes, etc. used by
communication is the use of circular polarization. the satellite, the amateur wishing to become
Because the plane of a wave is rotated as it passes equipped for space communication should consult
through the ionosphere, cross-polarization can ARRL headquarters to determine current amateur
occur between two linearly polarized (Le., horizon- satellite plans.

PHONE PATCHING

A phone patch is an interconnection made military bases. Some bases have a special phone
between a radiotelephone system and a wire-line booth or a small studio where the serviceman can
telephone. When the patch is made properly, the have more privacy and be at ease while in
radio link and the wire line will effectively extend conversation. The studio may be equipped with a
each other. Phone patches have provided vital regular telephone or it may have a microphone and
communication when a natural disaster has caused earphones or a loudspeaker. It is common, too, for
disruption of normal communication facilities. the participants to be asked to end each comment
More commonly, phone patches permit men in with the word "over" as a cue to radio operators
service or on scientific expeditions to talk with (who may be using push-to-talk operation) to
their families. Few activities can create a more reverse the direction of transmission.
favorable public image for amateurs than to bring A few general considerations apply to phone
people together in this way. Such public service is patching. It constitutes the handling of third-party
always appreciated. Amateurs are using phone traffic. Agreements between governments specific-
patches for their own convenience, too. A phone ally permitting such traffic must be in effect if the
patch might be used to talk with a friend in a radio link is to a foreign country. Amateurs are
distant city or to make a phone call from a car. In responsible for conforming to regulations on sta-
the latter case, a number of clubs are equipping tion identification, prohibited language and the
their repeaters with unattended phone patch ar- like while a phone patch is in progress. If a repeater
rangements. is involved, th,e arrangement should meet all
Occasionally, a phone patch will be used at applicable rules regarding repeater-control facili-
both ends of a radio link. That is sometimes the ties. Telephone companies, too, are concerned that
case when the radio contact is made to overseas the interconnection arrangements be made in the
proper way and that the electrical signals meet
certain standards.
"EXCLUSION" KEY
THE TELEPHONE SYSTEM
Telephone company regulations are published
in their tariffs, which in most states must be
available in the company's business offices. In the
tariffs, phone patches are included under "Inter-
connection Arrangements" or a similar designation.
Telephone employees may not be familiar with the
term, "phone patch" so it should be used with
caution when talking with them. Patching is
accomplished with the aid of devices called "coup-
lers" or "voice connecting arrangements," These
are provided by the telephone company and are
important in several ways. They protect the ama-
PHONE PATCH teur's telephone service from interruption that
might result from a malfunction in his equipment;
•CONNECTION J they protect other users, too. By isolating the
amateur's equipment electrically from the tele-
Fig. 15F-1 - The voice coupler, to the left of the phone line, they give him a great deal of freedom
touch-tone telephone, is supplied by the telephone in the design of his circuits. The protective device
company. The coupler is normally fixed to a wall also permits proper adjustment of the circuit
or desk, and contains a jack for connection of the impedance, energy levels and other operating con-
amateur's phone patch. ditions to be met by the amateur's equipment.
 Phone Patching 477
Several different interconnection arrangements are VOICE COUPLER
listed in Table I. r----------------l
A telephone line normally consists of a single TO I I HANDSET
pair of wires which is used for both directions of
transmission. At the amateur's station it will be
terminated in a telephone set. A voice coupler will
PATcHiDl1
I
i
I
be connected in parallel with the telephone set I I
when the phone patch is in progress. For design I J TELEPHONE SET
purposes, the telephone set and line are each
assumed to have an impedance of about 900 ohms
(in the case of residence service) and the best TEL. <>----===~D--:Cu.
!i>-01
impedance for the phone-patch circuit is also 900
ohms. In operation, the patch will see a load of
about 450 ohms. This small mismatch should not
LINE o~------;I....
-4:- . :L $__
EXCLUSION
"I
-,;-----~ HANDSET
TRANSMITTER
be cause for concern, however, as it is the best KEY SWITCH:\' CUT-OFF SWITCH *
possible compromise. The phone patch's basic Fig. 15F-2 - Simplified diagram of voice coupler
function is to connect the radio receiver's audio and telephone set. *Both the cutoff switch and the
output circuit and the radio transmitter's audio exclusion key switch are shown in their normal
input circuit to the telephone voice coupler. It positions.
should do this in a way that results in correct
circuit impedances and voice levels. Provision
should be made, too, for measuring and adjusting
the voice level that is transmitted to the telephone Supplemental information and pertinent tele-
phone company technical specifications as they
line and for electrical filtering to the extent needed
may apply to amateur radio are given in the
to comply with telephone company limitations.
appendix which appears at the end of this chapter.
Fig. 15F-l shows a typical voice coupler and a
related telephone set. A simplified schematic dia-
gram of this setup is given in Fig. 15F-2. The
telephone is equipped with an exclusion key and a PHONE PATCH CIRCUITS
tum button. The telephone operates in the usual
way when the two switches are in their normal Where push-to-talk operation is used, the phone
positions. Lifting the exclusion key causes the patch can be as simple as a transfer switch
voice coupler to be connected to the telephone (connecting the receiver and the transmitter, alter-
line. If it is requested when the voice coupler is nately, to the coupler) or it can be a resistive
ordered, the tum button will be supplied and can combining network of the kind shown in Fig.
be wired by the telephone company to cut off the 15F-3. Included in the circuit is a 2600-Hz filter,
handset transmitter, the receiver, or both of them. the need for which is discussed later.
The transmitter cutoff feature is preferred, as it will
eliminate the pickup of room noise by the tele- Hybrid Circuits
phone while permitting the patched communica- Where it is desirable to use voice-operated
tion to be monitored on the handset receiver. The transmitter control (VOX), more elaborate arrange-
operator can restore the tum button as required ments are required. The VOX circuit must deter-
for station identification or to break in for other mine when the distant radio station is transmitting
purposes. and inhibit the local transmitter. When the party

TABLE I
Voice Interconnection Arrangements of Interest to Amateurs
Applicable
Bell System Arrangement
Publication Service Code Arrlmgement De$crlption

PUB42101 QKT Provides manual connection of transmitting or receiving equipment

to an exchange line by means of a telephone set; uses a 30A or
L-7049A voice coupler. Telephone handset transmitter cutoff is
optional. Connection to the coupler is made with a 1/4-inch
tip-sleeve plug, provided by the user. Impedance, 900-ohms.

PUB 42208 STC Provides automatic (unattended) call origination and answering for
(QX or VX) one exchange line. Connection to the unit is made with a special
plug to be supplied by the user. Required is a Cinch Co. No.
231-15-61-133 plug equipped with a hood, No. 239-13-99-069.
Impedance, 600 ohms. Ac power is required.
PUB42402 CD8 Provides automatic (unattended) call origination for up to 14
trunks. Impedance, 600 ohms. Ac power is required.
NOTE: Publications are made available through the telephone company in local areas.
Consult your telephone company about the use of these service arrangements.
478 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
Fig. 15F-3 - Schematic of the simple phone patch.
2600Hz Fixed resistors are 1/2 watt, 5-percent tolerance,
FILTER
composition.
Cl - .04-and .0027-pF paper in parallel.
L1 - 88-mH surplus toroid.
Pl - Phone plug.
TI
Rl - The value of this resistor may be varied from
that shown; 18,000 ohms is correct for a toroid
with a Q of 63.
R2 - Linear-taper composition control.
Tl - Output transformer, 3.2-ohm primary,
4000-ohm secondary (Lafayette Radio
AR135).
TELEPHONE
COUPLER
TRANSMITTER

~'MAY BE GROUNDED IF REOUIRED

on the land telephone is talking, the VOX circuit When the impedance of the balancing network is
must activate the local transmitter. This function is equal to the impedance at the input to the line
made difficult by the difference in audio levels. filter, the bridge will be in a condition of balance.
The phone patch must transmit a voice level of The amount of audio from the receiver that
approximately -5 VU toward the telephone line, reaches the transmitter (or VOX circuit) will then
whereas the level received from the distant land be minimized.
telephone may range from -45 VU to -10 vu.1 The balancing network, shown schematically in
The contrast in levels can be reduced considerably Fig. 15F-5 is not complicated. In most cases it will
at the input to the local transmitter's VOX circuit consist only of a resistor and a capacitor in parallel.
by using a "hybrid" circuit. A hybrid circuit is an Typical values for a condition of balance when a
electrical network connecting together the trans- voice coupler is used would be 470 ohms for R1
mitter, receiver and the voice coupler in such away and .04 pF for Cl. Other interface devices, such as
that the audio energy from the receiver is canceled might be used at repeaters for unattended
at the input to the transmitter. Hybrids require a operation, will require other values. The resistance
fourth circuit element, called a balancing network, might be between 500 and 1200 ohms and the
in order to function . shunt capacitance might range from .01 to 0.1 pP;
.Several kinds of hybrids can be constructed, the in rare cases, a series capacitor in the order of 2 pF
simplest of which is an adaptation of the Wheat- may be required. The values for a particular
stone bridge. Such a hybrid is shown in Fig. 15F-4. installation must be found by trial. The hybrid can
1 Volume units (VU) are measured with an be balanced by establishing a telephone call, and
instrument which is baSIcally an ac voltmeter of tuning in a clear voice signal on the receiver. With
appropriate range and with dynamic characteristics
wmch are carefully controlled to provide stan- headphones connected to the transmitter audio
dardized measurement of complex wave forms. circuit, adjust the hybrid balance network for
When sine-wave power is measured, a VU meter
and one calibrated in dB relative to a milliwatt minimum signal in the headset.
(dBm) should give the same numerical indication. With the Wheatstone bridge hybrid circuit of
Fig. 15F-4, losses between the receiver and the
telephone line, and between the line and the
transmitter, will be in the order of 6 to 10 dB.
Transformer-type hybrid circuits exhibit lower
losses, only 4.5 to 6 dB. A circuit for a single-
transformer hybrid is shown in Fig. 15F-6. A
two-transformer arrangement (giving better isola-

IOOOn.
Fig. 15F-4 - Wheatstone-bridge hybrid phone· RI TO HYBRID
patch circuit. Resistances are in ohms. Half-watt BAL. NETWORK
resistors of 20-percent tolerance are adequate.
Filters and level-measuring arrangements are not
included in this simple circuit.
T1 - Line to voice coil; primary 1000 ohms,
~~
secondary 4 ohms, such as Allied 6W3HFL or Fig. 15F-5 - Balancing network. Rl is a wire-
equiv. wound control. Cl and Rl should balance a voice
T2 - Audio; primary 1000 ohms, secondary as coupler; typical values are 470 ohms and .04 pF.
appropriate to match transmitter input impe- C2 is ordinarily not used, but values in the order of
dance. 1 to 4 J.lF may be required with unattended
21 - Balancing network. See Fig. 15F-5 and text. interconnection devices.
Phone Patching 479
(tJse appropriate impedance mtio) TABLE II
411:400011

Maximum Permissible Energy Levels at the Input

of a Voice Interconnection Arrangement
Freq. Band Maximum Level
Direct current 0.5 milliampere
TO
LINE FILTER Voice range Voice coupler: -3 dBm.
AND VOICE (nominally Other arrangements: 9 dB below 1 mW
L--=----j---Ilr--<> COUPLER 300 to 3000 Hz) (levels avaraged over 3 seconds, see
note.)
TO
TRANSMITTER 2450 to Preferably no energy; in no case greater
AUDIO INPUT
2750 Hz than the level present simultaneously
in the 800- to 2450-Hz band.
Fig. 15F-6 - Hybrid circuit made with a single
audio transformer. 3995 to 18 dB below the voice-band level.
T1 - Windings designated "B" and "C" should be of 4005 Hz
about 900 ohms impedance each. Winding "A"
may be of higher impedance if the 2600-Hz 4.0 to 10.0 kHz 16 dB below one milliwatt (-16 dBm).
filter is used; a lower impedance may be used to 10.0 to 25.0 kHz -24 dBm
match the receiver if a 2600-Hz filter is not 25.0 to 40.0 kHz -36 dBm
needed. Above 40.0 kHz -50 dBm
21 - Balancing network. See Fig. 15F-5 and text.
22 - 2600-Hz filter (C1, L1, and R1 of Fig. 15F-3). NOTE: The above limits should be met with amateur-
provided equipment having an internal impedance of 900
ohms if it is to work into a voice coupler, or 600 ohms if
other arrangements are to be used.

tion between elements) is shown later in this chap-

ter. pulses to the telephone line. The system may be
Filters arranged so that the base transmitter carries both
sides of the conversation or only the voice of the
Standards have been established for the distant telephone user. Switching of the patch's
maximum signal levels that can be connected to voice path between the transmitter and the receiver
the input of a coupler or other interconnection could be done under the control of tones or a
device. They are listed in Table II. The limits of carrier-operated relay. A simple combining circuit
out-of-band energy are best met by using a may be used if both sides of the conversation are
low-pass line filter. Located between the coupler to be put out over the air. To equalize audio levels,
and the hybrid it will protect the line and also a wide-range agc amplifier might have to be
band-limit line signals to the transmitter. Filters of provided, or an attenuator in the transmitter audio
several types (image parameter, elliptic function, line would have to be switched in and out. A
and so on) may be used. The filter should be of 60()'
or 900-0hm impedance (depending on the
interface), passing frequencies below 3 kHz with PROTECTIVE CONNECT ON
EQUIPMENT BLOCK
losses rising rapidly above that point; a rejection
CT
notch should be provided at 4 kHz.
TRANSM ISS ION
In the long distance network the telephone CR ) CIRCUIT,2-WAV
system uses 2600 Hz as a "disconnect" signal. If .----+--+-0--t+- i!= 600 it
patched calls are made to telephone offices distant CRVI
LINE TO
from your own, the need for filtering at that TEL. CO. TOLL CALL} AVAILABLE
CRV2 INDICATOR ONLY WITH
OFFICE )
frequency can best be judged by experience. The RELAY CIRCUIT PBX TRUNKS
5830 OHMS
filter can be made switchable, if desired. The best
location for a 2600-Hz rejection filter is at the 24V----a-----l--t~-tir__=_- OFF HOOK

receiver ou tpu 1. .---+--HH-r+-'--.....l;L DIAL PULSI NG

1I7V AC
INCOMING (RINGING)
REPEATER PATCHES
Some interesting phone-patch possibilities exist
1
I
SIGNAL INDICATION

at repeaters. Unattended interconnection devices

TEL CO AMATEUR PROVIDED
are associated with the repeaters to provide a form LOCAL PROVII;ED~
of mobile telephone service for the clubs operating GROUND
them. The connections to a typical unattended [IndiCates a normall:! open contact
interface device are shown in Fig. 15F-7.
Suitable signals generated in mobile units work Fig. 15F-7 - Interconnection diagram for a Bell
through a base station to activate the intercon- CDS coupler, representative of connections to
nection device, causing it to connect and pass dial unattended interface devices.
 480 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
hybrid circuit could be used in this case but the coupled from the receiver to the telephone line
retransmitted audio from the mobile unit would (Rl) and from the telephone line to the trans-
not be as free from distortion as with the combin- mitter speech amplifier (R3).
ing arrangement. MI is a modified Calectro model 01-930 "VU"
Some telephone lines and interface devices can meter, as shown in Fig. 2. In early models, the
be arranged to signal the fact that a toll call has existing 7,000-ohm multiplier resistor must be
been diaIed. Such a signal might be used to replaced by a 365-ohm I-percent precision resistor.
disconnect the phone patch if the repeater owners Later models, which may be identified by the
do not want long distance calls to be made. Clubs letter A appearing in a circle near the bottom of
would probably want to control access to the the meter-scale card, are supplied with a 300-ohm
patch in any case, as they would be responsible for resistor which need not be changed. Damping
all telephone service charges, even if the calls were capacitors must be added across the meter coil,
not made by their members. observing proper polarity. For early models of the
01-930 meter, the correct capacitance value is 300
A HYBRID PHONE PATCH pF; for later models with the circled A appearing
on the meter-scale card, the required value is 400
The photographs and Fig. 1 show a deluxe pF. These values apply only to this particular make
2-transformer hybrid phone patch for home con- and models of meter. The modified meter responds
struction. Some form of hybrid circuit is necessary to speech signals of 3 kHz or less in a way that
if VOX control of the transmitter is to be used. A compares very closely with the measuring sets
third transformer matches the 3.2-ohm output of mentioned in the Bell interface specifications.
the receiver. A 2600-Hz filter is provided in the Error should be less than 1 dB and should be found
line from the receiver to reduce the possibility of to be on the safe side. The meter, as modified, has
unwanted disconnections resulting from hetero- a I-kHz impedance of approximately 6500 ohms.
dyning sjgnals during use over long-distance tele- It should be mounted only on a nonferrous panel.
phone lines. The filter may be switched out for
local calls for a slight improvement in voice fidelity Construction
from the received signal to the telephone line. A
modified VU meter indicates the levels received The component layout for the phone patch is
from and applied to the telephone line entering the not critical, and any of several construction tech-
amateur station. This phone-patch unit can be niques is quite acceptable. In the model photo-
duplicated for approximately $35 if all com- graphed all components except the modified
ponents are purchased new, but the use of surplus meter, controls, and phono jacks were mounted on
or "bargain" components, especially transformers, a piece of circuit-board material. The balance
will greatly reduce the cost. control was mounted on the front panel, but this is
The circuit of the phone-patch unit is shown in a "set once and forget" control so some builders
Fig. 1. CI, Ll, and R2 form the 2600-Hz receiver- may wish to include it inside the enclosure. An
line filter. Its insertion loss at 1000 Hz is negligible, etched pattern in the copper foil provides a few of
but is in excess of 15 dB at 2600 Hz. T2 and T3 the circuit interconnections, but most connections,
are the hybrid transformers, with C3 and R5 iIicluding all those to the two hybrid transformers,
provided to balance the network. Independent are made with point-to-point wiring. The UTC
level adjustments are provided for the signal transformers specified have mounting studs affixed
to the top of the case, and these are used to mount
the transformers in an inverted position on the
circuit board. This same construction idea can be
used with perforated phenolic board and point-to-
point wiring for all components, instead of an
etched circuit board.
The only precaution to observe during con-
struction is to keep 13 insulated from chassis
~ound, to reduce rf coupling into the telephone
line. In the model photographed this was done by
drilling a 1/2-inch hole in the rear panel where 13
was to be mounted, and then, with machine
screws, fastening a small piece of phenolic board to
cover the hole. Next 13 was mounted on the
phenolic board, centered in the hole. Some types
of phono jacks come supplied with phenolic
mounting material, and if the clearance hole is
large enough these types may be mounted directly
on a metal panel without grounding the outer
The phone patch unit is built into a homemade contact.
aluminum enclosure measuring 3 X 3 X 6 inches. A
coating of spray-on enamel, rubber feet, and Adjustment
wet-transfer decal labels plus shiny knobs give the
unit a professional appearance. This unit was If one has access to an accurately calibrated
constructed by Wl NPG. audio signal generator or to an electronic fre-
Phone Patching 481

L1 - Surplus 88-mH toroidal inductor, connected

Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the phone-patch with half-windings in series aiding.
circuit. Resistances are in ohms, k = 1000. Fixed M1 - Calectro 01-930 VU meter, modified. See
resistors may be 1/2 watt, 10 percent tolerance. text and Fig. 2.
Capacitance is in microfarads. Components not R1, R3 - 5000-ohm audio-taper control (Mallory
listed below are identified for text reference. U12 or equiv.).
C1 - Capacitors in parallel to give required value R5 - 1000-ohm linear-taper control (Mallory U4
of .0427 J1F; low-voltage metallized paper or or equiv.).
Mylar are suitable. T1 - Audio transformer, 4 or 8 ohms to 4000
C3 - Typical value, .04 J1F. See text and Fig. ohms (UTC SO-lO or equiv.).
15F-5 if hybrid network cannot be balanced. T2, T3 - Audio transformer, 2500-ohm split
J1, J2, J3 - Phono jack. J3 should be insulated primary, 1000-ohm split secondary (UTC 0-19
from chassis. or equiv.l.

quency counter he may wish to check the notch receiver. Most operators prefer to disconnect or
frequency of the 2600-Hz filter, although this step disable the speaker, however, and to connect the
is not essential. The frequency may be adjusted by patch directly to the speaker-output terminals of
using various combinations of fixed-value capaci- the receiver. The switching to and from phone-
tors for C I until the notch appears at exactly 2600 patch station operation is generally done in suit-
Hz. In the model photographed stock-value capaci- able control circuits which may be included in the
tors, selected at random to provide the specified phone-patch enclosure itself, if desired. Operating
total capacitance for Cl, resuited in a notch with the speaker disconnected will result in a
frequency of 2621 Hz, which is quite acceptable. 3-dB-greater audio signal being fed to the hybrid
Correct adjustment of the balance control, R5, circuit, and monitoring of the receiver audio by the
will facilitate the operation of the transmitter VOX amateur operator may be done through the tele-
circuit by the distant party on the land telephone. phone handset.
Connect all station equipment to place the patch
into operation. Connect a pair of headphones or an
ac voltmeter to the transmitter audio circuit. If a T
PH 8NE \. I V~~E
sensitive ac VTVM is available, one which will PATCH D--f-_ _ _ _ _...._ _---OCOUPLER
measure in the millivolt range, it may be connected
directly to the output from 12, in parallel with the R1
line connected to the transmitter. Establish a
phone call and connect the phone patch to the
voice coupler. Tune in a clear voice signal on the
receiver, and adjust R5 for the best null of the
received signal as monitored in the transmitter
audio section. If the null does not occur within the
range of R5, experimentally try different capaci-
tance values for C3 and a larger value for R5 Fig. 2 - Schematic diagram of the modified
Calectro 01-930 VU meter and its connections to a
(connect a fixed-value resistor in series with R5 to phone-patch circuit. Component values are differ-
obtain a higher equivalent value). With R5 properly ent for early production models. See text for
adjusted, the distant party should be able to trip information on identifying a particular meter.
the transmitter VOX circuit satisfactorily even R1 - In 01-930, 365-ohm 1-percent tolerance
though no anti-trip connection is used from the precision wire-wound resistor to replace original
receiver. With such a connection made, VOX 7000-ohm resistor. In 01-930A, original 300-
operation will be quite reliable. ohm resistor.
C1 - Added capacitance; in 01-930, 300 J1F, and
Installation and Operation in 01-930A, 400 J1F. Consists of three or four
100-J1F 6-V electrolytic capacitors connected in
The receiver input to the phone-patch unit may parallel.
be taken in parallel with the speaker leads from the Zl - Part of original meter circuit.
 482 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
louder simply by reducing the level of audio being
sent to him. The speech level should never be
permitted to exceed the ZERO or "100%" point
on the 01-930 meter scale,or -2 VU on the DI-930A
scale. When the telephone connection is made to a
nearby point (such as a line served out of the same
telephone building as the patched line), the distant
listener will receive a more comfortable listening
level if the maximum signal is held to about -7 on
the meter scale (-9 on the DI-930A).
Many times when phone-patch operation is
heard over the air, the transmitted voice quality of
the distant land-telephone party seems to be as
good as if he were speaking directly into the
station microphone. Occasionally, however, signals
will be heard with an undue amount of power-line-
frequency hum present on the signal. Of course the
quality and level of the -voice signal coming in on
The layout of the phone-patch components is not the telephone line plays an important part in how
critical. The two hybrid-network transformers are that voice signal sounds over the air, but sometimes
visible to the right of center, and in the upper left a hum problem can be traced directly to the
corner of the circuit board the receiver matching installation of the phone-patch equipment. In
transformer may be seen. Two damping capacitors
added during modification of the Calectro DI- particular, the phone patch (and the voice coupler)
930A meter are visible atop the meter case; two should be located away from power supply trans-
more are hidden beneath the meter. formers in station equipment. Complete magnetic
shielding may not exist even with steel enclosures
The level of signal being fed from the receiver for power supplies. If other equipment is mounted
to the telephone line during reception may be nearby, the 60-Hz field can induce hum into the
adjusted either with Rl or with the receiver audio transformers of the phone patch. Hum problems of
gain control. Similarly, the level of audio being fed this sort can usually be solved simply by relocating
to the transmitter from the telephone line during the position of the phone-patch unit.
transmission may be adjusted with R3 and with the During operation of a phone patch in the hf
transmitter microphone gain control. If the distant amateur bands it is considered good practice to
-party on the telephone line is not talking loudly avoid the transmission of operator chatter, dial
enough for proper operation of the transmitter, tones, dial pulses, ringing and busy signals, as they
remember that often he can be made to speak are not essential to communications.

Appendix
Signals and Circuit Conditions Used in the Telephone System

1) The status of a local telephone line (idle or 3) The standards for tone "dialing" are as
busy) is indicated by on-hook or off-hook signals follows:
as follows: a) Each digit is represented by a unique pair
On-Hook Minimum dc resistance between tip of tones as shown below.
and ring conductors of 30,000 ohms.
Digit Low tone High tone
Off-Hook Maximum dc resistance between tip
and ring conductors of 200 ohms.
1 697 and 1209 Hz
2 697 and 1336 Hz
Telephone sets give an off-hook condition at all 3 697 and 1477 Hz
times from the answer or origination of a call to its 4 770 and 1209 Hz
completion. The only exception to this is during 5 770 and 1336 Hz
dial pulsing.
6 770 and 1477 Hz
7 852 and 1209 Hz
2) Dial pulses consist of momentary opens in 8 852 and 1336 Hz
the loop; dial pulses should meet the following 9 852 and 1477 Hz
standards: o 941 and 1336 Hz
941 and 1209 Hz
Pulsing rate 10 pulses/second ± 10%
Pulse Shape 58% to 64% break (open)
# 941 and 1477 Hz
Interdigital time 600 milliseconds minimum b) In order for the central-office receiver to
register the digit properly, the tone-address
Note: Two pulses indicate the digit "2," three signals must meet the following requirements:
pulses indicate the digit "3," and so on, up to ten, (1) Signal levels:
indicating the digit "0." Nominal level per frequency: -6 to -4
Appendix 483
dBm. Minimum level per frequency: Low ers, from the time that the first frequency
Group, -10 dBm; High Group, -8 dBm. begins.
Max, level per frequency pair: +2 dBm. (6) Pulsing Rate: Minimum duration of
Max, difference in levels between frequen- two-frequency tone signal: 50 ms normally;
cies: 4 dB. 90 ms if transmitted by radio. Minimum
(2) Frequency deviation: ± 1.5 percent of interdigital time: 45 ms.
the values given above. (?) Tone leak during signal off time should
(3) Extraneous frequency components: The be less than -55 dBm.
total power of all extraneous frequencies (8) Transient Voltages: Peak transient volt-
accompanying the signal should be at least ages generated during tone signaling should
20 dB below the signal power, in the voice be no greater than 12 dB above the zero-to-
band above 500 Hz. peak voltage of the composite two-
frequency tone signa\.
4) Audible tones will be used in the telephone
(4) Voice Suppression: Voice energy from
system to indicate the progress or disposition of a
any source should be suppressed at least 45
dB during tone signal transmission. In the call. These include:
case of automatic dialing the suppression a) Dial tone: 350 and 440 Hz.
should be maintained continuously until b) Line busy: 480 and 620 Hz, interrupted at
pulsing is completed. 60 interruptions per minute (I/min).
c) Reorder (all trunks busy): 480 and 620
(5) Rise Time: Each of the two frequencies Hz, interrupted at 120 I/min.
of the signal should attain at least 90 d) Audible ringing: 440 and 480 Hz, 2
percent of full amplitude within 5 ms, and seconds on, 4 seconds off.
preferably within 3 ms for automatic dial- e) Reserved high tone: 1633 Hz.
f) Invalid dialing code: Voice announcement.

Bibliography

Source material and more extended discussions AMATEUR TELEVISION

of topics covered in this chapter can be found in the
references given below. This listing does not Campbell, "Amateur TV - The Easy Way," QST,
include every article published in QST on the November, 1962.
subjects of this chapter, however. A detaIled Keller, "An Amateur Television Camera," QST,
bibliography of references in QST on any of the November, 1953.
subjects amateur television, slow-scan television, Tilton, "Amateur Television - A Progress Report,"
radioteletype, phone patching, Oscar and moon- QST, June, 1950 ..
bounce, will be sent on request to ARRL, SLOW-SCAN TELEVISION
Newington, CT 06111. Please enclose a business-
Briles and Gervenack, "Slow-Scan TV Viewing
size stamped self-addressed envelope. Adapter for Oscilloscopes," QST, June, 1970.
RADIOTELETYPE Macdonald, "S.C.F.M. - An Improved System for
Slow-Scan Image Transmission," Part I, "Slow-
Antanaitis, "A Simple Two-Transistor A.F .S.K. Scan Modulation Tests and Proposed Stan-
Generator," QST, September, 1969. dards," QST, Jan. 1961, and Part II, "Circuit
Craig, "Teleprinter Selector Magnets," Technical Details," QST, Feb. 1961; "A New Narrow-
Correspondence, QST, September, 1971. Band Image Transmission System," Part I,
Drake, "An Audio Synthesizer - A Device to "Principles of Slow Scan Picture Reproduc-
Generate RTTY Tones with Crystal-Controlled tion," QST, August 1958, and Part II, "Circuit
Accuracy," QST April, 1972. and Construction Details," QST, Sept. 1958;
Hall, "Frequency Shift Keying the Johnson "A Slow-Scan Vidicon Camera," in three parts,
Ranger, Valiant, Navigator," RTTY Journal, QST, June, July and Aug. 1965.
Jan. 1968; "What is RTTY?," QST, Dec. 1968. Tschannen, "A Solid-State SSTV Monitor," QST,.
Hoff, "Transmitting Radioteletype," QST, May, March, 1971.
1965; "Audio Frequency-Shift Keying for
RTTY," QST, June, 1965; "The Mainline TT/L PHONE PATCHING
F.S.K. Demodulator," QST, August, 1965; "The Berry, "Legalize Your Phone Patch," QST, May
Mainline ST-3 RTTY Demodulator," QST, 1969; "An Improved Phone Patch," Hints and
April, 1970. Kinks, QST, Nov. 1970.
Petersen, "The Mainline TT/L-2 F.S.K. Demodula- Hoff, "Stopping Telephone Interference," QST,
tor," Part I, "Construction and Adjustment," March, 1968.
QST, May, 1969, and Part II, "Circuit Descrip- Schleicher, "Phone Patching - Legitimately,"
tion, and the Mainline F.S.K. Keyer," QST, QST, March, 1969; "Phone Patching - One
June, 1969. Year Later," QST, Nov., 1970; "Measuring
Schecter, "First Steps in RTTY," QST, June, Phone-Patch Levels Accurately," QST, Feb-
1971. ruary, 1972.
 Chapter 16

Interference with other

Services
Every amateur has the obligation to make sure Act Promptly
that the operation of his station does not, because
of any shortcomings in equipment, cause interfer- The average person will tolerate a limited
ence with other radio and audio services. It is amount of interference, but the sooner you take
unfortunately true that much of the interference steps to eliminate it, the more agreeable the
that amateurs cause to broadcast and television listener will be; the longer he has to wait for you,
reception is directly the fault of bc, hi-fi, and TV the less willing he will be to cooperate.
receiver construction. Nevertheless, the amateur
can and should help to alleviate interference even Present Your Story Tactfully
though the responsibility for it does not lie with
him. When you interfere, it is natural for the
Successful handling of interference cases complainant to assume that your transmitter is at
requires winning the listener's cooperation. Here fault. If you are certain that the trouble is not in
are a few pointers on how to go about it. your transmitter, explain to the listener that the
reason lies in the receiver design, and that some
Oean House First modifications may have to be made in the receiver
The first step obviously is to make sure that the if he is to expect interference-free reception.
transmitter has no radiations outside the bands
assigned for amateur use. The best check on this is Arrange for Tests
your own a-m or TV receiver. It is always Most listeners are not very competent observers
convincing if you can demonstrate that you do not of the various aspects of interference. If at all
interfere with reception in your own home. possible, enlist the help of another amateur and
have him operate your transmitter while you see
Don't Hide Your Identity for yourself what happens at the affected receiver.
Whenever you make equipment changes - or
shift to a hitherto unused band or type of emission In General
- that might be expected to change the In this "public relations" phase of the problem
interference situation, check with your neighbors. a great deal depends on your own attitude. Most
If no one is experiencing interference, so much the people will be willing to meet you half way,
better; it does no harm to keep the neighborhood particularly when the interference is not of long
aware of the fact that you are operating without standing, if you as a person make a good
bothering anyone. impression. Your personal. appearance is important.
Should you change location, announce your So is what you say about the receiver -- no one
presence and conduct occasional tests on the air, takes kindly to hearing his possessions derided. If
requesting anyone whose reception is being spoiled you discuss your interference problems on the air,
to let you know about it so steps may be taken to do it in a constructive way - one calculated to
eliminate the trouble. increase listener cooperation, not destroy it.

INTERFERENCE WITH STANDARD BROADCASTING

Interference with a-m broadcasting usually falls key clicks in cw transmitters and "splashes" or
into one or more rather well-defined categories. An "burps" on modulation peaks in a-m transmitters.
understanding of the general types of interference Methods for detecting and eliminating parasitics
will avoid much cut-and-try in finding a cure. are discussed in the transmitter chapter.
In cw transmitters the sharp make and break
Transmitter Defects that occurs with unfiltered keying causes transients
Out-of-band radiation is something that must that, in theory, contain frequency components
be cured at the transmitter. Parasitic oscillations through the entire radio spectrum. Practically, they
are a frequently unsuspected source of such are often strong enough in the immediate vicinity
radiations, and no transmitter can be considered of the transmitter to cause serious interference to
satisfactory until it has been thoroughly checked broadcast reception. Key clicks can be eliminated
for both low- and high-frequency parasitics. Very by the methods detailed in the chapter on keying.
often parasitics show up only as transients, causing Non-linear operation of the final amplifier in an

484
Interference with Broadcasting 485
ssb transmitter, or ovennodulation in an a-m Cross-Modulation
transmi tter can cause transients similar to key
clicks. It is important that either of these types of With phone transmitters, there are occasionally
transmitters should be tuned up properly to avoid cases where the voice is heard whenever the
the generation of such spurious signals. In the case broadcast receiver is tuned to a bc station, but
of ssb operation, the interference will not be there is no interference when tuning between
intelligible at the bc set. A-m operation can stations. This is cross-modulation, a result of
produce readable interference. Methods for check- rectification in one of the early stages of the
ing for correct operation of an ssb or a-m receiver. Receivers that are susceptible to this
transmitter are described in Chapters 12 and 13, trouble usually also get a similar type of
respectively. interference from regular broadcasting if there is a
BCI is frequently made worse by radiation from strong local bc station and the receiver is tuned to
the power wiring or the rf transmission line. This is some other station.
because the signal causing the interference, in such The remedy for cross modulation in the
cases, is radiated from wiring that is nearer the receiver is the same as for images and oscilla tor-
broadcast receiver than the antenna itself. Much harmonic response - reduce the strength of the
depends on the method used to couple the amateur signal at the receiver by means of a line
transmitter to the antenna, a subject that is filter.
discussed in the chapters on transmission lines and The trouble is not always in the receiver, since
antennas. If it is at all possible the antenna itself cross modulation can occur in any nearby
should be placed so that it is not in close proximity rectifying circuit - such as a poor contact in \\ater
to house wiring, telephone and power lines, and or steam piping, gutter pipes, and other conductors
similar conductors. in the strong field of the transmitting antenna -
external to both receiver and transmitter. Locating
The BCSet the cause may be difficult, and is best attempted
Most present day receivers use solid-state active with a battery-operated portable broadcast receiver
components, rather than tubes. A large number of used as a "probe" to find the spot where the
the receivers in use are battery powered. This is to interference is most intense. When such a spot is
the amateur's advantage because much of the bc located, inspection of the metal structures in the
interference an amateur encounters is because of ac vicinity should indicate the cause. The remedy is to
line pickUp. In the case where the bc receiver is make a good electrical bond between the two
powered from the ac line, whether using tube or conductors having the poor contact.
solid-stage components, the amount of rf pickup
must be reduced or eliminated. A line filter such as Handling BCI Cases
is shown in Fig. 16-1 often will help accomplish Assuming that your transmitter has been
this. The values used for the coils and capacitors checked and found to be free from spurious
are in general not critical. The effectiveness of the radiations, get another amateur to operate your
filter may depend considerably on the ground station, if possible, while you make the actual
connection used, and it is advisable to use a short check on the interference yourself. The following
procedure should be used. ~.
Tune the receiver through the broadcast band,
to see whether the interference tunes like a regular
bc station. If so, image or oscillator-harmonic
Ui
response is the cause. If there is interference only
when a bc station is tuned in, but not between
stations, the cause is cross modulation. If the
interference is heard at all settings of the tuning
dial, the trouble is pickup in the audio circuits. In
the latter case, the receiver's volume control may
or may not affect the strength of the interference,
Fig. 16-1 - "Brute-force" ac line filter for depending on the means by which your signal is
receivers. The values of C1, C2 and C3 are not being rectified.
generally critical; capacitances from .001 to .01 /IF Having identified the cause, explain it to the set
can be used. L1 and L2 can be a 2·inch winding of owner. It is a good idea to have a line filter with
No. 18 enameled wire on a half-inch diameter you, equipped with enough cord to replace the
form. In making up such a unit for use external to set's line cord, so it can be tried then and there. If
the receiver, make sure that there are no exposed
conductors to offer a shock hazard. it does not eliminate the interference, explain to
the set owner that there is nothing further that can
be done without modifying the receiver. Recom-
ground lead to a cold-water pipe if at all possible. mend that the work be done by a competent
The line cord from the set should be bunched up, service technician, and offer to advise the service
to minimize the possibility of pick-up on the cord. man on the cause and remedy. Don't offer to work
It may be necessary to install the filter inside the on the set yourself, but if you are asked to do so
receiver, so that the filter is connected between the use your own judgment about complying; set
line cord and the set wiring, in order to get owners sometimes complain about the overall
satisfactory operation. performance of the receiver afterward, often
486 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES
without justification. If you work on it, take it to chassis. Use .01- to .03-pF disk capacitors from the
your station so the effect of changes you make can speaker terminals directly to chassis ground; see
be seen. Return the receiver promptly when you Fig. 16-2. Try .01 pF and see if that does the job.
have finished. In some amplifiers .03 ~F are required to eliminate
the rf. Be sure to install bypasses on all the speaker
HI-FI INTERFERENCE terminals. In some instances, it may appear that
Since the introduction of stereo and high-fidel- one of each of the individual speaker terminals are
grounded to the chassis. However, some amplifiers
ity receivers, interference to this type of
have the speaker leads above ground on the low
home-entertainment device has become a severe
side, for feedback purposes. If you have a circuit
problem for amateurs. Aside from placing the
diagram of the amplifier you can check, but in the
amateur antenna as far as possible from any hi-fi
absence of a diagram, bypass all the terminals. If
installation, there is little else that can be done at
the amateur's ham shack. Most of the hi-fi gear RFCl

now being sold has little or no filtering to prevent

rf interference. In other words, corrective measures SP!.AKER
~
:tt-I TO OUTPUT
TERMINALS TRANSFORMER
must be done at hi-fi installation.
- -- T C2 ••"
Hi-Fi Gear ~
(A)
Hi-fi gear can consist of a simple amplifier, with
record or tape inputs, and speakers. The more RFC3

~
elaborate installations may have a tape deck,
record player, flI) and a-m tuners, an amplifier, and
two or more speakers. These units are usually
connected together by means of shielded leads. and
At
UNE
rl C4
TOAC
SWITCH

in most cases the speakers are positioned some ~

(B)
distance from the amplifier, via long leads. When
such a setup is operated near an amateur station,
say within a few hundred feet, there are two Fig. 16-3 - At A, the method for additional
important paths through which rf energy can reach speaker filter, and at 8, filtering the ac-line input.
the hi-fi installation to cause interference. I n both cases, these installations should be made
directly inside the amplifier chassis, keeping the
Step number one is to try and determine how leads as short as possible.
the interference is getting into the hi-fi unit. If the C1,C2 - .01-to .03- J.lF disk ceramic.
volume control has no effect on the level of C3, C4 - .01 disk ceramic, ac type.
interference or very slight effect, the audio RFC1 through RFC4 - 24 turns No. 18
rectification of the amateur signal is taking place enamel-covered wire, close-spaced and wound
past the volume control, or on the output end of on a 1/4-inch diameter form (such as a pencil).
the amplifier. This is by far the most common
you can get into the amplifier, you can use the
type. It usually means that the amateur signal is system shown in Fig. 16-3A.
being picked up on the speaker leads, or possibly
In this system, two rf chokes are installed in
on the ac line, and is then being fed back into the
series with the speaker leads from the output
amplifier.
transformers, or amplifier output, to the speakers.
These chokes are simple to make and help keep rf
out of the amplifier. In partiCUlarly stubborn cases,
shielded wire can be used for the speaker leads,
grounding the shields at the amplifier chassis, and
still using the bypasses on the terminals. When
grounding, all chassis used in the hi-fi installation
should be bonded together and connected to a
good earth ground (such as a water pipe) if at all
possible. It has been found that grounding
Fig. 16-2 - The disk capacitors should be mounted
directly between the speaker termi nals and chassis sometimes eliminates the interference. On the
ground, keeping the leads as short as possible. other hand, don't be discouraged if grounding
doesn't appear to help. Even with the bypassing
Experience has shown that most of the rf gets and filtering grounding may make the difference.
into the audio system via the speaker leads or the Fig. 16-3B shows the method for filtering the
ac line, mostly the speaker leads. The amateur may ac line at the input of the amplifier chassis. The
fmd that on testing, the interference will only choke dimensions are the same as those given in
show up on one or two bands, or all of them. In Fig. 16-3A. Be sure that the bypasses are rated for
hi-fi installations speakers are sometimes set up ac because the dc types have been known to short
quite some distance from the amplifier. If the out.
speaker leads happen to be resonant near an
amateur band in use, there is likely to be an Antenna Pickup
interference problem. The speaker lead will act as a If the hi-fi setup includes an fm installation,
resonant antenna and pick up the rf. One easy cure and many of them do, there is the possibility of rf
is to bypass the speaker terminals at the amplifier getting into the audio equipment by way of the fm
Hi-Fi Interference 487
antenna. Chances for this method of entry are very available. Disk capacitors (.001J.LF) should be used
good and precautions should be taken here to as close to the cartridge or pickup head as possible.
prevent the rf from getting to the equipment. A Keep the capacitor leads as short as possible.
TV-type high-pass fIlter can prove effective in some
cases. Preamplifiers
There are usually one or more preamplifiers
PREAMPLI FI ER used in a hi-fi amplifier. The inputs to these stages
RFC5
can be very susceptible to RFI. Fig. 16-4 illustrates
--- - tB
a typical preamplifier circuit. In this case the leads
to the bases of the transistors are treated for RFI
with ferrite beads by the addition of RFC2 and
RFC4. This is a very effective method for stopping
RFI when vhf energy is the source of the trouble.
Within the circuit of a solid-state audio system,
a common offender can be the emitter-base junc-
tion of a transistor. This junction operates as a
forward-biased diode, with the bias set so that a
change of base current with signal will produce a
linear but amplified change in collector current.
Should rf energy reach the junction, the bias could
increase, causing nonlinear amplification and dis-
tortion as the result. If the rf level is high it can
completely block (saturate) a transistor, causing a
complete loss of gain. Therefore, it may be
necessary to reduce the transmitter power output
Fig. 16-4 - Typical circuit of a solid-state in order to pinpoint the particular transistor stage
preamplifier.
that is affected.
In addition to adding ferrite beads it may be
necessary to bypass the base of the transistor to
Turntables and Tape Decks
chassis ground, Cl and C2, Fig. 16-4. A suitable
In the more elaborate hi-fi setups, there may be value is 100 pF, and keep the leads short! As a
several assemblies connected together by means of general rule, the capacitor value should be as large
patch cords. It is a good idea when checking for as possible without degrading the high-frequency
RFI to disconnect the units, one at a time, response of the amplifier. Values up to .001J.LF can
observing any changes in the interference. Not only be used. In severe cases, a series inductor (RFC I
disconnect the patch cords connecting the pieces and RFC3) may be required, Ohmite Z-50 or
together, but also unplug the ac line cord for each Z-144, or their equivalents (7 and 1.8 pH respec-
item as you make the test. This will help you tively). Fig. 16-4 shows the correct placement for
determine which section is the CUlprit. an inductor, bypass capacitor, and ferrite bead.
Patch cords are usually, but not always, made Also, it might help to use a ferrite bead in the
of shielded cable. The lines should be shielded, plus-B lead to the preamplifier stages (RFC5 in Fig.
which brings up another point. Many commercially 16-4). Keep in mind that Fig. 16-4 represents only
available patch cords have poor shields. Some have one preamplifier of a stereo set. Both channels may
wire spirally wrapped around the insulation, co- require treatment.
vering the main lead, rather than braid. This
method provides poor shielding and could be the FM Tuners
reason for RFI problems. There is often an fm tuner used in a hi-fi
Record-player tone-arm connections to the installation. Much of the interference to tuners is
cartridge are usually made with small clips. The caused by fundamental overloading of the first
existence of a loose clip, particularly if oxidation is stage (or stages) of the tuner, effected by the
present, offers an excellent invitation to RFI. Also, amateur's signal. The cure is the installation of a
the leads from the cartridge and those to the high-pass fIlter, the same type used for TVI. The
amplifier are sometimes resonant at vhf, providing filter should be installed as close as possible to the
an excellent receiving antenna for rf. One cure for antenna input of the tuner. The high-pass fIlter will
unwanted rf pickup is to install ferrite beads, one attenuate the amateur jimdamental signal, thus
on each cartridge lead. Check all patch-cord con- preventing overloading of the front end.
nections for looseness or poor solder joints. In-
ferior connections can cause rectification and Shielding
subsequent RFI.
Tape decks should be treated the same as Lack of shielding on the various components in
turntables. Loose connections and bad solder joints a hi-fi installation can permit rf to get into the
all can cause trouble. Ferrite beads can be slipped equipment. Many units have no bottom plates, or
over the leads to the recording and play-back are installed in plastic cases. One easy method of
pickup heads. Bypassing of the tone-arm or providing shielding is to use aluminum foil. Make
pickup-head leads is also effective, but sometimes sure the foil doesn't short circuit the components,
it is difficult to install capacitors in the small area and connect it to chassis ground.
488 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES
MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF may be necessary. But first, it is suggested that the
INTERFERENCE telephones be modified.
Since there are several different series of
The operation of amateur phone transmitters phones, they will be discussed separately:
occasionally results in interference on telephone 500 series - These are the desk and wall phones
lines and in audio amplifiers used in public-address most commonly in use. They come in several
work, plus other audio devices. The cause is different configurations, but all use a 425-series
rectification of the signal in an audio circuit. compensation network. The letter designation can
be A, B, C, D, E, F, G, or K, and all these networks
Organs contain varistors. The network should be replaced
with a 425J, in which the varistors are replaced by
An RFI problem area is the electronic organ.
resistors. Also, .01-J.lF disk-ceramic capacitors
All of the techniques outlined for hi-fi gear hold
should be placedacross the receiver suppressor. The
true in getting rid of RFI in an organ. Two points
suppressor is a diode across the receiver terminals.
should be checked - the speaker leads and the ac
line. Many organ manufacturers have special ser- The carbon microphone in the handset should be
vicemen's guides for taking care of RFI. However, bypassed with a .01-J.lF ceramic capacitor.
to get this information you or the organ owner Series 1500, 1600, 1700 - These are the
must contact the manufacturer, not the dealer or "Touch-Tone" phones, and the cure is similar to
distributor. Don't accept the statement from a that for the 500 series, except that the network is'a
dealer or serviceman that there is nothing that can 4010B or D, and should be replaced with a 401OE.
be done about the interference. Trimline series - These are the "Princess" series
phones. The practices manual says that these
P-A Systems should be modified by installing bypass capacitors
across all components in the set that may act as
The cure for RFI in p-a systems is almost the demodulators. This statement is rather vague, but
same as that for hi-fi gear. The one thing to watch evidently a solution is known to the telephone
for is rf on the leads that connect the various company for these sets.
stations in a p-a system together. These leads At the end of section 500-150-100 is an
should be treated the same as speaker leads and ordering guide for special components and sets, as
bypassing and filtering should be done at both follows:
ends of the lines. Also, watch for ac-line pickup of Ordering Guide:
rf. Capacitor, 40BA
Inductor, 1542A
Telephone Interference -49 Gray, -50 Ivory
Telephone interference may be cured by con- Set, Telephone, -rf Modified
necting a bypass capacitor (about .001 J.lF) across Set, Telephone Hand, 220A, -rf Modified
the microphone unit in the telephone handset. The Set, Telephone Hand, 2220B, -rf Modified
telephone companies have capacitors for this pur- Set, Hand G, -rf Modified
pose. When such a case occurs, get in touch with Dial - (Touch-Tone dial only) -rf Modified.
the repair department of the phone company, The type "G" Handset is the one used with the
giving the particulars. Section 500-150-100 of the 500 and Touch-Tone series phones. Also, Mountain
Bell System Practices Plant Series gives detailed Bell has put out an "Addendum 500-150-l00MS
instructions. This section discusses causes and cures Issue A, January 1971" to the practices manual:
of telephone interference from radio signals. It which states that items for rf modified phones
points out that interference can come from cor- should be ordered on nonstock Form 3218, as
roded connections, un terminated loops, and other follows:
sources. It correctly points out that that rf can be (Telephone Set type)
picked up on the drop wire coming into the house, Modified for BSP 500-150-100
and also on the wiring within the house, but for Radio Signal Suppression
(usually) the detection of the rf occurs inside the
phone. The detection usually takes place at the The FCC
varistors in the compensation networks, and/or at The Field Engineering Bureau of the FCC has a
the receiver noise suppressor and the carbon bulletin that will be of help to the amateur in cases
microphone. But interference suppression should involving RFI to audio devices. These bulletins are
be handled two ways: prevent the rf from getting available from any of the field offices. The bulletin
to the phone, and prevent it from being rectified. is addressed to the users of hi-fi, record players
The telephone companies (Bell System) have public-address systems, and telephones. It clearl;
two devices for this purpose. The first is a 40BA spells out the problem and the obligation of the
capacitor, which is installed at the service entrance owner of such gear.
protector, and the second is the l542A inductor, It is suggested that the amateur obtain copies of
which is installed at the connector block. Ac- this bulletin, which is listed as A ttachment III
cording to the practices manual, the 40BA by- Bulletin, Interference to Audio Devices. When th~
passes rf picked up on the drop wire coming into amateur receives a complaint he can provide the
the house from the phone, and the 1542A sup- complainer with a copy of the bulletin. This
presses rf picked up on the inside wiring. These are approach will help pu t the problem in correct
mentioned because in very stubborn cases they perspective.
VHF Television 489
TELEVISION INTERFERENCE

Interference with the reception of television channels. These spurious radiations cause interfer-
signals usually presents a more difficult problem ence that ordinarily cannot be eliminated by
than interference with a-m broadcasting. In BCI anything that may be done at the receiver, so must
cases the interference almost always can be be prevented at the transmitter itself.
attributed to deficient selectivity or spurious The overall situation is further complicated by
responses in the bc receiver. While similar the fact that television broadcasting is in three
deficiencies exist in many television receivers, it is distinct bands, two in the vhf region and one in the
also true that amateur transmitters generate uhf.
harmonics that fall inside many or all television

VHF TELEVISION
For the amateur who does most of his is quite close to the amateur transmitter.
transmitting on frequencies below 30 MHz, the TV Low-order harmonics - up to about the sixth -
band of principal interest is the low vhf band are usually the most difficult to eliminate.
between 54 and 88 MHz. If harmonic radiation can Of the amateur vhf bands, only 50 MHz will
be reduced to the point where no interference is have harmonics falling in a vhf television channel
caused to Channels 2 to 6, inclusive, it is almost (channels 11, 12 and 13). However, a transmitter
certain that any harmonic troubles with channels for any amateur vhf band may cause interference if
above 174 MHz will disappear also. it has multiplier stages either operating in or having
The relationship between the vhf television harmonics in one or more of the vhf TV channels.
channels and harmonics of amateur bands from 14 the rf energy on such frequencies can be radiated
through 28 MHz is shown in Fig. 16-5. Harmonics directly from the transmitting circuits or coupled
of the 7- and 3.5-MHz bands are not shown by stray means to the transmitting antenna.
because they fall in every television channel.
Frequency Effects
However, the harmonics above 54 MHz from these
bands are of such high order that they are usually The degree to which transmitter harmonics or
rather low in amplitude, although they may be other undesired radiation actually in the TV
strong enough to interfere if the television receiver channel must be suppressed depends principally on

AMATEUR HARMON ICS AMATEUR HARMONICS

tAe. Service 28 Me. 21 Me. ... Me. Me. Servite 20 Me. 21 lAe •
17~

TV. 6
7
r0-
Fig. 16-5 - Relationship of
amateur-band harmonics to vhf
'0o -
TV.
TV channels. Harmonic interfer- e
ence from transmitters operat-
ing below 30 MHz is likely to be
Ie• -
serious in the low-channel group
(54 to 88 MHz).
f- TV.
9 -
II2 f0- g
n:
10
-
-
e fo-
TV.
1\ 7
20A
. fo-
TV.

210 t-
12
- fo-
two factors, the strength of the TV signal on the TV. 10
channel or channels affected, and the relationship 13
I-
between the frequency of the spurious radiation 21.
and the frequencies of the TV picture and sound
carriers within the channel. If the TV signal is very In either case the intensity of the interference
strong, interference can be eliminated by compara- depends very greatly on the exact frequency of the
tively simple methods. However, if the TV signal is interfering signal. Fig. 16-6 shows the placement of
very weak, as in "fringe" areas where the received the picture and sound carriers in the standard TV
picture is visibly degraded by the appearance of set channel. In Channel 2, for example, the picture
noise or "snow" on the screen, it may be necessary carrier frequency is 54 + 1.25 =55.25 MHz and the
to go to extreme measures. sound carrier frequency is 60 - 0.25 = 59.75 MHz.
490 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES

o 1 2 3 4 5 6
MEGACYCLES FROM LOW EDGE OF TV CHANNEL

Fig. 16-6 - Location of picture and sound carriers in a monochrome television channel, and relative
intensity of interference as the location of the interfering signal within the channels is varied without
changing its strength. The three regions are not actually sharply defined as shown in this drawing, but
merge into one another gradually.

The second harmonic of 28.010 kHz (56,020 kHz completely, leaving the screen dark, occurs only
or 56.02 MHz) falls 56.02 - 54 =2.02 MHz above when the transmitter and receiver are quite close
the low edge of the channel and is in the region together. Strong interference ordinarily causes the
marked "Severe" in Fig. 16-6. On the other hand, picture to be broken up, leaving a jumble of light
the second harmonic of 29,500 kHz (59,000 kHz and dark lines, or turns the picture "negative" -
or 59 MHz) is 59 - 54 = 5 MHz from the low edge the normally white parts of the picture turn black
of the channel and falls in the region marked and the normally black parts turn white.
"Mild." Interference at this frequency has to be "Cross-hatching" - diagonal bars or lines in the
about 100 times as strong as at 56,0~0 kHz to picture - accompanies the latter, usually, and also
cause effects of equal intensity. Thus an operating represents the most common type of less severe
frequency that puts a harmonic near the picture interference. The bars are the result of the beat
carrier requires about 40 dB more harmonic between the harmonic frequency and the picture
suppression in order to avoid interference, as carrier frequency. They are broad and relatively
compared with an operating frequency that puts few in number if the beat frequency is
the harmonic near the upper edge of the channel. comparatively low - near the picture carrier - and
For a region of 100 kHz or so either side of the are numerous and very fine if the beat frequency is
sound carrier there is another "Severe" region very high - toward the upper end of the channel.
where a spurious radiation will interfere with Typical cross-hatching is shown in Fig. 16-7. lethe
reception of the sound program and this region frequency falls in the "Mild" region in Fig. 16-6
the cross-hatching may be so fine as to be visible
only on close inspection of the picture, in which
case it may simply cause the apparent brightness of
the screen to change when the transmitter carrier is
thrown on and off.
Whether or not cross-hatching is visible, an
amplitude-modulated transmitter may cause
"sound bars" in the picture. These look about as

Fig. 16·7 - "Cross·hatching," caused by the beat

between the picture carrier and an interfering
signal inside the TV channel.

also should be avoided. In general, a signal of

intensity equal to that of the picture carrier will
not cause noticeable interference if its frequency is
in the "Mild" region shown in Fig. 16-6, but the
same intensity in the "Severe" region will utterly Fig. 16-8 - "Sound bars" or "modulation bars"
destroy the picture. accompanying amplitude modulation of an inter-
fering signal. In this case the interfering carrier is
Interference Patterns strong enough to destroy the picture, but in mild
cases the picture is visible through the horizontal
The visible effects of interference vary with the bars. Sound bars may accompany modulation even
type and intensity of the interference. Complete though the unmodulated carrier gives no visible
"blackout," where the picture and sound disappear cross-hatching.
Reducing Harmonic Generation 491
shown in Fig. 16-8. They result from the variations Circuit Design and Layou t
in the intensity of the interfering signal when
modulated. Under most circumstances modulation Harmonic currents of considerable amplitude
bars will not occur if the amateur transmitter is flow in both the grid and plate circuits of rf power
frequency- or phase-modulated. With these types amplifiers, but they will do relatively little harm if
of modulation the cross-hatching will "wiggle" they can be effectively bypassed to the cathode of
from side to side with the modulation. the tube. Fig. 16-9 shows the paths followed by
harmonic currents in an amplifier circuit; because
Except in the more severe cases, there is seldom
of the high reactance of the tank coil there is little
any effect on the sound reception when interfer-
ence shows in the picture, unless the frequency is harmonic current in it, so the harmonic currents
quite close to the sound carrier. In the latter event
the sound may be interfered with even though the
picture is clean.
Reference to Fig. 16-5 will show whether or
not harmonics of the frequency in use will fall in
any television channels that can be received in the
locality. It should be kept in mind that not only
harmonics of the final frequency may interfere, Fig, 16-9 - A vhf resonant circuit is formed by the
but also harmonics of any frequencies that may be tube capa~itance a,nd the leads through the tank
present in buffer or frequency-multiplier stages. In and blocking capacitors. Regular tank coils are not
the case of 144-MHz transmitters, frequency-multi- shown, since they have little effect on such
~esonances. C1 is the grid tuning capacitor and C2
plying combinations that require a doubler or IS. the plate tuning capacitor. C3 and C4 are the
tripler stage to operate on a frequency actually in a grid a~d plate blocking or bypass capacitors,
low-band vhf channel in use in the locality should respectively.
be avoided. ,
simply flow through the tank capacitor, the plate
Harmonic Suppression (or grid) blocking capacitor, and the tube
Effective harmonic suppression has three capacitances. The lengths of the leads forming
separate phases: these paths is of great importance, since the
1) Reducing the amplitude of harmonics inductance in this circuit will resonate with the
generated in the transmitter. This is a matter of tube capacitance at some frequency in the vhf
circuit design and operating conditions. range (the tank and blocking capacitances usually
2) Preventing stray radiation from the trans- are so large compared with the tube capacitance
mitter and from associated wiring. This requires that they have little effect on the resonant
adequate shielding and filtering of all circuits and frequency). If such a resonance happens to occur
leads from which radiation can take place. at or near the same frequency as one of the
3)· Preventing harmonics from being fed into transmitter harmonics, the effect.is just the same as
the antenna. though a harmonic tank circuit had been
It is impossible to build a transmitter that will deliberately introduced; the harmonic at that
not generate some .harmonics, but it is obviously frequency will be tremendously increased in
advantageous to reduce their strength, by circuit amplitude.
design and choice of operating conditions, by as Such resonances are unavoidable, but by
large a factor as possible before attempting to keeping the path from plate to cathode and from
prevent them from being radiated. Harmonic grid to cathode as short as is physically possible,
radiation from the transmitter itself or from its the resonant frequency usually can be raised above
associated wiring obviously will cause interference 100 MHz in amplifiers of medium power. This puts
just as readily as radiation from the antenna, so it between the two groups of television channels.
measures taken to prevent harmonics from It is easier to place grid-circuit vhf resonances
reaching the antenna will not reduce TVI if the where they will do no harm when the amplifier is
transmitter itself is radiating harmonics. But once link-coupled to the driver stage, since this generally
it has been found that the transmitter itself is free permits shorter leads and more favorable condi-
from harmonic radiation, devices for preventing tions for bypassing the harmonics than is the case
harmonics from reaching the antenna can be with capacitive coupling. Link coupling also
expected to produce results. reduces the coupling between the driver and
amplifier at harmonic frequencies, thus preventing
driver harmonics from being amplified.
The inductance of leads from the tube to the
REDUCING HARMONIC GENERATION tank capacitor can be reduced not only by
Since reasonably efficient operation of rf power shortening but by using flat strip instead of wire
amplifiers always is accompanied by harmonic conductors. It is also better to use the chassis as
generation, good judgment calls for operating all the return from the blocking capacitor or tuned
frequency-multiplier stages at a very low power circuit to cathode, since a chassis path will have
level. When the fmal output frequency is reached, less inductance than almost any other form of
it is desirable to use as few stages as possible in connection.
building up to the fmal output power level, and to The vhf resonance points in amplifier tank
use tubes that require a minimum of driving power. circuits can be found by coupling a grid-dip meter
492 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES
L
covering the 50-250 MHz range to the grid and
plate leads. If a resonance is found in or near a TV
channel, methods such as those described above
should be used to move it well out of the TV TANK
range. The grid-dip meter also should be used to CIRCUIT

check for vhf resonances in the tank coils, because

coils made for 14 MHz and below usually will show
such resonances. In making the check, disconnect
[
the coil entirely from the transmitter and move the
grid-dip meter coil along it while exploring for a
dip in the 54-88-MHz band. If a resonance falls in a L
+
TV channel that is in use in the locality, changing
the number of turns will move it to a
less-troublesome frequency.
TAM<
CIRCUIT
Operating Conditions
Grid bias and grid current have an important
effect on the harmonic content of the rf currents
in both the grid and plate circuits. In general,
[
harmonic ou tpu t increases as the grid bias and grid
current are increased, but this is not necessarily
true of a particular harmonic. The third and higher
harmonics, especially, will go through fluctuations
PUSH-PULL
in amplitude as the grid current is increased, and
sometimes a rather high value of grid current will
.fig. 16-10 - Harmonic traps in an amplifier plate
minimize one harmonic as compared with a low ci rcuit. Land C should resonate at the frequency
value. This characteristic can be used to advantage of the harmonic to be suppressed. C maybe a 25-
where a particular harmonic is causing interference, to 50'pF midget, and L usually consists of 3 to 6
remembering that the operating conditions that turns about 1/2 inch in diameter for Channels 2
minimize one harmonic may greatly increase through 6. The inductance should be adjuued so
another. that the trap resonates at about half capacitance of
For equal operating conditions, there is little or C before being installed in the transmitter. The
frequency may be checked with a grid-dip meter.
no difference between single-ended and push-pull When in place, the trap should be adjusted for
amplifiers in respect to harmonic generation. minimum interference to the TV picture.
Push-pull amplifiers are frequently troublemakers
on even-order harmonics because with such
amplifiers the even-harmonic voltages are in phase them and the amplifier tank circuit.
at the ends of the tank circuit and hence appear A trap is a highly selective device and so is
with equal amplitude across the whole tank coil, if useful only over a small range of frequencies. A
the center of the coil is not grounded. Under such second- or third-harmonic trap on a 28-MHz tank
circumstances the even harmonics can be coupled circuit usually will not be effective over more than
to the output circuit through stray capacitance 50 kHz or so at the fundamental frequency,
between the tank and coupling coils. This does not depending on how serious the interference is
occur in a single-ended amplifier having an without the trap. Because they are critical of
inductively coupled tank, if the coupling coil is adjustment, it is better to prevent TVI by other
placed at the cold end, or with a pi-network tank. means, if possible, and use traps only as a last
resort.
Harmonic Traps
PREVENTING RADIATION FROM
If a harmonic in only one TV channel is THE TRANSMITTER
particularly bothersome- frequently the case when
the transmitter operates on 28 MHz - a trap tuned The extent to which interference will be caused
to the harmonic frequency may be installed in the by direct radiation of spurious signals depends on
plate lead as shown in Fig. 16-10. At the harmonic the operating frequency, the transmitter power
frequency the trap represents a very high level, the strength of the television signal, and the
impedance and hence reduces the amplitude of the distance between the transmitter and TV receiver.
harmonic current flowing through the tank circuit. Transmitter radiation can be a very serious
In the push-pull circuit both traps have the same problem if the TV signal is weak, if the TV receiver
constants. The Llc ratio is not critical but a high-C and amateur transmitter are close together, and if
circuit usually will have least effect on the the transmitter is operated with high power.
performance of the plate circuit at the normal
operating frequency. Shielding
Since there is a considerable harmonic voltage Direct radiation from the transmitter circuits
across the trap, radiation may occur from the trap and components can be prevented by proper
unless the transmitter is well shielded. Traps should shielding. To be effective, a shield must completely
be placed so that there is no coupling between enclose the circuits and parts and must have no
 Preventing Transmitter Radiation 493
openings that will permit rf energy to escape. this region, require special attention in this respect
Unfortunately, ordinary metal boxes and cabinets if the possibility of interfering with a channel
do not provide good shielding, since such openings received locally exists.
as louvers, lids, and holes for running in
connections allow far too much leakage. Lead Treatment
A primary requisite for good shielding is that all
joints must make a good electrical connection Even very good shielding can be made
along their entire length. A small slit or crack will completely useless when connections are run to
let out a surprising amount of rf energy; so will
ventilating louvers and large holes such as those
used for mounting meters. On the other hand,
small holes do not impair the shielding very
greatly, and a limited number of ventilating holes
may be used if they are small - not over 1/4 inch
in diameter. Also, wire screen makes quite effective
shielding if the wires make good electrical
connection at each crossover. Perforated aluminum
such as the "do-it-yourself" sold at hardware stores
also is good, although not very strong mechanical-
ly. If perforated material is used, choose the
variety with the smallest openings. The leakage
through large openings can be very much reduced
by covering such openings with screening or
perforated aluminum, well bonded to all edges of
the opening. Fig. 16-11 - Proper method of bypassing the end
The intensity of rf fields about coils, capacitors, of a shielded lead using disk ceramic capacitor. The
tubes and wiring decreases very rapidly with .001-IlF size should be used for 1600 volts or less;
distance, so shielding is more effective, from a 500 pF at higher voltages. The leads are wrapped
practical standpoint, if the components and wiring around the inner and outer conductors and
are not too close to it. It is advisable to have a soldered, so that the lead length is negligible. This
separation of several inches, if possible, between photograph is about four times actual size.
"hot" points in the circuit and the nearest external power supplies and other equipment from
shielding. the circuits inside the shield. Every such conductor
For a given thickness of metal, the greater the leaving the shielding forms a path for the escape of
conductivity the better the shielding. Copper is rf, which is then radiated by the connecting wires.
best, with aluminum, brass and steel following in Hence a step that is essential in every case is to
that order. However, if the thickness is adequate prevent harmonic currents from flowing on the
for structural purposes (over .02 inch) and the leads leaving the shielded enclosure.
shield and a "hot" point in the circuit are not in Harmonic currents always flow on the dc or ac
close proximity, any of these metals will be leads connecting to the tube circuits. A very
satisfactory. Greater separation should be used effective means of preventing such currents from
with steel shielding than with the other materials being coupled into other wiring, and one that
not only because it is considerably poorer as a provides desirable bypassing as well, is to use
shield but also because it will cause greater losses in shielded wire for all such leads, maintaining the
near-by circuits than would copper or aluminum at shielding from the point where the lead connects
the same distance. Wire screen or perforated metal to the tube or rf circuit right through to the point
used as a shield should also be kept at some where it leaves the chassis. The shield braid should
distance from high-voltage or high-current rf be grounded to the chassis at both ends ~nd at
points, since there is considerably more leakage frequent intervals along the path.
through the mesh than through solid metal. Good bypassing of shielded leads also is
Where two pieces of metal join, as in forming a essential. Bearing in mind that the shield braid
corner, they should overlap at least a half inch and about the conductor confines the harmonic
be fastened together firmly with screws or bolts currents to the inside of the shielded wire, the
spaced at close-enough intervals to maintain firm object of bypaSSing is to prevent their escape. Fig.
contact all along the joint. The contact surfaces 16-11 shows the proper way to bypass. The small
should be clean before joining, and should be .001-pF ceramic disk capacitor, when mounted on
checked occasionally - especially steel, which is the end of the shielded wire as shown in Fig.
almost certain to rust after a period of time. 16-11, actually forms a series-resonant circuit in
The leakage through a given size of aperture in the 54-88-MHz range and thus represents practical-
shielding increases with frequency, so such points ly a short circuit for low-band TV harmonics. The
as good continuous contact, screening of large exposed wire to the connection terminal should be
holes, and so on, become even more important kept as short as is physically possible, to prevent
when the radiation to be suppressed is in the high any possible harmonic pickup exterior to the
band - 174-216 MHz. Hence 50- and 144-MHz shielded wiring. Disk capacitors in the useful
transmitters, which in general will have frequency- capacitance range of 500 to 1000 pF are available
multiplier harmonics of relatively high intensity in in several voltage ratings up to 6000 volts.
 494 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES
and a small rf choke, the capacitor being used as a
JREGULAR
BYPASS
1_'-~U-_71Jiiii§iijii&liSHi'E~LD£O~t.EAO
T
terminal for the external connection. For voltages
above 400, a capacitor of compact construction (as
Cl:~t~ c. indicated in the caption) should be used, mounted
so that there is a very minimum of exposed lead.
VERY SHOAT
inside the chassis, from the capacitor to the
LEAO connection terminal.
Fig. 16·12 - Additional rf filtering of supply As an alternative to the series·resonant
leads may be required in regions where the TV bypassing described above, feed-through type
signal is very weak. The rf choke should be capacitors such as the Sprague "Hypass" type may
physically small, and may consist of a Hnch be used as terminals for external connections. The
winding of No. 26 enameled wire on a 1/4·inch ideal method of installation is to mount them so
form, close·wound. Manufactured single·layer they protrude through the chassis, with thorough
chokes having an inductance of a few microhenries bonding to the chassis all around the hole in which
also may be used. the capacitor is mounted. The principle is
illustrated in Fig. 16-14_
These bypasses are essential at the connection-
block terminals, and desirable at the tube ends of
the leads also. Installed as shown with shielded Shield or
Cha.ssis wait
wiring, they have been found to be so effective
that there is usually no need for further harmonic INSIDE OUTSIDE
filtering. However, if a test shows that additional
filtering is required, the arrangement shown in Fig.
16-12 may be used. Such an rf filter should be
installed at the tube end of the shielded lead, and if
more than one circuit is filtered care should be
taken to keep the rf chokes separated from each
other and so oriented as to minimize coupling
between them. This is necessary for preventing
harmonics present in one circuit from being
coupled into another.
Fig. 16-14 - The best method of using the
In difficult cases involving Channels 7 to 13 - "Hypass" type feed-through capacitor. Capaci.
i.e., close proximity between the transmitter and tances of .01 to 0.1 /J.F are satisfactory. Capacitors
receiver, and a weak TV signal - additional of this type are useful for high-current circuits,
lead-filtering measures may be needed to prevent such as filament and 117-volt leads, as a substitute
radiation of interfering signals by 50- and 144-MHz for the rf choke shown in Fig. 16-12, in cases
transmitters. A recommended method is shown in where additional lead filtering is needed.
Fig. 16-13. It uses a shielded lead bypassed with a
ceramic disk as described above, with the addition Meters that are mounted in an rf unit should be
of a low-inductance feed-through type capacitor enclosed in shielding covers, the connections being
made with shielded wire with each lead bypassed as
described above. The shield braid should be
grounded to the panel or chassis immediately
outside the meter shield, as indicated in Fig. 16-15.
A bypass may also be connected across the meter
terminals, principally to prevent any fundamental
current that may be present from flowing through
the meter itself. As an alternative to individual
meter shielding the meters may be mounted
entirely behind the panel, and the panel holes
needed for observation may be covered with wire
screen that is carefully bonded to the panel all
around the hole.
Care should be used in the selection of shielded
wire for transmitter use. Not only should the
insulation be conservatively rated for the dc
voltage in use, but the insulation should be of
material that will not easily deteriorate in
Fig. 16-13 - Additional lead filtering for
harmonics or other spurious frequencies in the high soldering. The rf characteristics of the wire are not
vhf TV band (174-216 MHz). especially important, except that the attenuation
C1 - .OOH.LF disk ceramic. of harmonics in the wire itself will be greater if the
C2 - 500- or 1000-pF fed-through bypass insulating material has high losses at radio
(Centralab FT-1000. Above 500 volts, substi- frequencies; in other words, wire intended for use
tute Centralab 858S-500.). at dc and low frequencies is preferable to cables
RFC - 14 inches No. 26 enamel close-wound on designed expressly for carrying rf. The attenuation
3/16-inch dia. form or composition resistor also will increase with the length of the wire; in
body.
general, it is better to make the leads as long as
 --------_. -
Checking Transmitter Radiation 495
reaching the antenna system. The only really
--------------. satisfactbry indicating instrument is a television
~1ZJ'01UIIi receiver. In regions where the TV signal is strong an
I meter indicating wave meter such as one having a crystal
I or tube detector may be useful; if it is possible to
I get any indication at all from harmonics either on
II supply leads or around the transmitter itself, the
harmonics are probably strong enough to cause
interference. However, the absence of any such
.001 bisc indication does not mean that harmonic interfer-
ceramic ence will not be caused. If the techniques of
shielding and lead filtering described in the
preceding section are followed, the harmonic
intensity on any external leads should be far below
what any such instruments can detect.
Radiation checks should be made with the
8ond. to pan.ei or mdu transmitter delivering full power into a dummy
sh.U1d It.ere antenna, such as an incandescent lamp of suitable
power rating, preferably installed inside the
shielded enclosure. If the dummy must be external,
Fig. 16-15 - Meter shielding and bypassing. It is
essential to shield the meter mounting hole since it is desirable to connect it through a coax-match-
the meter will carry rf through it to be radiated. ing circuit such as is shown in Fig. 16-18. Shielding
Suitable shields can be made from 2 1/2- or 3-inch
OUTPUT STAGE
diameter metal cans or small metal chassis boxes. -------------------,I

circumstances permit rather than to follow the I

more usual practice of using no more lead than is I
I
actually necessary. Where wires cross or run I
I
parallel, the shields should be spot-soldered
together and connected to the chassis. For high ;-;t.,
voltages, automobile ignition cable covered with ------------------~
shielding braid is recommended. Fig. 16-18 - Dummy-antenna system for checking
Proper shielding of the transmitter requires that harmonic radiation from thp. transmitter and leads.
the rf circuits be shielded entirely from the
external connecting leads. A situation such as is the dummy antenna circuit is also desirable,
shown in Fig. 16-17, where the leads in the rf although it is not always necessary.
chassis have been shielded and properly filtered but Make the radiation test on all frequencies that
the chassis is mounted in a large shield, simply are to be used in transmitting, and note whether or
invites the harmonic currents to travel over the not interference patterns show in the received
chassis and on ou t over the leads au tside the picture. (These tests must be made while a TV
chassis. The shielding about the rf circuits should signal is being received, since the beat patterns will
make complete contact with the chassis on which not be formed if the TV picture carrier is not
the parts are mounted. present.) If interference exists, its source can be
detected by grasping the various external leads (by
Checking Transmitter Radiation the insulation, not the live wire!) or bringing the
hand near meter faces, louvers, and other possible
A check for transmitter radiation always should points where harmonic energy might escape from
be made before attempting to use low-pass filters the transmitter. If any of these tests cause a change
or other devices for preventing harmonics from - not necessarily an increase - in the intensity of
the interference, the presence of harmonics at that
point is indicated. The location of such "hot"
spots usually will point the way to the remedy. If
the TV receiver and the transmitter can be
operated side-by-side, a length of wire connected
to one antenna terminal on the receiver can be
used as a probe to go over the transmitter
enclosure and external leads. This device will very
quickly expose the spots from which serious
leakage is taking place.
As a final test, connect the transmitting
antenna or its transmission line terminals to the
outside of the transmitter shielding. Interference
created when this test is applied indicates that
Fig. ·16-17 - A metal cabi net can be an adequate weak currents are on the outside of the shield and
shield, but there will still be radiation if the leads can be conducted to the antenna when the normal
inside can pick up rf from the transmitting circuits. antenna connections are used. Currents of this
496 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES

~ - ~:~~~'------':'.<f:~~NE
nature represent interference that is conducted
over low-pass fIlters, and hence cannot be
eliminated by such fIlters.

TRANSMITTING-ANTENNA
CONSIDERATIONS :- ACTUAL
i
I
CHASSIS GROUND

When a well-shielded transmitter is used in -'-

'::' ACTuAt,. GRQUNI>

conjunction with an effective low-pass filter, and

there is no incidental rectification in the area, it is
impossible to have "harmonic-type" TVI, regard-
less of the type of transmitting antenna. However,
the type of transmitting antenna in use can be
responsible for "fundamental-overload" TVI.
To minimize the chances of TVI, the
transmitting antenna should be located as far as
tQ1f-. .,L-UHGTN
-t-a-u';;:AL""<-EN-T--I11--- LINt

ACTVAI. GROUND':'
possible from the receiving antenna. The chances
of fundamental overload at the television receiver
are reduced when a horizontal transmitting Fig. 16-19 - The stray capacitive coupling between
antenna or beam is mounted higher than the TV coils in the upper circuit leads to the equivalent
antenna. Other things being equal, fundamental circuit shown below, fOl vhf harmonics.
overload is more likely to occur with a vertical
transmitting antenna than with a horizontal one,
because the vertical antenna has a stronger field at therefore a worthwhile addition to the transmitter.
a low angle. If a ground-plane antenna can be In 50- and 144-MHz transmitters, particularly,
located well above the height of the TV receiving harmonics not directly associated with the output
antenna, there is less likelihood of fundamental frequency - such as those generated in low-fre-
overload than when it is at the same height or quency early stages of the transmitter - may get
below the television antenna. coupled to the antenna by stray means. For
The SWR 011 the line to the transmitting example, a 144-MHz transmitter might have an
antenna has no effect on TVI. However, when the oscillator or frequency multiplier at 48 MHz,
line to the antenna passes near the TV antenna, followed by a tripler to 144 MHz. Some of the
radiation from the line can be a source of TVI. 48-MHz energy will appear in the plate circuit of
Methods for minimizing radiation from the line are the tripIer, and if passed on to the grid of the final
discussed in the chapter on transmission lines. amplifier will appear as a 48-MHz modulation on
the 144-MHz signal. This will cause a spurious
PREVENTING HARMONICS FROM signal at 192 MHz, which is in the high TV band,
REACHING THE ANTENNA and the selectivity of the tank circuits may not be
sufficient to prevent its being coupled to the
The third and last step in reducing harmonic antenna. Spurious signals of this type can be
TVI is to keep the spurious energy generated in or reduced by using link coupling between the driver
passed through the final stage from traveling over stage and final amplifier (and between earlier stages
the transmission line to the an tenna. It is seldom as well) in addition to the suppression afforded by
worthwhile even to attempt this until the radiation using a Transmatch.
from the transmitter and its connecting leads has
been reduced to the point where, with the
transmitter delivering full power into a dummy
Capacitive Coupling
antenna, it has been determined by actual testing
with a television receiver that the radiation is The upper drawing in Fig. 16-19 shows a
below the level that can cause interference. If the parallel-conductor link as it might be used to
dummy antenna test shows enough radiation to be couple into a parallel-conductor line through a
seen in a TV picture, it is a practical certainty that matching circuit. Inasmuch as a coil is a sizable
harmonics will be coupled to the antenna system metallic object, there is capacitance between the
no matter what preventive measures are taken. In final tank coil and its associated link coil, and
inductively coupled output systems, some har- between the matching-circuit coil and its link.
monic energy will be transferred from the final Energy coupled through these capacitances travels
amplifier through the mu tual inductance between over the link circuit and the transmission line as
the tank coil and the output coupling coil. though these were merely single conductors. The
Harmonics of the output frequency transferred in tuned circuits simply act as masses of metal and
this way can be greatly reduced by providing offer no selectivity at all for capacitively-coupled
sufficient selectivity between the final tank and the energy. Although the actual capacitances are small,
transmission line. A good deal of selectivity, they offer a good coupling medium for frequencies
amounting to 20 to 30 dB reduction of the second in the vhf range.
harmonic and much higher reduction of higher- Capacitive coupling can be reduced by coupling
order harmonics, is furnished by a matching circuit to a "cold" point on the tank coil - the end
of the type described in the chapter on connected to ground or cathode in a single-ended
transmission lines. An "antenna coupler" is stage. In push-pull circuits having a split-stator
 Preventing Harmonics 497
capacitor with the rotor grounded for rf, all parts

~"\=.-:. '
of the tank coil are "hot" at even hannonics, but
the center of the coil is "cold" at the fundamental
and odd harmonics. If the center of the tank coil,
rather than the rotor of the tank capacitor, is (A) I
grounded through a bypass capacitor the center of \!I~Line
the coil is "cold" at all frequencies, but this
arrangement is not very desirable because it causes
the harmonic currents to flow through the coil
rather than the tank capacitor and this increases
the harmonic transfer by pure inductive coupling.
With either single-ended or balanced tank
(8)
circuits the coupling coil should be grounded to
the chassis. by a short, direct connection as shown
in Fig. 16-20. If the coil feeds a balanced line or
link, it is preferable to ground its center, but if it
feeds a coax line or link one side may be grounded.
Coaxial output is much preferable to balanced
output, because the hannonics have to stay inside a (c)
properly installed coax system and tend to be
attenuated by the cable before reaching the
Transmatch.
At high frequencies - and possibly as low as 14
MHz - capacitive coupling can be greatly reduced Fig. 16-21 - Right (B) and wrong (A and C) ways
by using a shielded coupling coil. The inner to connect a coaxial tine to the transmitter. In A or
conductor of a length of coaxial cable is used to C, harmonic energy coupled by stray capacitance
to the outside of the cable will flow without
form a one-tum coupling coil. The outer conductor hindrance to the antenna system. In B the energy
serves as an open-circuited shield around the tum, cannot leave the shield and can flow out only
the shield being grounded to the chassis. The through, not over, the cable.
shielding has no effect on the inductive coupling.
Because this construction is suitable only for one
tum, the coil is not well adapted for use on the Low-Pass Filters
lower frequencies where many turns are required
for good coupling. A low-pass filter properly installed in a coaxial
A shielded coupling coil or coaxial ou tpu t will line, feeding either a matching circuit (antenna
not prevent stray capacitive coupling to the coupler) or feeding the antenna directly, will
antenna if hannonic currents can flow over the provide very great attenuation of harmonics. When
outside of the coax line. In Fig. 16-21, the
arrangement at either A or C will allow rf to flow-
over the outside of the cable to the antenna
system. The proper way to use coaxial cable is to
shield the transmitter completely, as shown at B,
and make sure that the outer conductor of the
cable is a continuation of the transmitter shielding.
This prevents rf inside the transmitter from getting
out by any path except the inside of the cable.
Harmonics flowing through a coax line can be
stopped by an antenna coupler or low-pass filter
installed in the line.

Fig. 16-22 - An inexpensive tow-pass filter using

silver-mica postage-stamp capacitors. The box is a
2 X 4 X 6 aluminum chassis. Aluminum shields,
bent and folded at the sides and bottom for
fastening to the chassis, form shields between the
filter sections. The diagonal arrangement of the
shields provides extra room for the coils and makes
Fig. 16-20 - Methods of coupling and grounding it easier to fit the shields in the box, since bending
link circuits to reduce capacitive coupling between to exact dimensions is not essential. The bottom
the tank and link coils. Where the link is wound plate, made from sheet aluminum, extends a half
over one end of the tank coil the side toward the inch beyond the ends of the chassis and is provided
hot end of the tank should be grounded, as shown with mounting holes in the extensions. It is held on
at B. the chassis with sheet-metal screws.
 498 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES

Fig. 16-23 - Low-pass filter circuit. In the table

below the letters refer to the following:
A - Using 100- and 70-pF 500-volt silver mica Fig. 16-24 - Low-pass filter using variable
capacitors in parallel for C2 and C3. capacitors. The unit is housed' in two
B - Using 70- and 50-pF silver mica capacitors in 2 1/4 X 2 1/4 X 5-inch Miniboxes, end to end. The
parallel for C2 and C3. cover should be secured to the box at several
C - Using 100- and 50-pF mica capacitors, points.
1200-volt (case style CM-45) in parallel for C2
and C3. current limitations of the capacitors. The power
D and E - Using variable air capacitors, 500- and capacity is least at the highest frequency. The unit
1000-volt rating, adjusted to values given. using postage-stamp silver mica capacitors is
capable of handling approximately 50 watts in the
28-MHz band, when working into a properly-
matched line, but is good for about 150 watts at
A B C D E 21 MHz and 300 watts at 14 MHz and lower
Zo 52 75 52 52 75 ohms frequencies. A fIlter with large mica capacitors
fc 36 35.5 41 40 40 MHz (case type CM-45) will carry about 250 watts
foo 44.4 47 54 50 50 MHz safely at 28 MHz, this rating increasing to 500
h 25.5 25.2 29 28.3 28.3 MHz watts at 21 MHz and a kilowatt at 14 MHz and
f2 32.5 31.8 37.5 36.1 36.1 MHz lower. If there is an appreciable mismatch between
Cl, C4 50 40 50 46 32 pF
C2,C3 170 120 150
the fIlter and the line into which it works, these
154 106 pF
Ll, L5 5 1/2 6 4 ratings will be considerably decreased, so, in order
5 6 1/2 turns*
L2,L4 8 11 7 7 91/2 turns* to avoid capacitor failure, it is highly essential that
L3 9 13 8 81/2 11 1/2 turns· the line on the output side of the fIlter be carefully
matched.
*No. 12 or 14 wire, 1/2-inch ID, 8 tpi.

the main transmission line is of the parallel-con·

ductor type, the coax-coupled matching-circuit
arrangement is highly recommended as a means for
using a coax low-pass filter.
A low-pass filter will transmit power at the
fundamental frequency without appreciable loss if
the line in which it is inserted is properly
terminated (has a low SWR)At the same time it has
large attenuation for all frequencies above the
"cutoff" frequency.
Low-pass filters of simple and inexpensive
construction for use with transmitters operating
below 30 MHz are shown in Fig. 16-22 and 16-24.
The former is designed to use mica capacitors of
readily available capacitance values, for compact-
ness and low cost. Both use the same circuit, Fig.
16-23; the only difference being in the L and C
values. Technically, they are three-section filters
having two full constant-k sections and two
m-derived terminating half-sections, and their
attenuation in the 54-88-MHz range varies from
over 50 to nearly 70 dB, depending on the
frequency and the particular set of values used. At
high, frequencies the ultimate attenuation will Fig. 16-25 - Equivalent circuits for the strip-line
depend somewhat on internal resonant conditions filters. At A, the circuit for the 6- and 2-meter
associated with component lead lengths. These filters are shown. L2 and L3 are the input and
leads should be kept as short as possible. output links. These filters are bilaterial, permitting
interchanging of the input and output terminals.
The power that filters using mica capacitors can At B, the representative circuit for the 220- and
handle safely is determined by the voltage and 432-MHz filters. These filters are also bilaterial.
Filters for VH F Transmitters 499
through 450 MHz. Construction is relatively
\ simple, and the cost is low. Standard boxes are
used, for ease of duplication.
The filter of Fig. 16-27 is selective enough to
pass 50-MHz energy and attenuate the 7th
harmonic of an 8-MHz oscillator that falls in TV
Channel 2. With an insertion loss at 50 MHz of
about 1 dB, it can provide up to 40 dB of
attenuation to energy at 57 MHz in the same line.
This should be more than enough attenuation to
take care of the worst situations, provided that the
radiation is by way of the transmitter output coax

• only. The filter will not eliminate interfering

energy that gets out from power cables, the ac line,
or from the transmitter circuits themselves. It also
will do nothing for TVI that results from
deficiencies in the TV receiver.
The 50-MHz fIlter, Fig. 16-27, uses a folded line
in order to keep it within the confines of a
standard chassis. The case is a 6 X 17 X 3-inch
chassis (Bud AC-433) with a cover plate that
fastens in place with self-tapping screws. An
aluminum partition down the middle of the
assembly is 14 inches long, and the full height of
the chassis, 3 inches.
Fig. 16-26 - High-Q strip-line filters for 50 MHz The inner conductor of the line is 32 inches
(top), 220, 144 and 420 MHz. Those for the two long and 13/16 inch wide, of 1/16-inch brass,
highest bands are half-wave line circuits. All use
standard chassis. copper or aluminum. This was made from two
pieces of aluminum spliced together to provide the
32-inch length. Splicing seemed to have no ill
effect on the circuit Q. The side of the "u" are
2 7/8 inches apart, with the partition at the center.
The power capacity of these filters can be The line is supported on ceramic standoffs. These
increased considerably by substituting rf type fixed were shimmed up with sections of hard wood or
capacitors (such as the Centralab 850 series) or bakelite rod, to give the required 1 l/2-inch height.
variable air capacitors, in which event the power The tuning capacitor is a double-spaced variable
capability will be such as to handle the maximum (Hammarlund HF-30-X) mounted 1 1/2 inches
amateur power on any band. The construction can from the right end of the chassis. Input and output
be modified to accommodate variable air capaci- coupling loops are of No. 10 or 12 wire, 10 inches
tors as shown in Fig. 16-24. long. Spacing away from the line is adjusted to
Using fixed capacitors of standard tolerances, about 1/4 inch.
there should be little difficulty in getting proper The 144-MHz model is housed in a
filter operation. A grid-dip meter with an accurate 2 1/4 X 2 1/2 X 12-inch Minibox (Bud
calibration should be used for adjustment of the CU-2114-A).
coils. First, wire up the filter without L2 and L4. One end of the tubing is slotted 1/4 inch deep
Short-circuit J 1 at its inside end with a screwdriver with a hacksaw. This slot takes a brass angle
or similar conductor, couple the grid-dip meter to bracket 1 1/2 inches wide, 1/4 inch high, with a
L1 and adjust the inductance of L1, by varying the 1/2-inch mounting lip. This 1/4-inch lip is soldered
turn spacing, until the circuit resonates at foo as into the tubing slot, and the bracket is then bolted
given in the table. Do the same thing at the other to the end of the box, so as to be centered on the
end of the filter with L5. Then couple the meter to end plate.
the circuit formed by L3, C2 and C3, and adjust The tuning capacitor (Hammarlund HF-15-X) is
L3 to resonate at the frequency f1 as given by the mounted 1 1/4 inches from the other end of the
table. Then remove L3, install L2 and L4, and box, in such a position that the inner conductor
adjust L2 to make the circuit formed by L1, L2, can be soldered to the two stator bars.
C1 and C2 (without the short across 11) resonate The two coaxial fittings (SO-239) are 11/16
at f2 as given in the table. Do the same with L4 for inch in from each side of the box, 3 1/2 inches
the circuit formed by L4, L5, C3 and C4. Then from the left end. The coupling loops are No. 12
replace L3 and check with the grid-dip meter at wire, bent so that each is parallel to the center line
any coil in the filter; a distinct resonance should be of the inner conductor, and about 1/8 inch from
found at or very close to the cutoff frequency, fe· its surface. Their cold ends are soldered to the
brass mounting bracket.
FI LTERS FOR VHF TRANSMITTERS The 220-MHz filter uses the same size box as
High rejection of unwanted frequencies is the 144-MHz model. The inner conductor is
possible with the tuned-line filters of Fig. 16-25. 1/16-inch brass or copper, 5/8 inch wide, just long
Examples are shown for each band from 50 enough to fold over at each end for bolting to the
500 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES

Fig. 16-27 - Interior of

the 50-MHz strip line filter,
Inner conductor of alumi-
num strip is bent into U
shape, to fit inside a
standard 17-inch chassis.

Fig. 16-28 - The 144-MHz

filter has an inner conduct-
or of 1/2-inch copper tub-
ing 10 inches long, ground-
ed to the left end of the
case and supported at the
right end by the tuning
capacitor.

Fig. 16-29 - A half-wave

strip line is used in the
220-MHz filter. It is
grounded at both ends and
tuned at the center.

box. It is positioned so that there will be 1/8 inch between antenna line and SWR indicator. With this
clearance between it and the rotor plates of the arrangement you need merely adjust the filter for
tuning capacitor. The latter is a Hammarlund minimum reflected power reading on the SWR
HF-15-X, mounted slightly off-center in the box, bridge. This should be zero, or close to it, if the
so that its stator plates connect to the exact antenna is well-matched. The bridge should be
mid-point of the line. The 5/16-inch mounting used, as there is no way to adjust the filter
hole in the case is 5 1/2 inches from one end. The properly without it. If you insist on trying, adjust
S0:239 coaxial fittings are 1 inch in from opposite for best reception of signals on frequencies close to
sides of the box, 2 inches from the ends. Their the ones you expect to transmit on. This works
coupling links are No. 14 wire, 1/8 inch from the only if the antenna is well matched.
inner conductor of the line. When the filter is properly adjusted (with the
The 420-MHz filter is similar in design, using a SWR bridge) you may find that reception can be
1518 X 2 X 10-inch Minibox (Bud CU-2113-A). A improved by retuning the filter. Don't do it, if you
half-wave line is used, with disk tuning at the want the filter to work best on the job it was
center. The disks are 1/16-inch brass, 11/4-inch intended to do; the rejection of unwanted energy,
diameter. The fixed one is centered on the inner transmitting or receiving. If you want to improve
conductor, .the other mounted on a No. 6 brass reception with the filter in the circuit, work on the
lead-screw. This passes through a threaded bushing, receiver input circuit. To get maximum power out
which can be taken from the end of a discarded of the transmitter and into the line, adjust the
slug-tuned form. An advantage of these is that transmitter output coupling, not the filter. If the
usually a tension device is included. If there is effect of the filter on reception bothers you,
none, use a lock nut. connect it in the line from the antenna relay to the
Type N coaxial connectors were used on the transmitter only.
420-MHz model. They are 5/8 inch in from each
side of the box, and 1 3/8 inches in from the ends.
Their coupling links of No. 14 wire are 1/16 inch SUMMARY
from the inner conductor.
The methods of harmonic elimination outlined
Adjustment and Use
in this chapter have been proved beyond doubt to
If you want the filter to work on both be effective even under highly unfavorable
transmiHing and receiving, connect the filter conditions. It must be emphasized once more,
Harmonics by Rectification 501
however, that the problem must be solved one step
at a time, and the procedure must be in logical HARMONICS BY RECTIFICATION
order. It cannot be done properly without two
items of simple equipment: a grid-dip meter and Even though the transmitter is completely free
wavemeter covering the TV bands, and a dummy from harmonic output it is still possible for
antenna. interference to occur because of harmonics
To summarize: generated outside the transmitter. These result
1) Take a critical look at the transmitter on the from rectification of fundamental-frequency cur-
basis of the design considerations outlined under rents induced in conductors in the vicinity of the
"Reducing Harmonic Generation." transmi tting antenna. Rectification can take place
2) Check all circuits, particularly those con- at any point where two conductors are in poor
nected with the final amplifier, with the grid-dip electrical contact, a condition that frequently
meter to determine whether there are any exists in plumbing, downspouting, BX cables
resonances in the TV bands. If so, rearrange the crossing each other, and numerous other places in
circuits so the resonances are moved out of the the ordinary residence. It also can occur at any
critical frequency region. exposed vacuum tubes in the station, in power
3) Connect the transmitter to the dummy supplies, speech equipment, etc., that may not be
antenna and check with the wavemeter for the enclosed in the shielding about the rf circuits. Poor
presence of harmonics on leads and around the joints anywhere in the antenna system are
transmitter enclosure. Seal off the weak spots in especially bad, and rectification also may take
the shielding and filter the leads until the place in the contacts of antenna changeover relays.
wavemeter shows no indication at any harmonic Another common cause is overloading the front
frequency. end of the communications receiver when it is used
4) At this stage, check for interference with a with a separate antenna (which will radiate the
TV receiver. If there is interference, determine the harmonics generated in the first tube) for break-in.
cause by the methods described previously and Rectification of this sort will not only cause
apply the recommended remedies until the harmonic interference but also is frequently
interference disappears. responsible for cross-modulation effects. It can be
5) When the transmitter is completely clean on detected in greater or less degree in most locations,
the dummy antenna, connect it to the regular but fortunately the harmonics thus generated are
antenna and check for interference on the TV not usually of high amplitude. However, they can
receiver. If the interference is not bad, a cause considerable interference in the immediate
Transmatch or matching circuit installed as vicinity in fringe areas, especially when operation is
previously described should clear it up. Alternative- in the 28-MHz band. The amplitude decreases
ly, a low-pass filter may be used. If neither the rapidly with the order of the harmonic, the second
Transmatch nor filter makes any difference in the and third being the worst. It is ordinarily found
interference, the evidence is strong that the that even in cases where destructive interference
interference, at least in part, is being caused by results from 28-MHz operation the interference is
receiver overloading because of the strong funda- comparatively mild from 14 MHz, and is negligible
mental-frequency field about the TV antenna and at still lower frequencies.
receiver. A Transmatch and/or filter, installed as Nothing can be done at either the transmitter
described above, will invariably make a difference or receiver when rectification occurs. The remedy
in the intensity of the interference if the is to find the source and eliminate the poor contact
interference is caused by transmitter harmonics either by separating the conductors or bonding
alone. them together. A crystal wavemeter (tuned to the
6) If there is still interference after installing fundamental frequency) is useful for hunting the
the Transmatch and/or filter, and the evidence source, by showing which conductors are carrying
shows that it is probably caused by a harmonic, rf and, comparatively, how much.
more attenuation is needed. A more elaborate filter Interference of this kind is frequently intermit-
may be necessary. However, it is well at this stage tent since the rectification efficiency will vary with
to assume that part of the interference may be vibration, the weather, and so on. The possibility
caused by receiver overloading, and take steps to of corroded contacts in the TV receiving antenna
alleviate such a condition before trying highly- should not be overlooked, especially if it has been
elaborate filters and traps on the transmitter. up a year or more.

Fig. 16-30 - The proper method of

installing a low-pass filter between
the transmitter and a Transmatch. If TO REC.
the antenna is fed through coax, the
Transmatch can be eliminated, but
the transmitter and filter must be
TRANS.
completely shielded. If a TR switch is
used, it should be installed between
the transmitter and low-pass filter.
TR switches can generate harmonics
themselves, so the low-pass filter
should follow the TR switch.
502 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES

Fig. 16-31 - High-pass filters for

installation at the TV receiver
antenna terminals. A - balanced
filter for 300-0hm line. B - for EACH COl L 8 TURNS No.14,
TO WATER
75-ohm coaxial line. Important: Do PIPE GROUND DIA ¥4'; 1" LONG, TAPPED AT CENTER
not use a direct ground on the chassis
of a transformerless receiver. Ground
through a .001-MF mica capacitor.
~10_0~PF~~~5~~_F~~1110~~
~I € (I C .". "'M'N'~
~___j. . . .____j-i--__ B) :N TV SET(

EA~ COIL 3 TURNS No.14,

DIA %", 8 TURNS PER INCH

TV RECEIVER DEFICIENCIES I-f Interference

When a television receiver is quite close to the Some TV receivers do not have sufficient
transmi tter, the in tense rf signal from the selectivity to prevent strong signals in the
transmitter's fundamental may overload one or intermediate-frequency range from forcing their
more of the receiver circuits to produce spurious way through the front end and getting into the i-f
responses that cause interference. amplifier. The once-standard intermediate frequen-
If the overload is moderate, the interference is cy of, roughly, 21 to 27 MHz, is subject to
of the same nature as harmonic interference; it is interference from the fundamental-frequency out-
caused by harmonics generated in the early stages put of transmitters operating in the 21-MHz band.
of the receiver and, since it occurs only on Transmitters on 28 MHz sometimes will cause this
channels harmonically related to the transmitting type of interference as well.
frequency, it is difficult to distinguish from A form of i-f interference peculiar to 50-MHz
harmonics actually radiated by the transmitter. In operation near the low edge of the band occurs
such cases additional harmonic suppression at the with some receivers having the standard "41-MHz"
transmitter will do no good, but any means taken i-f, which has the sound carrier at 41.25 MHz and
at the receiver to reduce the strength of the the picture carrier at 45.75 MHz. A 50-MHz signal
amateur signal reaching the first tube will effect an that forces its way into the i-f system of the
improvement. With very severe overloading, inter- receiver will beat with the i-f picture carrier to give
ference also will occur on channels not harmonical· a spurious signal on or near the i-f sound carrier,
ly related to the transmitting freqllency, so such even though the interfering signal is not actually in
cases are easily identified. the nominal passband of the i-f amplifier.
There is a type of i-f interference unique to the
Cross-Modulation 144-MHz band in localities where certain uhf TV
channels are in operation, affecting only those TV
Upon some circumstances overloading will
receivers in which double-conversion type plug-in
result in cross-modulation or mixing of the
uhf tuning strips are used. The design of these
amateur signal with that from a local fm or TV
strips involves a first intermediate frequency that
station. For example, a 14-MHz signal can mix
varies with the TV channel to be received and,
with a 92-MHz fm station to produce a beat at 78
depending on the particular strip design, this first
MHz and cause interference in ChannelS, or with a
i-f may be in or close to the 144-MHz amateur
TV station on Channel 5 to cause interference in
band. Since there is comparatively little selectivity
Channel 3. Neither of the channels interfered with
in the TV signal-frequency circuits ahead of the
is in harmonic relationship to 14 MHz. Both signals
first i-f, a signal from a 144-MHz transmitter will
have to be on the air for the interference to occur,
"ride into" the i-f, even when the receiver is at a
and eliminating either at the TV receiver will
considerable distance from the transmitter. The
eliminate ~he interference.
channels that can be affected by this type of i-f
There are many combinations of this type,
interference are:
depending on the band in use and the local
frequency assignments to fm and TV stations. The Receivers with Receivers with
interfering frequency is equal to the amateur 21.MHz 41·MHz
fundamental frequency either added to or secondi·t second i·t
subtracted from the frequency of some local Channels 14-18, inc!. Channels 20-25, inc!.
station, and when interference occurs in a TV Channels 4148, inc!. Channels 51-58, inc!.
channel that is not harmonically related to the Channels 69-77, inc!. Channels 82 and 83.
amateur transmitting frequency the possibilities in
such frequency combinations should be investi- If the receiver is not close to the transmitter, a trap
gated. of the type shown in Fig. 16-33 will be effective.
TV Receiver Deficiencies 503
However, if the separation is small the 144-MHz ------T----------r----------,
signal will be picked up directly on the receiver
circuits and the best solution is to readjust the strip
oscillator so that the first i-f is moved to a 300-0HM
LINE TO ANT.
C;:£2
I
C;I I ANT. TERMI.AL'
ON TV RCVR.
frequency not in the vicinity of the 144-MHz band. C I
I
C
,
I
This has to be done by a competent technician. ~~,~--~ ~--~----~,-o
I-f interference is easily identified since it t_______ l __________ l _______ J
occurs on all channels - although sometimes the C o 20,WJf.

intensity varies from channel to channel - and the L10040 TURNS NO. 30 ENAM. CLOS£WOUNO, 'te. OIA.
~2 TURNS NO. 30 ENAM CLOSE WOUND, 'f " OJ".
cross-hatch pattern it causes will rotate when the e
receiver's fine-tuning control is varied. When the
Fig. 16-32 - Another type of high-pass filter for
interference is caused by a harmonic, overloading, 300-0hm line. The coils may be wound on liS-inch
or cross modulation, the structure of the diameter plastic knitting needles. Important: Do
interference pattern does not change (its intensity not use a direct ground on the chassis of a
may change) as the fine-tuning control is varied. transformerless receiver. Ground through a .OOl-/-LF
mica capacitor.
High-Pass Filters
In all of the above cases the interference can be they are at a "hot" point and will show
eliminated if the fundamental signal strength can considerable body-capacitance effect.
be reduced to a level that the receiver can handle. High-pass fIlters are available commercially at
To accomplish this with signals on bands below 30 moderate prices. In this connection, it should be
MHz, the most satisfactory device is a high-pass understood by all parties concerned that while an
fIlter having a cutoff frequency between 30 and 54 amateur is responsible for harmonic radiation from
MHz, installed at the tuner input terminals of the his transmitter. it is no part of his responsibility to
receiver. Circuits that have proved effective are pay for or install filters, wave traps, etc. that may
shown in Figs. 16-30 and 16-31. Fig. 16-30 has one be required at the receiver to prevent interference
more section than the fIlters of Fig. 16-31 and as a caused by his fundamental frequency. Proper
consequence has somewhat better cutoff character- installation usually requires that the fIlter be
istics. All the circuits given are designed to have installed right at the input terminals of the rf tuner
little or no effect on the TV signals bu t will of the TV set and not merely at the external
attenuate all signals lower in frequency than about antenna terminals, which may be at a considerable
40 MHz. These fIlters preferably should be distance from the tuner. The question of cost is
constructed in some sort of shielding container, one to be settled between the set owner and the
although shielding is not always necessary. The organization with which he deals.
dashed lines in Fig. 16-32 show how individual Some of the larger manufacturers of TV
fIlter coils can be shielded from each other. The receivers have instituted arrangements for co-
capacitors can be tubular ceramic units centered in operating with the set dealer in installing high-pass
holes in the partitions that separate the coils. fIlters at no cost to the receiver owner.
Simple high-pass fIlters cannot always be FCC-sponsored TVI Committees, now operating in
applied successfully in the case of 50-MHz many cities, have all the information necessary for
transmissions, because they do not have sufficient- effectuating such arrangements. To find out
ly-sharp cutoff characteristics to give both good whether such a committee is functioning in your
attenuation at 50-54 MHz and no attenuation community, write to the FCC field office having
above 54 MHz. A more elaborate design capable of jurisdiction over your location. A list of the field
giving the required sharp cutoff has been described offices is contained in The Radio Amateur's
(Ladd, "50-MHz TVI - Its Causes and Cures," License Manual, published by ARRL.
QST, June and July, 1954). This article also If the fundamental signal is getting into the
contains other information useful in coping with receiver by way of the line cord a line filter such as
the TVI problems peculiar to 50-MHz operation. that shown in Fig. 16-1 may help. To be most
As an alternative to such a filter, a high-Q wave effective it should be installed inside the receiver
trap tuned to the transmitting frequency may be chassis at the point where the cord enters, making
used, suffering only the disadvantage that it is the ground connections directly to chassis at this
quite selective and therefore will protect a receiver point. It may not be so helpful if placed between
from overloading over only a small range of the line plug and the wall socket unless the rf is
transmitting frequencies in the 50-MHz band. A actually picked up on the house wiring rather than
trap of this type is shown in Fig. 16-33. These on the line cord itself.
"suck-out" traps, while absorbing energy at the
frequency to which they are tuned, do not affect Antenna Installation
the receiver operation otherwise. The assembly
should be mounted near the input terminals of the Usually, the transmission line between the TV
TV tuner and its case should be grounded to the receiver and the actual TV antenna will pick up a
TV set chassis. The traps should be tuned for great deal more energy from a nearby transmitter
rrummum TVI at the transmitter operating than the television receiving antenna itself. The
frequency. An insulated tuning tool should be used currents induced on the TV transmission line in
for adjustment of the trimmer capacitors, since this case are of the "parallel" type, where the
504 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES
phase of the current is the same in both TABLE 16-1
conductors. The line simply acts like two wires
connected together to operate as one. If the Harmonic Relationship - Amateur VHF Bands and
receiver's antenna input circuit were perfectly UHF TV Channels
balanced it would reject these "parallel" or Amateur Fundamental Channel
"unbalance" signals and respond only to the true Band Harmonic Freq. Range Affected
transmission-line ("push-pull") currents; that is,
only signals picked up on the actual atenna would 144 MHz 4th 144.0-144.5 31
cause a receiver response. However, no receiver is 144.5-146.() 32
perfect in this respect, and many TV receivers will 146.0-147.5 33
respond strongly to such parallel currents. The 147.5-148.0 34
result is that the signals from a nearby amateur 5th 144.0-144.4 55
transmitter are much more intense at the first stage 144.4-145.6 56
in the TV receiver than they would be if the 145.6-146.8 57
receiver response were confined entirely to energy 146.8-148.0 58
picked up on the TV antenna alone. This situation 6th 144.0-144.33 79
can be improved by using shielded transmission 144.33-145.33 80
line - coax or, in the balanced form, "twinax" - 145.33-147.33 81
for the receiving installation. For best results the 147.33-148.0 82
line should terminate in a coax fitting on the 220 MHz 3rd 220-220.67 45
receiver chassis, but if this is not possible the shield 220.67-222.67 46
should be grounded to the chassis right at the 222.67 -224.67 47
antenna terminals. 224.67-225 48
The use of shielded transmission line for the 4th 220--221 82
receiver also will be helpful in reducing response to 221-222.5 83
harmonics actually being radiated from the
transmitter or transmitting antenna. Itl most 420 MHz 2nd 420-421 75
receiving installations the transmission line is very 421-424 76
much longer than the antenna itself, and is 424-427 77
consequently far more exposed to the harmonic 427-430 78
fields from the transmitter. Much of the harmonic 430-433 79
pickup, therefore, is on the receiving transmission 433-436 80
line when the transmitter and receiver are quite
close together. Shielded line, plus relocation of
either the transmitting or receiving antenna to take
advantage of directive effects, often will result in to be quite weak; in addition, the components,
reducing overloading, as well as harmonic pickup, circuit conditions and construction of low-frequen-
to a level that does not interfere with reception. cy transmitters are such as to tend to prevent very
strong harmonics from being generated in this
region. However, this is not true of amateur vhf
UHF TELEVISION transmitters, particularly those working in the
144-MHz and higher bands. Here the problem is
Harmonic TVI in the uhf TV band is far less quite similar to that of the low vhf TV band with
troublesome than in the vhf band. Harmonics from respect to transmitters operating below 30 MHz.
transmitters operating below 30 MHz are of such There is one highly favorable factor in uhf TV
high order that they would normally be expected that does not exist in the most of the vhf TV band:
If harmonics are radiated, it is possible to move the
r------------., transmitter frequency sufficiently (within the

~
3-30Pf.1
I
I
I
I
amateur band being used) to avoid interfering with
a channel that may be in use in the locality. By
300-0HM I : 300-0HM
----------i
LINElO TV .. - - LINE TO restricting operation to a portion of the amateur
SET~'I ANT. band that will not result in harmonic interference,
I I it is possible to avoid the necessity for taking
I I
extraordinary precautions to prevent harmonic
I
L_ - - --;+;,-3-30n f, JI
_=r__ radiation.
The frequency assignment for uhf television
F.ig. 16-33 - Parallel-tuned traps for installation in consists of seventy 6-Megahertz channels (Nos. 14
the 300-0hm line to the TV set. The traps should to 83, inclusive) beginning at 470 MHz and ending
be mounted in an aluminum Minibox with a shield at 890 MHz. The harmonics from amateur bands
partition between them, as shown. For 50 MH~, above 50-MH7 span the uhf channels as shown in
the coils should have 9 turns of No. 16 enamel Table 16-1. Since the assignment plan calls for a
wire, close wound to a diameter of 1/2 inch. The
144-MHz traps should contain coils with a total of minimum separation of six channels between any
6 turns of the same type wire, close-wound to a two stations in one locality, there is ample
diameter of 1/4 inch. Traps of this type can be opportunity to choose a fundamental frequency
used to combat fundamental-overload TVI on the that will move a harmonic out of range of a local
lower-frequency bands as well. TV frequency.
I nterference from TV Receivers 505
COLOR TELEVISION the picture tube and sweep-circuit wiring. Line
radiation often can be reduced by bypassing the ac
The color TV signal includes a subcarrier spaced line cord to the chassis at the point of entry,
3.58 MHz from the regular picture carrier (or 4.83 although this is not completely effective in all cases
MHz from the low edge of the channel) for since the coupling may take place outside the
transmitting the color information. Harmonics chassis beyond the point where the bypassing is
which fall in the color subcarrier region can be done. Radiation from the antenna is usually
epected to cause break-up of color in the received suppressed by installing a high-pass filter on the
picture. This modifies the chart of Fig. 16-5 to receiver. The direct radiation requires shielding of
introduce another "severe" region centering high-potential leads and, !n some receivers,
around 4.8 MHz measured from the low-frequency additional bypassing in the sweep circuit; in severe
edge of the channel. Hence with color television cases, it may be necessary to line the cabinet with
reception there is less opportunity to avoid screening or similar shielding material.
harmonic interference by choice of operating Incidental radiation of this type from TV and
frequency. In other respects the problem of broadcast receivers, when of sufficient intensity to
eliminating interference is the same as with cause serious interference to other radio services
black-and-white television.
(such as amateur), is covered by Part 15 of the
FCC rules. When such interference is caused, the
INTERFERENCE FROM user of the receiver is obligated to take steps to
TV RECEIVERS eliminate it. The owner of an offending receiver
should be advised to contact the source from
The TV picture tube is swept horizontally by which the receiver ·was purchased for appropriate
the electron beam 15,750 times per second; using a modification of the receiving installation. TV
wave shape that has very high harmonic content. receiver dealers can obtain the necessary informa-
The harmonics are of appreciable amplitude even tion from the set manufacturer.
at frequencies as high as 30 MHz, and when It is usually possible to reduce interference very
radiated from the receiver can cause considerable considerably, wi thou t modifying the TV receiver,
interference to reception in the amateur bands. simply by having a good amateur-band receiving
While measures to suppress radiation of this nature installation. The principles are the same as those
are required by FCC in current receivers, many used in reducing "hash" and other noise - use a
older sets have had no such treatment. The good antenna, such as the transmitting antenna, for
interference takes the form of rather unstable, reception; install it as far as possible from ac
ac-modulated signals spaced at intervals of 15.75 circuits; use a good feeder system such as a
kHz. properly balanced two-wire line or coax with the
Studies have shown that the radiation takes outer conductor grounded; use coax input to the
place principally in three ways, in order of their receiver, with a matching circuit if necessary; and
importance: (1) from the ac line, through stray check the receiver to make sure that it does not
coupling to sweep circuits; (2) from the antenna pick up signals or noise with the antenna
system, through similar coupling; (3) directly from disconnected.
 Chapter 17

Test Equipment and

Measurements
cost of identical parts. Included are volt-ohm-milli-
Measurement and testing seemingly go hand in ammeter combinations, vacuum-tube and transistor
hand, but it is useful to make a distinction between voltmeters, oscilloscopes, and the like. The
"measuring" and "test" equipment. The former is coordination of electrical and mechanical design,
commonly considered to be capable of giving a components, and appearance make it far preferable
meaningful quantitative result. For the latter a to purchase such equipment than to attempt to
simple indication of "satisfactory" or "unsatisfac- build one's own.
tory" may suffice; in any event, the accurate However, some test gear is either not available
calibration associated with real measuring equip- or can easily be built. This chapter considers the
ment is seldom necessary, for simple test principles of the more useful types of measuring
appar;ltus. equipment and concludes with the descriptions of
Certain items of measuring equipment that are several pieces that not only can be built
useful to amateurs are readily available in kit form, satisfactorily at home but which will facilitate the
at prices that represent a genuine saving over the operation of the amateur station.

THE DIRECT-CURRENT INSTRUMENT

In measuring instruments and test equipment becomes possible to use a single low-range
suitable for amateur purposes the ultimate instrument - e.g., 1 milliampere or less full-scale
"readout" is generally based on a measurement of pointer deflection - for a variety of direct-current
direct current. A meter for measuring dc uses measurements. Through its ability to measure
electromagnetic means to deflect a pointer over a current, the instrument can also be used indirectly
calibrated scale in proportion to the current to measure voltage. Likewise, a measurement of
flowing through the instrument. both current and voltage will obviously yield a
In the D' Arsonval type a coil of wire, to which value of resistance. These measurement functions
the pointer is attached, is pivoted between the are often combined in a single instrument - the
poles of a permanent magnet, and when current volt-ohm-milliammeter or "VOM", a multirange
flows through the coil it sets up a milgnetic field meter that is one of the most useful pieces of
that interacts with the field of the magnet to cause measuring and test equipment an amateur can
the coil to turn. The design of the instrument is possess.
usually such as to make the pointer deflection
directly proportional to the current. Accuracy
A less expensive type of instrument is the The accuracy of a dc meter of the D'Arsonval
moving-vane type, in which a pivoted soft-iron type is specified by the manufacturer. A common
vane is pulled into a coil of wire by the magnetic specification is "2 percent of full scale," meaning
field set up when current flows through the coil. that a 0-100 microammeter, for example, will be
The farther the vane extends into the coil the correct to within 2 microamperes at any part of
greater the magnetic pull on it, for a given change the scale. There are very few cases in amateur work
in current, so this type of instrument does not have where accuracy greater than this is needed.
"linear" deflection - the intervals of equal current However, when the instrument is part of a more
are crowded together at the low-current end and complex measuring circuit, the design and
spread out at the high-current end of the scale. components of which all can cause error, the
overall accuracy of the complete device is always
Current Ranges less.
The sensitivity of an instrument is usually
expressed in terms of the current required for EXTENDING THE CURRENT RANGE
full-scale deflection of the pointer. Although a very Because of the way current divides between
wide variety of ranges is available, the meters of two resistances in parallel, it is possible to increase
interest in amateur work have basic "movements" the range (more specifically, to decrease the
that will give maximum deflection with currents sensitivity) of a dc micro- or milliammeter to any
measured in microamperes or rnilliamperes. They desired extent. The meter itself has an inherent
are called microammeters and milliammeters, resistance - its internal resistance - which
respectively. determines the full-scale current through it when
Thanks to the relationships between current, its rated voltage is applied. (This rated voltage is of
voltage, and resistance expressed by Ohm's Law, it the order of a few millivolts.) By connecting an

506
The Voltmeter 507
multiplied by the resistance will be the voltage
drop across the resistance, which is known as a
multiplier. An instrument used in this way is
r - ---,
calibrated in terms of the voltage drop across the
Internal-+-- I multiplier resistor, and is called a voltmeter_
ResisfaJ1.ce I ~ Sluutt
I L I
L_ __.J Sensitivity
Voltmeter sensitivity is usually expressed in
ohms per volt, meaning that the meter's full-scale
reading multiplied by the sensitivity will give the
Fig. 17-1 - Use of a shunt to extend the calibration
range of a current-reading instrument. total resistance of the voltmeter. For example, the
resistance of a 1000-ohms-per-volt voltmeter is
1000 times the full-scale calibration voltage, and
external resistance in parallel with the internal by Ohm's Law the current required for full-scale
resistance, as in Fig. 17-1, the current will divide deflection is 1 milliampere. A sensitivity of 20,000
between the two, with the meter responding only ohms per volt, a commonly used value, means that
to that part of the current which flows through the instrument is a 50-microampere meter.
the internal resistance of its movement. Thus it The higher the resistance of the voltmeter the
reads only part of the total current; the effect is to more accurate the measurements in high-resistance
make more total current necessary for a full-scale circuits. This is because in such a circuit the
meter reading. The added resistance is called a current flowing through the voltmeter will cause a
shunt. change in the voltage between the points across
It is necessary to know the meter's internal which the meter is connected, compared with the
resistance before the required value for a shunt can voltage with the meter absent, as shown in Fig.
be calculated. It may vary from a few ohms to a 17-3.
few hundred, with the higher resistance values
associated with higher sensitivity. When known, it 150K
can be used in the formula below to determine the ~-+--~~-o250V
IMA
required shunt for a given current multiplication:
R= Rm
n - 1 1000 "Iv METER READS APP 81v

20K"'tv METER READS APP 98V

where R is the shunt, Rm is the internal resistance
II MEG METER READS APP 99V
of the meter, and n is the factor by which the
original meter scale is to be multiplied_

Making Shunts
Fig. 17-3 - Effect of voltmeter resistance on
Homemade shunts can be constructed from any accuracy of readings. It is assumed that the dc
of various special kinds of resistance wire, or from resistance of the screen circuit is constant at 100
ordinary copper wire if no resistance wire is kilohms. The actual current and voltage without
available. The Copper Wire Table in this Handbook the voltmeter connected are 1 mA and 100 volts.
gives the resistance per 1000 feet for various sizes The voltmeter readings will differ because the
of copper wire. After computing the resistance
required, determine the smallest wire size that will
carry the full-scale current (250 circular mils per
different types of meters draw different amounts
of current through the 15().kilohm resistor. II
ampere is a satisfactory figure for this purpose)_
Measure off enough wire to provide the required Multipliers
resistance. The required multiplier resistance is found by
dividing the desired full-scale voltage by the
THE VOLTMETER current, in amperes, required for full:scale
deflection of the meter alone. Strictly, the internal
If a large resistance is connected in series with a resistance of the meter should be subtracted from
current-reading meter, as in Fig. 17-2, the current the value so found, but this is seldom necessary
+-+---~ (except perhaps for very low ranges) because the
meter resistance will be negligibly small compared
MULTIPLIER
with the multiplier resistance. An exception is
when the instrument is already a voltmeter and is
provided with an internal multiplier, in which case
the multiplier resistance required to extend the
range is
R = Rm(n -1)
Fig. 17-2 - A voltmeter is a current-indicating where R is the multiplier resistance, Rm is the total
instrument in series with a high resistance, the resistance of the instrument itself, and n is the
·'multiplier." factor by which the scale is to be multiplied. For
508 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS
example, if a 1000-ohms-per-volt voltmeter having purpose - that is, the actual power dissipated in
a calibrated range of 0-10 volts is to be extended to the resistor should not be more than 1/4 to 1/2 the
1000 volts, Rm is 1000 X 10 = 10,000 ohms, n is rated dissipation - and care should be used to
1000/10 = 100,. and R = 10,000 (100 - 1) = avoid overheating the body of the resistor when
990,000 ohms. soldering to the leads. These precautions will help
When extending the range of a voltmeter or prevent permanent change in the resistance of the
converting a low-range meter into a voltmeter, the unit.
rated accuracy of the instrument is retained only Ordinary composition resistors are generally
when the multiplier resistance is precise. Precision furnished in 10- or 5-percent tolerance ratings. If
wire-wound resistors are used in the multipliers of possible errors elf this order can be accepted,
high-quality instruments. These are relatively resistors of this type may be used as multipliers.
expensive, but the home constructor can do quite They should be operated below the rated power
well with I-percent-tolerance composition resis- dissipation figure, in the interests of long-time
tors. They should be "derated" when used for this stability.

DC MEASUREMENT CIRCUITS
Current Measurement with a Voltmeter
A current-measuring instrument should have
very low resistance compared with the resistance of
the circuit being measured; otherwise, inserting the DO
instrument will cause the current to differ from its VOLTAGE
value with the instrument out of the circuit. (This
R
may not matter if the instrument is left
permanently in the circuit.) However, the resis-
tance of many circuits in radio equipment is quite
high and the circuit operation is affected little, if at Fig. 17-5 - Measurement of power requires botl;
all, by adding as much as a few hundred ohms in current and voltage measurements; once these
series. In such cases the voltmeter method of values are known the power is equal to the product
measuring current, shown in Fig. 17-4, is - P = EI. The same circuit can be used for
measurement of an unknown resistance.
frequently convenient. A voltmeter (or low-range
milliammeter provided with a multiplier and
operating as a voltmeter) having a full-scale voltage are known, the power is equal to the voltage in
range of a few volts is used to measure the voltage volts multiplied by the current in amperes. If the
drop across a suitable value of resistance acting as a current is measured with a milliammeter, the
shunt. reading of the instrument must be divided by 1000
The value of shunt resistance must be to convert it to amperes.
calculated from the known or estimated maximum The setup for measuring power is shown in Fig.
current expected in the circuit (allowing a safe 17-5, where R is any dc "load," not necessarily an
margin) and the voltage required for full-scale actual resistor.
deflection of the meter with its multiplier. Resistance
Power Obviously, if both voltage and current are
measured in a circuit such as that in Fig. 17-5 the
Power in direct-current circuits is determined value of resistance R (in case it is unknown) can be
by measuring the current and voltage. When these calculated from Ohm's Law. For accurate results,
the internal resistance of the ammeter or
milliammeter, .Mit, should be very low compared
with the resistance, R, being measured, since the
voltage read by the voltmeter, V, is the voltage
MULTIPLIER across MA and R in series. The instruments and the
SHUNT dc voltage should be chosen so that the readings
are in the upper half of the scale, if possible, since
the percentage error is less in this region.
THE OHMMETER
Although Fig. 17-5 suffices for occasional
resistance measurements, it is inconvenient when
Fig. 17-4 - Voltmeter method of measuring frequent measurements over a wide range of
current. This method permits using relatively large resistance are to be made. The device generally
values of resistance in the shunt, standard values of
fixed resistors frequently being usable. If the used for this purpose is the ohmmeter. This
multiplier resistance is 20 (or more) times the consists fundamentally of a voltmeter (or milli-
shunt resistance, the error in assuming that all the ammeter, depending on the circuit used) and a
current flows through the shunt will not be of small dry battery, the meter being calibrated so the
consequence in most practical applications. value of an unknown resistance can be read
The Ohmmeter 509
.arge compared with Rm - e.g., 3000 ohms for a
1-mA meter having an internal resistance of per-
J--.NV'-+----QA haps 50 ohms. A 3-volt battery would be necessary
R
in this case in order to obtain a full-scale deflection
(A)
(UNKNOWN) with the "unknown" terminals open. R1 can be an
•1 1 1 - - - - - - - 6 B adjustable resistor, to permit setting the open-
terminals current to exact full scale.
A third circuit for measuring resistance is
shown in Fig. 17-6C. In this case a high-resistance
voltmeter is used to measure the voltage drop
across a reference resistor, R2, when the unknown
resistor is connected so that current flows through
it, R2 and the battery in series. By suitable choice
of R2 (low values for low-resistance, high values
for high-resistance unknowns) this circuit will give
equally good results on all resistance values in the
range from one ohm to several megohms, provided
that the voltmeter resistance, R m , is always very
high (50 times or more) compared with the
ZERO ADJ
resistance of R2. A 20,000-ohm-per-volt instru-
ment (50-IlA movement) is generally used. Assum-
ing that the current through the voltmeter is
(e)
R negligible compared with the current through R2,
(UNKNOWN) the formula for the unknown is
~------+------6B
R=eR2 - R2
E
Fig. 17-6 - Ohmmeter circuits. Values are
discussed in the text. where Rand R2 are as shown in Fig. 17-6C,
e is the voltmeter reading with A-B shorted,
directly from the scale. Typical ohmmeter circuits and
are shown in Fig. 17-6. In the simplest type, shown E is the voltmeter reading with R connected.
in Fig. 17-6A, the meter and battery are connected
in series with the unknown resistance. If a given The "zero adjuster," R l , is used to set the
deflection is obtained with terminals A-B shorted, voltmeter reading exactly to full scale when the
inserting the resistance to be measured will cause meter is calibrated in ohms. A 10,000-ohm variable
the meter reading to decrease. When the resistance resistor is suitable with a 20,000-ohms-per-volt
of the voltmeter is known, the following formula meter. The battery voltage is usually 3 volts for
can be applied: ranges up to 100,000 ohms or so and 6 volts for
higher ranges.
R =eRm_ R
E m
BRIDGE CIRCUITS
where R is the resistance to be found, An important class of measurement circuits is
e is the voltage applied (A- B shorted), the bridge, in which, essentially, a desired result is
E is the voltmeter reading with R connected, obtained by balancing the voltages at two different
and points in the circuit against each other so that
Rm is the resistance of the voltmeter. there is zero potential difference between them. A
voltmeter bridged between the two points will read
The circuit of Fig. 17-6A is not suited to zero (null) when this balance exists, but will
measuring low values of resistance (below a hun- indicate some definite value of voltage when the
dred ohms or so) with a high-resistance voltmeter. bridge is not balanced.
For such measurements the circuit of Fig. 17-6B Bridge circuits are useful both on direct current
can be used, The unknown resistance is and on ac of all frequencies. The majority of
R = 12Rm amateur applications is at radio frequencies, as
11 - 12 shown later in this chapter. However, the principles
of bridge operation are most easily introduced in
where R is the unknown, terms of dc, where the bridge takes its simplest
Rm is the internal resistance of the milliam- form.
meter,
h is the current with R disconnected from The Wheatstone Bridge
terminals A-B, and The simple resistance bridge, known as the
12 is the current with R connected. Wheatstone bridge, is shown in Fig. 17-7. All other
The formula is based on the assumption that the bridge circuits - some of which are rather
current in the complete circuit will be essentially elaborate, especially those designed for ac - derive
constant whether or not the "unknown" terminals from this. The four resistors, Rl, R2, R3, and R4
are short-circuited. This requires that Rl be very shown in A, are known as the bridge arms. For the
510 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS
to find Rx, the unknown resistance. Rl and R2 are
frequently made equal; then the calibrated
adjustable resistance (the standard), Rs, will have
the same value as Rx when Rs is set to show a null
(A) on the voltmeter.
Note that the resistance ratios, rather than the
actual resistance values, determine the voltage
balance. However, the values do have important
practical effects on the sensitivity and power
consumption. The bridge sensitivity is the readiness
with which the meter responds to small amounts of
unbalance about the null point; the "sharper" the
null the more accurate the setting of Rs at balance.
The Wheatstone bridge is rarely used by
amateurs for resistance measurement, the ohm-
(8) meter being the favorite instrument for that
purpose. However, it is worthwhile to understand
its operation because it is the prototype of
more complex bridges.
Fig. 17-7 - The Wheatstone bridge circuit. It is
frequently drawn as at (B) for emphasizing its
special fu nction. ELECTRONIC VOLTMETERS
It has been pointed out (Fig. 17-3) that for
voltmeter reading to be zero, the voltages across many purposes the resistance of a voltmeter must
R3 and R4 in series must add algebraically to zero; be extremely high in order to avoid "loading"
that is El must equal E2. RIR3 and R2R4 form errors caused by the current that necessarily flows
voltage dividers across the dc source, so that if through the meter. This tends to cause difficulty in
measuring relatively low voltages (under perhaps
R3 _ R4 1000 volts) because a meter movement of given
Rl + R3 - R2 + R4 sensitivity takes a progressively smaller multiplier
El will equal E2. resistance as the voltage range is lowered.
The circuit is customarily drawn as shown at The voltmeter resistance can be made indepen-
17-7B when used for resistance measurement. The dent of the voltage range by using vacuum tubes or
equation above can be rewritten field-effect transistors as electronic dc amplifiers
between the circuit being measured and the actual
indicator, which is usually a conventional meter
movement. As the input resistance of the
A

R,

1 +

RII

Fig. 17-8 - Vacuum-tube voltmeter circuit.

Cl, C3 - .002- to .005-tlF mica. Rll - 5000- to 10,000-ohm control (zero set).
C2 - .01 tlF, 1000 to 2000 volts, paper or mica. R12 - 10,000 to 50,000 ohms.
C4 - 16 tlF electrolytic, 150 volts. R13, R14 - App. 25,000 ohms. A 50,000-0hm
CRl - 400 PRV rectifier. slider-type wire-wound can be used.
M - 0-200 microammeter. R15 -10 megohms.
Rl - 1 megohm, 1/2 watt. R16 - 3 megohms.
R2-R5, incl. - To give desired voltage ranges, R17 - 1o-megohm variable.
totaling 10 megohms. Tl - 130-volt 15-mA transformer (only secondary
R6, R7 - 2 to 3 megohms. shown).
R8 - 10,000-0hm variable (calibrate). Vl - Dual triode, 12AU7A.
R9, Rl0 - 2000 to 3000 ohms. V2 - Dual diode, 6AL5.
------------------~ -
Electronic Voltmeters 511
VDC Rl

:L
22K

+ 8.4V
RlI

lOOK

C2
0-I1-:.0=-5~-"":":""---...J
VAC

1
Fig. 17-9 - Electronic voltmeter using field-effect basic voltmeter circuit of the Heathkit IM-17.l
transistor for high input resistance. Components CR1 - Silicon diode.
having the same functions as in the VTVM circuit 01 - Field-effect transistor.
of Fig. 17-8 carry the same designations. (Circuit is 02, 03 - Small-signal audio type.

electronic devices is extremely high - hundreds of Values to be used in the circuit depend
megohms - they have essentially no loading effect considerably on the supply voltage and the
on the circuit to which they are connected. They sensitivity of the meter, M. R12, and R13~RI4,
do, however, require a closed dc path in their input should be adjusted by trial so that the voltmeter
circuits (although this path can have very high circuit can be brought to balance, and to give
resistance) and are limited in the amplitude of full-scale deflection on M with about 3 volts
voltage that their inpu t circuits can handle. applied to the left-hand grid (the voltage chosen
Because of this, the device actually measures a for this determines the lowest voltage range of the
small voltage across a portion of a high-resistance instrument). The meter connections can be
voltage divider connected to the circuit being reversed to read voltages that are negative with
measured. Various voltage ranges are obtained by respect to ground.
appropriate taps on the voltage divider. The small circuit associated with V2 is for ac
In the design of electronic voltmeters it has measurements, as described in a later section.
become practically standard to use a voltage As compared with conventional dc instruments,
divider having a resistance of 10 megohms, tapped the VTVM has the disadvantages of requiring a
as required, in series with a I-megohm resistor source of power for its operation, and generally
incorporated in a probe that makes the actual must have its "cold" terminal grounded in order to
contact with the "hot" side of the circuit under operate reliably. It is also somewhat susceptible to
measurement. The total voltmeter resistance, erratic readings from rf pickup when used in the
including probe, is therefore 11 megohms. The vicinity of a transmitter, and in such cases may
l~megohm probe resistor serves to isolate the require shielding. However, its advantages outweigh
voltmeter circuit from the "active" circuit. these disadvantages in many applications.

The Vacuum-Tube Voltmeter The FET Voltmeter

A typical vacuum-tube voltmeter (VTVM) The circuit of an electronic voltmeter using a
circuit is given in Fig. 17 -S_ A dual triode, VI, is field-effect transistor as an input device is shown in
arranged so that, with no voltage applied to the Fig. 17-9. Allowing for the differences between
left-hand grid, equal currents flow through both vacuum tubes and semiconductors, the operation
sections. Under this condition the two cathodes are of this circuit is analogous to that of Fig. 17 -S.
at the same potential and no current flows through Transistors Q2 and Q3 correspond to the dual
M. The currents can be adjusted to balance by triode in the VTVM circuit, but since the input
potentiometer, Rll, which takes care of variations resistance of Q2 is fairly low, it is preceded by an
in the tube sections and in the values of cathode FET, Ql, with source..:oupled output. Note that in
resistors R9 and RIO. When a positive dc voltage is this circuit the "zero" or current-balance control,
applied to the left-hand grid the current through Rll, varies the gate bias on Ql by introducing an
that tube section increases, so the current balance adjustable positive voltage in series with the source.
is upset and the meter indicates. The sensitivity of This arrangement permits applying the adjustable
the meter is regulated by RS, which serves to bias to the gate through the voltmeter range
adjust the calibration. R12, common to the divider, with no other provision needed for
cathodes of both tube sections, is a feedback completing the de gate-source path.
resistor that stabilizes the system and makes the The small circuit associated with CRI is for ac
readings linear. R6 and Cl form a fIlter for any ac voltage measurement, to be discussed later.
component that may be present, and R6 is As the power supply for the FET voltmeter is a
balanced by R7 connected to the grid of the self-contained battery, the grounding restrictions
second tube section. associated with a VTVM do not apply. The
512 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS
instrument can, however, be susceptible to rf fields circuit generally used is that of Fig. 17-6C. Since
if not shielded and grounded. for practical purposes the input resistance of the
vacuum tube or FET can be assumed to approach
Electronic Ohmmeters infinity, electronic ohmmeters are capable of
Most commercial electronic voltmete:rs include measuring resistances in the hundreds of megohms
provision for measuring resistance and ac voltage, - a much higher range than can be reached with an
in addition to dc voltage. The basic ohmmeter ordinary microammeter.

AC INSTRUMENTS AND CIRCUITS

f~Difv~
Although purely electromagnetic instruments
that operate directly from alternating current are (A)
available, they are seen infrequently in present-day
amateur equipment. For one thing, their use is not
feasible above power-line frequencies.
Practical instruments for audio and radio J-7\--P~;7\------PEAK
frequencies generally use a dc meter movement in
(6) ..:
conjunction with a rectifier. Voltage measurements
suffice for nearly all test purposes. Current, as to t-1.==~-_-_~-AVERAGEpI8)
---- --- --
such, is seldom measured in the af range. When rf
current is measured the instrument used is a
thermocouple milliammeter or ammeter.
(c) +'
5
lb.--~--
----P~K
NEG.
---- -
------
--- -- --AVERAGEG311J)
The Thermocouple Meter to -- --- --- --
In a thermocouple meter the alternating current
flows through a low-resistance heating element.
(D) +~f=-7-\.~~l-\~A=--~:::;GE(636)
The power lost in the resistance generates heat
which warms a "thermocouple," a junction of t° L_'iBE~V___V__ 'i __
certain dissimilar metals which has the property of
developing a small dc voltage when heated. This Fig. 17-11 - Sine-wave alternating current or
voltage is applied to a dc milliammeter calibrated voltage (A), with half-wave rectification of the
in suitable ac units. The heater-thermocouple-dc positive half cycle (9) and negative half cycle (C).
meter combination is usually housed in a regular o - full-wave rectification. Average vallHls are
meter case. shown with relation to a peak value of 1.

Thermocouple meters can be obtained in ranges

from abou t 100 mA to many amperes. Their useful
upper frequency limit is in the neighborhood of
100 MHz. Their principal value in amateur work is
in measuring current into a known load resistance
for calculating the rf power delivered to the load.
A suitable mounting for this is shown in Fig.
17-10, for use in coaxial lines.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
The response of a rectifier-type meter is
proportional (depending on the design) to either
the peak amplitude or average amplitude of the
rectified ac wave, and never directly responsive to
Fig. 17-10 - Rf ammeter mounted in a Minibox, the rms value. The meter therefore cannot be
with connectors for placing the meter in series with calibrated in rms without preknowledge of the
a coaxial line. A bakelite-case meter should be used relationship that happens to exist between the
to minimize shunt capacitance (which introduces "real" reading and the rms value. This relationship,
error) although a metal-case meter can be used if
mounted on bakelite sheet with a large cut-out in in general, is not known, except in the case of
the case around the rim. The meter can be used for single-frequency ac (a sine wave). Very many
rf power measurements (P = 12 R) when connected practical measurements involve nonsinusoidal
between a transmitter and a nonreactive load of wave forms, so it is necessary to know what kind of
known resistance. instrument you have, and what it is actually
Rectifier Instruments 513

}-DvAro--
Turn-Over
From Fig. 17-12 it is apparent that the
(A) calibration of an average-reading meter will be the
same whether the positive or negative sides are

(B) +5
l[lfr nul5r ---- POS.
-PEAK
rectified. A half-wave peak-reading instrument,
however, will indicate different values when its
connections to the circuit are reversed (turn-over
- - ---- -- ------AVERAGE effect). Very often readings are taken both ways,
fo - - -- in which case the sum of the two is the
peak-to-peak value, a useful figure in much audio

(c)
t
+
.5

0
t
-
NEG.
--~--
---
--- - --PEAK

- --
-- -
-- --
--AVERAGE
--
and video work .

Average- and Peak-Reading Circuits

The basic difference between average- and
I[---s;;-r-;;--------PEAK peak-reading rectifier circuits is that in the former
(D) +'5~
- - - - - - -AVERAGE the output is not filtered while in the latter a filter
t 0 - - - - - -- --
capacitor is charged up to the peak value of the
output voltage. Fig. 17-13A shows typical
average-reading circuits, one half-wave and the
Fig. 17-12 - Same as Fig. 17-11 for an
unsymmetrical waveform. The peak values are other full-wave. In the absence of dc filtering the
different with positive and negative half-cycle meter responds to wave forms such as are shown at
rectification. B, C and D in Figs. 17-11 and 17-12, and since the
inertia of the pointer system makes it unable to
reading, in order to make measurements intelligent- follow the rapid variations in current, it averages
ly. them out mechanically.
Peak and Average with Sine-Wave In Fig. 17-13A CRI actuates the meter; CR2
Rectification provides a low-resistance dc return in the meter
circuit on the negative half cycles. Rl is the
Fig. 17-11 shows the relative peak and average voltmeter multiplier resistance. R2 forms a voltage
values in the outputs of half- and full-wave
rectifiers (see power-supply chapter for further
details). As the positive and negative half cycles of
Rl
the sine wave have the same shape (A), half-wave
rectification of either the positive half (B) or the
negative half (C) gives exactly the same result. Willi AC
INPUT
full-wave rectification (D) the peak is still the
same, but the average is doubled, since there are
twice as many half cycles per unit of time. HALF-WAVE
(A)
Unsymmetrical Wave Forms
Rl
A nonsinusoidal waveform is shown in Fig.
17-12A. When the positive half cycles of this wave AC
INPUT
are rectified the peak and average values are as
shown at B. If the polarity is reversed and the
negative half cycles are rectified the peak value is
different but the average value is unchanged. The FULL-WAVE BRIDGE
fact that the average of the positive side is equal to
the average of the negative side is true of all ac
waveforms, but different waveforms have different
averages. Full-wave rectification of such a "lop- 0--1 +
sided" wave doubles the average value, but the Ae Dev
peak reading is always the same as it is with the OUT
INP~~2)'
half cycle that produces ilie highest peak in
half-wave rectification.
(B)
Effective-Value Calibration 'C1I~ RI
+
The actual scale calibration of commercially- Ae -,- l- Dev
INPUT eR R2 ?- OUT
made rectifier-type voltmeters is very often (almost
always, in fact) in terms of rms values. For sine
waves this is satisfactory, and useful since rms is PARALLEL
the standard measure at power-line frequency. It is
also useful for many rf applications where the Fig. 17-13 - A - Half-wave and full-wave
waveform is often closely sinusoidal. But in other rectification for an instrument intended to operate
cases, particularly in the af range, the error may be on average values. B - half-wave circuits for a
considerable when the waveform is not pure. peak-reading meter.
514 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS
divider with R1 (through CRl) which prevents quite low compared with the multiplier resistance
more than a few ac volts from appearing across the Rl, so the total resistance will be about the same
rectifier-meter combination. A corresponding resis- as the multiplier resistance. The capacitance
tor can be used across the full-wave bridge circuit. depends on the components and construction, test
In these two circuits no provision is made for lead length and disposition, and such factors. In
isolating the meter from any dc voltage that may general, it has little or no effect at power-line and
be on the circu'it under measurement. The error low audio frequencies, but the ordinary VOM loses
caused by this can be avoided by connecting a large accuracy at the higher audio frequencies and is of
capacitance in series with the "hot" lead. The little use at rf. For radio frequencies it is necessary
reactance must be low compared with the meter to use a rectifier having very low inherent
impedance (see next section) in order for the full capacitance.
ac voltage to be applied to the meter circuit. As Similar limitations apply to the peak-reading
much as 1 JiF may be required at line frequencies circuits. In the parallel circuit the resistive
with some meters. The capacitor is not usually component of the impedance is smaller than in the
included in a VOM. series circuit, since the dc load resistance, R1R2, is
Series and shunt peak-reading circuits are directly across the circuit being measured, and is
shown in Fig. 17-13B. Capacitor Cl isolates the therefore in parallel with the diode ac load
rectifier from dc voltage on the circuit under resistance. In both peak-reading circuits the
measurement. In the series circuit (which is seldom effective capacitance may range from 1 or 2 to a
used) the time constant of the C2RIR2 combina- few hundred pF. Values of the order of 100 pF are
tion must be very large compared with the period to be expected in electronic voltmeters of
of the lowest ac frequency to be measured; customary design and construction.
similarly with C1R1R2 in the shunt circuit. The
reason is that the capacitor is charged to the peak Linearity
value of voltage when the ac wave reaches its Fig. 17-14, a typical current/voltage characteris-
maximum, and then must hold the charge (so it tic of a small semiconductor rectifier, indicates
can register on a dc meter) until the next that the forward dynamic resistance of the diode is
maximum of the same polarity. If the time not constant, but rapidly decreases as the forward
constant is 20 times the ac period the charge will voltage is increased from zero. The transition from
have decreased by about 5 percent by the time the high to low resistance occurs at considerably less
next charge occurs. The average drop will be than 1 volt, but is in the range of voltage required
smaller, so the error is appreciably less. The error by the associated dc meter. With an average-reading
will decrease rapidly with increasing frequency, circuit the current tends to be proportional to the
assuming no change in the circuit values, but will square of the applied voltage. This crowds the
increase at lower frequencies. calibration points at the low end of the meter
In Fig. 17-13B Rl and R2 form a voltage scale. For most measurement purposes, however, it
divider which reduces the peak dc voltage to 71 is far more desirable for the output to be "linear;"
percent of its actual value. This converts the peak that is, for the reading to be direc tly proportional
readmg to rms on sine-wave ac. Since the to the applied voltage.
peak-reading circuits are incapable of delivering To achieve linearity it is necessary to use a
appreciable current without considerable error, R2 relatively large load resistance for the diode - large
is usually the ll-megohm input resistance of an enough so that this resistance, rather than the
electronic voltmeter. R1 is therefore approximate- diode's own resistance, will govern the current
ly 4.7 megohms, making the total resistance flow. A linear or equally spaced scale is thus gained
approach 16 megohms. A capacitance of .05 JiF is at the expense of sensitivity. The amount of
sufficient for low audio frequencies under these resistance needed depends on the type of diode;
conditions. Much smaller values of capacitance
suffice for radio frequencies, obviously.

Voltmeter Impedance FORWARD

.mA
The impedance of the voltJ,lleter at the I
frequency being measured may have an effect on - REVERSE VOLTS
the accuracy similar to the error caused by the

f
resistance of a dc voltmeter, as discussed earlier.
The ac meter acts like a resistance in prallel with a
~KOOWN
REVERSE
capacitance, and since the capacitive reactance ..,uA
decreases with increasing frequency, the impedance
also decreases with frequency. The resistance is
subject to some variation with voltage level,
~
particularly at very low voltages (of the order of 10 Fig. 17-14 - Typical semiconductor diode
volts or less) depending upon the sensitivity of the characteristic. Actual current and voltage values
meter movement and the kind of rectifier used. vary with the type of diode, but the forward-
The ac load resistance represented by a diode current curve would be in its steep part with only a
volt or so applied. Note change in current scale for
rectifier is approximately equal to one-half its dc reverse current. Breakdown voltage, again depend-
load resistance. In Fig. 17-13A the dc load is ing on diode type, may range from 15 or 20 volts
essentially the meter resistance, which is generally to several hundred.
RF Voltage SIS
r------------, Of the diodes readily available to amateurs, the
I .0olj-lF I germanium point-contact type is preferred for rf

n~-==J
applications. It has low capacitance (of the order
TO
ELEC. of 1 p F) and in the high-back -resistance types the
VM reverse current is not serious. The principal
L ___________ J limitation is that its safe reverse voltage is only
about 50-75 volts, which limits the rms applied
Heavy leads asshott voltage to 15 or 20 volts, approximately. Diodes
aspossible can be connected in series to raise the overall
rating.
Fig. 17-15 - Rf probe circuit. CR is a small
semiconductor rectifier, usually point-contact Linearity at Radio Frequencies
germanium. The resistor value, for exact voltage
division to rms, should be 4.14 megohms, but The bypass or filter capacitance normally used
standard values are generally used, including 4.7 in rf rectifier circuits is large enough, together with
megohms. the resistance in the system, to have a time
constant sufficient for peak readings. However, if
the resistance is low (the load sometimes is just the
5000 to 50,000 ohms usually suffices for a microammeter or milliammeter alone) the linearity
germanium rectifier, depending on the dc meter of the voltmeter will be affected as previously
sensitivity, but several times as much may be described, even if the time constant is fairly large.
needed for silicon. The' higher the resistance, the It is not safe to assume that the voltmeter is even
greater the meter sensitivity required; i.e., the basic approximately linear unless the load resistance is of
meter must be a microammeter rather than a the order of 10,000 ohms or greater.
low-range milliammeter. Nonlinear voltmeters are useful as indicators, as
where null indicators are called for, but should not
Reverse Current be depended upon for actual measurement of
voltage.
When voltage is applied in the reverse direction
there is a small leakage current in semiconductor
RF Power
diodes. This is equivalent to a resistance connected
across the rectifier, allowing current to flow during Power at radio frequencies can be measured by
the half cycle which should be completely noncon- means of an accurately-calibrated rf voltmeter
ducting, and causing an error in the dc meter connected across the load in which the power is
reading. This "back resistance" is so high as to be being dissipated. If the load is a known pure
practically unimportant with silicon, but may be resistance the power, by Ohm's Law, is equal to
less than 100 kn with germanium. E2/R, where E is the rms value of the voltage.
The practical effect of back resistance is to The method only indicates apparent power if
limit the amount of resistance that can be used in the load is not a pure resistance. The load can be a
the dc load resistance. This in turn affects the terminated transmission line tuned, with the aid of
linearity of the meter scale. bridge circuits such as are described in the next
The back resistance of vacuum-tube diodes is section, to act as a known resistance. An
infinite, for practical purposes. alternative load is a "dummy" antenna, a known
pure resistance capable of dissipating the rf power
RF VOLTAGE safely.
Special precautions must be taken to minimize
the capacitive component of the voltmeter AC BRIDGES
impedance at radio frequencies. If possible, the In its simplest form, the ac bridge is exactly the
rectifier circuit should be installed permanently at same as the Wheatstone bridge discussed earlier.
the point where the rf voltage to be measured' However, complex impedances can be substituted
exists, using the shortest possible rf connections. for resistances, as suggested by Fig. 17-16A. The
The dc meter can be remotely located, however. same bridge equation holds if Z is substituted for R
For general rf measurements an rf probe is used in each arm. For the equation to be true, however,
in conjunction with an electronic voltmeter, the phase angles as well as the numerical values of
substituted for the dc probe mentioned earlier. the impedances must balance; otherwise, a true
The circuit of Fig. 17-15, essentially the null voltage is impossible to obtain. This means
peak-reading shunt circuit of Fig. 17-13B, is that a bridge with all "pure" arms (pure resistance
generally used. The series resistor, installed in the or reactance) cannot measure complex impedances;
probe close to the rectifier, prevents rf from being a combination of R and X must be present in at
fed through the probe cable to the electronic least one arm besides the unknown.
voltmeter, being helped in this by the cable The actual circuits of ac bridges take many
capacitance. This resistor, in conjunction with the forms, depending on the type of measurement
10-megohm divider resistance of the electronic intended and on the frequency range to be
voltmeter, also reduces the peak rectified voltage covered. As the frequency is raised stray effects
to a dc value equivalent to the rms of the rf signal, (unwanted capacitances and inductances, principal-
to make the rf readings consistent with the regular ly) become more pronounced. At radio frequencies
ac calibration. special attention must be paid to minimizing them.
516 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS
Referring to Fig. 17-16A, if R1 and R2 are
made equal, the bridge will be balanced when
Rx =Rs. This is true whether Rx is an actual
(A) resistor or the input resistance of a perfectly
matched transmission line, provided RS is chosen
to equal the characteristic impedance of the line.
Even if the line is not properly matched, the bridge
will still be balanced for power traveling outward
on the line, since outward-going power sees only
the Zo of the line until it reaches the load.
(6) However, power reflected back from the load does
not "see" a bridge circuit, and the reflected voltage
registers on the voltmeter. From the known
relationship between the incident and reflected
voltages the SWR is easily calculated:
p SWR = Vo+ Vr
Vo - Vr
~
b
RF
CI* rTl b
RF
where Vo is the forward voltage and Vr is the
(c) IN V OUT reflected voltage. The forward voltage may be
measured either by disconnecting Rx or shorting
it.

The "Retlected Power Meter"

Fig. 17-16 - A - Generalized form of bridge Fig. 17-16C makes use of mutual inductance
circuit for either ac or dc. B - One form of ac between the primary and secondary of T1 to
bridge frequently used for rf measurements. C - establish a balancing circuit. Cl and C2 form a
SWR bridge for use in transmission lines. This voltage divider in which the voltage across C2 is in
circuit is often calibrated in power rather than the same phase as the voltage at that point on the
voltage. transmission line. The relative phase of the voltage
across R1 is determined by the phase of the
cu"ent in the line. If a pure resistance equal to the
Most amateur-built bridges are used for rf design impedance of the bridge is connected to the
measurements, especially SWR measurements on "RF Out" terminals, the voltages across Rl and C2
transmission lines. The circuits at Band C, Fig. will be out of phase and the voltmeter reading will
17-16, are favorites for this purpose. These basic be minimum; if the amplitudes of the two voltages
forms are often modified considerably, as will be are also equal (they are made so by bridge
seen by the constructional examples later in the adjustment) the voltmeter will read zero. Any
chapter. other value of resistance or impedance connected
Fig. 17-16B is useful for measuring both to the "RF Out" terminals will result in a finite
transmission lines and "lumped constant" compo- voltmeter reading. When used in a transmission line
nents. Combinations of resistance and capacitance this reading is proportional to the reflected voltage.
are often used in one or more arms; this may be To measure the incident voltage the secondary
required for eliminating the effects of stray terminals of T1 can be reversed. To function as
capacitance. described, the secondary leakage reactance of T1
Fig. 17-16C is used only on transmission lines, must be very large compared to the resistance of
and only on those lines having the characteristic Rl.
impedance for which the bridge is designed. Instruments of this type are usually designed
for convenient switching between forward and
SWR Measurement - The Retlectometer reflected, and are often calibrated to read power in
the specified characterisitic impedance. The net
In measuring standing-wave ratio advantage is power transmission is equal to the incident power
taken of the fact that the voltage on a transmission minus the reflected power.
line consists of two components traveling in
opposite directions. The power going from the
Sensitivity vs_ Frequency
transmitter to the load is represented by one
voltage (designated "incident" or "forward") and In all of the circuits in Fig. 17-16 the sensitivity
the power reflected from the load is represented by is independent of the applied frequency, within
the other. Because the relative amplitudes and practical limits. Stray capacitances and couplings
phase relationships are definitely established by the generally limit the performance of all three at the
line's characteristic impedance, its length and the high-frequency end of the useful range. Fig.
load impedance in which it is terminated, a bridge 17-16A will work right down to dc, but the
circuit can separate the incident and reflected low-frequency performance of Fig. 17-16B is
voltages for measurement. This is sufficient for degraded when the capacitive reactances become so
determining the SWR. Bridges designed for this large that voltmeter impedance becomes low in
purpose are frequently called reflectometers. comparison (in all these bridge circuits, it is
Frequency Measurement 517
assullled that the voltmeter impedance is high frequency, is the Monimatch and its various
compared with the impedance of the bridge arms). offspring. The circuit cannot be described in terms
In Fig. 17· 16C the performance is limited at low of lumped constants, as it makes use of the
frequencies by the fact that the transformer distrbuted mutual inductance and capacitance
reactance decreases with frequency, so that between the center conductor of a transmission
eventually the reactance is not very high in line and a wire placed parallel to it. The wire is
comparison with the resistance of Rl. terminated in a resistance approximating the
characteristic impedance of the transmission line at
The "Monimatch" one end and feeds a diode rectifier at the other. A
A type of bridge which is quite simple to make, practical example is shown later in this chapter.
but in which the sensitivity rises directly with

FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
The regulations governing amateur operation the receiver and the dial setting at which it is heard
require that the transmitted signal be maintained is noted. Then the nearest marker frequencies
inside the limits of certain bands of frequencies. * above and below the transmitter signal are turned
The exact frequency need not be known, so long as in and identified. The transmitter frequency is
it is not outside the limits. On this last point there obviously between these two known frequencies.
are no tolerances: It is up to the individual amateur If the marker frequencies are accurate, this is all
to see that he stays safely "inside." that needs to be known - except that the
This is not difficult to do, but requires some transmitter frequency must not be so close to a
simple apparatus and the exercise of some care. band (or subband) edge that sideband frequencies,
The apparatus commonly used is the frequency· especially in phone transmission, will extend over
marker generator, and the method involves use of the edge.
the station receiver, as in Fig. 17·17. If the transmitter signal is "inside" a marker at
the edge of an assignment, to the extent that there
THE FREQUENCY MARKER is an audible beat note with the receiver's BFO
turned off, normal cw sidebands are safely inside
The marker generator in its simplest form is a the edge. (This statement does not take into
high·stability oscillator generating a series of signals
account abnormal sidebands such as are caused by
which, when detected in the receiver, mark the clicks and chirps.) For phone the "safety"
exact edges of the amateur assignments. It does allowance is usually taken to be about 3 kHz, the
this by oscillating at a low frequency that has nominal width of one sideband. A frequency
harmonics falling on the desired frequencies. difference of this order can be estimated by noting
All U.S. amateur band limits are exact multiples the receiver dial settings for the two 25·kHz
of 25 kHz, whether at the extremes of a band or at markers which bracket the signal and dividing 25
points marking the subdivisions between types of by the number of dial divisions between them. This
emission, license privileges, and so on. A 25·kHz will give the number of kHz per dial division.
fundamental frequency therefore will produce the
desired marker signals if its harmonics at the higher Transceivers
frequencies are strong enough. But since harmonics
appear at 25·kHz intervals throughout the The method described above is applicable when
spectrum, along with the desired markers, the the receiver and transmitter are separate pieces of
problem of identifying a particular marker arises. equipment. When a transceiver is used and the
This is easily solved if the receiver has a reasonably
good calibration. If not, most marker circuits.
provide for a choice of fundamental outputs of
100 and 50 kHz as well as 25 kHz, so the question
can be narrowed down to initial identification of
100·kHz intervals. From these, the desired 25·kHz
(or 50·kHz) points can easily be spotted. Coarser RECEIVER TRANSMITTER
ANT
frequency intervals are rarely required; there are
INPUT
usually signals available from stations of known
frequency, and the 100·kHz points can be counted
off from them.

Transmitter Checking Fig. 17·17 - Setup for using a frequency standard.

It is necessary that the transmitter signal be weak
In checking one's own transmitter frequency in the receiver - of the same order of strength,as
the signal from the transmitter is first tuned in on the marker signal from the standard. This
requirement can usually be met by turning on just
the transmitter oscillator, leaving all power off any
* These limits depend on the type of emission succeeding stages. In some cases it may also be
and class of license held, as well as on international necessary to disconnect the antenna from the
agreements. See the latest edition of The Radio
Amateur's License Manual for current status. receiver.
518 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS
~ _ _...--_...:C3=-1f-o 25 kHz require only two successive divisions, each
OUT by 2. In the division process, the harmonic output
lOOK of the generator is greatly enhanced, making the
(A) generator useful at frequencies well into the vhf
range.

Simple Crystal Oscillators

B+
Fig. 17-1S illustrates a few of the simpler
circuits. Fig. 17-1SA is a long-time favorite where
vacuum tubes are used and is often incorporated in
receivers. C1 in this and the other circuits is used
for exact adjustment of the oscillating frequency
to 100 kHz, which is done by using the receiver for
(8) comparing one of the oscillator's harmonics with a
standard frequency transmitted by WWV, WWVH,
or a similar station.
Fig. 17-1SB is a field-effect transistor analog of
the vacuum-tube circuit. However, it requires a
10-mH coil to operate well, and since the harmonic
output is not strong at the higher frequencies the
circuit is given principally as an example of a
simple transistor arrangement. A much better
oscillator is shown at C. This is a cross-connected
1500 pair of transistors forming a multivibrator of the
(c) "free-running" or "astable" type, locked at 100
kHz by using the crystal as one of the coupling
elements. While it can use two separate bipolar
transistors as shown, it is much simpler to use an
integrated-circuit dual gate, which will contain all
Cl
L-----~~7~_~4-5--~ 0
I~----~
the necessary parts except the crystal and
capacitors and is considerably less expensive, as
+Vee 100 KHz well as more compact, than the separate
Fig. 17-18 - Three simple 100-kHz oscillator components. An example is shown later in the
circuits. C is the most suitable of available chapter.
transistor circuits (for marker generators) and is
recommended where solid-state is to be used. In all Frequency Dividers
three circuits C1 is for fine frequency adjustment.
The output coupling capacitor, C3, is generally Electronic division is accomplished by a
small - 20 to 50 pF - a compromise to avoid "bistable" flip-flop or cross-coupled circuit which
loading the oscillator by the receiver antenna input produces one output change for every two
while maintaining adequate coupling for good impulses applied to its input circuit, thus dividing
harmonic strength. the applied frequency by 2. All division therefore
must be in terms of some power of 2. In practice
transmitting frequency is automatically the same as this is no handicap since with modern integrated-
that to which the receiver is tuned, setting the circuit flip-flops, circuit arrangements can be
tuning dial to a spot between two known marker worked out for division by any desired number.
frequencies is all that is required. As flip-flops and gates in integrated circuits
The proper dial settings for the markers are come in compatible series - meaning that they
those at which, with the BFO on, the signal is work at the same supply voltage and can be
tuned to zero beat - the spot where the beat directly connected together - a combination of a
disappears as the tuning makes the beat tone dual-gate version of Fig. 17-1SC and a dual
progressively lower. Exact zero beat can be flip-flop make an attractively simple combination
determined by a very slow rise and fall of for the marker generator.
background noise, caused by a beat of a cycle or There are several different basic types of
less per second. flip-flops, the variations having to do with methods
of driving (dc or pulse operation) and control of
FREQUENCY-MARKER CIRCUITS the counting function. Information on the
operating principles and ratings of a specific type
The basic frequency-determining element in usually can be. obtained from the manufacturer.
most amateur frequency markers is a lOO-kHz The counting-control functions are not needed in
crystal. Although the marker generator should using the flip-flop in a simple marker generator,
produce harmonics at 25-kHz and 50-kHz intervals, although they come into play when dividing by
crystals (or other high-stability devices) for some number other than a power of 2.
frequencies lower than 100 kHz are expensive and
difficult to obtain. However, there is really no need Frequency Standards
for them, since it is easy to divide the basic The difference between a marker generator and
frequency down to any figure one desires; 50 and a frequency standard is that in the latter special
Frequency-Marker Circuits 519
pains are taken to make the oscillator frequency as
stable as possible in the face of variations in
temperature, humidity, line voltage, and other
L,
factors which could cause a small change in
frequency.
While there are no definite criteria that
distinguish the two in this respect, a circuit
designated as a "standard" for amateur purposes
should be capable of maintaining frequency within Fig. 17-19A - Absorption frequency-meter circuit.
at least a few parts per million under normal The closed-circuit phone jack may be omitted if
variations in ambient conditions, without adjust- listening is not wanted; in that case the positive
ment. A simple marker generator using a 1~O-kHz terminal of Ml goes to common ground.
crystal can be expected to have frequency
variations 10 times (or more) greater under similar or to a band of frequencies very close to it. Thus
conditions. It can of course be adjusted to exact there is no harmonic ambiguity, as there sometimes
frequency at any time the WWV (or equivalent) is when using a marker generator.
signal is available.
The design considerations of high-precision Absorption Circuit
frequency standards are outside the scope of this A typical absorption frequency-meter circuit is
chapter, but information is available from time to shown in Fig. 17-19. In addition to the adjustable
time in periodicals. tuned circuit, LIC1, it includes a pickup coil, L2,
wound over L1, a high-frequency semiconductor
OTHER METHODS OF FREQUENCY diode, CR1, and a microammeter or low-range
CHECKING (usually not more than 0-1 mAl milliammeter. A
phone jack is included so the device can be used
The simplest possible frequency-measuring for listening to the signal.
device is a parallel LC circuit, tunable over a The sensitivity of the frequency meter depends
desired frequency range and having its tuning dial on the sensitivity of the dc meter movement and
calibrated in terms of frequency. It can be used the size of L2 in relation to Ll. There is an
only for checking circuits in which at least a small optimum size for this coil which has to be found
amount of rf power is present, because the energy by experiment. An alternative is to make the
required to give a detectable indication is not rectifier connection to an adjustable tap on L1, in
available in the LC circuit itself; it has to be which case there is an optimum tap point. In
extracted from the circuit being measured; hence general, the rectifier coupling should be a little
the name absorption frequency meter. It will be below (that is, less tight) the point that gives
observed that what is actually measured is the maximum response, since this will make the
frequency of the rf energy, not the frequency to indications sharper.
which the circuit in which the energy is present
may be tuned. Calibration
The measurement accuracy of such an instru-
ment is low, compared with the accuracy of a The absorption frequency meter must be
marker generator, because the Q of a practicable calibrated by taking a series of readings on various
LC circuit is not high enough to make precise frequencies from circuits carrying rf power, the
reading of the dial possible. Also, any two circuits frequency of the rf energy first being determined
coupled together react on each others' tuning. by some other means such as a marker generator
(This can be minimized by using the loosest and receiver. The setting of the dial that gives the
coupling that will give an adequate indication.) highest meter indication is the calibration point for
The absorption frequency meter has one useful that frequepcy. This point should be determined
advantage over the marker generator - it will by tuning through it with loose coupling to the
respond only to the frequency to which it is tuned, circuit being measured.

OTHER INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS

Many measurements require a source of ac earlier chapter, uses equipment common to
power of adjustable frequency (and sometimes ordinary radio service work. Inexpensive rf signal
adjustable amplitude as well) in addition to what is generators are available, both complete and in kit
already available from the transmitter or receiver. form. However, any source of signal that is weak
Rf and af test oscillators, for example, provide enough to avoid overloading the receiver usually
signals for purposes such as receiver alignment, will serve for alignment work. The frequency
testing of phone transmitters, and so on. Another marker generator is a satisfactory signal source. In
valuable adjunct to the station is the oscilloscope, addition, its frequencies, although not continuous-
especially useful for checking phone modulation. ly adjustable, are known far more precisely, since
the usual signal-generator calibration is not highly
Rf Oscillators for Circuit Alignment accurate. For rough work the dip meter described
Receiver testing and alignment, covered in an in the next section will serve.
520 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS
L1 meter indication. This technique can result in

~
"dead spots" in the tuning range if the oscillator
power is too low to enable the diode to conduct at
TOO
S.M.
1 CTAJfJ}CiB 100
all times. The circuit of Fig. 17 -19B avoids the
problem by measuring the changes in source
MPF102 S.M. current. In the W.M. (wavemeter) position of S1
the gate-source junction of Q1 serves as the
detector diode.
Each tuning range of the dipper should overlap
to provide sufficient coverage to check circuits of
unknown resonant frequency. Plug-in coils are
normally used to allow continuous coverage from
1.5 to at least 250 MHz.

Calibration
A dipper should have reasonably accurate
Fig. 17-19B - An FET source-dipper circuit calibration. Calibration of the dipper dial can be
suitable for use from 1.5 to 50 MHz. For operation
at vhf and uhf the value of C1 should be made effected by monitoring the dipper output signal
smaller, RFC1 would be a vhf type, and the bypass with a calibrated receiver. Make sure the
capacitors would be smaller in value. For uhf use fundamental frequency of the dipper is being used
Q1 would be changed to a uhf-type FET, a during calibration.
2N4416 or similar.
Operating the Dip Meter
THE DIP METER The dip meter will check only resonant circuits,
The dip meter reverses the absorption-wave- since nonresonant circuits or components will not
meter procedure in that it supplies the rf power by absorb energy at a specific frequency. The circuit
incorporating a tunable oscillator from which the may be either lumped or linear (a transmission-line
circuit being checked absorbs energy when this type circuit) provided only that it has enough Q to
circuit and the oscillator are tuned to the same give sufficient coupling to the dip-meter coil for
frequency and coupled together. In the vacuum- detectable absorption of rf energy. Generally the
tube version the energy absorption causes a coupling is principally inductive, although at times
decrease or "dip" in the oscillator's rectified grid there may be sufficient capacitive coupling
current, measured by a dc microammeter. between the meter and a circuit point that is at
The same principle can be applied to solid-state relatively high potential with respect to ground to
oscillators. In some transistor versions the oscilla- permit a reading. For inductive coupling, maxi-
tor rf power is rectified by a diode to provide a mum energy absorption will occur when the meter

0 C B A
100 100 10 I. 0
900 90 9 O. 9
800 80 8 o· 8
700 70 7 O. 7

600 60 6 0.6
.1
500 50 5 O. 5

400 40 4 0.4 (" "

~
'1_
k~~
300 30 3 0.3 <J' \>

\- <J'
C>
<l-
~.
250 25 2.5 0.25 (-.,
0,

200 20 2 0.2 \ - +
+

150 15 1.5 0.15 \

+
I,ll +

100
D C B
J I 0.1
A
1.5
I
2.
II1II
I I I III
I II
III
4 5 6
\I;
N
7 8 9 10
FREOUENCY IN MEGACYCLES·
15
1.1 . ,Ii
20 25
I
30
' III
lilT
I

40 50

Fig. 17-20 - Chart for determining unknown values of Land C in the range of 0.1 to 100 J.LH and 2 to
1000 pF, using standards of 100 pF and 5 J.LH.
The Dip Meter 521
wound coil stock; if none is available, a homemade
equivalent in diameter, tum spacing, and number
of turns can be substitu ted. The inductance will be
5 J..ll:I within amply close tolerances if the
specifications in Fig. 17-21 are followed closely. In
any case, the inductance can easily be adjusted to
the proper value; it should resonate with the
100-pF capacitor at 7100 kHz.
The setup for measuring an unknown is shown
in Fig. 17-22. Inductance is measured with the
unknown connected to the standard capacitance.
Couple the dip meter to the coil and adjust the
meter for the dip, using the loosest possible
coupling that will give a usable indication. Similar
procedure is followed for capacitance measure-
Fig. 17-21 - A convenient mounting, using ment, except that the unknown is connected to the
binding-post plates, for Land C standards made standard inductance. Values are read off the chart
from commercially available parts. The capacitor is
a 100-pF silver mica unit, mounted so the lead for the frequency indicated by the dip meter.
length is as nearly zero as possible. The inductance
standard, 5 IlH, is 17 turns of coil stock, 1-inch Coefficient of Coupling
diameter, 16 turns per inch. The same equipment can be used for
measurement of the coefficient of coupling
is coupled to a coil (the same coupling rules that between two coils. This simply requires two
apply to any two coils are operative here) in the measurements of inductance (of one of the coils)
tuned circuit being checked, or to a high-current with the coupled coil first open-circuited and then
poin t in a linear circuit. short-circuited. Connect the 100-pF standard
Because of distributed capacitance (and some- capacitor to one coil and measure the inductance
times inductance) most circuits resonant at the with the terminals of the second coil open. Then
lower amateur frequencies will show quasi-Iinear- short the terminals of the second coil and again
type resonances at or close to the vhf region. A vhf measure the inductance of the first. The coefficient
dip meter will uncover these, often with beneficial of coupling is given by
results since such "parasitic" resonances can cause
unwanted responses at harmonics of the intended
frequency, or be responsible for parasitic oscilla-
k="h _L2Ll
tions in amplifiers. Caution must be used in
checking transmission lines or antennas - and, where k =coefficient of coupling
especially, combinations of antenna and line - on Ll =inductance of first coil with terminalsof
this account, because these linear circuits have second coil open
well-defined series of harmonic responses, based on L2 = inductance of first coil with terminals of
the lowest resonant frequency, which may lead to second coil shorted.
false conclusions respecting the behavior of the
system.
Measurements with the dip meter are essentially AUDIO-FREQUENCY OSCILLATORS
frequency measurements, and for best accuracy the Tests requiring an audio-frequency signal
coupling between the meter and circuit under generally call for one that is a reasonably good sine
checking must be as loose as will allow a wave, and the best oscillator circuits for this are
perceptible dip. In this respect the dip meter is RC-coupled, operating as nearly as possible as Class
similar to the absorption wavemeter. A amplifiers. Variable frequency covering the
entire audio range is needed for determining
Measuring Inductance and Capacitance frequency response of audio amplifiers, but this is
with the Dip Meter
With a carefully calibrated dip meter, properly
operated, inductance and capacitance in the values
ordinarily used for the 1.5-50 MHz range can be
(A)
measured with ample accuracy for practical work.
The method requires two accessories: an induc-
tance "standard" of known value, and a capaci-
tance standard also known with reasonable
accuracy. Values of 100 pF for the capacitance and
5 J..ll:I for the inductance are convenient. The chart (8)
of Fig. 17-20 is based on these values.
The Land C standards can be quite ordinary
components. A small silver-mica capacitor is
satisfactory for the capacitance, since the cus-
tomary tolerance is ±5 percent. The inductance Fig. 17·22 - Setups for measuring inductance and
standard can be cut from commercial machine- capacitance with the dip meter.
 522 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS
Vee that is, resistance exhibiting only negligible reactive
effects on the frequencies at which measurement is
intended. Of the resistors available to amateurs,
this requirement is met only by small composition
(carbon) resistors. The inductance of wire-wound
resistors makes them useless for amateur frequen-
cies.
The reactances to be considered arise from the
Rl R2 inherent inductance of the resistor itself and its
C4 leads, and from small stray capacitances from one
+---+-I~T part of the resistor to another and to surrounding
conductors. Although both the inductance and
capacitance are small, their reactances become
increasingly important as the frequency is raised.
Small composition resistors, properly mounted,
show negligible capacitive reactance up to 100
MHz or so in resistance values up to a few hundred
ohms; similarly, the inductive reactance is negligi-
Fig. 17-23 - Twin-T audio oscillator circuit. ble in values higher than a few hundred ohms. The
Representative values for R1-R2 and C1 range optimum resistance region in this respect is in the
from 18knand .05 J1F for 750 Hz to 15kn and .02 50 to 200-ohm range, approximately.
J1F for 1800 Hz. For the same frequency range, R3 Proper mounting includes reducing lead length
and C2-C3 vary from 1800 ohms and .02 J1F to
1500 ohms and .01 J1F. R4 should be approximate- as much as possible, and keeping the resistor
ly 3300 ohms. C4, the output coupling capacitor, separated from other resistors and conductors.
can be .05 J1F for high-impedance loads. Care must also be taken in some applications to
ensure that the resistor, with its associated
a relatively unimportant type of test in amateur components, does not form a closed loop into
equipment. The variable-frequency af signal genera- which a voltage could be induced magnetically.
tor is best purchased complete; kits are readily So installed, the resistance is essentially pure. In
available at prices that compare very favorably composition resistors the skin effect is very small,
with the cost of parts. and the rf resistance up to vhf is very closely the
For most phone-transmitter testing, and for same as the dc resistance.
simple trouble shooting in af amplifiers, an
oscillator generating one or two frequencies with Dummy Antennas
good wave form is adequate. A "two-tone" (dual)
oscillator is particularly useful for testing sideband A dummy antenna is simply a resistor that, in
transmitters, and a constructional example is found impedance characteristics, can be substituted for
later in the chapter. an antenna or transmission line for test purposes. It
The circuit of a simple RC oscillator useful for permits leisurely transmitter testing without
general test purposes is given in Fig. 17-23. This radiating a signal. (The amateur regulations strictly
"Twin-T" arrangement gives a wave form that is limit the amount of "on-the-air" testing that may
satisfactory for most purposes, and by choice of be done.) It is also useful in testing receivers, in
circuit constants the oscillator can be operated at that electrically it resembles an antenna, but does
any frequency in the usual audio range. R1, R2 not pick up external noise and signals, a desirable
and C1 form a low-pass type network, while feature in some tests.
C2C3R3 is high-pass. As the phase shifts are For transmitter tests the dummy antenna must
opposite, there is only one frequency at which the be capable of dissipating safely the entire power
total phase shift from collector to base is 180 output of the transmitter. Since for most testing it
degrees, and oscillation will occur at this is desirable that the dummy simulate a perfectly-
frequency. Optimum operation results when C1 is matched transmission line, it should be a pure
approximately twice the capacitance of C2 or C3, resistance, usually of approximately 52 or 73
and R3 has a resistance about 0.1 that of R1 or R2
(C2 = C3 and R1 =R2). Output is taken across C1,
where the harmonic distortion is least. A relatively
high-impedance load should be used - 0.1 megohm
or more.
A small-signal af transistor is suitable for Ql.
Either npn or pnp types can be used, with due
regard for supply polarity. R4, the collector load
resistor, must be large enough for normal
amplification, and may be varied somewhat to
adjust the operating conditions for best waveform.

RESISTORS AT RADIO FREQUENCIES Fig. 17-24 - Dummy antenna made by mounting a

composition resistor in a PL-259 coaxial plug. Only
Measuring equipment, in some part of its the inner portion of the plug is shown; the cap
circuit, often requires essentially pure resistance - screws on after the assembly is completed.
The Oscilloscope 523
"SOLDER
the magnetically deflected television picture tube is
not at all suitable for measurement purposes.) In
the usual display presentation, the fluorescent spot
moves across the screen horizontally at some
known rate (horizontal deflection or horizontal
sweep) and simultaneously is moved vertically by
the signal voltage being examined (vertical
COAX I
RECEPTACLE deflection). Because of the retentivity of the screen
and the eye, a rapidly deflected spot appears as a
SHEET continuous line. Thus a varying signal voltage
~ ______-+____-+__~LCCOPPER
causes a pattern to appear on the screen.
SIDE VIEW Conventionally, oscilloscope circuits are de-
signed so that in vertical deflection the spot moves
Fig. 17-25 - Using resistors in series-parallel to upward as the signal voltage becomes more positive
increase the power rating of a small dummy
antenna. Mounted in this way on pieces of flat with respect to ground, and vice versa (there are
copper, inductance is reduced to a minimum. Eight exceptions, however). Also, the horizontal deflec-
100-ohm 2-watt composition resistors in two tion is such that with an ac sweep voltage - the
groups, each four resistors in parallel, can be simplest form - positive is to the right; with a
connected in series to form a 50-ohm dummy. The linear sweep - one which moves the spot at a
open construction shown permits free air circula- uniform rate across the screen and then at the end
tion. Resistors drawn heavy are in one "deck"; of its travel snaps it back very quickly to the
light ones are in the other. starting point - time progresses to the right.
Most cathode-ray tubes for oscilloscope work
ohms. This is a severe limitation in home require a deflection amplitude of about 50 volts
construction, because nonreactive resistors of more per inch_ For displaying small signals, therefo~e,
than a few watts rated safe dissipation are very considerable amplification is needed. Also, special
difficult to obtain. (There are, however, dummy circuits have to be used for linear deflection. The
antenna kits available that can handle up to a design of amplifiers and linear deflection circuits is
kilowatt.) complicated, and extensive texts are available. For
For receiver and minipower transmitter testing checking modulation of transmitters, a principal·
an excellent dummy antenna can be made by amateur use of the scope, quite simple circuits
installing a 51- or 75-ohm composition resistor in a suffice. A 60-Hz voltage from the power line makes
PL-259 fitting as shown in Fig. 17-24. Sizes from a satisfactory horizontal sweep, and the voltage
one-half to two watts are satisfactory. The disk at required for vertical deflection can easily be
the end helps reduce lead inductance and obtained from transmitter rf circuits without
completes the shielding. Dummy antennas made in
amplification.
this way have good characteristics through the vhf For general measurement purposes amplifiers
bands as well as at all lower frequencies. and linear deflection circuits are needed. The most
economical and satisfactory way to obtain a scope
Increasing Power Ratings having these features is to assemble one of the many
More power can be handled by using a number kits available.
of 2-watt resistors in parallel, or series-parallel, but
at the expense of introducing some reactance. Simple Oscilloscope Circuit
Nevertheless, if some departure from the ideal Fig. 17-26 is an oscilloscope circuit that has all
impedance characteristics can be tolerated this is a the essentials for modulation monitoring: controls
practical method for getting increased dissipatio?s. for centering, focusing, and adjusting the bright-
The principal problem is stray inductance which ness of the fluorescent spot; voltage dividers to
can be minimized by mounting the resistors on flat su pply proper electrode potentials to the cathode-
copper strips or sheets, as suggested in Fig. 17-25. ray tube; and means for coupling the vertical and
The power rating on resistors is a continuous horizontal signals to the deflection plates.
rating in free air. In practice, the maximum power The circuit can be used with electrostatic-
dissipated can be increased in ~roport~on to ~he deflection tubes from two to five inches in face
reduction in duty cycle. Thus With keymg, which diameter, with voltages up to 2500. Either set of
has a duty cycle of about 1/2, the rating can be deflecting electrodes (DID2, or D3D4) may be
doubled. With sideband the duty cycle is usually used for either horizontal or vertical deflection,
not over about 1/3. The best way of judging is to depending Oll how the tube is mounted.
feel the resistors occasionally; if too hot to touch, In Fig. 17-26 the centering controls are not too
they may be dissipating more power than they are high above electrical ground, so they do ~ot need
rated for. special insulation. However, the focusmg and
intensity controls are at a high voltage above
THE OSCILLOSCOPE ground and therefore should be carefully insulated.
The electrostatically deflected cathode-ray Insulated couplings or extension shafts should be
tube, with appropriate associated equ.ipment, is used.
capable of displaying both low- an? radlO-frequ~n­ The tube should be protected from stray
cy signals on its fluorescent screen, m a fQrm whICh magnetic fields, either by enclosing it i~ an iron or
lends itself to ready interpretation. (In contrast, steel box or by using one of the special CR tube
524 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS
T,

II~II
R.
lOOK

60~

1 MEG. lOOK

H C3

[O-:too R7 INTENSITY

IJ~eTO;:+., 6aOK
Fig. 17-27 -- A quasi-linear time base for an
l~ oscilloscope can be obtained from the "center"
V 3300 Re portion of a sine wave. Coupling the ac to the grid
saOK
gives intensity modulation that blanks the retrace.
~~,......____--I__.J C1 -- Ceramic capacitor of adequate voltage rating.
'----""t-< T1 -- 250- to 350-volt center-tapped secondary. If
voltage is too high, use dropping resistor in
primary side.
R. FOCUS
'----+------~<500K Lissajous Figures

R" INTENSITY
When sinusoidal ac voltages are applied to both
rQ h. II. sets of deflecting plates in the oscilloscope the
,-J-., + - lOOK 220K resultant pattern depends on the relative ampli-
tudes, frequencies and phases of the two voltages. If
Fig. 17-26 -- Oscilloscope circuit for modulation the ratio between the two frequencies is constant
monitoring. Constants are for 1500- to 2500-volt and can be expressed in integers a stationary
high-voltage supply. For 1000 to 1500 volts, omit pattern will be produced.
R8 and connect the bottom end of R7 to the top
end of R9.
C1-C5, incl. -- 1OOO-voit disk ceramic. PATTERNS fREQ. RATIO
R1, R2, R9, R11 -- Volume-{;ontrol type, linear
taper. R9 and R11 must be well insulated from
chassis. III
R3, R4, R5, R6, R10 -- 1/2 watt.
R7, R8 -- 1 watt.
V1 -- Electrostatic-deflection cathode-ray tube, Fig. 17-28 -- Lissajous
2- to 5-inch. Base connections and heater figu res and correspond-
ratings vary with type chosen. ing frequency ratios for
a 90-degree phase rela-
tionship between the
voltages applied to the
shields available. If the heater transfonner (or two sets of deflecting
other transformer) is mounted in the same cabinet, plates.
care must be used to place it so the stray field
around it does not deflect the spot. The spot
cannot be focused to a fine point when influenced
by a transformer field. The heater transfonner
must be well insulated, and one side of the heater
should be connected to the cathode. The
high-voltage dc can be taken from the transmitter
plate su pply; the current required is negligible. ~13
Methods for connecting the oscilloscope to a
transmitter for checking or monitoring modulation
are given in earlier chapters.

Quasi-Linear Sweep The stationary patterns obtained in this way are

For wave-envelope patterns that require a called Lissajous figures. Examples of some of the
fairly linear horizontal sweep, Fig. 17-27 shows a simpler Lissajous figures are given in Fig. 17-28.
method of using the substantially linear portion of The frequency ratio is found by counting the
the 600Hz sine wave -- the "center" portion where number of loops along two adjacent edges. Thus in
the wave goes through zero and reverses polarity. A the third figure from the top there are three loops
600Hz transfonner with a center-tapped secondary along a horizontal edge and only one along the
winding is required. The voltage should be vertical, so the ratio of the vertical frequency to
sufficient to deflect the spot well off the screen on the horizontal frequency is 3 to 1. Similarly, in the
both sides -- 250 to 350 volts, usually. With such fifth figure from the top there are four loops along
"over-deflection" the sweep is fairly linear, but it is the horizontal edge and three along the vertical
as bright on retrace as on left-to-right. To blank it edge, giving a ratio of 4 to 3. Assuming that the
in one direction, it is necessary to couple the ac to known frequency is applied to the horizontal
the No.1 grid of the CR tube as shown. plates, the unknown frequency is
Marker Generators 525
power-line frequency is held accurately enough to
[2= '!:J:... [1 be used as a standard in most localities. The
n1 medium audio-frequency range can be covered by
where [1 = known frequency applied to horizontal comparison with the 440- and 600-Hz modulation
plates, on the WWV transmissions. It is possible to
[2 = unknown frequency applied to vertical calibrate over a 10-t0-1 range, both upwards and
plates, downwards, from each of the latter frequencies
n1 =number ofloops along a vertical edge and thus cover the audio range useful for voice
and, communication.
n2 =number of loops along a horizontal edge
An oscilloscope having both horizontal and
vertical amplifiers is desirable, since it is conve-
An important application of Lissajous figures is nian t to have a means for adjusting the voltages
in the calibration of audio-frequency signal applied to the deflection plates to secure a suitable
generators. For very low frequencies the 60-Hz pattern size.

MARKER GENERATOR FOR 100,50 AND 25 KHZ

The frequency generator in the accompanying
illustrations will deliver marker signals of usable
strength well into the vhf region when its output is
connected to the antenna input terminals of a

..
communications receiver. It uses a 100-kHz crystal
in an integrated-circuit version of the solid-state
multivibrator oscillator shown earlier. The oscilla-
tor is followed by a two-stage IC divider which ,
produces 50- and 25-kHz marker intervals. Two
inexpensive lCs are used, an MC-724P quad gate
and an MC790P dual JK flip-flop. Two of the gates
in the MC724P are used for the oscillator and a
third serves as a following buffer amplifier and
"squarer" for driving the first divide-by-2 circuit in
the MC790P. This divider then drives the second
divide-by-2 flip-flop. Outputs at the three frequen-
cies are taken through a 3-position switch from
taps as shown in the circuit diagram, Fig. 17-30. Fig. 17-29 - Frequency marker generating 100-,
50-, or 25-kHz intervals. Battery power supply
Two of the three poles of the 4-position switch (two "D" cells) is inside the cabinet, a
are used for controlling the collector voltage for 3 X 4 X 6-inch aluminum chassis with bottom
the ICs. Voltage is on the MC724P in all active plate. The trimmer capacitor for fine adjustment of
positions of the switch, but is applied to the frequency is available through the hole in the top
MC790P only when 50- and 25-kHz markers are near the left front.
required. This saves battery power, since the
MC790P takes considerably more current than the Frequency changes resulting from temperature
MC724P. variations are larger; they may be as much as a few
The outputs on all three frequencies are good hundred Hz at 15 MHz in normal room-tempera-
square waves. To assure reasonably constant ture variations. All such frequency changes can be
harmonic strength through the hf spectrum the compensated for by adjusting C2, and it is good
output is coupled to the receiver through a small practice to check the frequency occasionally
capacitance which tends to attenuate the lower- against one of the WWV transmissions, readjusting
frequency harmonics. This capacitance, C3, is not C2 if necessary.
critical as to value and may be varied to suit
individual preferences. The value shown, 22 pF, is Layout and Construction
satisfactory for working into a receiver having an
input impedance of 50 ohms. The physical layout of the circuit can be varied
At 3 volts dc input the current taken in the to suit the builder's tastes. The size of the box
100-kHz position of Sl is 8 rnA. In the 50- and containing the generator shown in the photographs
25-kHz positions the total current (both ICs) is 35 makes the batteries easily accessible for replace-
rnA. The generator continues to work satisfactorily ment. The method of mounting the crystal and C2
when the voltage drops as low as 1.5 volts. The allows the latter to be reached through the top' of
oscillator frequency is subject to change as the the box for screwdriver adjustment, and makes
voltage is lowered, the frequency shift amounting possible the easy removal of the crystal since it
to approximately 30 Hz at 15 MHz on going from plugs into a standard crystal socket. There is ample
3 to 2 volts. There is a slight frequency shift room for soldering the various wires that lead to
·between the 100-kHz and 50/25-kHz positions, but the switch from the etched board on which the
this amounts to only 6 or 7 Hz at 15 MHz. ICs, resistors, and C1 are mounted. The output
 526 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS

Lf?
~
C1 - O.lJ.!F paper, low voltage.
C2 - 745-pF ceramic trimmer.
SfB SfC
C3 - 22-pF dipped mica (ceramic
also satisfactory).
7-45pF Sl - 3-pole, 4-position rotary
C2 +3 (Mallory 3134J).
CJYl U1 - Quad 2-input NOR gate, 1
section unused (Motorola
MC724P).
U2 - Dual J-K flip-flop (Motorola
MC790P).

Fig. 17-30 - Marker generator circuit. Pin 4 of

both ICs is grounded. Connect pin 11 of U1 to
point C, and pin 11 of U2 to point F.
(

jack is placed at the rear where it is convenient ./

when the unit is alongside a receiver.
An etched board does not have to be used for
wiring the les and associated parts, although it
makes for neatness in construction. The wiring
plan used in this one is shown in Fig. 17-32. Fig.
17-32 is not a conventional template, but is a scale
drawing showing how the etched connections can
run with a minimum number of cross-over points
where jumpers are required (only one is needed in
this layout). In following the wiring plan the resist
can be put on as desired, so long as the separation
between conductors is great enough to prevent
short-circuits. Fig. 17-31 - Integrated circuits and associated
Fig. 17-32 shows the front or component side fixed capacitors and resistors are mounted on an
of the board. To get the reversed drawing that etched broad measuring 33/4 X 2 1/2 inches, sup-
would be followed on the copper side, place a ported from one wall by an aluminum bracket. The
piece of paper under the figure, with a face-up 100-kHz crystal and trimmer capacitor are on a
piece of carbon paper under it. Then trace the 1 X 2-inch plastic strip supported below the top on
wiring with a sharp pencil and the layout will be 1/2-inch spacers, with the capacitor facing upward
so it can be adjusted from outside. The two dry
transferred to the back of the paper. The points cells are in a dual holder (available from electronics
where holes are to be drilled are shown by small supply stores). The output connector is a phono
dots and circles, the latter indicating the points at jack, mounted on the rear wall (upper left in this
which external connections are to be made. view) with C3.

r--
r--
3%"-------:1
--.,
I
Fig. 17-32 -
Wiring plan for
the circuit
I MC72~P 0 MC790P I
board, com-
ponent side.
Dimensions for
I 1 14
o I placement of
parts are exact.
I o
o c I X - jumper.
Other letters
I I indicate exter-
I I nal connection
points, corres-

I I ponding to
similarly let-
I I tered connec-
tions in Fig.
I I 17-30.

I I
GND I
I
--.-- -_J_",,--
Two-Tone Audio Test Generator 527
TWO-TONE AUDIO TEST GENERATOR
The audio generator shown in the accompany- provide an output frequency of 2000 Hz. One
ing illustrations generates two audio frequencies oscillator is used on this frequency, and the other
which either can be combined to produce a shifted down to 800 Hz by changing Cl, C2 and
two-tone signal for ssb transmitter testing or used C3. The capacitor values required are not standard
independently for any test requiring a single so two capacitors are used in parallel in each case.
audio-frequency voltage. Construction is easy and
procurement of parts is simple because the
generator makes use of RCA integrated-circuit kits.
Only a few easy-to-get additional components are
required.
A pair of RCA KC-4002 audio-oscillator
modules are used as the tone generators. The
output of these oscillators should be as free from
harmonics as possible, and the tone frequencies
used should not be harmonically related. A mixer
combines the output of the two oscillators, and
this mixing process must also be distortion free.
One major objective of two-tone testing is to check
the amount of distortion produced in the Fig. 17-33 - The two-tone audio test generator.
transmitter, so you need a clean signal from the Subminiature controls and switches are used on the
front panel. The box is homemade; it consists of
generator to start with. Otherwise, harmonics from two U-shaped pieces of sheet aluminum, one
the generator will be indistinguishable from those forming the chassis, the other the cover. Overall
produced in the transmitter. The circuit is shown size is 7 1/2 X 4 1/4 X 1 1/4 inches. For appear-
in Fig. 17 -34; parts not supplied with the kits are ance's sake, the top cover overhangs the front
marked with an asterisk. panel by 1/4 inch. The controls adjust the output
The capacitors supplied with the KC-4002 level and balance the relative tone levels.

2000-Hz OSC
IRCA KC-4002)
[KeEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (jlF) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR jlJlF »;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS~
k -1000. M-' 000000
.-PARTS NOT SUPPLIED WITH
RCA kiTS.

~
T!lli
S2 •
ON

"2 MIXER
IRCA KC-4001)
• 821

l uv
~
aOO-Hz osc
IRCA KC-4002)

Fig. 17-34 - Circuit diagram of the integrated- C1, C2 - .01- and .OO2-j.lF disk ceramic (in
circuit two-tone test generator (lC-TT). Resistors parallel).
are 1I2-watt composition; capacitors with polarity C3 - .02- and .002-j.lF disk ceramic (in parallel).
marked are electrolytic, others are disk ceramic. J1 - Phono type.
All parts are supplied with the RCA kits. except R1, R2 - Miniature control (Mallory MLC53LI.
those marked with an asterisk. S1. S2 - Spdt miniature toggle (Radio Shack
BT1 - 9-volt transistor-radio type. 275-3761.
 ---- - - - - -------------

528 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS

FEEDBACK control. The oscillators should be set
up and checked separately, and then connected to
the mixer module.
The final alignment of the generator is as
follows: Switch to two-tone output (SI closed)
(
and adjust the FEEDBACK control on the 2000-Hz
oscillator until oscillation ceases. At this point you
should have output from the SOO-Hz oscillator
alone. With the BALANCE control set at midrange,
connect an oscilloscope to the output of the
generator and note the height of the output
pattern. SI shOUld then be set for single-tone
output, and the FEEDBACK control reset so that
the 2000-Hz oscillator starts. The FEEDBACK
control should be adjusted so that the pattern
height produced on the scope is close to that of the
SOO-Hz oscillator. Minor differences can be
corrected with the BALANCE control.
Switching to two-tone output, you should get a
Fig. 17-35 - Interior view of the IC-TT. pattern similar to the lower picture in Fig. 17-36.
Interconnections carrying audio signals use submin- The two-tone pattern will be difficult to sync on
iature coax to prevent hum pickup. A homemade an average oscilloscope because of the different
clip holds the battery in place. Feedback frequency components in the signal. The pattern
adjustment of each oscillator is made with the
height of the two-tone output on the scope should
controls on the KC-4002 boards.
be double that obtained with a single tone, as
stated earlier.
While testing this system, both oscillators Methods of using a two-tone generator in ssb
produced very healthy outputs on about 5 MHz in transmitter testing are described in the chapter on
addition to the desired audio tones. A 120-pF single sideband principles and applications. (From
capacitor across the input killed this oscillation, May 1970 QST.)
but then a weaker output at 50 MHz appeared.
Another 120-pF capacitor was added, this time
across the output terminals, and stable operation
resulted. Both capacitors must have their leads cut
very short to be effective. With these modifica-
tions, the ICs operate satisfactorily.
The mixer, a KC-2001 kit, showed no signs of
rf oscillations. The output of the KC-4002s is far in
excess of what the mixer can handle, so an
attenuator was added on the output of each
oscillator to reduce the level to a suitable value.
Control Rl allows the output level of one
oscillator to be matched to the other (both tones
must be of equal amplitude to produce the desired
oscillosope patterns). The mixer is an additive
device, the output with two equal tones being
twice that of either tone alone. Thus, checking the
output of the generator with two- and one-tone
output, alternately, for a 2 to 1 voltage
relationship, is one way of determining that the
BALANCE control is set correctly.

Alignment
The upper picture of Fig. 17-36 shows the
proper scope pattern for single-tone output. The
feedback adjustment in each oscillator is critical;
too little feedback and the oscillator quits, too
much feedback and the harmonic content of the
outputs goes up. The best setting for the
FEEDBACK control is at a point where oscillation
just starts. Also, the oscillator modules are
voltage-sensitive. If the battery voltages goes down
during extended use, the oscillators may stop Fig. 17-36 - Proper output waveforms from the
working, and the feedback must be increased to get generator: (Upper) sine wave, indicating correct
them going again. A little experimentation will adjustment of the FEEDBACK control; (Lower)
show the best point at which to set the two-tone output.
UHF Grid-Dip Oscillator 529
DIP METERS FOR THE HF-VHF-UHF RANGE

most of the inexpensive meters now available. It is

able to cover these high frequencies by virtue of
the 6CW4 tube and the series-tuned circuit.
The uhf grid-dip meter is built in a
2 1/4 X 2 1/4 X 4-inch Minibox. The "heart" of
the meter is the oscillator section, which is built on
a 1 3/4 X 1 7/S-inch piece of l/S-inch thick
polystyrene. The Nuvistor socket is mounted in
one corner and the tuning capacitor is mounted a
little above center; The coil socket, a National
CS-6, is mounted on the end of the Minibox. The
Fig. 17-37 - Dip meter covering the range 1.7 to polystyrene sheet is supported by four I-inch 6-32
275 MHz, with the 90- to 165-MHz coil in place. screws, and the sockets and variable capacitor are
positioned so that direct connections can be made
between plate pin and coil socket, capacitor rotor
Figs. 17-37 through 17-41 show representative
construction of vacuum-tube dip meters for the and coil socket, and capacitor stator and grid pin.
frequencies of interest to amateurs. Two separate The various resistors and rf chokes are supported at
one end by a multiple-terminal tie strip mounted
designs are required to cover the lower frequencies
along with the vhf-uhf range. The same power on the polystyrene sheet and at the other end by
supply/meter unit serves for both. The 6CW4 the socket pins and other terminals.
Nuvistor triode is used in both meters. The coils are made from No. 10 tinned copper
wire; as a safety precaution they are covered
Referring to the circuit in Fig. 17-3S, a resistor, except at the tips by clear plastic insulation.
R2, is plugged in with each coil (the resistor is Details are given in Fig. 17-41.
mounted in the coil form). It forms a voltage Frequency calibration of the meter can be
divider with the normal grid leak, R1, and brings started by reference to uhf TV stations in the area,
the metering circuit into the best range for the if any, or by reference to 420-MHz amateur gear.
transistor dc amplifier.
A small aluminum bracket supports the
Nuvistor socket within the 2 1/4 X 2 1/4 X 4-inch
Minibox that is used as a housing. A 5-pin socket
(Amphenol 7S-S5S) is mounted at one end of the
Minibox, and the variable capacitor stator leads are
soldered directly to two of the pins. Coils in the
low-frequency ranges are wound with enameled
wire on 3/4-inch diameter forms. In the interme-
diate ranges coil stock (B&W Miniductor) is
mounted inside the coil forms, with one end of the
coil close to the open end of the form, for ease in
coupling. The two highest-range coils are hairpin Fig. 17-38 - Circuit diagram of the hf-vhf .dip
loops of No. 14 wire, covered with insulation as a meter.
safety precaution. In every case the associated R2 Cl - 50 pF per section (Johnson 167-11 with
stator bars sawed between 6th and 7th plates).
is mounted in the coil form. The highest range
C2, C3 - 100-pF ceramic.
requires that only the base of the coil form be C4, C5, C6 - .OOH.lF disk ceramic.
used, since the loop is shorter than the form. Pl - 4-pin chassis plug (Amphenol 86-CP4).
The power supply may be included with the Rl -47,000 ohms, 1/2 watt.
oscillator, but since this increases the bulk and R2 - See table below.
weight a separate supply is often desirable. The R3 - 10,000 ohms.
power supply shown in Fig. 17-40 uses a miniature
power transformer with a silicon rectifier and a Range L1 R2
simple filter to give approximately 120 volts for 1.7-3.2 MHz 195 turns No. 34 enam.* 680
the oscillator plate. It is also built in a 2.7-5.0 110 turns No. 30 enam. * 470
2 1/4 X 2 1/4 X 4-inch Minibox. The two Mini- 4.4-7.8 51 1/2 turns No. 30 enam. * 470
7.5-13.2 24112 turns No. 30 enam.* 470
boxes are connected by a length of 4-conductor 1000
12-22 31 t. No. 24 (B&W 3004)**
cable. 20-36 14 t. No. 24 (B&W 3004)** 680
Either meter may be used as an indicating-type 33-60 81/2 t. No. 20 (B&W 3003)*** 680
absorption wavemeter by removing the plate 54-99 3314 t. No. 20 (B&W 3003)*** 1000
voltage and using the grid and cathode of the tube 90-165 3 3/8-inch loop No. 14
as a diode. 1/2-inch separation 1500
150-275 1 1/4-inch loop No. 14,
UHF Grid-Dip Oscillator 1/4·inch separation 3300

The range of the grid-dip meter shown in Fig. * Wound on 3/4-lnch diameter polystyrene form.
17-39 is from 275 to 725 MHz, a higher range than **32 tpi ***16 tpi
530 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS

Fig. 17-39 - Dip meter for the 30G- to 700-MHz range. The oscillator section is at the left in its own
case, and the power supply plus transistorized indicator is at the center and right. In the oscillator
section, the 6CW4 (Nuvistor) socket is to the left of the tuning capacitor.

Fig. 1740 - Circuit diagram of the uhf dip meter.

C1 - 8-pF midget variable (Hammarlund MAC-10 R2 -47,000 ohms, 1/2 watt.

with one rotor plate removed). R3 - 10,000 ohms.
C2 - 150-pF ceramic. R4 - 22 ohms, 1/2 watt.
C3 - .001-tLF ceramic. R5 - 10,000-ohm potentiometer.
C4 - 20tLF at 45G-V electrolytic. RFC1, RFC2 - 22-tLH rf choke (Millen 34300-221.
CRl- 400 PRV rectifier (Sarkes Tarzian 2F41. RFC3, RFC4 0.82-tLH rf choke (Millen
J1 - 4-pin tube socket. 34300-.82) .
M1 - 0-500 microammeter. S1A, S1B - Dpst, part of R5. Switches should be
P1 - 4-pin plug (Amphenol 86-CP41. open when R5 is at maximum resistance.
Q1 - Motorola HEP253 transistor. T1 - 6.3- and 125-V transformer (Knight 61 G
R1 - 330 ohms, 1 watt. 410).

~Range Dimension ilL" "M"

271-324 MHz
312-378
23/4 11/16 TM
31/8
372463
413-519
2
1 5/8 -l
446-565 1 1/4
544-730 1/2*

* Shape closed end to be nearly square. f-o.s-j 1--0.5-1

Fig. 1741 - Details of the coils used in the uhf copper wire. One turn in end of low-frequency
grid-dip meter. The material is No. 10 tinned- coil.
 Field-Strength Measurements 531
ABSORPTION FREQUENCY METER FOR 1.6-300 MHZ

The absorption frequency meter in the

accompanying illustrations uses six plug-in coils
(Ll in Fig. 17-43) to cover the frequency range
1.6-300 MHz. The indicator is a miniature 0-1
milliammeter. Ll is tapped appropriately for
delivering maximum power to the meter, and the rf
output is rectified by CRl, followed by an rf filter
consisting of C2, C3 and RFC1. The circuit is built
in a 2 1/8 X 3 X 5 1/4-inch Minibox, with Cl
mounted so that the rotor tab and stator support
bar can be soldered directly to the coil-socket
terminals. The meter, Ml, is mounted at the end
opposite Cl.
The coils are wound on Millen type 45004
four-prong coil forms. Taps are made by doubling
the wire back on itself at the appropriate point,
feeding the double portion through the hole in the
side of the form, twisting, and inserting the twisted
pair into the coil-form pin. Clean off the enamel
Fig. 17-42 - Absorption frequency meter for
where the tap goes into the pin so a good soldered 1.6-300 MHz.
connection can be made. The finished coils can be
given several coats of clear spray lacquer for
protection. Construction of the 95-300 MHz coil Field-strength measurements preferably should
will be easier if 3/4 inch of the form is sawed off be made at a distance of several wavelengths from
first. the transmitting antenna being tested. Measure-
-ments made within a wavelength of the antenna
FIELD-STRENGTH MEASUREMENTS may be misleading, because of the possibility that
The radiation intensity from an antenna is the measuring equipment may be responding to the
measured with a device that is essentially a very combined induction and radiation fields of the
simple receiver equipped with an indicator to give a antenna, rather than to the radiation field alone.
visual representation of the comparative signal Also, if the pickup antenna has dimensions
strength. Such a field-strength meter is used with a comparable with those of the antenna under test it
"pickup antenna," which should always have the is likely that with closer spacing the coupling
same polarization as the antenna being checked - between the two antennas will be great enough to
e.g., the pick-up antenna should be horizontal if cause the pickup antenna to tend to become part
the transmitting antenna is. Care should be taken of the radiating system and thus result in
to prevent stray pickup by the field-strength meter misleading field-strength readings.
or by any transmission line that may connect it to A desirable form of pickup antenna is a dipole
the pickup antenna. installed at the same height as the antenna being

A B
Coil Range (inches) (inches) Wire size 1 Turns Tap 2
1.6-4 MHz 3/8 7/8 No. 30 125 32 turns
3.2-7.4 MHz 1/8 1/4 No. 30 35 11
6-14 MHz 3/8 3/4 No. 20 27 8
12-29 MHz 1/8 1/4 No. 20 10 3
30-90 MHz 4 turns of No. 20, turns spaced to cover 1 inch; tap is 1 1/2 turns from ground end.
Hairpin of No. 14 tinned wire, 1/2-inch spacing, 2 inches long including coil pins, tapped
95-300 MHz 1 1/2 inch from ground.

Fig. 17-43 - Circuit diagram

of the frequency meter.
C1 - 50-pF variable (Millen
200501.
C2, C3 - .001-J.lF disk cer-
amic.
CR1 - 1 N34A germanium
diode.
M1 - 0-1 milliammeter.
L 1 - See coil table.
RFC1 - 2.5-mH rf choke
(Millen 34000-2500).
 532 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS
tested with low-impedance balanced line connect-
ed at' the center to transfer the rf signal to the
field-strength meter. The length of the dipole need
only be great enough to give adequate meter
readings.

Field-Strength Meters
The absorption frequency meter just described
may be used as a field-strength meter in
conjunction with a pickup antenna. Coupling
between the frequency-meter coil and the trans-
mission line to the antenna may be a turn or two
of wire wrapped around the coil at the ground end,
with the ends of the wire loop connected to the
ends of the line. The pickup antenna, installed in
its selected position, should be adjusted in length
for a suitable indication (about half scale) on the
meter at the beginning of the tests. The meter of
course should be tuned to the frequency being
used.
The simple rectifier/milliammeter combination
used in this frequency meter is not linear, so the
indications tend to give an exaggerated picture of Fig. 17-45 - This dial chart may be copied full size
and used as shown in Fig. 17-42 provided the
the results of changes in the antenna system under tuned-circuit parts are exactly as specified in Fig.
test. The readings can be made practically linear, 17-43 and the construction duplicates Fig. 17-44.
and the sensitivity increased, by using the

220
5%

+9V

Fig. 17-46 - FET amplifier for absorption

frequency meter. A and 8 replace the meter
connections in Fig. 17-43. A 9-volt transistor radio
battery may be used for drain voltage, as the total
current is only 4-6 mA on the average.

transistor dc amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 17 -46.

The 47,000-ohm resistor, Rl, is substituted for Ml
in Fig. 17-43. The FET amplifier with dc feedback
through R2 is quite linear with respect to gate
voltage. A bridge circuit, consisting of the
drai,n-source resistance (with R2 in series), R3, R4
and R5, balances out the steady drain current, so
that only the change in current is indicated by the
0-1 milliammeter. The meter current is balanced to
zero with no signal input by means of R2.
The linear range of this amplifier is from 0.1 to
Fig. 17-44 - Inside the absorption frequency 1 rnA, representing a ratio of about 6.5 to 1 in
meter, showing placement of tuning capacitor and applied voltage. This corresponds to a power ratio
coil socket. of about 40, or 16 dB.
Transistor Checker 533
A TESTER FOR FET AND BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS
The circuit shown is intended solely as a tester circuit. Generally speaking, the lower the crystal
for npn and pnp transistors, junction FETs, and frequency, the greater the amount of capacitance
dual-gate MOSETs. This equipment is not for use needed to assure oscillation. Use only that amount
in checking audio or high-power rf transistors. necessary to provide quick starting of the oscilla-
The circuit of Fig. 1 is an oscillator which is tor.
wired so that it will test various small-signal Components R3 and R4 are used as a voltage
transistors by switching the battery polarity and divider to provide bias for dual-gate MOSFETs. C2
bias voltage. A crystal for the upper range of the hf is kept small in value to minimize loading of the
spectrum is wired into the circuit permanently, but oscillator by the low-impedance voltage doubler,
could be installed in a crystal socket if the builder CRI and CR2. Rectified rf from the oscillator is
so desires. A 20-MHz crystal was chosen for this monitored on Ml. Meter deflection is regulated
model. Any hf crystal cut for fundamental mode manually by means of control R5. Sl is used to
operation can be used. select the desired supply voltage polarity ~ nega-
When testing FETs the bias switch, S3, is placed tive ground for testing n-channel FETs and npn
in the FET position, thus removing R2 from the bipolars, and a positive ground when working with
circuit. However, when testing bipolar transistors p-channel and pnp devices.
the switch position must be changed to BIPOL so When testing MOSFETs that are not gate
that forward bias can be applied to the base of the protected (3N140 for one), make certain that the
bipolar transistor under test. Rl is always in the transistor leads are shorted together until the
circuit, and serves as a gate-leak resistor for FETs device is seated in the test socket. Static charges on
being evaluated. It becomes part of the bias one's hands can be sufficiently great to damage the
network when bipolars are under test. Cl is used insulation within the transistor. Use a single strand
for feedback in combination with the internal of wire from some No. 22 or 24 stranded hookup
capacitances of the transistors being checked. Its wire, wrapping it two or three times around the
value may have to be changed experimentally if pigtails of the FET as close to the transistor body
crystals for lower frequencies are utilized in the as possible. After the FET is plugged into the

J1

~~.
Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of
the transistor tester. Capa- ~l
citors are disk ceramic or mica. Y1
20NlHz
Resistors are 1/2 or 1/4-watt
composition execet for R5. D~--~
Estimated cost for this tester
(all parts new) is $15. Num-

~>:l
bered components not ap-
peari ng in parts I ist are so
designated for text discussion.
BT 1 Small 9-V tran-
sistor-radi 0 battery. J3

Ev
CR1, CR2 - 1 N34A ger- 22

~
manium diode or equiv. R3
J1 - Four-terminal transistor 330k
RFC 1
socket. 53 2.5mH
J2 J3 - Three-terminal tran- 01
, sister socket. BIPOL. 1000 •
M1 - Microampere meter. Cal-
ectro D1-910 used here.
R5 - 25,OOO-ohm linear-taper
composition control with
switch.
RFC1 2.5-mH rf choke.
S1 - Two-pole double-throw 52
mi niature toggle. EXCEPT AS INDICATED. DECIMAL ON
S2 - Part of R5. VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
S3 - Spst miniature toggle. NPN
IN MICROFARADS I ... F I ; OTHERS
Y1 - Surplus crystal (see texl. SlA
ARE IN PICOFARADS I pF OR ...... Fl;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS~
PNP

U
• -1000. M'I 000000
_ BT1
---: 9V

SlB
 534 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS
socket, unwrap the wire and perform the tests. (It's higher the meter reading, the greater the vigor of
not a bad idea to have an earth ground connected the transistor at the operating frequency. High
to the case of the tester when checking un- meter readings suggest that the transistor is made
protected FETs.) Put the shorting wire back on the for vhf or uhf service, and that its beta is medium
FET leads before removing the unit from the to high. Lower readings may indicate that the
tester. transistor is designed for hf use, or that it has very
The meter indication is significant in checking low gain. Transistors that are known to be good
any type of transistor. If the device is open, but will not cause the circuit to oscillate are most
shorted, or extremely leaky, no oscillation will likely made for low-frequency or audio appli-
take place, and the meter will not deflect. The cations.

A TESTER FOR CRYSTALS AND BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS

The circuit of Fig. I is intended primarily to the devices ideal as general-purpose oscillators.
test surplus crystals and bipolar transistors. It uses This tester will work well from the upper hf
a Pierce oscillator. Battery polarity can be switched range down to at least 455 kHz. S I is used to
to allow testing of npn or pnp transistors. Crystal change the value of feedback capacitance. The
quality is indicated on MI. The greater the crystal lower the frequency of operation, the greater the
activity, the higher the meter reading. A suitable amount of capacitance required.
transistor for use at QI (when testing crystals) is A transistor can be checked by plugging the
the 2N4I24, MPS3563, or HEP53. All three have unknown type into the panel socket while using a
iT ratings well into the vhf spectrum, and each has crystal of known frequency and condition. Both
reasonably high beta. The two characteristics make testers can be used as calibrators by inserting

CRYSTALS
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPAC ITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (JlF) ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARAOS (pF OR JlJlFl;
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
• -1000. M- I 000 000

TPI

FEEDBACK Sl
56k

ON

eJ
lUS
Gnd. +
_ BTl
: - 9V

S3B

Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the No.2 tester. M 1 -Microampere meter. Calectro 01-910 used
Capacitors are disk ceramic. Fixed-value resistors here.
are 1'/2 or 1/4-watt composition. Estimated cost Rl - 25,OOO-ohm linear-taper composition control
for this tester (all new parts) is $13. with switch.
RFCl - 2.5-mH rf choke.
Sl - Single-pole three-position phenolic rotary
wafer type, miniature.
BTl - Small 9-V transistor-radio battery. S2 - Part of R 1 .
CR1, CR2 - 1 N34A germanium diode or equiv. S3 - Double-pole double-throw miniature toggle.
Jl-J4, incl. - Crystal socket of builder's choice. Ql - Vhf npn bipolar, 2N4124, MPS3563, HEP53.
 Diode Noise Generators 535
crystals for band-edge checking. The frequencies of Four crystal sockets are provided in the model
unknown crystals can be checked by listening to shown here.Ji through J4 provide for testing of
the output from the test oscillators on a calibrated FT-243, HC-6/U, He-I 7 , and HC-25 crystals, the
receiver or while using a frequency counter con- most popular holder styles in use today. Other
nected to the designated test poin t types can be added by the builder if desired.

DIODE NOISE GENERATORS

A noise generator is a device for creating a

controllable amount of rf noise ("hiss"-type noise)
evenly distributed throughout the spectrum of
interest. The simplest type of noise generator is a '=-"Y.
diode, either vacuum-tube or crystal, with dc BT, -
flowing through it. The current is also made to
flow through a load resistance which usually is
chosen to equal the characteristic impedance of the Fig. 17-51 - Circuit of a simple crystal-diode noise
transmission line to be connected to the receiver's generator.
input terminals. The resistance then substitutes for BT1 - Dry-{;eil battery, any convenient type.
the line, and the amount of rf noise fed to receiver C1 - 500-pF ceramic, disk or tUbular.
CR1 - Silicon diode, 1 N21 or 1 N23. Diodes with
input is controlled by varying the dc through the "R" suffix have reversed polarity. (Do not use
diode. ordinary germanium diodes.)
The noise generator is useful for adjusting the P1 - Coaxial fitting, cable type.
"front-end" circuits of a receiver for best noise R1 - 50,OOO-ohm control, ccw logarithmic taper.
figure. A simple circuit using a crystal diode is R2 - 51 or 75 ohms, 1/2-watt composition.
shown in Fig. 17-51. The unit can be built into a S1 - Spst toggle (may be mounted on R1).
small metal box; the main consideration is that the
circuit from Cl through PI be as compact as
possible. A calibrated knob on Rl will permit ensure that the receiver is operating linearly. This is
resetting the generator to roughly the same spot your reference level of noise. Then close SI and
each time, for making comparisons. If the leads are adjust R 1 for a readily perceptible increase in
short, the generator can be used through the output. Note the ratio of the two readings - i.e.,
144-MHz band for receiver comparisons. the number of dB increase in noise when the
To use the generator, screw the coaxial plug generator is on. Then make experimental adjust-
onto the receiver's input fitting, open S 1, and ments of the receiver input coupling, always with
measure the noise output of the receiver by the object of obtaining the largest number of dB
connecting an audio-frequency voltmeter to the increase in output when the generator is switched
receiver's af output terminals. An average-reading on.
voltmeter is preferable to the peak-reading type, A simple crystal-diode noise generator is a
since on this type of noise the average-reading useful device for the receiver adjustment, especially
meter will give a fair approximation of rms, and at vhf, and for comparing the performance of
the object is to measure noise puwer, not voltage. different receivers checked with the same instru-
In using the generator for adjusting the input ment. It does not permit actual measurement of
circuit of a receiver for optimum noise figure, first the noise figure, however, and therefore the results
make sure that the receiver's rf and af gain controls with one instrument cannot readily be compared
are set well within the linear range of response, and with the readings obtained with another. In order
turn off the automatic gain control. With the noise to get a quantitative measure of noise figure it is
generator connected but S 1 open, adjust the necessary to use a temperature-saturated vacuum
receiver gain controls for an ou tpu t reading that is diode in place of the semiconductor diode.
far enough below the maximum obtainable to Suitable diodes are difficult to find.

RF PROBE FOR ELECTRONIC VOLTMETERS

The rf probe shown in Figs. 17-52 to 17-55, solder the braid to the ground lug on the terminal
inclusive, uses the circuit discussed earlier in strip. Remove the spring from the tube shield, slide
connection with Fig. 17-15. it over the cable, and crimp it to the remaining
The isolation capacitor, Cl, crystal diode, and quarter inch of shield braid. Solder both the spring
filter/ divider resistor are mounted on a bakelite and a 12-inch length of flexible copper braid to the
5-lug terminal strip, as shown in Fi.g. 17-55. One shield.
end lug should be rotated 90 degrees so that it Next, cut off the pins on a seven-pin miniature
extends off the end of the strip. All other lugs shield-base tube socket. Use a socket with a
should be cut off flush with the edge of the strip. cylindrical center post. Crimp the terminal lug
Where the inner conductor connects to the previously bent out at the end of the strip and
terminal lug, unravel the shield three-quarters of an insert it into the center post of the tube socket
inch, slip a piece of spaghetti over it, and then from the top. Insert the end of a phone tip or a
536 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS

Fig. 17-54 - Inside the probe. The 1 N34A diode,

calibrating resistor, and input capacitor are
mounted tight to the terminal strip with shortest
leads possible. Spaghetti tubing is placed on the
diode leads to prevent accidental short circuits.
Fig. 17-52 - Rf probe for use with an electronic The tube-shield spring and flexible-copper ground-
voltmeter. The case of the probe is constructed ing lead are soldered to the cable braid (the cable is
from a 7 -pi n ceramic tube socket and a 2 1/4-i nch RG-58/U coax). The tip can be either a phone tip
tube shield. A half-inch grommet at the top of the or a short pointed piece of heavy wire.
tube shield prevents the output lead from chafing.
A flexible copper-braid grounding lead and
alligator clip provide a low-inductance return path Mount components close to the terminal strip,
from the test circuit. to keep lead lengths as short as possible and
minimize stray capacitance. Use spaghetti over all
pointed piece of heavy wire into' the bottom of the wires to prevent accidental shorts.
tube socket center post, and solder the lug and tip The phone plug on the probe cable plugs into
to the center post. Insert a half-inch grommet at the the dc input jack of the electronic voltmeter and
top of the tube shield, and slide the shield over the rms voltages are read on the voltmeter's negative dc
cable and flexible braid down onto the tube socket. scale.
The spring should make good contact with the tube The accuracy of the probe is within ±10
percent from 50 kHz to 250 MHz. The
shield to insure that the tube shield (probe case) is approximate input impedance is 6000 ohms
grounded. Solder an alligator clip to the other end shunted by 1.75 pF (at 200 MHz).
of the flexible braid and mount a phone plug on
the free end of the shielded wire. COVER WITH
tN34A SPAGHETTI
C .01 ... 1. I
~1--1~vv\"""""
R.F. L.....i4-f-h
INPUT

GROUND TUBE SHIELD

LUG SPRINr.

Fig. 17-53 - The rf probe circuit. Fig. 17-55 - Component mounting details.

RF IMPEDANCE BRIDGE FOR COAX LINES

The bridge shown in Figs. 1 through 3 may be of the resistive component of the load_ The
used to measure unknown complex impedances at capacitor consists of two identical sections on the
frequencies below 30 MHz. Measured values are of same frame, arranged so that when the shaft is
equivalent series form, R + jX_ The useful range of rotated to increase the capacitance of one section,
the instrument is from about 5 to 400 ohms if the the capacitance of the other section decreases. The
unknown load is purely resistive, or 10 to 150 capacitor is adjusted for a null reading on Ml, and
ohms resistive component in the presence of its settings are calibrated in terms of resistance at
reactance. The reactance range is from 0 to J3 so the unknown value can be read off the
approximately 100 ohms for either inductive or calibration. A coil-and-capacitor combination is
capacitive loads. Although the instrument cannot used to determine the amount and type of
indicate impedances with the accuracy of a reactance, inductive or capacitive. Ll and C2 in the
laboratory type of bridge, its readings are quite bridge circuit are connected in series with the load.
adequate for the measurement and adjustment of The instrument is initially balanced at the
antenna systems for amateur use, including the frequency of measurement with a purely resistive
taking of line lengths into account with a Smith load connected at 13, so that the reactances of Ll
chart or Smith transmission-line calculator. and of C2 at its midsetting are equal. Thus, these
The bridge incorporates a differential capacitor, reactances cancel each other in this arm of the
Cl, to obtain an adjustable ratio for measurement bridge. With an unknown complex-impedance load
R F I mpedance Bridge
537
then connected at 13, the setting of C2 is varied
either to increase or decrease the capacitive
reactance, as required, to cancel any reactance
present in the load. If the load is inductive more
capacitive reactance is required from C2 to obtain
a balance, indicated by a null on Ml, with less
reactance needed from C2 if the load is capacitive.
The settings of C2 are calibrated in terms of the
value and type of reactance at 13. Because of the
relationship of capacitive reactance to frequency,
the calibration for the dial of C2 is valid at only
one frequency. It is therefore convenient to
calibrate this dial for equivalent reactances at 1
MHz, as shown in Fig. 4. Frequency corrections
may then be made simply by dividing the reactance
dial reading by the measurement frequency in
megahertz.
Fig. 1 - An RCL bridge for measuring unknown
Construction values of complex impedances. A plug-in coil is
In any rf-bridge type of instrument, the leads used for each frequency band. The bridge operates
must be kept as short as possible to reduce stray at an rf input level of about 5 volts; pickup-link
assemblies for use with a grid-dip oscillator are
reactances. Placement of component parts, while shown. Before measurements are made, the bridge
not critical, must be such that lead lengths greater must be balanced with a nonreactive load
than about 1/2 inch (except in the dc metering connected at its measurement terminals. This load
circuit) are avoided. Shorter leads are desirable, consists of a resistor mounted inside a coaxial plug,
especially for Rl, the "standard" resistor for the shown in front of the instrument at the left. The
bridge. In the unit photographed, the body of this aluminum box measures 4 1/4 X 10314 X 6 1/8
resistor just fits between the terminals of Cl and inches and is fitted with a carrying handle on the
12 where it is connected. Cl should be enclosed in left end and self-sticking rubber feet on the right
end and bottom. Dials are Millen No. 10009 with
a shield and connections made with leads passing skirts reversed and calibrations added.
through holes drilled through the shield wall. The
frames of both variable capacitors, Cl and C2,
51
must be insulated from the chassis, with insulated 2W,5%
couplings used on the shafts. The capacitor
specified for Cl has provisions for insulated
mounting. C2 is mounted on I-inch ceramic
insulating pillars.
Band-switching arrangements for Ll complicate
the construction and contribute to stray reactances
in the bridge circuit. For these reasons plug-in coils
are used at Ll, one coil for each band over which
J4
the instrument is used. The coils must be
adjustable, to permit initial balancing of the bridge EXT. n"1
METER ~-o--...,
with C2 set at the zero-reactance calibration point.
Coil data are given in Table I. Millen 45004 coil
forms with the coils supported inside provide a
convenient method of constructing these slug-
tuned plug-in coils. A phenolic washer cut to the
proper diameter is epoxied to the top or open end
of each form, giving a rigid support for mounting Fig. 2 - Schematic diagram of the impedance
of the coil by its bushing. Small knobs for l/S-inch bridge. Capacitance is in microfarads; resistances
shafts, threaded with a No. 6-32 tap, are screwed are in ohms. Resistors are 1/2-W 10-percent
onto the coil slug-tuning screws to permit ease of tolerance unless otherwise indicated.
adjustment without a tuning tool. Knobs with Cl - Differential capacitor, 11-161 pF per section
(Millen 28801 l.
setscrews should be used to prevent slipping. A C2 - 17.5-327 pF with straight-line capacitance
ceramic socket to mate with the pins of the coil characteristic (Hammarlund RMC-325-Sl.
form is used for 12. CR1, CR2 - Germanium diode, high back
resistance.
Jl, J3 - Coaxial connectors, chassis type.
J2 - To mate plug of L1, ceramic.
Calibration J4 - Phone jack, disconnecting type.
L1 - See text and Table I.
The resistance dial of the bridge may be Ml - 0-50 fJA dc (Simpson Model 1223 Bold-Vue,
calibrated by using a number of 1/2- or I-watt Cat. No. 15560 or equiv.l.
5-percent-tolerance composition resistors of differ- R1 - For text reference.
ent values in the 5- to 400-ohm range as loads. For RFCl - Subminiature rf choke (Miller 70Fl03AI
this calibration, the appropriate frequency coil or equiv.l.
538 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS

TABLE 17-1
Coil Data for RF Impedance Bridge
Nominal Frequency
Inductance Coverage,
Band Range, pH MHz Coil Type or Data
80 6.5-13.8 3.2-4.8 28 turns No. 30 enam. wire close-wound on Miller
form 42AOOOCBI.
40 2.0-4.4 5.8-8.5 Miller 42A336CBI or 16 turns No. 22 enam. wire
close-wound on Miller form 42AOOOCBI.
20 0.6-1.1 11.5-16.6 8 turns No. 18 enam. wire close-wound on Miller
form 42AOOOCBI.
15 0.3-0.48 18.5-23.5 4 1/2 turns No. 18 enam. wire close-wound on
Miller form 42AOOOCBI.
10 0.18-0.28 25.8-32.0 3 turns No. 16 or 18 enam. or tinned bus wire
spaced over 1/4-inch winding length on Miller form
42AOOOCBI.

must be inserted at 12 and its inductance adjusted With a purely resistive load connected at 13, adjust
for the best null reading on the meter when C2 is L1 and C1 for the best null on Ml. From this point
set with its plates half meshed. For each test on during calibration, do not adjust L1 except to
resistor, C1 is then adjusted for a null reading. rebalance the bridge for a new calibration
Alternate adjustment of L1 and C1 should be made frequency. The ohmic value of the known
for a complete null. The leads between the test reactance for the frequency of calibration is
resistor and 13 should be as short as possible, and multiplied by the frequency in MHz to obtain the
the calibration preferably should be done in the calibration value for the dial.
3.5-MHz band where stray inductance and
capacitance will have the least effect. Using the Impedance Bridge
If the constructional layout of the bridge
This instrument is a low-input-power device,
closely follows that shown in the photographs, the and is not of the type to be excited from a
calibration scale of Fig. 4 may be used for the
transmitter or left in the antenna line during
reactance dial. This calibration was obtained by
station operation. Sufficient sensitivity for all
connecting various reactances, measured on a
measurements results when a 5-V rms rf signal is
laboratory bridge, in series with a 47-ohm 1-W
applied at n. This amount of voltage can be
resistor connected at 13. The scale is applied so
that maximum capacitive reactance is indicated delivered by most grid-dip oscillators. In no case
with C2 fully meshed. If it is desired to obtain an should the power applied to 11 exceed 1 watt or
individual calibration for C2, known values of calibration inaccuracy may result from a per-
inductance and capacitance may be used in series manent change in the value of R1. The input
with a fixed resistor of the same approximate value impedance of the bridge at 11 is low, in the order
as R1. For this calibration it is very important to of 50 to 100 ohms, so it is convenient to excite the
keep the leads to the test components as short as bridge through a length of 52- or 75-ohm line such
possible, and calibration should be performed in as RG-58/U or RG-59/U. If a grid-dip oscillator is
the 3.5-MHz range to minimize the effects of stray used, a link coupling arrangement to the oscillator
react<\Ilces. Begin the calibration by setting C2 at coil may be used. Fig. 1 shows two pick-up link
half mesh, marking this point as 0 ohms reactance. assemblies. The larger coil, 10 turns of 1 1/4-inch-
dia stock with turns spaced at 8 turns per inch, is
used for the 80-, 40- and 20-meter bands. The
smaller coil, 5 turns of l-inch-dia stock with turns
spaced at 4 turns per inch, is used for the 15- and
100meter bands. Coupling to the oscillator should
be as light as possible, while obtaining sufficient

Fig. 3 - All components except the meter are

mounted on the top of the box. C1 is visible inside
the shield at the left, with C2 at the right and J2
mounted between them. J1 is hidden beneath C1
in this view; a part of J3 may be seen in the lower
right corner of the box. Components for the dc
metering circuit are mounted on a tie-point strip
which is affixed to the shield wall for C1; all other
components are interconnected with very short
leads. The 4700-ohm input resistor is connected
across J1.
R F Wattmeter 539
Fig. 4 - Calibration scale for the reactance dial
associated with C2. See text.

sensitivity, to prevent severe "pulling" of the

oscillator frequency.
Before measurements are made, it is necessary
to balance the bridge. Set the reactance dial at zero
and adjust Ll and Cl for a null with a nonreactive
load connected at 13. The bridge must be re-
+
balanced after any appreciable change is made in DIVI DE READING
the measurement frequency. A 51-ohm 1-W re- BY F MHz
sistor mounted inside a PL-259 plug, as shown in
Fig. 17-24, makes a load which is essentially
nonreactive. After the bridge is balanced, connect
the unknown load to 13, and alternately adjust Cl
and C2 for the best null.
The calibra tion of the reactance dial is shown in
Fig. 4. The measurement range for capacitive loads set at 500 in the XL range, the 0 dial indication is
may be extended by "zeroing" the reactance dial now equivalent to an Xc reading of 500, and the
at some value other than O. For example, if the total range of measurement for Xc has been
bridge is initially balanced with the reactance dial extended to 1000.

A LOW-POWER RF WATTMETER
The wattmeter shown in Fig. 1 can be used It will be necessary to have a nonreactive
with transmitters having power outputs from 1- to 50-ohm dummy load for initial adjustment of the
2S-watts within the frequency range of 1.8 to 30 power meter. Connect the dummy load to one port
MHz. For complete details, see QST for June, of the instrument and apply rf power to the
1973. A bridge circuit based on a version of the remaining port. SI should now be thrown back and
one shown in Fig. 17-16C is used to measure the forth to determine which position gives the highest
forward and reflected power on a transmission line. meter reading. This will be the FORWARD posi-
tion. Adjust the sensitivity control for full-scale
reading of the meter. Now, move the switch to the
opposite (RELFECTED) position and adjust the
trimmer nearest the transmitter input port for a
null in the meter reading. The needle should drop
to zero. It is recommended that these adjustments
be made in the 10- or IS-meter band. Next, reverse
the transmitter and load cables and repeat the
nulling procedure while adjusting the trimmer on
the opposite side of the pc board. Repeat these
steps until a perfect null is obtained in both
directions. The switch and the coax connectors can
now be labeled, TRANSMITTER, LOAD, FOR-
WARD, and REFLECTED, as appropriate.
JI J2.

The rf wattmeter.

Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of the wattmeter.

C1, C2 - 0.5- to 5-pF trimmer.
CR1, CR2 - 1N34A or equivalent.
M1 - 50-J.J.A panel meter.
R1 - Linear-taper, 1/4 or 1/2 watt, 25,000 ohm.
R2, R3 - 33-ohm, 1/2-W composition resistor
(matched pair recommended).
RFC1 - 1-mH rf choke. EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
Sl - Spdt toggle. VALUES OF CAPAC ITANeE ARE
T1 - 60 turns No. 28 enam. wire, close wound on IN MICROFARADS (J.lF 1 ; OTHERS
Amidon T-68-2 toroid core (secondary). Pri- ARE IN PICOFARADS t pF OR jJj.lFl;
mary is 2 turns of small-diameter hookup wire RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;

over T1 secondary. k -1000. "', I 000 000

THE !l9 1t! SECOND PtA..SE OMITTEO
SEGINNING Of EACH HOUR IDENTlflEO BY
O.B SEC LONG I~OOHI TONE (WWV 8 WW .... H)
BEGINNING OF EACH
MINUTE IDENTIFIEO BY
0.8 SEC LONG 1000HI TONE

STANDARD FREQUENCIES AND TIME SIGNALS

The National Bureau of Standards maintains hourly broadcast schedules is given in the
two radio transmitting stations, WWV at Ft. accompanying format chart. Complete information
Collins, Co., and WWVH near Kekaha, Kauai on the services can be found in NBS Special
(Hawaii), for broadcasting standard radio frequen- Publication 236, NBS Frequency and Time
cies of high accuracy. WWV broadcasts are on 2.5, Broadcast Services, available for 25 cents from the
5, 10, 15,20, and 25 MHz, and those from WWVH Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government
are on 2.5, 5, 10, 15, and 20 MHz. The broadcasts Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.
of both stations are continuous, night and day.
Standard audio frequencies of 440, 500, and 600 Geophysical Alerts
Hz on each radio-carrier frequency by WWV and
WWVH. The duration of each tone is approximate- "Geoalerts" are broadcast in voice during the
ly 45 seconds. A 600-Hz tone is broadcast during 19th minute of each hour from WWV and during
odd minutes by WWV, and during even minutes by the 46th minute of each hour from WWVH. The
WWVH. A 500-Hz tone is broadcast during messages are changed each day at 0400 UT with
alternate minutes unless voice announcements or provIsions to schedule immediate alerts of
silent periods are scheduled. A 440-Hz tone is ou tstanding occuring events. Geoalerts tell of
MINUTES
broadcast beginning one minute after the hour by geophysical events affecting radio propagation,
WWVH and two minutes after the hour by WWV. stratospheric warming, etc.
The 440-Hz tone period is omitted during the fIrst
hour of the UT day. Propagation Forecasts
Transmitted frequencies from the two stations Voice broadcasts of radio propagation condi-
are accurate to±2 parts in lOll. Atomic frequency tions are given during part of every 15th minute of
standards are used to maintain this accuracy. each hour from WWV. The announcements deal
Voice announcements of the time, in English, with short-term forecasts and refer to propagation
are given every minute. WWV utilizes a male voice, along paths in the North Atlantic area, such as
and WWVH features a female voice to distinguish Washington, D.C. to London, or New York to
between the two stations. WWV time and Berlin.
frequency broadcasts can be heard by telephone
also. The number to call is (303) 499-7111,
CHU
Boulder, CO.
All official announcements are made by voice. CHU, the Canadian time-signal station, trans-
Time announcements are in GMT. One-second mits on 3330.0, 7335.0 and 14,670.0 kHz. Voice
markers are transmitted throughout all programs announcements of the minute are made each
except that the 29th and 59th markers of each minute; the 29th-second tick is omitted. Voice
minute are omitted. Detailed information on announcements are made in English and French.
TH£ 29th SECOND PULSE OMITTED ....
BEGINNING OF EACH MINUTE IDENTIfiED
B'I' 0.8 SECOND LONG 120m.. , TONE
A Heterodyne Deviation Meter 541
A HETERODYNE DEVIATION METER .;

The instrument described here can be used to

check the audio deviation of an fm transmitter, or
to determine how far off frequency the transmitter
carrier may be. It can also be used as a signal
source to aid in setting a receiver on frequency, if a
crystal of known accuracy is plugged into the
oscillator.

The Circuit
As shown in Fig. 17-57 a transistor oscillator is
used to feed energy to a mixer diode, CRI. A small
pickup antenna is connected to the diode also,
thereby coupling a signal from a transmitter to the
mixer. The output from the diode, in the audio Fig. 17·56 - The deviation meter is constructed in
range, is amplified by VI, a 2747· operational a Calectro aluminum box. A four-position switch is
amplifier. The 2747 amplifies and clips the audio, at the lower right. The crystal plugs in on the left,
with the frequency adjusting trimmer just below. A
providing a square wave of nearly constant ampli- short whip or pickup wire can be plugged into the
tude at the output. This square wave is applied to a phono connector that is mounted on the back wall
rectifier circuit through variable coupling capaci- of the box.
tors and a selector switch. A meter is connected to
the rectifier circuit to read the average current. Construction
Since the amplitude of the input is constant, a
change in frequency will produce a change of An aluminum box is used for the enclosure,
average current. Three ranges are selected by S 1, 6-1/4 x 3-1/2 x 2 inches. A meter switch, variable
with individual trimmers being placed in the circuit capacitor, and crystal socket are all moun ted on
for calibration. the top panel. A small pc board is fastened to the
JI AMPLIFIER
470K

CRI
IN34,
IN58,
IN82

39

1 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, OECIMAl. VALUES OF

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARAOS t J'F ) ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF' OR PJlF):
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
111'000. MIIOOO 000.

Fig. 17·57 - Circuit of the deviation meter. CR2, CR3 - Silicon diode, 1 N914 or equiv.
Connections shown are for a 2747 dual op amp. A Jl - Coax connector, BNC or phono type suitable.
741 may be substituted with appropriate changes Ml - Microammeter, 0 to 1000 J1A (Simpson
in pin numbers. Model 1212 Wide·Vue or equiv.).
Cl - 360 to 1000 pF mica trimmer (J. W. Miller Ql - Motorola transistor.
160·A or equiv.l. Rl - 10,OOO'ohm miniature control, pc mount.
C2, C3 - 3 to 30 pF mica trimmer (J. W. Miller 86 Sl - 2·pole, 4·position rotary switch, nonshorting.
MA 2 or equiv.). U1 - Dual operational amplifier IC, Type 2747,
C4 - 50 pF miniature air variable (Hammarlund one half not used.
MAPC 50 or equiv.l. Yl - Crystal to produce harmonic on desired
CRl - Germanium diode, lN34. lN58. or lN82 transmitter or receiver frequency. Fundamental
suitable. range 6 to 20 MHz.
542 TEST EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS
meter terminals as a convenient support. This '
board contains the IC and associated circuit com-
ponents, as well as the rectifier diodes.
The oscillator is constructed on a separate pc
board which mounts behind the crystal socket and
variable capacitor. Metal spacers and 4-40 screws
and nuts are used to fasten the oscillator board in
place. A shield of pc board is placed between the
oscillator and the amplifier to provide isolation.
Power for the instrument is furnished by a 9-v.olt
transistor radio battery that is held by a clip inside
the box.

Testing and Use.

Before calibrating the meter, the dc balance
should be adjusted. A voltmeter should be con- Fig. 17-58 - The dual op amp is located just below
nected to the output of U1, (pin 12) and R1 the center. Meter terminals are used as a con-
adjusted until the potential at this pin in one half venient support for the amplifier pc board. The
of the supply voltage. oscillator board is at the right, held in place by
means of metal spacers.
A low-level audio signal can be used to test the
amplifier and meter circuit. As little as 10 m V,
applied to pin 1, will produce a square wave at the monic from the oscillator. The trimmer, C4, should
output of the amplifier. Three ranges are provided be adjusted for a minimum reading. Any hum,
in this meter; 0 - 1000Hz, 0 - 10 kHz, and 0 - 20 noise, or power-supply whine will cause a residual
kHz. Each position can be calibrated by adjust- reading that could mask true zero beat. Modulation
ment of the associated trimmer capacitor. The can be applied to the transmitter and the deviation
amount of capacitance needed may vary with control adjusted for the amount desired as indi-
different diodes, so fixed ceramic capacitors may cated on the meter. Note that there is a difference
be placed in parallel with the trimmers to bring the between the indications obtained from a sine wave
adjustment within range. As the frequency of the and those from voice. Readings will be lower with
input to U1 is varied, the meter reading should voice, the amount being dependent on the meter
correspond to that frequency over most of its that is used and upon the individual voice.
range. On the upper frequency range, 0 - 20 kHz, a Several transmitters can be netted to a system
multiplication factor must be applied to the by setting the crystal in the device to the correct
reading on the meter. frequency at first, then adjust the frequency of
In use, a short whip or piece of wire is each transmitter for an indication of zero beat.
connected to 11, and the meter placed near a Since there is some energy from the oscillator
transmitter. A crystal that will produce a harmonic present at the input, J1, the same procedure can be
on the correct frequency is plugged into the used to align receivers to the correct frequency.
socket. The s.elector switch should be in the first (0 When the deviation meter is acting as a signal
- 1000 Hz) position. When the transmitter is turned source for checking either receivers or transmitters,
on, the meter will indicate the difference in the crystal should be checked for frequency drift
frequency between the transmitter and the har- several times during the test.
 Chapter 18

Construction Practices and

Data Tables
TOOLS AND MATERIALS Radio-su pply houses, mail-order retail stores
While an easier, and perhaps a better, job can be and most hardware stores carry the various tools
done with a greater variety of tools available, by required when building or servicing amateur radio
taking a little thought and care it is possible to turn equipment. While power tools (electric drill or drill
out a fme piece of equipment with only a few of press, grinding wheel, etc.) are very useful and will
the common hand tools. A list of tools which will save a lot of time, they are not essential.
be indispensable in the construction of radio
equipment will be found on this page. With these Twis t Drills
tools it should be possible to perform any of the
Twist drills are made of either high-speed steel
required operations in preparing panels and metal
or carbon steel. The latter type is more common
chassis for assembly and wiring. It is an excellent
and will usually be supplied unless specific request
idea for the amateur who does constructional work
is made for high-speed drills. The carbon drill will
to add to his supply of tools from time to time as
suffice for most ordinary equipment construction
fmances permit.
work and costs less than the high-speed type.
While twist drills are available in a number of
RECOMMENDED TOOLS sizes, those listed in bold-faced type in Table 18-1
Long-nose pliers, 6-inch and 4-inch will be most commonly used in construction of
Diagonal cutters, 6-inch and 4-inch amateur equipment. It is usually desirable to
Combination pliers, 6-inch purchase several of each of the commonly used
Screwdriver, 6- to 7-inch, l/4-inch blade sizes rather than a standard set, most of which will
Screwdriver, 4- to 5-inch, l/8-inch blade be used infrequently if at all.
Phillips screwdriver, 6- to 7-inch
Phillips screwdriver, 3- to 4-inch
Long-shank screwdriver with holding clip on Care of Tools
blade The proper care of tools is not alone a matter
Scratch awl or scriber for marking metal of pride to a good workman. He also realizes the
Combination square, l2-inch, for layout energy which may be saved and the annoyance
work
Hand drill, l/4-inch chuck or larger which may be avoided by the possession of a full
Soldering pencil, 30-watt, l/8-inch tip kit of well-kept sharp-edged tools.
Soldering iron, 200-watt, S/8-inch tip Drills should be sharpened at frequent intervals
Hacksaw and l2-inch blades so that grinding is kept at a minimum each time.
Hand nibbling tool, for chassis-hole cutting This makes it easier to maintain the rather critical
Hammer, ball-peen, l-Ib head
Heavy-duty jack knife
File set, flat, round, half-round, and triangu-
lar. Large and miniature types recom-
surface angles required for best cutting with least
wear. Occasional oilstoning of rhe cutting edges of
a drill or reamer will extend the time between
II
grindings.
mended The soldering iron can be kept in good
High-speed drill bits, No. 60 through 3/8-
inch diameter condition by keeping the tip well tinned with
Set of "Spintite" socket wrenches·for hex solder and not allowing it to run at full voltage for
nuts long periods when it is not being used. After each
Crescent wrench, 6· and 10·inch period of use, the tip should be removed and
Machine-screw taps, 4-40 through 10-32 cleaned of any scale which may have accumulated.
thread An oxidized tip may be cleaned by dipping it in sal
Socket punches, 1/2", 5/8", 3/4", 1 1/8", ammoniac while hot and then wiping it clean with
1 1/4", and 1 1/2"
Tapered reamer, T-handle, 1/2-inch maxi- a rag. If the tip becomes pitted it should be filed
mum pitch until smooth and bright, and then tinned
Bench vise, 4·inch jaws or larger immediately by dipping it in solder.
Medium-weight machine oil
Tin shears, 10-inch size Useful Materials
Motor-driven emery wheel for grinding
Solder, rosin core only Small stocks of various miscellaneous materials
Contact cleaner, liquid or spray can will be required in constructing radio apparatus,
Duco cement or equivalent most of which are available from hardware or
Electrical tape, vinyl plastic radio-supply stores. A representative list follows:

543
544 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

•
Fig. 1 - The SCR motor-speed control is housed in Fig. 2 - Inside view of the motor-control. 01 is
a small cabinet. supported by a large soldering lug that is connected
to the standard terminal strip.

Sheet aluminum, solid and perforated, 16 or

18 gauge, for brackets and shielding.
1/2 X 1/2-inch aluminum angle stock.
1/ 4-inch diameter round brass or aluminum
rod for shaft extensions. Machine
screws: Round-head and flat-head, with
nuts to fit. Most useful sizes: 440, 6-32
and 8-32, in lengths from 1/4 inch to
1 1/2 inches. (Nickel-plated iron will be
found satisfactory except in strong rf INPUT
fields, where brass should be used.) 117VAC
Bakelite, lucite and polystyrene scraps.
Soldering lugs, panel bearings, rubber
grommets, terminal-lug wiring strips,
varnished-cambric insulating tubing.
Shielded and unshielded wire.
Tinned bare wire, Nos. 22, 14 and 12.

~
CATHODE
Machine screws, nuts, washers, soldering lugs, (LONG CONTACT)
etc., are most reasonably purchased in quantities of
GATE
a gross. Many of the radio-supply stores sell small

C
(SHORT CONTACT)
quantities and assortments that come in handy.

SCR MOTOR-SPEED CONTROL

Most electric hand drills operate at a single high - ANODE
speed; however, from time to time, the need arises (CASEl
to utilize low or medium speeds. Low speeds are
useful when drilling in tight spaces or on exposed
surfaces where it is important that the drill bit Fig. 3 - Circuit diagram of the SCR motor-speed
doesn't slip, and when drilling bakelite, Plexiglas control.
and similar materials. Medium speeds are useful for CR1, CR2 - Silicon diode, 1000 V, 2.5 A,
drilling non-ferrous metals such as aluminum and (Motorola HEP-170 or equiv.).
brass. One way to accomplish these ends with a J1 - Chassis-mounting line socket (Amphenol
single-speed electric drill is to use a silicon-control- 61-Fl).
led-rectifier (SCR) speed control. 01 - SCR, 10 A or greater, 200 V (Motorola
HEP-306).
The circuit for the SCR speed control is shown R1 - 470().ohm, 1/2-watt composition.
in Fig. 3. This type of circuit provides some degree R2 - 50,OOO-ohm linear-taper control.
of regulation with varying loads. S1 - Spst toggle.
Chassis Working 545
Construction TABLE 18-1
Because of the small complement of parts, the
SCR speed control can be constructed inside a very Numbered Orin Sizes
small container. The model described was built in 'a Drilled for
23/4 X 2 1/8 X 1 5/8-inch Minibox. Since the Diameter Will Clear Tapping from
mounting stud and main body of the SCR are Num. (Mils) Screw Steel or Brass"
common with the anode, care should be used to 1 228.0
mount the SCR clear from surrounding objects. In 2 221.0 12-24
the unit shown, two soldering lugs were soldered 3 213.0 14-24
together and the narrow ends connected to one 4 209.0 12-20
side of the female output connector; the large ends 5 205.0
6 204.0
were used as a fastening point for the SCR anode
7 201.0
stud. 8 199.0
9 196.0
Operation 10 193.5 10-32
11 191.0 10-24
Although the circuit described is intended to be 12 189.0
used to reduce the speed of electric hand drills that 13 185.0
draw six amperes or less, it has many other 14 182.0
applications. It can be used to regulate the 15 180.0
temperature of a soldering iron, which is being 16 177.0 12-24
used to wire a delicate circuit, or it may be used 17 173.0
for dimming lamps or for controlling the cooking 18 169.5 8-32
19 166.0 12-20
speed of a small hot plate. Note, however, if the 20 161.0
circuit is used with a device drawing from three to 21 159.0 10-32
six amperes for a continuous period of over ten 22 157.0
minutes, it will be necessary to provide a heat sink 23 154.0
(insulated from the chassis) for the SCR anode 24 152.0
case. 25 149.5 10-24
26 147.0
27 144.0
CHASSIS WORKING
28 140.0 6-32
With a few essential tools and, proper 29 136.0 8-32
procedure, it will be found that building radio gear 30 128.5
on a metal chassis is a relatively simple matter. 31 120.0
Aluminum is to be preferred to steel, not only 32 116.0
33 113.0 4-40
because it is a superior shielding material, but 34 111.0
because it is much easier to work and provides 3S 1l0.0 6-32
good chassis contacts. 36 106.5
The placing of components on the chassis is 37 104.0
shown quite clearly in the photographs in this 38 101.5
Handbook. Aside from certain essential dimen- 39 099.5 3-48
sions, which usually are given in the text, exact 40 098.0
duplication is not necessary. 41 096.0
42 093.5 4-40
Much trouble and energy can be saved by 089.0 2-56
43
spending sufficient time in planning the job. When 44 086.0
all details are worked out beforehand the actual 45 082.0 3-48
construction is greatly simplified. 46 081.0
Cover the top of the chassis with a piece of 47 078.5
wrapping paper, or, preferably, cross-section paper, 48 076.0
folding the edges down over the sides of the chassis 49 073.0 2-56
50 070.0
51 067.0
52 063.5
53 059.5
54 055.0
*Use one size larger for tapping bakelite and
phenolics.
o
and fastening with adhesive tape. Then assemble
the parts to be mounted on top of the chassis and
Cltassis move them about until a satisfactory arrangement
has been found, keeping in mind any parts which
are to be mounted underneath, so that interfer-
Fig. 18-3 - Method of measuring the heights of ences in mounting may be avoided. Place
capacitor shafts. If the square is adjustable, the end capacitors and other parts with shafts extending
of the scale shou Id be set fI ush with the face of the
head.
through the panel first, and arrange them so that
 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
546
Drilling and Cutting Holes
When drilling holes in metal with a hand drill it
is important that the centers first be located with a
center punch, so that the drill point will not
"walk" away from the center when starting the
hole. When the drill starts to break through, special
care must be used. Often it is an advantage to shift
a two-speed drill to low gear at this point. Holes
more than 1/4-inch in diameter should be started
with a smaller drill and reamed out with the larger
drill.
The check on the usual type of hand drill is
limited to 1/4-inch drills. Although it is rather
tedious, the 1/4-inch hole may be filed out to
larger diameters with round files. Another method
A B possible with limited tools is to drill a series of
Fig. 184 - To cut rectangular holes in a chassis small holes with the hand drill along the inside of
corner, holes may be filed out as shown in the the circumference of the large hole, placing the
shaded portion of S, making it possible to start the holes as close together as possible. The center may
hack-saw blade along the cutting line. A shows how then be knocked out with a cold chisel and the
a single-ended handle may be constructed for a edges smoothed up with a file. Taper reamers
hack-saw blade. which fit into the carpenter's brace will make the
job easier. A large rat-tail file clamped in the brace
the controls will form the desired pattern on the makes a very good reamer for holes up to the
panel. Be sure to line up the shafts squarely with diameter of the file.
the chassis front. Locate any partition shields and For socket holes and other large holes in an
panel brackets next, and then the tube sockets and aluminum chassis, socket-hole punches should be
any other parts, marking the mounting-hole centers used. They require first drilling a guide hole to pass
of each accurately on the paper. Watch out for the bolt that is turned to squeeze the punch
capacitors whose shafts are off center and do not through the chassis. The threads of the bolt should
line up with the mounting holes. Do not forget to be oiled occasionally.
mark the centers of socket holes and holes for Large holes in steel panels or chassis are best
leads under i-f transformers, etc., as well as holes cut with an adjustable circle cutter. Occasional
for wiring leads. The small holes for socket-mount- application of machine oil in the cutting groove
ing screws are best located and center-punched, will help. The cutter rust should be tried out on a
using the socket itself as a template, after the main block of wood, to make sure that it is set for the
center hole has been cut. right diameter.
By means of the square, lines indicating The burrs or rough edges which usually result
accurately the centers of shafts should be extended after drilling or cutting holes may be removed with
to the front of the chassis and marked on the panel a file, or sometimes more conveniently with a
at the chassis line, the panel being fastened on sharp knife or chisel. It is a good idea to keep an
temporarily. The hole centers may then be old wood chisel sharpened and available for this
punched in the chassis with the center punch. purpose.
After drilling, the parts which require mounting
underneath may be located and the mounting holes Rectangular Holes
drilled, marking sure by trial that no interferences Square or rectangular holes may be cut out by
exist with parts mounted on top. Mounting holes making a row of small holes as previously
along the front edge of the chassis should be described, bu t is more easily done by drilling a
transferred to the panel, by once again fastening 1/2-inch hole inside each comer, as illustrated in
the panel to the chassis and marking it from the
Fig. 18-4, and using these holes for starting and
rear.
turning the hack saw. The socket-hole punch and
Next, mount on the chassis the capacitors and
the square punches which are now available also
any other parts with shafts extending to the panel,
may be of considerable assistance in cutting out
and measure accurately the height of the center of
each shaft above the chassis, as illustrated in Fig. large rectangular openings.
18-3. The horizontal displacement of shafts having
already been marked on the chassis line on the SEMICONDUCTOR HEAT SINKS
panel, the vertical displacement can be measured Homemade heat sinks can be fashioned from
from this line. The shaft centers may now be brass, copper or aluminum stock by employing
marked on the back of the panel, and the holes ordinary workshop tools. The dimensions of the
drilled. Holes for any other panel equipment heat sink will depend upon the type of transistor
coming above the chassis line may then be marked used, and the amount of heat that must be
and drilled, and the remainder of the apparatus conducted away from the body of the semicon-
mounted. Holes for terminals etc., in the rear edge ductor.
of the chassis should be marked and drilled at the Fig. 18-5 shows the order of progression for
same time that they are done for the top. forming a large heat sink from aluminum or brass
Heat Sinks 547
(A) (8) (C) (0)

COMPLETED
UNIT

Fig. 18-5 - Details for forming channel type heat sinks.

channels of near-equal height and depth. The width

is lessened in parts (B) and (C) so that each channel
will fit into the preceding one as shown in the
completed model at (D). The three pieces are
bolted together with S-32 screws and nuts.
Dimensions given are for illustrative purposes only.
Heat sinks for smaller transistors can be
fabricated as shown in Fig. 18-7. Select a drill bit
that is one size smaller than the diameter of the
,%;ktmg:.
Alum.stock
transistor case and form the heat sink from 1/16
HEAT SINK DETAILS
inch thick brass, copper or aluminum stock as
shown in steps (A), (B), and (C). Form the stock
around the drill bit by compressing it in a vise (A). Fig. 18-6 - Layout and assembly details of another
The completed heat sink is press-fitted over the homemade heat sink. The completed assembly can
body of the semiconductor as illustrated at (D). be insulated from the main chassis of the
The larger the area of the heat sink, the greater will transmitter by using insulating washers.
be the amount of heat conducted away from the
transistor body. In some applications, the heat transistor is held in place by a small metal plate
sinks shown in Fig. IS-7 may be two or three whose center hole is slightly smaller in diameter
inches in height (power transistor stages). than the case of the transistor. Details are given in
Another technique for making heat sinks for Fig. 18-6.
T0-5 type transistors (1) and larger models (1) is A thin coating of silicone grease, available from
shown in Fig. 18-6. This style of heat sink will most electronics supply houses, can be applied
dissipate considerably more heat than will the type between the case of the transistor and the part of
shown in Fig. 18-5. The main body of the sink is the heat sink with which it comes in contact. The
fashioned from a piece of liS-inch thick aluminum silicone grease will aid the transfer of heat from the
angle bracket - available from most hardware transistor to the sink. This practice can be applied
stores. A hole is bored in the angle stock to allow to all models shown here. In the example given in
the transistor case to fit snugly into it. The Fig. lS-5, the grease should be applied between the

HEAT SINK
DRILL BIT
~~~~:;p
........... iI,. INCH STOCK DRILL BIT

Fig. 18-7 - Steps

used in construc-
<E~S'~
ting heat sinks FORM HERE
for small trans·
istors. (8)

(A)

..

~
~
" HEAT SINK
INSTALLED
COMPLETED ,. ON TRANSISTOR
HEAT SINK

(0)
(C)
548 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
three channels before they are bolted together, as Cutting and Bending Sheet Metal
well as between the transistor and the channel it If a sheet of metal is too large to be cut
contacts. conveniently with a hack saw, it may be marked
with scratches as deep as possible along the line of
CONSTRUCTION NOTES the cut on both sides of the sheet and then
If a control shaft must be extended or clamped in a vise and worked back and forth until
insulated, a flexible shaft coupling with adequate the sheet breaks at the line. Do not carry the
insulation should be used. Satisfactory support for bending too far until the break begins to weaken;
the shaft extension, as well as electrical contact for otherwise the edge of the sheet may become bent.
safety, can be provided by means of a metal panel A pair of iron bars or pieces of heavy angle stock,
bearing made for the purpose. These can be as long or longer than the width of the sheet, to
obtained singly for use with existing shafts, or they hold it in the vise, will make the job easier. "C"
can be bought with a captive extension shaft clamps may be used to keep the bars from
included. In either case the panel bearing gives a spreading at the ends. The rough edges may be
"solid" feel to the control. smoothed with a file or by placing a large piece of
The use of fiber washers between ceramic emery cloth or sandpaper on a flat surface and
insulation and metal brackets, screws or nuts will running the edge of the metal back and forth over
prevent the ceramic parts from breaking. the sheet. Bends may be made similarly.

Finishing Aluminum
STANDARD METAL GAUGES Aluminum chassis, panels and parts may be
Gauge American U.S. Birmingham given a sheen finish by treating them in a caustic
No. orB&Sl Standard 2 or Stubs 3 bath. An enamelled or plastic container, such as a
dishpan or infant's bathtub, should be used for the
1 .2893 .28125 .300 solution. Dissolve ordinary household lye in cold
2 .2576 .265625 .284 water in a proportion of 1/4 to 1/2 can of lye per
3 .2294 .25 .259
4 .2043 .234375 .238
gallon of water. The stronger solution will do the
5 .1819 .21875 .220 job more rapidly. Stir the solution with a stick of
6 .1620 .203125 .203 wood until the lye crystals are completely
7 .1443 .1875 .180 dissolved. Be very careful to avoid any skin contact
8 . 1285 .171875 .165 with the solution. It is also harmful to clothing.
9 .1144 .15625 .148 Sufficient solution should be prepared to cover the
10 .1019 .140625 .134 piece completely. When the aluminum is immersed,
11 .09074 .125 .120
12 .08081 .109375
a very pronounced bubbling takes place and
.109
13 .07196 .09375 .095 ventilation should be provided to disperse the
14 .0.6408 .078125 .083 escaping gas. A half hour to two hours in the
15 .05707 .0703125 .072 solution should be sufficient, depending upon the
16 . 05082 .0625 .065 strength of the solution and the desired surface .
17 .04526 .05625 .058 Remove the aluminum from the solution with
18 .04030 .05 .049 sticks and rinse thoroughly in cold water while
19 .03589 .04375 .042
20 .03196
swabbing with a rag to remove the black deposit.
.0375 .035
21 .02846 .034375 .032 When dry, finish by spraying on a light coat of
22 .02535 .03125 .028 clear lacquer.
23 .02257 .028125 .025
24 .02010 .025 .022 Soldering
25 .01790 .021875 .020
26 .01594 .01875 .018
The secret of good soldering is to use the right
27 .01420 .0171875 .016 amount of heat. Too little heat will produce a
28 .01264 .015625 .014 "cold-soldered joint"; too much may injure a
29 .01126 .0140625 .013 component. The iron and the solder should be
30 .01003 .0125 .012 applied simultaneously to the joint. Keep the iron
31 .008928 .0109375 .0 to clean by brushing the hot tip with a paper towel.
32 .007950 .01015625 .009 Always use rosin-core solder, never acid-core.
33 .007080 .009375 .008
34 .006350 .00859375
Solders have different melting points, depending
.007
35 .005615 .0078125 .005 upon the ratio of tin to lead. A 50-50 solder melts
36 .005000 .00703125 .004 at 425 degrees F, while 6040 melts at 371 degrees
37 .004453 .006640626 '" . F. When it is desirable to protect from excessive
38 .003965 .00625 ... . heat the components being soldered, the 6040
39 . 003531 ....... '0 •• solder is preferable to the 50-50. (A less-common
40 .003145 ....... '0 • • solder, 63-37, melts at 361 degrees F.)
1 Used for aluminum, copper, brass and non- When soldering transistors, crystal diodes or
ferrous alloy sheets, wire and rods. small resistors, the lead should be gripped with a
2 Used for iron, steel, nickel and ferrous al- pair of pliers up close to the unit so that the heat
loy sheets, wire and rods.
will be conducted away. Overheating of a transistor
3 Used for seamless tubes; also by someman-
ufacturers for copper and brass. or diode while soldering can cause permanent
damage. Also, mechanical stress will have a similar
Wiring 549
effect, so that a small unit should be mounted so

~Ji~~
that there is no appreciable mechanical strain on
the leads.
Trouble is sometimes experienced in soldering
to the pins of coil forms or male cable plugs. It
helps if the pins are first cleaned on the inside with
a s~itable twist drill and then tinned by flowing
(A) WRONG
rOSIn-core solder into them. Immediately clear the
surplus solder from each hot pin by a whipping
motion or by blowing through the pin from the
inside of the form or plug. Before inserting the
wire in the pin, file the nickel plate from the tip.
After soldering, round the solder tip off with a file.
When soldering to the pins of polystyrene coil (B) RIGHT
forms, hold the pin to be soldered with a pair of
heavy pliers, to form a "heat sink" and insure that
the pin does not heat enough in the coil form to
loosen and become misaligned.

Wiring
The wire used in connecting amateur equip- RIGHT
ment should be selected considering both the (C)
maximum current it will be called upon to handle
and the voltage its insulation must stand without Fig. 18-8 - Methods of lacing cables. The method
breakdown. Also, from the consideration to TVI, shown at C is more secure, but takes more time
the power wiring of all transmitters should be done than the method of B. The latter is usually
with wire that has a braided shielding cover. adequate for most amateur requirements.
Receiver and audio circuits may also require the
use of shielded wire at some points for stability, or
the elimination of hum. be cut and lined with a rubber grommet. In case
No. 20 stranded wire is commonly used for insulation becomes necessary, varnished cambric
most receiver wiring (except for the high-frequency tubing (spaghetti) can be slipped over the wire.
circuits) where the current does not exceed 2 or 3 In transmitters where the peak voltage does not
amperes. For higher-current heater circuits, No. 18 exceed 2500 volts, the shielded grid wire
is available. Wire with cellulose acetate insulation is mentioned above should be satisfactory for power
good for voltages up to about 500. For higher circuits. For higher voltages, Belden type 8656,
voltages, themoplastic-insulated wire should be Bimbach type 1820, or shielded ignition cable can
used. Inexpensive wire strippers that make the be used. In the case of filament circuits carrying
removal of insulation from hookup wire an easy heavy current, it may be necessary to use No. 10 or
job are available on the market. 12 bare or enameled wire, slipped through
When power leads have several branches in the spaghetti, and then covered with copper braid
chassis, it is convenient to use fiber-insulated pulled tightly over the spaghetti. The chapter on
multiple tie points as anchorages or junction TVI shows the manner in which shielded wire
points. Strips of this type are also useful as should be applied. If the shielding is simply slid
insulated supports for resistors, rf chokes and back over the insulation and solder flowed into the
capacitors. High-voltage wiring should have ex- end of the braid, the braid usually will stay in place
posed points held to a minimum; those which without the necessity for cutting it back or binding
cannot be avoided should be made as inaccessible it in place. The braid should be cleaned first so that
as possible to accidental contact or short-circuit. solder will take with a minimum of heat.
Where shielded wire is called for and capaci- Rf wiring in transmitters usually follows the
tance to ground is not a factor, Belden type 8885 method described above for receivers with due
shielded grid wire may be used. If capacitance must respect to the voltages involved.
be minimized, it may be necessary to use a piece of Where power or control leads run together for
car-radio low-capacitance lead-in wire, or coaxial more than a few inches, they will present a better
cable. appearance when bound together in a single cable.
For wiring high-frequency circuits, rigid wire is The correct technique is illustrated in Fig. 18-8;
often used. Bare soft-drawn tinned wire, size 22 to both plastic and waxed-linen lacing cords are
12 (depending on mechanical requirements) is available. Plastic cable clamps are available to hold
suitable. Kinks can be removed by stretching a the laced cable.
piece of 10 or 15 feet long and then cutting into To give a "commercial look" to the wiring of
short lengths that can be handled conveniently. Rf any unit, run any cabled leads along the edge of
wiring should be run directly from point to point the chassis. If this isn't possible, the cabled leads
with a minimum of sharp bends and the wire kept should then run parallel to an edge of the chassis.
well spaced from the chassis or other grounded Further, the generous use of tie points (mounted
metal surfaces. Where the wiring must pass through parallel to an edge of the chassis), for the support
the chassis or a partition, a clearance hole should of one or both ends of a resistor or fixed capacitor,
550 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

BNC Connector. 83-1SP Plug

CABLE

~~!~ e::;;;;J
I.-Cut end of ca-
I.-Cut end of cable ble even. Remove
even. vinyl jacket 1~"­
NUT
don't nick braid.
f--l!--j
2.-Remove vinyl jaca
ket ~"-don't nick braid. 2.-Bare ~" of
center conductor-
don't nick conductor.
Trim braided shield
3.-Push braid back and V,S" and tin. Slide
remove }i" of insulation coupling ring on
and conductor. cable.

4.-Taper braid. 3.-Screw the plug

assembly on cable.
Solder pll1g assembly
to braid through sol·
S.-Slide sleeve Over der holes. Solder
tapered braid. Fit inner conductor to contact COUPLING RING / PLUG ASSEMBLY
shoulder or sleeve square- sleeve.
SOLDER HOLE
ly against end of jacket.

4.-Screw coupling
6.-With sleeve in place, ring on assembly.
comb out braid, fold back
smooth as shown, and
trim '%2".
83-1SP Plug with Adopte ..

7.-Bare center conduc-

tor }ill-don't nick con.
ductor.

ER

8.-Tin center con- 1.-Cut end of cable even. Remove vinyl jacket 21h2"-
ductor of cable. Slip don't nick braid. Slide coupling ring and adapter on cable.
female contact in place
and solder. Remove
excess solder. Be sure
cable dielectric is not
heated excessively and
su:olJcn so as to pre-
vent dielectric entering
body. 2.-Fan braid slightly and fold back over cable.

9.-Push into body

as far as it will go. BODY
Slide nut into body
and screw into place,
with wrench, until 3.-Compress braid around cable. Position adapter to
it is moderately tight. dimension shown. Press braid down over body of adapter
Hold cable and shell to dimension shown. Press braid down over body of
rigidly and rotate adapter and trim.
nut.

10.-This assembly
, ~~~ /Il
~I~~
procedure applies to
BNC jacks. The as·
sembly for plugs is
4.-Bare ~" of center conductor-don't nick conductor.
the same except for
Pre-tin exposed center conductor.
the use of male con-
tacts and a plug
body. 5, 6.-Same as 3 and 4 under 83·ISP Plug.

Fig. 18-9 - Cable-stripping dimensions and assembly instructions for several popular coaxial-cable plugs.
This material courtesy Amphenol Connector DiVision, Amphenol-Borg Electronics Corp.
 Circuit Boards 551
~ill. add to the appearance of the fInished unit. In a shapes ~d l~ngths, then gluing them' to a piece of
s1milar manner, "dress" the small components so unclad ClICUlt board. Epoxy cement is useful for
that ~hey are parallel to the panel or sides of the the latter. Alternatively, the strips can be held in
chass1S. place by means of brass eyelets which have been
installed with a hand eyelet tool. If standard
Winding Coils uncla~ circuit board is not handy, linoleum or
C?ose-wound coils are readily wound on the FOrmlca sheeting can be made to serve as a base for
s~ec1~ed fo~m by anchoring one end of a length of the circuit board. If this technique is used the
WlIe (m a VISe or to a doorknob) and the other end m~tal strips should be soldered together at 'each
to the coil form. Straighten any kinks in the wire pomt where they join, assuring good electrical
~d then pull.to keep thl;l wire under slight tension. contact.
Wmd the coil to the required number of turns . Etched-circuit boards provide the most profes-
:-vhile ~alking toward the anchor, always maintain- slOnal end result of the three systems described
mg a slight tension on the wire. here .. They are the most stable, physically and
. To space-wind the coil, wind the coil electrically, and can be easily repeated from a
s1multaneously with a suitable spacing medium single template. Etched-circuits can be formed on
(heavy thread, string or wire) in the manner copper-clad perforated board, or on unpunched
described above. When the winding is complete, copper-clad board. There is no advantage in using
secure the end of the coil to the coil-form terminal the perforated board as a base unless push-in
and the.n ~arefully unwind the spacing material. If terminals are to be used.
the coil 1S wound under suitable tension the
spacing material can be easily removed without Planning and Layout
di~turb~g ~~e winding. Finish the space-wound The constructor should fIrst plan the physical
coil by JUdiClOUS applications of Duco cement to I~You t of the circuit by sketching a pictorial
hold the turns in place. . , diagram on paper, drawing it to scale. Once this has
The "cold" end of a coil is the end at or close been done, the interconnecting leads can be inked
to chassis or ground potential. Coupling links in to represent the copper strips that will remain
should be wound on the cold end of a coil to on the etched board. The Vector Company sells
minimize capacitive coupling. ' layout paper for this purpose. It is marked with the
same patterns that are used on their perforated
CIRCUIT-BOARD FABRICATION boards.
Many modern-day builders prefer the neatness After the basic etched-circuit design has been
and miniaturization made possible by the use of completed the designer should go over the
etched or printed circuit boards. There are proposed layout several times to insure against
additional benefIts to be realized from the use of errors. When the foregoing has been done, the
circuit boards: Low lead inductances, excellent pattern can be painted on the copper surface of the
physical stability of the components and intercon- board to be etched. Etch-resistant solutions are
necting leads, and good repeatability of the basic available from commercial suppliers and can be
layout of a given project. The latter attribute selected from their catalogs. Some builders prefer
ma~es the use of circuit boards ideal for group
to use India ink for this purpose. Perhaps the most
proJects. readily-available material for use in etch-resist
applications is ordinary exterior enamel paint. The
Methods portions of the board to be retained are covered
Perhaps the least complicated approach to with a layer of paint, applied with an artist's brush
circuit-board fabrication is the use of unclad duplicating the pattern that was drawn on th~
perforated board into which a number of push-in layout paper. The job can be made a bit easier by
terminals have been installed. The perforated board tracing over the original layout with a ballpoint
can be obtained with one of many hole patterns, pen and carbon paper while the pattern is taped to
dependent upon the needs of the builder. the copper side of the unetched circuit board. The
Perforated terminal boards are manufactured by carbon paper is placed between the pattern and the
such fIrms as Vector, Kepro, and Triad. Their circuit board. After the paint has been applied, it
products are available from the large mail-order should be allowed to dry for at least 24 hours prior
houses. to the etching process. The Vector Company
Once the builder plots the layout of his circuit produces a rub-on transfer material that can also be
on paper, push-in terminals can be installed in the used as etch-resist when laying out circuit-board
"perf" board to match the layout which was done patterns. Thin strips of ordinary masking tape, cut
on paper. The terminals serve as· tie points and to size and fIrmly applied, serve nicely as
provide secure mounting-post anchors for the etch-resist material too.
various components. Selected terminals can be
wired together to provide ground and B-plus lines. The Etching Process
Although this technique is the most basic of the Almost any strong acid bath will serve as an
methods, it is entirely practical. etchant, but the two chemical preparations
An approach to etched-circuit board assembly recommended here are the safest to use. A bath
can be realized by cutting strips of flashing copper, can be prepared by mixing 1 part ammonium
hobby copper, or brass shim stock into the desired persulphate crystals with 2 parts clear water. A
552 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
on hand if frequent use is anticipated. With either
chemical bath, the working solution should be
maintained at a temperature between 90 and 115
degrees F. A heat lamp can be directed toward the
bath during the etching period, its distance set to
maintain the reqUIred temperature. A darkroom

..
thermometer is handy for monitoring the tempera-
~ ture of the bath.
/~ While the circuit board is immersed in the
solution, it should be agitated continuously to
permit uniform reaction to the chemicals. This
action will also speed up the etching process
somewhat. Normally, the circuit board should be
placed in the bath with the copper side facing
down, toward the bottom of the tray. The tray
should be non-metallic, preferably a Pyrex dish or
a photographic darkroom tray.
The photograph, Fig. 18-10, shows a home-
made etching stand made up from a heat lamp,
some lumber, and an 8 rpm motor. An eccentric
disk has been mounted on the motor shaft and
butts against the bottom of the etchant tray. As
the motor turns, the eccentric disk raises and
lowers one end of the try, thus providing
continuous agitation of the solution. The heat
lamp is mounted on an adjustable, slotted wooden
arm. Its height above the solution tray is adjusted
to provide the desired bath temperature. Because
the etching process takes between 15 minutes and
one hour -dependent upon the strength and
temperature of the bath - such an accessory is
convenient.
After the etching process is completed, the
Fig. 18-10 - A homemade stand for processing board is removed from the tray and washed
etched·drcuit boards. The heat lamp maintains the thoroughly with fresh, clear water. The etch-resist
etchant-bath temperature between 90 and 115 material can then be rubbed off by applying a few
degrees, F. and is mounted on an adjustable arm. brisk strokes with medium-grade steel wool.
The tray for the bath is raised and lowered at one
end by the action of a motor-driven eccentric disk, WARNING: Always use rubber gloves when
providing the necessary agitation of the chemical working with etchant powders and solutions.
solution. A darkroom thermometer monitors the Should the acid bath come in contact with the
temperature of the bath. body, immediately wash the affected area with
clear water. Protect the eyes when using acid baths.
normal quantity of working solution for most
amateur radio applications is composed of 1 cup of COMPONENT VALUES
crystals and 2 cups of water. To this mixture add Values of composition resistors and small
1/4 teaspoon of mercuric chloride crystals. The capacitors (mica and ceramic) are specified
latter serves as an activator for the bath. throughout this Handbook in terms of "preferred
Ready-made etchant kits which use these chemicals values." In the preferred-number system, all values
are available from Vector. A two-bag kit is sold as represent (approximately) a constant-percentage
item 2594 and costs just over $1. Complete kits increase over the next lower value. The base of the
which contain circuit boards, etch ant powders, system is the number 10. Only two significant
etch-resist transfers, layout paper, and plastic figures are used.
etchant bags are also available from Vector at "Tolerance" means that a variation of plus or
moderate prices. minus the percentage given is considered satisfac-
Another chemical bath that works satisfactorily tory. For example, the actual resistance of a
for copper etching is made up from one part ferric "4700-ohm" 20-percent resistor can lie anywhere
chloride crystals and 2 parts water. No activator is between 3700 and 5600 ohms, approximately. The
required with this bath. Ready-made solutions permissible variation in the same resistance value
(one-pint and one-gallon sizes) are available with 5-percent tolerance would be in the range
through some mail-order houses at low cost. They from 4500 to 4900 ohms, approximately.
are manufactured by Kepro Co. and carry a stock In the component specifications in this
number of E-1PT and E-1G, respectively. One pint Handbook, it is to be understood that when no
costs less than a dollar.
tolerance is specified the largest tolerance available
Etchant solutions become exhausted after a in that value will be satisfactory.
certain amount of copper has been processed, Values that do not fit into the preferred-
therefore it is wise to keep a-quantity of the bath number system (such as 500, 25,000) easily
Color Codes 553
can be substituted. It is obvious, for example, that E~ampJc: A ceramic capacitor has the following
rnarkmg:-.: Broad band. violet; narrow band~ or dOb. green,
a 5000-ohm resistor falls well within the tolerance brown, black, green. The :-.ignificant figures arc 5, 1 (51)
range of the 4700-ohm 20-percent resistor used in and the decimal multiplier is I, so the capacitance is 51 pF.
the example above. It would not. however, be The temperature coefficient i:-. ·750 part~ pcr million per
de~'Tcc C. as given by the broad band. the capacitance
usable if the tolerance were specified a~ 5 percent. tolerance i ... +5'1.

Fixed Composition Resistors

TABLE 18-11
Composition resistors (including small wire-
Approxi!llate Seri~s.Resonance Frequencies of wound units molded in cases identical with the
Disc CeramIc Bypass Capacitors composition type) are color-coded as shown in Fig.
Capacitance Freq.1 Freq.2 18-12. Colored bands are used on resistors having
.01pF axial leads; on radial-lead resistors the colors are
13 MHz 15 MHz
.0047 placed as shown in the drawing. When bands are
18 22
.002 used for color coding the body color has no
31 38 significance .
.001 46 55
.0005 65 80 Examples: A resistor of the type shown in the lower
drawing of Fig. 18-12 has the following color bands: A, red;
.0001 135 165 B, red; C, orange; D, no color. The significant figures are 2,
1 Total lead length of 1 inch 2 (22) and the decimal multiplier is 1000. The value of
2 Total lead length of 1/2-inch resistance is therefore 22,000 ohms and the tolerance is
±20%.
A resistor of the type shown in the upper drawing has
the following colors: body (A), blue; end (8). gray; dot,
red; end (D), gold. The sigoificant figures are 6, 8 (68) and
COLOR CODES the decimal multiplier is 100, so the resistance is 6800
ohms. The tolerance is ± 5%.
Standardized color codes are used to mark
values on small components such as composition Mica. ClJpadtors-BIa&k
resistors and mica capacitors, and to identify leads (AWS ~r azpacitors-
Silver)
from transformers, etc. The resistor-capacitor
number color code is given in Table 18-III.
Fixed Capacitors 000
The methods of marking "postage-stamp" mica
capacitors, molded paper capacitors and tubular f%amderistic bedf11l1/mllltiplier
ceramic capacitors are shown in Fig. 18-11. Tolertlnc6
Capacitors made to American War Standards or AWS ...s JAN (IUd c.,.atn
Joint Army-Navy specifications are marked with
the 6-dot code shown at the top. Practically all
surplus capacitors are in this category.
The 3-dot EIA code is used for capacitors First
having a rating of 500 volts and ±20 percent si9nificant fiqure
tolerance only; other ratings and tolerances are S«cnd
covered by the 6-dot EIA code. si9nificant fi9ure

Example: A capacitor with a 6·dot code has the

following markings: Top row, left to right, black, yellow,
violet; bottom row, right to left, brown, silver, red. Since
the first color in the top rOw is black (significant figure
zero) this is the AWS code and the capacitor has mica
dielectric. The significant figures arc 4 and 7. the decimal
multiplier 10 (brown, at right of second row), so the
c.:apacitancc is 470 pr. The tolerance is ±O%. The final 000
color, the charactcristk, deals with temperature coefficients
and mcthod:-. of tc~ting (see Table IS-V).
A capat.:itor with a 3-dot code has the following colors,
left to right: brown, black, red. The significant figures are YO/~"'ti"!
I, 0 (10) and the multiplier is 100. The capacitance is
therefore 100 pF. ·First slfnifiCilJlt fi9ure
A capacitor with a 6-dot code has the fol1owing
markings: Top row, left to right, brown, black, black; a·S=ndso/nifiCIJnt fi9Urtl
bottom row, right to left, black, gold, blue. Since the first lemperatum CDelficient c·Decim.aJ multiplier
color in the top row is neither black nor silver, this is the D-Capacitona!. toletrulC4
EIA t.:ode. The significant figures are I, 0, 0 (100) and the -*~~-:..,
decimal multiplier is I (black). The capacitance is therefore
100 pl-'. The gold dot shows that the tolerance is ±5(fCi and
the blue dot mdkatc:-. 60~volt rating.
fixed "r1IIIiC t.1pIcilln
Ceramic Capacitors
Conventional markings for ceramic capacitors Fig. 18-11 - Color coding of fixed mica, molded
are shown in the lower drawing of Fig.18-11.The paper and tubular ceramic capacitors. The color
colors have the meanings indicated in Table 18-I1I. code for mica and molded paper capacitors is given
In practice, dots may be used instead of the norrow in Table H~·III. Table 18-IV gives the color code
bands indicated in Fig. 18-11. for tubular ceramic capacitors.
 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
554
I-f Transfonners
TABLE 18-111 Blue - plate lead.
Red - "B" + lead.
Resistor-Capacitor Color Code Green - grid (or diode) lead.
Significant Decimal Tolerance Voltage Black - grid (or diode) return.
Color Figure Multiplier (%) Rating'" NOTE: If the secondary of the i-f transfonner
Black 0 1 is center-tapped, the second diode plate lead is
Brown 1 10 I" 100 green-and-black striped, and black is used for the
Red 2 100 2" 200 center-tap lead.
Orange 3 1,000 3" 300
Yellow 4 10,000 4" 400
Green 5 100,000 5* 500
Blue 6 1,000,000 6* 600
Violet 7 10,000,000 7· 700 Audio Transfonners
Gray 8 100,000,000 8· 800
Blue - plate (finish) lead of primary.
White 9 1,000,000,000 9" 900
Gold 0.1 5 1000 Red - "B" + lead (this applies whether the
Silver 0.01 10 2000 primary is plain or center-tapped).
No color 20 500 Brown - plate (start) lead on center-tapped
* Applies to capacitors only. primaries. (Blue may be used for this lead if
polarity is not important.)
Green - grid (finish) lead to secondary.
TABLE 18-IV Black - grid return (this applies whether the
secondary is plain or center-tapped).
Color Code for Ceramic Capacitors Yellow - grid (start) lead on center-tapped
Capacitance
Tolerance secondaries. (Green may be used for this lead if
Temp. polarity is not important.)
Dec- More Less Coef/' NOTE: These markings apply also to line-to-
Signi· imal than than ppm
ficant Multi· lOpF lOpF /deg. grid and tube-to-line transfonners.
Color Figure plier (in %) (in pF) C.
Power Transfonners
Black 0 1 ±20 2.0 0
Brown 1 10 ± 1 30 1) Primary Leads ..................... Black
Red 2 100 ± 2 80 If tapped:
Orange 3 1000 -150 Common ...................... Black
Yellow 4 -220 Tap ......... '. Black and Yellow,Striped
Green 5 -330 Finish. . . . . • .. . .. Black and Red Striped
Blue 6 ± 5 0.5 -470
2) High-Voltage Place Winding ........... Red
Violet 7 -750
Gray 8 0.01 0.25 30 Center-Tap ....... Red and Yellow Striped
White 9 0.1 ±10 1.0 500 3) Rectifier Filament Winding .......... Yellow
Center-Tap ....... Yellow and Blue Striped
4) Filament Winding No.1 ............. Green
Center-Tap ..... Green and Yellow Striped
TABLE 18-V 5) Filament Winding No.2 ............ Brown
Capacitor Characteristic Code Center-Tap ..... Brown and Yellow Striped
Color Temperature 6) Filament Winding No.3 .............. Slate
Sixth Coefficient Capacitance Center-Tap ...... Slate and Yellow Striped
Dot ppm/deg. C. Drift
Black ±1000 ±S% +1 pF
Brown ±SOO ±3% +1 pF
Red ±200 ±O.S%
Orange ±100 ±0.3%
Yellow -20 to +100 ±0.1%+0.1 pF
Green o to +70 ±O.OS% +0.1 p.F

Fig. 18-12 - Color coding of fixed composition ~

resistors. The color code is given in Table 18-111.
The colored areas have the following significance:
A - First significant figure of resistance in ohms.
B - Second significant figure.
C - Decimal multiplier.
D - Resistance tolerance in percent. If no color is
shown the tolerance is ±20 percent.
E - Relative percent change in value per 1000
hours of operation; Brown, 1 percent; Red, Fi xed composition re5lstcn
0.1 percent; Orange, .01 percent; Yellov" .001
percent.
Color Codes 555

TABLE 18-VI TABLE 18-VII

Color Code for Hookup Wire Metric Mul tiplier Prefixes
Multiples and submultiples of fundamental
Wire units (e.g., ampere, farad, gram, meter, watt »
Color Type of Circuit may be indicated by the following prefixes.
Black Grounds, grounded elements, and Prefix A bbreviation Multiplier
returns
Brown Heaters or filaments, olf ground tera T 10 12
Red Power supply B plus giga G 10 9
Orange Screen grids and Base 2 of mega M 10 6
transistors kilo k 10 3
Yellow Cathodes and transistor emitters hecto h 10 2
Green Control grids, diode plates, and deci d 10-1
Base 1 of transistors centi c 10-2
Blue Plates and transistor collectors milli m 10-3
Violet Power supply, minus leads micro J.I 10-6
Gray Ac power line leads nano n 10-9
White Bias supply, B or C minus, agc pico p 10_12
Wires with tracers are coded in the same man-
ner as solid-color wires, allowing additional
circuit identification over solid-color wiring_
The body of the wire is white and the color
band spirals around the wire lead. When
more than one color band is used, the widest
band represents the 1st color.
Fig. 18-13 - Color coding for tubular encapsulated
rf chokes. At A, an example of the coding for an
Mil Spec. Ment. 7O/erance 8.2-J.lH choke is given. At B, the color bands for a
(SilVer) (silVer) ~ 330-J.lH inductor are illustrated.

-4n~.[F
1st Fig. (gray) /De aJ 2nd, A9
c1m'd (red) PILOT-LAMP DATA
(gol )
RATING
(A) 8.2J.1H.±10% Lamp Bead Base Bulb
Amp.
No. Color (Miniature) Type Volts
40 Brown Screw T-3 1/4 6-S 0.15
40A1 Brown Bayonet T-3 1/4 6-S 0.15
41 White Screw T-3 1/4 2.5 0.5
42 Green Screw T-3 1/4 3.2 ••
43 White Bayonet T-3 1/4 2.5 0.5
44 Blue Bayonet T-3 1/4 6-S 0.25
45 • Bayonet T-3 1/4 3.2 ••
46 2 Blue Screw T-3 1/4 6-S 0.25
(8) 330 J.lH .±5% 47 1 Brown Bayonet T-3 '1/4 6-9 0.15
4S Pink Screw T-3 1/4 2.0 0.06
493 Pink Bayonet T-3 1/4 2.0 0.06
49A3 White Bayonet T-3 1/4 2.1 0.12
50 White Screw G-3 1/2 6-S 0.2
Color Figure Multiplier Tolerance 51 2 White Bayonet G-3 1/2 6-S 0.2
Black 0 1 53 - Bayonet G-3 1/2 14.4 0.12
Brown 1 10 55 White Bayonet G-4 1/2 6-S 0.4
Red 2 100 292 6 White Screw T-3 1/4 2.9 0.17
Orange 3 1000 292A6 White Bayonet T-3 1/4 2.9 0.17
Yellow 4 1455 Brown Screw G-S IS.0 0.25
Green 5 14SSA Brown Bayonet G-S IS.0 0.25
Blue 6 14S7 - Screw T-3 1/4 12-16 0.20
Violet 7 14SS - Bayonet T-3 1/4 14 0.15
Gray S IS13 - Bayonet T-3 1/4 14.4 0.10
White 9 ISIS - Bayonet T-3 1/4 12-16 0.20
None 20% 1 40A and 47 are interchlUlgeable.
Silver 10% 2 Have frosted bulbs.
Gold 5% 3 49 and 49A are interchangeable.
4 Replace with No. 48.
Multiplier is the factor by which the two 6 Use in 2.6-volt sets where regular bulb burns
color figures are multiplied to obtain the in- out too frequently.
ductance value of the choke coil.
* White in G.E. and Sylvania; green in Nation·
al Union, Raytheon and Tung-Sol.
** 0.36 in G.E. and Sylvania; 0.6 in National
Union, Raytheon and Tung-Sol.
556 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
Finding Parts from metropolitan areas, is today's means to the
desired end when collecting component parts for
No chapter on construction would be complete an amateur project. Prices are, to some extent,
without information on where to buy parts. competitive. A wise buyer will study the catalogs
Amateurs, on a dwarfed scale, must function as and select his merchandise accordingly.
purchasing agen ts in these perplexing times. A Delays in shipment can be lessened by avoiding
properly equipped buyer maintains as complete a the use of personal checks when ordering. Bank or
catalog file as possible. Many of the companies postal money orders are preferred by most dis-
listed in Chart I will provide free catalogs upon tributors. Personal checks often take a week to
written request. Others may charge a small fee for clear, thereby causing frustrating delays in the
catalogs. Mail ordering, especially for those distant order reaching you.

FRACTIONS OF AN INCH WITH

METRIC EQUIVALENTS

Fractions of Decimals of Fractions of Decimals of

an inch an inch Millimeters an inch an inch Millimeters

1/64 0.0156 0.397 33/64 0.5156 13.097

1/32 0.0313 0.794 17/32 0.5313 13.494
3/64 0.0469 1.191 35/64 0.5469 13.891
1/16 0.0625 1.588 9/16 0.5625 14.288
5/64 0.0781 1.984 37/64 0.5781 14.684
3/32 0.0938 2.381 19/32 0.5938 15.081
7/64 0.1094 2.778 39/64 0.6094 15.478
1/8 0.1250 3.175 5/8 0.6250 15.875
9/64 0.1406 3.572 41/64 0.6406 16.272
5/32 0.1563 3.969 21/32 0.6563 16.669
11/64 0.1719 4.366 43/64 0.6719 17.066
3/16 0.1875 4.763 11/16 0.6875 17.463
13/64 0.2031 5.159 45/64 0.7031 17.859
7/32 0.2188 5.556 23/32 0.7188 18.256
15/64 0.2344 5.953 47/64 0.7344 18.653
1/4 0.2500 6.350 3/4 0.7500 19.050
17/64 0.2656 6.747 49/64 0.7656 19.447
9/32 0.2813 7.144 25/32 0.7813 19.844
19/64 0.2969 7.541 51/64 0.7969 20.241
5/16 0.3125 7.938 13/16 0.8125 20.638
21/64 0.3281 8.334 53/64 0.8281 21.034
11/32 0.3438 8.731 27/32 0.8438 21.431
23/64 0.3594 9.128 55/64 0.8594 21.828
3/8 0.3750 9.525 7/8 0.8750 22.225
25/64 0.3906 9.922 57/64 0.8906 22.622
13/32 0.4063 10.319 29/32 0.9063 23.019
27/64 0.4219 10.716 59/64 0.9219 23.416
7/16 0.4375 11.113 15/16 0.9375 23.813
29/64 0.4531 11.509 61/64 0.9531 24.209
15/32 0.4688 11.906 31/32 0.9688 24.606
31/64 0.4844 12.303 63/64 0.9844 25.003
1/2 0.5000 12.700 1.0000 25.400
 Chart 1
L Allied Electronics A,H,O HAL Devices A C. M. Peterson Co. Ltd.
• $1 2400 W. Washington Blvd . * free Box 365 '" free 575 Dundas St
•• $10 Chicago, IL 60612 ** none Urbana, IL 61801 ** none London, Ontario
CANADA
A Allied/Radio Shack Stores L Ham Radio Center
J Piezo Technology, Inc.
• (See local phone directory) * free 8342 Olive Blvd.
St. Louis, MO 63132 ~ free Box 7877
Amateur Electronic Supply Orlando, FL 32804
L
'" free 4828 W. Fond du Lac Ave. I.K Hammond Transformer
E,M Poly Paks
•• Milwaukee, WI 53216 * free
•• $10
394 Edinburgh Rd.
N. Guelph. Ontario '1501 Box 942
B Amidon Associates CANADA "'* none Lynnfield, MA 01940
'" free 12033 Otsego Street M,N Precision Systems
** none N. Hollywood, CA 91607 U.S. Distributor for Hammond:
Genesee Radio Co. * free PO Box 6,

.. ** $2 Murray Hill NJ 07974

L AM Tech 2550 Delaware Ave.
'" free PO Box 624 Buffalo, NY 14216
Marion, OH 52302 D Savoy Electronics. Inc

M,N
'" free
•• f
Andy Electronics
6427 Springer
Houston, TX 77017
..
L
* none

M,N
Harrison Radio
20 Smith Street
Farmingdale, L.r., NY 11735
Hazelton Scientific Co.
'" free
** none
D
'" free
Box 7127
Ft Lauderdale FL 33304
Sentry Mfg. Co .
Crystal Park
M,N Associated Comtronics * free Box 163 "'* none Chickasha, OK 73108
... sase PO Box 200 ** none Hazel Park, MI 48030
Sky lane Products
** none Port Jefferson Station F
L L.r. NY 11776 A Heath Co. ... free 406 Bon Air Avenue
* free Benton Harbor, MI 49022 •• $10 Temple, Terrace, FL 33617
o Atlantic Surplus Sales
A,P Spectronics, Inc.
* free 580 Third Avenue
1009 Garfield Street
...... none Brooklyn, NY 11215 L Henry Radio * free
* none 11240 W. Olympic Blvd. ** none Oak Park, IL 60304
B
... free
Barken Electronics
274 Mt. Pleasant Ave.
•• Los Angeles, CA 92801
Spectrum International
** none Livingston, NJ 07039 L Hobby Industries * free PO Box 1084
* free Box 864 ** none Concord, MA 01742
A Barker & Williamson, Inc. Council Bluffs, IA 51501
* free Canal St. M,N Star Tronics
•• Bristol, PA 19007 D International Crystal Co. * free Box 17127
•• $4 Portland, OR 97217
* free 10 N. Lee Street
L,M,N Barry Electronics ** $5 Oklahoma City, OK 73102
•• 5001 512 Broadway M,N Surplus Electronics
• $5 New York, NY 10012 JAN Crystals ... free 10518 Connecticut Ave.
D Kensinllton, MD 20795
* free 2400 Crystal Drive ** $5
M,N Budget Electronics Ft. Myers, FL 33901
* free 2704 West North Avenue o Teletype Corp.
•• $10 Chicago, IL 60647 A,M,N Jeff·Tronics 5555 Touhy Avenue
• 2501 4252 Pearl Road Skokie, IL 60076
L,M,N Burstein·Applebee ** $2 Cleveland, OH 44109
... free 3199 Mercier Street K,A Ten·Tec Inc
•• $5 Kansas City, MO 64111 C Kepro Circuit Systems) Highway 411, E.
* free 3630 Scarlet Oak St. Sevierville, TN 37862
L,A Cambridge Thermionic Corp. ** none St. Louis, MO 63122
* free 445 Concord Ave. A,C,E Trigger Electronics
Cambridge, MA 02138
F Kirk Electronics Division * free 7361 North Ave.
** none River Forest IL 60305
Circuit Board Specialists
* free Electrotec Corp.
C,P •• $10 400 Town St .
* free 3011 Norwich Ave. East Haddam, CT 06423 o Typetronics
** none Pueblo, CO 81008 * sase Box 8873
L Lafayette Radio Elect ** none Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33310
A,E Circuit Specialists Go. * free 111Jericho Tpk.
* free PO Box 3047 Svosset, L.r. NY 11791 E,M Weinschenker, K3DPJ
Scottsdale, AZ 85257
** none * free Box 353
** none (See local phone directory)
** none Irwin, PA 15642
J,M Theodore E. Dames Co. M,N John Meshna, Jr.
* free 308 Hickory St. * free Box 62
Arlington, NJ 07032 ** $5 E. Lynn, MA 01904
Chart I Coding
I,M,N
* free
•• $3

L
Delta Electronics Co.
PO Box 1
Lynn, MA 01903
Dominion Radio & Elect. Co.
..
J
* free
MF J Enterprises
PO Box 494
Mississippi State, MS 39762
A .- New Components
B Toroids and Ferrites
C - Etched-circuit board materials
D Transmitting and receiving crystals
* free 535 Yonge St.
A,G,H James Millen Mfg. Co. E Solid-sta te devices
** none Toronto, Ontario. CAN ADA
* free 150 Exchange Street F - Antenna hardware
Electronics Distributors. Inc. ** $5 Malden, MA 02148
L G .. Dials and knobs
... free 1960 Peck Street

L
* free
Muskegon, MI 49441
Electro·Sonic Supply
543 Yonge St.
..
A,G,L
* free
J. W. Miller Company
19070 Reyes Avenue
Compton, CA 90224
H - Variable capacitors
I - Transformers
J - I-f filters
K .. Cabinet and boxes
** $5 Toronto, Ontario. CANADA A,M,N North American
* free Electronics Ltd. L All of above, general distributor
B Elna Ferrite Labs. Inc. •• $3.50 2407 ST. Catherine St. East M Surplus parts
* free (Ferroxcube Products) Montreal, 134, Quebec
9 Pine Grove Street CANADA N ~ Surplus assem blies
** none o - RTTY equipment and parts
Woodstock, NY 12498
N Nurmi Electronic Supply P Surplus fm gear and parts
B, J E. S. Electronic Labs * free 1727 Donna Rd.
* Catalog price
** $5 West Palm Beach. FL 33401
* free Box 434
Excelsior Springs. MO 64024
* Minimum billing
II<
** none
M,N
* free
Fair Radio Sales
Box 1105
Lima, OH 45902
..
L
* free
Olsen Electronics
260 S. Forge St
Akron, OH 44327
Payette Radio
To the best of our knowledge, the
suppliers shown in Chart I are willing to sell
components to amateurs in small quantities
by mail. This listing does not necessarily
F
Gregory Electronics Corp. '" free 730 ST-Jacques O. indicate that these firms have the approval
P Montreal 101. Quebec.
'" free 249 Rte. 46 of ARRL.
Saddle Brook, NJ 07662 CANADA
 COPPER-WIRE TABLE UI
UI
Cant.·duty Current (X)
Wire Cont.-duty current 3 CarTY1ng
Size Diam. current 3 wires or Feet Ohms Capacity' Nearest
Circular Turns per Linear Inch J single wire cables in per per at Diam. British
A.W.G. in Mil S.W.G.
(B&S) Milsl in conduits Pound, 1000 ft. 700 C.M. in
Area Enamel S.C.E. D.C.C. open air or bundles Bare 2S· C. per Amp. mm. No.

---
1 289.3
-
-- ---
83690 - 3.947 .1264 119.6 7.348 1
2 257.6 66370 -- -- 4.977 .1593 94.8 6.544 3
3 229.4 52640
- -- 6.276 .2009 75.2 5.827 4
---
4 204.3 41740 - - 7.914 .2533 59.6 5.189 5

---
5 181.9
6 162.0
33100 -
- -- - 9.980 .3195 47.3 4.621 7
--
26250 12.58 .4028 37.5 4.115 8
7 144.3 20820 - - - 15.87 .5080 29.7 3.665 9
8
9
128.5
114.4
16510
13090
7.6
8.6
-- 7.1 73 46 20.01 .6405 23.6 3.264 10
10 101.9 10380 9.6 9.1
7.8
8.9
- - 25.23 .8077 18.7
14.8
2.906
2.588
11
12
55 33 31.82 1.018
11
12
90.7
80.8
8234
6530
10.7
12.0
-
11.3
9.8
10.9
- - 40.12 1.284 11.8 2.305 13
41 23 50.59 1.619 9.33 2.053 14
13
14
72.0
64.1
5178
4107
13.5
15.0
-
14.0
12.8
13.8
- - 63.80 2.042 7.40 1.828 15
15 32 17 80.44 2.575 5.87 1.628 16
16
57.1
50.8
3257
2583
16.8
18.9
-
17.3
14.7 - - 101.4 3.247 4.65 1.450 17
16.4 22 13 127.9 4.094 3.69 1.291 18
17 45.3 2048 21.2 -
18 40.3 1624 23.6 21.2
18.1
19.8
-
16
- 161.3 5.163 2.93 1.150
1.024
18
19
19 35.9 10 203.4 6.510 2.32
20 32.0
1288
1022
26.4
29.4
-
25.8
21.8
23.8
-
11
-
7.5
256.5
323.4
8.210
10.35
1.84
1.46
.912
.812
20
21
21
22
28.5
25.3
810
642
33.1 - 26.0 - - 407.8 13.05 1.16 .723 22
23 22.6
37.0
-
31.3 30.0 - 5 514.2 16.46 .918 .644 23
-
---
510 41.3 37.6 648.4 20.76 .728 .573 24
24 20.1 404 46.3 37.0 35.6 - 817.7 26.17 .577 .511 25
25
26
17.9
15.9
320 51.7 - 38.6 - 1031 33.00 .458 .455 26
27 14.3
254
202
58.0
64.9 -
46.1 41.8
-
- - 1300 41.62 .363 .405 27
n
45.0 - .361 29
28
29
12.6
11.3
160
127
72.7
-
54.6 48.5 -- -
1639
2067
52.48
66.17
.288
.228 .321 30 o
30
31
32
10.0
8.9
101
80
81.6
90.5
101 -
64.1
51.8
55.5
59.2 -
- -
-
--.
2607
3287
4145
83.44
105.2
132.7
.181
.144
.114
.286
.255
.227
31
33
34
z
CIt
8.0 63 113
-
74.1 62.6 - 5227 167.3 .090 .202 36 -I
33
34
7.1
6.3
50
40
127
143 86.2
66.3
70.0
-
- -- 6591
8310
211.0
266.0
.072
.057
.180
.160
37
38
;:a
c:
35
36
5.6
5.0
32 158 - 73.5 - - 10480 335 .045 .143 38-39
n
37 4.5
25
20
175
198 -
103.1 77.0
80.3
-
-
-- 13210 423 .036
_028
.127
_113
39-40
41 -I
38
39
40
4.0
3.5
3.1
16
12
10
224
248
282
-
116.3
131.6
83.6
86.6
89.7
-
-
-
-
-
-
16660
21010
26500
33410
533
673
848
1070
_022
.018
.014
.101
.090
.080
42
43
44
oZ
1 A mil is .001 inch. J Figures given are approximate only' insulation thickness varies with manufacturer. 3 Max. wire temp. of 212 0 F and max. ambient temp. of 135 0 F. '700 ClfCU-
lar mils per ampere is a satisfactory design figure for small transformers, but values from 500 to 1000 c.m. are commonly used.
""C
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE COLOR CODE
The "IN" prefix is omitted. A double-width band, which also identifies the cathode
terminal end of the diode, is usually used as the first band. (An alternative method uses
equal band widths with the set clearly grouped toward the cathode end.) The code is
Diodes with three.digit numbers are coded with the sequence numbers in the first,
second and third bands. Any suffix letter is indicated by a fourth band.
Diodes with four· digit numbers are coded by four bands followed by a black band.
~
-I
read starhng at the cathode end.
Diodes having two·digit numbers are coded with a black band followed by second
and third bands. A suffix letter is indicated by a fourth band.
A suffix letter is indicated by a fifth band replacing tbe black band.
The color code (numbers) is the same as the resistor.capacitor code. The suffix.letter
code is A-brown, B-re.\ C-orange, D-yellow, E-green, and F-blue.
n
m
CIt
 ~~--~------------~~--------

Chapter 19

VVave Propagat'lon
Much of the appeal of amateur communication ant amateur is in an excellent position to make
lies in the fact that the results are not always worthwhile contributions to the science, provided
predictable. Transmission conditions on the same he has sufficient background to understand his
frequency vary with the year, season and with the results. He may discover new facts about
time of day. Although these variations usually propagation at the very-high frequencies or in the
follow certain established patterns, many peculiar microwave region, as amateurs have in the past. In
effects can be observed from time to time. Every fact, it is through amateur efforts that most of the
radio amateur should hav~ some understanding of extended-range possibilities of various radio fre-
the known facts about radio wave propagation so quencies have been discQvered, both by accident
that he will,stand some chance of interpreting the and by long and careful investigation.
unusual conditions when they occur. The observ-

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIO WAVES

Radio waves, like other forms of electromag- The medium in which electromagnetic waves
netic radiation such as light, travel at a speed of travel has a marked influence on the speed with
300,000,000 meters per second in free space, and which they move. When the medium is empty
can be reflected, refracted, and diffracted. space the speed, as stated above, is 300,000,000
An electromagnetic wave is composed of meters per second. It is almost, but not quite, that
moving fields of electric and magnetic force. The great in air, and is much less in some other
lines of force in the electric and magnetic fields are substances. In dielectrics, for example, the speed is
at right angles, and are mutually perpendicular to inversely proportional to the square root of the
the directio~ of travel. A simple representation of a dielectric constant of the material.
wave is shown in Fig. 19-1. In this drawing the When a wave meets a good conductor it cannot
electric lines are perpendicular to the earth and the penetrate it to any extent (although it will travel
magnetic lines are horizontal. They could, through a dielectric with ease) because the electric
however, have any position with respect to earth so lines of force are practically short circyited.
long as they remain perpendicular to each other.
The plane containing the continuous lines of Polarization
electric and magnetic force shown by the grid- or The polarization of a radio wave is taken as the
mesh-like drawing in Fig. 19-1 is called the wave direction of the lines of force in the electric field.
front. If the electric lines are perpendicular to the earth,
the wave is said to be vertically polarized; if
Electric lines of Force parallel with the earth, the wave is horizontally
polarized. The longer waves, when traveling along
I the ground, usually maintain their polarization in
the same plane as was generated at the antenna.
The polarization of shorter waves may be altered
during travel, however, and sometimes will vary 1]
quite rapidly.
NtZ9nebc
lines of Spreading
Force The field intensity of a wave is inversely
proportional to the distance from the source. Thus
if in a uniform medium one receiving point is twice
as far from the transmitter as another, the field
strength at the more distant point will be just half
the field strength at the nearer point. This results
from the fact that the energy in the wave front
.~ ~Ym.w must be distributed over a greater area as the wave
moves away from the source. This inverse-distance
Fig. 19:.1 - Representation of electric and law is based on the assumption that there is
magnetic lines of force in a radio wave. Arrows nothing in the medium to absorb energy from the
indicate instantaneous directions of the fields for a wave as it travels. This is not the case in practical
wave traveling toward the reader. Reversing the
direction of one set of lines would reverse the communication along the ground and through the
di recti on of travel. atmosphere.

559
560 WAVE PROPAGATION
returned to earth by the effects of refraction and

~~
reflection.
o EARTH
The tropospheric wave is that part of the total
radiation that undergoes refraction and reflection
in regions of abrupt change of dielectric constant
Fig. 19-2 - Showing how both direct and reflected in the troposphere, such as may occur at the
waves may be received simultaneously. boundaries between air masses of differing
temperature and moisture content.
Types of Propagation The ground wave is that part of the total
According to the altitudes of the paths along radiation that is directly affected by the presence
which they are propagated, radio waves may be of the earth and its surface features. The ground
classified as ionospheric waves, tropospheric waves wave has two components. One is the surface wave,
or ground waves. which is an earth-guided wave, and the other is the
The ionospheric or sky wave is that part of the space wave (not to be confused with the
total radiation that is directed toward the ionospheric or sky wave). The space wave is itself
ionosphere. Depending upon variable conditions in the resultant of two components - the direct wave
that region, as well as upon transmitting wave and the ground·reflected wave, as shown in Fig.
length, the ionospheric wave mayor may not be 19-2.

IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION

PROPERTIES OF THE IONOSPHERE particles into motion. When the moving ionized
particles collide with others this energy is lost. The
Except for distances of a few miles, nearly all
absorption from this cause is greater at lower
amateur communication on frequencies below 30 frequencies. It also increases with the intensity of
MHz is by means of the sky wave. Upon leaving the
ionization, and with the density of the atmosphere
transmitting antenna, this wave travels upward
in the ionized region.
from the earth's surface at such an angle that it
would continue out into space were its path not Virtual Height
bent sufficiently to bring it back to earth. The Although an ionospheric layer is a region of
medium that causes such bending is the iono- considerable depth, it is convenient to assign to it a
sphere, a region in the upper atmosphere, above a definite height, called the virtual height. This is the
height of about 60 miles, where free ions and height from which a simple reflection would give
electrons exist in sufficient quantity to have an the same effect as the gradual bending that actually
appreciable effect on wave travel. takes place, as illustrated in Fig. 19-3. The wave
The ionization in the upper atmosphere is traveling upward is bent back over a path having an
believed to be caused by ultraviolet radiation from appreciable radius of turning, and a measurable
the sun. The ionosphere is not a single region but is inteval of time is consumed in the turning process.
composed of a series of layers of varying densities The virtual height is the height of a triangle having
of ionization occurring at different heights. Each equal sides of a total length proportional to the
layer consists of a central region of relatively dense
time taken for the wave to travel from T to R.
ionization that tapers off in intensity both above
and below.
Normal Structure of the Ionosphere
Refraction The lowest useful ionized layer is called the E
The greater the intensity of ionization in a layer. The average height of the region of
layer, the more the path of the wave is bent. The maximum ionization is about 70 miles. The air at
bending, or refraction (often also called reflection), this height is sufficiently dense so that the ions and
also depends on the wavelength; the longer the
wave, the more the path is bent for a given degree
of ionization. Thus low-frequency waves are more
readily bent those those of high frequency. For
this reason the lower frequencies - 3.5 and 7 MHz
- are more "reliable" than the higher frequencies
- 14 to <28 MHz; there are times when the
ionization is of such low value that waves of the
latter frequency range are not bent enough to
return to earth.

Absorption
Fig. 19-3 - Bending in the ionosphere, and the
In traveling through the ionosphere the wave echo or reflection method of determining virtual
gives up some of its energy by setting the ionized height.
Ionospheric Propagation
561
electrons set free by the sun's radiation do not Critical and Maximum Usable
travel far before they meet and recombine to form Frequencies
neutral particles, so the layer can maintain its
normal intensity of ionization only in the presence If the frequency is low enough, a wave sent
of continuing radiation from the sun. Hence the vertically to the ionosphere will be reflected back
ionization is greatest around local noon and down to the transmitting point. If the frequency is
practically disappears after sundown. t~en gradually increased, enventually a frequency
In the daytime there is a still lower ionized w~l be reached where this vertical reflection just
area, the D region. D-region ionization is fails to occur. This is the critical frequency for the
proportional to the height of the sun and is layer under consideration. When the operating
greatest at noon. The lower amateur-band frequen- frequency is below the critical value there is no
cies (1.8 and 3.5 MHz) are almost completely skip zone.
absorbed by this layer, and only the high-angle The critical frequency is a useful index to the
rad~at~on is reflected by the E layer. (Lower-angle highest frequency that can be used to transmit over
radiation travels farther through the D region and a specified distance - the maximum usable
is absorbed.) frequency (muO. If the wave leaving the
The second principal layer is the Flayer, which transmitting point at angle A in Fig. 19-4 is, for
has a height of about 175 miles at night. At this example, at a frequency of 14 MHz, and if a higher
altitude the air is so thin that recombination of frequency would skip over the receiving point R I ,
ions and electrons takes place very slowly. The then 14 MHz is the muf for the distance from T to
ionization decreases after sundown, reaching a RI'
minimum just before sunrise. In the daytime the F The greatest possible distance is covered when
layer splits into two parts, the FI and F2 layers, ~he wave leaves along the tangent to the earth; that
with average virtual heights of, respectively, 140 IS, at zero wave angle. Under average conditions
miles and 200 miles. These layers are most highly this distance is about 4000 kilometers or 2500
ionized at about local noon, and merge again at miles for the F2 layer, and 2000 km or 1250 miles
sunset into the F layer. for the E layer. The distances vary with the layer
height. Frequencies above these limiting mufs will
not be returned to earth at any distance. The
SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION 4000-km muf for the F 2 layer is approximately 3
times the critical frequency for that layer, and for
Wave Angle the E layer the 2000-km muf is about 5 times the
The smaller the angle at which a wave leaves the critical frequency.
earth, the less the bending required in the Absorption in the ionosphere is least at the
ionosphere to bring it back. Also, the smaller the maximum usable frequency, and increases very
angle the greater the distance between the point rapidly as the frequency is lowered below the muf.
where the wave leaves the earth and that at which Consequently, the best results with low power
it returns. This is shown in Fig. 194. The vertical always are secured when the frequency is as close
angle that the wave makes with a tangent to the to the muf as possible.
earth is called the wave angle or angle of radiation. It is readily possible for the ionospheric wave to
pass through the E layer and be refracted back to
Skip Distance earth from the F, FI or F2 layers. This is because
the critical frequencies are higher in the latter
More bending is required to return the wave to layers, so that a signal too high in frequency to be
earth when the wave angle is high, and at times the returned by the E layer can still come back from
bending will not be sufficient unless the wave angle one of the others, depending upon the time of day
is smaller than some critical value. This is and the existing conditions.
illustrated in Fig. 194, where A and smaller angles
give useful signals while waves sent at higher angles
penetrate the layer and are not returned. The
distance between T and RI is, therefore, the
shortest possible distance, at that particular
frequency, over which communication by iono-
spheric refraction can be accomplished.
The area between the end of the useful ground
wave and the beginning of ionospheric-wave
reception is called the skip zone, and the distance
from the transmitter to the nearest point where the
sky wave returns to earth is called the skip
distance. The extent of the skip zone depends
upon the frequency and the state of the
ionosphere, and also upon the height of the layer
Fig. 194 - Refraction of sky waves, showing the
in which the refraction takes place. The higher critical wave angle and the skip zone. Waves leaving
layers give longer skip distances for the same wave the transmitter at angles above the critical (greater
angle. Wave angles at the transmitting and receiving than A) are not bent enough to be returned to
points are usually, although not always, approxi- earth. As the angle is decreased, the waves return
mately the same for any given wave path. to earth at increasingly greater distances.
 562 WAVE PROPAGATION
Multihop Transmission Such reflections can occur when the transmitte~
energy strikes the earth at a distance and some ?f It
On returning to the earth t~e wave ca!1 be is reflected back into the skip zone to the receiver.
reflected upward and travel again to the IOno- Such scatter signals are weaker than those normally
sphere. There it may once more be refracted, and. propagated, and also have a rapid fade or "flutter"
again bent back to earth. This process ~ay be that makes them easily recognizable.
repeated several times. Multihop. p~opagatlOn of A certain amount of scattering of the wave also
this nature is necessary for transmISsIOn over great takes place in the ionosphere because th.e i~nized
distances because of the limited heights of the region is not completely uniform. Scattenng In the
layers and the curvature of the earth, which restrict normal propagation direction is c~ed forward
the maximum one-hop distance to the values scatter, and is responsible for extending the range
mentioned in the preceding section. However, of transmission beyond the distance of a regular
ground losses absorb some of the energy from the hop, and for making communication possible on
wave on each reflection (the amount of the loss frequencies greater than the actual muf.
varying with the type of ground and being l~ast for
reflection from sea water), and there IS also OTHER FEATURES OF
absorption in the ionosphere at each reflection.
Hence the smaller the number of hops the greater IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
the signal strength at the receiver, other things Cyclic Variations in the Ionosphere
being equal.
Since ionization depends upon ultraviolet
Fading radiation, conditions in the ionosphere vary with
changes in the sun's radiation. In addition to the
Two or more parts of the wave may follow daily variation, seasonal changes result in higher
slightly different paths in traveling to the receiving critical frequencies in the E layer in summer,
point, in which case the difference in path lengths averaging about 4 MHz as against a winter average
will cause a phase difference to exist between the of 3 MHz. The F layer critical frequency is of the
wave components at the receiving antenna. The order of 4 to 5 MHz in the evening. The F 1 layer,
total field strength will be the sum of the which has a critical frequency near 5 MHz in
components and may be larger or smaller than one summer, usually disappears entirely in winter. The
component alone, since the phases may be such as daytime maximum critical frequencies for the F2
either to aid or oppose. Since the paths change are highest in winter (10 to 12 MHz) and lowest in
from time to time, this causes a variation in signal summer (around 7 MHz). The virtual height of the
strength called fading. Fading can also result from F2 layer, which is about 185 miles in winter,
the combination of single-hop and multihop waves, averages 250 miles in summer. These values are
or the combination of a ground wave with an representative of latitude 40 deg. North in the
ionospheric or tropospheric wave. Western hemisphere, and are subject to consider-
Fading may be either rapid or slow, the former able variation in other parts of the world.
type usually resulting from rapidly-chan~ng Very marked changes in ionization also occur in
conditions in the ionosphere, the latter occurnng step with the II-year sunspot cycle. Although
when transmission conditions are relatively stable. there is no apparent direct correlation between
Severe changes in signal strength of 10 to 20 dB or sunspot activity and critical frequencies on a given
more are called "deep" fades, in contrast to the day, there is a definite correlation between average
more normal "shallow" fades of a few dB. sunspot activity and critical frequencies. The
It frequently happens that transmission condi- critical frequencies are highest during sunspot
tions are different for waves of slightly different maxima and lowest during sunspot minima. During
frequencies, so that in the case of voice-modulated the period of minimum sunspot activity, the lower
transmission, involving sidebands differing slightly frequencies - 7 and 3.5 MHz - frequently are the
from the carrier in frequency, the carrier and only usable bands at night. At such times the
various sideband components may not be propagat- 28-MHz band is seldom useful for long-distance
ed in the same relative amplitudes and phases they work, while the 14-MHz band performs well in the
had at the transmitter. This effect, known as daytime but is not ordinarily useful at night.
selective fading, causes severe distortion of the
signal. The distortion is most marked on Ionosphere Storms
amplitude-modulated signals and at high percent-
ages of modulation; it is possible to reduce the Certain types of sunspot activity cause
effects considerably by using "exalted-carrier considerable disturbances in the ionosphere (iono-
reception" and "single-sideband" techniques that, spheric storms) and are accompanied by disturb-
in effect, reduce the modulation percentage at the ances in the earth's magnetic field (magnetic
receiver. storms). Ionosphere storms are characterized by a
marked increase in absorption, so that radio
conditions become poor. The critical frequencies
BackScatter also drop to relatively low values during a storm, so
Even though the operating frequency is above that only the lower frequencies are useful for
the muf for a given distance, it is usually possible communication. Ionosphere storms may last from
to hear signals from within the skip zone. This a few hours to several days. Since the sun rotates
phenomenon, called backscatter, is caused by· on its axis once every 28 days, disturbances tend to
reflections from distances beyond the skip zone. recur at such intervals, if the sunspots responsible
Propagation Below 30 MHz 563
do not become inactive in the meantime.
Absorption is usually low, and radio conditions
PROPAGATION IN THE BANDS
good, just preceding a storm. BELOW 30 MHZ
The lo8-MHz or "160-meter" band offers
Sporadic-E Ionization reliable working over ranges up to 25 miles or so
during daylight. On winter nights, ranges up to
Scattered patches or clouds of relatively dense several thousand miles are not impossible. Only
ionization occasionally appear at heights approxi- small sections of the band are currently available to
mately the same as that of the E layer, for reasons amateurs, because of the loran (navigation) service
not yet known. This sporadic-E ionization is most in that part Of the spectrum.
prevalent in the equatorial regions, where it is The 3.S-MHz or "80-meter" band is a more
substantially continuous. In northern latitudes it is useful band during the night than during the
most frequent in the spring and early summer, but daylight hours. In the daytime, one can seldom
is present in some degree a fair percentage of the hear signals from a distance of greater than 200
time the year 'round. It accounts for much of the miles or so, but during the darkness hours distances
night-time short distance work on the lower up to several thousand miles are not unusual, and
frequencies (3.5 to 7 MHz) and, when more transoceanic contacts are regularly made during the
intense, for similar work on 14 to 28 MHz. winter months. During the summer, the static level
Exceptionally intense sporadic-E ionization per- is high.
mits work over distances exceeding 400 or 500 The 7-MHz or "40-meter" band has many of
miles on the 50-MHz band. the same characteristics as 3.5, except that the
There are indications of a relationship between distances that can be covered during the day and
sporadic-E ionization and average sunspot activity, night hours are increased. During daylight,
but it does not appear to be directly related to distances up to a thousand miles can be covered
daylight and darkness since it may occur at any under good conditions, and during the dawn and
time of the day. However, there is an apparent dusk periods in winter it is possible to work
tendency for the ionization to peak at mid-morn- stations as far as the other side of the world, the
ing and in the early evening. signals following the darkness path. The winter
months are somewhat better than the summer
Troposheric Propagation ones. In general, summer static is much less of a
problem than on 80 meters, although it can be
Changes in temperature and humidity of air series in the simitropical zones.
masses in the lower atmosphere often permit work The 14-MHz or "20-meter" band is probably
over greater than normal ground-wave distances on the best one for long-distance work. During the
28 MHz and higher frequencies. The effect can be high portion of the sunspot cycle it is open to
observed on 28 MHz but it is generally more some parts of the world during practically all of
marked on 50 and 144 MHz. The subject is treated the 24 hours, while during a sunspot minimum it is
in detail later.
generally useful only during daylight hours and the
dawn and dusk periods. There is practically always
a skip zone on this band.
PREDICTION MAPS The 21-MHz or "IS-meter" band shows highly
The Institute for Telecommunication Sciences variable characteristics depending on the sunspot
offers ionospheric prediction maps with which it is cycle. During sunspot maxima it is useful for
possible to predict with considerable accuracy the long-distance work during a large part of the 24
maximum usable frequency that will hold over any hours, but in years of low sunspot activity it is
path on the earth. The maps and instructions for almost wholly a daytime band, and sometimes
their use are contained in four volumes, which can unusable even in daytime. However, it is often
be obtained from the Superintendent of Docu- possible to maintain communication over distances
ments. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washing- up to 1500 miles or more by sporadic-E ionization
ton, DC 20402, for $9.30. They are called Tele· which may occur either day or night at any time in
communications Research and Engineering Report the sunspot cycle.
13, Ionospheric Predictions, OT-TRER 13. The The 28-MHz or "IO-meter" band is generally
use of the maps is explained in Vol. 1, available considered to be a DX band during the daylight
separately for 30 cents. Vols. 2,3, and 4, available hours (except in summer) and good for local work
individually for $3.00 each, contain maps for during the hours of darkness, for about half the
predicted Zurich smoothed relative sunspot num- sunspot cycle. At the very peak of the sunspot
bers of 10, 110 and 160, respectively. Linear cycle, it may be "open" into the late evening hours
interpolation of data from two volumes must be for DX communication. At the sunspot minimum
made for periods of solar activity at intermediate the band is usually "dead" for long-distance
levels. Information on predicted relative sunspot communications, by means of the F2 layer, in the
numbers is contained periodically in Propagation northern latitudes. Nevertheless, sporadic-E propa-
Forecast Bulletins, transmitted by WIAW and gation is likely to occur at any time, just as in the
many Official Bulletin Stations. case of the 21-MHz band.
Predictions on E-layer propagation may be There will often be exceptions to the general
obtained from information included in the above conditions described above, and their observation
volumes. is a very interesting facet of amateur radio.
 564 WAVE PROPAGATION
THE WORLD ABOVE 50 MHZ
Familiarity with propagation modes is vital to MHz, except that signals tend to be somewhat
the vhf enthusiast, and exploiting DX opportuni- weaker and more distorted at 144. Tropospheric
ties that nature affords has been a challenge since propagation improves with increasing frequency. It·
the earliest days of communication on the has been responsible for 144-MHz work over
frequencies above SO MHz. Much of what is known distances up to 2S00 miles, and SOO-mile contacts
about long-distance vhf propagation was turned up are fairly common in the warmer months. Reliable
by amateur pioneering, and more may yet be, for range on 144 is slightly less than on SO, under
some aspects of vhf DX are still far from minimum conditions.
completely explained. 220 MHz and Higher Ionospheric propagation
of the sorts discussed above is virtually unknown
above about 200 MHz. Auroral communication is
NATURE OFTHE VHF BANDS possible on 220 and 420 MHz, but probably not on
higher frequencies, with amateur power levels.
A valuable feature of this vast territory is its Tropospheric bending is very marked, and may be
usefulness for consistent communication within an better on 432 than on 144 MHz, for example.
essentially local service area. Lower frequencies are Communication has been carried on over paths far
subject to varying conditions that impair local beyond line of sight, on all amateur frequencies up
communication at least part of the time. Our hf through 10,000 MHz. Under minimum conditions,
bands are narrow, and often seriously over- signal levels drop off slightly with each higher
crowded. The vhf bands are far wider and capable band.
of much greater occupancy, and their characteris-
tics are ideal for local work.
PROPAGATION MODES
It was once though that these frequencies
would be useful only locally, but increased Known means by which vhf signals are
occupancy and improved techniques demonstrated propagated beyond the horizon are described
that there are many forms of long-distance vhf below.
propagation. As a result, vhf activity has developed F'};Layer Reflection Most communication on
in isolated areas, as well as those of high lower frequencies is by reflection of the wave in
population density, until, depending on the skill the F region, highest of the ionized layers. Its
and resourcefulness of the individual, there are few density varies with solar activity, the maximum
areas of the world left where interesting and usable frequency (mut) being highest in peak years
productive vhf work is impossible. of the sunspot cycle. These cycles vary, and
What follows supplements information given indications are that we are now in a down trend.
earlier in this chapter. First, let us consider the Cycle 19 (in the recorded history of sunspot
nature of our bands above SO MHz. activity) hit an all-time high in the fall of 19S8,
SO to 54 MHz This borderline region has some which may never be equalled within the lifetime of
of the characteristics of adjacent frequencies, both most of us. Cycle 20 produced some SO-MHz F2
higher and lower. Just about every form of wave DX in 1968 to 1970, but less than Cycle 18 (1946
propagation is found occasionally in the SO-MHz to 1949), and far less than Cycle 19.
band, which has contributed greatly to its The muf for F 2 -layer propagation follows other
popularity. However, its utility for service-area well-defined cycles: daily, monthly and seasonal,
communication should not be overlooked. In the all related to conditions on the sun and its position
absence of any favorable condition, the well-equip- with respect to the earth. The F2 muf is quite
ped SG-MHz station shpuld be able to work easily determined if one has a continuous-tuning
regularly over a radius of 7S to 100 miles or more, receiver for about 14 to SO MHz. These frequencies
depending on terrain, antenna size and height, and are in almost continuous worldwide use, so signals
operator skill. are likely to be heard up to the highest frequency
Changing weather patterns extend coverage to being propagated at the time of observation.
300 miles or more at times, mainly in the warmer Frequent checks will show if the muf is rising or
months. Sporadic-E skip provides seasonal open- falling, and the times and directions for which it is
ings for work over 400 to 2S00 miles, in seasons highest. Monthly peaks follow a 27-day cycle,
centered on the longest and shortest days of the coinciding with the turning of the sun on its axis.
year. Auroral effects afford vhf men in the Spring and fall show the highest muf, with a slight
temperate latitudes an intriguing form of DX up to drop in winter and a major one in summer.1
about 1300 miles. During the peak of "ll-year" Communications range via the F2 layer on SO
sunspot cycle 50-MHz DX of worldwide propor- MHz is comparable to that on 28, but the
tions may be workable by reflections of waves by minimum distance is greater. Two-way work has
the ionospheric F2 layer. Various weak-signal been done over about 1800 to 12,SOO miles; even
scatter modes round out the exciting propagation greater, if daylight routes around the earth the long
fare available to the SO-MHz operator. way are included. The muf is believed to have
144 to 148 MHz Ionospheric effects are greatly reached about 70 MHz in 19S8.
reduced at 144 MHz. F-layer propagation is The TE Mode Also associated with high solar
unknown. Sporadic-E skip is rare, and much more activity is a transequatorial mode, having an muf
limited in duration and coverage than on SO MHz.
Auroral propagation is quite similar to that on SO . ~ For this and following references, see
bIbliography at the end of this chapter.
The World Above 50 MHz 565
somewhat higher than the F2' This is observed tion has been achieved by amateurs up to at least
most often between points up to 2500 miles north 432 MHz.4
and south of the geomagnetic equator, mainly in Tropospheric Bending An easily-anticipated
late afternoon or early evening. A classic amateur extension of normal vhf coverage results from
discovery, pioneering of the TE mode is a abrupt changes in the refractive index of the
fascinating story. 2 atmosphere, at boundaries between air masses of
differing temperature and humidity characteristics.
Sporadic·E Skip Patchy ionization of the E Such warm-dry over cool-moist boundaries often
region of the ionosphere often propagates 28- and lie along the southern and western edges of stable
50-MHz signals over 400 to 1300 miles or more. slow-moving areas of fair weather and high
Often called "short skip," this is most common in ?arometric pressure. Troposheric bending can
May, June and July, with a shorter season around mcrease signal levels from within the normal
year end. Seasons are reversed in the southern working range, or bring in more distant stations,
hemisphere. E skip can occur at any time or not normally heard.
season, but is most likely in mid-morning or early A condition known as ducting or trapping may
evening. Multiple-hop effects may extend the range simulate propagation within a waveguide, causing
to 2500 miles or more. vhf waves to follow earth curvature for hundreds
The upper frequency limit for Es propagation is or even thousands of miles. Ducting incidence
unknown, but it has been observed in the 144-MHz increases with frequency. It is rare on 50 MHz
band, and on TV channels up to about 200 MHz. fairly common on 144, and more so on highe;
Minimum skip distance is greater, and duration of frequencies. It occurs most often in temperate or
openings much shorter, on 144 MHz than on 50. low latitudes. It was the medium for such
Reception of strong Es signals from under 300 memorable vhf DX as the W6NLZ-KH6UK work
miles on 50 MHz indicates some possibility of skip on 144,220 and 432 MHz, over a 2540-mile path. 5
propagation on 144, probably to 800 miles or Gulf-Coast states see it often, the Atlantic
more. 3 Seaboard, Great Lakes and Mississippi Valley areas
Aurora Effect High-frequency communication occasionally, usually in September and October.
may be wiped out or seriously impaired by Many local conditions contribute to tropo-
absorption in the ionosphere, during disturbances spheric bending. Convection in coastal areas in
associated with high solar activity and variations in warm weather; rapid cooling of the earth after a
the earth's magnetic field. If this occurs at night in hot ~ay, with upper air cooling more slowly;
Wal1~llng of air aloft with the summer- sunrise;
clear weather, there may be a visible aurora, but
the condition also develops in daylight, usually in subSidence of cool moist air into valleys on calm
late afternoon. Weak wavery signals in the 3.S-MHz summer evenings - these familiar situations create
band, or from the 5-MHz WWV, are good upper-air conditions similar to those shown in Fig.
indicators. 19-5, which can extend normal vhf coverage.
Vhf waves can be returned to earth from the The alert vhf enthusiast soon learns to correlate
auroral region, but the varying intensity of the various weather signs and propagation patterns.
aurora and its porosity as a propagation medium Temperature and barometric-pressure trends,
impart a multipath distortion to the signal, which changing cloud formations, wind direction, visibili-
garbles or even destroys any modulation. Distor- ty and other natural indicators can give him clues
tion increases with signal frequency and varies, as to what is in store in the way of tropospheric
often quite quickly, with the nature of the aurora. propagation. Radio and TV weather programs may
In general, 50-MHz signals have less auroral help in this. 6
distortion than those on higher frequencies, and The 50-MHz band is more responsive to
voice is usable more often on 50 than on 144 MHz. weather effects than 28, and 144 MHz is much
Single-sideband is preferred to modes requiring more active than 50. This trend continues into the
more bandwidth. The most effective mode is cw, microwave region, as evidenced by tropospheric
which may be the only reliable communications records on all our bands, up to and including work
method at 144 MHz and higher, during most over a 275-mile path on 10,000 MHz.
auroras. The Scatter Modes Though they provide signal
Propagation is generally from the north, levels too low for routine communication, several
regardless of the direct path between communicat- marginal modes attract the advanced vhf operator.
ing stations, but probing with a directional array is They are lumped under the term "scatter,"
recommended. Maximum range is about 1300 implying an incidental by-product of some
miles, though 50-MHz signals are heard occasional- stronger-signal mode, but they are of real interest
ly over greater distances, usually with little or no on their own.
auroral distortion. Tropospheric scatter offers marginal communi-
How often auroral communication is possible is cation up to 500 miles or so, almost regardless of
related to the geomagnetic latitude of participating conditions and frequency, when optimum equip-
stations, auroras being most frequent in north- ment and methods are used. 7
eastern USA and adjacent areas of Canada. They Ionospheric scatter is useful mainly on 50 MHz,
are rare below about latitude 32 in the Southeast where it usually is a composite of meteor bursts
and about latitude 38 to 40 in the Southwest. The and a weak residual scatter signal. The latter may
highest frequency for auroral returns depends on be heard only when optimum conditions prevail.
equipment and antennas, but auroral communica- The best distances are 600 to 1200 miles. 8
 566 WAVE PROPAGATION

12.000 (2.2),
\ 12,000 (M&)'
\
... 10,000 (2.7)\
.... \ .... 10.000 (MB) •
~8.ooo (3.4)\ :::...
8.000
I \
I
~ 6,000 (4.1>'\ .... 6,000
:::, \ § (MB)·C
~4.000 (5.0)\ ~ 4,000 (I.,) ... - __ • ___ ~
........ ... (~.2)\
WATER VAPOR '. TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
... 2,000 ... 2.000 WATER VAPOR \
(6.3)\
8.01
'. 0~ ________~~7~
••~)~~~_____
oL---------_~5~~O~S~~10~~,S~W~---­ OSlO IS 20

TE M PERATURE ee) TEMPERATURE (,C)

Fig. 19-5 - Upper-air conditions that produce extended-range vhf propagation. In the U.S. Standard
Atmosphere curve, left, the humidity curve (dotted) is that which would result if the relative humidity
were 70 percent from the ground level to 12,000 feet, resulting in only slight refraction, At the right is
shown a sounding that is typical of marked refraction of vhf waves. Figures in parentheses are the
"mixing ratio" - grams of water vapor per kilogram of dry air. Note the sharp break in both curves at
about 4000 feet, From Collier, "Upper-air conditions for 2·Meter OX," QST, September, 1955.

Back scatter, common on lower frequencies, is narrow-band modes are superior to wide-band
observed on 50 MHz during ionospheric propaga- systems. Single sideband is being used more
tion, mainly ofthe F2 variety. Signals are usually effectively all the time, but cw remains supreme
weak, with a fast flutter. Distance may be anything for all weak-signal vhf work. Some redundance is
up to normal for mode in use. Because it peaks in nearly always helpful, regardless of mode.
directions of highest ionization density, F 2 back Communication Via the Moon Though ama-
scatter is helpful in determining when, and in what teurs lust bounced signals off the moon in the
directions, the band is open, especially in aiming early 1950s,10 real communication via the
toward areas of the world where 50-MHz activity is earth-moon-earth (erne) route is a fairly recent
low or nonexistent. accomplishment, Requirements are maximum legal
Scatter from meteor trails in the E region can power, optimum receiving equipment, very large
cause signal enhancement, or isolated bursts of high-gain antennas, and precise aiming. Sophisticat-
signal from a station not otherwise heard. ed tracking systems, narrow bandwidth (with
Exploitation of this medium for quick information attendant requirements for receiver and transmitter
exchanges poses an exciting challenge to the skilled stability) and visual signal-resolu tion methods are
vhf operator. Strength and duration of meteor desirable. Lunar work has been done on all
bursts decrease with increasing signal frequency, amateur frequencies from 144 to 2300 MHz, over
but the mode is popular for marginal communica- distances limited only by the ability of the stations
tion in the 50- and 144-MHz bands. It has been to "see" the moon simultaneously.
used on 220 MHz, and optimum equipment and
large antennas have yielded bursts long enough for
identification at 432 MHz.
Random meteor bursts can be heard by VHF Propagation Footnotes
cooperating vhf stations at any time or season, but Propagation modes are discussed in more detail
early-morning hours are preferred. Major meteor in Chapter 2 of The Radio Amateur's VHF Manual,
showers (August Perseids and December Geminids) and in QST references given below.
provide frequent bursts, Some other showers have
various periods, and may show phenomenal burst
counts in peak years. 9 1 Heightman, "Any DX Today?" January,1948.
2 Cracknell "Transequatorial Propagation of
Few meteor bursts on 144 MHz are more than a VHF Si~als" December 1959. "More on TE
few seconds long, and some are mere "pings" of PropagatIOn,'; August 1947, p. 47. Whiting, "How
TE Works" April, 1963.
signal. Long bursts, or several superimposed, may 3 Ennis, "Working 2-Meter E-Layer DX," June,
1957. Also, "World Above 50 MHz," August,
yield continuous signal for a minute or more, but 1968, p. 84.
these are rare, except during major showers. A 4 Moore, "Aurora and Magnetic Stanns," June
"shower of the century," such as the Leonids of 1951. Dyce. "More About Auroral Propagation,'!
January, 1905. Mellen.. Milner and Williams, "Hams
November 1966 and 1967, may provide almost on Ice," January, 196u.
continuous propagation on 50 or 144 MHz for September, 5 September" 1957.. p. 68, August, 1959, p. 68,
196u, p. 715.
several hours, Otherwise, brief precisely-timed 6 Botts "A Nlght To Remember," January,
transmitting sequences and agreed-upon reporting 1970. 7 Moore" "Over The Hills and Far Away"
methods are necessary for information exchange. FeblUary,1::151. '
Distances are similar to other E-layer communica- March, 8 Moynahan, "VHF Scatter Propagation,"
1956.
tion. 9 Bain, "VHF Meteor Scatter Propagatio~;'
All scatter communication requires good Mant{al .'\pril, 1957. Table of meteor showers, VnF
p. 23.
equipment and optimum operating methods. The 10 •zLunar DX on 144 MHz," March, 1953.
 Chapter 20

Transmission Lines
The place where rf power is generated is very frequencies a transmission line exhibits entirely
frequently not the place where it is to be utilized. different characterisitcs than it does at commercial
A transmitter and its antenna are a good example: power frequencies. This is because the speed at
The antenna, to radiate well, should be high above which electrical energy travels, while tremendously
the ground and should be kept clear of trees, high as compared with mechanical motion, is not
buildings and other objects that might absorb infmite. The peculiarities of rf transmission lines
energy, but the transmitter itself is most result from the fact that a time interval comparable
conveniently installed indoors where it is readily with an rf cycle must elapse before energy leaving
accessible. one point in the circuit can reach another just a
The means by which power is transported from short distance away.
point to point is the rf transmission line. At radio

OPERATING PRINCIPLES

If a source of emf - a battery, for example - is of this "linear" capacitor also have appreciable
connected to the ends of a pair of insulated parallel inductance. The line may be thought of as being
wires that extend outward for an infinite distance, composed of a whole series of small inductances
electric currents will immediately become detect- and capacitances connected as shown in Fig. 20-1,
able in the wires near the battery terminals. The where each coil is the inductance of a very short
electric field of the battery will cause free electrons section of one wire and each capacitor is the
in the wire connected to the positive terminal to be capacitance between two such short sections.
attracted to the battery, and an equal number of
free electrons in the wire connected to the negative Characteristic Impedance
terminal will be repelled from the battery. These An infinitely long chain of coils and capacitors
currents do not flow instantaneously throughout connected as in Fig. 20-1, where the small
the length of the wires; the electric field that inductances and capacitances all have the same
causes the electron movement cannot travel faster values, respectively, has an important property. To
than the speed of light, so a measurable interval of an electrical impulse applied at one end, the
time elapses before the currents become evident combination appears to have an impedance -
even a relatively short distance away. called the characteristic impedance or surge
For example, the currents would not become impedance - approximately equal to flJC where
detectable 300 meters (nearly 1000 feet) from the L and C are the inductance and capacitance per
battery until at least a microsecond (one millionth unit length. This impedance is purely resistive.
of a second) after the connection was made. By In defining the characteristic impedance as
ordinary standards this is a very short length of ilJC, it is assumed that the conductors have no
time, but in terms of radio frequency it represents
the time one complete cycle of a lOOO-kilohertz
current - a frequency considerably lower than
inherent resistance - that is, there is no ]2R loss in
them - and that there is no power loss in the
I
dielectric surrounding the conductors. There is
those with which amateurs communicate. thus no power loss in or from the line no matter
The current flows to charge the capacitance how great its length. This may not seem consistent
between the two wires. However, the conductors with calling the characteristic impedance a pure
resistance, which implies that the power supplied is
all dissipated in the line. But in an infmitely long
line the effect, so far as the source of power is
concerned, is exactly the same as though the power
were dissipated in a resistance, because the power
leaves the source and travels outward forever along
the line.
The characteristic impedance determines the
Fig. 20-1 Equivalent of a transmission line in amount of current that can flow when a given
lumped circuit constants. voltage is applied to an infinitely long line, in

567
568 TRANSMISSION LINES
exactly the same way that a definite value of actual STANDING WAVES
resistance limits current flow when a voltage is In the infinitely long line (or its matched
applied. counterpart) the impedance is the same at any
The inductance and capacitance per unit length point on the line because the ratio of voltage to
of line depend upon the size of the conductors and current is always the same. However, the
the spacing between them. The closer the two impedance at the end of the line in Fig. 20-2 is
conductors and the greater their diameter, the zero - or at least extremely small - because the
higher the capacitance and the lower the line is short-circuited at the end. The outgoing
inductance. A line with large conductors closely power, on meeting the short-circuit, reverses its
spaced will have low impedance, while one with direction of' flow and goes back along the
small conductors widely spaced will have relatively transmission line toward the input end. There is a
high impedance. large current in the short-circuit, but substantially
no voltage across the line at this point. We now
"Matched" Lines have a voltage and current representing the power
Actual transmission lines do not extend to going outward (incident power) toward the'
infinity but have a definite length and are short-circuit, and a second voltage and current
connected to, or terminate in, a load at the representing the reflected power traveling back
"output" end, or end to which the power is toward the source.
delivered. If the load is a pure resistance of a value
equal to the characteristic impedance of the line, r~A I~A f,). ~~ Y2~ v.. A. - LENGTN
the line is said to be matched. To current traveling
along the line such a load just looks like still more (A) --=t=:t::t:::t=g:PPx"circuit
11:1( Short- Y

transmission line of the same characteristic CurIYnt

impedance. q~~~:e?
(6) -+~L-}-~~-¥~~ommeur
In other words, a short line terminated in a
purely resistive load equal to the characteristic Current
impedance of the line acts just as though it were (e) -+-'4(-+-"....+~'-- distribution
includin9
infinitely long. In a matched transmission line, polarity
power travels outward along the line from the
source until it reaches the load, where it is VolttJ4e

~arit'!
nrll."e
completely absorbed. (D) -'1'--1--''-+--'1'---+---' tlis orrli"1

RFon Lines
(E) -*--I--'Il'-+-~--+-4 tIt:s~o;/t,ft1Dn
includ;ng
The principles discussed above, although based polarit!j
on direct-current flow from a battery, also hold
when an rf voltage is applied to the line. The
difference is that the alternating voltage causes the Fig. 20-2 - Standing waves of voltage and current
amplitude of the current at the input terminals of along a short-circuited transmission line.
the line to vary with the voltage, and the direction
of current flow also periodically reverses when the
polarity of the applied voltage reverses. The The reflected current travels at the same speed
current at a given instant at any point along the as the outgoing current, so its instantaneous value
line is the result of a voltage that was applied at will be different at every point along the line, in
some earlier instant at the input terminals. Since the distance represented by the time of one cycle.
the distance traveled by the electromagnetic fields At some points along the line the phase of the
in the time of one cycle is equal to one wavelength, incident and reflected currents will be such that
the instantaneous amplitude of the current is_ the currents cancel each other while at others the
different at all points in a one-wavelength section amplitude will be dOUbled. At in-between points
of line. In fact, the current flows in opposite the amplitude is between these two extremes. The
directions in the same wire in successive half-wave- points at which the currents are in and out of
length sections. However, at any given point along phase depend only on the time required for them
the line the current goes through similar variations to travel and so depend only on the distance along
with time that the current at the input terminals the line from the point of reflection.
did. In the short-circuit at the end of the line the
Thus the current (and voltage) travels along the two current components are in phase and the total
wire as a series of waves having a length equal to current is large. At a distance of one-half
the speed of travel divided by the frequency of the wavelength back along the line from the
ac voltage. On an infinitely long line, or one short-circuit the outgoing and reflected compon-
properly matched by its load, an ammeter inserted ents will again be in phase and the resultant current
anywhere in the line will show the same current, will again have its maximum value. This is also true
because the ammeter averages out the variations in at any point that is a multiple of a half wavelength
current during a cycle. It is only when the line is from the short-circuited end of the line.
not properly matched that the wave motion The outgoing and reflected currents will cancel
becomes apparent through observations made with at a point one-quarter wavelength, along the line,
ordinary instruments. from the short-circuit. At this point, then, the
 -> .---------------------

Standing Waves 569

current will be zero. It will also be zero at all ITi'\ 110,\ 1,\ %,\ Y.,\ 14'\ - LENGTN
points that are an odd multiple of one-quarter
wavelength from the short-circuit.
(A)
Ct=t=+=l=t::t=- f/:::it
If the current along the line is measured at Cvrtent
successive points with an ammeter, it will be found (6) ::=~
6yllmmetu
to vary about as shown in Fig. 20-2B. The same
result would be obtained by measuring the current Curn"t
dist,ihutitm
in either wire, since the ammeter cannot measure (C) indvdir'f
po1ant9
phase. However, if the phase could be checked, it
would be found that in each successive half-wave-
length section of the line the currents at any given
instant are flowing in opposite directions, as (D)
indicated by the solid line in Fig. 20-2C.
Furthermore, the current in the second wire is (E)
flowing in the opposite direction to the current in
the adjacent section of the first wire. This is
indicated by the broken curve in Fig. 20-2C. The
variations in current intensity along the transmis- Fig. 20-3 - Standing waves of current and voltage
sion line are referred to as standing waves. The along an open-circuited transmission line.
point of maximum line current is called a current
loop or current antinode and the point of reflected back toward the source. Because only
minimum line current is called a current node_ part of the power is reflected, the reflected
components of voltage and current do not have the
Voltage Relationships same magnitude as the incident components.
Since the end of the line is short-circuited, the Therefore neither voltage nor current cancel
voltage at that point has to be zero. This can only completely at any point along the line. However,
be so if the voltage in the outgoing wave is met, at the $peed at which· the incident and reflected
the end of the line, by a reflected voltage of equal components travei is not affected by their
amplitude and opposite polarity. In other words, amplitude, so the phase relationships are similar to
the phase of the voltage wave is rever~ed when those in open- or short-circuited lines.
reflection takes place from the short-circuit. This It was pointed out earlier that if the load
reversal is equivalent to an extra half cycle or half resistance, Z R, is equal to the characteristic
wavelength of travel. As a result, the outgoing and impedance, Zo, of the line all the power is
returning voltages are in phase a quarter wave- absorbed in the load. In such a case there is no
length from the end of the line, and again out of reflected power and therefore no standing waves of
phase a half wavelength from the end. The standing current and voltage. This is a special case that
waves of voltage, shown at D in Fig. 20-2, are represents the change-over point between "short-
therefore displaced by one-quarter wavelength circuited" and "open-circuited" lines. If ZR is less
from the standing waves of current. The drawing at than Z 0, the current is largest at the load, while if
E shows the voltage on both wires when phase is ZR is greater than Zo the voltage is largest at the
taken into account. The polarity of the voltage on load. The two conditions are shown at B and C,
each wire reverses in each half wavelength section respectively, in Fig. 2M.
of transmission line. A voltage maximum is called a The resistive termination is an important
voltage loop or antinode and a voltage minimum is practical case. The termination is seldom an actual
called a voltage node. resistor, the most common terminations being
resonant circuits or resonant antenna systems, both
Open-Circuited Line of which have essentially resistive impedances. If
the load is reactive as well as resistive, the
If the end of the line is open-circuited instead operation of the line resembles that shown in Fig.
of short-circuited, there can be no current at the
end of the line but a large voltage can exist. Again
the incident power is reflected back toward the
source. The incident and reflected components of
current must be equal and opposite in phase at the
open circuit in order for the total current at the
end of the line to be zero. The incident and
reflected components of voltage are in phase and (8)
add together. The result is again that there are
standing waves, but the conditions are reversed as
compared with a short-circuited line. Fig. 20-3
shows the open-circuited line case.
(c)
Lines Terminated in Resistive Load
Fig. 2M shows a line terminated in a resistive
load. In this case at least part of the incident power Fig. 20-4 - Standing waves on a transmission line
is absorbed in the load, and so is not available to be terminated in a resistive load.
 570 TRANSMISSION LINES
20-4, but the presence of reactance in the load standing waves cause the voltage at the input
causes two modifications: The loops and nulls are terminals to be high and the current low, then the
shifted toward or away from the load; and the input impedance is higher than the Zo of the line,
amount of power reflected back toward the source since impedance is simply the ratio of voltage to
is increased, as compared with the amount current. Conversely, low voltage and high current
reflected by a purely resistive load of the same at the input terminals mean that the input
total impedance. Both effects become more impedance is lower than the line Zo0 Comparison
pronounced as the ratio of reactance to resistance of the three drawings also shows that the range of
in the load is made larger. input impedance values that may be encountered is
greater when the far end of the line is open- or
Standing-Wave Ratio short-circuited than it is when the line has a
resistive load. In other words, the higher the SWR
The ratio of maximum current to minimum the greater the range of input impedance values
current along a line, Fig. 20-5, is called the when the line length is varied.
standing-wave ratio. The same ratio holds for
maximum voltage and minimum voltage. It is a
measure of the mismatch between the load and the 2.0
line, and is equal to 1 when the line is perfectly [ma.x
matched. (In that case the "maximum" and .... 1.5

--~
"minimum" are the same, since the current and ~
\,IJ
voltage do not vary along the line.) When the line is q: 1.0
terminated in a purely resistive load, the ct
standing-wave ratio is ~o.S .lmln
SWR = ZR orZo
Zo ZR (20-A)
DISTANCE ALONG LINE - - .
where SWR = Stand-wave ratio
ZR = Impedance ofload (pure resistance) Fig. 20-5 - Measurement of standing-wave ratio. In
Zo = Characteristic impedance of line this drawing, lmax is 1.5 and lmin is 0.5, so the
SWR =. Imax/IInin = 1.5/0.5 = 3 to 1.
Example: A line having a characteristic impedance of
300 ohms is teiminated in a resistive load of 25 ohms. The
SWRis
SWR =~9 = 300= 12 to I In addition to the variation in the absolute
ZR 25 value of the input impedance with line length, the
presence of standing waves also causes the input
It is customary to put the larger of the two impedance to contain both reactance and resis-
quantities, ZR or Zo, in the numerator of the tance, even though the load itself may be a pure
fraction so that the SWR will be expressed by a resistance. The only exceptions to this occur at the
number larger than l- exact current loops or nodes, at which points the
It is easier to measure the standing-wave ratio input impedance is a pure resistance. These are the
than some of the other quantities (such as the only points at which the outgoing and reflected
impedance of an antenna) that enter into voltages and currents are exactly in phase: At all
transmission-line compu ta tions. Consequently, the other distances along the line the current either
SWR is a convenient basis for work with lines. The leads or lags the voltage and the effect is exactly
higher the SWR the greater the mismatch between the same as though a capacitance or inductance
line and load. In practical lines, the power loss in were part of the inpu t impedance.
the line itself increases with the SWR as shown The input impedance can be represented either
later. by a resistance and a capacitance or by a resistance
and an inductance. Whether the impedance is
inductive or capacitive depends on the characteris-
tics of the load and the length of the line. It is
possible to represent the input impedance by an
INPUT IMPEDANCE equivalent circuit having resistance and reactance
The input impedance of a transmission line is either in series or parallel, so long as the total
the impedance seen looking into the sending-end or impedance and phase angle are the same in either
input terminals; it is the impedance into which the case.
source of power must work when the line is The magnitude and character of the input
connected. If the load is perfectly matched to the impedance are quite important, since they determine
line the line appears to be infinitely long, as stated the method by which the power source must be
earlier, and the input impedance is simply the coupled to the line. The calculation of input
characteristic impedance of the line itself. How- impedance is rather complicated and its measure-
ever, if there are standing waves this is no longer ment is not feasible without special equipment.
true; the input impedance may have a wide range Fortunately, in amateur work it is unnecessary
of values. either to calculate or measure it. The proper
This can be understood by referring to Figs. coupling can be achieved by relatively simple
20-2, 20-3, or 20-4. If the line length is such that methods described later in this chapter.
Input Impedance 571
Lines Without Load where Zs = Impedance looking into line (line length
The input impedance of a short-circuited or and odd mUltiple of one-quarter wave-
open-circuited line not an extact multiple of length
one-quarter wavelength long is practically a pure ZR = Impedance ofload (pure resistance)
Zo =Characteristic impedance of line
reactance. This is because there is very little power
lost in the line. Such lines are frequently used as
"linear" inductances and capacitances. Example: A quarter~wavelength line having a character-
If a shorted line is less than a quarter-wave long, istic impedance of 500 ohms is terminated in a resistive load
as at X in Fig. 20-2, it will have inductive of 75 ohms. The impedance looking lnto the input or send-
ing end of the line is
reactance. The reactance increases with the line
length up to the quarter-wave point. Beyond that, Zs =~'!.2 = !500)2 "lli.l!Ql) = 3333 ohms
as at Y, the reactance is capacitive, high near the ZR 75 75
quarter-wave point and becoming lower as the
half-wave point is approached. It then alternates
between inductive and capacitive in successive If the formula above is rearranged, we have
quarter-wave sections. Just the reverse is true of
the open-circuited line. ZO=1 Z SZR (20-C)
At exact multiples of a quarter wavelength the
impedance is purely resistive. It is apparent, from This means that if we have two values of
examination of Band D in Fig. 20-2, that at points impedance that we wish to "match," we can do so
that are a multiple of a half wavelength - i.e., 1/2, if we connect them together by a quarter-wave
1, 1 1/2 wavelengths, etc. - from the short- transmission line having a characteristic impedance
circuited end of the line that the current and equal to the square root of their product. A
voltage have the same values that they do at the quarter-wave line, in other words, has the
short circuit. In other words, if the line were an characteristics of a transformer.
exact multiple of a half wavelength long the
generator or source of power would "look into" a Resonant and Nonresonant Lines
short circuit. On the other hand, at points that are
The input impedance of a line operating with a
an odd multiple of a quarter wavelength - i.e., 1/4,
high SWR is critically dependent on the line length,
3/4, 1 1/4, etc. - from the short circuit the voltage
and resistive only when the length is some integral
is maximum and the current is zero. Since Z :: Ell,
multiple of one-quarter wavelength. Lines cut to
the impedance at these points is theoretically
such a length and operated with a high SWR are
infinite. (Actually it is very high, but not infinite.)
called "tuned" or "resonant" lines. On the other
This is because the current does not actually go to
hand, if the SWR is low the input impedance is
zero when there are losses in the line. Losses are
close to the Zo of the line and does not vary a
always present, but usually are small.)
great deal with the line length. Such lines are called
"flat," or "untuned," or "nonresonant."
Impedance Transformation
There is no sharp line of demarcation between
The fact that the input impedance of a line tuned and untuned lines. If the SWR is below 1.5
depends on the SWR and line length can be used to to 1 the line is essentially flat, and the same input
advantage when it is necessary to transform a given coupling method will work with all line lengths. If
impedance into another value. the SWR is above 3 or 4 to I, the type of coupling
Study of Fig. 20-4 will show that, just as in the system, and its adjustment, will depend on the line
open- and short-circuited cases, if the line is length and such lines fall into the "tuned"
one-half wavelength long the voltage and current category.
are exactly the same at the input terminals as they It is usually advantageous to make the SWR as
are at the load. This is also true of lengths that are low as possible. A resonant line becomes necessary
integral multiples of a half wavelength. It is also only when a considerable mismatch between the
true for all values of SWR. Hence the input load and the line has to be tolerated. The most
impedance of any line, no matter what its ZO, that important practical example of this is when a single
is a multiple of a half wavelength long is exactly antenna is operated on several harmonically related
the same as the load impedance. Such a line can be frequencies, in which case the antenna impedance
used to transfer the impedance to a new location will have widely different values on different
without changing its value. harmonics.
When the line is a quarter wavelength long, or
an odd multiple of a quarter wavelength, the load RADIATION
impedance is "inverted." That is, if the current is Whenever a wire carries alternating current the
low and the voltage is high at the load, the input electromagnetic fields travel away into space with
impedance will be such as to require high current the velocity of light. At power-line frequencies the
and low voltage. The relationship between the load field that "grows" when the current is increasing
impedance and input impedance is given by has plenty of time to return or "collapse" about
the conductor when the current is decreasing,
Z 2 because the alternations are so slow. But at radio
Zs=~ (20-B)
ZR frequencies fields that travel only a relatively short
distance do not have time to get back to the
 572 TRANSMISSION LINES
conductor before the next cycle commences. The would have to occupy the same space, whereas
consequence is that some of the electromagnetic they are actually slightly separated. However, the
energy is prevented from being restored to the cancellation is substantially complete if the
conductor; in other words, energy is radiated into distance between the conductors is very small
space in the form of electromagnetic waves. compared to the wavelength. Transmission line
The lines previously considered have consisted radiation will be negligible if the distance between
of two parallel conductors of the same diameter. the conductors is .01 wavelength or less, provided
Provided there is nothing in the system to destroy the currents in the two wires are balanced.
symmetry, at every point along the line the current The amount of radiation also is proportional to
in one conductor has the same intensity as the the current flowing in the line. Because of the way
current in the other conductor at that point, but in which the current varies along the line when
the currents flow in opposite directions. This was there are standing waves, the effective current, for
shown in Figs. 20-2C and 20-3C. It means that the purposes of radiation, becomes greater as the SWR
fields set up about the two wires have the same is .increased. For this reason the radiation is least
intensity, but opposite directions. The conse- when the line is flat. However, if the conductor
quence is that the total field set up about such a spacing is small and the currents are balanced, the
transmission line is zero; the two fields "cancel radiation from a line with even a high SWR is
out." Hence no energy is radiated. inconsequential. A small unbalance in the line.
Practically, the fields do not quite cancel out currents is far more serious - and is just as serious
because for them to do so the two conductors when the line is flat as when the SWR is high.

PRACTICAL LINE CHARACTERISTICS

The foregoing discussion of transmission lines wires (ordinarily No. 12 or No. 14) are supported a
has been based on a line consisting of two parallel fixed distance apart by means of insulating rods
conductors. The parallel-conductor line is but one called "spacers." The spacings used vary from two
of two general types, the other being the coaxial or to six inches, the smaller spacings being necessary
concentric line. The coaxial line consists of a at frequencies of the order of 28 MHz and higher
conductor placed in the center of a tube. The so that radiation will be minimized. The
inside surface of the tube and the outside surface construction is shown in Fig. 20-6. Such a line is
of the smaller inner conductor form the two said to be air insulated. The characteristic impe-
conducting surfaces of the line. dance of such "open-wire" lines is between 400
In the coaxial line the fields are entirely inside and 600 ohms, depending on the wire size and
the tube, because the tube acts as a shield to spacing.
prevent them for appearing outside. This reduces Parallel-conductor lines also are occasionally
radiation to the vanishing point. So far as the constructed of metal tubing of a diameter of 1/4 to
electrical behavior of coaxial lines is concerned, all 1/2 inch. This reduces the characteristic impedance
that has previously been said about the operation of the line. Such lines are mostly used as
of parallel-conductor lines applies. There are, quarter-wave transformers, when different values
however, practical differences in the construction of impedance are to be matched.
and use of parallel and coaxial lines. Prefabricated parallel-conductor line with air
insulation, developed for television reception, can
PARALLEL-CONDUCTOR LINES be used in transmitting applications. This line
A type of parallel-conductor line sometimes consists of two conductors separated one-half to
used in amateur installations is one in which two one inch by molded-on spacers. The characters tic
impedance is 300 to 450 ohms, depending on the
wire size and spacing.
A convenient type of manufactured line is one
in which the parallel conductors are imbedded in
low-loss insulating material (polyethylene). It is
commonly used as a TV lead-in and has a
characteristic impedance of about 300 ohms. It is
sold under various names, the most common of
which is "Twin-Lead." This type of line has the
advantages of light weight, close and uniform
conductor spacing, flexibility and neat appearance.
However, the losses in the solid dielectric are
higher than in air, and dirt or moisture on the line
tends to change the characteristic impedance.
Fig. 20-6 - Typical construction of open-wire line. Moisture effects can be reduced by coating the line
The line conductor fits in a groove in the end of with silicone grease. A special form of 30G-ohm
the spacer, and is held in place by a tie-wire Twin-Lead for transmitting uses a polyethylene
anchored in a hole near the groove. tube with the conductors molded diametrically
 Practical Line Characteristics 573
electromagnetic fields will not cancel completely
and a considerable amount of power may be
radiated by the line.
Main taining good line balance requires, first of
all, a balanced load at its end. For this reason the
antenna should be fed, whenever possible, at a
point where each conductor "sees" exactly the
same thing. Usually this means that the antenna
system should be fed at its electrical center.
TUBING However, even though the antenna appears to be
OIA. symmetrical physically, it can be unbalanced
electrically if the part connected to one of the line
conductors is coupled to something (such as house
wiring or a metal pole or roof) that is not
duplicated on the other part of the antenna. Every
effort should be made to keep the antenna as far as
possible from other wiring or sizable metallic
objects. The transmission line itself will cause some
unbalance if it is not brought away from the
1.0 ~ 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 antenna at right angles to it for a distance of at
CENrER-TO-CENrER SPACING ONCHES) least a quarter wavelength.
In installing the line conductors take care to see
Fig. 20-7 - Chart showing the characteristic that they are kept away from metal. The minimum
impedance of spaced-conductor parallel transmis- separation between either conductor and all other
sion lines with air dielectric. Tubing sizes given are wiring should be at least four or five times the
for outside diameters. conductor spacing. The shunt capacitance intro-
duced by close proximity to metallic objects can
opposite; the longer dielectric path in such line drain off enough current (to ground) to unbalance
reduces moisture troubles. the line currents, resulting in increased radiation. A
In addition to 300-ohm line, Twin-Lead is shunt capacitance of this sort also constitutes a
obtainable with a characteristic impedance of 75 reactive load on the line, causing an impedance
ohms for transmitting purposes. Light-weight 75- "bump" that will prevent making the line actually
and ISO-ohm Twin-Lead also is available. flat.

Characteristic Impedance COAXIAL LINES

The characteristic impedance of an air-insulated The most common form of coaxial line consists
parallel-conductor line is given by: of either a solid or stranded-wire inner conductor
surrounded by polyethylene dielectric. Copper
braid is woven over the dielectric to form the outer
Zo= 27610g 11 (20-D)
conductor, and a waterproof vinyl covering is
a placed on top of the braid. This cable is made in a
where Zo = Characteristic impedance number of different diameters. It is moderately
b =Center-to-center distance between con- flexible, and so is convenient to install. This solid
ductors coaxial cable is commonly available in impedances
a =Radius of conductor (in same units as b) approximating 50 and 70 ohms.
Air-insulated coaxial lines have lower losses
than the solid-dielectric type, but are rarely used in
It does not matter what units are used for a and b
amateur work because they are expensive and
so long as they are the same units. Both quantities
difficult to install as compared wi th the flexible
may be measured in centimeters, inches, etc. Since
cable. The common type of air-insulated coaxial
it is necessary to have a table of common
line uses a sold-wire conductor inside a copper
logarithms to solve practical problems, the solution
tube, with the wire held in the center of the tube
is given in graphical form in Fig. 20-7 for a number
by means of insulating "beads" placed at regular
of common conductor sizes.
intervals.
In solid-dielectric parallel-conductor lines such
as Twin-Lead the characteristic impedance cannot
be calculated readily, because part of the electric Characteristic Impedance
field is in air as well as in the dielectric. The characteristic impedance of an air-insulated
coaxial line is given by the formula
Unbalance in Parallel.conductor Lines
When installing parallel-conductor lines care Zo = 138 log IIa (20-E)
should be taken to avoid introducing electrical
unbalance into the system. If for some reason the where Zo = Characteristic impedance
current in one conductor is higher than in the b = Inside diameter of ou ter conductor
other, or if the currents in the two wires are not a = Outside diameter of inner conductor (in
exactly out of phase with each other, the same units as b)
 574 TRANSMISSION LINES
The formula for coaxial lines is approximately 10

correct for lines in which bead spacers are used,

provided the beads are not too closely spaced.
• SWR=20 .....
~ ........ '"S"WR=~
When the line is filled with a solid dielectric, the
characteristic impedance as given by the formula
• v V ~IO
~ ;..-
should be multiplied by 1/"fJ<, where K is the V ~R=7
dielectric constant of the material. -/ ./ .... sw~
7' V
•I..... "7 -; V ./
;,.;-
~
V 1/17 V
ElECTRICAL LENGTH
In the discussion of line operation earlier in this
o
~
<
u 0.
00
L0

•
L..- V I,...;
II
chapter it was assumed that currents traveled along 00.
• "7
the conductors at the speed of light. Actually, the ~ 0.
• 1/ SWR=2 ;..-
velocity is somewhat less, the reason being that
electromagnetic fields travel more slowly in 1/
1...- L.-
p
I...;
material dielectrics than they do in free space. In
air the velocity is practically the same as in empty
1/ V
SW~
space, but a practical line always has to be v
supported in some fashion by solid insulating ~ 1/1.; vV'
materials. The result is that the fields are slowed 1 1/
QQ,2 Q.3 QA M Q& as 1.0 3 .. 5. • ~

down; the currents travel a shorter distance in the LINE LOSS IN DB. WHEN IAAltHED
time of one cycle than they do in space, and so the
wavelength along the line is less than the Fig. 20-8 - Effect of standing-wave ratio on line
wavelength would be in free space at the same loss. The ordinates give the additional loss in
frequency .. decibels for the loss, under perfectly matched
Whenever reference is made to a line as being so conditions, shown on horizontal scale.
many wavelengths (such as a "half wavelength" or
"quarter wavelength") long, it is to be understood
that the electrical length of the line is meant. Its LOSSES IN TRANSMISSION LINES
actual physical length as measured by a tape always
will be somewhat less. The physical length There are three ways by which power may be
corresponding to an electrical wavelength is given lost in a transmission line: by radiation, by heating
by of the conductors (I2R), and by heating of the
dielectric, if any. Radiation losses are in general the
. 984V result from undesired coupling to the radiating
Length In feet =- , (20-P)
antenna. They cannot readily be estimated or
measured, so the following discussion is based only
where f = Frequency in megahertz on conductor and dielectric losses.
V =Velocity factor Heat losses in both the conductor and the
dielectric increase with frequency. Conductor
The velocity factor is the ratio of the actual losses also are greater the lower the characteristic
velocity along the line to the velocity in free space. impedance of the line, because a higher current
Values of V for several common types of line are flows in a low-impedance line for a given power
given in Table 20-1. input. The converse is true of dielectric losses
because these increase with the voltage, which is
greater on high-impedance lines. The dielectric loss
Example: A 75-foot length of 30G-ohm Twin-Lead is
used to carry power to an antenna at a frequency of 7150
in air-insulated lines is negligible (the only loss is in
kHz. From Table 2G-I, V is 0.82. At this frequency (7.15 the insulating spacers) and such lines operate at
MHz) a wavelength is high efficiency when radiation losses are low.
Length (feet) = ¥ = fit X 0.82 It is convenient to express the loss in a
transmission line in decibels per unit length, since
= 137.6 X 0.82 =112.8 feet the loss in dB is directly proportional to the line
The line length is therefore 75/112.8 = 0.665 wavelength. length. Losses in various types of lines operated
without standing waves (that is, terminated in a
Because a quarter-wavelength line is frequently resistive load equal to the characteristic impedance
of the line) are given in Table 20-1.
used as a linear transformer, it is convenient to
When there are standing waves on the line the
calculate the length of a quarter-wave line directly.
The formula is power loss increases as shown in Fig. 20-8. Whether
or not the increase in loss is serious depends on
what the original loss would have been if the line
Length (feet) = ,246 V (20-G) were perfectly matched. If the loss with perfect
f matching is very low, a large SWR will not greatly
affect the efficiency of the line - i.e., the ratio of
where the symbols have the same meaning as the power delivered to the load to the power put
above. in to the line.
Transmission-Line Losses 575
TABLE 20-1
Characteristics of Commonly-Used Transmission Lines

Type of Line Zo Vel. pF OD Attenuation in dB per 100 feet

Ohms % per ft. 3.5 7 14 21 28 50 144 420
RG58/A-AU 53 66 28.5 0.195 0.68 1.0 1.5 1.9 2.2 3.1 5.7 10.4
RG58 Foam Die!. 50 79 25.4 0.195 0.52 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.2 4.1 7.1
RG59/A-AU 73 66 21.0 0.242 0.64 0.90 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.4 4.2 7.2
RG59 Foam Die!. 75 79 16.9 0.242 0.48 0.70 1.0 1.2 1.4 2.0 3.4 6.1
RG8/A-AU 52 66 29.5 0.405 0.30 0.45 0.66 0.83 0.98 1.35 2.5 4.8
RG8 Foam Die!. 50 80 25.4 0.405 0.27 0.44 0.62 0.76 0.90 1.2 2.2 3.9
RGll/A-AU 75 66 20.5 0.405 0.38 0.55 0.80 0.98 1.15 1.55 2.8 4.9
Aluminum Jacket,
Foam Die!.l
3/8 inch 50 81 25.0 - .- - 0.36 0.48 0.54 0.75 1.3 2.5
1/2 inch 50 81 25.0 - - - 0.27 0.35 0.40 0.55 1.0 1.8
3/8 inch 75 81 16.7 - - - 0.43 0.51 0.60 0.80 1.4 2.6
1/2 inch 75 81 16.7 - - - 0.34 0.40 0.48 0.60 1.2 1.9
Open-wire 2 - 97 - 0.D3 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.25 -
300-0hm Twin-lead 300 82 5.8 0.18 0.28 0.41 0.52 0.60 0.85 1.55 2.8
300-ohm tubular 300 80 4.6 0.07 0.25 0.39 0.48 0.53 0.75 1.3 1.9
Open-wire, TV type
1/2 inch 400 95 0.028 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.17 0.30 0.75 -
1 inch 450 95 0.02R 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.17 0.30 0.75 -
IPolyfoam dielectric type line information courtesy of Times Wire and Cable Co.
2 Attenuation of open-wire line based on No. 12 conductors, neglecting radiation.

3
TABLE 20-11
2
Type of Line Power Rating in Watts
~
20-MHz 30- 60- 200- ~
..... 1.0
RG58/A-AU 550 430 290 14 ....
RG58 Foam Die!.l ~

RG59/A-AU 860 680 440 208 ~ .5

Q:
....
RG8/A-AU 1720 1250 680
2000
~ .3
~
RGll/A-AU 1800 1400 900 400
.2
1 Power handling capabilities of foam-type coaxial
lines is approximately 30 percent greater than the
polyethylene dielectric types.

AMPERES AT LINE INPUT

Example: A 15()'foot length ofRG·II/lJ cable is operal'
ing at 7 MHz with a 5-t<rl SWR. If perfectly matched, the Fig. 20-9 - Graph for calculating losses in trans-
loss from Table 20-1 would be \.5 x 0.55" 0.825 dB. rrom mission lines with an SWR of 1.
rig. 2()'8 the addilionalloss becausc of the SWR is 0.73dB.
The total loss is therefore 0.825 + 0.95" 1.775 dB.

ammeter and connect it to a transmitter. Tune up

TESTING OLD COAXIAL CABLE the rig and make a note of the exact amount of
Unknown coaxial cable or cable that has been current. Without touching the transmitter tuning,
exposed to the weather may have losses above the move the ammeter to the other end of the line, at
published figures for the cable type. A simple the dummy load, and note the meter reading.
method for checking the losses in a cable is to use Compare the readings to Fig. 20-9 and this will give
an rf ammeter (mounted in a Minibox with coax you the decibel loss that is present in the line.
fittings). Connect one end of the cable to a Keep in mind that the cable must be terminated in
nonreactive dummy load of the same impedance as its characteristic impedance (SWR of 1); otherwise,
the coax. At the other end of the line insert the rf the figures in Fig. 20-9 will not be accurate.
576 TRANSMISSION LINES

MATCHING THE ANTENNA TO THE LINE

The load for a transmission line may be any

i-
device capable of dissipating rf power. When lines
are used for transmitting applications the most
\'
common type of load is an antenna. When a
transmission line is ·connected between an antenna
and a receiver, the receiver input circuit (not the
antenna) is the load, because the power taken from
CA)
Ir u
•
a passing wave is delivered to the receiver.
I' t "I
Whatever the application, the conditions
existing at the load, and only the load, determine I I

I~,-
the standing-wave ratio on the line. If the load is
purely resistive and equal in value to the character-
(B)
istic impedance of the line, there will be no
standing waves. In case the load is not purely
resistive, and/or is not equal to the line Zo, there
will be standing waves. No adjustments that. can be
made at the input end of the line can change the
I'
t « Ii
t
.. , ...I

If,·
SWR, nor is it affected by changing the line length.
Only in a few special cases is the load
(e)
inherently of the proper value to match a
practicable transmission line. In all other cases it is
necessary either to operate with a mismatch and
accept the SWR that results, or else to take steps to Fig. 20-108 - The folded dipole, a method for using
bring about a proper match between the line and the antenna element itself to provide an impedance
transformation.
load by means of transformers or similar devices.
Impedance-matching transformers may take a
variety of physical forms, depending on the
circumstances.
preference to another, such as ease of installation,
Note that it is essential, if the SWR is to be
inherent loss in the line, and so on, but these are
made as low as possible, that the load at the point
not considered in this section.
of connection to the transmission line be purely
Although the input impedance of an antenna
resistive. In general, this requires that the load be
system is seldom known very accurately, it is often
tuned to resonance. If the load itself is not
possible to make a reasonably close estimate of its
resonant at the operating frequency the tuning
value.
sometimes can be accomplished in the matching
Matching circuits can be built using ordinary
system.
coils and capacitors, but are not used very
extensively because they must be supported at the
THE ANTENNA AS A LOAD
antenna and must be weatherproofed. The systems
Every antenna system, no matter what its to be described use linear transformers.
physical form, will have a definite value of
impedance at the point where the line is to be The Quarter-Wave Transformer or
connected. The problem is to transform this "Q" Section
antenna input impedance to the proper value to
match the line. In this respect there is no one As mentioned previously, a quarter-wave trans-
"best" type of line for a particular antenna system, mission line may be used as an impedance trans-
because it is possible to transform impedances in former. Knowing the antenna impedance and the
any desired ratio. Consequently, any type of line characteristic impedance of the transmission line to
may be used with any type of antenna. There are be matched, the required characteristic impedance
frequently reasons other than impedance matching of a matching section such as is shown in Fig.
that dictate the use of one type of line in 20-IOA is:
Z = iZI ZO (20-H)
Where Zl is the antenna impedance and ZO is the
characteristic impedance of the line to which it is
to be matched.

Fxamplc. To match a 600·ohm line to an antenna pre-

"cnting a 72-ohm load. the quarter-wave matching <edkln
would rcquin.: Q charactcri~tic impedance of
172 X 600 -143,200 - 208 ohms

Fig. 20·10A - "Q" matching section, a Cf.Jarter-wave The spacings between conductors of various sizes
impedance transformer. of tubing and wire for different surge impedances
 The Antenna as a Load 577
10 Tl be adjusted to give the lowest possible SWR on the
V
81--JP I ./ /' transmission line.
7R~7 ,
/
I)
1/ /
/
/'

6
5
/ 1/ / t/ .;"" "" /
Folded Dipoles
l/ V V A half-wave antenna element can be made to
4
J / / ~ V match various line impedances if it is split into two

6
1/V/
// 1/
l/V e,/
V ....... V or more parallel conductors with the transmission
line attached at the center of only one of them.
f.- V
-
/'

2
7 r/ i,...-I.-- I.---"'"" ~ I--
Various forms of such "folded dipoles" are shown
in Fig. 20-lOB. Currents in all conductors are in
i,...-~
~
~ l.-::::: V 1.-
phase in a folded dipole, and since the conductor
spacing is small the folded dipole is equivalent in
L5
;:::V p

- radiating properties to an ordinary single-conduc-

tor dipole. However, the current flowing into the

-
Rnflo- 4
If 1.0
'QN a9 input terminals of the antenna from the line is the
as -.;;; i'- current in one conductor only, and the entire
0:7
t-- r- i--
a6 "'" -f-,
.•
power from the line is delivered at this value of

"'" t-.... current. This is equivalent to saying that the input

-
05
......... f-...r-. l - t- impedance of the antenna has been raised by
o04 splitting it up into two or more conductors.
1"--" i'---. The ratio by which the input impedance of the
antenna is stepped up depends not only on the
i"-- ........
02
~ I
............
number of conductors in the folded dipole but also
on their relative diameters, since the distribution of

0.l
[]
I rl-L I I
[d~
, d, " r--....
........
........
current between conductors is a function of their
diameters. (When one conductor is larger than the
other, as in Fig. 20-lOB, the larger one carries the
greater current.) The ratio also depends, in general,
I 3 4 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 20 on the spacing between the conductors, as shown
S/dz
by the graphs of Figs. 20-11 and 20-12. An
important special case is the 2-conductor dipole
Fig. 20-11 - Impedance transformation ratio, with conductors of equal diameter; as a simple
two-conductor folded dipole. The'dimensions d1, antenna, not a part of a directive array, it has an
d2 and s are shown on the inset drawing. Curves
show the ratio of the impedance (resistive) seen by
the transmission line to the radiation resistance of
the resonant antenna system. ~.0

./
0
17 /'
are given in graphical fonn in the chapter on .".,[7
"Transmission Lines." (With i/2-inch tubing, the -&.- ./
V
to
spacing in the example above should be 1.5 inches
for an impedance of 208 ohms.)
I}" V V v ,E>
1--'1.--
The length of the quarter-wave matching 17vV' I.-- v VI--'
section may be calculated from V j..-I- ~
ID
'" .... v
t-) ~
Length (feet) = 246 V (20-1)
f 1-1.- 10
where V = Velocity factor OoS RotIo-9
f = Frequency in MHz
oA l'
Example: A quarter-wave transformer of RG-J J IV is to
be used at 28.7 MHz. From the table 20·1. V" 0.66. a3 t-.

l.en~lh ~ H62~. ~.~6 " 5.65 fect o

2:E
t----t
:d~
-
l=::
,., 5 feet 8 inchc~
I ?
Feed PoInI
The antenna must be resonant at the operating
frequency. Setting the antenna length by fonnula II '" 1 "' " 15 20 30 40 50
is amply accurate with single-wire antennas, but in
other systems, particularly. close-spaced arrays, the
antenna should be adjusted to resonance before the
matching section is connected. Fig. 20-12 - Impedance transformation ratio,
three-conductor folded dipole. The dimensions d1,
When the antenna input impedance is not d2 and s are shown on the inset drawing. Curves
known accurately, it is advisable to construct the show the ratio of the impedance (resistive) seen by
matching section so that the spacing between the transmission line to the radiation resistance of
conductors can be changed. The spacing then may the resonant antenna system.
578 TRANSMISSION LINES

~----------------}----------------~ The operation of this system is sofi'lewhat

complex. Each "T" conductor (y in the drawing)
fonns with the antenna conductor opposite it a
short section of transmission line. Each of these
transmission-line sections can be considered to be
terminated in the impedance that exists at the
(A) point of connection to the antenna. Thus the part
of the antenna between the two points carries a
transmission-line current in addition to the nonnal
~------------t----------~ antenna current. The two transmission-line match-
~Y ---:-4 ! ing sections are in series, as seen by the main
transmission line.

(B)
~Line -,
If the antenna by itself is resonant at the
op~r~ting frequency its impedance will be purely
r~SIStIve, and III such case the matching-section
lines are tenninated in a resistive load. However,
Fig. 20·13 - The "T" match and "gamma" match. since these sections are shorter than a quarter
wavelength their input impedance - i.e., the
impedance seen by the main transmission line
looking into the matching-section tenninals - will
be reactive as well as resistive. This prevents a
input impedance close enough to 300 ohms to
perfect match to the main transmission line since
afford a good match to 300-ohm Twin-Lead.
its load must be a pure resistance for perfect
The required ratio of conductor diameters to
matching. The reactive component of the input
give a desired impedance ratio using two
impedance must be tuned out before a proper
conductors may be obtained from Fig. 20-11.
match can be secured.
Similar information for a 3-conductor dipole is
One way to do this is to de tune the antenna
given in Fig. 20-12. This graph applies where all
just enough, by changing its length, to cause
three conductors are in the same plane. The two
reactance of the opposite kind to be reflected to
conductors not connected to the transmission line
the inI?ut tenninals of the matching section, thus
must be equally spaced from the fed conductor
cancelling the reactance introduced by the latter.
and must have equal diameters. The fed conducto;
Another method, which is considerably easier to
may have a different diameter, however. The
adjust, is to insert a variable capacitor in series with
unequal-conductor method has been found particu-
the matching section where it connects to the
larly useful in matching to low-impedance antennas
transmission line, as shown in Fig. 21-39. The
such as directive arrays using close-spaced parasitic capacitor must be protected from the weather.
~~~ . The method of adjustment commonly used is
The length of the antenna element should be to cut the antenna for approximate resonance and
such as to be approximately self-resonant at the then make the spacing x some value that is
medi~ oper~t!ng frequency. The length is usually
co~venient constructionally. The distance y is then
not highly cntIcal, because a folded dipole tends to adjusted, while maintaining symmetry with respect
have the characteristics of a "thick" antenna and to the center, until the SWR on the transmission
thus has a relatively broad frequency-response line is as low as possible. If the SWR is not below 2
curve. to 1 after this adjusment, the antenna length
''1''' and "Gamma" Matching Sections sho~ld be changed slightly and the matching
sectl?n taps a~justed again. This procedure may be
. The method of matching shown in Fig. 2o-13A contmued until the SWR is as close to 1 to I as
IS based on the fact that the impedance between possible.
any two points along a resonant antenna is When the series-capacitor method of reactance
resistive, and has a value which depends on the compensation is used (Fig. 21-32), the antenna
spacing between the two points. It is therefore should be the proper length to be resonant at the
possible to choose a pair of points between which operating frequency. Trial positions of the
the impedance will have the right value to match a m~tch!ng-section taps are then taken, each time
transmission line. In practice, the line cannot be adJustmg the capacitor for minimum SWR until
connected directly at these points because the the standing waves on the transmission li~e are
distance between them is much greater than the brought down to the lowest possible value.
conductor spacing of a practicable transmission The ~nbalanced ("gamma") arrangement in Fig.
line. The "T" arrangement in Fig. 20-13A 20-13B IS similar in principle to the "T," but is
overcomes this difficulty by using a second adapted for use with single coax line. The method
conductor paralleling the antenna to fonn a of adjustment is the same.
matching section to which the line may be
connected.
The "T" is particularly suited to use with a
BALANCING DEVICES
parallel-conductor line, in which case the two An antenna with open ends, of which the
points along the antenna should be equidistant half-wave type is an example, is inherently a
from the center so that electrical balance is balanced radiator. When opened at the center and
maintained. fed with a parallel-conductor line this balance is
Balancing Devices 579
maintained throughout the system, so long as the
causes of unbalance discussed in the transmission-
line chapter are avoided.
If the antenna is fed at the center through a
coaxial line, as indicated in Fig. 20-14A, this
balance is upset because one side of the radiator is
connected to the shield while the other is
(A)
connected to the inner conductor. 0, th ~ side
connected to the shield, a current can 1'0,v down
over the ou (side of the coaxial line, and th,~ fields
thus set up cannot be canceled by the fields from
the inner conductor because the fields inside the
line cannot escape through the shielding afforded
,- t '1
by the outer conductor. Hence these "antenna"

I
currents flowing on the outside of the line will be
responsible for radiation.

Linear Baluns
Line radiation can be prevented by a number of
Metal
Sleeve t

1
devices whose purpose is to detune or decouple the
line for "antenna" currents and thus greatly reduce
their amplitude. Such devices generally are known
as baluns (a contraction for "balanced to (8)
unbalanced"). Fig. 20-14B shows one such
arrangement, known as a bazooka, which uses a Coaxial
Lin.
sleeve over the transmission line to form, with the
outside of the outer line conductor, a shorted Here
quarter-wave line section. As described earlier in
this chapter, the impedance looking into the open
end of such a section is very high, so that the end
of the outer conductor of the coaxial line is
effectively insulated from the part of the line
below the sleeve. The length is an elec trical quarter ,- t -,
wave, and may be physically shorter if the
insulation between the sleeve and the line is other
than air. The bazooka has no effect on the
impedance relationships between the antenna and
the coaxial line.
Another method that gives an equivalent effect
is shown at C. Since the voltages at the antenna
Coaxial
Line
Ii-
terminals are equal and opposite (with reference to
ground), equal and opposite currents flow on the
surfaces of the line and second conductor. Beyond
the shorting point, in the direction of the
transmitter, these currents combine to cancel out.
The balancing section "looks like" an open circuit
(e) 1
Shorted
Togeth.r
to the antenna, since it is a quarter-wave
parallel-conductor line shorted at the far end, and
thus has no effect on the normal antenna
operation. However, this is not essential to the
line-balancing function of the device, and baluns of
this type are sometimes made shorter than a
quarter wavelength in order to provide the shunt
inductive reactance required in certain types of
matching systems.
Fig. 20-14D shows a third balun, in which equal
and opposite voltages, balanced to ground, are
taken from the inner conductors of the main
transmission line and half-wave phasing section.
Since the voltages at the balanced end are in series
while the voltages at the unbalanced end are in Fig. 20-14 - Radiator with coaxial feed (A) and
parallel, there is a 4-to-l step-down in impedance methods of preventing unbalanced currents from
flowing on the outside of the transmission line (B
from the balanced to the unbalanced side. This and C). The half-wave phasing section shown at D
arrangement is useful for coupling between a is used for coupling between an unbalanced and a
balanced 300-ohm line and a 75-ohm coaxial line, balanced circuit when a 4-to-1 impedance ratio is
for example. desired or can be accepted.
 580 TRANSMISSION LINES

OTHER LOADS AND BALANCING DEVICES

The most important practical load for a

transmission line is an antenna which, in most
cases, will be "balanced" - that is, symmetrically ll~
constructed with respect to the feed point. Aside
from considerations of matching the actual
impedance of the antenna at the feed point to the p".n,l-
Condu<tor
characteristic impedance of the line (if such Lin.
matching is attempted) a balanced antenna should
be fed through a balanced transmission line in
order to preserve symmetry with respect to ground Fig. 20-15 - Baluns for matching between
and thus avoid difficulties with unbalanced push-pull and single-ended circuits. The impedance
currents on the line and consequent undesirable ratio is 4 to 1 from the push-pull side to the
radiation from the transmission line itself. unbalanced side. Coiling the lines (lower drawing)
If, as is often the case, the antenna is to be fed increases the frequency range over which satisfac-
through coaxial line (which is inherently unbal- tory operation is obtained.
anced) some method should be used for connecting
the line to the antenna without upsetting the each line is wound into a coil, as in the lower
symmetry of the antenna itself. This requires a drawing, the inductances so formed will act as
circuit that will isolate the balanced load from the choke coils and will tend to isolate the
unbalanced line while providing effecient power series-connected end from any ground connection
transfer. Devices for doing this are called baluns. that may be placed on the parallel-connected end.
The types used between the antenna and Balun coils made in this way will operate over a
transmission line are generally "linear," consisting wide frequency range, since the choke inductance
of transmission-line sections. is not critical. The lower frequency limit is where
the coils are no longer effective in isolatirig one end
The need for baluns also arises in coupling a
from the other; the length of line in each coil
transmitter to a balanced transmission line, since
should be about equal to a quarter wave-length at
the output circuits of most transmitters have one
the lowest frequency to be used.
side grounded. (This type of ou tpu t circuit is
The principal application of such coils is in
desirable for a number of reasons, including TVI going from a 300-ohm balanced line to a 75-ohm
reduction.) The most flexible type of balun for this coaxial line. This requires that the Z 0 of the lines
purpose is the inductively coupled matching forming the coils be 150 ohms.
network described in a subsequent section in this A balun of this type is simply a fixed-ratio
chapter. This combines impedance matching with transformer, when matched. It cannot compensate
balanced-to-unbalanced operation, but has the for inaccurate matching elsewhere in the system.
,disadvantage that it uses resonant circuits and thus With a "300-0hm" line on the balanced end, for
can work over only a limited band of frequencies example, a 75-ohm coax cable will not be matched
without readjustment. However, if a fixed unless the 300-0hm line actually is terminated in a
impedance ratio in the balun can be tolerated, the 300-ohm load.
coil balun described below can be used without
adjustment over a frequency range of about 10 to
1 - 3 to 30 MHz, for example. TWO BROAD-BAND
TOROIDAL BALUNS
Coil Baluns Air-wound balun transformers are somewhat
The type of balun known as the "coil balun" is bulky when designed for operation in the 1.8- to
based on the principles of linear-transmission-line 30-MHz range. A more compact broad-band
balun as shown in the upper drawing of Fig. 20-15. transformer can be realized by using toroidal
Two transmission lines of equal length having a ferrite core material as the foundation for
characteristic impedance (Zo) are connected in se- bifilar-wound coil balun transformers. Two such
ries at one end and in parallel at the other. At the baluns are described here.
series-connected end the lines are balanced to In Fig. 20-16 at A, a 1:1 ratio balanced-to-
ground and will match an impedance equal to 2Z 0 . unbalanced-line transformer is shown. This trans-
At the parallel-connected end the lines will be former is useful in converting a 50-ohm balanced
matched by an impedance equal to Z~2. One side line condition to one that is 50 ohms, unbalanced.
may be connected to ground at the parallel- Similarly, the transformer will work between
connected end, provided the two lines have a balanced and unbalanced 75-ohm impedances.
length such that, considering each line as a single A 4: 1 ratio transformer is illustrated in Fig. 20-16
wire, the balanced end is effectively decoupled at B. This balun is useful for converting a 200-ohm
from the parallel-connected end. This requires a balanced condition to one that is 50 ohms,
length that is an odd multiple of 1/4 wavelength. unbalanced. In a like manner, the transformer can
A definite line length is required only for be used between a balanced 300-ohm point and a
decoupling purposes, and so long as there is 75-ohm unbalanced line. Both balun transformers
adequate decoupling the system will act as a 4-to-1 will handle 1000 watts of rf power and are
impedance transformer regardless of line length. If designed to operate from 1.8 through 60 MHz.
Broad-Band Toroidal Baluns 581
Tl
Fig. 20 -16- Schematic
and pictorial represen-
tations of the bal un
transformers. T1 and
T2 are wound on J5
C F·123 toroid cores
(see footnote 1, and the 4R
(BALANCED)
text). J 1 and J4 are
SQ·239-type coax con- J6
nectors, or similar. J2, R
J3, J5, and J6 are (UNBAlANCED)
steatite feedthrough R
bushings. The windings (UNBALANCED)
are labeled a, b, and c J2
to show the relation· R
ship between the pic' (BALANCED)
torial and schematic il·

~:~"LI'C"
Tl 1U:'IDAL CORE
lustrations.

~ .-:.....""
.~-"'....""
1:1 BALANCED TO UNBALANCED
L 6 0
R - UNBALANCED

4:1 BALANCED TO UNBALANCED

A B
Low·loss high·frequency ferrite core material is suitable weather-proof enclosure. A Minibox,
used for T1 and T2. 1,3 The cores are made from sealed against moisture, works nicely for the latter.
Q·2 material and cost approximately $5.50 in
single-lot quantity. They are 0.5 inches thick, have NONRADIATING LOADS
an OD of 2.4 inches, and the ID is 1.4 inches. The Typical examples of nonradiating loads for a
permeability rating of the cores is 40. A packaged transmission line are the grid circuit of a power
one-kilowatt balun kit, with winding instructions
amplifier (considered in the chapter on transmit-
for 1: 1 or 4: 1 impedance transformation ratios, is
ters), the input circuit of a receiver, and another
available, but uses a core of slightly different transmission line. This last case includes the
dimensions. 2 "antenna tuner" - a misnomer because it is
Winding Information
The transformer shown in Fig. 20 - 16 at A has
a trifilar winding consisting of 10 turns of No. 14
formvar·insulated copper wire. A 100turn bifilar
winding of the same type of wire is used for the
balun of Fig. 20·j6 at B. If the cores have rough
edges, they should be carefully sanded until
smooth enough to prevent damage to the wire's
formvar insulation. The windings should be spaced
around the entire core as shown in Fig. 20 - 17.
Insulation can be used between the core material
and the windings to increase the power handling
capabilities of the core.

Using the Baluns

For indoor applications, the transformers can
be assembled open style, without benefit of a
protective enclosure. For outdoor installations,
such as at the antenna feed point, the balun should
be encapsulated in epoxy resin or mounted in a
.Fig. 20·17 - Layout of a kilowatt 4:1 toroidal
balun transformer. Phenolic insulating board is
mounted between the transformer and the Minibox
1 Available in single-lot quantity from Permag wall to prevent short·circuiting. The board is held
Corp, 88-06 Van Wyck Expy, Jamaica, NY 11418. in place with epoxy cement. Cement is also used to
2 Amidon Associates... 12033 Otsego Street,
secure the transformer to the board. For outdoor
North Hollywood, CA 91.,01. use, the Minibox cover can be installed, then sealed
3 Toroid cores are also available from Ferrox- against the weather by applying epoxy cement
cube Corp. of America, Saugerties, NY 12477. along the seams of the box.
 582 TRANSMISSION LINES

TRAN.~ANT. TRAN.~~T.
the line. The rated input impedance of a receiver is

(LO-Z) LI
a !a (H-Z)
(LO-Z) UNKNOWN)
a nominal value that varies over a considerable
range with frequency. Most hf receivers are sensi-
tive enough that exact matching is not necessary.
The most desirable condition is that in which the
receiver is matched to the line Zo and the line in
tum is matched to the antenna. This transfers
maximum power from the antenna to the receiver

(LO-Z)~ ~
with the least loss in the transmission line.
Lf.!:CI

tCl -C3!
TRAN. L2 ANT. TRAN. ANT.
TAP (Z (LO-Z) (Z
,J; UNKNOWN) UNKNOWN) COUPLING TO RANDOM-LENGTH
ANTENNAS
Fig. 20-18 - Networks for matching a low-Z Several impedance-matching schemes are shown
transmitter output to random-length end-fed wire in Fig. 20-18, permitting random-length wires to be
antennas. matched to normallow-Z transmitter outputs. The
circuit used will depend upon the length of the
antenna wire and its impedance at the desired
actually a device for coupling a transmission line to operating frequency. Ordinarily, one of the four
the transmitter. Because of its importance in methods shown will provide a suitable impedance
amateur installations, the antenna coupler is match to an end-fed random wire, but the
considered separately in a later part of this chapter. configuration will have to be determined experi-
mentally. For operation between 3.5 and 30 MHz,
Coupling to a Receiver Cl can be a 200-pF type with suitable plate
A good match between an antenna and its spacing for the power level in use. C2 and C3
transmission line does not guarantee a low should be 500-pF units to allow for flexibility in
standing-wave ratio on the line when the antenna matching. Ll, L4, and L5 should be tapped or
system is used for receiving. The SWR is rotary inductors with sufficient L for the operating
determined wholly by what the line "sees" at the frequency. L3 can be a tapped Miniductor coil
receiver's antenna-input terminals. For minimum with ample turns for the band being used. An SWR
SWR the receiver input circuit must be matched to bridge should be used as a match indicator.

COUPLING THE TRANSMITTER TO THE LINE

The type of coupling system that will be Coupling systems that will deliver power into a
needed to transfer power adequately from the final flat line are readily designed. For all practical
rf amplifier to the transmission line depends alm ost purposes the line can be considered to be flat if the
entirely on the input impedance of the line. As SWR is no greater than about 1.5 to 1. That is, a
shown earlier in this chapter, the input impedance coupling system designed to work into a pure
is determined by the standing-wave ratio and the resistance equal to the line Z 0 will have enough
line length_ The simplest case is that where the line leeway to take care of the small variations in input
is terminated in its characteristic impedance so that impedance that will occur when the line length is
the SWR is 1 to 1 and the imput impedance is changed, if the SWR is higher than 1 to 1 but no
equal to the Z 0 of the line, regardless of line greater than 1.5 to 1.
length. Current practice in transmitter design is to

TO

T~~ ~'~" Fig. 20-19 - Simple circuits for coupling a

p~Wl Lp Cp l transmitter to a balanced line that presents a load
different than the transmitter output impedance.
(A) and (B) are respectively series- and parallel-
2Cs
(A) (8)
tuned circuits using variable inductive coupling
between coils, and (C) and (D) are similar but use
fixed inductive coupling and a variable series

T-pR~~S'L, rr"GH
capacitor, C1. A series-tuned circuit works well
with a low-impedance load; the parallel circuit is
better with high-impedance loads (several hundred

C,
ttl ohms or more).

(e) (D)
---------------------- -
Coupling Transmitter to Line 583

~
x

~LOW
TO I
LOW TRANS. S.W.R. X
Z LS Z

C1
Cs
(A) (9)

Fig. 20-20 - Coupling from a transmitter designed for 50- to 75-ohm output to a coaxial line with a 3-
or 4-to-' SWR is readily accomplished with these circuits. Essential difference between the circuits is (A)
adjustable inductive coupling and (8) fixed inductive coupling with variable series capacitor.
In either case the circuit can be adjusted to give a '-to-' SWR on the meter in the line to the
transmitter. The coil ends marked "x" should be adjacent, for minimum capacitive coupling.

provide an output circuit that will work into such a unbalanced version of the series-tuned circuit, as
line, usually a coaxial line of 50 to 75 ohms shown in Fig. 20-20. The rule given above for
characteristic impedance. The design of such coupling ease and Ls-to.cs ratio applies to these
ou tpu t circuits is discussed in the chapter on circuits as well.
high-frequency transmitters. If the input impe- The most satisfactory way to set up initially
dance of the transmission line that is to be any of the circuits of Fig. 20-19 or 20-20 is to
connected to the transmitter differs appreciably connect a coaxial SWR bridge in the line to the
from the value of impedance into which the transmitter, as shown in Fig. 20-20. The
transmitter output circuit is designed to operate, "Monimatch" type of bridge, which can handle the
an impedance-matching network must be inserted full transmitter power and may be left in the line
between the transmitter and the line input for continuous monitoring, is excellent for this
terminals. purpose. However, a simple resistance bridge such
as is described in the chapter on measurements is
IMPEDANCE-MATCHING CIRCUITS perfectly adequate, requiring only that the
FOR TRANSMISSION LINES transmitter output be reduced to a very low value
so that the bridge will not be overloaded. To adjust
As shown earlier in this chapter, the input the circuit, make a trial setting of the coupling
impedance of a line that is operating with a high (coil spacing in Figs. 20-19A and Band 20-20A, Cl
standing-wave ratio can vary over quite wide limits. setting in others) and adjust Cs or Cp for minimum
The simplest type of circuit that will match such a SWR as indicated by the bridge. If the SWR is not
range of impedances to 50 to 75 ohms is a simple close to practically 1 to 1, readjust the coupling
series- or parallel-tuned circuit, approximately and return Cs or C p , continuing this procedure
resonant at the operating frequency. If the load until the SWR is practically 1 to 1. The settings
presented by the line at the operating frequency is may then be logged for future reference.
-low (below a few hundred ohms), a series-tuned In the series-tuned circuits of Figs. 20-20A and
circuit should be used. When the load is higher 20-2OC, the two capacitors should be set at similar
than this, the parallel-tuned circuit is easier to use. settings. The "2C s" indicates that a balanced
Typical simple circuits for coupling between series-tuned coupler requires twice the capacitance
the transmitter with 50- to 75-ohm coaxial-line in each of two capacitors as does an unbalanced
output and a balanced transmission line are shown series-tuned circuit, all other things being equal.
in Fig. 20-19. The inductor L1 should have a It is possible to use circuits of this type without
reactance of about 60 ohms when adjustable initially setting them up with an SWR bridge. In
inductive coupling is used (Figs. 20-19A and such a case it is a matter of cut-and-try until
20-19B). When a variable series capacitor is used, adequate power transfer between the amplifier and
Ll should have a reactance of about 120 ohms. main transmission line is secured. However, this
The variable capacitor, Cl, should have a reactance method frequently results in a high SWR in the
at maximum capacitance of about 100 ohms. link, with consequent power loss, "hot spots" in
On the secondary side, Ls and Cs should be the coaxial cable, and tuning that is critical with
capable of being tuned to resonance at about 80 frequency. The bridge method is simple and gives
percent of the operating frequency. In the the optimum operating conditions quickly and
series-tuned circuits, for a given low-impedance with certainty.
load looser coupling can be used between Ll and
Ls as the Ls-to.cs ratio is increased. In the A TRANSMATCH FOR BALANCED
parallel-tuned circuits, for a given high-impedance
load looser coupling can be used between Ll and
OR UNBALANCED LINES
Lp as the Cp-to-L p ratio is increased. The constants Nearly all commercially made transmitters are
are not critical; the rules of thumb are mentioned designed to work into a 50- to 70-0hm load, and
to assist in correcting a marginal condition where they are not usually equipped to handle loads that
sufficient transmitter loading cannot be .obtained. depart far from these values. However, many
Coupling to coaxial lines that have a high SWR, antenna systems (the antenna plus its feed line)
and consequently may present a transmitter with a have complex impedances that make it difficult, if
load it cannot couple to, is done with an not impossible, to load and tune a transmitter
 584 TRANSMISSION LINES
properly. What is required is a coupling method
to convert the reactive/resistive load to a
non-reactive 50-ohm load. This task can be
accomplished with a Transmatch, a device that
consists of one or more LC circuits. It can be
adjusted to tune ou t any load reactance plus, when
.:~~~~~~?;;----:- '. necessary, transforming the load impedance to 50
',~--~--:...;;".-
or 70 ohms.
As has been discussed earlier in this chapter,
'--
losses in transmission lines depend on several
factors: the size of the conductors, the spacing
tj~;;{~~, between conductors, the dielectric material used in
the construction of the feed line, and the
\~- !;" frequency at which the line is used. Coaxial lines
can be classed as lossy lines when compared to a
low-loss line such as open-wire feeders, at least
below 100 MHz. Because losses increase as the
SWR increases, the type of line used to feed an
antenna should be chosen carefully. If the
transmission line has very low-loss characteristics,
high standing wave ratios can be tolerated with no
Fig. 20-21 - The universal Transmatch shown here practical loss of power in the line.
wi II couple a transmitter to al most any antenna A wire antenna, fed at the center with
system. If the amateur already has a matching open-wire line, is the most efficient multiband
indicator, the Monimatch section of the circuit can antenna devised to date. For all practical purposes,
be eliminated_ The counter dial and knobs are
James Millen & Co_ components. the feed line is lossless, so extremely high SWRs
can be tolerated. This should not be construed to
mean that coaxial feed lines cannot be used
because of a high SWR, but only the very
expensive types are really suitable in this
application.

JZ
.------t-,f---t-f,..,-< COAX TO
ANTENNA

TOCZTIjJZ

B J3 RANDOM WIRE
-ANTENNA

Fig_ 20-22 - Circuit diagram of the Transmatch.

The .001-pF capacitors used are disk ceramic. L1, L2 - See Fig. 20-25.
C1 - Dual~ection or air variable, 200 pF per L3 - Roller inductor, 28 pH (E. F. Johnson
section (E. F. Johnson 154-507 or Millen 229-203l.
16250l. Ml - 50 or 100 pA.
C2 - Air variable 350 pF, (E. F. Johnson 154-10 Rl, R2 - 68-ohm, 1/2-watt carbon or composi-
or Millen 16520A). tion.
CR1, CR2 - 1 N34A germanium diode. R3 - 25,OOO-ohm control,linear taper.
Jl, J2 - Coax chassis connector, type SO-239. S1 - Spst toggle.
J3, J4, J5 - Isolantite feedthrough insulators. T1 - Balun transformer, see text and Fig. 20-23.
 Transmatch 585

J4

J5

Fig. 20-23 - Details of the balun bifilar windings.

The drawing shows the connections required. In
the actual balun, the turns should be closed spaced
on the inside of the core and spread evenly on the
outside.

The Transmatch shown in Fig. 20-22 is

designed to handle practically any mismatch that
an amateur is likely to encounter. The unit can be
used with either open-wire feeders, balanced lines,
coaxial lines, or even an end-fed single wire.
Frequency range of the unit is from 3 to 30 MHz,
accomplished without the use of bandswitching.
Basically, the circuit is designed for use with Fig. 20-24 - Interior view of the Transmatch. The
etched-circuit Monimatch is mounted 1/2 inch
unbalanced lines, such as "coax." For balanced above the chassis. Both C1 and C2 must be
lines, a 1:4 (unbalanced-to-balanced) balun is mounted on insulated stand-offs and insulated
·connected to the output of the Transmatch. shaft couplers used between the capacitors and the
The chassis used for the Transmatch is made of panel knobs. Likewise, T1 should be installed on
a 16 X 2S-inch sheet of aluminum. When bent to an insulated mounting. An isolantite cone is used
form a U, the completed chassis measures in the unit shown (the balun could be mounted on
16 X 13 X 6 inches. When mounting the variable a piece of Plexiglas). Feedthrough isolantite
capacitors, the roller inductor and the balun, allow insulators, mounted through the rear deck, are
used for the antenna connectors.
at least l/2-inch clearance to the chassis and
adjoining components. The capacitors should be
mounted on insulated standoff insulators. The will be found that with many antenna systems,
balun can be mounted on a cone insulator or piece several different matching combinations can be
of Plexiglas. obtained. Always use the matching setting that
The balun requires three ferrite cores stacked uses the most capacitance from C1 and C2, as
for 2-kW or two cores for 1-kW power levels. maximum C provides the' best harmonic attenua-
Amidon type T-200-2 cores are used in making the tion.
balun. l Each core should be covered with two End-fed wires should be connected to 13. Use
layers of 3M No. 27 glass-cloth insulating tape. the same adjustment procedures for setting up the
Next, the cores are stacked and covered with Transmatch as outlined above. For balanced
another layer of the tape. The winding consists of feeders, the feed line should be connected to 14
IS bifilar turns of No. 14, Teflon-covered wire. and 1S, and a jumper must be connected between
Approximately 20 feet of wire (two 10-foot 13 and 14 (see Fig. 20-22 at C).
lengths) are required. A slight modification will permit this Trans-
A template for the etched-circuit Monimatch is match to be used on the 160-meter band. Fixed
shown in Fig. 20-2S. Details for making etched capacitors, 100 pF each (Centralab type
circuits are given in the Construction Practices 8S0S-100N), can be installed across each of the
chapter. If the builder desires, a power-type bridge stator sections of Cl, providing sufficient C to tune
can be substituted. Such a unit is described in the to 1.8 MHz. But, the fixed capacitors must be
Measurements chapter. In addition to providing removed when using the Transmatch on the other
standing-wave indications for Transmatch adjust- hfbands.
ment purposes, the power bridge will accurately
measure transmitter output power.
For coax-to-coax feeder matching, the antenna
feed line should be connected to 12 of Fig. 20-22.
C1 and C2 should be set at maximum capacitance
and power applied to the transmitter. The SWR
indicator should be switched to read reflected
power. Then, adjust L3 until there is a drop in the
reflected reading. C1 and C2 should then. be reset,
along with L3, until a perfect match is obtained. It Fig. 20-25 - Template for the etched-circuit
1 Amidon Associates, 12033 Otsego Street, North Monimatch, foil side shown, etched portion
Hollywood, CA 91601. shaded.
 TRANSMISSION LINES
only three controls in order to change bands (or
antennas) quickly. There is no need to crank a
roller-inductor handle. If one antenna is used for
all-band operation, taps can be made for each band
and labeled appropriately on the front panel.

Construction
A dual-differential capacitor (available from
James Millen Company) is used to adjust the input
section of the coupler. Each section is approxi-
mately 150 pF maximum. The cost of this capac-
itor is rather high and the builder might prefer to
use a conventional differential type. An alternative
method would be to connect two capacitors
mechanically in series to provide differential
action. While this latter scheme is less expensive
than purchasing a dual-differential capacitor, the
ROLLERLESS ULTIMATE tuning will become a bit more critical. Never-
theless, there should be no problem obtaining
adequate performance.
The output capacitor must be insulated from
The previously described Transmatch makes use chassis ground because it is connected in series
of a roller inductor, an item which is sometimes with the output terminals. The capacitor shown in
difficult to obtain. The following version elimi- the photograph was mounted on two ceramic pillar
nates some of the mechanics involved with a rotary insulators and connected to a front-panel-mounted
inductor. By using a high-voltage-insulation "multi- shaft-and-bushing assembly. Rather high rf voltages
position switch and a fixed-value inductor (Mini- can occur in a Transmatch when power levels in
ductor stock), a versatile matching network can be excess of a few hundred watts are employed. The
produced. An SWR indicator is omitted in the unit described here is adequate for power levels of
interest of simplicity. However, one is necessary two kilowatts input to the amplifier. Only top-
for the adjustment of the Transmatch as described grade components should be used for insulating
later. Information concerning the design of an material. The shaft through the front panel must
SWR indicator can be found elsewhere in this be grounded to prevent rf from appearing on the
chapter. If the taps are selected correctly, or if a knob assembly.
sufficiently large number of taps are made, per- The balun-coil assembly is used for coupling to
formance on a par with the roller coil is possible. balanced feed-line antenna systems. It is shown
The model shown in the photographs has a switch mounted at the rear of the output capacitor, C2.
which is used to select any of twelve taps on the Four terminals are provided on the back panel.
inductor. In actual use, only three or four taps are Two of them are for a balanced feed line (open
needed to match most antennas from 80 through wire or Twin-Lead), one connector is a chassis style
15 meters. Accordingly, the builder could make of coax receptacle, and one ceramic feed-through
use of any ceramic high-grade switch having as few insulator is used for random-length single-wire
as five positions. The taps are placed on the coil antennas. The ceramic insulators are available from
every other turn beginning at the top (hot James Millen on a factory-direct basis. A jumper
end). wire must be placed from the single-wire terminal
One distinct advantage of using a switched coil to one of the balun connections when a twin-feed
is the requirement for the operator to manipulate system is used. If a long wire or coaxial-fed
antenna is employed, the jumper must be removed
to prevent unusually high voltages from developing
in the unterminated balun coil.

Operation
Adjustment of the Transmatch is simple. Apply
a small amount of rf energy to the input connector

Inside view of the Rollerless Ultimate. The balun

transformer is positioned behind C2 shown at the
upper right. The front panel is painted bright red
and has black knobs with silver insets. The in-
ductor is supported by its own leads and the tap
connections.
 587

Tl

Pl-~--
BALANCED SiNGLE
J2
COAXIAL
FEED liNE WIRE FEED liNE
*ADD JUMPER WHEN USING
BALUN AND OPEN-WIRE
liNE
L1 - 24 turns, 2-inch dia, 6 tpi, No. 12 wire
Fi'g. 1 - Circuit diagram for the Rollerless Ulti- (Barker and Williamson 3025 Miniductorl. If
mate. 160-meter operation is not antici pated, a total
C1 - Dual differential, 150-pF per section. See of 12 turns should be suitable.
text for details. S1 - High-voltage-insulated rotary switch. (Millen
C2 - Air variable, 350-pF maximum (E. F. type 51001 suitable.)
Johnson 154-10), T1 - See Fig. 20-23 earlier in this chapter.

(no more power than necessary to get a reading on either of which will provide proper reflected power
the SWR indicator in its most sensitive position) readings. When this situation occurs, the position
and adjust both the INPUT 'and OUTPUT controls which allows the output capacitor to be more fully
while observing the indicator set for reflected meshed is the one to use. In tests, the author could
power. Various settings of the capaCitors should be match any of the station antennas on any band,
used with each switch position until the proper with the exception of ten meters. The lead
settings are established as indicated by minimum inductance and stray capacitance of the circuit
reflected power. makes it difficult to load some "odd" antennas on
In some cases it may be found that two this band. Ordinary antennas, such as a ten-meter
positions' of the inductor switch may be used, Yagi or dipole can be loaded properly, however.

.1
 Chapter 21

HF ANTENNAS

An antenna system can be considered to in- tions other than mentioned above, contains com-
clude the antenna proper (the portion that radiates ponents of both horizontal and vertical polariza-
the rf energy), the feed line, and any coupling tion.
devices used for transferring power from the The vertical angle of maximum radiation of an
transmitter to the line and from the line to the antenna is determined by the free-space pattern of
antenna. Some simple systems may omit the the antenna, its height above ground, and the
transmission line or one or both of the coupling nature of the ground. The angle is measured in a
devices. This chapter will describe the antenna vertical plane with respect to a tangent to the earth
proper, and in many cases will show popular types at that point, and it will usually vary with the
of lines, as well as line-to-antenna couplings where horizontal angle, except in the case of a simple
they are required. However, it should be kept in vertical antenna. The horizontal angle of maximum
mind that any antenna proper can be used with radiation of an antenna is determined by the
any type of feedline if a suitable impedance free-space pattern of the antenna.
matching is used between the antenna and the line. The impedance of the antenna at any point is
the ratio of the voltage to the current at that point.
It is important in connection with feeding power
ANTENNA SELECTION AND to the antenna, since it constitutes the load to the
CONSIDERATIONS line offered by the antenna. It can be either
resistive or complex, depending upon whether or
In choosing an antenna one must base his not the antenna is resonant.
selection upon available space, the number of The field strength produced by an antenna is
bands to be operated, and the type of propagation proportional to the current flowing in it. When
he will most often make use of. Frequently, there are standing waves on an antenna, the parts
because of limitations in available antenna space, of the wire carrying the higher current have the
the hf operator must settle for relatively simple greater radiating effect. All resonant antennas have
antenna systems. It is wise to choose an antenna standing waves - only terminated types, like the
that will offer the best performance for its size. terminated rhombic and terminated "V" have
The "compromise antenna" - those offering multi- substantially uniform current along their length.
band possibilities, and tho:;e using physically short- The ratio of power required to produce a given
ened elements - cannot perform as efficiently as field strength witl) a "comparison" antenna to the
full-size antennas c.ut for a single band of opera- power required to produce the same field strength
tion. However, many of the so-called compromise with a specified type of antenna is called the power
antennas are suitable for DX work even though gain of the latter antenna. The field is measured in
they have less gain than other types. Ideally, one the optimum direction of the antenna under test.
should attempt to have separate antennas - full The comparison antenna is generally a half-wave
size - for the bands to be operated. Also, erecting antenna at the same height and having the same
the antennas as high as possible, and away from polarization as the antenna under consideration.
trees and man-made objects, will greatly enhance Gain usually is expressed in decibels.
their operational effectiveness. In unidirectional beams (antennas with most of
In general, antenna construction and location the radiation in only one direction) thefront-to-
become more critical and important on the higher back ratio is the ratio of power radiated in the
frequencies. On the lower frequencies (1.8, 3.5, maximum direction to power radiated in the
and 7 MHz) the vertical angle of radiation and the opposite direction. It is also a measure of the
plane of polarization may be of relatively little reduction in received signal when the beam direc-
importance; at 28 MHz they may be all-important. tion is changed from that for maximum response
to the opposite direction. Front-to-back ratio is
Defmitions usually expressed in decibels.
The polarization of a straight-wire antenna is The bandwidth of an antenna refers to the
determined by its position with respect to the frequency range over which a property falls within
earth. Thus a vertical antenna radiates vertically acceptable limits. The gain bandwidth, the front-
polarized waves, while a horizontal antenna radi- to-back-ratio bandwidth and the standing-wave-
ates horizontally polarized waves in a direction ratio bandwidth are of prime interest in amateur
broadside to the wire and vertically polarized work. The gain bandwidth is of interest because,
waves at high vertical angles off the ends of the generally, the higher the antenna gain is the
wire. The wave from an antenna in a slanting narrower the gain bandwidth will be. The SWR
position, or from the horizontal antenna in direc- bandwidth is of interest because it is an indication

588
 Antenna Selection and Considerations 589
of the transmission-line efficiency over the useful pole-type antennas it is not important to choose a
frequency range of the antenna. favored broadside direction unless the antenna is at
The radiation pattern of any antenna that is least one-half wavelength above ground.
many wavelengths distant from the ground and all
other objects is called the free-space pattern of the
antenna. The free-space pattern of an antenna is Imperfect Ground
almost impossible to obtain in practice, except in Fig. 21-1 is based on ground having perfect
the vhf and uhf ranges. Below 30 MHz, the height conductivity, whereas the actual earth is not a
of the antenna above ground is a major factor in perfect conductor. The principal effect of actual
determining the radiation pattern of the antenna. ground is to make the curves inaccurate at the
When any antenna is near the ground the lowest angles; appreciable high-frequency radiation
free-space pattern is modified by reflection of at angles smaller than a few degrees is practically
radiated waves from the ground, so that the actual impossible to obtain over horizontal ground.
pattern is the resultant of the free-space pattern Above 15 degrees, however, the curves are accurate
and ground reflections. This resultant is dependent enough for all practical purposes, and may be
upon the height of the antenna, its position or taken as indicative of the result to be expected at
orientation with respect to the surface of the angles between 5 and 15 degrees.
ground, and the electrical characteristics of the The effective ground plane - that is, the plane
ground. The effect of a perfectly reflecting ground from which ground reflections can be considered
is such that the original free-space field strength to take place - seldom is the actual surface of the
may be mUltiplied by a factor which has a ground but is a few feet below it, depending upon
maximum value of 2, for complete reinforcement, the characteristics of the soil.
and having all intermediate values to zero, for
complete cancellation. These reflections only af- Impedance
fect the radiation pattern in the vertical plane -
that is, in directions upward from the earth's Waves that are reflected directly upward from
surface - and not in the horizontal plane, or the the ground induce a current in the antenna in
usual geographical directions. passing, and, depending on the antenna height, the
Fig. 21-1 shows how the multiplying factor phase relationship of this induced current to the
varies with the vertical angle for several representa- original current may be such as either to increase
tive heights for horizontal antennas. As the height or decrease the total current in the antenna. For
is increased the angle at which complete reinforce- the same power input to the antenna, an increase
ment takes place is lowered, until for a height in current is equivalent to a decrease in impedance,
equal to one wavelength it occurs at a vertical angle and vice versa. Hence, the impedance of the
of 15 degrees. At still greater heights, not shown antenna varies with height. The theoretical curve of
on the chart, the first maximum will occur at still variation of radiation resistance for a very thin
smaller angles. half-wave antenna above perfectly reflecting
ground is shown in Fig. 21-2. The impedance
approaches the free-space value as the height
Radiation Angle becomes large, but at low heights may differ
considerably from it.
The vertical angle of maximum radiation is of
primary importance, especially at the higher fre-
quencies. It is advantageous, therefore, to erect the 2.0
antenna at a height that will take advantage of Vt=~ I~~/\ IX""\, I' ~ .-< ~~I%.\
ground reflection in such a way as to reinforce the
space radiation at the most desirable angle. Since
1.8

1.6 dJ 'r f4
;"
\17
j
.
low angles usually are most effective, this generally
means that the antenna should be high - at least
Q:
~1.4
/ / I~ \Vi \ I
one-half wavelength at 14 MHz, and preferably 1..1
~L2
;1 k=!V i 1\1 It.-
,.."
N=).
three-quarters or one wavelength, and at least one
wavelength, and preferably higher, at 28 MHz. The ~I.O
il Ij \i !\ \
SO. 1:/ / i t
\
physical height required for a given height in \
wavelengths decreases as the frequency is in-
creased, so that good heights are not impracticable;
~ 8 '!/
i:::O.6
il \ j\ 1 \ I
H=J \ ; \ / "\ \
a half wavelength at 14 MHz is only 35 feet,
approximately, while the same height represents a
full wavelength at 28 MHz. At 7 MHz and lower
~
~O. ..
o. 2
ifJ
V' \
.\; H=~-- ~\
frequencies the higher radiation angles are effec-
tive, so that again a useful antenna height is not
difficult to attain. Heights between 35 and 70
o V
10" 20" 30" 40" SO" 60" 70
VERTICAL ANGLE
. ~
ad' 90"
feet are suitable for all bands, the higher figures
being preferable. It is well to remember that most
simple horizontally polarized antennas do not ex- Fig. 21-1 - Effect of ground on radiation of
hibit the directivity they are capable of unless they horizontal antennas at vertical angles for four
are one half wavelength above ground, or greater, antenna heights. This chart is based on perfectly
at their operating frequency. Therefore, with di· conducting ground.
 590 HF ANTENNAS
10 0 and 30 MHz, when considering sky-wave communi-
0
11\ cations. However, the question of whether the
\ ~
antenna should be installed in a horizontal or
vertical position deserves consideration for other
Ir- reasons. A vertical half-wave or quarter-wave anten-
0
IV na will radiate equally well in all horizontal
0 1\ /
v directions, so that it is substantially nondirectional,
0 in the usual sense of the word. If installed
horizontally, however, the antenna will tend to
show directional effects, and will radiate best in
the direction at right angles, or broadside, to the
o J wire. The radiation in such a case will be least in
fT the direction toward which the wire points.
The vertical angle of radiation also will be
v. '12 % 1.0 IV. IV. 1jI. 2.0 affected by the position of the antenna. If it were
HEIGHT ABOVE GROUND
not for ground losses at high frequencies; the
Fig. 21-2 - Theoretical curve of variation of vertical antenna would be preferred because it
radiation resistance for a very thin half-wave would concentrate the radiation horizontally, and
horizontal antenna as a function of height in this low-angle radiation is preferable for practically
wavelength above perfectly reflecting ground. all work. Another advantage to the use of a
vertically polarized antenna, especially at 1.8, 3.5,
and 7 MHz, is that local communications during
Choice of Polarization
night-time hours are improved. The vertical anten-
Polarization of the transmitting antenna is na is not as subject to signal fading as is the
generally unimportant on frequencies between 3.5 horizontal antenna.

THE HALF-WAVE ANTENNA

A fundamental form of antenna is a single wire Example: Find the length of a half wavelength antenna
whose length is approximately equal to half the at 28.7 MHz, if the antenna is made of 1/2-inch diameter
tubing. At 28.7,MHz, a half wavelength in space is
transmitting wavelength. It is the unit from which
many more-complex forms of antennas are con- in = 17.14 feet
structed. It is known as a dipole antenna.
from Equation 21-A. Ratio of half wavelength to conduc-
The length of a half-wave in space is: tor diameter (changing wavelength to inches) is
(17.14 X 12) _ 411
Length (feet) =Fre:9(~HZ) 21-A 0.5
From Fig. 21-3, K = 0.97 for this ratio. The length of the
The actual length of a half-wave antenna will not antenna, from Equation 21-C, is
be exactly equal to the half-wave in space, but (4922~J97) - 16.63 feet
depends upon the thickness of the conductor in
relation to the wavelength as shown in Fig. 21-3, or 16 feet 7 1/2 inches. The answer is obtained directly in
inches by substitution of Equation 21-0:
where K is a factor that must be multiplied by the
half wavelength in free space to obtain the reso- f
(5905 gO/7l - 199.6 inches.
nant antenna length. An additional shortening
effect occurs with wire antennas supported by
insulators at the ends because of the capacitance
added to the system by the insulators (end effect).
The following formula is sufficiently accurate for
wire antennas for frequencies up to 30 MHz: " ...
Length of half wave antenna (feet) = '"
",.
i.--~. . I::: ~
iO~
K

492 X 0.95 468 B'"

it
.'" ...0:
Freq. (MHz) Freq. MHz) 21-8 /1.-' , "'RESISTANCE

~o... '" ~
55>:
"
1/
" 1/
Example: A half·wave antenna for 7150 kHz (7.15
MHz) is i.~~ = 65.45 feet. or 65 feet 5 inches.
~ , ~

'~o.92 , !:!
....:::
,
Above 30 MHz the following formulas should
be used, particularly for antennas constructed from
rod or tubing. K is taken from Fig. 21-3. to 10 50 IDO 200 500
RAnD OF HALF WAVELENGTH TO CJ)Nf)UCTOR DIAMETER
100D 2.000 sooo
.
JO,OOO

Length of half wave antenna (feet) = Fig. 21-3 - Effect of antenna diameter on length
492 XK for half-wave resonance, shown as a multiplying
Freq. (MHz) 21..c factor, K, to be applied to the free-space half
wavelength (Equation 21 -AI. The effect of
or length (inches) = 5905 X K 21-D conductor diameter on the center impedance also
Freq. (MHz) is shown.
---------------.. ~--

The Half-Wave Antenna 591

," 130 1215 120 ft. The value under practical conditions is commonly
'"80. 1 I
I
3eOO
I
'i: I
I I I
I
3700
I, ';(00 I , I
3900
I , I
1
4000 MHz
taken to be in the neighborhood of 60 to 70 ohms,
although it varies with height in the manner of Fig.
21-2. It increases toward the ends. The actual value
64Ft at the ends will depend on a number of factors,
+40:[
robe,
I ,I i I
7100
I , &r
7200
,I I
I
7300
1
MHz
such as the height, the physical construction, the
insulators at the ends, and the position with
respect to ground.

Conductor Size
The. impedance of the antenna also depends
upon the diameter of the conductor in relation to
the wavelength, as indicated in Fig. 21-3. If the
diameter of the conductor is increased the capaci-
tance per unit length increases and the inductance
16 Ft. per unit length decreases. Since the radiation
·,0' !c,;--.,.-!I.-y------.,.Lf-rl_-\I_-,-_.L(.-----.,._'L.'r,- resistance is affected relatively little, the decreased
:zal:,oo 28,LlO 29,000 \ 29JOO ~ MHz
Lie ratio causes the Q of the antenna to decrease,
so that the resonance curve becomes less sharp.
Fig. 214 - The above scales, based on Eq. 21-8, Hence, the antenna is capable of working over a
can be used to determine the length of a half-wave wide frequency range. This effect is greater as the
antenna of wire. diameter is increased, and is a property of some
importance at the very high frequencies where the
wavelength is small.
Current and Voltage Distribution
When power is fed to an antenna, the current Fig. 21-6 Illustrating the
and voltage vary along its length. The current is importance of vertical angle of
maximum Ooop) at the center and nearly zero radiation in determining antenna
(node) at the ends, while the opposite is true of the directional effects. Off the end,
the radiation is greater at higher
rf voltage. The current does not actually reach zero angles. Ground reflection is ne-
at the current nodes, because of the end effect; glected in this drawing of the
similarly, the voltage is not zero at its node because free-space pattern" of a horizontal
of the resistance of the antenna, which consists of antenna.
both the rf resistance of the wire (ohmic resis-
tance) and the radiation resistance. The radiation
resistance is an equivalent resistance, a convenient
conception to indicate the radiation properties of
an antenna. The radiation resistance is the equiva-
lent resistance that would dissipate the power the
antenna radiates, with a current flowing in it equal
to the antenna current at a current loop (maxi-
mum). The ohmic resistance of a half-wavelength
antenna is ordinarily small enough, compared with
the radiation resistance, to be neglected for all
practical purposes.

Impedance
The radiation resistance of an infinitely-thin
half-wave antenna in free-space is about 73 ohms.

Fig. 21-7 - Horizontal pattern of a horizontal

MAX
RADIATION half-wave antenna at three vertical radiation angles.
ANTENNA The solid line is relative radiation at 15 degrees.
Dotted lines show deviation from the 15-degree
Fig. 21-5 - The free-5pace radiation pattern of a pattern for angles of 9 and 30 degrees. The
half-wave antenna. The antenna is shown in the patterns are useful for shape only, since the
vertical position, and the actual "doughnut" amplitude will depend upon the height of the
pattern is cut in half to show how the line from the antenna above ground and the vertical angle
center of the antenna to the surface of the pattern considered. The patterns for all three angles have
varies. In practice this pattern is modified by the been proportioned to the same scale, but this does
height above ground and if the antenna is vertical not mean that the maximum amplitudes necessar-
or horizontal. Fig. 21-1 shows some of the effects ily will be the same. The arrow indicates the
of height on the vertical angele of radiation. direction of the horizontal antenna wire.
 592 HF ANTENNAS
Radiation Characteristics
The radiation from a dipole antenna is not
uniform in all directions but varies with the angle
with respect to the axis of the wire. It is most
intense in directions perpendicular to the wire and
zero along the direction of the wire, with i~te~­
mediate values at intermediate angles. This IS 7S-n line
shown by the sketch of Fig. 21-5, which represe?ts
the radiation pattern in free space. The relative Fig. 21-8 - Construction of a dipole fed wit.h
intensity of radiation is proportional to the length 75-ohm line. The length of the antenna IS
of a line drawn from the center of the figure to the calculated from Equation 21-8 or Fig. 214.
perimeter. If the antenna is vertical, as shown, then
the field strength will be uniform in all horizontal At 14 MHz, 4-inch separation is satisfactory, and
directions; if the antenna is horizontal, the relative 8-inch spacing can be used at 3.5 MHz.
field strength will depend upon the direction of the The half-wavelength antenna can also be made
receiving point with respect to the direction o~ the from the proper length of 300-ohm line, opened on
antenna wire. The variation in radiation at vanous one side in the center and connected to the
vertical angles from a half-wavelength horizontal feedline. After the wires have been soldered to-
antenna is indicated in Figs. 21-6 and 21-7. gether, the joint can be strengthened by molding
some of the excess insulating material (polyethy-
lene) around the joint with a hot iron, or a suitable
FEEDING A DIPOLE ANTENNA lightweight clamp of two pieces of Plexiglas can be
Since the impedance at the center of a dipole is devised.
in the vicinity of 70 ohms, it offers a good match Similar in some respects to the two-wire folded
for 75-ohm transmission lines. Several types are dipole the three-wire folded dipole of Fig. 21-10
available on the market, with different power- offers' a good match for a 600-ohm line. It is
handling capabilities. They can be connec~ed.in the favored by amateurs who prefer to use an open-
center of the antenna, across a small stram msula- wire line instead of the 300-ohm inll.ulated line.
tor to provide a convenient connection point. The three wires of the antenna proper should all be
Coaxial line should be used with a 1: 1 balun of the same diameter.
transformer to assure symmetry. Direct feed (with- Another method for offering a match to a
out a balun) is also acceptable, but may cause a 600-ohm open-wire line with a half wavelength
slight skew in the radiation patte~n. The transmis- antenna is shown in Fig. 21-11. The system is
sion line should be run away at nght angles to the called a delta match. The line is "fanned" as it
antenna for at least one-quarter wavelength, if approaches the antenna, to have a gradually in-
possible, to avoid current unbalance in the line creasing impedance that equals the antenna impe-
caused by pickUp from the antenna. The antenna dance at the point of connection. The dimensions
length is calculated from Equation 21-B, for a half are fairly critical, but careful measurement before
wavelength antenna. When No. 12 or No. 1~ installing the antenna and matching section is
enameled wire is used for the antenna, as IS generally all that is necessary. The length of the
generally the case, the length of the wire is the antenna, L, is calculated from Equation 21-8 or
overall length measured from the loop thro~gh ~e Fig. 21-4. The length of section C is computed
insulator at each end. This is illustrated m Fig. from:
21-8.
The use of 75-ohm line results in a "flat" line C (feet) =Fre/t~HZ) 21-E
over most of any amateur band. However, by
making the half-wave antenna in a special manner, The feeder clearance, E, is found from
called the two-wire or folded dipole, a good match
is offered for a 300-ohm line. Such an antenna is E (feet) = Freq~1~HZ) 21-F
shown in Fig. 21-9. The open-wire line shown in
Fig. 21-9 is made of No. 12 or No. 14 enam~led Example: For a frequency of 7.1 MHz, the length
wire, separated by lightweight spacers of PleXiglas L = j~~ = 65.91 reet, or 65 reet 11 inches.
or other material (it doesn't have to be a low-loss
insulating material), and the spacing can be on the C = ;~f = 16.62 reet, or 16 reet 7 inches.
order of from 4 to 8 inches, depending upon what
is convenient, and what the operating frequency is. E = ~\8 = 20.84 rcct, or 20 reet 10 inche,.

Io>-----Half Wavelength fwm for:muki..------I

1-0

.~-::i~~~~~~~~ilj=~=~~!1il~~~~~
I'
Solder 30o-ntwiJt-tqe
I. uldi.c
pt:1tic'saJj!c;,-
Fig. 21-9 - The construction of an
~he
open-wire or twin-line folded dipole fed
with 300-ohm line. The length of
(~~r:;--t:.~) block antenna .is calculated from Equation
. luu:
300-n twiJt ':... 21-8 or Fig. 214.
(A'o/leHgth)
The "Inverted V" Antenna 593

Mast
Wood or or: Tr:ee
meIIl .pocor

600-ohm
open~re line

Fig. 21-10 - The construction of a 3-wire folded

dipole is similar to that of the 2-wire folded dipole.
The end spacers may have to be slightly stronger
than the others because of the greater compression
force on them. The length of the antenna is
obtained from Equation 21-8 or Fig. 214. A
suitable line can be made from No. 14 wire spaced
5 inches, or from No. 12 wire spaced 6 inches. Fig. 21-13 - Method of supporting a half-wave
dipole from a single upright such as a tree or
wooden mast. Maximum directivity will be in the
direction of the arrow, and the signal will be
vertically polarized at a fairly low radiation angle.
8y having anchor stakes at different compass
points, the directivity can be changed to favor
different DX regions.

Since the equations hold only for 600-ohm line,

it is important that the line be close to this value.
This requires 5-inch spaced No. 14 wire, 6-inch
spaced No. 12 wire, or 3 3/4-inch spaced No. 16
wire.
If a half-wavelength antenna is fed at the center
with other than 75-ohm line, or if a two-wire
Fig. 21-11 - Delta-matched antenna systems. The
dimensions, C, D, and E are found by formulas dipole is fed with other than 300-ohm line,
given in the text. It is important that the matching standing waves will appear on the line and coupling
section, E, come straight away from the antenna. to the transmitter may become awkward for some
line lengths, as described in Chapter 20. However,
in many cases it is not convenient to feed the
half-wave antenna with the correct line (as is the
case where multiband operation of the same
Solder antenna is desired), and sometimes it is not
convenient to feed the antenna at the center.
Of){?n-wire Where multiband operation is desired (to be
'feeder
(A) discussed later) or when the antenna must be fed at
one end by a transmission line, an open-wire line of
from 450 to 600 ohms impedance is generally
used. The impedance at the end of a half-wave-
L - - Half Wq.ve!ength ----.1
I- from for:muJa, I length antenna is in the vicinity of several thousand
ohms, and hence a standing-wave ratio of 4 or 5 is
Space older not unusual when the line is connected to the end
of the antenna. It is advisable, therefore, to keep
" (8) OMn-w;re
·teede!:
the losses in the line as low as possible. This requires
the use of ceramic or Micalex feeder spacers, if any
appreciable power is used. For low-power installa-
tions in dry climates, dry wood spacers boiled in
Fig. 21-12 - The half-wave antennas can be fed at paraffin are satisfactory. Mechanical details of half
the center or at one end with open-wire feeders.
The length of the antennas can be computed from wavelength antennas fed with open-wire lines are
Equation 21-8 or Fig. 214. given in Fig. 21-12.

THE "INVERTED V" ANTENNA

A popular nondirectional antenna is the so- the ends (not broadside) of the antenna. This is
called "inverted V" or "drooping doublet." Its because the legs of the "V" are long in terms of
principal advantages are that it requires but one wavelength at 14, 21 and 28 MHz. The antenna
supporting structure, and that it exhibits more or offers a good compromise between vertical and
less omnidirectional radiation characteristics when horizontal polarization, thus making it effective for
cut for a single band. The multiband version of Fig. local as well as DX communications. Its low-angle
21-14 is somewhat directional above 7 MHz, off radiation compares favorably with that of a full-
594 HF ANTENNAS
Fig. 21-14 - Details for an Inverted-V antenna
MULTIBAND "INVERTED V" (sometimes called a "drooping doublet")' At A, a
wooden mast supports the antenna at its center.
Open-wire feeders permit the antenna to be used
for multiband operation. If this is done, a
Transmatch of the type shown at B should be used
to tune the system to resonance, and to match the
feeder to the transmitter and receiver.

point) should be as high above ground as possible,

preferably one-quarter wavelength or more at the
InsukUoc
~ operating frequency. The apex angle should be as
close to 90 degrees as possible, but in practice any
End angle between 90 and 120 degrees provides good
AncIt.oc
results. Less than a 90-degree angle causes excessive
cancellation of the signal, and should be avoided.
(A) 65'
open-wire feeder
Though some operators have reported satisfac-
tory results when supporting the "V" from a metal
(300·60012)
mast or tower, it is best to use a wooden mast to
To Transmatck keep the field of the antenna unobstructed. Good
results can be had by supporting the center of the
To feed Wt.e antenna from a limb on a tall tree, provided the
area below the limb is completely open.
Single-band, coax-fed inverted Vs will normally
require some pruning to make them resonant at the
desired frequency. The standard doublet formula is
recommended for a starting point, but because the
ends of the "V" are normally in close proximity to
ground this antenna will be slightly shorter than a
horizontal dipole. No formula can be given because
of the variations in the ground properties in
different areas. Also, the actual height above
ground in a particular installation, plus the proxim-
size one quarter wavelength vertical worked against ity of the ends of the antenna to nearby objects,
ground. When fed as shown in Fig. 21-14 it serves will have a marked effect upon resonance. The best
as an excellent multiband antenna. way to tune the antenna is to insert an SWR bridge
For single-band operation the "V" is cut to the in the coax feed line and prune an inch at a time
same length as a half-wavelength doublet, and is off each end of the "V" until the lowest SWR is
fed with 52-ohm coaxial line. Its center (feed obtained.

LONG-WI RE ANTENNAS
An antenna is a long wire only when it is long
in terms of wavelength. An antenna, simply be- Long-Wire Characteristics
cause it is a long piece of wire is not a long-wire
antenna. Space permitting, these antennas are An antenna will be resonant so long as an
effective for DX work, and when erected high integral number of standing waves of current and
above ground offer considerable power gain over a voltage can exist along its length; in other words,
dipole. The longer the antenna, the greater the so long as its length is some integral multiple of a
gain. Maximum directivity occurs off the ends of half wavelength.
the antenna, and not off the broad side of it. A
long-wire antenna, unless terminated at the far end Current and Voltage Distribution
in its characteristic impedance by a noninductive Fig. 21-15 shows the current and voltage
resistance, is bidirectional. A terminated long wire distribution along a wire operating at its funda-
is directional only off the terminated end. This mental frequency (where its length is equal to a
antenna radiates minor lobes at many wave angles half waveltmgth) and at its second, third, and
in the vertical and horizontal planes. The longer fourth harmonics. For example, if the fundamental
the wire, the greater and more complex the lobes frequency of the antenna is 7 MHz, the current and
become. It is not uncommon to fmd a long-wire voltage distribution will be as shown at A. The
antenna outperforming a beam antenna on DX same antenna excited at 14 MHz would have
contacts under certain propagation conditions. current and voltage distribution as shown at B. At
This is because it can respond to a variety of 21 MHz, the third harmonic of 7 MHz, the current
incoming wave angles (and can radiate a signal in a and voltage distribution would be as in C; and at
like manner), which is not the case with a 28 MHz, the fourth harmonic, as in D. The number
well-designed beam-type antenna. of the harmonic is the number of half waves
Multiband Antennas 595
Vo/tage (E) where N is the number of half-waves on the

c-~,===
antenna.
Example: An antenna 4 half-waves long at 14.2 MHz
A would be
4'n (4 - 0.05) = 492 X 3.95
14.2 14.2
FUNDAMENTAL (IlALF-WAVE)
= 136.7 feet, or 136 feet 8 inches
It is apparent that an antenna cut as a half wave
for a given frequency will be slightly off resonance
at exactly twice that frequency (the second
8 harmonc), because of the decreased influence of
the end effects when the antenna is more than
2ND IlAR .... ONIC(FULL-WAVE)
one-half wavelength long. The effect is not very
important, except for a possible unbalance in the
feeder system and consequent radiation from the
feed line. If the antenna is fed in the exact center,
c no unbalance will occur at any frequency, but
end-fed systems will show an unbalance on all but
3RO HARMONIC (%-WAVE) one frequency in each harmonic range.

Impedance and Power Gain

The radiation resistance as measured at a
current loop becomes higher as the antenna length
is increased. Also, a long-wire antenna radiates
4TH HARMONIC(Z-WAVE) more power in its most favorable direction than
does a half-wave antenna in its most favorable
direction. This power gain is secured at the expense
Fig. 21-15 - Standing-wave current and voltage of radiation in other directions. Fig. 21-16 shows
distribution along an antenna when it is operated how the radiation resistance and the power in the
at various harmonics of its fundamental resonant
frequency. lobe of maximum radiation vary with the antenna
length.

contained in the antenna at the particular operat- Directional Characteristics

ing frequency. As the wire is made longer in terms of the
The polarity of current or voltage' in each number of half wavelengths, the directional effects
standing wave is opposite to that in the adjacent change. Instead of the "doughnut" pattern of the
standing waves. This is shown in the figure by half-wave antenna, the directional characteristic
drawing the current and voltage curves successively splits up into "lobes" which make various angles
above and below the antenna (taken as a zero with the wire. In general, as the length of the wire
reference line), to indicate that the polarity re- is increased the direction in which maximum
verses when the current or voltage goes through radiation occurs tends to approach the line of the
zero. Currents flowing in the same direction are in antenna itself.
phase; in opposite directions, out of phase.
Methods of Feeding
Physical Lengths
In a long-wire antenna, the currents in adjacent
The length of a long-wire antenna is not an half-wave sections must be out of phase, as shown
exact multiple of that of a half-wave antenna in Fig. 21-15. The feeder system must not upset
because the end effects operate only on the end this phase relationship. This is satisfied by feeding
sections of the antenna; in other parts of the wire the antenna at either end or at any current loop. A
these effects are absent, and the wire length is two-wire feeder cannot be inserted at a current
approximately that of an equivalent portion of the node, however, because this invariably brings the
wave in space. The formula for the length of a currents in two adjacent half-wave sections in
long-wire antenna, therefore, is phase. A long-wire antenna is usually made a half
Length (feet) = 492 (N-O.OS) 21-G wavelength at the lowest frequency and fed at the
Freq. (MHz) end.

MUL TIBAND ANTENNAS

One of the most simple antenna systems for point. The center-fed antenna will not have the
multiband use is one which is a half wavelength same radiation pattern as an end-fed one of the
long at the lowest operating frequency, and which same length, except on frequencies where the
is fed either at the center, or at one end with length of the antenna is a half wavelength. The
open-wire tuned feeders, Fig. 21-12. The center-fed end-fed antenna acts like a long-wire antenna on all
system is superior to the end-fed type in that it will bands (for which it is longer than a half
have less feeder radiation, but the end-fed variety is wavelength), but the center-fed one acts like two
often more practical from an installation view- antennas of half that length fed in phase. For
596 HF ANTENNAS

TABLE 21-1 MUL TIBAND OPERATION WITH

COAXIAL LINE FEED
Multiband Tuned-Line-Ped Antennas
The proper use of coaxial line requires that the
Feeder Ty pe of
standing-wave ratio be held to a low value,
Antenna Length Band Coupling preferably below 3: 1. Since the impedance of an
Length (Ft.) (Ft.) Circuit ordinary antenna changes widely from band to
With end feed: band, it is not possible to feed a simple antenna
Series with coaxial line and use it on a number of bands
135 45 3.5-21
Parallel without tricks of some kind. One exception to this
28
is the use of 75-ohm coaxial line to feed a 7-MHz
67 45 7-21 Series half-wave antenna, as in Fig. 21-18; this antenna
28 Parallel can also be used on 21 MHz and the SWR in the
line will not run too high.
With center feed: However, the diagram shows a separate dipole
135 42 3.5-21 Parallel element for 21-MHz use. Though the 7-MHz
. 28 Series element will operate as a 1 1/2 wavelength doublet
on 21 MHz, and will present a low impedance feed
135 77 1/2 3.5-28 Parallel point at its center, some may wish to add a
67 421/2 3.5 Series separate dipole for 21-MHz operation. This
7-28 Parallel antenna is capable of radiating harmonics from the
transmitter, so it is important to make sure the
67 65 1/2 3.5,14,28 Parallel transmitter output is clean. A coax-to-coax type
7,21 Series antenna coupler can also be installed at the
Antenna lengths for end-fed antennas are ap- transmitter end to help reduce harmonic radiation
proximate and should be cut to formula length from the antenna.
at favorite operating frequency.
Where parallel tuning is specified, it will be A MUL TIBAND "TRAP" ANTENNA
necessary in some cases to tap in from the ends
of the coil for proper loading - see Chapter 20 Another method of obtaining multiband
for examples of antenna couplers. ' operation from a single antenna, with a single feed
line, is the use of parallel-tuned traps in each leg of
example, if a full-wavelength antenna is fed at one a two-wire doublet. If the traps are installed in the
end, it will have a radiation pattern somewhat like right points of the antenna they "divorce" the
a four-leaf clover. With either of these multiband remainder of the antenna from the center portion
antennas the SWR will never be 1, but these as the transmitter is changed to operate a higher
antennas will be efficient provided low-loss tuned
feeders are used.

- ---
Since multiband operation of an antenna does ,eo
not permit matching of the feed line, some :..
attention should be paid to the length of the feed 160 8
line if convenient transmitter-coupling arrange-
..... J
ments are to be obtained. Table 21-1 gives some A /V
?
suggested antenna and feeder length for multiband
operation. In general, the length of the feed line /' 7
can be other than that indicated, but the type of / 6
coupling circuit may change. / V
Since open-wire line is recommended lor this / /
antenna, TV-type (open-wire) 300- or 450-0hm 5
/ /
feeders are satisfactory. Home made open-wire line
can be made up from lengths of No. 14 or 12 B", 4
soft-drawn copper wire. The spacers can be made I V
from Plexiglas strips or similar low-loss material. V 3
Some amateurs have had success using plastic hair
curlers or plastic clothespins. Any line spacing V
from 1 to 6 inches will give satisfactory results V 2
since the line impedance is not an important V
consideration with this antenna. V
20 1
If antenna space is at a premium, a shortened
version of the multiband antenna can be erected.
The feeders are lengthened, and the flat-top o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14
portion is shortened as shown in Fig. 21-17. The ANTENNA lENGTH - A
antenna can be as short as a quarter wavelength
long, but will still radiate fairly well if tuned to
Fig. 21-16 - Curve A shows variation in radiation
resonance. This method will not give as good resistance with antenna length. Curve B shows
results as the full-size version, bu t will still be power in lobes of maximum radiation for long-wire
useful. A Transmatch tuner of the type described antennas as a ratio to the maximum radiation for a
in Chapter 20 can be used with this system. half-wave antenna.
 A Multiband "Trap" Antenna 597
----A---- ----A MULTIBAND ANTENNA

B B

Fig. 21-17 - Practical arrangements of a shortened

antenna. When the total length, A + B + B + A, is
the same as the antenna length plus twice the
feeder length of the center-fed antennas of Table SWR&' e Couplet: a = 10M}
21-1, the same type of coupling circuit will be used.
When the feeder length or antenna length, or both, Coax
to
~SOPF h =ISM
C =20111
2:.
4
( B ) i~r d =40/0(
makes the sum different, the type of coupling
circuit may be different but the effectiveness of TllVISl SOOpF
the antenna is not changed, unless A + A is less
than a quarter wavelength.
Fig. 21-18 - Illustration of a multiband coax-fed
band. On the lowest operating band the traps act as antenna. Wooden support poles are recommended
loading inductors, thus allowing a shorter overall so that they will not interfere with the radiation
length for the doublet than would be possible if it pattern of the antenna. At B, a representative
were cut for use without the traps. diagram of a coax-to-coax coupler that will reduce
harmonic radiation from the system. It should be
The trap-antenna concept has been adopted by installed in the operating room, near the
several manufacturers who produce multiband transmitter, and adjusted for a 1:1 SWR.
beam antennas, multiband doublets, and vertical
antennas for several bands of operation.
The antenna of Fig. 21-19 may be of interest to
those amateurs not having sufficient room to erect fall should the insulator break. There is plenty of
a full-size 80-meter doublet. The overall length of space inside the inductor to install the insulator
this system is 106 feet. If need be, the ends can be and the trap capacitor. The plastic protective
bent slightly downward so that the horizontal covers are not essential, but are used to protect the
portion will occupy even less space. It is best, traps from ice, snow, and soot which could cause a
however, to keep the entire antenna horizontal if deterioration in performance.
possible. The antenna is fed with 75-ohm coax, or Electrically, each trap consists of a 50-pF
balanced line of the same impedance. The latter is capacitor which is shunted by a 10-~ inductor. A
recommended, or system balance can be enhanced Centralab 850S-50Z capacitor is used. It is rated at
by using a 1: 1 balun transformer at the feed point 7500 volts, and should safely handle a kilowatt.
if coaxial line is used. This antenna is an adaptation Miniductor coil stock is used for the inductor.
of the W3DZZ design described in the ARRL Those wishing to optimize the antenna for a
Antenna Book. specific portion of the 40-meter band can
As shown in Fig. 21-20, each trap is literally experimentally adjust the number of turns in the
built around a "strain" insulator. With this trap coil for resonance in the desired segment.
insulator, the hole at one end is at right angles to Similarly, the end sections of the dipole can be
the hole at the opposite end, and the wires are adjusted for lowest SWR in the portion of the
fastened as illustrated in Fig. 21-21. This style of 80-meter band most favored. With the dimensions
insulator has greater compressive strength than given in Fig. 21-19, the antenna performs well
tensile strength and will not permit the antenna to from 3.5 to 30 MHz. The lowest SWR on 80

Fig. 21-19-Sketch ofa trap 5-BAND TRAP DIPOLE

dipole for use on 80 through
10 meters. SWR on all of the
bands is less than 2.5: 1. With
the dimensions given here the
SWR rises at each end of the
80-meter band, but is approxi-
mately 1.5: 1 at the center of
the band. The 10-t,tH trap coils
consist of 15 turns No. 12
wire, 21/2 inches in diameter, 6 turns per inch. Use 15
turns from Polycoils No. 1774, B&W 3905-1, or Air-Dux
2006T. Trap capacitors are Centralab 850S-50Z. The
traps are tuned to resonance at 7.1 MHz. To TrwtS.
 598 HF ANTENNAS
alone is reduced about 10 kHz per inch of end lead
length and about 150 kHz by the insulator loops.
The latter add approximately 2 pF to the fixed
capacitor value.

-'
.-
Assembly
Having determined the exact number of
inductor turns, the trap is taken apart and
reassembled with leads of any convenient length.
One may, of course, connect the entire lengths of
the antenna sections to the trap at this time, if
desired. But, if more convenient, a foot or two of
wire can be fastened and the remaining lengths
soldered on just before the antenna is raised.
The protective covers are most readily formed
by wrapping two turns (plus an overlap of 1/2
inch) of 0.020-inch polystyrene or Lucite sheeting
_.... - ---..... _--.-:. around a 3-inch plastic disk held at the center of
Fig. 21-20 - Photo of a typical trap. The unit the cylinder so formed. The length of the cover
shown here is cut for resonance at 14 MHz, but should be about 4 inches. A very small amount of
construction techniques are the same as for the plastic solvent (a cohesive cement that actually
traps used in the antenna of Fig. 21-19. A softens the plastic surfaces) should then be applied
weatherproof cover can be made from plastic under the edge of the overlap and the joint held
tubing, sheeting which is heated and formed, or frrmly for about two minutes to insure a strong,
from a plastic refrigerator container. The capacitor tight seal. The disk is pushed out and the inner
and strain insulator are inside the coil. seam of the sheeting sealed.
The trap is then placed in the plastic cylinder
and the end disks marked where the antenna wires
are to pass through. After drilling these holes, the
disks are slipped over the leads, pressed into the
--::::::=-==-=---"'" ·'EGG" TYPE
STRAIN INSULATOR
ends of the cylinder and a small amount of solvent
applied to the periphery to obtain a good seal.
Some air can flow in and out of the trap
Fig. 21-21 Method of connecting the antenna
wire to the strain insulator. The antenna wire is cut through the antenna-wire holes, and this will
off close to the wrap. prevent the accumulation of condensation.
AN END-FED HERTZ
meters occurs at midband. SWR on all other bands
is less than 2.5 to I, an acceptable figure for all but One of the more simple multiband antennas is
the most critical operator. Most modern-day the end-fed Hertz of Fig. 21-22. It consists of an
transmitters will load into this antenna without end-fed length of No. 12 wire, 130 feet long. This
difficulty. type of antenna performs in the same manner as
the end-fed half-wave system of Fig. 21-12B, but
Trap Adjustment has no feeder. One end of the wire connects
As a preliminary step, loops of No. 12 wire are directly into an L-network impedance matcher, as
fitted to one of the egg insulators in the normal shown in the diagram. This type of antenna is very
manner (see Fig. 21-21), except that after the convenient for those who have their stations on the
wraps are made, the end leads are snipped off close top floor of the house, thus enabling the user to
to the wraps. A capacitor is then placed in position bring one end of the antenna in through a window
and bridged with short leads across the insulator and to the coupler. Ideally, the entire antenna
and soldered sufficiently to provide temporary should be in a horizontal plane for best results.
support. The combination is then slipped inside However, either end can be bent to make the
about 10 turns of the inductor, one end of which system fit into whatever - space is available.
should be soldered to an insulator-capacitor First-floor dwellers can drop the fed end of the
lead. Adjustment to the resonant frequency can wire to the window of the radio room, as shown in
!Jow proceed, using a grid-dip meter. Fig. 21-22A. Or, the wire can be kept straight and
Coupling between the GDO and the trap should rise diagonally to the support at the far end. Height
be very loose. To assure accuracy, the station is important with antennas of this type, so an
receiver should be used to check the GDO effort should be made to get the system as high
frequency. The inductance should be reduced 1/4 above ground as possible, and clear of power lines
turn at a time. If one is careful, the resonant and other structures.
frequency can easily be set to within a few This antenna is intended for operation from 3.5
kilohertz of the chosen figure. to 28 MHz. A coupler of the kind shown in Fig.
The reason for snipping the end leads close to 21-43 (L-Network Coupler) will match the antenna
the wraps and the inclusion of the loops through on all of the hf amateur bands mentioned. It will
the egg insulator soon becomes apparent. The also perform well as an end-fed quarter wavelength
resonant frequency of the capacitor and inductor on 1.8 MHz if the reactance is tuned out by means
A Broad-Band Dipole 599
END-FED HERTZ hum if the ground system is not used. Similarly,
the operation of some electronic keyers can be
made erratic by the introduction of rf chassis
currents. The operator, therefore, may wish to

.L~29MHZ
130' "'
locate the tuner at the window and have the ham
v'O,Daation station across the room at some distant point. If
this is done, coaxial cable can be used to connect
--£ar:tIt
gcoWtd (A) the station to the tuner. Operation with this
antenna at W1CKK has been without problems for
S"<I? nearly three years, operating all bands with a
"'-_.. Br:iage Coqp/.e,
to Tr~""" (L-NetwoC'k) kilowatt of power. The fed end of the wire is three

~[Z/11J-
feet from the station equipment. A water pipe and
From
an earth ground are used. The L network provides
Trans. 150 pF a 1: 1 match on all of the bands, and DX operation
(LO-Z) J.. has been quite successful on the 20-, 15- and
(B) 10-meter bands. While using a parallel-tuned
antenna coupler, successful 6- and 2-meter
operation has been realized.
Fig. 21-22 - Diagram of an end-fed Hertz. It is cut It should be remembered that the antenna will
for the lowest desired operating frequency (1/2
wavelength), and is operated on its harmonic perform as a long wire on those bands above 3.5
frequencies on the remaining bands above. An MHz. At the higher end of the hf range -
L-network is used to match it to 50- or 75-ohm particularly 15 and 10 meters - the antenna will
unbalanced transmitter terminals. At B, schematic tend to be directional off its ends (bidirectional),
representation of an L·network tuner. The value of and will begin to have some gain. It exhibits more
Land C is adjusted until a 1:1 match is obtained. or less omniqirectional characteristics on 7 and 14
MHz, the pattern being somewhat like the shape of
a four-leaf clover. There will not be much
of a 1500-pF series variable capacitor. A good directivity on 3.5 MHz unless the antenna is at
earth ground will be needed for proper operation least a half wavelength above ground at that
on 1.S MHz. For hf-band use, a good earth ground frequency.
is also important in order to keep unwanted rf
voltages from appearing on the transmitter and A BROAD-BAND DIPOLE
receiver chassis. No one wants (or needs) a "hot"
key or microphone. Sometimes a good water-pipe Most untuned doublet antennas are not broad
ground is sufficient for preventing rf potentials on enough to provide a low SWR across an entire
the equipment. amateur band. This is a particularly troublesome
It must be remembered that the ends of this situation on the SO- and 40-meter bands. The
antenna are voltage points (high impedance), and antenna of Fig. 21-23, sometimes called a
bringing the end of the antenna into the "shack" "double-bazooka" antenna, was developed by the
can often introduce rf into the equipment as staff of M.LT. for radar use, and was later
mentioned. During phone operation the rf can get popularized by WSTV for amateur use (QST, July
into the microphone circuit and cause howling and 1965). An SO-meter version of this system, cut for
BROAD-BAND DIPOLE
1 - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - L = F(MHZ)
460 ------~.~ I

L=feet (A)
70 Ttw1s.
plexinlas 01:
sOnilat:

Coax
JUNCTION Open-wire
BLOCKS (a.) JUNCTIQN ot:300-ohm
(c) BLOCKS (,b) twin line
(B)
To Tl'aJ1S. Fig. 21-23 - Details for building a broad-band dipole. The builder
may choose to employ other methods for joining the sections, but
the illustrations at Band C represent one of the better, more secure
techniques.
600 HF ANTENNAS
3.7 MHz, provides an SWR of less than 2:1 across 160-meter band. Formulas are given in Fig. 21-23.
the entire band, and shows a 1:1 reading at 3.7 RG-58/U coax line is capable of handling a full'
MHz. SWR at 3.5 MHz is 1.7:1, and is 1.9:1 at 4 kilowatt from the transmitter with the SWR figures
MHz. given earlier. Details are given for making up the
The antenna consists of a half-wavelength junction blocks where connections are made. Other
section of coax line with the sheath opened at the construction techniques are possible, and this will
center and the feed line attached to the open ends be pretty much up to the builder. If the plastic
of the sheath. The outside conductor of the coax blocks of Fig. 21-23 are used, their inner surfaces
thus acts as a half-wave dipole, in combination can be grooved to provide a snug fit for the coax
with the open-wire end sections of the antenna. cables when the two halves are bolted together.
The inside sections, which do not radiate, are After assembly, the mating outer surfaces of the
quarter-wave shorted stubs which present a very junction blocks can be sealed with epoxy cement
high resistive impedance to the feed point at to assure a weatherproof bond. This antenna can
resonance. At frequencies off resonance the stub be mounted from a single center support and used.
reactance changes in such a way as to tend to as an "inverted V" if desired. Single-wire end
cancel the antenna reactance, thus increasing its sections can be substitu ted for the open-wire stubs,
bandwidth. This antenna can be cut for any but the open-wire sections contribute to the
operating frequency, including that of the antenna's broadband characteristics.

VERTICAL ANTENNAS

A vertical quarter-wavelength antenna is often match is obtained, in much the same manner as the
used in the lower-frequency amateur bands to "gamma match" (described later) is used on a
obtain low-angle radiation. It is also used when horizontal element. If the antenna is not an
there isn't enough room for the supports for a electrical quarter wavelength long, it is necessary to
horizontal antenna. For maximum effectiveness it tune out the reactance by adding capacitance or
should be located free of nearby objects and it inductance between the coaxial line and the
should be operated in conjunction with a good shunting conductor. A metal tower supporting a
ground system, but it is still worth trying where TV antenna or rotary beam can be shunt fed only
these ideal conditions cannot be obtained. if all of the wires and leads from the supported
Four typical examples and suggested methods antenna run down the center of the tower and
for feeding a vertical antenna are shown in Fig. underground away from the tower.
21-24. The antenna may be wire or tubing
supported ·by wood or insulated guy wires. When
-r-
tubing is used for the antenna, or when guy wires
(broken up by insulators) are used to reinforce the
structure, the length given by the formula is likely
T
QUARTER
I WAVELENGTH
QUARTER
WAVElENGTH
FROM
FORMULA
to be long by a few percent. A check of the FROM
standing-wave ratio on the line will indicate the FORMULA 1-.
frequency at which the SWR is minimum, and the
antenna length can be adjusted accordingly.
A good ground connection is necessary for the
L SO-OHM CDAXI~: E
ANY LINE
TO
TRANS-
MITTER

most effective operation of a vertical antenna

(other than the ground-plane type). In some cases a (A) (B)
short connection to the cold-water system of the
house will be adequate. But maximum perform-
ance usually demands a separate ground system. A
single 4- to 6-foot ground rod driven into the earth
at the base of the antenna is usually not sufficient,
T
QUARTER
'WAVE LENGTH
T
QUARTER
WAVELENGTH
FROM F.ROM
unless the soil has exceptional conductivity. A FORMULA FORMULA
minimum ground system that can be depended
upon is 6 to 12 quarter-wavelength radials laid out
as the spokes of a wheel from the base of the
antenna. These radials can be made of heavy
L L 300'OHM LINE

aluminum wire, of the type used for grounding TV

antennas, buried at least 6 inches in the ground.
(C) CD)
This is normally done by slitting the earth with a Fig. 21-24 - A quarter-wavelength antenna can be
spade and pushing the wire into the slot, after fed directly with 50-ohm coaxial line (A), with a
which the earth can be tamped down. low standing-wave ratio, or a coupling network can
The examples shown in Fig. 21-24 all require an be used (8) that will permit a line of any
antenna insulated from the ground, to provide for impedance to be used. In (8), L1 and C1 should
the feed point. A grounded tower or pipe can be resonate to the operating frequency and L1 should
be larger than is normally used in a plate tank
used as a radiator by employing "shunt feed," circuit at the same frequency. 8y using multiwire
which consists of tapping the inner conductor of antennas, the quarter-wave vertical can be fed with
the coaxial-line feed up on the tower until the best (C) 150- or (0) 300-0hm line.
 A Multiband Vertical 601

TUBING
OR WHIP

.{j..~~~;e-- TO TRANS.

(A)

Fig. 21-25 - All-metal construction of a vertical ground-plane antenna can be effected as shown at A.
The driven. element is insulated from the remainder of the system, but the tubing radials are common to
the. mounting plate, and to one another. The outer conductor of the coax connectS to the base plate and
radials. The center conductor of the feed line attaches to the base of the driven element with as short a
lead as possible. If a metal mast is used, it, too, can be common to the base plate and radials. At B the
radials are made of No.1 0 wire (approximately 5 percent longer than the resonant vertical elementl' and
are used as guy wires. Drooping the wires at a 45-degree angle raises the feed-point impedance to
approximately 50 ohms for direct connection to RG-8/U.

THE GROUND-PLANE ANTENNA A MULTIBAND VERTICAL

A ground-plane antenna is a vertical quarter- The antenna shown in Fig. 21-26 is a simple
wavelength antenna using an artificial metallic multiband system employing a Transmatch at the
ground, usually consisting of four rods or wires base. If the antenna is made at least 27 feet long, it
perpendicular to the antenna and extending can be used on the 80- through 10-meter bands.
radially from its base, Fig. 21-25. Unlike the The matching systems shown in Fig. 21-26 at B can
quarter-wavelength vertical antennas without an be used or the Transmatch described in the
artificial ground, the ground-plane antenna will previous chapter will provide good matching. The
give low-angle radiation regardless of the height vertical can also be made from wire, rather than
above actual ground. However, to be a true tubing. If wire is used, it could be mounted on a
ground-plane antenna, the plane of the radials mast, preferably made from a nonconducting
should be at least a quarter-wavelength above material such as wood.
ground. Despite this one limitation, the antenna is A buried radial system of the kind discussed
useful for DX work in any band below 30 MHz. earlier is mandatory if good performance is to be
The vertical portion of the ground-plane had. At least four (and preferably more) buried
antenna can be made of self-supported aluminum wires should extend outward, radially, from the
tubing, or a top-supported wire, depending upon base of the antenna. They should be cut to
the necessary length and the available supports. one-quarter wavelength for the lowest proposed
The radials are also made of tubing or heavy wire operating frequency. A metal ground rod can be
depending upon the available supports and driven into the earth near the base of the antenna,
necessary lengths. They need not be exactly and the radial wires connected to it. The outer
symmetrical about the base of the vertical portion. conductor of the coaxial feeder should be bonded
The radiation resistance of a ground-plane to the radial system. The coax line can be buried
antenna varies with the diameter of the vertical under the ground if desired, but should be a
element. The radiation resistance is usually in the weatherproof type if this is done.
vicinity of 30 ohms, and the antenna can be fed The tuning network can be made plug-in-coil
with 75-ohm coaxial line with a quarter-wavelength style, or a band-switching arrangement can be
section of 50-ohm line between line and antenna. utilized. A sophisticated approach might be to
For multiband operation, a ground-plane antenna include remote switching and tuning from the
can be fed with tuned open-wire line, or the operating position. The tuning system should be
vertical section can be quarter-wavelength pieces housed in a weatherproof box at the base of the
for each band. The radials should be a quarter antenna.
wavelength at the lowest frequency. The tuning network consists of a tapped
602 HF ANTENNAS
for use from 7 to 30 MHz. It operates with an SWR
MULTI-BAND VERTICAL
of less than 2:1, and can be used for DX and local
work.
Other construction techniques are possible, but
the method shown in Fig. 21-27 is simple and
Dciven £L. inexpensive. The trap assembly should be protect-
ed from the weather by enclosing it in a plasting
housing, possibly a refrigerator jar or similar.
The trap is built from a section of 2 1/2-inch
diameter Miniductor stock, No. 12 wire, 6 turns
per inch (B&W 3900-1, Air-Dux 2006T, or
WoodeJt Poly coils 1774). The coil has 10 turns, but should
Suppoct
be adjusted for resonance, with the capacitor
shunted across it, at 14.1 MHz with the aid of a
grid-dip meter. This is done before the trap is
installed in the antenna system. The capacitor is
Centralab 8S0S-2SZ.
Though it is common practice to cut the radials
for each band of operation, one set (4) can be cut
to the lowest operating frequency as shown in the
- d>ax sketch. Performance will not differ markedly from
to Sta:tion.
Ground Rod (bul:ied) a similar antenna using multiband radials. Here the
(~dto radials are drooped at a 4S-degree angle to raise the

~ O~fe~aichiHg netwoek.
feedpoint impedance of the antenna to approxi-
. sy.st"2m: 70 :ft1Se dciven mately SO ohms. The radials also serve as guy
wires.
JOopF L foe one brvui.
LO-zto (6)
Growtd- Tn:urs.

Fig. 21-26 - Details for constructing a multiband

vertical. A treated piece of 2 X 4-inch wood can be
TdJf:ig' I IO~61J

set in the ground and used as a support for the

driven element. A weatherproof metal box houses ~n.olicor
aedwood
Trop~
the tuning network, and is located near the base of
the vertical. A ground rod connects to the buried spacec

r
radials, and is also placed near the base of the
antenna. At B, a schematic diagram of the tuning Metal Cla»tp
network required for the antenna. Its adjustment is
covered in the text.
ALtp1t._
Tubmg
inductance which is adjusted with the aid of an 16'-8"
SWR meter to provide a 1: 1 match at the operating

J
frequency. In some instances it may be necessary Hbcxiu1 Mast
to connect a small amount of capacitance in
parallel with the inductor to secure a low SWR. As /l1suLai:ocs
with any tuning network some cut-and-try effort is 14.1 MHz
necessary to arrive at a set of final adjustments. If

~PF,~sP"
band switching is to be used, a fixed capacitor of To
Trans.
the proper value can be used in place of the (RG-8/uj
variable once the required value is determined. For
best results the inductor should have large-diameter TRAP
wire with the turns spaced. This will make
adjustment less difficult, and the larger coils will
improve the Q of the tuning network. Large
Miniductor stock, or 1/4-inch diameter copper TRAP VERTICAL FOR 7,14,21 AND 28 MHz.
tubing is recommended. The antenna is a low-angle
radiator, and can give good results on ground-wave Fig. 21-27 - Diagram of the multiband trap
and DX contacts. vertical. A wooden mast supports the system, and
A TRAP VERTICAL FOR 40 the driven element is mounted on the mast by
means of stand-off insulators. An insulator plug
THROUGH 10 METERS isolates the two sections of tubing. It can be made
The multiband concept can be applied to to fit inside the sections, then secured with screws.
Or, it can be bored out for the 00 of the tubing
verticals as well as to horizontal systems of the and slipped over the outside. If hardwood is used it
kind described earlier in the chapter. Such an should be boiled for half an hour in paraffin wax.
antenna is illustrated in Fig. 21-26, and is designed (Also, see September 1972 QST.)
----------------.~ - ----------------------

A Multiband Vertical 603

f
38" COAX LENGTH
15 Vi' CUT 8ACK 2'12'
RG 6ju
HOSE CLAMP
I
\< ,""."
2
.• ,
INSIDE TURNS i'
COAX LENGTH
2L" 22" CUT BACK 3Yi'

3 TURNS
I PLEXIGLAS
2" 3"DIA. INSIDE ~ROD
----II-----/---:'t*'
la-METER
1Vi' ALUMINUM
TRAP TUBING (8)

L"''"~'
INS_
ALUMINUM PLATE IO"DIA. 2 STRANDS
FOR

RADIAL
10M' 8'6"
15M, 11' 6"
10M -----l15M--i 20M ---l_jO M

GROU~D PLANE (4 USED)

TV ROTOR CABLE
L __ ~- ______ _____
~ ~,A--------

LENGTH
{ 20M, 16' )
• COILS'o/B"ALUM. TUBING (A The antenna and radial system can be installed at
Fig. 21-28 - The three-band trap vertical for the earth level, but the system will be a better
20-, 15-, and 10-meter bands. The detail at B shows performer if it is mounted as high as possible above
capacitor construction. ground.

Shown in Fig. 21-28 is a trap vertical that capacitors can be trimmed to raise the frequency,
covers the 20-, 15-, and 10-meter bands. The or the coils can be compressed or opened as
vertical is constructed from aluminum tubing with required. No adjustments are needed for 20 meters
Plexiglas rod used for the insulating material as the antenna shown had an SWR curve of less
between the trap sections and for the base insula- than 1.5: 1 across the en tire band.
tor. The trap coils are made from 3/8-inch alum~ If the antenna is to be mounted at earth level, a
inurn tubing, although 1/8-inch copper tubing ground rod, preferably the type used for electrical
would also be suitable. installations, should be driven into the earth at the
The detail at Fig. 2l~28B shows the method for base of the antenna. An earth ground connection
making the trap capacitors which are sections of should be made between the vertical ground plate
RG-8/U. The outer braid of the coax is unwound and the ground rod. Coaxial feed, 50 ohm, is used
for a length of two inches and connected to one for the antenna. The outer conductor of the coax
side of the vertical. The inner conductor is con- is connected to the ground system and the inner
nected to the other side. The ends of the coax conductor to the base of the vertical portion of the
capacitors should be taped for weatherproofing. antenna.
The ground plane consists of a minimum of four
radials; the more that are used, the better the ANTENNAS FOR 160 METERS
antenna will perform. Each of the radials is made
from lengths of four-conductor TV rotor cable. Results on 1.8 MHz will depend to a large
One conductor is stripped back to make the extent on the type of antenna used and the time of
10~meter radial and another is similarly cut back
day or night that operations will take place.
for the l5~meter radial. The remaining two wires Almost any random length of wire that is tuned to
are trimmed to the appropriate length for 20 resonance and.matched to the transmitter will give
fair results at night. During daylight hours the
meters.
absorption is high, and such high~angle radiators
Adjustment become ineffective.' For this reason a vertically-
polarized, low-radiation-angle antenna is best for
The antenna shown was calculated to be reson- use on the l60-meter band, day and night. Fig.
ant in the cw portions of the three bands. 21-29 shows three effective 160-meter antennas.
Adjustment of the traps is simple. Using a grid-dip At A, a shortened inverted V is made resonant by
meter, the frequency of the traps should be means of L, a loading coil in each leg of the
checked. If they are too low in frequency, the coax doublet. This antenna will give vertical polariza-
 604 HF ANTENNAS
tion, and will perform well for day and night use.
A full-size inverted V with tuned feeders would be
better, even if the voltage ends were but a few
inches off the ground. However, when antenna
space is at a premium, a 75-meter doublet can be
equipped with loading mductors as shown, and the
antenna will perform on 1.8 MHz. Two-band
operation can be had by merely shorting the
loading coils with clip leads during 75-meter use.
For use on 1.8 MHz the coils are experimentally ---a.-----I-I
1-1'
pruned, a half turn at a time, until the lowest SWR
is obtained.
As a starting point, the coils should be 70 J.IH
each, 16 feet,S inches for the length between the (s)
coil and antenna center (one side), and 46 feet
from the coil to the end insulator. Resonate the
antenna on the desired 80-meter frequency by
shorting out turns on the coil, looking for the
lowest SWR. Note that point and follow the same
procedure for 160. Of course, the shorting taps TOP-LOADED "T" ANTENNA
must be changed each time one changes bands.
Coa.x pr
The antenna at B is nothing more than a 80-Mere1:- -Bal. Lme
top-loaded quarter-wavelength Marconi. The flat- Dipole

~
top section, a, can be any convenient length - 25 To Trans.
to 50 feet - and should be as high in the air as (c)
possible. Its three wires are joined at the ends and
center, and a single vertical wire drops down to the ~ =--G~
TOP-LOADED MARCON I
loading/matching inductor, L. The flat-top section
serves as a capacitance hat for the vertical member,
b. The larger that a is made, the less coil will be Fig. 21·29 - Illustrations of three vertically polari-
needed at L. A good earth ground is essential to zed short antennas for use on 1.8 to 2 MHz. They
pr~per performance. A buried radial system is are described in the text.
recommended, but if the soil has good conduc- depend upon the length of the feed line.
tivity it may be possible to get by with six or eight Ordinarily, an 80-meter dipole with a quarter
ground rods driven into the earth, 4 feet apart, and wavelength feeder will require the series C to tune
bonded together by means of No. 10 wire. They out reactance. If the feed line is much less than one
should be centered around the bottom end of quarter wavelength, the series L will be needed. An
section b. Th.ere are two taps onL. The bottom one SWR bridge should be used during these
is adjusted for a match to the coax feeder. The top adjustments. A good earth ground is necessary with
tap is adjusted for antenna resonance. There will this antenna.
be some interaction between the adjustments, so
several attempts may be necessary before the sys- Other Antennas
tem is tuned up. Section b should be made as long Most of the full-size horizontal and vertical
as possible - 30 feet or more - for best results. antennas described earlier in this chapter are
An adaptation of the antenna just described is suitable for 1.8 MHz, too. When space is available
shown at C in Fig. 21-29. Here an 80-meter for a large antenna one should try to make use of
doublet is used as a quarter-wavelength top-loaded this advantage on "160." The helically-wound
Marconi. The feeders, whether coax or balanced short vertical described in the section on
line, are twisted together at the transmitter end "limited-space antennas" should be of interest to
and tuned with series L or C. The method used will the 160-meter operator, too.

LIMITED-SPACE ANTENNAS

It was said earlier in the chapter that any length by a large rubber band. Such antennas can be
of wire could be used as an antenna provided it was strung out to a tree or lamp post for use during the
tuned to resonance and matched to the transmis- evening, then brought into the house during the
sion line which feeds the amateur station. This day. Though the so-called "invisible antenna"
being fact, it is possible to employ any number of represents one approach to the problems faced by
physically shortened antennas for use in attics or some city-dweller amateurs, there are situations
on small city lots. Some apartment dwellers have that enable the operator to erect permanent
been know to use temporary antennas made from antennas of short dimensions.
random lengths of small-diameter enamel wire Most indoor antennas represent a compromise,
(such as No. 26 gauge) and insulated at each end at best, where efficiency is a consideration. But,
 Indoor Antennas 60S
many indoor antennas are capable of performing
well enough to provide plenty of local and DX
contacts. The actual configuration used has as
much latititude as the designer's imagination can
provide. The main considerations for effective use
of indoor antennas are to keep the antennas as far
from the house wiring and water pipes as possible.

? ~
If steel girders are used in the building's framework
try to locate the antenna as far from these supports
as possible -- possibly in between them. (c)
Some operators have had excellent results by To Tt:ansmatck
taping strips of aluminum foil to the glass of an To n:ansma.tck
apartment window, and trimming it to a resonant In Attic
length for vhf operation. Others have insulated
large window screens or storm-window frames
from their supports and used them as resonant
antennas. It is possible to use the gutter pipes and
down spouts of wood frame houses as antennas if
they are insulated from ground, though at Eactit
high-power levels this could present a fire and GroUlt1i =
safety hazard. For this reason the method is not Fig. 21-30 Various configurations for small
recommended. Good results can sometimes be had indoor antennas. A discussion of installation and
by using a short helically wound vertical of the tuning methods is covered in the text.
type described later in this section. It can be leaned
against a wall in the apartment, and worked against
a water-pipe ground. Window-sill semivertical
antennas are also worth consideration by the antenna less dependent upon dipole length, but
apartment dweller. Whatever system is used in also makes possible the use of the antenna on more
limited-space work, safety should be the foremost than one band. It is possible to use 300-0hm twin
consideration at all times. Never erect an antenna line for the feeders if desired, but this is
that will enable people to come in contact with it recommended only for power levels less than 200
when it is connected to the amateur station. Make watts. Bent dipoles are shown in Fig. 21-30 at A,
certain that it is erected in such a manner as to B, C and D. They can be held in place by means of
prevent people from falling over it when they are staples, masking tape, or thumb tacks. Ideally, they
walking through the house or the yard. Keep the should be mounted in the attic, or out of doors
antenna away from phone or power lines for above the roof. They can be used in the operating
safety's sake. room if no other choice is open, but will give best
performance when mounted as high and in the
Indoor Dipoles clear as possible. The antennas at E and F are
Fig. 21-30 shows only a few possibilities for single-wire-fed systems that will act as quarter-
shortened indoor antennas. It should be remem~ wavelength verticals. The top fold of wire should
bered, however, that when the ends of an antenna be in the attic and will function as a capacitance
are bent as shown there will be a decrease in hat. The vertical drop wire will be the actual
efficiency because the signal tends to suffer from radiating antenna and should be as long as possible.
phase cancellation. Also, the formulas for dipole The top tap on the tuner is adjusted for antenna
antennas do not hold hue when the antenna is resonance. The bottom tap is adjusted for lowest
bent in the manner illustrated. For this reason it SWR. An SWR bridge should be used for tuning up
will be necessary to use the "cut-and-try" method any of the antennas shown. The antenna at C is
in achieving resonance. Alternatively, tuned feeders similar to a vhf Halo in performance, and will be
can be used. This not only makes tuning of the omnidirectional in its radiation pattern.

INDOOR DIPOLE

Fig.21-31 - Details of an indoor

loaded dipole. At Band C,
recommended methods for tuning
the antenna to resonance.
7S.n.COax (A)
to TI:ClJ1s
SWR BRIDGE
GRID-DIP METER Ant.
~~
~Ftom
Ant.~ . TriVIS.

,- °fo~"}U.cn (B) (C)

 606 HF ANTENNAS
Loaded Dipoles tubing, .or treate.d dowel rod, serve as practical
It is possible to obtain good results with loaded foundation !"atenal for such an antenna. This type
dipoles of the kind shown in Fig. 21-31. Use of antenna IS most often used as a vertical radiator
whatever space is available for the indoor (or and is worked against ground as a quarter-
outdoor) installation, attempting to keep the two wavelength system. The voltage and current
halves of the antenna as straight as possible. If the ~tribution is more linear than when a lumped-
need arises the ends can be bent up or down as mdu~tance (loading coil and whip) is employed, a
shown. Loading inductors are inserted in the two pOSSible reason for its effective perfonnance.
sides of the dipole to bring the system to . !his type of antenna is particularly useful for
resonance. The shorter the antenna the more limited-space applications in the lower part of the
inductance will be needed. The loading coils should hf spectrum - 1.8, 3 _5 and 7 _0 MHz. I t can be used
be located as far from the feed point as practical, for 14 MHz and higher, but is desirable only if an
but not at the far ends of the wires. Always allow ?"tenn~ shorter than a natural quarter wavelength
at least three feet of wire to extend beyond the IS requIred.
outer ends of the coils, thus allowing the end Construction
sections to act as "capacitance hats" for the coils.
Miniductor Coil Stock is suitable for use as loading The length of the supporting pole can be
coils. The antenna can be tuned to resonance at the anything between 4 feet and 20 feet in length. The
desired operating frequency by placing a small link longer the rod, the better the perfonnance. Fiber
across the transmitter end of the coax line and glass spreader poles for cubical-quad antennas are
using a grid-dip meter to locate the point of ideal for this application. Alternatively, bamboo
resonance. The grid dipper is coupled to the link. fishing poles, covered with fiber glass, work well.
Adjust the loading coils a half turn at a time until Some lumber yards carry 16-foot long hand-rail
resonance is noted. Listen to the grid dipper's stock (wooden) which can be coated with fiber
signal on the station receiver to be certain that the glass or several coats of exterior spar varnish and
antenna is being tuned to the proper frequency. used as a coil fonn. The main consideration is that
This antenna can be fed with 75-ohm coax line the antenna pole be of good dielectric properties
but will be quite "frequency conscious" because of and. that it be weatherproofed.
the loading inductors. At a given coil setting it may So that the antenna will be approximately
be possible to maintain a low SWR over only a 1/4-wavelength long electrically, a 1/2-wavelength
narrow segment of a given band. Taps can be piece of insulated wire is needed for the radiating
soldered to the coils for moving from one part of element. When helically-wound as shown, the
the band to another. antenna becomes approximately one-quarter wave-
length long, electrically. No. 14 or No. 12
HELICALL V-WOUND SHORT Fonnvar-insulated copper wire is recommended for
the antenna winding. It should be space-wound in
VERTICAL ANTENNAS
as linear a manner as possible. The far end of the
An effective physically-short radiator can be vertical should have a 6-inch diameter metal disk,
built by helically-winding a length of wire on a or 12-inch spike, to add sufficient capacitance to
long insulating rod or pole as shown in the sketch. lower the impedance at the far end of the radiator
Supporting poles such as bamboo rods, fiber glass sufficiently to prevent corona effects which can
burn the far end of the element during medium-
and high-power operation. An aluminum base-
mounting plate and two U clamps can serve as a
___ 12"WHIP support for the antenna.
Operation
Fig. 21-32 - Artist's
_METAL
sketch of the hel ically- CLAMP
To build the antenna for use on 160 meters, for
wound vertical. This example, wind approximately 248 feet of wire on
resonant quarter-wave- the pole as shown. Since this will fall just short of
length antenna will per- natural resonance at one-quarter wavelength, some
form well when worked
against a good earth type of variable inductor will be needed at the base
ground. 4- TO 20-FOOT of the antenna. A rotary inductor from an old
POLE,WOUND Command Set transmitter will do the job. It should
WITH !I%-WAVE- be enclosed in a weatherproof box of plastic or
LENGTH OF No. 14
ENAM. WIRE
metal. The inductor is adjusted by means of an
SWR indicator for the best match obtainable at the
operating frequency. An earth ground is required
for proper operation, and a buried radial system is
STEATITE recommended. Alternatively, several ground rods
INSULATING POST
can be driven into the earth near the base of the
antenna and bonded together with heavy wire.
MOUNTING
PLATE It may not be possible to secure a 1: 1 SWR
without using some fonn of impedance-matching
system. After the antenna is made resonant at the
U-CLAMPS operating frequency, a tuning network such as that
 Indoor Antennas 607

ANT.

(A)

(B)~.JUMPER
_,£ 1-3,4-5,7-8
(C) T5.4-5, 7-8

(D)~1-3,4-6
Fig. 21-33 - Circuit diagram of the L-network L1, L2 - See Fig. 21-34., part of etched-eircuit
Transmatch. The eight banana jacks are E. F. assembly.
Johnson type 108-900, and three dual banana L3 - Variable inductor 28 tLH (E. F. Johnson
plugs are required, E. F. Johnson type 108-200. 229-203).
C1 - Variable capacitor, 350 pF (E. F. Johnson M1 - 100-tLA meter.
154-10l. R1, R2 - 68-ohm, 1/2-watt carbon or composi-
CR1, CR2 - 1N34A germanium diode. tion, not wire wound.
J1, J2 - Chassis connector, type S0-239. R3 - 25,000-ohm carbon control, linear taper.
J3 - Feedthrough terminal, isolantite. S1 - Spst toggle.
of Fig. 21-33 can be employed to provide the
desired 1: 1 SWR. Since antennas of this type are INDOOR ANTENNAS
relatively "frequency conscious," it will be Amateurs residing in apartment buildings may
necessary to retune the matching network when not be able to put up outdoor antennas or to use
moving from one part of the band to another. The limited-space antennas such as shown in Fig. 21-30.
completed antenna should be given a coating of The answer to the problem is to use a
fiber glass or spar varnish to seal it against the window-mounted mobile antenna, or random-
weather, and to secure the coil turns. It has been length wire fed at one end.
observed that this antenna has exceptional
immunity to man-made electrical noises. It also Some General Considerations
cuts down the response to broadcast-band signals
There are exceptions to the following rules but,
which sometimes tend to overload the station
in general, they can be depended upon.
receiver. The foregoing attributes result from the
1) An outdoor antenna will work better than
fact that it is a narrow-band antenna.
an indoor one.

Fig. 21·34 - Etched 'circuit-board template. The foil side is shown, the etched portion is shaded.
 HF ANTENNAS
In order to get complete band coverage and
avoid the complexities of band-switching, banana
and jack plugs are used to change the circuit to the
:'- !/' configuration needed_ For example, if the setup
shown at B is desired, jumper terminals 7 and 8, 1
and 3, and 4 and 5 should be used. Using the
banana plugs makes for easy changing of the
circuit.
Whenever a Transmatch is used, the operator
should have a way of knowing when the unit is
adjusted correctly_ The answer to this need is a
Monimatch or other SWR indicator.

Construction Details
The chassis for mounting the Transmatch is
made from a piece of aluminum measuring
10 X 19 inches. The ends of the 19-inch length of
aluminum are bent up to form a U-shaped chassis,
the ends being 4 1/2 inches high to form a chassis
lOX lOX 4 1/2 inches_ The back side of the U has
an opening cut out, 3 1/4 inches high by 4 1/2
inches long. A piece of Plexiglas is mounted over
this opening. The jack-plug sockets are installed
directly on the plastic. Connections from the roller
inductor, L3, and variable capacitor, Cl, are made
to the banana jacks. Be careful when drilling the
Fig. 21-35 - The Monimatch is at the upper left, holes for the jacks to insure that they will mate
covered by a metal enclosure. Connections from with the plugs. Fig. 21-34 shows the details for a
the roller inductor and the variable capacitor to the pc-board Monimatch. Methods for making etched
terminals on the jacks are made with thin strips of circuit boards are given in detail in the
copper, although No. 12 or 14 wire can be used Construction Practices coopter.
instead_ The two antenna terminals are at the rear
right. The top terminal is for use with a coax-fed How to Tune Up
antenna, if desired_
Using the Transmatch is not complicated_
2) An antenna inside a frame building with Although it takes some time to find the correct
wood exteriors is better than the same antenna in a combination of settings, once determined, they can
steel-and-concrete building. be logged for later reference. Use a short length of
3) The higher above ground, inside or out, the 50-0hm coax to connect the Transmatch to the
better the antenna will work. transmitter. Attach the antenna to the Transmatch.
4) The bigger (or longer) you can make an Tune up the transmitter on the desired band,
indoor antenna, the better - even if it means making sure that the [mal amplifier is resonated,
running wire around corners. but with the power output reduced_ With the
5) Even a poor antenna should produce some Monimatch in the forward-reading position, set the
contacts. sensitivity control for a full-scale reading. Be sure
to keep the final amplifier tank in resonance_
The Coupling Problem Switch the meter to the reflected position, and
then adjust L1 and Cl, until the lowest indication
Most transmitters are designed to work into a of reflected power is obtained_ It should be
50-ohm load, and contain little or no provision for possible to get the meter to read zero, With a zero
adjusting the transmitter when the load is other reading in the reflected position, versus full scale in
than 50 ohms. Unfortunately, there is no the forward setting, the Transmatch is correctly
random-length wire antenna that will present a adjusted, and the SWR is 1. The circuit may have
50-ohm load on all bands. What is required is a to be changed to one of the other configurations in
Transmatch. A Transmatch is simply an adjustable order to get a match, but one combination should
Le network that converts the unknown antenna work. Once the Transmatch is set properly, then
impedance to 50 ohms. The unit, shown in Fig. adjust the transmitter to its rated power input. One
21-35, will cover the 80- through lO-meter bands other point: It isn't always possible to get a good
and can handle I kW of rf power. ground connection in an apartment. Therefore, a
connection to a cold-water pipe or earth ground
Circuit Details
should be used_
The unit shown in Fig. 21-33 is designed to be Try to make the antenna as long as possible,
used in three configurations. They are shown at B, even if it must be run around corners. The length
C, and D. With one of the three hookups, it should that will work best is from 120 to 130 feet. The
be possible to match practically any antenna to the end of the wire can be terminated at a window
transmitter. screen, which will get part of the antenna outside_
Directive Arrays with Parasitic Elements 609
DIRECTIVE ARRAYS WITH PARASITIC ELEMENTS
With few exceptions, the antennas described so
far in Chapter 21 have unity gain or less and are A~I L_
either omnidirectional or bidirectional. In ~rder for
antennas to have gain and take on directional A)
- Bl
B_
P
r
ANT._
characteristics they must employ additional ele- , ~
.' V 1'-...... -t--
ments. Antennas with these properties are
~
commonly referred to as "beam" antennas. This
section will deal with the design and characteristics / -- '"-- --. 80 t:l
I
of directional antennas with gain.
I ,
.,,' 60
~
~
....
Parasitic Excitation 1/ I,'
/
40 "<
~
In most of these arrangements the additional /,/ ."-Radiation ~
elements receive power by induction or radiation l Resistance
20 i::
from the driven element generally called the "-, -," ~
"antenna," and reradiate it in the proper phase -25 c::.
relationship to achieve the desired effect. These o 0.05 0.1 015 0.2 0,25 0.3 0.35 0,4 i::i
elements are called parasitic elements, as contras- ELEMENT SPACING-WAVELENGTH
ted to the driven elements which receive power Fig. 21-36 -Gain vs. element spacing for an antenna
directly from the transmitter through the trans- and one parasitic element. The reference point, 0
mission line. dB, is the field strength from a half-wave antenna
The parasitic element is called a director when alone. The greatest gain is in the direction A at
it reinforces radiation on a line pointing to it from spacings of less than 0.14 wavelength, and in
the antenna, and a reflector when the reverse is the direction B at greater spacings. The front-to-back
ratio is the difference in dB between curves A and
case. Whether the parasitic element is a director or B. Variation in radiation resistance of the driven
reflector . depends upon the parasitic-element element is also shown. These curves are for a
tuning, which usually is adjusted by changing its self-resonant parasitic element. At most spacings
length. the gain as a reflector can be increased by slight
lengthening of the parasitic element; the gain as a
Gain vs. Spacing director can be increased by shortening. This also
improves the front-to-back ratio.
The gain of an antenna with parasitic elements
varies with the spacing and tuning of the elements Two-Element Beams
and thus for any given spacing there is a tuning
condition that will give maximum gain at this A 2-element beam is useful where space or
spacing. The maximum front-to-back ratio seldom, other considerations prevent the use of the larger
if ever, occurs at the same condition that gives structure required for a 3-element beam. The
maximum forward gain. The impedance of the general practice is to tune the parasitic element as a
driven element also varies with the tuning and reflector and space it about 0.15 wavelength from
spacing, and thus the antenna system must be the driven element, although some successful
tuned to its final condition before the match antennas have been built with O.I-wavelength
between the line and the antenna can be spacing and director tuning. Gain VS. element
completed. However, the tuning and matching may spacing for a 2-element antenna is given in Fig.
interlock to some extent, and it is usually 21-36, for the special case where the parasitic
necessary to run through the adjustments several element is resonant. It is indicative of the
times to insure that the best possible tuning has performance to be expected under maximum-gain
been obtained. tuning conditions. '

TABLE 21·11
1st 2nd
Driven
Reflector Director Director
Freq. Element
A B A B A B
A B
35' 2 112" 35' 5 114" 31' 931S" 31' 11 S/S" 31' I 1/4" 31' 3 SIS"
14050 33' 5 3/8" 33' S"
14250 32' II 3/4" 33' 21/4" 34' 8 1/2" 34' 11 114" 31' 4" 31' 6 3/S" 30' s" 30' 10 1/2"
23' 7 3/4" 21' 2 1/2"" 21' 4" 20' 9 I/S" 20' 10 7/S"
21050 22' 4" 22' 5 S/S" 23' 6"
23' 4 1/2" 20' II 1/2" 21' I" 20' 6114" 20' 7 3/4"
21300 22' 314" 22' 2 3iS" 23' 2 SIS"
17' 7 5/8" 17' 8 7/8" IS' II" 16' IS' 7"' IS' 91/2"
28050 16' 9" 16' 10 1/4"
17' 3 112" 17' 4 3/4" IS' 7 114" IS' S 1/2" IS' 3 3/S" IS' 4 1/2"
28600 16' 5 114" 16' 6 318"

Element lengths for 20. 15 and 10 meters,

A phone and cwo These lengths tlrc for 0.2 or
.15 wavelength clement ~pacing.
610 HF ANTENNAS
8

Fig. 21-37 - Gain of 3-element

Vagi versus director spacing, the
reflector spacing being fixed at 0.2
wavelength. V
/1-'" - l- t--

0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

SPACING FROM DIRECTOR TO FED ELEMENT IN A

Three-Element Beams can be anywhere between 0.35 and 0.45

A theoretical investigation of the 3-element wavelength with no appreciable difference in gain.
case (director, driven element and reflector) has Wide spacing of both elements is desirable not
indicated a maximum gain of slightly more than 7 only because it results in high gain bu t also because
dB. A number of experimental investigations have adjustment of tuning or element length is less
shown that the optimum spacing between the critical and the input resistance of the driven
driven element and reflector is in the region of element is higher than with close spacing. The
0.15 to 0.25 wavelength, with 0.2 wavelength latter feature improves the efficiency of the
representing probably the best overall choice. With antenna and makes a greater bandwidth possible.
0.2-wavelength reflector spacing, Fig. 21-37 shows However, a total antenna length, director to
the gain variation with director spacing. It is reflector, of more than 0.3 wavelength at
obvious that the director spacing is not especially frequencies of the order of 14 MHz introduces
critical, and that the overall length of the array considerable difficulty from a constructional
(boom ltingth in the case of a rotatable antenna) standpoint, so lengths of 0.25 to 0.3 wavelength
are frequently used for this band, even though they
are less than optimum.
-......... In general, the gain of the antenna drops off
~ less rapidly when the reflector length is increased

"'" ""
beyond the optimum value than it does for a
DIRECTOR
1it corresponding decrease below the optimum value.
The opposite is true of a director. It is therefore
LENGTH
(Feet) "- advisable to err, if necessary, on the long side for a
'" ~
reflector and on the short side for a director. This
also tends to make the antenna performance less

(A) '" ~
dependent on the exact frequency at which it is
operated, because an increase above the design
frequency has the same effect as increasing the

REFLECTOR
LENGTH
(Feet)
1itJ
Me.
-...........
~
J5
DIRECTOR SPACING
.2
(~)
.25

"'" .3 length of both parasitic elements, while a decrease

in frequency has the same effect as shortening both
elements. By making the director slightly short and
the reflector slightly long, there will be a greater
spread between the upper and lower frequencies at
..........
which the gain starts to show a rapid decrease.
~ When the over-all length has been decided
~ upon, the element lengths can be found by
(S) .........
referring to Fig. 21-38. The lengths determined by
"-......... these charts will vary slightly in actual practice
...............3
~J J5 .2 .25 with the element diameter and the method of
SPACING(~)
REFLECTOR supporting the elements, and the tuning of a beam
should always be checked after installation.
However, the lengths obtained by the use of the
DRIVEN-
ELEMENT
W
l? V --- I---
I---
charts will be close to correct in practically all
cases, and they can be used without checking if the
~~~~TH ~
............ ~ ,,, l.--- f.-- J--
~ -- I-- beam is difficult of access.
In order to make it even easier for the Yagi
builder, Table 21-11 can be used to determine the
./ ~~ V element lengths needed. Both cw and phone
lengths are included for the three bands, 20, 15,
~
V
and 10 meters. The 0.2 wavelength spacing will
.1 J5 .2 .3 provide greater bandwidth than the 0.15 spacing.
DIRECTOR SPACING (~) Antenna gain is essentially the same with either
spacing. The element lengths given will be the same
Fig. 21-38 - Element lengths for a 3-element whether the beam has 2, 3 or 4 elements. It is
beam. These lengths will hold closely for tubing recommended that "Plumber's Delight" type
elements supported at or near the center. construction be used where all the elements are
Directive Arrays with Parasitic Elements 611
GAMMA MATCH on the ground. The beam should be set up so that
the reflector element rests on earth with the
remaining elements in a vertical configuration. In
Centel:of ~.~~~~ other words, the beam should be aimed straight up_
Dciven Eleme;Lt
The matching system is then adjusted for 1: 1 SWR
50-01:75-11 between the feed line and driven element. When
Coax Li.He the antenna is raised into its operating height, only
(A) slight touch-up of the matching network will be
required.
Cente/:' A great deal has been printed about the need
for tuning the elements of a Yagi-type beam.
However, experience has shown that lengths given
C2 AdjdsWle in Fig. 21-38 and Table II are close enough to the
- ~"' 4:1 Balun desired length that no further tuning should be
", (Coaxial Ot 7OZ"oitbl)
required. This is true for Yagi arrays made from
metal tubing. However, in the case of quad
70 Trans. antennas, made from wire, the reflectors and
T- MATCH directors should be tuned with the antenna in its
operating location. The reason is that it is
practically impossible to cut and install wire to the
70
Trans.-' /2::;;13 ;t9Pm:;,: : ;;~: ~~
; exact dimensions required for maximum gain or
front -to-back.
Loa A To centel:
~ Coax Line ofdriven El.
Simple Systems: The Rotary Beam
CC) LoopA (feet)=,z:%z)
4:1 COAX BALUN Two- and three-element systems are popular for
rotary-beam antennas, where the entire antenna
Fig. 21-39 - Illustrations of gamma and system is rotated, to permit its gain and directivity
T-matching systems. At A, the gamma rod is to be utilized for any compass direction. They may
adjusted along with C until the lowest possible be mounted either horizontally (with the plane
SWR is obtained. A T-match is shown at B. It is the containing the elements parallel to the earth) or
same as two gamma-match rods. The rods and C1 vertically.
and C2 are alternately adjusted for a 1:1 SWR. A A four-element beam will give still more gain
coaxial 4:1 balun transformer is shown at C. A than a three-element one, provided the support is
toroidal balun can be used in place of the coax sufficient for about 0.2 wavelength spacing
model shown. Details for the toroidal version are
given in Chapter 20, and it has a broader frequency between elements. The tuning for maximum gain
range than the coaxial version. The T-match is involves many variables, and complete gain and
adjusted for 200 ohms and the balun steps this tuning data are not available.
balanced value down to 50 ohms, unbalanced. Or, The elements in close-spaced (less than
the T-match can be set for 300 ohms, and the one-quarter wavelength element spacing) arrays
balun used to step this down to 75 ohms, preferably should be made of tubing of one-half to
unbalanced. Dimensions for the gamma and one-inch diameter. A conductor of large diameter
T-match rods cannot be given by formula. Their not only has less ohmic resistance but also has
lengths and spacing will depend upon the tubing
size used, and the spacing of the parasitic elements lower Q; both these factors are important in
of the beam. Capacitors C, C1 and C2 can be 140 close-spaced arrays because the impedance of the
pF for 14-MHz beams. Somewhat less capacitance driven element usually is quite low compared to
will be needed at 21 and 28 MHz. that of a simple dipole antenna. With three- and
four-element close-spaced arrays the radiation
mounted directly on and grounded to the boom. resistance of the driven element may be so low that
This puts the entire array at dc ground potential, ohmic losses in the conductor can consume an
affording better lightning protection. A gamma appreciable fraction of the power.
section can be used for matching the feed line to
the array. Feeding the Rotary Beam
Any of the usual methods of feed (described
Tuning Adjustments later under "Matching the Antenna to the Line")
The preferable method for checking the beam is can be applied to the driven element of a rotary
by means of a field-strength meter or the S meter beam. The popular choices for feeding a beam are
of a communications receiver, used in conjunction the gamma match with series capacitor and the T
with a dipole antenna located at least 10 match with series capacitors and a half-wavelength
wavelengths away and as high as or higher than the phasing section, as shown in Fig. 21-39. These
beam that is being checked. A few watts of power methods are preferred over any others because
fed into the antenna will give a useful 'signal at the they permit adjustment of the matching and the
observation point, and the power input to the use of coaxial line feed. The variable capacitors can
transmitter (and hence the antenna) should be held be housed in small plastic cups for weatherproof-
constant for all of the readings. ing; receiving types with close spacing can be used
Preliminary matching adjustments can be done at powers up to a few hundred watts. Maximum
 612 HF ANTENNAS

Fig. 2140 - Information on building a quad or a

Delta-Loop antenna. The antennas are electrically
similar but the Delta-Loop uses "plumber's de-
light" 'construction. Additional information is
given in the text.

DE L T A LOOPS AND QUAD BEAMS

One of the more effective DX arrays is called
the "cubical quad" or, simply, "quad" antenna. It
consists of two or more square loops of wire
supported by a bamboo or fiberglass cross-arm
To Tr-ans. To Tr-ans. assembly. The loops are a quarter wavelength per
DRIVEN EL.(oVel'aU. ft) =fi~~:) side (full wavelength Qverall) one loop being
REF. (over-ailft.) =!~~~Z) CUBICAL QUAD
driven, and the other serving as a parasitic element
DELTA LOOP - usually a reflector. A variation of the quad is
called the Delta Loop. The electrical properties of
capacitance required is usually 140 pF at 14 MHz both antennas are the same, generally speaking,
and proportionately less at the higher frequencies. though some operators report better DX results
If physcially possible, it is better to adjust the with the Delta Loop. Both antennas are shown in
matching device after the antenna has been Fig. 21-40. They differ mainly in their physical
installed at its ultimate height, since a match made properties, one being of "Plumber's Delight"
with the antenna near the ground may not hold for construction, while the other uses insulating
the same antenna in the air. support members. One or more directors can be
added to either antenna if additional gain and
directivity is desired, though most operators use
Sharpness of Resonance
the two-element arrangement.
Peak performance of a multielement parasitic It is possible to interlace quads or "deltas" for
array depends upon proper phasing or tuning of two or more bands, but if this is done the formulas
the elements, which can be exact for one given in Fig. 21-40 may have to be changed slightly
frequency only. In the case of close-spaced arrays, to compensate for the proximity effect of the
which because of the low radiation resistance second antenna. For quads the length of the
usually are quite sharp-tuning, the frequency range full-wave loop can be computed from
over which optimum results can be secured is only
of the order of 1 or 2 percent of the resonant Full·wave loop (ft) = - 1005 21-H
f(MHz)
frequency, or up to about 500 kHz at 28 MHz.
However, the antenna can be made to work
satisfactorily over a wider frequency range by If multiple arrays are used, each antenna should
adjusting the director or directors to give be tuned up separately for maximum forward gain
maximum gain at the highest frequency to be as noted on a field-strength meter. The reflector
covered, and by adjusting the reflector to give stub on the quad should be adjusted for the
optimum gain at the lowest frequency. This foregoing condition. The Delta-Loop gamma match
sacrifices some gain at all frequencies, but should be adjusted for a 1: 1 SWR. No reflector
maintains more uniform gain over a wider tuning is needed. The Delta-Loop antenna has a
frequency range. broader frequency response than the quad, and
The use of large-diameter conductors will holds at an SWR of 1.5: 1 or better across the band
broaden the response curve of an array because the it is cu t for.
larger diameter lowers the Q. This causes the
reactances of the elements to change rather slowly
with frequency, with the result that the tuning TABLE 21-111
stays near the optimum over a considerably wider Quantity Length Diameter Reynolds
frequency range than is the case with wire (ft.) (in.) No.
conductors.
2 8 1 9A
Combination Arrays 4 8 3/4 8A
1 8 1 1/4 lOA
It is possible to combine parasitic elements with
1 6 7/8 4231
driven elements to form arrays composed of'
collinear driven and parasitic elements and 2 U-bolts, TV antenna to mast type, 1 variable
combination broad-side-collinear-parasitic ele- capacitor, 150 pF maximum, any type, I plastic
ments. Thus two or more collinear elements might freezer container, approximately 5 X 5 X 5 in-
be provided with a collinear reflector or director ches, to house gamma capacitor.
set, one parasitic element to each driven element. Gamma rod, 3/8- to 1/2-inch diameter aluminum
Or both directors and reflectors might be used. A tubing, 36 inches long. (Aluminum curtain rod
broadside-collinear array can be treated in the same or similar.)
fashion.
A Two-Element 15-Meter Beam 613
The resonance of the quad antenna can be Delta-Loop antenna compares favorably with a
found by checking the frequency at which the three-element Yagi array in terms of gain (see QST,
lowest SWR occurs. The element length (driven May, 1963, and QST, January 1969 for additional
element) can be adjusted for resonance in the information). The quad and Delta-Loop antennas
most-used portion of the band by lengthening or perform very well at 50 and 144 MHz. A discussion
shortening it. of radiation patterns and gain, quads vs. Yagis, was
It is believed that a two-element quad or presented by Lindsay in QST, May, 1968.

ROTARY BEAMS

AN INTERLACED 20- AND 15-METER sion clamps_ Be sure to slit the end of the
aluminum where the compression clamps are
SHORT VAGI placed. The model shown in the diagrams has
Described here is an interlaced two-element- coils made of surplus Teflon-insulated miniature
per-band 20- and 15- meter yagi. It offers gain and audio coaxial cable with the shield braid and inner
conductor shorted together_ A suitable substitute
directivity, but with small size (16 foot square).
would be No. 14 enameled copper wire wound to
The 20-meter portion of the antenna is a director
the same dimensions as those given in Fig. 1.
array, the front-to-back ratio is a bit less than 10
All of the elements are secured to the boom
dB. On 15 meters where the system operates with a with common TV UNbolt hardware. Plated bolts are
reflector parasitic element, the front-to-back ratio
desirable to prevent rust from forming. A 1/4-inch
is considerably better - on the order of 15 dB. thick boom-to-mast plate is constructed from a few
pieces of sheet aluminum cut into lO-inch square
Construction sheets and held together with No. 8 hardware.
The dual-band beam has four elements, the Several cookie tins could be used if sheet alumi-
longest of which is 16 feet. All of the elements and num is not available.
the boom are made from 1-I/4-inch diameter A boom strut (sometimes called a truss) is
aluminum tubing available at most hardware stores. recommended because the weight of the elements
Element sections and boom pieces are joined is sufficient to cause the boom to sag a bit. A
together by slotting a 100inch length of 1-1/4-inch 1/8-inch diameter nylon line is plenty strong. A
tubing with a nibbling tool and compressing it for a UNbolt clamp is placed on the mast several feet
snug fit inside the element and boom tubing. above the antenna and provides the attachment
Coupling details are shown in Fig. 2. point for the center of the truss line. To reduce the
The loading coils are wound on 1-1/8-inch possibility of water accumulating in the element
diameter Plexiglas rod. The rod slips into the tubing and subsequently freezing (rupture may be
element tubing and is held in place with compres- the end result), crutch caps are placed over the

Fig. 1 - Constructional details for RES. FREQ. RES. FREQ RES. FREQ. RES. FREQ.
the 20- and 15-meter beam. The 14.050 101Hz 20.0 101Hz 14.7 101Hz 21.050 101Hz
coils for each side of the element ~
are identical. The gamma capaci-
tors are each 140-pF variable
units manufactured by E.F. 30.5
Johnson Co. The capacitors are TURNS
insulated from ground within the
container. Since the design is one-
half size for each band, the tuning 16.5 23
TURNS TURNS
is somewhat critical. 2O-t.4ETER
DRIVEN
ELEMENT IS-METER 2O-METER
M"AWMINUM REFkECTOR DIRECTOR IS-METER
TUBING 2O-t.4ETER DRIVEN
GAMMA CAPACITOR ELEMENT
No.8 SELF TAPPING BOX
SCREW
HOSE CLAMP
~'--IY8" PLEXIGLAS
ROD

...
Fig. 2 - Coupling details
for joining sections of al-
uminum tubing.
1 - - - - 6' i
.. I I
~--------9'-------~'~
1--_ _ _ _ _ _ 15' _ _ _ _ _--1·
614 HF ANTENNAS
the switch is mounted. It is a simple matter to
provide voltage to the switch for operation on one
TABLE I of the two bands.
Complete parts list for the short beam. An etched-circuit board was mounted inside an
QTY MATERIAL aluminum Minibox to provide support and insula-
9 Eight-foot lengths of aluminum tubing, tion for each of the gamma tuning capacitors.
1-1/4" dia Plastic refrigerator boxes available from most
11 U bolts department stores would serve just as well The
2 Variable capacitors, 140 pF (E.F. capacitor housing is mounted to the boom by
Johnson) means of U bolts.
4' Plexiglas cast rod, 1-1/8" dia The builder is encouraged to follow the di-
16 Stainless steel hose clamps, 1-1/2" dia
1 Aluminum plate, eight-inches square mensions given in Fig. 1 as a starting point for the
10' Aluminum solid rod, 1/4"dia position of the gamma rods and shorting bar.
2 Refrigerator boxes, 4 X 4 X 4 inches Placing the antenna near the top of the tower and
25' Nylon rope, 1/8" dia then tilting it to allow the capacitors to be reached
16 No.8 sheet metal screws makes it possible to adjust the capacitors for
16 No.8 solder lugs minimum SWR as indicated by an SWR meter (or
8 Plastic (or rubber) end caps, 1-1/4" dia power meter) connected in the feed line at the
relay. If the SWR cannot be reduced below some
nominal figure of approximately 1.4: 1, a slight
element ends. Rubber feet suitable for keeping repositioning of the gamma short might be re-
furniture from scratching hardwood floors would quired. The dimensions given are for operation at
serve the same purpose. In fact, the rubber tips 14.050 MHz and 21.050 MHz. The SWR climbs
prevent the element ends from damaging sur- above 2: 1 about 50 kHz in either direction from
rounding objects during installation. the center frequency.
A heavy-duty steel mast should be used, such as
a one-inch-diameter galvanized water pipe. Steel
TV mast is also acceptable. Any conventional TV AN OPTIMUM-GAIN TWO-BAND ARRAY
type antenna rotator should hold up under load If optimum performance is desired from a Yagi,
conditions presented by this antenna. Nevertheless, the dual4-element array shown in Fig. 21-43 will
certain precautions should be taken to assure be of interest. This antenna consists of four
continued trouble-free service. For instance, elements on IS meters interlaced with the same
whenever possible, mount the rotator inside the number for 10. Wide spacing is used, providing
tower and extend the mast through the tower top excellent gain and goed bandwidth on both bands.
sleeve. This procedure relieves the rotator from Each driven element is fed separately with 50-ohm
having to handle lateral pressures during windy coax; gamma-matching systems are employed. If
weather conditions. A thrust bearing is desirable to desired, a single feed line can be run to the array
reduce downward forces on the rotator bearings. and then switched by a remotely controlled relay.
The element lengths shown in Fig. 2146 are for
Hookup and Operation
The monoband nature of the beam requires the
use of two coaxial feed lines. The coaxial cable is
attached to the IS-meter element (at the front of
the beam) at the gamma-capacitor box. The other
{ REFL.

17' 3Yz"
~,
I
23' 25/a"

end of the cable is connected to a surplus 2S-V dc

single-pole coaxial switch. The cable for the
20-meter element is connected in a similar fashion.
e'
l-
The switch allows the use of a single feed line from
the shack to a point just below the antenna where DRIVEN 22' J/4"
LEMENT
16' s!4"

Fig. 21-43 - Ready for erection, this is the

completed dual-band beam. 8' 6'

1ST
IRECTOR 15'7!4"
20'liYz"

8'

2ND 15'3%"
1
IRECTOR
20'6Y4 "

Fig. 21-46 - The element lengths shown are for

the phone sections of the bands. Table 21-11
provides the dimensions for cw frequencies.
the phone portions of the band, centered at 21,300
and 28,600 kHz. If desired, the element lengths
c~ b~ c~ged . for cw operation, using the
dimensIOns gIven In Table 21·11. The spacing of the
elements will remain the same for both phone and
cwo
Construction Details
The elements are supported by commercially
made U-bolt assemblies. Or, muffler clamps make
excellent element supports. The boom-to-mast
support is also a manufactured item that is
designed to hold a 2-inch diameter boom and that
can be used with mast sizes up to 2 1/2 inches in Fig. 21-45 - This is the boom-to-mast fixture that
diameter. Another feature of this device is that it holds the two 12-foot boom sections together. The
permits the beam to be tilted after it is mounted in unit is made by Hy-Gain Electronics, P. O. Box
place on the tower, providing access to the 5407-HE, Lincoln, NE 68505.
elements if they need to be adjusted once the beam
has been mounted on the tower. Materials
The elements are made from 6061-T6 alumi- Since the early use of quads, bamboo poles
num tubing, which is available from metal have been popular as supports for the antenna
suppliers. The tubing comes in 12-foot lengths and wires. Lately, fiberglas rods, and even aluminum
can be purchased in telescoping sizes. The center supports, have become popular. Several concerns 1
sections of the IS-meter beam elements are I-inch manufacture a complete line of quad hardware
outside diameter and the lO-meter sections are plus fiberglas poles. Bam boo fishing poles are still
3/4-inch. The ends of the tubing are slit with a obtainable in some areas of the country, and
hack saw, and hose clamps are used to hold the another source is rug dealers and importers.
telescoping portions.
Fig. 21-47 shows the dimensions needed for a Quad Details
match to 50-ohm line for the commercially made For a two-element, triband quad, the best
gamma-match sections. These dimensions may vary compromise in spacing appears to be 8 feet
for other installations. If desired, a homemade between elements. If proportional spacing is used,
matching section can be constructed as outlined in 6, 8, and 10 feet for 10, 15, and 20 meters,
the antenna matching section of this chapter. respectively, will provide excellent gain and
bandwidth.
A TRIBAND QUAD Shown in Fig. 21-48 are the formula and
typical lengths for the driven elements of a triband
Of the different types of triband antennas, the
quad is a good performer. There are no trap losses array. With 8-foot spacing, the impedances of the
with a quad and probably more important, the driven elements will be 75 ohms on 14 MHz, 100
element spacing of quad loops is not as critical as a ohms on 21 MHz, and 125 ohms on 28 MHz,
Yagi. Also, a two-element quad has approximately approximately. If SWR is no concern, the elements
the same gain as a three-element Yagi. can be fed directly with 50-0hm cable. However, a
It is recommended that separate feed lines be matching section is recommended for 15 and 10
used to a triband quad array. A remotely meters. The simplest method is to use a
controlled relay can be installed at the beam and a quarter-wave matching section made from
single line run to the relay, if desired. RG-ll/U. One end of the RG-ll/U is attached to
There has been much argument that the square the driven element, as shown in Fig. 21-49, and the
configuration is better than the diamond, but no other end is spliced to the 50-ohm feed line (any
evidence has been presented to show that this is length) to the station. Be sure to make a
true. In fact, if the antenna is subject to icing water-proof splice because moisture can get into
conditions, the diamond would be preferred the jacket of coax and ruin the line.
because the water and ice tends to run off, rather Alternatively, a gamma matching section can be
than "hanging" on to the quad wires. employed. The basic design is shown in Fig. 21-49
at B. The gamma rod, G, can be made from
-A- 1/4-inch diameter tubing or rod. With the

BOOM~ 0 dimensions given, one should be very close to a

~ .J~
B match, and only slight adjustment of the gamma
shorting bar and capacitor C should be required to
... obtain an SWR of 1. Receiving variables can be
A: 8l'2" Dt"lven. used for C, mounted in a water-proof enclosure
21,300 KHz Element (such as a small freezer box) directly at the bottom
B : 30\12"
of the driven element.
A: 8"
28,600 KHz B: 21"
1 Kirk Electronics, 400 Town St., East Haddam,
CT 06423.
Fi\l. 21-47 - Dimensions used with the commercial Also, Skylane Products, 406 Bon Air Ave., Temple
gammas for a match to 50-ohm cable. Terrace, FL 33617 (Catalog available).
 616 HF ANTENNAS
STuB LENGTHS
14 MHz. ~ 50"
21 MHz = 40"
28 MHz. =30"
STlJB
SHORTING BAR
ENOS TIED TO BOOM
'----WlTH INSULATED LINE

1005
DRIVEN ELEMENTS = f MHz
OVERAll SIDE
LENGTH LENGTH
14.25 MHz = 70'6" 17'7'12"
21.30 MHZ = 47'2" 11'9'12"
28.60 MHz = 35'2" 8' 9Y2"

Fig. 21-48 - Driven-element lengths for a triband

quad.

The reflectors can be made 3 percent longer

than the dimensions given for the driven elements.
However, for optimum performance, they should
be tuned, using a stub and a shorting bar, as shown
in Fig. 21-48B. The stubs can be made from
TV-type Twin-lead. The reflector elements should
be made the same length as the driven elements if
stubs are used.
The reflectors can be tuned by setting up a
signal source, preferably at least several hundred
feet from the antenna. A grid-dip meter feeding a
dipole makes a good reference signal. With the
back of the array aimed at the signal source, and a
receiver with an S meter attached to the quad
feeder, adjust the shorting bar on the reflector for
maximum rejection of the signal (minimum
S-meter reading). If directors are used, they should
be made 5 percent shorter than the driven
elements.
An interesting four-band quad is shown at Fig. Fig. 21-50 - Here is a 4-band quad, designed by
21-50. This antenna, designed by G3FPQ, is a G3FPQ.
4-element beam on 2(}', 15-, and l(}.meter bands
and a 2-element, linear-loaded quad on 40 meters. mately 40 percent from a full-size quad. This
The 4(}.meter elements are full-wave loops, folded means that the sides are only a few feet longer than
back on themselves at the sides, as shown in Fig. the 20-meter quad. (See Feb., 1972, QST for
21-51. The overall reduction in size is approxi- details).

L= 21 MHZ = 7'8"
28 MHz 5'6" = 1-1·~~--25'4".

I - - - - - - - L - - - - - -__
\ I I"
._-
~18'
RG-l1/U Onven
l- 3"
f- 3"
~ Element
Splice to SO -ohm
coaxial caiJ/e
(A)
,;
b
I- 4'-1
~ .... - 4'_
1
l' b"
T
I

BANO CpF G L

L
14 100 42" 36"
21 75 32" 26"
f---
28 r-so 24;;- ~
Fig. 21-51 - Method of folding to obtain linear
Fig. 21-49 ~ Matching sections for quad elements. loading on the G3FPQ 40-meter elements.
 A 20-METER VERTICAL BEAM

An excellent parasitic array for 20 meters is a

3-element vertical beam originally described by
W2FMI in June, 1972, QST. The antenna is
actually one-half of a Yagi array using quarter-wave
elements with spacing between elements of 0.2
wavelength (12-1/2 feet on 20 meters). This
spacing results in a good compromise between gain
and input impedance. Closer spacing would reduce
the input impedance, and hence the efficiency,
because of the inherent earth losses with vertical
antennas. This vertical symmetrical Yagi allows for
electrical beam switching (changing a director into
a reflector by switching in a loading coil at the
base) while maintaining a constant input imped-
ance at the driven element. The dimensions of the Fig. 21-52 - Base hardware of the driven el ement
and the matching transformer.
three-element antenna, when used as a fixed or a
switched array, are shown in Table 21-IV. The
elemen ts are constructed using 1/ 16-inch-wall al-
uminum tubing and consist of three telescoping
sections with one-inch OD tubing used for the
bottom portions. This results in a self-supporting
structure. Actually, many choices are available,
including No. 14 or 12 wire taped to bamboo
poles.
The three-element array with the full image
plane presents an input impedance of 15 ohms.
Matching is accomplished with the step-down
transformer, a 4: 1 unbalanced-to-unbalenced tor-
oidal balun. This transformer is also shown in Fig.
21-52 connected to the driven element.
Fig. 21-53 shows the geometry of the image
plane. The inner square has a diagonal of 4/10
wavelength (25 feet). The outer wires of these
sections are No. 14 wire and the inner wires are
No. 18. All cross-connected wires were wire-
wrapped and soldered. The pattern was chosen to
give an easy path for the surface currents of a
five-element array (parasitic elements at the four
corners). The outer radials were all 0.4 wavelength
long and also of No. 18 wire. Twenty-five wires
emanated from each corner and nine from the
sides. Fig. 21-53 - Geometry of the image plane used in
this investigation. The pattern was chosen to
approximate lines of current flow.

TABLE 21-IV Fig. 21-54 - Base of one of the parasitic elements

showing the relay enclosure, loading coil, and the
Dimensions of 20-Meter Parasitic 3-Element Array indicator meter of the field-strength detector,
J) Fixed Array which was located 2 wavelengths away.
Director 15ft8in.
Driven Element 16 ft
Reflector 17ft7in.
Spacing Between Elements 12-1/2 ft
2) Switched Array
Director and Reflector 15 ft
Driven Element 16 ft
Spacing Between Elements 12-1/2 ft
Loading COil 2 ft No. 12 wire
wound 3 turns
with 3 in. dia.
Length adjusted
for max. FIB
ratio
 618 HF ANTENNAS

STANDARD SIZES OF ALUMINUM ruBIN G

Many hams like to experiment with antennas 3/4-inch tubing with a 0.05S-inch wall which has
but one problem in making antennas using alum- an inside diameter of 0.634 inches. Having used
inum tubing is knowing what sizes of tubing are quite a bit of this type tubing it is possible to state
available. If you want to build a beam, many that 0.009-inch clearance is just right for a slip fit
questions about tubing sizes, weights, what size or for slotting the tubing and then using hose
tubing fits into what other size, and so forth must clamps. To repeat, always get the next larger size
be answered. and specify a 0.05S-inch wall to obtain the
Table 21-V gives the standard sizes of aluminum 0.009-inch clearance.
tubing that are stocked by most aluminum suppliers With the chart, a little figuring will provide all
or distributors in the United States and Canada. the information needed to build a beam, including
Note that all tubing comes in 12-foot lengths and what the antenna will weigh. The 6061-T6 type of
also that any diameter tubing will fit into the next aluminum is a relatively high strength and has good
larger size, if the larger size has a 0.05S-inch wall workability, plus being highly resistant to cor-
thickness. For example, 5/S-inch tubing has an rosion and will bend without taking a "set."
outside diameter of 0.625 inches and will fit into Check the Yellow Pages for aluminum dealers.

TABLE 21-V
6061-T6 (615-T6) ROUND ALUMINUM TUBE
In 12-Foot lengths

o. D. WALL THICKNESS I. D. APPROX. WEIGHT O. D. WALL THICKNESS I. D. APPROX. WEIGHT

Inche. Inches Stubs Ga. Inches Per Foot Per Length Inche. Inches Stubs Ga. Inches Per Foot Per Length

¥.6" .035 (No. 20) •117 .019 lb •• .228 lb •. 1" .083 (No. 14) .834 .281 lb.. 3.372 lb ••
•049 (No.1 8) •089 .025 lb •• .330 lb •.
1 V," .035 (No. 20) 1.055 .1 39 lb.. 1.668 lb ••
%" .035 (No. 20) •180 .027 lb •• •324 lb •. .058 (No. 17) 1.009 .228 lb.. 2.736 lb ••
•049 (No.1 8) . 152 .036 lb •• .432 lb •.
1 %" .035 (No. 20) 1.180 •155 lb •• 1.860 lb •.
.058 (No.1 7) .134 .041 lb •. .492 lb •.
.049 (No.1 8) 1.1 52 •210 lb •. 2.520 lb ••
%" .035 (No. 20) •242 .036 lb •• .432 lb •. .058 (No. 17) 1.134 . 256 lb •. 3.072 lb •.
.049 (No. 18) .214 .047 lb •• .564 lb •. .065 (No. 1 6) 1.120 . 284 lb •. 3.408 lb ••
.058 (No.1 7) . 196 .055 lb •• .660 lb •. .083 (No. 14) 1.0B4 .357 lb •• 4.284 lb ••
0/&" .035 (No. 20) . 305 •043 lb •. .516 lb •. 1 :y." .035 (No. 20) 1.305 .173 lb •. 2.076 lb ••
.049 (No.1 8) . 277 .060 lb •. .720 lb •. •058 (No. 17) 1.259 .282 lb •. 3.384 lb ••
.058 (No. 17) . 259 .068 lb •• .816 lb •.
1 Vl" .035 (No.20) 1.430 . 180 lb •. 2.160 lb •.
.065 (No.1 6) . 245 .074 lb •• .888 lb •.
.049 (No.18) 1.402 . 260 lb •. 3.120 lb •.
VI." .035 (No. 20) •367 .051 lb •• .612 lb •. •05B (No.17) 1.384 .309 lb •. 3.708 lb ••
.049 (No.1 8) . 339 .070 lb •• .840 lb •. .065 (No.16) 1.370 . 344 lb •. 4.128 lb ••
.065 (No.1 6) . 307 .089 lb •. 1.068 lb •. .083 (No.14) 1.334 . 434 lb •. 5.208 lb ••
!fl" .028 (No. 22) . 444 .049 lb •. .588 lb •.
*.125 Va" 1.250 •630 lb •• 7.416 lb ••
•035 (No. 20) . 430 .059 lb •• .708 lb •.
*.250 %" 1.000 1.1 50 lb •• 14.832 lb ••
.049 (No. 18) . 402 .082 lb •• .984 lb •. 1 ¥a" .035 (No. 20) 1.555 .206 lb •• 2.472 lb ••
.058 (No. 17) . 384 .095 lb •• 1.040 lb •. . 058 (No. 17) 1.509 .336 lb •• 4.032 lb ••
•065 (No. 16) •370 .107 lb •• 1.284 lb •.
13A" .058 (No. 17) 1.634 .363 lb.. 4.356 lb •.
¥a" .028 (No. 22) . 569 .061 lb •. .732 lb •. .083 (No. 14) 1.584 .510 Ib,. 6.120 lb •.
.035 (No. 20) . 555 .075 lb •. .900 lb •.
1 Va" .058 (No. 17) 1.759 .389 lb.. 4.668 lb ••
•049 (No.1 8) . 527 .106 lb •. 1.272 Ib,.
.058 (No. 17) . 509 . 121 lb •. 1.452 Ib, . 2" .049 (No. 18) 1.902 .350 lb •. 4.200 lb ••
.065 (No. 16) . 495 . 137 lb •. 1.644 lb •. .065 (No. 16) 1.870 .450 lb •. 5.400 lb •.
.083 (No. 14) 1.834 .590 lb •. 7.080 lb ••
=\4" .035 (No. 20) . 680 .091 lb •. 1.092 Ib, .
*.125 Va" 1.750 .870 lb •• 9.960 lb ••
.049
•058
(No.1 8)
(No. 17)
. 652
.634
.125 lb •. 1.500
1.776
Ib,.
Ib,.
*.250 v.. II 1.500 1.620 lb •• 19.920 lb ••
.148 lb •.
.065 (No.1 6) . 620 .160 lb •. 1.920 lb •. 2%" .049 (No. 18) 2.152 .398 lb •. 4.776 lb ••
.083 (No. 14) . 584 .204 lb •. 2.448 lb •. .065 (No. 16) 2.120 .520 lb •. 6.240 lb ••
.083 (No. 14) 2.084 .660 lb •. 7.920 lb ••
Va" .035 (No. 20) . 805 .108 lb •. 1.308 Ib, .
.049 (No.1 8) .777 .151 lb •. 1.810 Ib,. 2Vl" .065 (No. 16) 2.370 •587 Ib, . 7.044 lb ••
•058 (No. 17) .759 .175 lb •. 2.100 lb •. .083 (No. 14) 2.334 .740 lb •. B.880 lb ••
.065 (No.1 6) .745 .199 lb •. 2.399 Ib, . *.125 Va" 2.250 1.1 00 lb •. 12.720 lb ••
1" .035 (No. 20) .930 .123 lb •. 1.476 Ib,.
*.250 V4" 2.000 2.080 lb •. 25.440 lb ••
•049 . (No.1 8) .902 .170 lb •. 2.040Ib,. 3" .065 (No. 16) 2.870 .710 Ibs. 8.520 fb, .
•058 (No. 17) . 884 .202 lb •. 2.424 lb •. *.125 Va" 2.700 1.330 lb •. 15.600 lb ••
.065 (No.1 6) .870 .220 lb •. 2.640 Ib,. *.250 'A" 2.500 2.540 lb •. 31.200Ib,•
--------------------------------~--------------------------.-----
"'The.e .ize. ore extruded. All other .ize. ore drown tube ••
 Antenna Supports 619
ANTENNA SUPPORTS

"A"-FRAME MAST
The simple and inexpensive mast shown in Fig. about two feet. The lower section thus has two legs
21-55 is satisfactory for heights up to 35 or 40 spaced the width of the narrow side of a 2 X 3. At
feet. Clear, sound lumber should be selected. The the bottom the two legs are bolted to a length of 2
completed mast may be protected by two or three X 4 which is set in the ground. A short length of 2
coats of house paint. X 3 is placed between the two legs about halfway
If the mast is to be erected on the ground, a up the bottom section, to maintain the spacing.
couple of stakes should be driven to keep the The two back guys at the top pull against the
bottom from slipping and it may then be "walked antenna, while the three lower guys prevent
up" by a pair of helpers. If it is to go on a roof, buckling at the center of the pole_
first stand it up against the side of the building and The 2 X 4 section should be set in the ground
then hoist it from the roof, keeping it vertical. The so that it faces the proper direction, and then made
whole assembly is light enough for two men to vertical by lining it up with a plumb bob. The holes
perform the complete operation - lifting the mast, for the bolts should be drilled beforehand. With
carrying it to its permanent berth, and fastening the lower section laid on the ground, bolt A should
the guys - with the mast vertical all the while. It is be slipped in place through the three pieces of
entirely practicable, therefore, to errect this type wood and tightened just enough so that the section
of mast on any small, flat area of roof. can turn freely on the bolt. Then the top section
By using 2 X 3s or 2 X 4s, the height may be may be bolted in place and the mast pushed up,
extended up to about 50 feet. The 2 X 2 is too using a ladder or another 20-foot 2 X 3 for the job.
flexible to be satisfactory at such heights. As the mast goes up, the slack in the guys can be
taken up so that the whole structure is in some
SIMPLE 40-FOOT MAST measure continually supported. When the mast is
vertical, bolt B should be slipped in place and both
The mast shown in Fig. 21-56 is relatively
A and B tightened. The lower guys can then be
strong, easy to construct, readily dismantled, and
given a final tightening, leaving those at the top a
costs very little. Like the "A"-frame, it is suitable
little slack until the antenna is pulled up, when
for heights of the order of 40 feet.
they should be adjusted to pull the top section into
The top section is a single 2 X 3, bolted at the
line.
bottom between a pair of 2 X 3s with an overlap of

TOTAL HEIGHT
40FT. P/.US
v TOP GUYS

20'

y
GUlf front and bock
here -no side guys

ANT 0
Three Zx2s t.
/
l"Iecessa'Y

~Cam~holts
Each 22 ft. ---
CENTER GUVS

'"Onl/ Ys. hole thru

u,ori9hts andhammeJ
Fig. 21-56 - A
lin,sPikes simple and sturdy
mast for hei ghts in
the vicinity of 40
feet, pivoted at the
base for easy erec-
tion. The height can
be extended to 50
feet or more by
using 2 X 4s instead
of 2 X 3s.
Fig. 21-55 - Details of a simple 40-foot "A"-frame
mast suitable for erection in locations where space
is limited.
 HF ANTENNAS
tower could be hinged at the roof peak and then
tilted over onto the roof (making antenna work a
little easier). In the installation shown, two men
are required to raise or lower the tower - one man
to "walk" the tower down and another on the
roof, with a rope or tackle, to lower the assembly.
As shown in Fig. 21-59, the beam rotator is
mounted near eaves. TV masting is run up through
the center of the tower both as a support for the
beam and also as a drive shaft. This serves to
reduce the amount of weight that the tower has
to carry near the top. The rotator shown is a TV
type and will easily tum a small triband beam or
quad.

GUYS AND GUY ANCHORS

For masts or poles up to about 50 feet, No. 12
iron wire is a satisfactory guy-wire material.
Heavier wire or stranded cable may be used for
taller poles or poles installed in locations where the
wind velocity is likely to be high.
More than three guy wires in anyone set
usually are unnecessary. If a horizontal antenna is
to be supported, two guy wires in the top set will
be sufficient in most cases. These should run to the
rear of the mast about 100 degrees apart to offset
the pull of the antenna. Intermediate guys should
be used in sets of three, one running in a direction
opposite to that of the antenna, while the other
Fig. 21-57 - While guys are not normally required two are spaced 120 degrees either side. This leaves
for the homemade tower, they provide an extra a clear space under the antenna. The guy wires
measure of protection against high winds. An should be adjusted to pull the pole slightly back
inverted V can serve here as two of the guy lines. from vertical before the antenna is hoisted so that
when the antenna is pulled up tight the mast will
be straight.
A LOW COST TI L T-OVER TOWER
':)hown in Fig. 21-57 is a low-cost 3D-foot
tilt-over tower that can be made from readily
available lumber. The tower will easily support a
small triband beam or Quad, and it can also serve as

~l
the midpoint connection for an inverted V. Fig.
21-60 shows the fixed section of the tower,
anchored at the bottom in concrete (poured to a 2X4
depth of 3 feet) and attached at the eaves with lag
bolts. The sides of the fixed section are made from 25

~H--J
12-foot-long 2 X 6s with 1 X 4 cross members. The
inside dimension of the support is given in Fig.
21-58.
The tilt-over portion of the tower is made from
2 X 4s 3D-feet long. Local lumber companies can
order 3D-foot (or longer) 2 X 4s. The complete
tower cost was less than $35. The cross members
of the tilt-over section are 2 X 4s, 9 inches long.
These cross members are installed 25 inches apart,
center-to-center. Additional bracing is provided by
1 X4
diagonally mounted stringers made from 1 X 2
stock. In the installation shown, the tower is tilted
over from the bottom. One-inch diameter bolts
installed at the bottom serve as the hinge. Bolts are
also used near the eaves to secure the tower when
it is in the upright position.
In the installation shown (at WICUT) the tower
had to be mounted against the side of the house,
rather than at the end which would be a preferable Fig. 21·58 - Constructional details of the fixed
location. If installed at the end of the house, the and tilt-over sections of the tower.
r-----

Guys and Guy Anchors

When raising a mast that is big enough to tax

the available facilities, it is some advantage to
know nearly exactly the length of the guys. Those
on the side on which the pole is lying can then be
fastened temporarily to the anchors beforehand,
which assures that when the pole is raised, those
holding opposite guys will be able to pull it into
nearly vertical position with no danger of its
getting out of control. The guy lengths can be
figured by the right-angled-triangle rule that "the
sum of the squares of the two sides is equal to the
square of the hypotenuse." In other words, the
distance from the base of the pole to the anchor
should be measured and squared. To this should be
added the square of the pole length to the point
where the guy is fastened. The square root of this
sum will be the length of the guy.
Guy wires should be broken up by strain
insulators, to avoid the possibility of resonance at
the transmitting frequency. Common practice is to
insert an insulator near the top of each guy, within
a few feet of the pole, and then cut each section of
wire between the insulators to a length which will
not be resonant either on the fundamental or Fig. 21·59 - This close-up shows the rotor and
harmonics. An insulator every 25 feet will be cable installations. A double 2 X 4 is used as the
satisfactory for frequencies up to 30 MHz. The base support for the rotator.
insulators should be of the "egg" type with the
insulating material under compression, so that the Guy wires may be anchored to a tree or
guy will not part if the insulator breaks. building when they happen to be in convenient
Twisting guy wires onto "egg" insulators may spots. For small poles, a 6-foot length of I-inch
be a tedious job if the guy wires are long and of pipe driven into the ground at an angle will suffice.
large gauge. A simple time- and finger-saving device
(piece of heavy iron or steel) can be made by Fig. 21·60_ The tower base support is made from
drilling a hole about twice the diameter of the guy 2 X 6s, the ends of which are in a 3-foot concrete
wire about a half inch from one end of the piece. base.
The wire is passed through the insulator, given a
single turn by hand, and then held with a pair of
pliers at the point shown in Fig. 21-61. By passing
the wire through the hole in the iron and rotating
the iron as shown, the wire may be quickly and
neatly twisted.

HALYARDS AND PULLEYS

Halyards or ropes and pulleys are important
items in the antenna-supporting system. Particular
attention should be directed toward the choice of a
pulley and halyards for a high mast since
replacement, once the mast is in position, may be a
major undertaking if not entirely impossible.
Galvanized-iron pulleys will have a life of only a
year or so. Especially for coastal-area installations,

~
marine-type pulleys with hardwood blocks and
bronze wheels and bearings should be used.
For short antennas and temporary installations,
heavy clothesline or window-sash cord may be

~
used. However, for more permanent jobs, 3/8-inch d _ _ _ _ _ __
or 1/2-inch waterproof hemp rope should be used.
Even this should be replaced about once a year to
insure against breakage.
It is advisable to carry the pulley rope back up
to the top in "endless" fashion in the manner of a
flag hoist so that if the antenna breaks close to the
pole, there will be a means for pulling the hoisting
rope back down.
622 HF ANTENNAS
of air clearance about the conducting rod,
especially when using tuned lines that develop high
voltages. Probably the best place to go through the
walls is the trimming board at the top or bottom of
a window frame whlch provides flat surfaces for
lead-in insulators. Cement or rubber gaskets may
be used to waterproof the exposed joints.
Where such a procedure is not permissible, the
window itself usually offers the best opportunity.
One satisfactory method is to drill holes in the
glass near the top of the upper sash. If the glass is
replaced by plate glass, a stronger job will result.
Plate glass may be obtained from automobile junk
yards, and drilled before placing in the frame. The
glass itself provides insulation and the transmission
line may be fastened to bolts fitting the holes.
Rubber gaskets will render the holes waterproof.
Fig.21-61 - Using a lever for twisting heavy guy The lower sash should be provided with stops to
wires. prevent damage when it is raised. If the window
has a full-length screen, the scheme shown in Fig.
21-63B may be used.
BRINGING THE As a less permanent method, the window may
be raised from the bottom or lowered from the top
FEED LINE INTO THE STATION
to permit insertion of a board whlch carries the
The antenna or transmission line should be feedthrough insulators. This lead-in arrangement
anchored to the outside wall of the building, as can be made weatherproof by making an
shown in Fig. 21-63, to remove strain from the overlapping joint between the board and window
lead-in insulators. Holes cut through the walls of sash, as shown in Fig. 21-62, or by using
the building and fitted with feed through insulators weatherstrip material where necessary.
are undoubtedly the best means of bringing the Coaxial line can be brought through clearance
line into the station. The holes should have plenty holes without additional insulation.

IWno'ow Sc,..n
u/a.ss

Sill
10 f""d- thn>V9h
insulators
A B

Fig. 21-63 - A - Anchoring feeders takes the

Fig. 21-62 - An antenna lead-in panel may be strain from feed-through insulators or window
placed over the top sash or under the lower sash of glass. B - Going through a full-length screen, a
a window. Substituting a smaller height sash in half cleat is fastened to the frame of the screen on the
the window will simplify the weatherproofing inside. Clearance holes are cut in the cleat and also
problem where the sash overlaps. in the screen.
 Chapter 22

VHF and UHF Antennas

Improving his antenna system is one of the approximating cigar shape, but this is done mainly
most productive moves open to the vhf enthusiast. with simple antennas. More practically, wide
It can increase transmitting range, improve frequency coverage may be a reason to select a
reception, reduce interference problems, and bring collinear array, rather than a Yagi. On the other
other practical benefits. The work itself is by no hand, the gr9wing tendency to channelize opera-
means the least attractive part of the job. With tions in small segments of our bands tends to place
even high-gain antennas, experimentation is greatly broad frequency coverage low on the priority list
simplified, at vhf and uhf, because an array is a of most vhf stations.
workable size, and much can be learned about the Radiation Pattern: Antenna radiation can be
nature and adjustment of antennas. No large made omnidirectional, bidirectional, practically
investment in test equipment is necessary. unidirectional, or anything between these condi-
Whether we buy or build our antennas, we soon tions. A vhf net operator may find an omnidi-
find that there is no one "best" design for all rectional system almost a necessity, but it may be a
purposes. Selecting the antenna best suited to our poor choice otherwise. Noise pickup and other
needs involves much more than scanning gain interference problems tend to be greater with such
figures and prices in a manufacturer's catalog. The antennas, and those having some gain are especially
first step should be to establish p~iorities. bad in these respects. Maximum gain and low
radiation angle are usually prime interests of the
OBJECTIVES weak-signal DX aspirant. A clean pattern, with
lowest possible pickUp and radiation off the sides
Gain: Shaping the pattern of an antenna, to
and back, may be important in high-activity areas,
concentrate radiated energy, or received - signal
or where the noise level is high.
pickup, in some directions at the expense of others
Height Gain: In general, the higher the better in
is the only way to develop gain. This is best
vhf antenna installations. If raising the antenna
explained by starting with the hypothetical
clears its view over nearby obstructions, it may
isotropic antenna, which would radiate equally in
make dramatic improvements in coverage. Within
all directions. A point source of light illuminating
reason greater height is almost always worth its
the inside of a globe uniformly, from its center, is a
cost, but height gain must be balanced against
visual analogy. No practical antenna can do this, so
all antennas have "gain over isotropic" (dBi). A increased transmission-line loss. The latter is
half-wave dipole in free space has 2.1 dBi. If we considerable, and it increases with frequency. The
can plot the radiation pattern of antenna in all best available line may be none too good, if the run
planes, we can compute its gain, so quoting it with is long in terms of wavelength. Give line-loss
respect to isotropic is a logical base for agreement information, shown in table form in Chapter 20,
and understanding. It is rarely possible to erect a close scrutiny in any antenna planning.
half-wave antenna that has anything approaching a Physical Size: A given antenna design for 432
free-space pattern, and this fact is responsible for MHz will have the same gain as one for 144 MHz,
much of the confusion about true antenna gain. but being only one-third the size it will intercept
Radiation patterns can be controlled in various only one-third as much energy in receiving. Thus,
ways. One is to use two or more driven elements, to be equal in communication effectiveness, the
fed in phase. Such collinear arrays provide gain 432-MHz array should be at least equal in size to
without markedly sharpening the frequency the 144-MHz one, which will require roughly three
response, compared to that of a single element. times as many elements. With all the extra
More gain per element, but with a sacrifice in difficulties involved in going higher in frequency, it
is well to be on the big side, in building an antenna
frequency coverage, is obtained by placing parasitic
elements longer and shorter than the driven one, in
the plane the fust element, but not driven from the
for the higher band.

DESIGN FACTORS
I
feedline. The reflector and directors of a Vagi array
are highly frequency sensitive and such an antenna Having sorted out objectives in a general way,
is at its best over frequency changes of less than we face decisions on specifics, such as polarization,
one percent of the operating frequency. type of transmission line, matching methods and
Frequency Response: Ability to work over an mechanical design.
entire vhf band may be important in some types of Polarization: Whether to position the antenna
work. The response of an antenna element can be elements vertical or horizontal has been a moot
broadened somewhat by increasing the conductor point since early vhf pioneering. Tests show little
diameter, and by tapering it to something evidence on which to set up a uniform polarization

623
624 VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS
policy. On long paths there is no consis~ent snow or icing. The best grades of coax are
advantage, either way. Shorter paths tend to YIeld impervious to weather. They can be run under-
higher signal levels with horizontal in some kinds ground, fastened to metal towers without insula-
of terrain. Man-made noise, especially ignition tion, or bent into any convenient position, with no
interference, tends to be lower with horizontal. adverse effects on performance.
Verticals are markedly simpler to use in omnidirec-
tional systems, and in mobile work. Impedance Matching
Early vhf communication was largely vertical, Theory and practice in impedance matching are
but horizontal gained favor when directional arrays given in detail in earlier chapters, and theory, at
became widely used. The major trend to fm and least, is the same for frequencies above 50 MHz.
repeaters, particularly in the 144-MHz band, has Practice may be similar, bu t physical size can be a
tipped the balance in favor of verticals in mobile major modifying factor in choice of methods. Only
work and for repeaters. Horizontal predominates in the matching devices used in practical construction
other communication, on 50 MHz and higher examples later in this chapter will be discussed in
frequencies. It is well to check in advance in any detail here. This should not rule out consideration
new area in which you expect to operate, however, of other methods, however, and' a reading of
as some localities still use vertical almost relevant portions of Chapters 20 and 21 is
exclusively. A circuit loss of 20 dB or more can be recommended.
expected with cross-polarization. Universal Stub: As its name implies, the
Transmission Lines: There are two main double-adjustment stub of Fig. 22-1A is useful for
categories of transmission lines: balanced and many matching purposes. The stub length is varied
unbalanced. The former include open-wire lines to resonate the system, and the transmission line is
separated' by insulating spreaders, and Twin-Lead, tapped onto the stub at the point where line and
in which the wires are embedded in solid or stub impedances are equal. In practice this involves
foamed insulation. Line losses result from ohmic moving both the sliding short and the point of line
resistance, radiation from the line, and deficiencies connection for zero reflected power, as indicated
in the insulation. Large conductors, closely spaced on an SWR bridge connected in the line.
in terms of wavelength, and using a minimum of The universal stub allows for tuning out any
insulation, make the best balanced lines. Impe- small reactance present in the driven part of the
dances are mainly 300 to 500 ohms. Balanced lines
are best in straight runs. If bends are unavoidable, Al11fload
---.,~-~-
the angles should be as obtuse as possible. Care
should be taken to prevent one wire from coming
closer to metal objects than the, other. Wire spacing A A I D
should be less than 1/20 wavelength.
Properly built, open-wire line can operate with
AfUj linear
cO(u'LuL
l~V
bolJun,
very low loss in vhf and even uhf installations. A
total line loss under 2 dB per hundred feet at 432
MHz is readily obtained. A line made of No. 12
wire, spaced 3/4 inch or less with Teflon spreaders,
and running essentially straight from antenna to
station, can be better than anything but the most E
expensive coax, at a fraction of the cost. This
assumes use ofbaluns to match into and out of the
line, with a short length of quality coax for the
moving section from the top of the tower to the
antenna. A similar 144-MHz setup could have a line
loss under 1 dB. F
Small coax such as RG-58 or 59 should never
be used in vhf work if the run is more than a few
feet. Half-inch lines (RG-8 or 11) work fairly well
at 50 MHz, and are acceptable for 144-MHz runs of
50 feet or less. If these lines have foam rather Fig. 22-1 - Matching methods commonly used in
than solid insulation they are about 30 percent vhf antennas. The universal stub, A, combines
tuning and matching. The adjustable short on the
better. Aluminum-jacket lines with large inner stub, and the points of connection of the
conductors and foam insulation are well worth transmission line, are adjusted for minimum
their cost. They are readily water-proofed, and can reflected power in the line. In the delta match, B
last almost indefinitely. Beware of any "bargains" and C, the line is fanned out to tap on the dipole at
in coax for vhf or uhf uses. Lost transmitter power the point of best impedance match. Impedances
can be made up to some extent by increasing need not be known in A, Band C. The
power, but once lost, a weak signal can never be gamma-match, D, is for direct connection of coax.
recovered in the receiver. C1 tunes out inductance in the arm. Folded dipole
of uniform conductor size, E, steps up antenna
Effects of weather should not be ignored. A impedance by a factor of 4. Using a larger
well-constructed open-wire line works well in conductor in the unbroken portion of the folded
nearly any weather, and it stands up well. dipole, E, gives higher orders of impedance
Twin-Lead is almost useless in heavy rain, wet transformation.
Impedance Matching 625
system. It permits matching antenna to line connected to the inner conductor of the coax. A
without knowledge of the actual impedances commercially supplied assembly of this type is
involved. The position of the short yielding the used in a 50-MHz array described later, or one can
best match gives some indication of amount of be constructed from concentric pieces of tubing,
reactance present. With little or no reactive insulated by plastic sleeving. Rf voltage across the
component to be' tuned out, the stub will be capacitor is low, once the match is adjusted
approximately a half-wavelength from load to properly, so with a good dielectric, insulation
short. presents no great problem, if the initial adjustment
The stub should be stiff bare wire or rod, is made with low power level. A clean, permanent
spaced no more than 1/20 wavelength. Prefer- high-conductivity bond between arm and element
ably it should be mounted rigidly, on insulators. is important, as the rf current flow is high at this
Once the position of the short is determined, the point.
center of the short can be grounded, if desired, and Folded Dipole: The impedance of a half-wave
the portion of the stub no longer needed can be antenna broken at its center is 72 ohms. If a single
removed. conductor of uniform size is folded to make a
It is not necessary that the stub be connected half-wave dipole as shown in Fig. 22-1E, the
directly to the driven element. It can be made part impedance is stepped up four times. Such a folded
of an open-wire line, as a device to match into or dipole can thus be fed directly with 300-ohm line
out of the line with coax. It can be connected to with no appreciable mismatch. Coaxial line of 70
the lower end of a delta match, or placed at the to 75 ohms impedance may also be used, if a 4: 1
feedpoint of a phased array. Examples of these balun is added. (See balun information presented
uses are given later. later in this chapter.) Higher impedance step up can
Delta Match: Probably the fust impedance be obtained if the unbroken portion is made larger
match was made when the ends of an open line in cross-section than the fed portion, as in 22-1F.
were fanned out and tapped onto a half-wave For design information, see Chapter 20.
antenna, at the point of most efficient power Baluns and Transmatches: Conversion from
transfer, as in Fig. 22-1B. Both the side length and balanced loads to unbalanced lines, or vice versa,
the points of connection either side of the center can be performed with electrical circuits, or their
of the element must be adjusted for minimum equivalents made of coaxial line. A balun made
reflected power in the line, but as with the from flexible coax is shown in Fig. 22-2A. The
universal stub, the impedances need not be known. looped portion is an electrical half-wavelength. The
The delta makes no provision for tuning out physical length depends on the propagation factor
reactance, so the universal stub is often used as a of the line used, so it is well to check its resonant
termination for it, to this end. frequency, as shown at B. The two ends are
Once thought to be inferior for vhf applications shorted, and the loop at one end is coupled to a
because of its tendency to radiate if improperly dip-meter coil. This type of balun gives an
adjusted, the delta has come back to favor, now impedance stepup of 4 to 1 in impedance, 50 to
that we have good methods for measuring the 200 ohms, or 75 to 300 ohms, typically.
effects of matching. It is very handy for phasing Coaxial baluns giving 1-to-1 impedance transfer
multiple-bay arrays with open lines, and its are shown in Fig. 22-3. The coaxial sleeve, open at
dimensions in this use are not particularly critical. the top and connected to the outer conductor of
It should be checked out carefully in applications the line at the lower end (A) is the preferred type.
like that of Fig. 22-1C, having no tuning device. A conductor of approximately the same size as the
Gamma Match: An application of the same line is used with the outer conductor to form a
principle to direct connection of coax is the quarter-wave stub, in B. Another piece of coax,
gamma match, Fig. 22-10. There being no rf using only the outer conductor, will serve this
voltage at the center of a half-wave dipole, the purpose. Both baluns are intended to present an
outer conductor of the coax is connected to the infinite impedance to any rf current that might
element at this point, which may also be the otherwise tend to flow on the outer conductor of
junction with a metallic or wooden boom. The the coax.
inner conductor, carrying the rf current, is tapped The functions of the balun and the impedance
out on the element at the matching point.
Inductance of the arm is tuned out by means of
C1, resulting in electrical balance. Both the point I'4E --- -- -- ------
L----:j
-- -__ n?:
of contact with the element and the setting of the

~
capacitor are adjusted for zero reflected power,
with a bridge connected in the coaxial line.
B
The capacitor can be made variable temporar-
ily, then replaced with a suitable fixed unit when A
the required capacitance value is found, or C1 can
be mounted in a waterproof box. Maximum should Fig. 22-2 - Conversion from unbalanced coax to. a
be about 100 pF for 50 MHz and 35 to 50 pF for balanced Icad can be dcne with a half-wave ccaxial
144. The capacitor and arm can be combined in balun, A. Electrical length of the Iccped secticn
one coaxial assembly, with the arm connecting to shculd be checked with a dip-meter, with ends
the driven element by means of a sliding clamp, shcrted, B. The half-wave balun gives a 4:1
and the inner end of the arm sliding inside a sleeve impedance step up.
626 VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS
transformer can be handled by various tuned thin outdoor-grade plywood or Masonite. Round
circuits. Such a device, commonly called an materials can be handled in ways similar to those
antenna coupler or Transmatch, can provide a wide used with metal components, with U clamps and
range of impedance transformations. A versatile with other hardware.
example is described at the end of this chapter. Metal booms have a small "shorting effect" on
The Q Section: The impedance transforming elements that run through them. With materials
property of a quarter-wave line is treated in sizes commonly employed, this is not more than
Chapter 20. The parallel-bar Q section is not useful one percent of the element length, and may not be
in low-impedance vhf matching situations, but Q noticeable in many applications. It is just
sections of flexible coaxial line may be handy in perceptible with 1/2-inch tubing booms used on
phasing and matching vhf and uhf arrays. Such 432 MHz, for example. Formula lengths can be
sections can be any odd multiple of a quarter-wave- used as given, if the matching is adjusted in the
length. An example of two 3/4-wave 75-ohm Q frequency range one expects to use. The center
sections, used to phase and match a pair of Yagi frequency of an all-metal array will tend to be 0.5
bays, each of which has 50 ohms impedance, is to 1 percent higher than a similar system built of
given later in this chapter. wooden supporting members.
Element Materials and Dimensions: Antennas
Mechanical Design for 50 MHz need not have elements larger than
The small size of vhf and, especially, uhf arrays 1/2-inch diameter, though up to 1 inch is used
opens up a wide range of construction possibilities. occasionally. At 144 and 220 MHz the elements
Finding components is becoming difficult for are usually 1/8 to 1/4 inch in diameter. For 420,
home constructors of ham gear, but it should not elements as small as 1/16 inch in diameter work
hold back antenna work. Radio and TV distribu- well, if made of stiff rod. Aluminum welding rod,
tors have many useful antenna parts and materials. 3/32 to 1/8 inch in diameter is fine for 420-MHz
Hardware stores, metals suppliers, lumber yards, arrays, and 1/8 inch or larger is good for the 220
welding-supply and plumbing-supply houses and band. Aluminum rod or hard-drawn wire works
even junkyards should not be overlooked. With a well at 144 MHz. Very strong elements can be
little imagination, the possibilities are endless. made with stiff-rod inserts in hollow tubing. If the
Wood or Metal? Wood is very useful in antenna latter is slotted, and tightened down with a small
work, and it is almost universally available, in a clamp, the element lengths can be adjusted
great variety of shapes and sizes. Rug poles of experimentally with ease.
wood or bamboo make fine booms. Round wood Sizes recommended above are usable with
stock (dowelling) is found in many hardware stores formula dimensions given in Table 22-1. Larger
in sizes suitable for small arrays. Square or diameters broaden frequency response; smaller
rectangular boom and frame materials can be ones sharpen it. Much smaller diameters than those
ripped to order in most lumber yards, if they are recommended will require longer elements, especi-
not available from the racks in suitable sizes. ally in 50-MHz arrays.
There is no rf voltage at the center of a The driven element(s) of a vhf array may be cut
half-wave dipole or parasitic element, so no from the formula
insulation is required in mounting elements that
are centered in the support, whether the latter is L (inches) = 5600
Freq. (MHz)
wood or metal. Wood is good for the framework of
multibay arrays for the higher bands, as it keeps This is the basis for Table 22-1 driven-element
down the amount of metal in the active area of the information. Reflectors are usually about 5 percent
array. longer, and directors 5 percent shorter, though
Wood used for antenna construction should be element spacing and desired antenna. bandwidth
well-seasoned and free of knots or damage. affect parasitic-element lengths. The closer the
Available materials vary, depending on local reflector and director (especially the latter) are to
sources. Your lumber dealer can help you better the driven element the nearer they must be to the
than anyone else in choosing suitable materials. driven-element length to give optimum gain. This is
Joining wood members at right angles is often done another way of saying that close-spaced arrays tend
advantageously with gusset plates. These can be of to work effectively over narrower bandwidths than

BALANCED LOAD
- - - - - - { / _~---­
NO CONNECTION
Fig. 22·3 - The balun conver-
T At4
sion function, with no imped-
ance change, is accomplished
with quarter-wave lines, open
at the top and connected to
(A) ~ (S) the coax outer conductor at
the bottom. Coaxial sleeve, A,
~CONNECT is the preferred type.
COAXIAL TOGETHER
LINE
50-MHz Vagi 6'1.7
TABLE 22-1
Dimensions for VHF Arrays in Inches * Dimensions are for the
most-used section of each
band: 50 to 50.6 MHz, 144 to
Freq. (MHz) * 50* 144* 220* 432* 145.5 MHz, 220 to 222 MHz,
and 432 to 434 MHz. The
Driven Element 111 385/8 257/16 l3 element lengths should be ad-
Change per MHz 2 1/4 1/8 1/32 iusted for each megahertz dif-
ference in frequency by the
Reflector 116 1/2 401/2 26 3/4 13 1/2 amount given in the third line
1st Director 105 1/2 365/8 24 1/8 12 11/32 of the table. Example: If op-
timum performance is wanted
2nd Director 103 1/2 36 3/8 24 129/32 much above 145 MHz, shorten
3rd Director 101 1/2 36 1/8 23 7/8 127/32 all elements by about '4 inch.
For above 146 MHz, shorten
1.0 Wavelength 236 81 1/2 53 5/8 271/4 by v. inch. See text.
0.625 Wavelength 149 51 33 1/2 17 Element spacings are not
critical, and table figures may
0.5 Wavelength 118 403/4 26 13/16 13 5/8 be used, regardless of element
0.25 Wavelength 59 203/8 l3 7/8 6 13/16 lengths chosen. Parasitic ele-
ment lengths are optimum for
0.2 Wavelength 47 3/4 16 1/4 10 3/4 57/16 collinear arrays and small Ya-
0.15 Wavelength 35 1/2 12 1/4 8 4 gis, having 0.2-wavelength spa-
cing.
wide-spaced ones, though maximum gain may be measured gain. The pair will require a much smaller
possible with many different combinations of turning sPlice, for the same gain, and their lower
lengths and spacings. radiation angle can provide interesting results. On
Parasitic-element lengths of Table 22-1 are long ionospheric paths a stacked pair occasionally
based on spacings of about 0.2 wavelength, may show an apparent gain much greater than the
common in relatively short Yagis and collinear 2 to 3 dB that can be measured locally as the gain
arrays. Dimensions given later in the individual due to stacking.
descriptions of antennas may be at variance with Optimum spacing for Yagis of 5 elements or
those of the table. Where this is evident, the length more is one wavelength, but this may be too much
differences result from use of different element for many builders of 50-MHz antennas to handle.
spacings, for the most part. Some designs are for Worthwhile results can be obtained with as little as
maximum gain, without consideration of band- one half-wavelength (10 feet), and 5/8 wavelength
width. Still others have slightly modified spacings, (12 feet) is markedly better. The difference
to give optimum results with a particular boom between 12 and 20 feet may not be worth the
length. added structural problems involved in the wider
spacing, at 50 MHz, at least. The closer spacings
ANTENNAS FOR 50 MHz give lower measured gain, but the antenna patterns
are cleaner than will be obtained with one-wave-
Simple antennas such as dipoles, groundplanes,
length spacing. The extra gain with wider spacings
mobile whips and the like are covered adequately
elsewhere in this Handbook. Adaptation of them
to vhf work involves mainly reference to Table 22-1
for length information. We will be concerned here
with arrays that give appreciable gain, or other
properties needed in vhf communication.
Yagis, Short and Long: The Yagi array is
practically standard for 50-MHz directive use.
Usual sizes are three to six elements, though up to
eight or nine in line are seen in ambitious
installations. Director spacing, after the first three,
must be very wide to be worthwhile, so boom
lengths of 30 feet or more are needed for more
than 6 elements. Though long Yagis certainly are
desirable, it should be emphasized that the first
two or three elements provide very high gain per
unit of space. Even a 3-element Vagi, on as short a
boom as 6 feet, is good for 7.5 dB over a dipole.
To double the gain (add 3 dB) requires going to
only 6 elements - but it takes a boom more than
20 feet long. If it is possible to put up a rotatable
antenna at all, there is usually room for at least a
3-element structure, and the gain such an antenna
provides is very helpful. Dimensions can follow
those given for the first three elements of larger
arrays described here.
Stacking Yagis: Where suitable provision can be
made for supporting them, two Yagis mounted one
above the other and fed in phase may be preferable Fig. 22-4 - 5-over-5 stacked-Vagi array for 50
to one long Vagi having the same theoretical or MHz, with all-coax feed.
 628 VH F AND UH F ANTENNAS

DRIVEN ELEMENT stocks, so a handmade splice was substituted. A

piece of the same-diameter tubing as the booms, 12
inches or more in length, is slotted with a hacksaw,
and then compressed to fit inside the ends of the
two 8-foot lengths, as seen in Fig. 22-6.If the splice
is held in the compressed position with large pipe
7S-01tnt plwsiPtg line
pliers or a hose clamp, the ends will slide inside the
boom sections readily. When the splice is released
from compression, the two tubes can be driven
together. Self-tapping screws should be run
through the tubes and the splice, to hold the
assembly firm. Use at least two on each side of the
splice.
Elements are 1/2-inch aluminum tubing, Alcoa
alloy 6061-T6. Almost any aluminum should be
7S-0hm suitable. Kirk Vagi clamps, one-piece aluminum
phasing line castings designed for this job, are available for 3/8
so-Ohm aJaxial as well as 1/2-inch elements, and I 1/4-inch boom.
/ 'gt2lf/J1W. I11at.dt The eyes through which the elements pass are
drilled, but must be tapped for 10-32 setscrews to
DRIVEN ELEMENT
tighten the elements firmly in place, two screws
per element. The portion of the clamp that
surrounds the boom can be spread slightly to allow
the clamp to slide along the boom to the desired
I-- 4&'14" -I· 35"'-.1--++--'<- '--I_-60'~ point. The interior surface is slightly rough, so
REF. DR.EL, 02 03 tightening the yoke with the screw provided with
116'/2' 111" I03%" IOiY" the clamps makes the element set firmly on the
MAST TO
BOOM CLAMP boom. The reflector, driven element and first
director are all in back of the boom splice.
Fig. 22-5 - Principal dimensions of the 50-MHz The' vertical member of the stacked array is
5-over-5. with details of the 3!4-wavelength I 1/4-inch thick-wall anodized steel tubing,
Q-section matching system. The propagation factor commonly used in large antenna installations for
of 0.66 applies only with solid-dielectric coax. home TV. Do not use thin-wall aluminum or light
Gamma-matching assemblies are coaxial-capacitor galvanized steel masting. The aluminum is not
units (Kirk Electronics C6M). strong enough, and inexpensive steel masting rusts
inside, weakening the structure and inviting failure.
is usually the objective on 144 MHz and higher Spacing between bays can be a half wavelength
bands, where the structural problems are not (10 feet), 5/8 wavelength (12 feet), or a full
severe. wavelength (20 feet), though the wide spacing
imposes mechanical problems that may not be
5-0VER-5 FOR 50 MHz worth the effort for most builders. The 5/8-wave
The information provided in Fig. 22-5 is useful spacing is a good compromise between stacking
for a single 5-element Vagi, or for the stacked pair gain and severe support problems, and is
of Fig. 22-4, either to be fed with a 50-ohm line, recommended with the materials used here.
The 10-foot lengths of steel masting could be
The phasing and matching arrangement may be
used for any pair of Yagis designed for 50-ohm used, with the bottom 8 feet running through the
feed individually. With slight modification it will tower bearing to the rotator. A heavier main
serve with Yagis designed for 200-0hm balanced support is preferable, however, and it is "I-inch
feed. water pipe" in this installation. This is iron, about
I 3/8-inch outside diameter, extending about 8
Mechanical Details feet out of the tower. The steel masting between
the Vagi bays is fastened to the pipe with four
Construction of the single Vagi bay or a stacked TV -type U:clamps, spaced evenly in the overlap-
pair is simplified by use of components that should ping area of the two supports.
be available to most builders. Element-to-boom The booms are braced to the mast fore and aft,
and boom-to-mast mounts are aluminum castings using the longest pieces of element stock left over
designed for these applications by Kirk Electronics, when the forward directors are cut from 12-foot
134 Westpark Road, Dayton, Ohio 45459. The lengths, Ends of the braces are flattened about one
gamma matches shown schematically in Fig. 22-5 inch, and bent to the proper angle. Outer ends
are of coaxial construction, waterproofed for long fasten to the booms with two self-tapping screws
life, available from the same supplier. each. The mast ends are clamped to the support
Booms are made of two 8-foot lengths of with one TV U-clamp for each pair. This bracing is
I 1/-4-inch aluminum (Reynolds) found in many good insurance against fluttering of the booms and
hardware stores. Reynolds makes a special fitting elemen ts, which can cause failures after long
for joining sections of the tubing, but these are not periods, even though a structure appears adequate-
widely available from the usual hardware-store ly strong.
 ---_.. _---
5-0ver-5 For 50 MHz 629
I.. 12" ·1 Adjustment and Testing
Q~~-_~-~-----'r-r~~-~_-~_~_~:=~_~~~-~_:::_- _~
~ ~J_-::--:: __:O:__ __ 8FT
---~ 7 TUBE ~ An individual Yagi can be tested and matched
properly. by mounting it a half-wavelength above
ground, In a large area that is clear of obstructions
Fig. 22-6 - Details of the boom splices used in the for many wavelengths. The boom can also be tilted
5-element 50-MHz Yagis. Two 8-foot lengths of up, until the ground-reflected wave is not a factor
1 1/4-inch tubing are joined to make the 16-foot in the field-strength meter reading. The SWR
booms. bridge should be connected at the gamma match
or an electrical half-wavelength therefrom. Appl;
low power (not over 10 watts) and adjust the
Phasing and Matching gamma capacitor and the point of connection to
A single S-element Yagi can be fed directly with the driven element for zero reflected power at the
SO-ohm coax, through the Kirk coaxial gamma- desired frequency range. The model was fl;t from
match assembly (Type C6M). This has an SO.2 .to SO.4 with just perceptible reflected power
adjustable coaxial capacitor, and an arm that shOWing at SO.l to SO.S. Adjusted in this way the
connects to the driven element with a sliding clip. array should work well up to about Sl MHz.
Both the capacitor and the point of connection The best way to check operation of the stacked
should be adjusted for minimum reflected power, pair is to support the array with the reflectors
at the center of the frequency range most used. resting on the ground and the booms pointing
Doing this between SO.2 and SO.4 MHz is suitable straight up. A 6-foot step-ladder can be used for a
for most operators, other than those using fm te.mporary support. The bays can be fed separately
above S2.S MHz. Each bay of the stacked pair Wlt~ SO-ohm line, in this position, and the gamma
should be set in this way. The pair can then be fed settIngs should be the same as obtained in the first
through a double Q-section of 7S-ohm coax as check, described above. Now connect the two
shown in Fig. 22-S. ' 7S-ohm phasing lines, and insert the SWR bridge in
The Kirk gamma-match assembly has an the SO-ohm line to the T fitting. The SWR should
SO-239 coaxial fitting built in, so the phasing lines be the same as when the bays are fed separately
are fitted with PL-2S9 coaxial connectors at both through the SO-ohm line; close to 1: 1. The array
ends. The inner ends attach to a matching coaxial can be disI?antled and reassembled atop the tower,
T fitting. The main run of SO-ohm line connects to and matching should remain correct.
the center of the T, with a coaxial through- The matching-phasing system described is
connector and a PL-2S9 fitting. When the antenna useful for any two loads designed for SO-ohm feed.
is installed all connectors should be wrapped The S/8-wave spacing is usable with up to at least
tightly with plastic tape, and sprayed with Krylon 6-element bays, though wider bay spacing is
nee~~d for maximum gain with long Yagis.
or other protective spray. Dow-Corning Silastic
RTV-732 sealant is also good for this use. If the IndIVIdual antennas intended for 200-ohm bal-
coaxial phasing sections are wrapped around the anced feed can be matched with 7S-ohm coax in
booms and vertical support a few times, they will the phasing harness and baluns at each load.
just reach the T -fitting, when 12-foot spacing is Bay spacing is not critical. Close spacing gives
so~ewhat lower gain, but a very clean pattern. The
used.
The lines should be any odd multiple of a mam lobe gets sharper and larger as spacing is
quarter-wavelength. If both are the same length the increased, but minor lobes also increase. These take
gamma arms should attach to the same side of the over from the main lobe if spacing of bays is
~arried too far. The effect of increasing bay spacing
driven elements. If there is a half-wavelength
difference in the lines, the arms should connect to IS shown graphically in Fig. 8-11 of The Radio
Amateur's VHF Manual, and associated text.
opposite sides. The length given in Fig. 22-S is
nominal for solid-dielectric coax. If foam-dielectric
line is used, the propagation factor given by the 144 OVER 50
maker should be substituted for the 0.66 figure. It
is best to grid-dip the line sections for resonant Four phased 144-MHz Yagis are shown
frequency, in any case. Cut the line three inches or mounted above a SO-MHz 6-element Yagi in Fig.
more longer than the expected length. Solder a 22-7. The latter can be mechanically similar to the
loop of wire between the center pin and the S-element antennas of Fig. 22-4, though this
mounting flange of an SO-239 connector. Attach two-band system was built almost entirely by
this to the PL-2S9 connector at one end of the hand. Element spacings are closer than in the
line, and couple it to the dip-meter coil. Trim the S-element 6-meter arrays, in order to fit 6 elements
line length until resonance at the midpoint of the onto a 20-foot boom. The individual bays of the
intended frequency range is indicated. This will not 2-meter array can be used singly, in pairs, or in the
change appreciably when the other coaxial 4-bay system shown. Feed details are given for
each application.
connector is attached.
The line used in the model described is
RG-S9A/U, which is satisfactory for any amateur
6-Element 50-MHz Yagi.
power level, so long as the SWR is kept low. Larger .The 6-meter elements were designed for light
coax, such as RG-llA/U, is recommended for a weIght, with 1/2-inch tubing for half their length
greater margin of safety. and thin-wall fuel-line tubing inserts for the outer
630 VH F AND UH F ANTENNAS

Fig. 22-8 - Elements may be run through a wood

or metal boom, and held in place with simple
aluminum clamps, left. At the right is a clamp for
holding boom braces on the vertical support in the
50-M Hz 6-element array.

out from the boom with a 1OO-pF capacitor. It is

suggested that the matching be done first with a
variable capacitor, substituting a fixed one when
the desired value is found.
An element-mounting clamp no longer available
appears in Fig. 22-9. The Kirk l/2-to-l 1/4-inch
Fig. 22-7 - Antennas for two bands on a single element-mounting clamps (see 5-over-5 descrip-
support. Four 5-element Yagis for 144 MHz, top, tion) do this job nicely.
have one-wavelength spacing each way. The
50-MHz Vagi is set up to make optimum use of 6
elements on a 20-foot boom. 5-Element 144-MHz Yagis
An optimum design for 5-element 2-meter
portions. One-piece half-inch elements are equally Yagis, to be used singly or combined in stacked
good, though a bit bulkier. Elements can be run systems, is shown in Fig. 22-10. Dimensions given
through the boom and held in place with clamps, work well from 144 to 146 MHz, if the matching is
as in Fig. 22-8, or mounted in Kirk castings. (See adjusted at 145. Lengths should be reduced 1/4
5-element array description.) Lengths are 116, inch for each megahertz higher center frequency
1101/2, 105 1/2, 104, 1023/4, and 101 1/2 than 145 MHz. The original elements have center
inches. Spacings, in the same order, are 36, 36,42, sections of 1/4-inch aluminum tubing, with
56 and 66 inches. The boom is made of two 5/32-inch rod inserts that slide into the center
10-foot aluminum mast sections, braced from members. One-piece elements of 1/8 to 1/4-inch
above with 3/4-inch tubing. See Fig. 22-8. tubing or rod will work equally well. The larger
The gamma matching was handled in two size will permit fastening in place with self-tapping
different ways. A coaxial capacitor and moving screws bearing on the elements. For smaller sizes,
arm was hand-made, as shown in Fig. 22-9 using use a clamp like that of Fig. 22-8. The booms are
1/2-inch and 1/4-inch tubes, insulated from one 3/4- or I-inch diameter aluminum. Wood dowelling
another by plastic sleeves that just fit inside the could be used equally well.
1/2-inch fixed portion. The inner tubing can be Feed Methods: A delta match is used in
wrapped with plastic tape to build up the needed conjunction with a coaxial-line balun to feed a
thickness, to the same end. The arm is supported at single 5-element Vagi. Some experimentation with
two points with I-inch ceramic pillars. delta dimensions may be required to achieve the
A second and simplier matching arrangement best match. (See Fig. 22-1C and detailed
uses merely an extension of the main coaxial line, description of the delta match earlier in this
with a 100-pF fixed transmitting-type capacitor in chapter.) This arrangement makes a fine small Vagi
series with the inner conductor an.d the sliding that can be dismantled readily, for carrying about in
contact. The matching point was about 20 inches portable work.

Fig. 22-9 - A hand-made coaxial

gamma match for 50-MHz arrays.
A 1/4-inch rod or tube 14 inches
or longer slides inside a 1/2-inch
sleeve that is connected to the
coaxial fitting above the boom.
The rod slides on plastic sleeves
inside the larger section. Separa-
tion is maintained with two cer-
amic pillars mounted with wrap-
around clips. Both the coaxial
capacitor and the sliding clip be-
tween rod and element are ad-
justed for minimum reflected
power in the coaxial line.
144-MHz Yagis 631
f--- e2" - - - \
-_::>-0--
REF. D.E. 01 02 03

T
41" 381'&' 38Ye" 37" 3&'/e"
O~/;ne %TOI"
/'~. 800m a/f!I impedance '\
(8)
t--17''--a 1--13"- 1--'6" 21"-

Fig, 22-10 - Optimum design for a 2-meter Vagi,

so-ohm line
am/Da/wt
I so-ohm line
ami balun
using 5 elements on a 6-foot boom. When used
singly, this antenna can be fed as shown in Fig. Fig. 22-11 - Stacking details for the 5-element
22-1 C, with 4-inch delta arms connected 3 inches Yagis of Fig. 22-7 and 22-10. The short on the
either side of center. The balun loop would be universal stub, and the point of connection of the
about 27 inches long. With lengths shown, the main transmission line, are adjusted for minimum
antenna works well from 144 to above 146 MHz, reflected power in the latter. Balanced line could
but gain drops sharply above 147 MHz. be connected similarly for the main turn.

Use of two s-element Yagis with I-wavelength location, and no deterioration was apparent. There
spacing is shown in Fig. 22-11A. The phasing was no breakage, even under several heavy ice loads
harness can be any open-wire line, preferably not each winter. Using several supports on each harness
spaced more than one inch. Delta dimensions are section is the key to this long life.
not critical in this application, as the matching is The transmission line was switched between the
done with the universal stub at the center of the six- and two-meter arrays by means of a
harness. waterproofed antenna relay. To avoid the dangers
The 4-bay 20-element system in Fig. 22-7 and of a l1s-volt line run, 6.3-volt transformers were
22-11B uses two sets of s-over-s, connected used at each end. This one-line hookup makes it
between centers with another I-wavelength line. possible to use a single rather expensive line to its
The universal stu b is connected at the center of the fullest potential on two bands.
horizontal section. In each case, the stub length
and line-<:onnection point are adjusted for 13-ELEMENT VAGI FOR 144 MHz
minimum reflected power in the main line.
An interesting phasing method was used III the Many combinations of element lengths and
4-bay array. Common electric zipcord, available in spacings work well in long Yagis. The 13-element
any hardware store, was split into its two parts. array detailed in Fig. 22-12 is the product of m'any
The insulation was left on, and spreaders made of months of joint experimental work by W2NLY and
ordinary 1/2-inch wood dowel were used to hold W6QKI. First described in QSTfor January, 1956,
the wires one inch apart. Holes were drilled in it has been a winner ever since. Elements are
these of such size that the zipcord could just be 1/8-inch hard-drawn aluminum wire, except for the
pulled through them. They are held in place with folded-dipole driven element. This is the step up
any good cement. If supported with TV-type variety, intended to give a feed impedance of 200
screweyes that grip the spreaders, such a low-cost ohms, for feeding with SO-ohm line and a coaxial
line is very durable. The array shown was taken balun.
down after two years of use in a very exposed The 24-foot boom carries a light load, and can

..-------Directors--------,

Ref.

Driven
Element
41"

Directors are eadt

36*" fo,,!! Fig. 22-12 - High·perfor-
mance long Vagi for 144 MHz,
from experimental work by
W2NL Y and W6QKI. Dimen·
sions are for maximum gain
so-ohm line ---'lFn between 144 and 145 MHz,

DRIVEN ELEMENT
To TranS.
 632 VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS
Drivl!n
Element (25")

01 = 23lr.!" Fig. 22·13 - 11-element Vagi for

02 = 23l1!" 220 MHz. Dimensions are for
03= 23" maximum gain in the lower 2
D4 = 221'e" MHz of the band. Recommended
OS = 22*" feed method is a delta match,
06 = 220/8" with universal stub and balun.
01 = 2211." Delta sides should be about 3
06= 22W inches, tapped 2 inches either side
09 = 22Y.4' of the element midpoint,

be made of thin-wall tubing if braced in the maximum gain per element, They are intended
manner of the 50-MHz arrays previously described. primarily to be used in stacked pairs or sets of
Elements run through the boom and are held in four, as shown (for 432 MHz) in Fig. 22-15.
place with clamps, as in Fig. 22-8. Lengths are for Elements are stiff wire or welding rod, 1/8-inch
optimum gain between 144 and 145 MHz. Gain diameter for 220, 3/32 or 1/8 inch for 432. Wood
drops rapidly above 145.2 MHz. For a center booms are shown, and are recommended for
frequency of 145 MHz, cut element lengths 1/8 stacked arrays, particulary for 432, Metal booms
inch. Broader frequency response can be obtained should be l/2-inch diameter for 432 and 3/4 to 1
by tapering element lengths 1/8 inch per element, inch for 220. Element lengths should be increased
beginning with the second director. 0.5 to 1 percent if metal booms are used.
Effective stacking of such long Yagis requires Frequency coverage without appreciable loss of
bay spacing of 1 1/2 to 2 wavelengths. Pairs or gain, and no readjustment of matching, is about 1
pairs of pairs can be fed in the manner of Fig. percent of the operating frequency. Lengths of
22-15, using dimensions of Table 22-1. elements given are for 220 to 222 MHz and 432 to
434 MHz. Coverage can be extended somewhat
11-ELEMENT VAGIS FOR 220 higher by readjusting the matching for the desired
AND 432 MHz higher frequency.
Recommended phasing is by open-wire line two
High-gain antennas are almost a necessity for
wavelengths long each way. No. 12 wire spaced 1/2
any serious work on 220 MHz and higher
to 3/4 inch with Teflon spreaders is ideal. If a
frequencies. The ll-element Yagis shown in Figs.
metal supporting structure is used, it should
22-13 and 14 were worked out experimentally for preferably be entirely in back of the plane of the
reflector elements.
Driven Element (l3'J 1<800m,
('Wooden
6' long COLLINEAR ANTENNAS
Information given thus far is mainly on
parasitic arrays, but the collinear antenna has much
to recommend it. Inherently broad in frequency
response, it is a logical choice where coverage of an
entire band is wanted. This tolerance also makes a
collinear easy to build and adjust for any vhf
application, and the use of many driven elements is
popular in very large phased arrays, such as may be
required for moonbounce (EM E) communication.
1'" 1" Wooden Boom
Omnidirectional Verticals
01 = 12" Two or more half-wave elements mounted in a
02.= 111'8" vertical line and fed in phase are often used to
03= 11%" build up some gain, without directivity, A simple
04= 11%"
OS = llY" omnidirectional collinear of rugged construction is
D6 = 110/8" shown in Fig. 22-16, It is made entirely of copper
07 = 1Wi' pipe and matching elbow fittings, obtainable from
DB = 11\18' plumbing supply houses and some hardware stores,
09 = II"
Initially the phasing stub was operated in the
All elements made manner of Fig. 22-1A. When the optimum
DRIVEN ELEMENT from ~'or~ Alum. Rod. dimensions were found, the assembly was complet-
ed by making the angles with plumbing fittings,
and the balun connections with bolts, nuts and star
Fig. 22-14 - 11-element Vagi for 432 MHz, lugs,
designed for optimum performance on a 6-foot
boom. Operation should be uniform between 432 Preferably the antenna should be mounted on a
and 436 MHz, if the stub matching is adjusted wooden support, though the center of the stub can
when moving more than one megahertz in be grounded for lightning protection. Dimensions
frequency. given are for the upper half of the 2-meter band,
Parabolic Reflectors 633

NO.14 SPACED '12· Fig. 22-15 - Phasing methods

52"LONG\ for using two or four 11-
element Yagis for 432 MHz,
with 2-wavelength spacing.
NO. 12 SPACED
Universal-stub match permits
"z",15"LONG use of any type of trans-
mission line,

though it works well enough all the way down to each, and fed through a b.alanced harness, each
144 MHz. section of which is a resonant length, usually of
Any number of radiators can be used, if open-wire line. A 48-element collinear array for
quarter-wave phasing stubs are connected between 432 MHz, Fig. 22-19, illustrates this principle.
them. Commonly an odd number is used, and the
center radiator is broken at its midpoint and fed PLANE AND PARABOLIC REFLECTORS
with a universal stub. This type of antenna can be A reflecting plane, which may be sheet metal,
made of wire and strung up in a horizontal wire mesh, or even closely-spaced elements of
position. The pattern is bidirectional when this tubing or wire, can be used in place of parasitic
type of collinear is mounted horizontally. reflectors. To be effective, the plane reflector must
extend on all sides to at least a quarter-wavelength
Large Collinear Arrays beyond the area occupied by the driven elements.
Bidirectional curtain arrays of 4, 6 and 8 The plane reflector provides high front-to-back
half-waves in phase are shown in Fig. 22-17. ratio, a clean pattern, and somewhat more gain
Usually reflector elements are added, normally at than parasitic elements, bu t large physical size rules
about 0.2 wavelength in back of each driven it out for amateur use below 420 MHz. An
element, for more gain and a unidirectional interesting space-saving possibility lies in using a
pattern. Such parasitic elements are omitted from
the sketch in the interest of clarity. Dimensions are
not critical, and may be taken from Table 22-1.
When parasitic elements are added, the feed
impedance is low enough for direct connection
open line or Twin-Lead, connected at the points
indicated by black dots. With coaxial line and a
balun, it is suggested that the universal stub match,
Fig. 22-1A, be used at the feedpoint. All elements
should be mounted at their electrical centers, as
indicated by open circles in Fig, 22-17. The .1_ ., oX
framework can be metal or insulating material, "4
with equally good results. A model showing the
preferred method of assembling an all-metal
antenna is pictured in Fig. 22-18. Note that the
metal supporting structure is entirely in back of ,n ,

T
the plane of the reflector elements. Sheet-metal
clamps can be cut from scraps of aluminum to
make this kind of assembly, which is very light in
weight and rugged as well. Collinear elements Cone Standoff BALUN, RG-8/U

t:~:
A OR BETTER
should always be mounted at their centers, where '2 50-OHM
rf voltage is zero - never at their ends, where the COAX
voltage is high and insulation losses and de tuning
can be very harmful.
Collinear arrays of 32, 48, 64 and even 128
elements can be made to give ou tstanding
performance. Any collinear should be fed at the Fig. 22-16 - Rugged 2-meter omnidirectional
center of the system, for balanced current vertical antenna made entirely of 1/2-inch copper
distribution. This is very important in large arrays, pipe and elbows. The midpoint of the stub can be
which are treated as sets of 6 or 8 driven elements grounded, for lightning protection.
634 VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS

Fig. 22-17 - Element arrangements for 8, 12 and

16-element collinear arrays. Parasitic reflectors,
omitted here for clarity, are 5 percent longer and
0.2 wavelength in back of the driven elements. Fig. 22-18 - Model showing recommended method
Feed points are indicated by black dots. Open for assembling all-metal arrays. Suitable assembling
circles are recommended support points. The clips can be cut and bent from sheet aluminum.
elements can run through wood or metal booms, Supporting structure should be in back of all active
without insulation, if supported at their centers in elements of the array.
this way. Insulators at the element ends (points of
high rf I(oltagel tend to detune and unbalance the random, so an antenna capable of accepting any
system. polarization is useful. Circular polarization, gener-
ated with helical antennas or with crossed elements
fed 90 degrees out of phase, has this quality.
single plane reflector with elements for two The circularly-polarized wave, in effect, threads
different bands mounted on opposite sides. its way through space, and it can be left- or
Reflector spacing from the driven element is not right-hand polarized. These polarization "senses"
critical. About 0.2 wavelength is common. are mutually exclusive, but either will respond to
The reflector can be formed into parabolic any plane polarization. A wave generated with
shape for a focussing effect, similar to that in a right-hand polarization comes back with left-hand,
searchlight. Parabolic reflectors must be very large when reflected from the moon, a fact to be borne
in terms of wavelength. Principles involved in in mind in setting up EME circuits. Stations
parabolic reflector design are discussed by communicating on direct paths should have the
WA9HUV in QSTfor June, 1971, page 100. same polarization sense.
Both senses can be generated with crossed
CIRCULAR POLARIZATION dipoles, with the aid of a switchable phasing
harness. With helical arrays, both senses are
Polarization is described as "horizontal" or
provided with two antennas, wound in opposite
"vertical," but these terms have no meaning once
directions.
the reference of the earth's surface is lost. Many
propagation factors can cause polarization change:
Helical Antenna for 432 MHz
reflection or refraction, passage through magnetic
fields (Faraday rotation) and, satellite rolling, for The 8-turn helix of Fig. 22-20 is designed for
examples. Polarization of vhf waves is often 432 MHz, with left-hand polarization. It is made

r,zi'--j r-,zf--j f-,zI'-j r-'Zl'--j

~13r'-l±·T,
3
13.
l..
'--

1
1- 1"
532~
------..J

3
Fig. 22-19 - Large col-
linear arrays should be fed

(A)
(B)
T as sets of no more than 8
driven elements each, inter-
connected by phasing lines.
This 48-element array for

I
432 MHz (AI is treated as
1~" if it were four 12-element
collinears. Reflector ele-
;~~ ments are omitted for clar-

±±
l 4 ity. Phasing harness is
shown at B.
Circular Polarization 635
(SO-7S ohms) to be matched to balanced feeders in
the 300 to 4S0-ohm impedance range. Also,
"coax-to-coax" matching is possible with this
circuit, permitting SO-ohm lines to be matched to
7S-ohm lines, or vice versa. In situations where a
high SWR condition exists where an antenna is
being used in a part of the band to which it has not
been tuned, this cou pier will enable the transmitter
to look into a flat load, thus permitting maximum
loading for better efficiency.
Cou piers of this type are beneficial in the
reduction of harmonic energy from the trans-
mitter, an aid to TVI reduction. It should be
possible to realize a 30-dB or greater decrease in
harmonic level by using this Transmatch between
the transmitter and the feed line. When connected
ahead of the receiver as well - a common
arrangement - the added selectivity of the
coupler's tuned circuits will help to reduce images
and other undesired receiver responses from out-
of-band signals. It is wise to remember that the use
of devices of this kind will not correct for any
mismatch that exists at the antenna end of the line.
Although it assures a good match between the
Fig. 22-20 - An 8-turn 432-MHz helical array, transmitter and the line, it can only disguise the
wound from aluminum clothesline wire. Left-hand fact that a mismatch exists at the antenna.
polarization is shown. Each turn is one wavelength,
with a pitch of 0.25 wavelength. Feed is with The Circuit
5O-ohm coax, through an 84-ohm Q section.
Balanced circuits are used for both bands, Fig.
from 213 inches of aluminum clothesline wue, 22-22. Butterfly capacitors are employed to aid in
including 6 inches that are used for cutting back to securing good circuit symmetry. The links of each
adjust the feed impedance. tuned circuit, L2 and L3, are series tuned by
Each turn is one wavelength long, and the pitch single-ended capacitors to help tune out reactance
is about 0.2S wavelength. Turns are stapled to the in the line.
wooden supports, which should be water-proofed
with liquid fiber glass or exterior varnish. The Construction
reflecting screen is one wavelength square, with a A 4-1/2 X 4-1/2 X 2-inch homemade cabinet
Type N coaxial fitting soldered at its center, for houses the 2-meter Transmatch; A Ten-Tec JW-S is
connection of the required coaxial Q section. used as an enclosure for the SO-MHz unit. Other
The nominal impedance of a helical antenna is commercially made cabinets would be suitable,
140 ohms, calling for an 84-ohm matching section also. The two tuning controls are mounted in a line
to match to a SO-ohm line. This can be across the frdnt of each cabinet. The main coil in
approximated with copper tubing of OA-inch each Transmatch is supported by a ceramic
inside diameter, with No. 10 inner conductor, both standoff insulator on one end and by the con-
6 1/2 inches long. With the antenna and trans- nection to the TUNING capacitor on the other.
former connected, apply power and trim the outer The links are self supporting. The coil taps are
end of the helix until reflected power approaches effected by bending standard No.6 solder lugs
zero.
The support arms are made from sections of
1 X 1 wood and are each 60 inches long. The
spacing between them is 8.2S inches, outer
dimension. The screen of the antenna in Fig. 22-20
is tacked to the support arms for temporary use. A
wooden framework for the screen would provide a
more rugged antenna structure. The theoretical
gain of JIll 8-turn helical is approximately 14
decibels. Where both right- and left-hand circu-
larity is desired, two antennas can be mounted on a
common framework, a few wavelengths apart, and
wound for opposite sense.

A TRANSMATCH FOR 50 AND

144 MHz Fig. 22·21 - These 6· and 2-meter Trans-
matches may be used with powers up to 500 watts.
The antenna couplers as shown in Fig. 22-21 They can be employed with either balanced or
will permit unbalanced transmitter output lines unbalanced feeders.
636 VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS

J1
300·
450
OHM
BAL.
INPUT J2

Fig. 22-22 - The schematic diagram of the vhf Transmatches. Capacitance is in pF unless otherwise
noted. Resistance is in ohms, k = 1000.
C1 - 26-pF per section butterfly (E.F. Johnson spaced one wire thickness between turns. Tap 2
167-22). 1/2 turns from each end.
C2 - 100-pF miniature variable (Millen 20100). L2 - 2 turns No. 14 enam. or spaghetti-covered
C3 - 35-pF miniature variable (Millen 20035). bare wire, 2·inch dia, over center of L1.
C4 - 10-pF per section butterfly (E.F. Johnson L3 - 2 turns No. 14 enam. or spaghetti-covered
167-21). bare wire, 1 1/2'inch dia. over center of L4.
J1-J4, incl. - Insulated binding post. L4 - 5 turns No. 10 copper wire, 1-inch dia,
J5-J8, incl. - SO-239-style chassis connector. spaced one wire thickness between turns. Tap 1
L1 - 7 turns No.1 0 copper wire, 1 1/2-inch dia, 1/2 turns from each end.

feeder to 11 and J2 (for 50-MHz operation), or to

J4 and J5 (for 144-MHz operation). A reflected-
power meter or SWR bridge connected between
the Transmatch and the transmitter will aid in the
adjustment process. Adjust Cl and C2, alternately
(for 50-MHz operation) for minimum meter
reading on the SWR indicator. For 144-MHz
operation, tune C3 and C4 in the same manner.
Repeat the tuning until no further reduction in
reflected power is possible. The meter should fall
to zero, indicating a 1: 1 match. No further
adjustments will be needed until the transmitter
frequency is moved 50 kHz or more. The tuning
procedure is identical for matching coax to coax.
In doing so, however, the antenna feed line (coax)
Fig. 22-23 - Inside view of the two Transmatches. is connected to either J3 or J6 and the shorting
strap (discussed earlier) must be connected to Jl or
around the coil wire at the proper spots, then J4. In some situations, it may be possible to get a
soldering the lugs in place. No. 20 bus wire is used better match by leaving the shorting strap off.
to connect the taps of 11 to jacks 11 and 12. When After the coupler is tuned up, the transmitter
operating coax-to-coax style, a short jumper wire power can be increased to its normal level. These
connects 11 to its ground lug, or J4 to its ground units will handle power levels up to 500 watts
lug, depending on the band being operated. The (transmitter output power) provided the coupler is
jumper must be removed for balanced-feeder. tuned for a matched condition at all times.
operations. Reduced power (less than 50 watts) should be used
during initial tune up, thus preventing parts from
Operation being damaged by heating or arcing. The coupler
Attach the vhf transmitter to J7 or J8 with a should never be operated without a load connected
short length of coax cable. Connect a balanced to its output terminals.

AN INEXPENSIVE DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

Precision in-line metering devices that are that can be found in the plumbing stocks at many
capable of reading forward and reflected power hardware stores.
over a wide range of frequencies are very useful in
Construction
amateur vhf and uhf work, but their rather high
cost puts them out of the reach of many vhf The sampler consists of a short 'section of
enthusiasts. The device shown in Fig. 22-25 is an hand-made coaxial line, in this instance of 50 ohms
inexpensive adaptation of their basic principles. impedance, with a reversible probe coupled to it. A
You can make it yourself for the cost of a meter, a small pickup loop built into the probe is termin-
few small parts, and bits of copper pipe and fittings ated with a resistor at one end and a diode at the
50/144 MHz Transmatch 637
other. The resistor matches the impedance of the
loop, not the impedance of the line section. Energy
picked up by the loop is rectified by the diode, and
the resultant current is fed to a meter equipped
with a calibration control.
The principal metal parts of the device are a
brass plumbing T, a pipe cap, short pieces of
3/4-inch ID and 5/16-inch OD copper pipe, and
two coaxial fittings. Other available tubing com-
binations for 50-ohm line may be usable. The ratio
of outer-conductor ID to inner-conductor OD
should be 2.4/1. For a sampler to be used with
other impedances of transmission line, see Chapter
20 for suitable ratios of conductor sizes. The
photographs and Fig. 22-26 just about tell the rest
of the story.
Soldering of the large parts can be done with a
300-watt iron or a small torch. A neat job can be
done if the inside of the T and the outside of the
pipe are tinned before assembling. When the pieces Fig. 22-24 - Major components of the line
sampler. The brass T and two end sections are at
are reheated and pushed together, a good mechan- the back of the picture. A completed probe
ical and electrical bond will result. If a torch is assembly is at the right. The N connectors have
used, go easy with the heat, as an over-heated and their center pins removed. The pins are shown with
discolored fitting will not accept solder well. one inserted in the left end of the inner conductor
Coaxial connectors with Teflon or other heat- and the other lying in the right foreground.
resistant insulation are recommended. Type N,
with split-ring retainers for the center conductors,
are preferred. Pry the split-ring washers out with a
knife point or small screwdriver. Don't lose them, pipe are cut exactly perpendicular to the axis,
as they'll be needed in the final assembly. apply heat to the coax fitting, using just enough so
The inner conductor is prepared by making that a smooth fillet of solder can be formed where
eight radial cuts in one end, using a coping saw the flange and pipe meet.
with a fine-toothed blade, to a depth of 1/2 inch. Before completing the center conductor, check
The fingers so made are then bent together, its length. It should clear the inner surface of the
forming a tapered end, as seen in Fig. 22-26. Solder connector by the thickness of the split ring on the
the center pin of a coaxial fitting into this, again center pin. File to length; if necessary, slot as with
being careful not to overheat the work. the other end, and solder the center pin in place.
In preparation for soldering the body. of the The fitting can now be soldered onto the pipe, to
coax connector to the copper pipe, it is convenient complete the 50-ohm line section.
to use a similar fitting clamped into a vise as a The probe assembly is made from a 1-1/2-inch
holding fixture, with the T assembly resting on length of the copper pipe, with a pipe cap on the
top, held in place by its own weight. Use the top to support the upper feedthrough capacitor,
partially prepared center conductor to assure that C2. The coupling loop is mounted by means of
the coax connecto-r is concentric with the outer small Teflon standoffs on a copper disk, cut to fit
conductor. After being sure that the ends of the inside the pipe. The disk has four small tabs around

1000

CR1 - Germanium diode 1 N34, 1 N60, 1 N270,

Jl CRI J2 1 N295, or similar.
>-r-d--- -------frT< J1,J2 - Coaxial connector, type N (UG-58A/U).
~----------~---~ L1 - Pickup loop, copper strap 1 inch long x 3/16
inch wide. Bend into "c" shape with flat
portion 5/8·inch long.
M1 - 0-100-,uA meter.
Fig. 22-25 - Circuit diagram for the line sampler. R1 - Composition resistor, 82 to 100 ohms. See
C1 - 500-pF feedthrough capacitor, solder-in type. text.
C2 - 1000-pF feedthrough capacitor, threaded R3 - 50,OOO-ohm composition control, linear
type. taper.
638 VH F AND UH F ANTENNAS
Fig. 22-26 - Cross-section view of the line sampler.
The pickup loop is supported by two Teflon
standoff insulators. The probe body is secured in
place with one or more locking screws through
holes in the brass T.

IY.. -I,.,CH LENGTH OF

COPPER PIPE, lA-INCH I
TYPE N COAXIAL
/CONNECTOR

PICKUP
LOOP

the edge for soldering inside the pipe. The diode, ing the transmitter power output in steps and
CR1, is connected between one end of the loop making a graph of the meter readings obtained. Use
and a 500-pF feedthrough capacitor, Cl, soldered the calibration control, R3, to set the maximum
into the disk. The terminating resistor, Rl, is reading.
connected between the other end of the loop and
ground, as directly as possible.
When the disk assembly is completed, insert it Variations
into the pipe, apply heat to the outside, and solder Rather than use one sampler for monitoring
the tabs in place by melting solder into the both forward and reflected power by repeatedly
assembly at the tabs. The position of the loop with reversing the probe, it is better to make two
respect to the end of the pipe will determine the assemblies by mounting two T fittings end-to-end,
sensitivity of a given probe. For power levels up to using one for forward and one for reflected power.
200 watts the loop should extend beyond the face The meter can be switched between the probes, or
of the pipe about 5/32 inch. For use at higher two meters can be used.
power levels the loop should protrude only 3/32 The sampler described was calibrated at 146
inch. For operation with very low power levels the MHz, as it was intended for 2-meter repeater use.
probe position can be determined by experiment. On higher bands the meter reading will be higher
The decoupling resistor, R2, and feedthrough for a given power level, and it will be lower for
capacitor, C2, can be connected, and the pipe cap lower-frequency bands. Calibration for two or
put in place. The threaded portion of the capacitor three adjacent bands can be achieved by making
extends through the cap. Put a solder lug over it the probe depth adjustable, with stops or marks to
before tightening its nut in place. Fasten the cap aid in resetting for a given band. And, of course,
with two small screws that go into threaded holes more probes can be made, with each calibrated for
in the pipe. a given band, as is done in some of the commercial-
ly available units.
Other sizes of pipe and fittings can be used, by
Calibration making use of information given in Chapter 20 to
The sampler is very useful for many jobs, even select conductor sizes required for the desired
if it is not accurately calibrated, though it is impedances. (Since it is occasionally possible to
desirable to calibrate it against a wattmeter of pick up good bargains in 72-ohm line, you might
known accuracy. A good 50-ohm dummy load is a like to make up a sampler for this impedance.)
must. Type N fittings were used because of their
The first step is to adjust the inductance of the constant impedance, and their ease of assembly.
loop or the value of the terminating resistor, for Most have the split-ring retainer, which is simple to
lowest reflected-power reading. The loop is the use in this application. Some have a crimping
easier to change. Filing it to reduce its width will method, as do apparently all BNC connectors. If a
increase its impedance. Increasing the cross-section fitting must be used that can.not be taken apart,
of the loop will lower it, and this can be done by drill a hole large enough to clear a soldering iron
coating it with solder. When the reflected-power tip in the copper-pipe outer conductor. A hole of
reading is reduced as far as possible, reverse the up to 3/8-inch diameter will have very little effect
probe and calibrate for forward power, by increas- on the operation of the sampler.
 Chap~er 23

Assembling a
Station
The actual location inside the house of the If the major interests never require frequent
"shack" - the room where the transmitter and band changing, or frequency changing within a
receiver are located - depends, of course, on the band, the transmitter can be located some distance
free space available for amateur activities. Fortu- from the operator, in a location where the meters
nate indeed is the amateur with a separate room can be observed from time to time. If frequent
that he can reserve for his hobby, or the few who band or frequency changes are a part of the usual
can have a special small building separate from the operating procedure, the transmitter should be
main house. However, most aml!teurs must share a mounted close to the operator, either along one
room with other domestic activities, and amateur side or above the receiver, so that the controls are
stations will be found tucked away in a comer of easily accessible without the need for leaving the
the living room, a bedroom, or even a large closet! operating position.
A spot in the cellar or the attic can almost be A compromise arrangement would place the
classed as a separate room, although it may lack VFO or exciter at the operating position and the
the "fInish" of a normal room. transmitter proper in some convenient location not
Regardless of the location of the station, adjacent to the operator. Since it is usually possible
however, it should be designed for maximum to operate over a portion of a band without
operating convenience and safety. It is foolish to retuning the transmitter stages, an operating posi-
have the station arranged so that the throwing of tion of this type is an advantage over one in which
several switches is required to go from "receive" to the operator must leave his position to change
"transmit," just as it is silly to have the equipment frequency.
arranged so that the operator is in an uncomfort-
able and cramped position during his operating Controls
hours. The reason for building the station as safe as The operator has an excellent chance to exer-
possible is obvious, if you are interested in spend- cise his ingenuity in the location of the operating
ing a number of years with your hobby!

CONVENIENCE
The fIrst consideration in any amateur station is
the operating position, which includes the opera-
tor's table and chair and the pieces of equipment
that are in constant use (the receiver, send-receive
switch, and key or microphone). The table should
be as large as possible, to allow suffIcient room for
the receiver or receivers, transmitter frequency
control, frequency-measuring equipment, monitor-
ing equipment, control switches, and keys and
microphones, with enough space left over for the
logbook, a pad and pencil. Suitable space should be
included for radiogram blanks and a Callbook, if
these accessories are in frequent use. If the table is
small, or the number of pieces of equipment is
large, it is often necessary to build a shelf or rack
for the auxiliary equipment, or to mount it in
some less convenient location in or under the table.
If one has the facilities, a semicircular "console"
can be built of wood, or a simpler solution is to use
two small wooden cabinets to support a table top
of wood or Masonite. A flush-type door will make lIli.1
Ii
an excellent table top. Homebuilt tables or con-
soles can be fInished in any of the available oil
stains, varnishes, paints or lacquers. Many opera-
This modern-day operating pOSitIOn was built by
tors use a large piece of plate glass over part of K0GKB, of Boulder Colorado. Installing a desk in a
their table, since it furnishes a good writing surface corner allows a large amount of table-top area, to
and can cover miscellaneous charts and tables, be within reach of the operator. Shelves mounted
prefIx lists, operating aids, calendar, and similar above the operating position provide convenient
accessories. storage space for books and station accessories.

639
640 ASSEMBLING A STATION
controls. The most important controls in the of the phone/cw DX man, who sometimes has need
station are the receiver tuning dial and the send- to change in a hurry from cw to phone. In this
receive switch. The receiver tuning dial should be case, the changeover switch should be at the
located four to eight inches above the operating operating table, although the actual changeover
table, and if this requires mounting the receiver off may be done by a relay controlled by the switch.
the table, a small shelf or bracket will do the trick. If a rotary beam is used the control of the beam
With the single exception of the amateur whose should be convenient to the operator. The direc-
work is almost entirely in traffic or rag-chew nets, tion indicator, however, can be located anywhere
which require little or no attention to the receiver, within sight of the operator, and does not have to
it will be found that the operator's hand is on the be located on the operating table unless it is
receiver tuning dial most of the time. If the tuning included with the control.
knob is too high or too low, the hand gets cramped
after an extended period of operating, hence the Frequency Spotting
importance of a properly located receiver. The The operator should be able to turn on only the
majority of cw operators tune with the left hand, oscillator of his transmitter, so that he can spot
preferring to leave the right hand free for copying accurately his location in the band with respect to
messages and handling the key, and so the receiver other stations. This allows him to see if he has
should be mounted where the knob can be reached anything like a clear channel, or to see what his
by the left hand. Phone operators aren't tied down frequency is with respect to another station. Such
this way, and tune the communications receiver a provision can be part of the "send-receive"
with the hand that is more convenient. switch. Switches are available with a center "off"
The hand key should be fastened securely to position, a "hold" position on one side, for turning
the table, in a line just outside the right shoulder on the oscillator only, and a "lock" position on the
and far enough back from the front edge of the other side for turning on the transmitter and
table so that the elbow can rest on the table. A antenna relay. If oscillator keying is used, the key
good location for the semiautomatic or "bug" key serves the same purpose, provided a "send-receive"
is right next to the hand-key, although some switch is available to disable the rest of the
operators prefer to mount the automatic key in transmitter and prevent a signal going out on the
front of them on the left, so that the right forearm air during adjustment of the oscillator frequency.
rests on the table parallel to the front edge. For phone operation, the telegraph key or an
The best location for the microphone is directly auxiliary switch can control the transmitter oscilla-
in front of the operator, so that he doesn't have to tor, and the "send-receive" switch can then be
shout across the table into it, or run up the wired into the control system so as to control the
speech-amplifier gain so high that all manner of oscillator as well as the other circuits.
external sounds are picked up. If the microphone is
supported by a boom or by a flexible "goose neck" Comfort
it can be placed in front of the operator without its
base taking up valuable table space. Of prime importance is the comfort of the
In any amateur station worthy of the name, it operator. If you find yourself getting tired after a
should be necessary to throw no more than one short period of operating, examine your station to
switch to go from the "receive" to the "transmit" find what causes the fatigue. It may be that the
condition. In phone stations, this switch should be chair is too soft or hasn't a straight back or is the
located where it can be easily reached by the hand wrong height for you. The key or receiver may be
that isn't on the receiver. In the case of cw located so that you assume an uncomfortable
operation, this switch is most conveniently located position while using them. If you get sleepy fast,
to the right or left of the key, although some the ventilation may be at fault.
operators prefer to have it mounted on the POWER CONNECTIONS AND CONTROL
left-hand side of the operating position and work it
with the left hand while the right hand is on the Following a few simple rules in wiring your
key. Either location is satisfactory, of course, and power outlets and control circuits will make it an
the choice depends upon personal preference. easy job to change units in the station. If the
Some operators use a foot- or knee-controlled station is planned in this way from the start, or if
switch, which is a convenience but doesn't allow the rules are recalled when you are rebuilding, you
too much freedom of position during long operat- will find it a simple matter to revise your station
ing periods. from time to time without a major rewiring job.
If the microphone is hand held during phone It is neater and safer to run a single pair of
operation a "push-to-talk" switch on the micro- wires from the outlet over to the operating table or
phone is convenient, but hand-held microphones some central point, rather than to use a number of
tie up the use of one hand and are not too adapters at the wall outlet.
desirable, although they are widely used in mobile
and portable work. Interconnections
The location of other switches, such as those The ac wiring of most stations will entail little
used to control power supplies, and phone/cw more than finding sufficient wall outlets to accept
changeover, is of no particular importance, and the power-cable plugs from the several units.
they can be located on the unit with which they However, a more sophisticated station would pro-
are associated. This is not strictly true in the case vide the various outlets at some inconspicuous area
Power Connections and Control 641
at the operating table or console. If the transmitter one switch must control the transmitter, the
power is in excess of 500 watts it is advisable to receiver "on-off" circuit and, if one is used, the
provide 230 volts for its power supply (if it will antenna changeover relay. The receiver control is
work from 230 volts) rather than the more necessary to disable its output during transmit
common 117 -volt source. The higher voltage periods, to avoid acoustic feedback. A "foot
source will provide better regulation, and the house switch" on the floor at the operating position is a
lights are less likely to "blink". with keying or convenient control.
modulation. A single switch, either on the wall of Many ssb transmitters provide for "VOX"
the "shack" or at the operating position, should (voice-controlled) operation, where the transmitter
control all of the 117- and 230-volt outlets; this is turned on automatically at the fust voice syllable
makes it a simple matter to turn on the station to and is held on for a half second or more after the
the "standby" condition. voice stops. Operation with a VOX-operated ssb
The nature of the send-receive control circuitry transmitter is similar to cw break-in, in that a
depends so much upon the equipment in use that it separate receiving antenna or an antenna transfer
is impossible to give anything but the broadest relay or an electronic T-R switch is required_
principles to follow. With commercial equipment,
the instruction books usually provide some sugges- Switches and Relays
tions. In some cases the antenna-transfer relay is
provided also, so that the antenna is connected to It is dangerous to use an overloaded switch in
the transmitter and a cable from the transmitter is the power circuits_ After it has been used for some
connected to the receiver. Normally the receiver is time, it may fail, leaving the power on the circuit
connected to the antenna through this relay. When even after the switch is thrown to the "OFF"
the transmitter is "on" the relay transfers the position. For this reason, large switches, or relays
antenna to the transmitter output circuit. with adequate ratings, should be used to control
Lacking a built-in antenna transfer relay, many the plate power. Relays are rated by coil voltages
amateurs make do with a short separate wire for (for their control circuits) and by their current and
the receiving antenna. While this is acceptable in voltage ratings. Any switch or relay for the
many instances, it is seldom as effective (on power-control circuits of an amateur station should
receiving) as using the same antenna for transmit- be conservatively rated; overloading a switch or
ting and receiving. A separate antenna relay can be relay is very poor economy. Switches rated at 20
used; several models are available, for use with
coaxial or open-wire line. Models are available for
use with 117-volt ac or 12-volt dc. Some have an
,~~i
auxiliary set of contacts that can be used to
control the transmitter "on" function and the : :" ~ :II!'
receiver "mute" circuit. J 7#f
..~~". ,1Jj;
Break-In and Push-To-Talk .. ~

In cw operation, "break-in" is any system that

allows the transmitting operator to hear the other
station's signal during the "key-up" periods be-
tween characters and letters. This allows the
sending station to be "broken" by the receiving
station at any time, to shorten calls, ask for "mls"
in messages, and speed up operation in general.
With present teclmiques, it requires the use of a
separate receiving antenna or an electronic "T-R"
switch and, with high power, some means for
protecting the receiver from the transmitter when
the key is "down." If the transmitter is low-pow-
ered (50 watts or so), no special equipment is
required except the separate receiving antenna and l
a receiver that "recovers" fast. Where break-in
operation is used, the output stage should be
disabled when adjusting the oscillator to a new
frequency, to avoid radiating an unnecessary signal.
"Push-to-talk" is an expression derived from ,.;k
\.
1,
,"

the "PUSH" switch on some microphones, and it .,,'(!

means a phone station with a single control for all
changeover functions. Strictly speaking, it should
apply only to a station where this single send-
receive switch must be held in place during WB0FMH and WB0DMX are shown at the
transmission periods, but any fast-acting switch operating position of their high school club station.
will give practically the same effect. A control This very active radio club is equipped for all bands
switch with a center "OFF" position, will give from 1.8 MHz through 450 MHz on several modes,
more flexibility than a straight "push" switch. The including SSTV.
642 ASSEMBLING A STATION

safety lock. When the plug is removed and hidden,

it will be impossible to energize the transmitter,
and a stranger or child isn't likely to spot or
suspect the open receptacle.
An essential adjunct to any station is a shorting
stick for discharging any high voltage to ground
before any work is done in the transmitter. Even if
interlocks and power-supply bleeders are used, the
failure of one or more of these components may
leave the transmitter in a dangerous condition. The
shorting stick is made by mounting a small metal
hook; of wire or rod, on one end of a dry stick or
bakelite rod. A piece of ignition cable or other
well-insulated wire is then run from the hook on
the stick to the chassis or common ground of the
transmitter, and the stick is hung alongside the
transmitter. Whenever the power is turned off in
the transmitter to pennit work on the rig, the
This modern amateur radio station is equipped for shorting stick is first used to touch the several
use in the hf bands. The gear is neatly arranged to high-voltage leads "(plate rf choke, filter capacitor,
provide the operator (K1ZND) with easy access to tube plate connection) to insure that there is no
the various units. The foundation is made from high voltage at any of these points.
plywood fashioned in the form of a console. The
station belongs to K1 THQ. Fusing
A minor hazard in the amateur station is the
ampers at 125 volts will handle the switching of possibility of fire through the failure of a compon-
circuits at the kilowatt level, but the small toggle ent. If the failure is complete and the component is
switches rated 3 ampers at 125 volts should be large, the house fuses will generally blow. However,
used only in circuits up to about 150 watts. it is unwise and inconvenient to depend upon the
When relays are used, the send-receive switch house fuses to protect the lines running to the
closes the circuits to their coils. The energized radio equipment, and every power supply should
relays close the heavy-duty relay contacts. Since have its primary circuit individually fused, at about
the relay contacts are in the power circuit being 150 to 200 percent of the maximum rating of the
controlled, the switch handles only the relay-coil supply. Circuit breakers can be used instead of
current. As a consequence, this switch can have a fuses if desired.
low current rating.
Wiring
SAFETY
Control-circuit wires running between the oper-
Of prime importance in the layout of the ating position and a transmitter in another part of
station is the personal safety of the operator and of the room should be hidden, if possible. This can be
visitors, invited or otherwise, during normal operat- done by running the wires under the floor or
ing practice. If there are small children in the behind the base molding, bringing the wires out to
house, every step must be taken to prevent their terminal boxes or regular wall fixtures. Such
accidental contact with power leads of any voltage. construction, however, is generally only possible in
A locked room is a fine idea, if it is possible, elaborate installations, and the average amateur
otherwise housing the transmitter and power sup- must content himself with trying to make the wires
plies in metal cabinets is an excellent, although as inconspicuous as possible. If several pairs of
expensive solution. Lacking a metal cabinet, a leads must be run from the operating table to the
wood cabinet or a wooden framework covered transmitter, as is generally the case, a single piece
with wire screen is the next-best solution. Many of rubber- or vinyl-covered multiconductor cable
stations have the power supplies housed in metal will always look neater than several pieces of
cabinets in the operating room or in a closet or rubber-covered lamp cord, and it is much easier to
basement, and this cabinet or entry is kept locked sweep around or dust.
- with the key out of reach of everyone but the Solid or standard wire connected to a screw
operator. The power leads are run through conduit tenninal (ac plug, antenna binding posts) should
to the transmitter, using ignition cable for the either be "hooked" around a clockwise direction,
high-voltage leads. If the power supplies and or, better yet, be tenninated in a soldering lug. If
transmitter arc in the same cabinet, a lock-type the wire is hooked in a counter-clockwise position,
main switch for the incoming line power is a good it will tend to move out from under the screw head
precaution. as the screw is tightened.
A simple substitute for a lock-type main switch The antenna wires always present a problem,
is an ordinary line plug with a short connecting unless coaxial-line feed is used. Open-wire line
wire between the two pins. By wiring a female from the point of entry of the antenna line should
receptacle in series with the main power line in the always be arranged neatly, and it is generally best
transmitter, the shorting plug will act as the main to support it at several points. Many operators
 643
..,. -.~' ':'i!~.r'
\~iJ .

A world map can be placed under a large sheet of

glass to provide a convenient position for refer-
ence_ A skill, which has been developed by many
amateurs, is the ability to write with one hand
while operating the key with the other_ Shown
here is WA 1 NNe_

/ /

prefer to mount any antenna-tuning assemblies

right at the point of entry of the feedline, together
with an antenna changeover relay (if one is used),
./
effectiv~ly
connectton.
grounded, without intervening splice or
and then link from the tuning assembly to the
transmitter can be made of inconspicuous coaxial 810-21. Grounding Material. The grounding
line. If the transmitter is mounted near the point conductor shall, unless otherwise specified be of
copper, aluminum, copper-clad steel, bro~ze, or
of entry of the line, it simplifies the problem of other corrosion-resistant material.
"What to do with the feeders?" 810-22. Insulation. The grounding conductors
may be uninsulated.
Lightning and Fire Protection 810-23. SUp'ports. The grounding conductors
shall be secunly fastened in place and may be
The National Electrical Code (NFPA No. 70) directly attached to the surface wired over without
adopted by the National Fire Protection Associa- the use of insulating supports. Where proper
support cannot be provided the size of the ground-
tion, although purely advisory as far as the NFPA ing conductor shall be increased proportionately.
is concerned, is of interest because it is widely used 810·24. Mechanical Protection. The grounding
in law and for legal regulatory purposes. Article conductor shall be protected where exposed to
810 deals with radio and television equipment, and physical damage or the size of the grounding
conductor shall be increased proportionately to
Section C treats specifically amateur transmitting compensate for the lack of protection.
and receiving stations. Pertinent paragraphs are 810-25. Run in Straight Line. The grounding
reprinted below: conductor shall be run in as straight a line as
practicable from the antenna mast and/or lightning
810-11. Material. Antenna and lead-in conduc- arrestor to the grounding electrode.
tors shall be of hard-drawn copper, bronze, alumi- 810-26. Grounding Electrode. The grounding
num alloy, copper-clad steel or other high-strength, conductor shall be connected to a metallic under-
corrosion-resistant material. Soft·drawn or medi- ground water piping system. Where the building is
um-drawn copper may be used for lead-in conduc- not supplied with a (suitable) water system (one
tors where the maximum span between points of buried deeper than ten feet) the connection shall
support is less than 35 feet. be made to the metal frame of the building when
810-12. Supports. Outdoor antenna and lead-in effectively grounded or to a grounding electrode.
conductors shall be securely supported. They shall At a penthouse or similar location the ground
not be attached to poles or similar structures conductor may be connected to a water pipe or
carrying electric light or power wires or trolley rigid conduit.
wires of more than 250 volts between conductors. 810-27. Grounding Conductor. The grounding
Insulators supporting the antenna conductors shall conductor may be run either inside or outside the
have sufficient mechanical strength to safely sup- building.
port the conductors. Lead-in conductors shall be
securely attached to the antenna. 810-52. Size of Antenna. Antennas for
amateur transmitting and receiving stations shall be
810-13. Avoidance of Contacts with Conduc- of a size not less than given in Table SI0-52.
tors of Other Systems. Outdoor antenna and
lead-in conductors from an antenna to a building
shall not cross over electric light or power circuits Table 810-52
and shall be kept well away from all such circuits
so as to avoid the possibility of accidental contact. Size of Amateur-Station Outdoor Antenna
Where proximity to electric light and power service Conductors
conductors of less than 250 volts between conduc-
tors cannot be avoided, the installation shall be Minimum Size of
such as to provide a clearance of at least two feet. Conductors
It is recommended that antenna conductors be so
installed as not to cross under electric light or When Maximum Open
power conductors. Span Length Is
810-14. Splices. Splices and joints in antenna Less than Over
span shall be made WIth approved splicing devices
or by such other means as will not appreciably Material 150 feet ISO feet
weaken the conductors.
Soldering may ordinarily be expected to weak- Hard-drawn copper 14 10
en the conductor. Therefore, the joint should be Copper-clad steel, bronze
mechanically secure before soldering. or other high-strength
810-15. Grounding. Masts and metal structures material 14 12
supporting antennas shall be permanently and
644 ASSEMBLI NG A STATION
8lO-53_ Size of Lead-In Conductors. Lead-in
conductors for transmitting stations shall, for
various maximum span lengths, be of a size at least
as great as that of conductors for antenna specified
in 810-52.
8lO-54. Clearance on Building. Antenna con·
ductors for transmitting stations, attached to build·
ings, shall be firmly mounted at least 3 inches clear
of the surface of the building on nonabsorptive
insulating supports, such as treated pins or brack-
ets, equipped with insulators having not less than
3·inch creepage and airgap distances. Lead·in con·
ductors attached to buildings shall also conform to
these requirements, except when they are enclosed
in a continuous metal shield which is permanently
and effectively grounded. In this latter case the
metallic shield may also be used as a conductor.
810-55. Entrance to Building. Except where
protected with a continuous metal shield which is
permanently and effectively grounded, lead·in con-
ductors for transmitting stations shall enter build- Fig. 23-1 - A simple lightning arrester made from
ing by one of the following methods: three stand-off or feedthrough insulators and
(a) Through a rigid, noncombustible, nonab· sections of a 118 X 1/2-inch brass or copper strap.
sorptive insulating tube or bushing. It should be installed in the open-wire or
(b) Through an opening provided for the pur· Twin-Lead line at the point where it is nearest the
pose in which the entrance conductors are firmly
secured so as to provide a clearance of at least 2 ground outside the house. The heavy ground lead
inches. should be as short and direct as possible. Gap
(c) Through a drilled window pane. setting should be minimum for transmitter power.
810-56. Protection Against Accidental Contact.
Lead·in cond uctors to radio transmitters shall be so signal circuit unless separated therefrom by
located or installed as to make accidental contact conduit or some firmly fixed non conductor such
with them difficult. as porcelain tubes or flexible tubing.
810-57. Ligh tning Arrestors - Transmi tting 8lO·71. General. Transmitters shall comply
Stations. Each conductor of a lead·in for outdoor with the following:
antenna shall be provided with a lightning arrestor (a) Enclosing. The transmitter shall be enclosed
or other suitable means which will drain static in a metal frame or grille, or separated from the
charges from the antenna system. . operating space by a barrier or other equivalent
Exception No.1. When protected by a continuo means, all metallic parts of which are effectually
ous metallic shield which is permanetly and effec· connected to ground.
tively grounded. (b) Grounding of Controls. All external metal-
Exception No.2. Where the antenna is perma· lic handles and controls accessible to the operating
nently and effectively grounded. personnel shall be effectually grounded.
8lO·59. Size of Protective Ground. The protec· No circuit in excess of 150 volts between
tive ground conductor for transmitting stations conductors should have any parts exposed to direct
shall be as large as the lead-in, but not smaller than contact. A complete dead-front type of switch-
No. 10 copper, bronze or copper-clad steel. board is preferred.
810-60. Size of Operating Grounding Con- (c) In terlocks on Doors. All access doors shall
ductor. The operating grounding conductor for be provided with interlocks which will disconnect
transmitting stations shall be not less than No. 14 all voltage·s in excess of 350 volts between
copper or its equivalent. conductors when any access door is opened.
(d) Audio Amplifiers. Audio amplifiers which
810-70. Clearance from Other Conductors. All are located outside the transmitter housing shall be
conductors inside the building shall be separated at suitably housed and shall be so located as to be
least 4 inches from the conductors of other light or readily accessible and adequately ventilated.

.. This station, owned by the

Talcott Mountain UHF Soci·
ety, WA110X, is designed
expressly for moonbounce and
advanced amateur satellite
work. The operator
(WA1JLD) is able to control
simultaneously the several re-
ceivers, "steer" the antennas,
and still have access to the
peripheral equipment for data
recording and measurement.
The basic equipment is
located on a table with home-
made wooden shelves. Acces-
sory equipment is located at
either side on stands or in
racks. Th is arrangement pro-
vides room for operation of
the station by more than one
~{' operator at the same time -
an important consideration for

l an advanced club station such

a WA110X.
----------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------

Safety 645
lf coaxial line is used and an antenna has a dc I.:,
return throughout (gamma match), compliance
with 810-57 above is readily achieved by grounding
I·
the shield of the coax at the point where it is
nearest to the ground outside the house. Use a fL",
heavy wire - the aluminum wire sold for
grounding TV antennas is good. If the cable can be
run underground, one or more grounding stakes
should be located at the point where the cable
enters the ground, at the antenna end. A grounding
stake, to be effective in soils of average
conductivity, should be not less than 8 feet long.
Galvanized 3/4-inch iron pipe is acceptable, as is
5/8-inch steel rod or 1/2-inch nonferrous rod.
Making connection to the outside of the outer
conductor of the coaxial line will normally have no
effect on the SWR in the line, and consequently it
can be done at any point or points. A commercial
model of a lightning arrester for coaxial line is i
available. ,I
In some areas the probability of lightning surges
entering the home via the 117/230-volt line may be !.,:~;f~; 'I
high. A portion of the lightning surges originating
0 .. an overhead primary feeder can pass through
the distribution transformer by electrostatic and
electromagnetic coupling to the secondary circuit,
even though the primary is protected by
distribution-class lightning arresters. Radio equip- A blackboard mounted near the operating posi-
ment can be protected from these surges by the use tion allows members of this club station, W8SH,
of a "secondary service lightning arrester." A to list operating information for the benefit of
typical unit is the G.E. Model 9LlSCCB007, other club members.
marketed as the Home Lightning Protector. It is
mounted at the weatherhead or in the service The sole purpose of lightning rods or grounded
entrance box. roofs is to protect a building in case a lightning
Rotary beams using a T or gamma match and strike occurs; there is no accepted evidence that
with each element connected to the boom will any form of protection can prevent a stroke. *
usually be grounded through the supporting metal Experiments have indicated that a high vertical
tower. If the antenna is mounted on a wooden pole conductor will generally divert to itself direct hits
or on the top of the house, a No.4 or larger wire that might otherwise fall within a cone-shaped
should be connected from the beam to the ground space of which the apex is the top of the
by the shortest and most direct route possible, conductor and the base a circle of radius
using insulators where the wire comes close to the approximately two times the height of the
bUilding. From a lightning-protection standpoint, it conductor. Thus a radio mast may afford some
is desirable to run the coaxial and control lines protection to low adjacent structures, but only
from a beam down a metal tower and underground when low-impedance grounds are provided.
to the shack. If the tower is well grounded and the ·See "Code for Protection Against Lightning,"
antenna is higher than any surrounding objects, the National Bureau of Standards HandbOOK 46, for
sale by the Superintendent of Documents,
combination will serve well as a lightning rod. Washington DC 20402.
 Chapter 24

Operating a Station

Good on-the-air operating practices are im- W6ZRJ W6ZRJ DE W7PGY W7PGY AR. If no
portant to every amateur for at least three good answer (to anyone) this may be repeated; brief,
reasons: to assure compliance with regulations, to repeated calls are preferred to long drawn out ones.
permit a large volume of activity to be conducted Chances are, if he is to hear you at all, he will hear
as efficiently and as simply as possible, and as a your first brief call; most amateurs seldom tune far
matter of personal pride and competence. Good from their transmitting frequency to listen after a
practices is a very bewildering subject at first to CQ. Note the ending signals. These have a special
many new amateurs, but as in so many other fields, significance of their own to indicate to a casual
it soon becomes apparent that there is a sound listener the "status of the contact."
basis of custom and tradition which has produced a In answer to your call (assuming you are
body of standard practices. These have evolved heard), the called station will reply: "W7PGY from
over more than a half-century of experience. One W6ZRJ, roger . . . " and then go into con-
of the League's important functions has been to versation. On cw, it would be W7PGY DE W6ZRJ
formalize, to foster and to encourage good R . . . . That "roger" (R) means that he has
standard practices so that they have become received your call correctly. That's all it means --
universal and accepted. Some of our standard RECEIVED. It does not mean correct, I agree, I
practices go back a long time; others have been will comply. It is not sent unless everything was
developed to meet changing circumstances, re- received correctly. Note also that "roger" is the
quirements and technology. phonetic equivalent of the letter R only in this
It used to be that one standard was all that was usage. The regular phonetic for R is "Romeo."
required. Today, things are different. There are Perhaps W6ZRJ heard W7PGY but did not
standard operating practices for cw, voice, RTTY catch his call. In this case, he might come back with
and repeaters, with additional standards for ATV "The W7 station, please repeat your call, this is
not too far away. Those for cw and voice are W6ZRJ, over." On cw: QRZ? W7? DE W6ZRJ AR.
pretty firmly established, but RTTY is newer and The presence of interference (QRM) and at-
repeater operation newer still. Your League will mospherics (QRN) in the amateur bands makes use
take a crack at all of them. If its recommendations of this procedure fairly frequent. The contact
don't "take hold," they will be changed until they (QSO) can then continue. Please note the FCC
become acceptable to a majority in a particular requirements on identification (97.87).
opera ting specialty. This has been the pattern on
cw and phone and will be the pattern on RTTY, CALLING CO
repeaters, satellites and whatever else comes along
If you hear no CQ, you may wish to make such
in the future. Operating is better than 50% of most
a call yourself. Refrain from CQing unless you are
ama teurs' lives. Better learn to do it right.
willing to establish contact with whoever calls. CQ
Initially, we'll talk about phone and cw, be-
means "I wish to contact any amateur station." If
cause they can be covered together. RTTY and
this is not your desire, then don't CQ, or be
repeaters will be handled separately.
specific in doing so. A CQ call can be somewhat
longer than a call to a specific station, because you
ESTABLISHING A CONTACT are trying to attract the attention of casual
The best way to do this, especially at first, is to listeners, including those tuning around looking for
listen until you hear someone calling CQ, and call someone to call. However, please avoid the com-
them. This requires a little patience, but that's mon operating discrepancy of calling CQ endlessly;
something else all amateurs must learn if we are to it clutters up the air and drives off potential
share our bands in harmony. Tune around near "customers." The average call would go something
your own frequency. If you hear a CQ, put your like this: "Hello CQ, CQ, CQ, calling CQ, this is
vfo on that frequency (without putting a signal on W0PAN, W zero Papa Alpha November,
the air), wait until he indicates he is listening, then Bloomington, Minnesota, calling CQ and listening,
call him, thus: "W6ZRJ, W6ZRJ, this is W7PGY, go." On cw: CQ CQ CQ DE W0PAN W0PAN
W7 Papa Golf Yankee calling, Over" On cw: W0PAN K. After a brief standby for replies, if no

646
 OPERATING ABBREVIATIONS AND PREFIXES
QSIGNALS
with . . . direct (or by relay
Given below are a number of Q signals whose through . . . ).
meanings most often need to be expressed with QSP Will you relay to . . . ? I will relay
brevity and clearness in amateur work. (Q to . . .
abbreviations take the form of questions only QSU Shall I send or reply on this frequency (or
when each is sent followed by a question mark.) on . . . kHz)? Send or reply on this
frequency (or on . . . kHz).
QRG Will you tell me my exact frequency (or QSV Shall I send a series of Vs on this frequen-
that of . . . )? Your exact frequency cy (or . . . kHz)? Send a series of Vs
(or that of . . . ) is . . . kHz. on this frequency (or . . . kHz).
QRH Does my frequency vary? Your frequency QSW Will you send on this frequency (or
varies. on . . . kHz)? I am going to send on
QRI How is the tone of my transmission? The this frequency (or on . . . kHz).
tone of your transmission is . . . (I. QSX Will you listen to . . . on . . . kHz? I
Good; 2. Variable; 3. Bad). am listening to . . . on . . . kHz.
QRK What is the intelligibility of my signals (or QSY Shall I change to transmission on another
those of . . . )? The intelligibility of frequency? Change to transmission on
your signals (or those of.. . ) another frequency (or on . . . kHz).
is . . . (1. bad; 2. poor; 3. fair; 4. QSZ Shall I send each word or group more
good; 5. excellent. than once? Send each word or group
QRL Are you busy? I am busy (or I am busy twice (or . . . times).
with . . . ). Please do not interfere. QTA Shall I cancel message number . . . ?
QRM Is my transmission being interfered with? Cancel message number . . .
Your transmission is being interfered QTB Do you agree with my counting of
with . . . O. nil; 2. slightly; 3. words? I do not agree with your
moderately; 4. severely; 5. extremely. counting of words; I will repeat the
QRN Are you troubled by static? I am troubled first letter or digit of each word or
by static . . . (1·5 as under QRM). group.
QRO Shall I increase power? Increase power. QTC How many messages have you to send? I
QRP Shall I decrease power? De crease power. have . . . messages for you (or for
QRQ Shall I send faster? Send faster ... ).
( . . . wpm). QTH What is your location? My location
QRS Shall I send more slowly? Send more is
slowly ( . . . wpm). QTR What is the correct time? The time
QRT Shall I stop sending? Stop sending. is
QRU Have you anything for me? I have
nothing for you. Special abbreviations adopted by ARRL:
QRV Are you ready? I am ready. QST General call preceding a message ad-
QRW Shall I inform . . . that you are calling dressed to all amateurs and ARRL
him o n . . . kHz? Please inform members. This is in effect "CQ
. . . that I am calling on . . . kHz. ARRL."
QRX When will you call me again? I will call
you again at . . . hours (on . . .
kHz).
THE R-S-T SYSTEM
QRY What is my turn? Your turn is number
READABILITY
I ~t;nreadable.
QRZ Who is calling me? You are being called 2-·Barely readable. occasional words distinguishable.
by . . . (on . . . kHz). 3--Readable with considerable difficulty.
QSA What is the strength of my signals (or 4- Readable with practically no difficulty.
S-Perfectly readable.
those of . . . )? The strength of your
signals (or those of . . . ) is . . . SIGNAL STRENGTH
(1. Scarcely perceptible; 2. Weak; 3. I--Faint signals barely perceptible.
2-Very weak signals.
Fairly good; 4. Good; 5. Very good). 3-Weak signals.
QSB Are my signals fading? Your signals are 4-Fair signals.
fading. 5-Fairly good signals.
6--Good signals.
QSD Are my signals mutilated? Your signals 7 -Moderately strong signals.
are mutilated. 8-Strong signals.
Shall I send . . . messages at a time? 9·-Extremely strong signals.
QSG
Send . . . messages at a time. TONE
QSK Can you hear me between your signals I--Sixty-cycle a.c. or less, very rough an9 broad.
and if so can I break in on your 2-Very rough a.c .. very harsh and broad.
3-Rough a.c. tone, rectified but not filtered.
transmission? I can hear you between 4-Rough note, some trace pf filtering.
my signals; break in on my transmis- 5 - Fil tered rectified a.c. but strongly ripple·
sion. modulated.
6-,hltered tone, definite trace of ripple modulation.
QSL Can you acknowledge receipt? I am 7-Near pure lone, trace of ripple modulation.
acknowledging receipt. S-Near perfect tone, slight trace of modulation.
Shall I repeat the last message which I 9 -Perfect tone, no trace of ripple or modulation of
QSM
sent you, or some previous message?
Repeat the last message which you
any kind.
The "tone" report refers only to the purity of the
signal, and has no connection with its stability or
I
sent me [or message(s) number(s) freedom from clicks or chirps. If the signal has the
... I. characteristic steadiness of crystal control. add X to
the report (e.g .• RST 469X). If it has a chirp or "tail"
QSN Did you hear me (or . . . ) on (either on "make" or "break"). add C (e.g., 469C). If
. . . kHz? I did hear you (or. .) it has clicks or noticeable other keying transients, add
K (e.g .. 469K). Of course a signal could have both
on . . . kHz. chirps and click~, in which case both C and K could be
QSO Can you communicate with . . . direct used (e.g., RST 469CK).
or by relay? I can communicate
648 OPERATING A STATION
.one answers and the frequency is still clear, YDU this is necessary, in .others inadvertent; but it
can try again. ShDrt calls and frequent standbys are shDuld always be aVDided where pDssible. For
the best way tD establish cDntact with the min- example, if YDU are cDmmitted tD a legal .one-way
imum QRM. This kind .of prDcedure is easy tD use transmissiDn Dr schedule with a friend .on a certain
when using VOX Dr keying thrDugh YDur VOX frequency at a certain time, it is sDmetimes
relay, Dr using cw break-in prDcedure. unavDidable tD cause temporary incDnvenience tD a
gDing cDntact Dr even a net. In anDther situatiDn,
YDU may nDt hear anDther statiDn .on the frequency
THE aso because .of "skip," in which case an inquiry "Is the
During the cDntact, be sure tD .observe the FCC frequency in use?" Dr, .on cw, the Morse letter C
identificatiDn rules (see ARRL License Manual) (didit dit) ShDUld bring a respDnse if YDU are
Aside from that, there are nD legal limits tD what interfering with a statiDn which YDU cannDt hear.
YDU can talk abDut, althDugh it is recDmmended Use the same procedure in tuning up YDur antenna
that cDntrDversial subjects cDnnected with pDlitics (use a dummy antenna for testing YDur rig) - dDn't
and mDrality be aVDided. Keep everything .on a ever fire up the rig and start tuning it withDut first
friendly and cordial level, remembering that the turning .on the receiver and checking the fre-
cDnversatiDn is nDt private and many .others, quency. The amateur bands are crDwded; CDn-
including pDssibly members .of the lay public, may sideratiDn for the .other guy will make things better
be listening. Try tD aVDid the habitual utterances, fDr everybDdy.
prDcedures and inanities which SD .often make
amateur radiD cDntacts bDring - things such as the
drawn .out 'ahhhhhh' tD keep the VOX relay RTTY PROCEDURES
clDsed, Dr repeated "dDuble dash" (dahdidididah) On radiDteletype, the methDds .of transmissiDn
sign .on cw, Dr hackneyed expressiDns such as
and receptiDn are sDmewhat different, SD slightly
"there" (referring tD the .other fellDw) and "here" different prDcedures are required. VDice is seldDm
referring tD YDurself, Dr "we" when YDU mean "I." a "written" mDde and cw need nDt be, but RTTY
BDth .on cw and vDice it is pDssible tD be infDrmal, always is. YDU type YDur transmissiDn .on a
friendly and cDnversatiDnal, and this is what makes keybDard and it is received at the .other end in
an amateur radiD QSO enjDyable. During the QSO, printed fDrm: Thus, mDst cw abbreviatiDns can be
when YDU stand by the recDmmended signal is "gD used tD gDDd effect. In additiDn, such things as line
.only" .on vDice, KN .on cw, meaning that YDU want feeds and carriage returns must be cDnsidered, as
.only the cDntacted statiDn tD CDme back tD YDU. If well as shifts fDr "letters" and "figures." These are
YDU dDn't mind SDmeDne else breaking in, just nDnprinting functiDns nevertheless essential fDr
"gD" Dr K is sufficient. Of CDurse, using VOX Dr teleprinter DperatiDn.
break-in the cDnversatiDn can proceed as it wDuld Because .of wide variatiDns in RTTY machines,
face tD face, WithDut ending signals after each different mechanical procedures can .often be used,
transmissiDn; this is mDre nDrmal in a vDice cDntact but if YDU dDn't knDw the machine at the .other
than in a cw QSO. end it is best tD assume that it has nDne .of the
refinements.
ENDING THE aso As in .other .operating, the best thing tD dD is
When YDU decide tD end the cDntact, end it. If listen. The typical beadle-beadle .of RTTY is
the .other fellDw indicates a desire tD end it, dDn't familiar enDugh that it can be tuned in with an
keep .on talking, dDn't say "I wDn't hDld YDU," .ordinary cDmmunicatiDns receiver, then put
then hDld him. Express YDur pleasure at having thrDugh the CDnverter tD CDPY .on YDur printer.
cDntacted him and sign .out, thus "WIQV from SDme typical calls can be identified just by their
W6KW, clear." If YDU dDn't want further cDntacts, sDund, such as RY (the RTTY "test") and CQ and
say "clear and leaving the air." On cw, it's ~ even YDur .own call. The prDcedure is much the
WIQV DE W6KW, and, if leaving the air, CL. same as fDr cw - zero YDur VfD while cDpying and
All these things establish amateur radiD as a call YDur statiDn .on the same frequency. Even
cDrdial and fraternal hDbby at the same time they thDugh he finishes his CQ with a carriage return
fDster .orderliness and denDte DrganizatiDn. MDSt .of (CR) and line feed (LF), it is a gDDd idea tD get
them have nD legal standing; FCC regs say little intD the habit .of transmitting these functiDns, tD
abDut .our internal procedures. The prDcedures we "clear the machine." Thus: (2CR) (LF) K6DYX
.ourselves adDpt are even mDre impDrtant than that, K6DYX K6DYX DE WIAW WIAW AR (2CR)
because they indicate that we are nDt just a bunch (LF) .
.of hDbbyists playing arDund in randDm fashiDn, TD initiate a CQ, find an unused pDint in the
but that we are an established cDmmunicatiDns band, activate YDur carrier and transmit: (2CR)
service with distinct and distinctive prDcedures (LF) CQ CQ CQ DE K6DYX K6DYX K6DYX K
tailDred tD .our special needs. (CR) (LF).
During the QSO, when YDU CD me tD the end .of
COURTESY a line (Dr the end-Df-line indicatDr .on tape equip-
ment), send 2CR, LF, 2LTRS. That is, after YDur
One thing that is cDnsidered the height .of ill carriage return and line feed at the end .of a line,
manners and "liddy" prDcedure in amateur radiD is the tWD nDnprinting "letter" pulses serve tD all.ow
tD tune up Dr make any transmissiDn .on a fre- sluggish machines tD get ready fDr the next line,
quency which is already .occupied. In SDme cases and take less than a secDnd tD send. This is
 - -- ... ---------------------

RTTY Procedures 649

especially important with tape transmissions at the 2. Don't activate the repeater without iden-
higher machine speeds - 75 and 100 wpm. tifying yourself. Just by pressing your transmitter
Most stations equipped for RTTY are also button you can tell if the repeater is being keyed
equipped with tape equipment. While RTTY can (and therefore if it is active). It is considered poor
be sent manually from a keyboard, the use of tape practice (indeed, it is illegal!) to do this without
for material which can be prepared ahead of time is identifying yourself.
much preferable, since it allows the machine to run 3. Don't call CQ through a repeater. It isn't
at an even speed, faster than it could be typed by necessary, because all reception is done on the
hand even by an expert typist. The tape is punched same frequency. If you want a QSO, all you have
on a perforator and fed into a transmitter- to do is key the repeater, identify yourself and
distributor (TD) which is motor-driven. Thus, CQ stand by, thus: "This is W1UED mobile one
calls or other prepared text (including message monitoring the WA1KGR repeater."
traffic) can be made up in advance. It is also fairly 4. During a repeater QSO, always pause
common practice to punch tape in ordinary QSOs, momentarily before transmitting, after your con-
keeping ahead of the TD with the perforator. Many tact has stood by for you. Two or three seconds
operators start punching their reply tape while seems to be the rule. This permits hearing
they are still receiving from the operator at the "breakers. "
other end, thus getting ahead far enough so that 5. Keep transmissions short. Most repeaters go
even if their typing speed is below the speed of the off automatically after a certain length of trans-
machine (usually 60 wpm) there is enough leeway mission and must be rekeyed. If the repeater you
to allow for the difference. Taped transmissions are using does this, it's a sign you're talking too
have no pauses, which can be irksome in manual much. Keep transmissions under a minute in
transmissions. length.
RTTY equipments operate at different speeds 6. Don't interrupt a going QSO unless you have
and with different frequency shifts, depending on reason for doing so, or unless participants invite
the sophistication of the equipment. Most ama- breakers. When you do break in, don't say
teurs, however, operate at a standard 60 wpm and "break," just announce your call. "Break" means
850-hertz shift, and those with 100 wpm and you have time-factor traffic. A double break
170-hertz shift capability can usually switch to the ("break-break") means you have urgent traffic. A
standard. The considerate RTTY operator will be triple break (~break-break-break") signifies a
glad to do so whenever called upon, just as a disaster situation and should immediately stop all
considerate cw operator will slow down to the speed other operation.
of his QSO. 7. It is most discourteous to use the pause
between transmissions to call another station not
in the QSO. Proper procedure is to request the
REPEATER OPERATING channel. When or if granted, make your call,
While repeater operation is voice operation, it complete your business promptly, and return the
has some ramifications that are not present in the channel to those who were using it.
type of operation used in direct contact on phone. 8. Use a dummy load for tuning if possible. If
Most repeaters are of the "open" type - that is you must tune up on the air, don't do so on a
any signal appearing on the repeater's input fre- repeater input or output frequency.
quency is automatically repeated on its output 9. Present logging rules for mobiles do not
frequency. Some repeaters have limited access, require that you log each individual QSO, only the
such as by means of a tone, a series of tones or beginning and ending of on-the-air operation for a
pulses, or some other means to prevent their being given operating period. Your log must show how-
triggered by a casual signal as described in Chapter ever, such basic information as frequency band
13. In either case, a repeater has to be built by used, power input, signature of the operator, type
somebody, installed by somebody, and maintained of emission, and an indication of the location of
by somebody, usually at considerable expense and the station. Mobile stations can comply with this
trouble. In some cases this "somebody" is an latter item simply by noting "local" if within 100
individual but more often a group, either or- miles of the address shown on the license. If on an
ganized for the purpose or an already-existing club extended trip, your log must show the location of
undertaking repeater operation as a project. So a the first and last QSO of each day, and must, if
first point of repeater operating not exactly an appropriate show compliance with the rule about
on-the-air concept is to lend some kind of support notice of operation away from the authorized
to the group or individual that sponsors the location.
repeater you use regUlarly. ARRL makes available a repeater directory
Being somewhat new, no specific standards without charge to anyone requesting it If you
have yet been developed for repeater operating want a copy, send three units of first-class postage
procedures, but certain customs are being observed (or a self-addressed stamped envelope, 7 x 9-inch).
which tend in this direction. Here are a few "dos"
and "don'ts" put forward by repeater groups that
may serve as useful guidelines: CW PROCEDURE
1. Monitor the repeater you plan to use. Each Cw operating procedure has been developing
system has its own peculiarities. Don't "key up" a for over a century, for our present International
repeater until you're familiar with its operation. (Continental) Code had its beginnings on the
650 OPERATING A STATION
telegraph wire lines. There is more to talk about in electronic keyer, but this weds you to such a
cw procedures than any other mode for this device forever more. The best way to start is with
reason, not because it is the most popular mode. an ordinary straight key, learning characters by
Phone many years ago outstripped cw as the most their sound, and striving to imitate machine
popular mode. But cw is far from dead. A listen to sending by learning to control the muscles used in
a rare DX pileup in the cw bands, or the cw section manipulating this key. This makes "graduating" to
of any contest will demonstrate that conclusively. a bug or an electronic key much easier at a later
And it has many advantages over any other mode. date.
Any amateur who avoids the use of cw because he In order to make your sending good, you have
is too lazy to become proficient enough in the to know what good sending sounds like. The way
code to realize its full benefits is missing almost to acquire this is to copy WIAW's bulletins and
half of amateur radio pleasure. code practice, or other perfect sending, then strive
to imitate it Sometimes you can get a copy of the
Good Sending practice text (it's listed in advance in QSn, and try
In many ways, cw can be compared with the to send along with WIAW. Most amateur cw
spoken word. For the proficient cw man, it is operators today have difficulty maintaining proper
indeed equivalent to this. But just as enunciation spacing, probably because so much equipment in
must be precise for best understanding in speaking, use demands that we key through a VOX relay. On
proper character formation and spacing is required cw the control for this relay is usually set for
in sending the code. And the learning processes are minimum delay, so it will close quickly and open
also similar. The beginning cw operator is subject just as quickly; but on most equipments it still
to the same stresses and pressures as the child doesn't close quickly enough, so a part of the first
learning to talk, and can learn bad habits. He dit or dah of the first character is cut off. This has
becomes subject to outside influences to his own a tendency to cause the operator to run his words
possible detriment in everyday operating together so the relay will stay closed while he is
Actually, it is far easier to learn code today sending but open immediately when he stops,
than it was, say, forty years ago when nearly all making his sending very difficult to copy.
amateur operation was by cw, because there are Nobody's sending is perfect, and therefore
more helps available. On the other hand, there is every operator should continually strive for im-
less reason to learn it today than there was then. provement. Watch out for the customary pitfalls as
True, the licensing requirement still exists, but your cw proficiency develops. Do you ever send Q
once you have your license if you prefer (and for MA, or P for AN? Do you have a "swing?" Yes,
many amateurs do), you can spend 100 percent of even on an electronic key you can develop personal
your amateur operating time on voice or other idiosyncrasies. Be your own worst critic, and make
modes that require no knowledge of the code. In sure your sending, at whatever speed, is beyond
the 1930s, you needed the code to communicate, reproach.
not just to get your license. There are also, today, a
great many gadgets on the market that, while seeming Break-In
to make code easier only serve really to instill bad On cw can you have true break-in ~ the ability
habits on the operator. Some teachers for to hear the signal of the other station while you are
example, would have you start out with an keying your transmitter. Technical considerations
are covered elsewhere in this manual. Once this
Voice-Operating Hints part of it has been accomplished, the full ad-
vantages and benefits of break-in can be realized.
1) Listen before calling. Long calls are unnecessary, because you can hear
2) Make short calls with breaks to listen.
Avoid long CQs; do not answer over-long immediately if the station being called comes back
CQs. to someone else. Much QRM is thus eliminated. If
3) Use push-to-talk or voice control. both stations in a QSO are using break-in, no
Give essential data concisely in first trans-
mission. sta tion transmits unnecessarily; if the transmitting
4) Make reports honest. Use definitions station is not being received, the receiving station
of strength and readability for reference. "breaks" him and transmission stops. If another
Make your reports informative and useful. signal comes on the frequency, it can be heard
Honest reports and full word deSCription of
signals save amateur operators from FCC immediately and any appropriate action taken. If
trouble. message or other recorded traffic is being trans-
S) Limit transmission length. Two mitted, any material missed can be filled
minutes or less will convey much informa-
tion. When three or more stations converse immediately because the transmission can be in-
in round tables, brevity is essential. terrupted just by the tap of a key. You can even
6) Display sportsmanship and courtesy. call a CQ using break-in, and stop the moment
Bands are congested . . . make transmis- someone hears you and starts calling. The cus-
sions meaningful . . . give others a break.
7) Check transmitter adjust- tomary procedure is CQ CQ CQ DE W~PAN
ment . .'. avoid a-m overmodulation and W~PAN BK (pause) CQ CQ CQ . . . , until some-
splatter. On ssb check carrier balance care- one breaks or until it seems obvious no one is going
fully. Do not radiate when moving VFO to. Alternatively, the Q signal QSK can be used,
frequency or checking nfm swing. Use re-
ceiver BFO to check stability of signal. either in sending CQ or at the beginning of a QSO
Complete testing before busy hours! to indicate to the other station that you are
equipped for break-in and invite him to use it. QSK
Voice Operating 651
is the mark of a well-equipped and well-operated kilowatt, but there is no reason why every amateur
cw station. cannot have a signal of the highest quality. Don't
reward the guy who cranks up his gain and
splatters by answering his call if another station is
VOICE OPERATING calling.
The use of proper procedure to get best results Interpose your call frequently. Say it often and
is just as important as in using code. In telegraphy distinctly, in measured tones. Too often, iden-
words must be spelled out letter by letter. It is tification is muffled or slurred. The fastest voice
therefore but natural that abbreviations and communication doesn't come from the guy who
shortcuts have come into use. In voice work, talks fastest; it comes from the operator who
however, abbreviations are not necessary, and have speaks distinctly. Your call especially is important,
less importance in our operating procedure. you can be cited for improper identification if it
cannot be understood.
The letter "K" is used in telegraphic practice so
that the operator will not have to pound out the Listen before transmitting. Make sure the fre-
quency isn't being used before you come barging
separate letters. The voice operator can say the
words "go" or "over." onto it. Our voice bands are pretty crowded and
One laughs on cw by sending HI. On phone, QRM is inevitable. But this is a reason for more
laugh when one is called for. courtesy, not less.
The matter of reporting readability and Keep modulation constant. By turning your
strength is as important to phone operators as to gain "wide open" you are subjecting anyone
those using code. With telegraph nomenclature, it listening to all kinds of extraneous noises that
is necessary to spell out words to describe signals don't belong on the air. Speak as closely to the
or use abbreviated signal reports. But on voice, we mike as you can without breath modulation, turn
have the ability to "say it with words." your gain down so that only your voice can be
"Readability four, strength eight" is the best way heard. A good stunt is to hold the mike at the
to give a quantitative report, but reporting can be corner of your mouth and talk across it, rather
done so much more meaningfully with ordinary than into it. If you use a stationary mike, turn it so
words: "You are weak but I can understand you, that your breath goes across it, not into it;
so go ahead," or "Your signal is strong but you are otherwise, your "explosives" will distort your
buried under local interference." speech.
Have a pencil and paper always handy. Take
Voice Equivalents to Code Procedure notes on the other guy's conversation while he's
talking, so you can answer him or comment on the
Voice Code Meaning
things he has said; otherwise he might get the
Over AR After call to specific sta- wrong impression that you are deliberately
tion ignoring some of his remarks.
End of message AR End of transmission or Avoid repetition. Don't repeat back what the
record message
Self-explanatory other fellow has just said. Just say you received
Wait; stand by AS
Roger R All received correctly everything, don't try to prove it.
Go K Any station transmit Avoid inanities. There are many of them in
Go only KN Addressed station only phone operation, and they are contagious. "That's
transmit a roger." "Yeeeaaah!" "By golly." The phoney
Clear SK End of contact or laugh. The affected speech. If you must parrot,
communication parrot the polished operator, not the affected or
Closing station CL Going off the air idiotic one.
Steer clear of such controversial or suggestive
Phone-Operating Practice
subjects as politics and sex, and of profanities, even
Efficient voice communication, like good cw those considered acceptable in today's permissive
communication, demands good operating. Adher- society.
ence to certain points "on getting results" will go a Use phonetics only as required. When clarifying
long way toward improving our phone-band genuinely doubtful expressions and in getting your
operating conditions. call identified positively we suggest use of the
Use VOX or push-ta-talk. If you use VOX International Civil Aviation Organization list.
(most home stations do), don't defeat its purpose However, don't overdo its use.
by saying "aaahbh" to keep the relay closed. If The speed of radiotelephone transmission (with
you use push-to-talk (common on mobiles so perfect accuracy) depends almost entirely upon the
traffic noises won't affect transmission), let go of skill of the two operators involved. One must learn
the button every so often to make sure you aren't to speak at a rate allowing perfect understanding as
"doubling" with the other fellow. Don't be a well as permitting the receiving operator to copy
monologuist - a guy who likes to hear himself down the message text, if that is necessary.
talk. Because of the similarity of many English speech
Listen with care. It's natural enough to answer sounds, the use of word lists has been found
the loudest signal who calls, but do a little digging, necessary. All voice-operated stations should use a
if necessary, to answer the best signal instead, standard list as needed to identify call signals or
where there is a choice. Every amateur can't run a unfamiliar expressions.
652 OPERATING A STATION
A - ALFA N - NOVEMBER on the same frequency, while the enjoyment value
B - BRAVO o -OSCAR remains the same, if not greater. By use of
C - CHARLIE P - PAPA push-to-talk, or vox, the conversation can be kept
D- DELTA Q- QUEBEC lively and interesting, giving each station operator
E -ECHO R- ROMEO ample opportunity to participate without waiting
F - FOXTROT S - SIERRA overlong for his turn.
G-GOLF T- TANGO Round tables can become very unpopular if
H - HOTEL U - UNIFORM they are not conducted properly. The monologuist,
I - INDIA V - VICTOR off on a long spiel about nothing in particular,
J - JULIETT W- WHISKEY cannot be interrupted; make your transmissions
K - KILO X - X-RAY short and to the point. "Butting in" is discourteous
L- LIMA Y - YANKEE and unsportsmanlike; don't enter a round table, or
M - MIKE Z - ZULU any contact between two other amateurs, unless
you are invited. It is bad enough trying to copy
Example: WIAW . WI ALFA WHISKEY. through prevailing interference without the added
WIAW difficulty of poor voice quality; check your
transmitter adjustments frequently. In general,
Round Tables. The round table has many follow the precepts as hereinbefore outlined for
advantages if run properly. It clears frequencies of the most enjoyment in round tables as well as any
interference, especially if all stations involved are other form of radiotelephone communication.

WORKING OX
OX OPERATING CODE
Most amateurs at one time or another make
(For WIVE Amateurs)
"working OX" a major aim. As in every other
Some amateurs interested in DX work phase of amateur work, there are right and wrong
have caused considerable confusion and ways to go about getting best results in working
QRM in their efforts to work DX stations. foreign stations, and it is the intention of this
The points below, if observed by all WIVE section to outline a few of them.
amateurs, will go a long way toward making The ham who has trouble raising DX stations
DX more enjoyable for everybody. readily may find that poor transmitter efficiency is
1. Call DX only after he calls CQ,
QRZ?, signs SK, or phone equivalent there· not the reason. He may find that his sending is
of. poor, his calls ill timed, or his judgment in error.
2. Do not call a DX station: Working OX requires the know-how that comes
a. On the frequency of the station he with experience. If you just call CQ OX you may
is working until you are sure the QSO is get a call from a foreign station, but it isn't likely
over. This is indicated by the ending signal to be a "rare one." On the other hand, unless you
SK on cw and any indication that the are experienced enough to know that conditions
operator is listening, on phone. are right, your receiver is sensitive and selective
b. Because you hear someone else
calling him. enough and your transmitter and antenna properly
c. When he signs KN, AR, CL, or tuned and oriented, you may get no calls at all, and
phone equivalents. succeed only in causing some unnecessary QRM.
d. Exactly on his frequency. The call CQ DX means slightly different things
e. After he calls a directional CQ, to amateurs on different bands:
unless of course you are in the right a) On vhf, CQ DX is a general call ordinarily
direction or area. used only when the band is open, under favorable
3. Keep within frequency-band limits. "skip" conditions. For vhf work, such a call is used
Some DX stations operate outside. Perhaps
they can get away with it, but you cannot. for looking for new states and countries, also for
4. Observe calling instructions of DX distances beyond the customary "Iine-of-sight"
stations. "IOU" means call ten kHz up from range on most vhf bands.
his frequency, "1 5D" means 1 5 kHz down, b) CQ OX on our 7-, 14-,21-, and 28-MHz bands
etc. may be taken to mean "General call to any foreign
5. Give honest reports. Many foreign station." The term "foreign station" usually refers
stations depend on Wand VE reports for to any station on a different continent. If you do
adjustment of station and equipment. call CQ DX, remember that it implies you will
6. Keep your signal clean. Key clicks,
chirps, hum or splatter give you a bad answer any DX who calls. If you don't mean
reputation and may get you a citation from "general call to any OX station,'.' then listen and
FCC. call the station you do want.
7. Listen for and call the station you
wan t. Calling CQ D X is not the best Snagging the Rare Ones
assurance that the rare DX will reply.
8. When there are several W or VE Once in a while a CQ OX will result in snagging
stations waiting to work a DX station, avoid a rare OX contact, if you're lucky. This seldom
asking him to "listen for a friend." Let your happens, however; usually, what you have to do is
friend take his chances with the rest. Also listen - and listen - and then listen some more.
avoid engaging DX stations in rag-chews You gotta hear 'em before you can work 'em! If
against their wishes. everybody transmits, nobody is going to hear
anything. Be a snooper. Usually, unless you are
Working OX 653
lucky enough to be among the first to hear him, a band at midnight during the wintertlme at the
rare DX station will be found under a pileup, with 'null' part of the cycle might produce some very
stations swarming all over him like worker bees exciting DX. Similarly, you will learn by ex-
over a queen. The bedlam will subside when the perience when to operate on which band for the
DX station is transmitting (although some stations best DX by juggling the above factors using both
keep right on calling him), and you can hear him. long-range and other indications of band con-
Don't immediately join the pack, be a little cagey. ditions. WWV transmissions can also be helpful in
Listen a while, get an idea of his habits, find out indicating both current and immediate-forecast
where he is listening (if not zero on himself), bide band conditions.
your time and wait your chance. Sometimes Conditions in the transmission medium often
"tail-ending" works. This is the practice of waiting make it possible for the signals from low-powered
until the station your DX is working starts his transmitters to be received at great distances. In
sign-off, then just transmitting your own call. Be general, the higher the frequency band the less
careful however; this could backfire. If your DX important power considerations become, for
station doesn't respond to such tactics, best to occasional DX work. This accounts in part for the
avoid it. Some of them don't like it relative popularity of the 14-, 21- and 28-MHz
Make your calls short, snappy. No need to bands among amateurs who like to work DX.
repeat his call (he knows it very well, all he needs
to know is that you are calling him), but send your OSL CARDS AND BUREAUS
own call a couple of times. Try to find a time when
Most amateurs who work another station for
few stations are calling him and he is not trans- the first time, especially a foreign station, will later
mitting; then get in there! With experience, you'll send the station a postcard confirming the contact.
learn all kinds of tricks, some of them clever some These cards are known as QSLs, taken from the
just plain dirty. You'll have no trouble discerning international signal meaning, "I acknowledge
which is which. Learn to use the clever ones, and receipt." A number of printing firms specialize in
shun the dirty ones. More than you think depends producing these postcards, following standard
on the impressions we make on our foreign friends! designs, or following the directions of an individual
amateur. Advertisements of these printers appear
Codes and Ethics each month in QST, ARRL's official journal.
One of the most effective ways to work DX is Since it is rather expensive, for a foreign station
to know the operating habits of the DX stations especially, to send a QSL separately to each U.S. or
sought, and to abide by the procedures they use. Canadian station he's worked, ARRL has set up a
Know when and where to call, and for how long, system of QSL Bureaus, manned by amateur
and when to remain silent waiting your chance. volunteers in each call area. The bureaus get
DXing has certain understood codes of ethics and packages of cards from overseas, which are sorted
procedures that will make this popular amateur by call. Individual amateurs may claim their cards
pursuit more fun for everybody if everybody by sending a supply of stamped, self-addressed
follows them. One of the sad things about DXing is envelopes to the QSL manager in their call area.
to listen to some of the vituperation and abuse that QST carries the addresses of these bureaus nearly
goes on, mostly by station on "this" side, as they every issue. Or write to ARRL Hq. for
trample on each other trying to raise their quarry. information.
DX stations have been known to QRT in disgust at Similarly, U.S. and Canadian amateurs may
some of the tactics. send QSLs in bulk to bureaus overseas rather than
If Wand VE stations will use the procedure in direct. Addresses for overseas bureaus appear in the
the "DX Operating Code" detailed elsewhere on IARU News department of QST each June and
these pages, we can all make a good impression on December.
the air. ARRL has also recommended some
operating procedures for DX stations aimed at KEEPING AN AMATEUR STATION LOG
controlling some of the thoughtless practices some- The FCC requires every amateur to keep a
times used by WIVE amateurs A copy of these complete station operating record (log) that shows
recommendations (Op Aid No.5) can be obtained (1) the date and time of each transmission, (2) all
free of charge from ARRL Headquarters. calls and transmissions made, whether contacts
resulted or not, (3) the input power to the last
Choosing Your Band stage of the transmitter, (4) the frequency band
If it does nothing else in furthering your used, (5) the time of ending each contact (QSO),
education, striving to work DX will certainly teach and (6) the signature of the licensed operator.
you a few things about propagation. You will find Written messages handled in standard form must be
that four principal factors determine propagation included in the log or kept on file for a period of at
characteristics. (1) The frequency of the band in least one year.
which you do your operating. (2) The time of day But a log can be more than just a legal record of
or night. (3) the season of the year (4) The station operation. It can be a "diary" of your
sunspot cycle. The proper choice of band depends amateur experience. Make it a habit to enter
pretty much on the other three factors. For thoughts and comments, changes in equipment,
example, the 3.5-4.0-MHz band at high noon in the operating experiences and reactions, anything that
summertime at the "node" part of the sunspot might make enjoyable reminiscences in years to
cycle is the poorest possible choice, while the same come. Your log is a reflection of your personal
654 OPERATING A STATION
,-------
HIS MY TIMED' I
DATI Su.nON CALl!O SIG~"'l SIGNAL E"o0~;:G !
(6
T1M1 CALLED
" AST ASl

KEEP AN ACCURATE AND COMPLETE STATION LOG AT ALL TIMES. FCC REQUIRES IT.
A page from the official ARRL log is shown above, answering every FCC requirement in respect to
station records. Bound logs made up in accord with the above form can be obtained from Headquarters
for a nominal sum or you can prepare your own, in which case we offer this form as a suggestion. The
ARRL log has a special wire binding and lies perfectly flat on the table.

experience in amateur radio. Make it both neat and ARRL headquarters stocks log books and
complete. message blanks for the convenience of amateurs.

PUBLIC SERVICE OPERATING

Amateurs interested in rendering public service military training for amateurs; and numerous
in operating under ARRL sponsorship have formed amateur groups organized into nets by individuals,
the Amateur Radio Public Service Corps (ARPSC). clubs or other amateur entitites for public service
This organization has two principal divisions. One and registered with the League. The detailed
is the Amateur Radio Emergency Corps (AREC), workings of ARPSC and RACES are covered
an emergency-preparedness group of approxi- briefly herein and explained in somewhat more
mately 30,000 amateur operators signed up detail in Public Service Communications, Operating
voluntarily to keep amateur radio in the forefront an Amateur Radio Station, available to interested
along preparedness lines. The other is the National amateurs without charge, and The Radio Ama-
Traffic System (NTS), a message-handling facility teur's Operating Manual.
which operates daily (including weekends and
holidays) for systematic handling of third-party
traffic. MESSAGE HANDLING
Also recognized by ARRL as a part of the Amateur operators in the United States and a
organized amateur radio public service effort are few other countries enjoy a privilege not available
the Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service to amateurs in most countries - that of handling
(RACES), a part of the amateur service serving civil third-party message traffic. In the early history of
defense under a separate sub-part of the amateur amateur radio in this country, some amateurs who
regulations; the Military Affiliate Radio Service, were among the first to take advantage of this
sponsored by the armed services to provide privilege formed an extensive relay organization
which became the ARRL.
Thus, amateur message-handling has had a long
and honorable history, and like most services, has
gone through many periods of development and
change. Those amateurs who handled traffic in
1914 would hardly recognize it the way some of us
PLEASE I.P.'T US KNW YOUR PlANS FOR S~R VlSlT X LOVE do it today, just as equipment in those days was far
different from that in use now_ Progress has been
made and new methods have been developed in
step with advancement in communication tech-
niques of all kinds. Amateurs who handled a lot of
traffic found that organized operating schedules
were more effective than random relays, and as
techniques advanced and messages increased in
Here is an example of a plain-language message as it number, trunk lines were organized, spot frequen-
would be prepared for delivery. If the message cies began to be used, and there came into
were for relay instead of delivery, the information existence a number of traffic nets in which many
at the bottom would be filled in instead of that in stations operated on the same frequency to effect
the box. wider coverage in less time with fewer relays; but
Public Service Operating 655
the old methods are still available to the amateur need for standardization in message form and
who handles only an occasional message. message transmitting procedures, ARRL has long
Although message handling is as old an art as is since recommended such standards, and most
amateur radio itself, there are many amateurs who traffic-interested amateurs have followed them. In
do not know how to handle a formal message and general, these recommendations, and the various
have never done so. As each amateur grows older changes they have undergone from year to year,
and gains experience in the amateur service, there have been at the request of amateurs participating
is bound to come a time when he will be called in this activity, and they are completely outlined
upon to handle a written message, during a and explained in Operating an Amateur Radio
communications emergency, in casual contact with Station a copy of which is available upon request
one of his many acquaintances on the air, or as a or by use of the coupon at the end of this chapter.
result of a request from a non-amateur friend.
Regardless of the occasion, if it comes to you, you Clearing a Message
will want to rise to it! Considerable embarrassment The best way to clear a message is to put it into
is likely to be experienced by the amateur who one of the many organized traffic networks, or to
finds he not only does not know the form in which give it to a station that can do so. There are many
the message should be prepared, but does not amateurs who make the handling of traffic their
know how to go about putting it on the air. principal operating activity, and many more still
Traffic work need not be a complicated or who participate in this activity to a greater or lesser
time-consuming activity for the casual or occasion- extent. The result is a traffic system which spreads
al message-handler. Amateurs may participate in to all corners of the United States and covers most
traffic work to whatever extent they wish, from an U.S. possessions and Canada. Once a message gets
occasional message now and then to becoming a into an organized net, regardless of the net's size or
part of organized traffic systems. This chapter coverage, it is systematically routed toward its
explains some principles so the reader may know destination in the shortest possible time.
where to find out more about the subject and may Amateurs not experienced in message handling
exercise the message-handling privilege to best should depend on the experienced message-handler
effect as the spirit and opportunity arise. to get a message through, if it is important; but the
average amateur can enjoy operating with ·a
Responsibility message to be handled either through a local traffic
net or by free-lancing. The latter may be
Amateurs who originate messages for transmis- accomplished by careful listening for an amateur
sion or who receive messages for relay or delivery station at desired points, directional CQs, use of
should first consider that in doing so they are recognized calling and net frequencies, or by
accepting the responsibility of clearing the message making and keeping a schedule with another
from their station on its way to its destination in amateur for regular work between specified points.
the shortest possible time. Forty-eight hours after He may well aim at learning and enjoying through
filing or receipt is the generally-accepted rule doing. The joy and accomplishment in thus
among traffic-handling amateurs, but it is obvious developing one's operating skill to the peak of
that if every amateur who relayed the message perfection has a reward all its own.
allowed it to remain in his station this long it might If you decide to "take the bull by the horns"
be a long time reaching its destination. Traffic and put the message into a traffic net yourself (and
should be relayed or delivered as quickly as more power to you if you do!), you will need to
possible. know something about how nets operate, and if on
cw, the special Q signals and procedure they use to
dispatch all traffic with a maximum of efficiency.
Message Form The frequency and operating time of the net in
Once this responsibility is realized and accept- your section, or of other nets into which your
ed, handling the message becomes a matter of message can go, is given in ARRL's Net Directory.
following generally-accepted standards of form and This annually-revised publication is available on
transmission. For this purpose, each message is request. Listening for a few minutes at the time
divided into four parts: the preamble, the address, and frequency indicated should acquaint you with
the text and the signature. Some of these parts enough fundamentals to enable you to report into
themselves are subdivided. It is necessary in the net and report your traffic. From that time on
preparing the message for transmission and in you follow the instructions of the net control
actually transmitting it to know not only what station, who will tell you when and to whom (and
each part is and what it is for, but to know in what on What frequency, if different from the net
order it should be transmitted, and to know the frequency) to send your message. Cw nets use the
various procedure signals used with it when sent by special "QN" signals, so it may be helpful to have a
cwo If you are going to send a message, you may as list of these before you (available from ARRL Hq.,
well send it right. Operating Aid No. 9B).
Standardization is important! There is a great Network Operation
deal of room for expressing originality and
individuality in amateur radio, but there are also About this time, you may find that you are
times and places where such expression can only enjoying this type of operating activity and want
cause confusion, and inefficiency. Recognizing the to know more about it and increase your
656 OPERATING A STATION
profIciency. Many amateurs are happily "addicted" nets at 1945, area nets at 2030 and the same or
to traffic handled after only one or two brief different regional personnel again at 2130. Some
exposures to it. Much traffic is at present being section nets conduct a late session at 2200 to
conducted by cw, since this mode of communica- effect traffic delivery the same night. Local
tion seems to be popular for record purposes - but standard time is referred to in each case.
this does. not mean that high code speed is a A system of daytime nets similar to the above is
necessary prerequisite to working in traffic also in the initial stages at this writing. It is called
networks. There are many nets organized specific- "Daytime NTS" (DNTS). QST will cover details as
ally for the slow-speed amateur, and most of the they unfold.
so-called "fast" nets are usually glad to slow down The NTS plan somewhat spreads traffic
to accommodate slower operators. opportunity so that casual traffic may be reported
It is a significant operating fact that code speed into nets for efficient handling one or two nights
alone does not make for efficiency - sometimes the per week, early or late; or the ardent traffic man
contrary! A high-speed operator who does not can operate in both early and late groups and in
know procedure can "foul up" a net much more between to roll up impressive totals and speed
completely and more quickly than can a slow traffic reliably to its destination. Old-time traffic
operator It is a proven fact that a bunch of men who prefer a high degree of organization and
high-speed operators who are not "savvy" in net teamwork have returned to the traffic game as a
operation cannot accomplish as much during a result of the new system. Beginners have shown
specified period as an equal number of slow more interest in becoming part of a system
operators who know net procedure. Don't let low nationwide in scope, in which anyone can
code speed deter you from getting into traffic participate. The National Traffic System has vast
work. Given a little time your speed will reach the and intriguing possibilities as an amateur service. It
point where you can easily hold your own. is open to any amateur who wishes to participate.
Concentrate first on learning the net procedures The above is but the briefest resume of what is
Voice modes are exceptionally well suited to of necessity a rather complicated arrangement of
short-range traffic work and require knowledge of nets and schedules. Complete details of the System
phonetics and procedure peculiar to voice opera- and its operation are included in the ARRL Public
tion. Procedure is of paramount importance on Service Communications Manual.
phone, since the public may be listening.
Teamwork is the theme of all net operation.
The net which functions most efficiently is the net
EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
in which all participants are thoroughly familiar One of the most important ways in which the
with the procedure used, and in which operators amateur serves the public, thus making his
refrain from transmitting except at the direction of existence a national asset, is by his preparation for
the net controf station, and do not occuPy time and his participation in communications emergen-
with extraneous comments, even the exchange of cies. Every amateur, regardless of the extent of his
pleasantries. There is a time and place for normal operating activities, should give some
everything. When a net is in session it should thought to the possibility of his being the only
concentrate on handling traffic until all traffic is means of communication should his community be
cleared. Before or after the net is the time for cut off from the outside world. It has happened
rag-chewing and discussion. Some further details of many times, often in the most unlikely places; it
net operation are included in Operating an Ama- has happened without warning, finding some
teur Radio Station, mentioned earlier, but there is amateurs totally unprepared; it can happen to you.
no substitute for actual participation. Are you ready?
There are two principal ways in which any
amateur can prepare himself for such an
The National Traffic System eventuality. One is to provide himself with
To facilitate and speed the movement of equipment capable of operating on any type of
message traffic, there is in existence an integrated emergency power (i.e., either ac or de), and
national system by means of which originated equipment which can readily be transported to the
traffic can normally reach its destination area the scene of disaster. Mobile equipment is especially
same day the message is originated. This system desirable in most emergency situations.
uses the state or section net as a basis. Each section Such equipment, regardless of how elaborate or
net sends a representative to a "region" net how modern, is of little use, however, if it is not
(normally covering a call area) and each "region" used properly and at the righ t times; and so
net sends a representative to an "area" net another way for an amateur to prepare himself for
(normally covering a time zone). After the area net emergencies, by no means less important than the
has cleared all its traffic, its members then go back first, is to learn to operate efficiently. There are
to their respective region nets, where they clear many amateurs who feel that they know how to
traffic to the various section net representatives. operate efficiently but who find themselves
By means of connecting schedules between the considerably handicapped at the crucial time by
area nets, traffic can flow both ways so that traffic not knowing proper procedure, by being unable,
originated on the West Coast reaches the East due to years of casual amateur operation, to adapt
Coast with a maximum of dispatch, and vice versa. themselves to snappy, abbreviated transmissions,
In general section nets function at 1900, region and by being unfamiliar with message form and

./ -
Emergency Communication 657
procedures. It is dangerous to overrate your ability
in this; it is better to assume you have things to Before Emergency
learn. PREPARE yourself by providing emer-
In general it can be said that there is more gency power for your station.
emergency equipment available than there are TEST your emergency equipment and
operators who know properly how to operate operating ability in the annual Simulated
during emergency conditions, for such conditions Emergency Test and Field Day.
require clipped, terse procedure with complete REGISTER with your ARRL Emer-
break-in on cw and fast push-to-talk or VOX on gency Coordinator. If none, offer your
services to local and civic relief agencies and
phone. The casual rag-chewing aspect of amateur explain what amateur radio can do during
radio, however enjoyable and worth-while in its disasters.
place, must be forgotten at such times in favor of
the business at hand. There is only one way to gain In Emergency
experience in this type of operation, and that is by LISTEN before you transmit, always!
practie. During an emergency is no time for REPORT to your Emergency Coordina-
practice; it should be done beforehand, as often as tor so he will have latest data on your
possible, on a regular basis. facilities. Offer local civic and relief agencies
your services directly in the absence of an
This leads up to the necessity for emergency EC.
organization and preparedness. ARRL has long re- RESTRICT all on-the-air work in accord-
cognized this necessity and has provided for it. ance wi th FCC regulations, Sec. 97.107.
The Section Communications Manager (whose SOS is the International Distress Call for
address appears on page 6 of every issue of QSn is a dire emergency. The phone equivalent is
empowered to appoint certain qualified amateurs MA YDA Y. Use these calls for emergency
in his section for the purpose of coordinating only. False distress calls are unlawful.
RESPECT the fact that success in emer-
emergency communication organization and pre- gency depends on circuit discipline. The net
paredness in specified areas or communities. This control station is the supreme authority_
appointee is known as an Emergency Coordinator COOPERATE with those we serve. Be
for the city or town. One should be specified for ready to help, but stay off the air unless
each community. For coordination and promotion there is a specific job to be done that you
at section level a Section Emergency Coordinator can handle more efficiently than any other
arranges for and recommends the appointments of station.
various Emergency Coordinators at activity points COPY bulletins from WIAW. During
emergencies, special bulletins are trans-
throughout the section. Emergency Coordinators mitted.
organize amateurs in their communities according
to local needs for emergency communication After Emergency
facilities. REPORT to ARRL Headquarters
The community amateurs taking part in the promptly and fully so that the Amateur
local organization are members of the Amateur Service can receive full credit.
Radio Emergency Corps (AREC). All amateurs are
invited to register in the AREC, whether they are Administration (FCDA), which, at the behest of
able to play an active part in their local ARRL and other amateurs, considered the role of
organization or only a supporting role. Application the amateur in civil defense communication should
blanks are available from your EC, SEC, SCM or the U.S. become embroiled in another war. This
direct from ARRL Headquarters. In the event that resulted, in 1951, in the establishment of the
inquiry reveals no Emergency Coordinator appoint- Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES)
ed for your community, your SCM would welcome with rules promulgated by FCC as a part of the
a recommendation either from yourself or from a Amateur Radio Service. FCDA has evolved into the
radio club of which you are a member. By holding present Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, part of
an amateur operator license, you have the the Department of Defense, and although the
responsibility to your community and to amateur RACES rules have undergone several minor
radio to uphold the traditions of the service. changes they are still essentially the same as
Among the League's publications is a booklet originally pu t into effect.
entitled Public Service Communications. This RACES is intended solely for civil defense
booklet, while small in size, contains a wealth of communication during civil emergencies, through
information on AREC organization and functions the medium of amateur radio, and is designed to
and is invaluable to any amateur participating in continue operation during any extreme national
emergency or civil defense work. It is free to emergency such as war. It shares certain segments
AREC members and should be in every amateur's of frequencies with the regular (Le., normal)
shack. Drop a line to the ARRL Communications Amateur Service on a nonexclusive basis. Its
Department if you want a copy, or use the coupon regulations are a subpart of the. familiar amateur
at the end of this chapter. regulations (Part 97) and are included in full in the
ARRL License Manual.
The Radio Amateur Civil If every amateur participated, we would still be
Emergency Service short of the total operating personnel required
Following World War 11 there was established properly to implement RACES. As the service
within our government the Federal Civil Defense which bears the responsibility for the successful
658 OPERATING A STATION
implementation of this important function, we complete bibliography of QST articles dealing with
face not only the task of installing (and in some the subject of civil defense and RACES is available
cases building) the necessary equipment, but also upon request from the ARRL Communications
of the training of thousands of additional people. Departmen t.
lbis can and should be a function of the local unit In the event of war, civil defense will place
of the Amateur Radio Emergency Corps under its great reliance on RACES for back-up radio
EC and his assistants, working in close collabora- communication. Even in peacetime, RACES can be
tion with the local civil defense organization. of great value in natural disaster communications.
The fust step in organizing RACES locally is As a part of our total amateur public service effort,
the appointment of a radio officer by the local civil it deserves our whole-hearted and enthusiastic
defense director, possibly on the recommendation support and will permit us to continue to function
of his communications officer. A complete and in the public service, as amateurs, in RACES in
detailed communications plan must be approved wartime as we function in AREC and NTS during
successively by local, sta te and DCP A regional peacetime. If interested, inquire of your local civil
directors, and by FCC. Once this has been accom- defense agency and get sighed up with your radio
plished, applications for station authorizations officer.
under this plan can be submitted direct to FCC. A

ARRL OPERATING ORGANIZATION

Amateur operation must have point and LEADERSHIP POSTS
constructive purpose to win public respect. Each
To advance each type of station work and
individual amateur is the ambassador of the entire
group interest in amateur radio, and to develop
fraternity in his public relations and attitude
practical communications plans with the greatest
toward his hobby. ARRL field organization adds
success, appointments of ARRL members holding
point and purpose to amateur operating.
Conditional Class licenses or better to serve as
The Communications Department of the
League is concerned with the practical operation of leaders and organizers in particular single-interest
stations in all branches of amateur activity. fields are made by the SCM. Each leadership post is
Appointments or awards are available for rag- important. Each provides activities and assistance
chewer, traffic enthusiast, phone operator, DX for appointee groups and individual members along
man and experimenter. the lines of natural interest. Some posts further the
There are seventy-four ARRL Sections in the general ability of amateurs to communicate effi-
League's field organization, which embraces the ciently at all times by pointing activity toward
United States, Canada, and certain other territory. networks and round tables; others are aimed
Operating affairs in each Section are supervised by specifically at establishment of provisions for
a Section Communications Manager (SCM) elected organizing the amateur service as a standby com-
by members in that section for a two-year term of munications group to serve the public in disaster,
office. Organization appointments are made by the civil defense need or emergency of any sort. The
SCMs, elected as provided in the Rules and SCM appoints the following in accordance with
Regulations of the Communications Department, section needs and individual qualifications:
which accompany the League's By-Laws and PAM Phone Activities Manager. Organizes activi.
ties for voice operators in his section. Promotes
Articles of Association. SCM addresses for all phone nets and recruits Official Phone Station
sections are given in full in each issue of QST. appointees. The appointment of VHF-PAM is open
SCMs welcome monthly activity reports from all to Technician licensees.
amateurs in their sections, regardless of status. RM Route Manager. Organizes and coordinates
Whether your activity embraces phone or cw traffic activities. Supervises and promotes nets
telegraphy, or both, there is a place for you in the and recruits Official Relay Station appointees.
League organization. SEC Section Emergency Coordinator. Promotes
and administers section emergency radio organiza-
tion.
EC Emergency Coordinator. Organizes amateurs
of a community or other local areas for e-
mergency radio service; maintains liaison with
officials and agencies served, also with other local
communication facilities. Sponsors tests, recruits
for AREC and encourages alignment with RACES.
A Technician Class licensee may receive this
appointment if a qualified higher class licensee is
not available.

STATION APPOINTMENTS
ARRL's field organization has a place for every
active amateur who has a station. The Communica-
tions Department organization exists to increase
individual enjoyment and station effectiveness in
 ------ ----~--------------------------------------

ARRL Operating Organization 659

amateur radio work, and we extend a cordial This program is primarily a service to ARRL
invitation to every amateur to participate fully in affiliated clubs. Material is aimed at education,
the activities, to report results monthly, and to training and entertainment of club members.
apply to the SCM for one of the following station Training Aids include such items as motion-
appointments. ARRL membership and the condi- picture films, slides, audio tapes, lecture outlines
tional class or higher license or VE equivalent is and quizzes. Bookings are limited to ARRL-
prerequisite to all appointments, except where affiliated clubs primarily although bookings can be
otherwise indicated. made to other groups on a non-priority basis.
OPS Official Phone Station. Sets high voice All Training Aids materials are loaned free
operating standards and procedures, furthers phone (except for shipping charges). If your club is
nets and traffic. affiliated but has not yet taken advantage of this
ORS Official Relay Station. Traffic service, service, you are missing a good chance to add the
operates cw nets; noted for 15 wpm and procedure
ability. Open to RTTY traffickers. available features to your meeting programs and
OBS Official Bulletin Station. Transmits ARRL general club activities. Watch club bulletins and
and FCC bulletin information to amateurs. Open QST or write the ARRL Communications De-
to Technician licensees. partment for TA-21.
OVS Official VHF Station. Collects and reports
vhf-uhf-shf propagation data, may engage in
facsimile, TT, TV, work on 50 MHz and/or above.
Takes part as feasible in vhf traffic work, reports W1AW
same, supports vhf nets, observes procedure
standards. Open to both Novice and Technician The Maxim Memorial Station, WIAW, is
licensees. dedicated to fraternity and service. Operated by
00 Official Observer. Sends cooperative notices the League headquarters, WIAW is located
to amateurs to assist in frequency observance,
insures high-quality signals, and prevents FCC adjacent to the Headquarters offices on a
trouble. seven-acre site. The station is on the air daily,
except holidays, and available time is divided
Emblem Colors
between the different bands and modes. Facilities
Members may wear the ARRL emblem with for all commonly used amateur modes are provided
black-enamel background. A red background will for all bands from 1.8 to 144 MHz.
indicate that the wearer is or has been SCM. SECs, Operation is roughly proportional to amateur
ECs, RMs and PAMs may wear the emblem with interest in different bands and modes with
green background. Observers and all station maximum legal power on most bands. WIA W's
appointees are entitled to wear blue background daily bulletins and code practice aim to give
emblems. operational help to the largest number.
WIAW was established as a living memorial to
RADIO CLUB AFFILIATION Hiram Percy Maxim, to carry on the work and
ARRL affiliation is available to any amateur traditions of amateur radio. The station is on the
society having (1) at least 51 percent of the voting air daily and is open to visitors at all times it is in
club membership as full members of the League, operation. The WIAW schedule of operation and
and (2) at least 51 percent of members govern- visiting hours is printed each month in the
ment-licensed radio amateurs. In high school and Operating News section of QST.
college radio clubs bearing the school name, the
above requirements are modified to require only OPERATING ACTIVITIES
that the trustee or sponsor (for example) is a
licensed amateur and a full member of ARRL. Within the ARRL field organization there are
Where a society has common aims and wishes to many special activities. For all appointees and
add strength to that of other club groups and officials quarterly CD (Communications De-
strengthen amateur radio by affiliation with the partment) Parties are scheduled to develop
national amateur organization, a request addressed operating ability and a spirit of fraternalism.
to the Communications Manager will bring the
necessary forms and information to initiate the
application for affiliation. Such clubs receive field-
organization bulletins and special information at
intervals for posting on club bulletin boards or for
relay to their memberships. A travel plan providing
communications, technical and secretarial contact
from the Headquarters is worked out seasonally to
give maximum benefits to as many as possible of
the active affiliated radio clubs Papers on club
work, suggestions for organizing, for constitutions,
for radio courses of study, etc., are available on
request.
l.l
Oub Training Aids
One section of the ARRL Communications
Department handles the Training Aids Program.
)
660 OPERATING A STATION
In addition, ARRL sponsors various other circumstances for which you wish the award
activities open to all amateurs. The DX-minded issued.
amateur may participate in the Annual ARRL Before you send your cards, drop the ARRL
International DX Competition during February Communications Department a line requesting a
and March. This popular contest may bring you the copy of the rules and an application blank.
thrill of working new countries and building up
your DXCC totals; certificate awards are offered to
top scorers in each country and ARRL section (see 5 BWAS
page 6 of any QSn and to club leaders. Then there
The Five Band Worked All States Award
is the very-popular Sweepstakes in November. Of
became effective January 1, 1970. Only contacts
domestic scope, the SS affords the opportunity to
made after that date count. Contacts must be
work new states for that WAS award. A Novice
confirmed with all 50 states on each of five
activity is planned annually. A 160-Meter Contest
amateur bands. Rules require applicants in the U.S.
is scheduled for early December. The interests of
and possessions, Puerto Rico and Canada, to be a
vhf enthusiasts are also provided for in contests
full member of ARRL. Basic WAS rules apply,
held in January, June and September of each year.
with the addition of an application form fee of $10
Where enough logs (three) are received to consti-
(U.S.). This fee covers cost of return of the cards
tute minimum "competition" a certificate in spot
by first-class registered mail and a personalized
activities, such as the "ss" and vhf party, is
awarded the leading newcomer for his work con- plaque.
sidered only in competition with other newcomers.
As in all our operating, the idea of having a
good time is combined in the Annual June Field DX Century Club Award
Day with the more serious thought of preparing The DXCC is one of the most popular and
ourselves to render public service in times of sought-after awards in all of amateur radio, and
emergency. A premium is placed on the use of among the most difficult to acquire. Its issuance is
equipment without connection to commercial carefully supervised at ARRL headquarters by a
power sources. Clubs and individual groups always staff member who spends full time on this function
enjoy themselves in the "FD" and learn much alone.
about the requirements for operating under To obtain DXCC, an amateur must make
knockabout conditions afield. two-way contact with 100 "countries" listed on
ARRL contest activities are diversified to ARRL Operating Aid No.7, which also contains
appeal to all operating interest, and will be found the complete rules. Written confirmations are
announced in detail in issues of QST preceding the required for proof of contact. Such confirmations
different events. must be sent to ARRL headquarters, where each
one is carefully scrutinized to make sure it actually
confirms a contact with the applying amateur, that
it was not altered or tampered with, and that the
AWARDS "country" claimed is actually on the ARRL list.
Further safeguards are applied to maintain the high
The League-sponsored operating activities,
standards of this award. A handsome king-size
heretofore mentioned, have useful objectives and certificate is sent to each amateur qualifying.
provide much enjoyment for members of the The term "country" is an arbitrary one not
fraternity. Achievement in amateur radio is also
necessarily agreeing with the dictionary definition
recognized by various certificates offered through
of such. For DXCC purposes, many bodies ofland
the League and detailed below.
not having independent status politically are
classified as countries. For example, Alaska and
WAS Award
Hawaii, while states of the U.S., are considered
WAS means "Worked All States." An amateur, separate "countries" because of their distance from
anywhere in the world, who succeeds in getting the mainland. There are over 300 such designations
confirmed contacts with all fifty U.S. states and on the ARRL list. Once a basic DXCC is issued, the
sends them in for examination, may receive this certificate can be endorsed, by sticker, for
award from the League. There is a nominal service additional countries by sending the additional
charge to those amateurs located within the cards in to headquarters for checking.
League's operating territory (U.S., possessions, A separate DXCC award is also available for
Puerto Rico and Canada) who are not ARRL stations making all contacts by phone.
members. For others, there is no charge except Because of the meticulous care in checking
postage, which is expected to accompany the cards and handling this award, amateurs in the
cards. U.S., its possessions (including P.R.) and Canada
You can make the contacts over any period of who are not League members, are charged a
time and on any or all amateur bands. If you wish, nominal service fee both for basic DXCC and
you may have your WAS award issued for some endorsements.
special way in which you made it, such as all cw, Before sending in your cards, be sure you are
all phone, all on one band, all with lower power, familiar with the rules (ARRL Operating Aid No.
etc. - only providing all cards submitted plainly 7), which are quite detailed. In addition, get a copy
show that a contact took place under the special of the DXCC application form (CD-I64).
Operating Activities 661
Five-Band DXCC
Entirely separate from DXCC, ARRL also THE AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE, INC.
offers a Five-Band DXCC (5BDXCC) Award for
those amateurs who submit written proof of having
made two-way contact with 100 or more countries cB"~N""''''''''''
_ _ _ o.,...-,.f•• ,."..*'I ..J..................
01.. A"' ...... 11...1.. 11.01., 1.._
~,,_! .. J"".._ .....
r . . . . . . . . . ,,, _ _ _ of
on each of five amateur bands since January I, ......... ,.....w ...... ,..._'_ .... l"'nol

1969. Only full ARRL members are eligible in the wI.. ~ ... ~ .. ~'N ""_.......I,U ...10. ~ ....... J rI.. ...................- ~ ....f
U.S., possessions and Canada; elsewhere, any ,... I_..,_IM....... C_,......IC. . O"' ... _oI"1',..--.I .. I,.. ....l ..
..".... Ior ..• ........... "'-·......., .. Iu. ..·t.......... ·.,...IoI1$ ..... ,.. __
I.. • ,..,,.j .r .. 1._ ..... _ •• f ,1 .... 1.......... _ ........ __ .... "~"I £..
amateur may apply. • .......... to
~ ,~. worJ wl .. ~ ... ~m., ..... ', D. . . .f ,~. -'. II. II. L. ... _ _
1._ WIAW "G~_bor 14, 1066
A charge of $10 (U .S.) is made for application
forms; this covers the cost of returning cards by
first class registered mail and issuance of a
personalized engraved plaque for those qualifying.
For a copy of the complete rules, drop a line to
ARRL Headquarters, 225 Main St., Newington,
CT 06111. Rag Chewers Club
The Rag Chewers Club is designed to encourage
WAC Award
friendly contacts and discourage the "hello-good-
The WAC award, Worked All Continents, is bye" type of QSO. It furthers fraternalism through
issued by the International Amateur Radio Union amateur radio.
(IARU) upon proof of contact with each of the six Membership certificates are awarded to ama-
continents. Amateurs in the U.S.A., Possessions teurs who report a fraternal-type contact with
and Canada should apply for the award through another amateur lasting a half hour or longer. This
ARRL, headquarters society of the IARU. Those does not mean a half hour spent trying to get a
elsewhere must submit direct to their own IARU message through or in trying to work a rare DX
member-society. Residents of countries not repre- station, but a solid half hour of pleasant "visiting"
sented in the Union may apply directly to ARRL with another amateur discussing subjects of mutual
for the award. Two basic types of WAC certificates interest and getting to know each other. If
are issued. One contains no endorsements and is nominating someone for RCC, please send the
awarded for cw, or a combination of cw and phone information to the nominee who will (in turn)
contacts; the other is awarded when all work is apply to Headquarters for RCC.
done on phone. There is a special endorsement to Members sign "RCC" after their calls to
the phone WAC when all the confirmations indicate that they are interested in a chat, not just
submitted clearly indicate that the work was done a contact.
on two-way ssb. Special endorsements are also
available for RTTY and SSTV. The only special Operating Aids
band endorsements are for 1.8, 3.5, and 50 MHz. The following Operating Aids are available free,
upon request: 4) Emergency Operating. 5) DX
Code Proficiency Award Operating Code. 6) Contest Duplicate Contact
Many hams can follow the general idea of a Record. 7) DXCC Countries List. 8) W.A.S.
contact "by ear" but when pressed to "write it Record. 9b) ARRL Message Form. 13) Ready
down" they "muff" the copy. The Code Reference Information. 14) A composite aid;
Proficiency Award permits each amateur to prove Ending Signals, Time Conversion, Phonetic Alpha-
himself as a proficient operator, and sets up a bets, RST System and Steps in an Emergency.
system of awards for step-by-step gains in copying
proficiency. It enables every amateur to check his A-I Operator Club
code proficiency, to better that proficiency, and to The A-I Operator Club should include in its
receive a certification of his receiving speed. ranks every good operator. To become a member,
This program is a whale of a lot of fun. The one must be nominated by at least two operators
League will give a certificate to any interested who already belong. General keying or voice
individual who demonstrates that he can copy technique, procedure, copying ability, judgment
perfectly, for at least one minute, plain-language and courtesy all count in rating candidates under
Continental code at 10, 15,20,25, 30 or 35 words the club rules detailed at length in Operating an
per minute, as transmitted monthly from WIAW Amateur Radio Station. Aim to make yourself a
and W60WP. fine operator, and one of these days you may be
As part of the ARRL Code Proficiency program pleasantly surprised by an invitation to belong to
WIAW transmits plain-language practice material the A-I Operator Club, which carries a worthwhile
each evening and week-day morning at speeds from certificate in its own right.
5 to 35 wpm, occasionally in reverse order. All
amateurs are invited to use these transmissions to Brass Pounders League
increase their code-copying ability. Non-amateurs
are invited to utilize the lower speeds,S, 7 1/2 and Every individual reporting more than a
10 wpm, which are transmitted for the benefit of specified minimum of official monthly traffic
persons studying the code in preparation for the totals is given an honor place in the QST listing
amateur license examination. Refer to any issue of known as the Brass Pounders League and a
QST for details. certificate to recognize his performance is fur-
 662 OPERATING A STATION
nished by the SCM. In addition, a BPL Traffic month so that nobody can make the PSHR by
A ward (medallion) is given to individual amateurs perfonning a single type of function, except
working at their own stations after the third time handling emergency traffic. Versatility in public
they "make BPL" provided it is duly reported to service is encouraged and rewarded. See QST for
the SCM and recorded in QST. details.

Public Service Honor Roll Old Timers Club

A new listing, supplementing the BPL, was The Old Timers Club is open to anyone who
started in 1970. It takes into account the many holds an amateur call at the present time, and who
public service functions of amateurs in addition to held an amateur license (operator or station)
the handling of record messages. Points can be 2().or-more years ago. Lapses in activity during the
claimed for checking into and participating in nets, intervening years are pennitted.
for serving as net control stations, as liaison If you can qualify as an "Old Timer," send an
between nets, for handling phone patches, for outline of your ham career. Indicate the date of
making BPL, for handling real emergency traffic your first amateur license and your present call. If
and for serving as a net manager. Each such eligible for the OTC, you will be added to the
function has a maximum number of points per roster and will receive a membership certificate:

INTERNATIONAL PREFIXES
AAA·ALZ United States of America OKA·OMZ Czechoslovakia
AMA-AOZ Spain ONA·OTZ Belgium
APA-ASZ Pakistan OUA-OZZ Denmark
ATA·AWZ India PAA·PIZ Netherlands
AXA·AXZ Commonwealth of Australia PJA·PJZ Netherlands Antilles
AYA·AZZ Argentine Republic PKA-POZ Republic of Indonesia
BAA·BZZ China PPA-PYZ Brazil
CAA-CEZ Chile PZA-PZZ Surinam
CFA-CKZ Canada QAA·QZZ (Service abbreviations)
CLA-CMZ Cuba RAA-RZZ Union of Soviet Socialist Rep.
CNA-CNZ Morocco SAA·SMZ Sweden
COA·COZ Cuba SNA·SRZ People's Republic of Poland
CPA-CPZ Bolivia SSA·SSM United Arab Republic
CQA·CRZ Portuguese Overseas Provinces SSN·STZ Sudan
CSA·CUZ Portugal SUA·SUZ Arab Republic of Egypt
CVA-CXZ Uruguay SVA·SZZ Greece
CYA·CZZ Canada TAA-TCZ Turkey
DAA·DTZ Germany TDA·TDZ Guatemala
DUA·DZZ Republic of the Philippines TEA·TEZ Costa Rica
EAA-EHZ Spain TFA·TFZ Iceland
EIA-EJZ Ireland TGA-TGZ Guatemala
EKA·EKZ Union of Soviet Socialist Rep. THA·THZ France and French Community
ELA·ELZ Liberia TIA·TIZ Costa Rica
EMA·EOZ Union of Soviet Socialist Rep. TJA·T JZ Republic of Cameroon
EPA·EQZ Iran TKA·TKZ France and French Community
ERA·ERZ Union of Soviet Socialist Rep. TLA-TLZ Central African Republic
ESA·ESZ Estonia TMA·TMZ France and French Community
ETA·ETZ Ethiopia TNA·TNZ Republic of Congo (Brazzaville)
EUA-EWZ Bielorussian Soviet Socialist Rep. TOA-TQZ France, French Community
EXA·EZZ Union of Soviet Socialist Rep. TRA-TRZ Republic of Gabon
FAA-FZZ France and French Community TSA·TSZ Tunisia
GAA-GZZ United Kingdom TTA-TTZ Republic of Chad
HAA·HAZ Hungarian People's Republic TUA-TUZ Republic of the Ivory Coast
HBA-HBZ Switzerland TVA·TXZ France and French Community
HCA-HDZ Ecuador TYA-TYZ Republic of Dahomey
HEA·HEZ Switzerland TZA-TZZ Republic of Mali
HFA·HFZ People's Republic of Poland UAA·UQZ Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
HGA·HGZ Hungarian People's Republic URA·UTZ Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Rep.
HHA·HHZ Republic of Haiti UUA·UZZ Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
HIA-HIZ Dominican Republic VAA·VGZ· Canada
HJA-HKZ Republic of Colombia VHA-VNZ Commonwealth of Australia
HLA·HMZ Korea VOA-VOZ Canada
HNA·HNZ Iraq VPA·VSZ British Overseas Territories
HOA-HPZ Republic of Panama VTA·VWZ India
HQA-HRZ Republic of Honduras VXA-VYZ Canada
HSA·HSZ Thailand VZA·VZZ Commonwealth of Australia
HTA·HTZ Nicaragua WAA-WZZ United States of America
HUA-HUZ Republic of EI Salvador XAA·XIZ Mexico
HVA·HVZ Vatican City State XJA-XOZ Canada
HWA-HYZ France and French Community XPA·XPZ Denmark
HZA·HZZ Saudi Arabia XQA-XRZ Chile
IAA·IZZ Italy XSA-XSZ cnina
JAA·JSZ Japan XTA·XTZ Republic of the Upper Volta
JTA-JVZ Mongol ian People's Republic XUA·XUZ Khmer Republic
JWA·JXZ Norway XVA-XVZ Viet Nam
JYA-JYZ Jordan XWA·XWZ Laos
JZA·JZZ Western New Guinea XXA-XXZ Portuguese Overseas Provinces
KAA·KZZ United States of America XYA·XZZ Burma
LAA·LNZ Norway YAA·YAZ Afghanistan
LOA·LWZ Argentine Republic YBA·YHA Republic of Indonesia
LXA-LXZ Luxembourg YIA·YIZ Iraq
LYA·LYZ Lithuania YJA-YJZ New Hebrides
LZA·LZZ People's Republic of Bulgaria YKA·YKZ Syria
MAA·MZZ United Kingdom YLA·YLZ Latvia
NAA·NZZ United States of America YMA-YMZ Turkey
OAA-OCZ Peru YNA-YNZ Nicaragua
ODA·ODZ Lebanon YOA·YRZ Roumanian People's Republic
OEA-OEZ Austria YSA·YSZ Republic of EI Salvador
OFA·OJZ Finland YTA-YUZ Yugoslavia
 YVA-YYZ Venezuela 6CA-6CZ Syria
YZA-YZZ Yugoslavia 6DA-6JZ Mexico
ZAA-ZAZ Albania 6KA-6NZ Korea
ZBA-ZJZ British Overseas Territories 60A-60Z Somalia
ZKA-ZMZ New Zealand 6PA-6SZ Pakistan
ZNA-ZOZ British Overseas Territories 6TA-6UZ Sudan
ZPA-ZPZ Paraguay 6VA-6WZ Republic of the Senegal
ZQA-ZQZ British Overseas Territories 6XA-6XZ Malagasy Republic
ZRA-ZUZ Republic of South Africa 6YA-6YZ Jamaica
ZVA-ZZZ Brazil 6ZA-6ZZ Liberia
2AA-2ZZ Great Britai n 7AA-7IZ Indonesia
3AA-3AZ Monaco 7JA-7NZ Japan
3BA-3BZ Mauritius 70A-70Z South Yemen Popular Republic
3CA-3CZ Eauatorlal Guinea 7PA-7PZ Lesotho
3DA-3DM Swaziland 7QA-7QZ Malawi
3DN-3DZ Fiji 7RA-7RZ Algeria
3EA-3FZ Panama 7SA-7SZ Sweden
.3GA-3GZ Chile 7TA-7YZ Algeria
3HA-3UZ China 7ZA-7ZZ Saudi Arabia
3VA-3VZ Tunisia 8AA-8IZ Indonesia
3WA-3WZ Viet Nam 8JA-8NZ Japan
3XA-3XZ Guinea 80A-80Z Botswana
3YA-3YZ Norway 8PA-8PZ Barbados
3ZA-3ZZ People's Republic of Poland 8QA-8QZ Maldive Islands
4AA-4CZ Mexico 8RA-8RZ Guyana
4DA-4IZ Republic of the Philippines 8SA-8SZ Sweden
4JA-4LZ Union of Soviet Socialist Rep. 8TA-8YZ India
4MA-4MZ Venezuela 8ZA-8ZZ Saudi Arabia
4NA-40Z Yugoslavia 9AA-9AZ San Marino
4PA-4SZ Ceylon 9BA-9DZ I ran
4TA-4TZ Peru 9EA-9FZ Ethiopia
4UA-4UZ United Nations 9GA-9GZ Ghana
4VA-4VZ Republic of Haiti 9HA-9HZ Malta
4WA-4WZ Yemen 9IA-9JZ Zambia
4XA-4XZ State of Israel 9KA-9KZ Kuwait
4YA-4YZ I nternational Civil Aviation Org. 9LA-9LZ Sierra Leone
4ZA-4ZZ State of Israel 9MA-9MZ Malaysia
5AA-5AZ Libya 9NA-9NZ Nepal
5BA-5BZ Republic of Cyprus 90A-9TZ Republic of Zaire
5CA-5GZ Morocco 9UA-9UZ Burundi
5HA-5IZ Tanzania 9VA-9VZ Singapore
5JA-5KZ Colombia 9WA-9WZ Malaysia
5LA-5MZ Liberia 9XA-9XZ Rwanda
5NA-50Z Nigeria 9YA-9ZZ Trinidad and Tobago
5PA-5QZ Denmark A2A-A2Z Republic of Botswana
5RA-5SZ Malagasy Republic A3A-A3Z Kingdom of Tonga
5TA-5TZ Islamic Republic of Mauritania A4A-A4Z Oman
5UA-5UZ Republic of the Niger A5A-A5Z Bhutan
5VA-5VZ Togolese Republic A6A-A6Z United Arab Emirates
5WA-5WZ Western Samoa C2A-C2Z Republic of Nauru
5XA-5XZ Uganda C3A-C3Z Principality of Andorra
5YA-5ZZ Kenya L2A-L9Z Argentina
6AA-6BZ Arab Republic of Egypt S2A-S3Z Bangladesh

ABBREVIATIONS FOR CW WORK

Abbreviations help to cut down unnecessary transmission. However, make it a rule not to abbreviate unneces-
sarily when working an operator of unknown experience.
AA All after NW Now; I resume transmission
AB All before OB Old boy
ABT About OM Old man
ADR Address OP-OPR Operator
AGN Again OT Old timer; old top
ANT Antenna PBL Preamble
BCI Broadcast interference PSE Please
BCL Broadcast listener PWR Power
BK Break; break me; break in PX Press
BN All between; been R Received as transmitted; are
BUG Semi-automatic key RCD Received
C Yes RCVR (RX) Receiver
CFM Confirm; I confirm REF Refer to; referring to; reference
CK Check RFI Radio frequency interference
CL I am closing my station; call RIG Station equipment
CLD-CLG Called; calling RPT Repeat; I repeat
CQ Calling any station RTTY Radioteletype
CUD Could SASE Self-addressed, stamped envelope
CUL See you later SED Said
CUM Come SIG Signature; signal
CW Continuous wave (i.e., radiotelegraph) SINE Operator's personal Initials or nickname
DLD-DLVD Delivered SKED Schedule
OX Distance, foreign countries SRI Sorry
ES And,& SVC Service; prefix to service message
FB Fine business; excellent TFC Traffic
GA Go ahead (or resume sending) TMW Tomorrow
GB Good-by TNX-TKS Thanks
GBA Give better address TT That
GE Good evening TU Thank you
GG Going TVI Television Interference
GM Good morning TXT Text
GN Good night UR-URS Your; you're; yours
GND Ground VFO Variable-frequency oscillator
GUO Good VY Very
HI The telegraphic laugh; high WA Word after
HR Here; hear WB Word before
HV Have WD-WDS Word; words
HW How WKD-WKG Worked; working
LI 0 A poor operator WL Well; will
MA MI LS Milliamperes WUD Would
MSG Message; prefix to radiogram WX Weather
N No XMTR (TX) Transmitter
NCS Net control station XTAL Crystal
NO Nothing doing XYL(YF) Wife
NI L Nothing; I have nothing for you YL Young lady
NM No more 73 Best regards
NR Number 88 Love and kisses
664

A Operating an Amateur Radio Station covers the A Public Service Communications is the "bible" of
details of practical amateur operating. In it you the Amateur Radio, Public Service Corps. Within its
will find information on Operating Practices, pages are contained the fundamentals of operation
Emergency Communication, ARRL Operating of the Amateur Radio Emergency Corps (ARECI.
Activities and Awards, the ARRL Field Organiza- the National Traffic System (NTS), and the Radio
tion, Handling Messages, Network Organization, Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES), in-
"a" Signals and Abbreviations used in amateur cluding diagrams of how each is organized and how
operating, and other helpful material. It's a handy it operates. The role of the American Red Cross
reference that will serve to answer many of the and FCC's regulations concerning amateur opera-
questions concerning operating that arise during tion in emergencies also come in for some special
your activities on the air. attention.

The two publications described above

may be obtained without charge by
any Handbook reader. Either or
both will be sent upon" request.

AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE

225 Main Street
Newington, CT 06111
Please send me, without charge, the following:
o OPERATING AN AMATEUR RADIO STATION
o PUBLIC SERVICE COMMUNICATIONS

Name ........... .......................................................... .

(P/eo.e Print)

Address ........ eo" ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 .••••••••••••••

Zip
 Chapter 25

Vacuum Tubes
and Semiconductors
For the convenience of the designer, the minimum size, light weight, and maximum power
receiving-type tubes listed in this chapter are output are more important than long tube life.
grouped by fIlament voltages and construction ICAS ratings are considerably higher than CCS
types (glass, metal, miniature, etc.). For example, ratings. They permit the handling of greater power,
all miniature tubes are listed in Table I, all metal and although such use involves some sacrifice in
tubes are in Table II, and so on. tube life, the period over which tubes give
Transmitting tubes are divided into triodes and satisfactory performance in intermittent service
tetrodes-pentodes, then listed according to rated can be extremely long.
plate dissipation. This permits direct comparison of The plate dissipation values given for transmit-
ratings of tubes in the same power classification. ting tubes should not be exceeded during normal
For quick reference, all tubes are listed in operation. In plate modulated amplifier applica-
numerical-alphabetical order in the index. Types tions, the maximum allowable carrier-condition
having no table reference are either obsolete or of plate dissipation is approximately 66 percent of
little use in amateur equipment. Base diagrams for the value listed and will rise to the maximum value
these tubes are listed. under 100 percent sinusoidal modulation.

Tube Ratin~ Typical Operating Conditions

Vacuum tubes are designed to be operated The typical operating conditions given for
within definite maximum (and minimum) ratings. transmitting tubes represent, in general, maximum
These ratings are the maximum safe operating lCAS ratings where such ratings have been given by
voltages and currents for the electrodes, based on the manufacturer. They do not represent the only
inherent limiting factors such as permissible possible method of operation of a particular tube
cathode temperature, emission, and power dissipa- type. Other values of plate voltage, plate current,
tion in electrodes. etc., may be used so long as the maximum ratings
In the transmitting-tube tables, maximum for a particular voltage or current are not
ratings for electrode voltage, current and dissipa- exceeded.
tion are given separately from the typical operating Detailed information and characteristic curves
conditions for the recommended classes of are available from tube and semiconductor
operation. In the receiving-tube tables, ratings and manufacutrers, in books sold through radio dealers
operating data are combined. Where only one set or direct from the factory.
of operating conditions appears, the positive
electrode voltages shown (plate, screen, etc.) are, in
Semiconductors
general, also the maximum rated voltages.
For certain air-cooled transmitting tubes, there The semiconductor tablulation in this chapter is
are two sets of maximum values, one designated as restricted to some of the more common diodes and
CCS (Continuous Commercial Service) ratings, the transistors. The units listed were selected to
other ICAS (Intermittent Commercial and Ama- represent those types that are useful for most
teur Service) ratings. Continuous Commercial amateur radio experimental applications. These
Service is dermed as that type of service in which diodes and transistors were chosen for their low
long tube life and reliability of performance under cost and availability. Most of them can be obtained
continuous operating conditions are the prime from the large mail-order houses or from the local
consideration. Intermittent Commercial and Ama- manufacturer's distributor. Because there are
teur Service is defined to include the many thousands of diode and transistor types on today's
applications where the transmitter design factors of market, this list is by no means complete.

INDEX TO TUBE TABLES

I - Miniature Receiving Tubes ......... . V16

II - 6.3-Volt Metal Receiving Tubes ... . V18
III - 6.3- Volt Glass Tubes, Octal Bases. V19
VI - Triode Transmitting Tubes
VII - Multigrid Transmitting Tubes .. .
VIII - Semiconductor Diodes ........... .
V20
V22
V24
I
lV- Control and Regulator Tubes ..... . V19 lX- Semiconductors .................. . V24
V - Rectifiers ....................... . V19
Vl
V2 Vacuum-Tube Data
INDEX TO VACUUM.TUBE TYPES
Base-diagram section pages VS-VlS. Classified data pages V16-V34.

T1Ipe Page Bast Type Page Base Typt Page Base Type Page Base Type Page Base
6ESS ....... V17 90E
()()..A •...•.. -
Ol-A ....... -
4D
4D
2EA5. .••..
2EN5......
7EW
7FL
SRP 1A-4A .
68Pl-4. . ..
-
-
14P
14K g:~t::: .. Vi6 ~~~ 6EU7. .. V17 9LB
OA2 .... , .•. V19 6BO 205........ 6R 6T4 ........ - 5T 6BK1A .... - 9AJ 6EUS .. V17 9JF
OA3A •.•... V19 4AJ 28/48 ...... - 6D SU40 ...... V20 5T 6BK7B. .. . V16 9AJ BEVS. . - 7EW
OA4G ...... - 4V 2V2 ........ - SFV SU40A-OB. V2Q 5T 6BL70TA .. VI9 SBO 6EW6 ..... - 7CM
OA5 ........ - Fig. 19 2V30 ...... - 4Y SUPI-Il ... 12E 6BL8 . . . . . V16 9DO OEW7 . . . . . - 9HF
OB2 ......•. V19 6BO 2W3 ....•.. - 4X SV3A ...... V20 5T 6BMS.. . - 1BZ BEX6...... SBT
OB3 ........ V19 4AJ 2X2-A ...... V19 4AB 5V40A .... V20 5L 6BN4A. '" VI6 7EO 6EY6. . •. VI9 7AC
002 ........ V19 5BO 2Y2 ....... V19 4AB SVP7... lIN 6BNB ...... VIB 7DF BEZS ...... V19 7AC
OCaA .. , ... V19 4A.J 2Z2 ..•..... VI9 4B SW40T. ST 6BN7... - 9AJ 6EZS. . .. VI7 9KA
ODaA .••... V19 4AJ 3A2 ........ - 90T 6X3... - 40 6BNS ...... VI6 9ER BF4. V20 7BR
003 ........ - 5BO 3A3........ SEZ 5X40... - SQ 6BQS V1690V 6F4 V25 7BR
OY4 ........
OZ4 ........
-
-
4-BU
4R
3A4 ........
3A5........
- 7BB
7BO
SXPl. ......
5XPIA-llA
-
-
14P
14P 6B6~8t~( V19 BAM
6F5._. -
6F6 ........ VI8
aM
78
OZ4A .....• - 4R 3ASOT •••.. - SAS 5Y3-G-QT . V20 5T 6BQ7A ..... VI6 9AJ 6F7.. 7E
BBR7 ...... - 9BC 6F80...... SO
OZ40 ......
1 ..........
V19
-
4R
40
3AOP1·7·11
3AP1·4....
- HI
7AN git?:?~. : V20 ~8 6BRSA . . . .
6B8S.
V16
-
9PA
9BK
6FD7 . . . . . -
6FOS . . . . . -
9HF
7GA
IA3 ........ - 5AP 3APlA.... 70E 5Z4 .....•.. V20 6L
lA4P...... 4M 3AQPl 12E 5-l25B ..... V23 7BM BB87 ...... - 9BB 6F07 . . . . . - 90F
lA4T ...... -
4K 3B4....... 70Y 5-600A. . . .. V23 - 6BSS. VI6 9AJ 6FHS. . .. -- 7FP
IA50T ..... -
6X 3BSOT.... 7AP BA3........ 40 6BT6. 7BT BFH6. .. VI9 6AM
IA6 .......• -
6L 3B7...... 7BE OA4 ........ - 5B BBTS.. 9FE 6F/7.. . 12BM
lA70T ..... -
7Z 3B24 ....... V20 Fig. 49 6A50T •.... - 6T BBU6...... SFP 6FM1. .. - 12BJ
lABl.i...... 5BF 3B25 .•....• - 4P 6A6 ........ - 7B 6BU6 ..•..• - 7ST BFMS..... 9KR
IAB6 ... , ..
- 7DH 3B2B ....... - FIe. IS 6A7.. - 70 6BUS ...... - 9FO BFQ5A.... -- 7FP
IAC6 ..•..• - 7DH 3B27 ....... - 4P 6AS ........ VIS SA 6BV7. - 9BU BF85.. .' 70A
lAE4...... 6AR 382S •...•. V20 4P BAB4. 50E 6BVS ...... - 9FJ 6FV6 . . . . . VI7 7FQ
lAF4 ....•. - 6AR 3BPl-4-11. l4A 6ABS... 6R BBW4 ..... V20 901 6FVSA... 9FA
lAF5., .... - 6AU 3BPIA.. 140 6ABBO..... 7AU 6BW6 ..... - 9AM OFW8 ...... - 9Al
IAHS ...••. - 6AU 304........ BBX 6AB7 ...... - SN 6BW7.. - 9AQ 6FY5...... - 7FN
lAJ4-..... 6AR 3050T ..... - 7AQ BABS ...... - 9AT 6BW8... 9HK 6GS ........ - 6R
lAX2. ..•..
lB4....
lB5....
IB7GT
gy
IB3QT ..... V19 30
4M
6M
7Z
306 ........
ggL::::
3024....
3CP1 ......
= ref·
-

V20
-
7BW

2D
110
l7
BAOSOT .•.
BAC60 .....
6A07 ......
6ADliO..
6A060...
-
-
6Q
7AU
VIS SN
BQ
7AO
BBWn.
6BX4. . .
6BXS...
6BX70T ...
6BX8.
V20
-
V19
V16
12HD
5B8
9AQ
SBD
9AJ
6000 ...... -
BGOli ....•. VI7
60E6.... •.
6GFS ...... -
OOH8A . . . -
7S
9EU
12BJ
12BJ
9AE
IBBOT. SAW 30XlOOA6. V21 - 6AD7G..... SAY 6BY50 .... V20 BON BOJ5 .. ... - 9NM
103..... 5CF 30B ...••.. - BBB BADS ...... - 9T 6BY6... - 70H 60JS ....... VI7 9AE
60K5 . . . . . V17 7FP
lC5GT.....
106 ....•... -
6X
6L
3023 ...•..
3024 ......
-
V22
Fl&.30
FIg.7li
BAESO .....
6AE60 .••..
-
-
6Q
7AH g~~~:.:::: ~ g~~ 60K6 .. V17 9GK
1070 ...... - 7Z 3DK6 ...... - 70M 6AE70T ... - 7AX 6BZ6 ....... V16 70M 60M6 ...... V17 10M
1021 4V 3DX3 •..... - Fig. 24 6AES ••.••. V24 BDU BBZ7 . ..•.. VI6 9AJ 60MS ...... - 90E
ID5GP..... 5Y 3E6 ........ - BBX 6AF3..... 90B 6BZS. .. .. V16 9AI 60NS . . . . . V17 90X
IDSOT .•••• - 5R 3E6 ........ - 701 6AF4A ...•. VIB 70K B04 ........ V16 BBG 608S.. .• 9LW
ID7G ...... - 7Z 3E22 ....... - SBY OAF5G ...•. - BQ 604 •...... V20 6BO 60T5 .• - 9NZ
10SOT .•... - SAl 3E29 ....... V22 7BP 6AF60... - 7AO 6C6....... 6Q 60U5 . . . . . - 7GA
lDN5...... 6BW 3EAS...... 7EW 6AF70.. - SAG B06 ........ - BF 60VS ...... - 9LY
lE3 ........ - 9BO 3EPl. ..... - llN 6A05 ...... V16 7BO 607 ........ - 70 60W5 ...... - 70K
lE40 ...... - 68 3FP7 ...... - 14B 6AG60 ..... - 7S 6080 ...... - SO 60WB ...... V19 6AM
IE50P ..... - 5Y 3FP7A ..... - 14J 6A07 ....•. VIS SY 6010 ....... - 12BQ 60YS. 9MB
lE70 ...... - SO 30Pl-4-6-11 - llA 6AH40T ... - SEL BOA4 ...... V20 9M BOZ5 7CV
lEPl-2~11 .. - llV 30PIA ..... - lIN 6AH5G .... - 6AP BCAS ...... - 70V 6H40T.. SAF
lF4 ...•...• - 5K 30P4A ..... ~ lIN 6AH6 .•..•. V16 7BK BCBSA ..... VI9 SOD 6H5.. 6R
IF50 ......
lF6... .....
- 6X
6W
3JPI-12 ...
3JPIA-llA
-
-
141
HI
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Chapter 25 V3
Ty pe Page Base Tllpe Page Base Type Page Base Page Base Type Page Balfe
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9NP1... 6BN 12L60T. 78 :::SZ4QT .... V20 5AA 572B ...... V21 30 1641. Fig. 52
10... ... 4D 12LROT. SBU 35Z5G . . . . V20 BAD 515.A.. 4AT 1642. 7BH
IOEBB..
10GP4..
9DX
140
12Q7GT.
I2RS ....
7V
7CV ~g~~~ . ~ .- ~~
592. ..
705-A.
Fig. 28
Fig. 45 19~:: ~¥.4
IOHP4.. 140 12S80T. SCB ~~~M3 ..... V20 g:Q 717-A. SBK 1802Pl-11.
lS05PI-4.
llA
llA
lY]i2
12A4....
:f 9AO
128A7 ..
128C7 ..
128F5 ..
8R
88
6AB
3S....
39/44
51<'
SF
756.
800.......
SOlA/SOl.
4D
20
4D
IS06Pl...
1851......
lIN
7R
12A5..... 7F 128F7 7AZ 40... ... 40 S02. .... 6BM 1852 ....... VIS 8N
12AO....
12A7.....
12ASGT
78
7K
SA
12807 ..
128H7
12SJ7
...
....
.
.
8BK
8BK
8N
40Z50T..
41...
42...
6AD
68
6B
803.. ...
~gt:...: = f,r"1
V23 5J 1S53......
2002......
2006..
SN
Fig. 1
Fig. 1
12AB6 ..... V17 9EU
12AB6....
12AC6....
12AD6...
7CC
7BK
7eH
128K7 .. .
128L7GT
128N7GT ..
12SN70TA
8N
8BD
8BD
8BD
43..
45...
4SZ3...
45Z50T
68
40
SAM
6AD
806. .. .
S07 ........
807W . . ..
808 ........
2N
V22 5AW
V22 5A W
- ZD
2060.......
~g~lNliz·sA
4604..
= ~~A BBA

7CL
12AD7... 9A 128Q7 .... 8Q 46. 5C B09.. .... 3G 4662... Fig. 51
12AE6A 7BT 128R7 .. 8Q 47 5B 810 ........ V21 2N 5514.... 4BO
12AE7. 9A 12SW7. 8Q 4B.. 6A 811 ........ - 3G 5616.... 7CL
V4 Vacuum-Tube Data

Type Paqe Base Type Paat, Base TlIp~ Page Bale Type Paae Bas~ TlIpe Page
5517. 5BU 6264 .. AX9903 .... V22
Fig. 7 RK34 .. . Fig. 70 V2.
5556.. 4D 6265. 70M AX9905 .... - Fig. 2 R1(35 .. . 20 V2'
5562. . Fig. 30 6287. ..... geT AX9909. .. - Fig. 5 RK36 .. . 21) .... V25
5590.... 7BD 6308 ....... - 8BX AX9910 . . . V22
Fig. 7 RK37 .. . 2D .... V2S
5591.... 7BD 6336A ...... - 8BD BA.. 4J RK3B .. . 2D V2'
5608.. 7BD 6350 ...•... - 90Z BH.. 4J RK39 5AW .... V24
S60SA.. 7B 6354 ....... - Fig. 12 BR... ..... 4H RK41 5AW .... V25
5610.... 6CG 6360 ....... V22 Fig. 13 OE220..... 4P RK42 .. 4D V2.
5618....... 7CU 6374 ....... - 9BW CKIOOS. 5AQ RK43 .. 6C .... V24
5651... .. VI9 580 6386. .. VI7 80J OKl006.... 4C RK44 .. 6BM .... V24
5654... - 7BD 6417. V22 9K o 07.... Fig. 73 RK46 .. Fig. 61 .... V25
5656 ....... - 9F 6443. . .. - 9SW D .P RK47 .. Fig. 64 · V25
5662. VI9 Fig. 79 6485. - 7BK D Fig. IS RK48 .. Fig. 64 .. V24
5663. .. - 6CE 6524 ....... V22 l"lg.76 D 2N RK48A. FIll'. 64 .. V24
5670 .. 8CJ 6550 ....... VI9 78 E 9A RK 6A V2'
5675 . V20 Fig. 21 6627. 5BO 9A RK 30 V25
5679 . - 70X 6660. 700 9A RK 30 V25
5686 . . . . . . VI7 90 6661. 70M EF50,. 90 RK 6AW V25
5687 VI7 9R 6662 7CM F123A. . Fig. 15 RK 3N · V25
5690 - Fig. 38 6663.... 6BT F127A. . ... Fig. 15 RK 3N .... V24
5691 ....... - 8DD 6664.... 50E 084 ........ V19 4n RK Fig. 60 .. V24
5692 ....... - SBD 6669 7BZ OL2C44 Fig. 9 R V2'
5693.. " VIS aN 6676. 70M GL5024 Fig. 15 R 4D V2'
5694.. ..... 80S 6677.. 9BV GL146. Fig. 56 2N V25
5696.,. .. VI9 7BN 6678.. 9AE OL152. Fig. 56 2N .. V24
5722.. .. VI7 5GB 6679. 9A OL159. Fig. 56 SAW' V2.
5725 ....... - 70M 6680. 9A OL169. . Fig. 56 Fig. 48 V25
5726. .. 6BT 6681. 9A 0L446A. Fig. 11 Fig. 61 V25
5727. VI9 7BN 6816. . ... V23 Fig. 77 0L446B. FIg. 11 Fig. 61 V2.
5731.. SSC 6829. .... 9A OL464A. Fig. 9 Fig. 67 .... V24
5749... - 7BK 6850. . V22 Fig. 76 OL559. . . Fig. 10 FI,..45 .... V24
5750... .. - 70H 6883 ....... V22 70K GL6442 ..
0L6463... SCZ
RK .P V2'
5751 .. - 9A 6884. . •. .. V23 Fig. 77 T20 30 .... V24
5755. .. - 9J 6887.. .. V17 6ST OL8012A. Fig. 5-4 T21.. 6A .. V25
5763 ....... V22 9K 6893. . .. V22 70K A. 3N T40 ... 30 V2.
2D
~~g~::
5764. . FIg. 21 T.5 30 V2.
~~~g: ..... See 21!fi21 .. ::
6939 .......
Fig. 7
V22 Fig. 13
2D
2D
T60.
TI00
2D
2D
V2.
V2.
5761. , ... ' See 2037 6973 ....... VI7 9EU .F TI25 ..... . 2N V2'
5768. .. - Fig. 21 7000 . . . . . . - 7R •F TI60L ... . V2130 V2'
5794. .. - Fig. 21 7025....... 9A FI,..46 T200. 2N V2.
5812 . . . . . . - 7CQ 7027A ..... V19 SHY 2N TaOO V26
FI,..15
tgg! ::: ~~~ ~f[ fg
5814., .. 9A HF20L.\'.·.: . T814 3N V26
5823.. VI9 "'OK HF250 ..... - 2N TS22 3N V26
582"-.. - 78 7054. 9BF HF300 .. . 2N TB35. . Fli.30 .. V25
5825.. - 4P 7055 6BT HK24. 30 TUF20 2T ... V26
5839.... .. 68 1056. 6CM HK54 2D TW7S.... 2D .. V26
5842.... VI79V 7057. 9AJ Fill'. 33 TWI50.. 2N .. V26
5844.. 7BF 7058. 9A 2D TZ20. 30 ... V25
5845 •...... - 5CA 7059.. 9AE 2D TZ40.. 30 V26
5847 ....... - 9X 7060.. 9DX 'BC UElOO. 20 V26
6852 ....... - 68 7061. 9EU 'AT UEf68. Fig. 32 V2.
5867...... . gAB 7077 . 2N UH35 30 V2.
6866 ....... V21 Fig. 3 7094. . .. V23 Fig. 82 7BM UH50 2D V2.
6867. . .. .. - Fig. 3 7137 ....... - 7BQ 7BM UR51. 2D V2S
5871. ...... - 7AO 7167....... 1EW 'BC V70.... 3N V2.
5876.. .. - Fig. 21 71S9A. VI7 90V 2N V70A.. 3N V25
6879. . ... VI7 9AD 7247... .... 9A 2N V70B.. 30 ... V26
5881... .. - 7AO 7258 ...... VI7 9DA 2N V70C.. 30 V26
5890.. ... 12J 1270 ....... V22 Fig. 84 2N V700.. 30 .. V24
6893 . . . . . . V20 Flg.21 7211 ....... V22 Fig. 84 2N VR75. . .. Vl9 4AJ · V25
l)894A.. V22 Fig. 7 7308 ...... ' - 9DE 2N VR90 . . . . . V19 4AJ ... V25
5910.. .. - 6AR 7360.. . .. - 9K8 HK454L .. . 2N VR105 ... V19 (AJ . .. V25
5915 . . . . . . - 70H 1408.. .. - 7AO HK654 ... . 2N VRI50 ..... V19 'AJ . .. V25
5920.. ... ..
5933. . ..
7BF
V22 5AW
7543.
7551.
..
..
1BK
V22 9LK
HV12 ..... .
HV18 ..... . Uj:
3N
VT52. ...
VTI27A.
4D
Fig. 53
... V25
. .. V25
5961. .. -~ 8R 7558. . .. .. V22 9LK HV27 ...... - WE304A. 2D ... V25
5962 ....... VI9 2AO 7681A.. 7AC HY6J5GTX - 6Q X6030.. Fli.2 ... V25
75S6 ....... V17 12AQ 7AC
Px~·.·
5963 ....... - 9A HY6L60TX -
5964..
5965 . . . . . .
-
-
7BF
9A
7587. .. ..
7591. ......
V17 12AS
VI9 8KQ
HY24 ..... .
HY25 ..... .
4D
30 XXL..
rfc6
SAC
... V25
. .. V25
... V25
5993. . ... - Fig. 35 7695 ....... - 9PX HY30Z .. .BO XXFM. 8BZ . .. V25
5998.. .. V19 8BD 7700 . . . . . . - 6F HY31Z ... . Fig. 60 ZB60. 20 ... V25
600S. 7BZ 7701.... - 9MB HY40 .... . 30 ZD120 4E .• V25
6023. 90D 7717.... .. 7EW HY40Z 30 .. V26
6026. FIg. 16 7864 . . . . . .. Y22 Fig. 7 HY5IA 30 .. V26
6028. 7BD 7868....... 9NZ HYSIB .. 30 . ..• V26
6045. 7BF 7895 ....... V17 12AQ HY61Z., .. 'BO .... V26
6046 7AO 7905 ....... - 9PB HY57 ..... . 30 .. V24
6057.. 9A 7984. - 12EU HY60 ..... . SAW .. V24
6058. 6BT 8000.. ... 2N HY61.. SAW V24
6059.. 9BO 8001. V22 7BM HY63 .. Fig. 72
Fig. 72
SEMICONDUCTORS .. V26
6060. 9A 8003. 3N HY6S, .... . .. V26
6061... gAM S005. 30 RY67 ..... . Fig. 65 .. V24
6062.. .... 9K 8008. Fig. 8 RY6S .. Fig. 64 Typt, Page .. V25
6063 ....... V20 70F 8012. . . . Fig. 54 HY7S .. 2T IN21F ..•.. V24 V26
6064.. 7DB 8013-A. 4P HY75A .. 2T IN34A ..... V24 .. V26
6065. - 7DB 8016... .. 30 HYll-4B . 2T IN35 •....• V24 .. V26
6066. . ... - 7BT 8020..... 4P HY615 .. Fig. 71 IN52A ..... V24 .. V26
6067 ....... - 9A 8025.,.. 4AQ HY80IA. 4D IN60.. . V24 V26
6072..... .. 9A 8032 ....... V22 70K
IIf~~g\ri .P
FIg. 60
1N64 •..... V24 ..• V26
6073 ....... V19 580 8042... Fig. 51 IN6U .... V24 .• V26
6074 ....... VI9 5BO 8056 ....... VI7 12AQ 69. Fig. 65 IN67A ..... V24 . .. V26
6080. 8BD 8058, ...... VI8 12CT Fl&,. 71 IN82A ••... V24 .. V26
6082 8BD 8072. .. V22 FIg. 85 7AC IN94 ...... V24 ... V26
6083.. Fig. 5 8117. .. V22 Fig. 7 IN270 ..... V24 .. V24
6084. 9BJ 8121 ... V23 Fig. 86 Fig. 23 IN458A .... V24 .. V24
6085. 9A 8122 ....... V23 Fig. 85 .... 5BK IN634 ..•.. V24 V2.
6086... 9BK 8163 . . . . . . V21 Fig. 3 296 V28 - IN645A ...• V24 V2'
6087.. 5L 8166/ V22 Fig. 14 1N914 ..... V24 V2.
~~~:~4
6101.. 7BF 4-IOOOA. V23- IN3754 . . . V24 • V24
6132.. 9BA 8203. . . . • . V22 12AQ ::: V2I IN4001.. V24 · V24
6135.. 6BO 8295/172 V23- ... V21 5BK 1N4002 .... V24 V2.
6136.. 7BK 8298A.. . .. V22 70K RK10 .. 4D IN4004 .... V24 V2.
6137. 8N 8334.. 7DK RK11 .. 30 IN4719.. V24 V25
6140. 9BY 8393. V18 12AQ RK12 30 2N406 . . . . V24 V25
6141. 9BZ 8458.. . - Fig. 13 RKI5 .. . 4D 2 .... V25 V2.
6146. . V22 70K 8627.. .... I2CT RKI6 ..... . 5A 2 .... V24 V2.
6146A ..... V22 70K 8628. . .. V18 12AQ RKI7 ..... . SF 2 .. V24 V2.
6146B ..... V22 70K 8646. RKIS ..... . 30 .• V24 .. V25
6155. . ... V23 5BK 8677 . . . .. VIS 120T RKI0 ... . 'AT . ... V24 .. V25
6156 ....... V23 5BK 8808.. Fig. 15 RK20 .. . Fl&'. 61 2 .. V24 .• V25
6157 . . . . . . - Fig. 36 8873 ....... V21 Fig. 87 RK20A .. Fig. 61 2 .. V25 .• V25
6158.. . ..
6159B .....
9A
V22 70K
8874.. V21 - RK21. .. . .P 2 .. V25 · V24
8875 ....... V21 - RK22 ... . Fig. 52 2 .... V25 .. V25
6173. Fig. 34 8877 ....... V21 - RK23 .. 6BM 2N2157 .... V25 .. V25
6186. 7BD 9001. V18 7BD RK24 .. . .D 2N2222 .... V24 •. V26
6197. 9BV 9002. .. VIS 7BS RK25 .. . 6BM 2N2270... V2S V2.
6201. 9A 9003. .. V18 7BD RK25B ... . 6BM 2N2631... V25 .. V24
6211..
6216.
9A
Flg.37
9004 .......
9005.......
- 4BJ
SBO
RK28 ..... .
RK28A. 5J
.J 2N2869. V25 . .. V26
2N2876 .... V25 ..• V26
6218. 900 9006. . .. .. V18 6BH RK30 2D 2N2925 .... V24 .... V26
6227. 9BA AT-340. .. 5BK RK31 30 2N3053 . . . V25 ..... V26
6252.... V22 Fig. 7 AX9900 .... V21 Fig. 3 RK32 ... . 2D 2N3055 .... V25 V26
6263 .... AX9901. Fig. 3 RK33 ... . Fig. 69 2N3119.. V25 .. V26
Base Diagrams V5
E.I.A. VACUUM-TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS
Soeket connections correspond to the base designations given in the column headed "B.se u in the cla88ified tube.data table ••
Bollom views are shown throughout. Terminal designations an a. follows:
A = Anode D = Deflecting Plate IS == Internal Shield RC = Ray-Control Eelectrode
B = Beam F = Filament K = Cathode Ref = Reflector
UP = Bayonet Pin FE = Focus Elect. NC No Connection S = Shell =
BS = Base Sleeve G = Grid P = Plale (Anode) TA = Target
C = Ext. Coating H = Heater PI = Starter·Anode U = Unit
CL = Collector Ie = Internal Con. PBF = Beam Plate. = Ga.-Type Tube
Alphabetical subscripts D. P, T and HX indicate, respectively, diode unit, pentode unit, triode unit or hexode llnit in multi-
unit types. Subscript CT indicates filament or heater tap.
Generally when the No.1 pin of a metal-type tube in Table n.
with the exception of all triodes, is 1Ihown connected to the
shell. the No.1 pin in the glass (G or GT) equivalent is connected to an internal shield.
• On 12AQ. 12AS and 12CT: index large lug; • = pin cut oft'

(fl
3

2
• I
2AG
P
5
6

7
.~
F I

2D

P
4 F mG

NC I
--

2N
4 F

2T
~
IC 3

F 27,s
IC I
3C
8 1c

NC~G

~
F~NC
c

*
NC 3 6 NC NC',3 ~
Ncm '

F~F G I 4 F
NC 2
F I
7F
H I 4 HI!.
H2
NC I e IC
7
I(

3G 3N 3T 4AA 4AB 4AC

1["
P

F~NC
F I 4 F NC I 4 F

4AO 4AH 4AJ 4AM 4AQ 4AT

P P

~ ~
.
~
P~NC NC
3
__ SNC
GF~'
_'o- G~G Po 3

H2 7 H 7.
F I 4 F F, I 4 FE H I 4 F I 4 F
NO I S K 5 NC I eK
4B 4BB 4BC 4BJ 460 4BU

BP

~ ~
P~ '3 K3 __ .. SNC
P~G F+~
NC 2 7 h NC 2 7 K
F I 4 F F I 4 F G I 4 _
N I 8 H I

4C 4CB 4CG 4CK 40 4E

BP

~' ~
JUMPER

P~ P~ "~C
Ft I

4F
4 G H I

4G
4 H rsl
K I

4H
4 p p ,

4J
4 p F+ I -

4K
4 F- F+ I
a=_

4M
4 F-

m ~ :til ~
P

~
c
P NC 3 6 NC NC 3 6 NC
Ncm 3

7 NC .2 7 F 2 F 2 7 F
F I 4 F • I 4
siS K NC I 8 C NC I eF NC I e NC
4P 4R 4S 4V 4X 4Y

,~ ~
NC 3

H2 7 H
H I 5 H NC I 8

5A MA MB
V6 Chapter 25
TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS
Bottom views are s}lown. Terminal ~esignation8 on sockets are g~ven on page VS.

~ ~ ~
G,
K3 6 p

H 2 1 H H2~':::8 ..7 H p 2 7H
NC 1 8 K . H '
SAF SAK 5AP

SAS
GZ2

W H I
==

5AW
5 H
4K

5AY
~ 3

Ne 2

~ ~ H J
== 6~BF
5AZ
7 H
5 NC
Pz::=

F I
---
5B
42

5 F

5BA
l~'
Gl

H t
--

5"
SBB
4 H
'~
H' 5,
SBC
4 F+ I
'~
5BD
5
F-
4 F-

'*'
G

F+ I
. ---

.5

5BE
F-
4 F-

til·
HI
5,c
SBG
4 H

5BJ
0,2"

~ ~ ~
F J
_::

5SK
5 F
4 G,
I

K2
3

P ,

5BO
-
6 Ie

7 K
H

NC 2
3

NC '
5BQ
~ IHeT

7 K

5BS

5BT 5BU 5BZ

P2

~F
,:::5:

5C
G
,

5CA 5CB

~ ~ 1t ~
G,
H3 6 G NG 3 6 p
p 2 4 K 4
t'
IS 2 7 K P2 7 F P 2H ' : : : 5H '
P , . H I 5 H
F'
5CE 5CF 50 5E 5F 5J

.~
5K
:c I
5L
8 ~
sP

4 2 .'

S 18 K

5M
7 H

5Q 5R 5S
-#.

%7
F2
NC I
5T
8 F
S

5V 5Z GA

~ ~
G 3 ___ HeT 3
/7'
1(2 7H H2 7 H
S I 8 H NC I eK
GAB SAD GAE GAO
Base Diagrams V7
TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS
Bottom view. are .hown. Terminal designations on Bocketa are siven on page VS.

G.~===5 G

H2 7H
NC I 8 ~s
6AR 6AS sAu 6AW SAX

68 6BA 6BB
AI

a
A.
H I
,

0,
SBF
D.
4

:::!S K
---
6
•

68G S8H

G.~G~: G,
S2 £> K

H I 7 H
6BM 6BO S8T 6SW 6BX

6C 6CA 6CC seE 6CG

~~~p~
6CH
W'
so SE SF

'
~
'

W
4K 4K

S ,p tI r--a.....!£)p

'
H I 6 H '10 I 6

6G 6H 6J 6K SL SM

~
G

~
A4 5G
4TA

*
P3
P __ 5 p:3 ___ :...I

H 2 7 H H2 7 H
S 18 K H 1 G H NC I 8

60 6R 6RA ST SW

~
p 3, __ _

H 2 7 H
NC 1 8 K

6X 6Y 6Z 7A 7AB

7AC 7AD 7AG 7AJ 7AK

va Chapter 25
TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS
Bottom views are shown. Terminal designations on sockets are given on page V5.

7AL 7AM 7AO 7AP

7AT 7AU 7AV 7AX 7AZ 7B

~
4 5
Gt,l3 6 PTI

PT22 -~ 7F

F'
7BA 7BB- 7BC 7BO 7BE

~
H 3 __ 6 2.

G3 2 7K
G, I .
7BH 7BJ 7BK 7BM 7BN

~
H3 6 G

K2 7 p
G
"
7BP 7BO 7BS 7BT 7BW

."
7BZ
~
H3

K2
G'
... __

7CA
-
SK

7G

7CB
::~
~ ::' ~
G, '
7CC
D~3 === 5~~
01 2

HI
--

7CE
7
6 g~

HK D4
I

..
j
~ -
~

*
H3 === 6G2 I
K2
/\
H H 7 IS
G, ~

G, '
.;
7CH 7CJ 7CL 7eM ,-

~ ~
·F 3 =:_ 6 G:z
G, 3 === 6 ~~T
2
P
eF
7 FeT
F: 2
G
T
---
7p
G, '
G, '
7CO 7CU 7CX 7CY 70

~
H3 6 G

70B 70C 70E 70F 70H

.
G2-/\
- ,
70K
7.

~;
Base Diagrams V9
TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS
Boltom views are shown. Terminal designaliona on &ockel8 are given on page VS.

~
H3 6

K2 7 p
G I
70T 70W 7EA 7EG 7EK

*-
H 3 6 Gt
G 2 ::.. 7K
,
I K
7EN 7EW 7F 7FB 7FL 7FN

~
H G.

IS: ,:::. : K

G,
7FP 7FO 7G 7GA 7GK 7GM

~
K 3 4 5 KOt
oz

'.
p. 2

H I
6 POI

7 H
7H 7J 7K 7L 70 7R

75 7T 7V 7W 7Z

SA SAA SAB SAC 8AE 8AF

SAG 8AJ 8AL 8AN 8AO 8AR

SAU SAV SAW BAX

8B 8BA BBO 8BE BBF 8BJ

V10 Chapter 25

TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS

Bottom views are shown. Terminal designations on sockets are given on page VS.

BBK SBL BBN 8BO SBS

BBY 8BW BBY BBZ BC 8CB

BCH 8CJ BCK BCO BCS

~
NC 3

H2 7 H
G 18 K

8CT BDU BE SEL BEX 8EZ

BF BFP BFV BG BGD BGS

~
G3

H2 7H
G 18 K

BH 8HY BJB BJC BK

BKO BKS BL BN BO BO

8S 8U BV BW

BX BY BZ 9A . 9AA 9AB

I'l-/ff.7
Sase Diagrams Vll
TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS
Bottom view8 afe shown. Terminal designations on sockets are ginn on page VS.

9AC 9AO 9AE 'lAG 9AH 9AJ

9AK 9AM 9AO 9AR 9AS 9AT

~~)'I

SAX 9BA 9BB 9BC 9BO

9SG 9BJ 9BK 9Bl 9BM

9BP 9BO 9BS 9BU 9BV 9BW

9BX 9BY 9BZ 9C 9CA geB

9CO 9CF geG 9CK 9CT 9CV

9CY 90A 90C 90E 90J

90P 90R 90S 90T 90W 90X

V12 Chapter 25
TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS
Bottom views are shown. Terminal designations on sockets are given on page VS.

90Z 9E 9EC 9EO 9£F "IFG

9EN 9ER 9ES 9EU 9EW 9F

9FC 9FE 9FG 9FH 9FJ

9FA

9FN 9FX 9FZ 9G 9GC

9FT

9GJ 9GR
9GE 9GF

9HF 9HK 9HN 9HR

9GS 9H

9HZ 9J
9JO
9HV 9HX

9JX 9K
9JF 9JG

9KA 9KR 9KT 9KU 9L

Base Diagrams V13
TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS
"Bottom views are shown. Terminal designations on sockets and 0 meaning are given on page V5.

9LK 9KV 9lY 9M

9M5 9N 9NM 9NT 9NZ 9PA

9PB 9PM 9PU 9PX 90 90A

90l 90P 9R 95 9T 9U

9V 9X 9Y 9Z IIA liB

IIJ IlL 11M liN

liT 12A

12BW 12BY 12CA

12EU 12FB
 V14 Chapter 25
TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS
Bottom'views are shown. Tenninal designations on sockets are given on pag~ VS.

12J 12T 14A

12FM 12GW

146 14G 14J

14R 14S FIG.2

~~5,
:;rfl-7,1 ~ ~
G, K

G2 --- 4 G 6
,===
3~
G, H H ,
NC I 4 NC

FIG.3 FIG. 4 FIG. 5 FIG.S FIG. 7 FIG.S

FIG. II FIG.12 FIG. 13 FIG.14

FIG. 9 FIG. 10

NC~N
N

4 p 5 : NC

H2 7 HI(

NC I a NC
FIG. 16 FIG.17 FIG.18 FIG.19 FIG.20

,~,
~ H
G'~
__._ ,G,
===
F 1
P

4 F
G'2~G'
W
FIG. 21 FIG.22 FIG. 23 FIG.24 FIG.25 FIG. 26

'~'
P

'7tN
NC

F~F G~F PIN

FIG.27 FIG.29 FIG. 30 FIG.31 FIG. 32

FIG. 33
,$ H
FIG. 34
H
FIG.35 FIG.36 FIG.37 FIG.38

A,
Base Diagrams V1S
TUBE: BASE DIAGRAMS
Bottom views are shown. Tenninal designations on sockets are given on -page V5.

~~ ~
P

'~'
F 2 4 F
-
- G
,
: P I

- , - , p
I p I G
FIG. 39 FIG. 40 FIG. 41 FIG.42 FIG.43 FIG.44

'm
SLOT SLOT SLOT
P

G~NC 'G'~:'
P

"~4~ '~G'
NC

GWG
F I Ne I 4 F Gz I 4 F NO I 4 F FeT I 4 F , ,
FIG.45 FIG.46 FIG.47 FIG.48 FIG. 49 FIG. 50

G~G
P P

NImNpC

H~ I 4 H , ,
,~,
,. , "W F I 4 G
G~
. NC I 4 F

FIG. 52 FIG. 53 '"

FIG. 54 FIG. 55 FIG. 56

p p
j
p p p
G~G'

~
N~G' NC~NC G~G

*
Gz:=: GI
G, ·G 2 2 === 4 Gs
P2 === 4G 2
F I 4 F F I 4 F F 1 4 F ' F 1 4 F
F J 5 F F I 5 F
FIG. 57 FIG. 58 FIG. 59 FIG. 60 FIG. 61 FIG.62

FIG. 63
G2

4Z 4
2

F I
=::

FIG. 64
5 F '
4 Pa" Gi! 2

F I
:::
-~-

FIG. 65
5 F
4 ~s
. G:s \

FIG. 66 FIG. 67 FIG. 68

FIG.69 FIG. 70 FIG. 71 FIG. 72 FIG. 73 FIG.74.

$ ~
Ne 3 ___
G2 --- G1

H2 7 H
H H,t<
t< I 8 NC
FIG.75 FIG.76 FIG. 77 FIG.78 FIG. 79 FIG. 80

FIG. 81 • FIG. 82 FiG. 85 FIG. 86

Vl@ - --
TABLE I-MINIATURE RECEIVING TUBES
-
-- --~~~

si I ~~
or
FII.
Heate,
Capacitance.
pF ~ .=
CG E
Type Name Base C
.c ou
uc .c
'L
~~ d
0 0
V Amp. C'n Caul C••
i£JI ~iii c)!~
fc
c)!E
~c
ii:E
~ui
iLl ~~
... ~
a.~
E.
CIL ]~ ~8

~
SAF4A Uhl- Triode 70K 6.3 0.225 2.2 BO 150' 16 2.27K 6600 15
0.45 1.9
100 10Kg 0.4' 22
SAG5 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7Bo 6.3 0.3 250 lBO' 150 2.0 6.5 BOOK 5000
6.5 I.B 0.03
100 lBO' 100 1.4 4.5 600K 4500
&AHS Sharp Cut-off
Pent. ~
Triode Amp.
7BK 6.3 0.45 10.0 2.0 0.03
300
150
160'
160'
150 2.5 10
12.5
500K
3.6K
9600
11K 40
SAl4 Uhl Triode SBX 6.3 0.225 4.4 O.lB 2.4 125 68' 16 4.2K 10K 42
180 200' 120 2.4 7.7 600K 5100
SU5 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7BD 6.3 0.175 4.0 2.B 0.01 150 330' 140 1.1 7 410K 4300
110 100' 110 1.5 7.5 340K 5000
SAK6 Pwr. Amp. Pent. 7BK 6.3 0.15 3.6 4.1 0.11 1BO 9 1BO 1.5 15 100K 1300 10K 1.1
SAL5 Dual Diode" 6BT 6.3 0.3 Max. rms volta e -117. Max. de output current 9 mA.'
6AM4 Uhl Triode SBX 6.3 0.215 4.4 0.16 1.4 150 100' 7.5 10K 9000 SO
SAN5 Beam PWr. Pent. 7BD 6.3 0.45 9.0 4.B 0.075 110 110' 110 11.0 35 11.5K BOOO 1.5K 1.3
6ANSA! Medium-" Triode 1.0 1.7 1.5 200 6 13 5.75 3300
SDA 6.3 0.45
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7.0 2.3 0.04 200 180' 150 2.8 9.5 30K 6200
6A05A! Beam Pwr. Pent. IBO 8.5 IBO 3(4 3D' 58K 3700 19' 5.5K 2.0
7BZ 6.3 0.45 B.3 8.1 0.35
150 12.5 250 4.5(7 47' 52K 4100 45' 5K 4.5
Dual Diode 100 1 0.8 61K 1150 70
SAOS 7BT 6.3 0.15 1.7 1.5 1.8
High-" Triode 250 3 I 58K 1200 70
250 -16.5 250 5.7(10 35' 65K 2400 34' 7K 3.2
SAR5 Pwr. Amp. Pent. 6CC 6.3 0.4 - - - 250 -18 250 5_5 10 33' 68K 2300 32' 7.6K 3.4
SAS6 Sharp Cut·off Pent. 7CM 6.3 0.175 4 3 0.1 120 -1 120 3.5 5.2 110K 3200
6AT6 Duplex Diode - High·" Triode 7BT 6.3 0.3 1.3 1.1 2.1 250 -3 - - I 58K 1100 70
6AU6A! Sharp Cut·off Pent. 7BK 6.3 0.3 5.5 5 0.0035 250 68' 150 4.3 10.6 I meg. 5200 -
6AY6 Dual Diode High-" Triode 7BT 6.3 0.3 2.1 0.8 1.0 250 2 1.2 62.5K 1600 100
Medium-" Triode 1 1.7 1.7 200 6 13 5.75K 3300 19
6AZS 9ED 6.3 0.45
Semi remote Cut-off Pent. 6.5 2.2 0.02 200 180' 150 3 9.5 300K 6000
&BAS Remote Cut-off Pent. 7BK 6.3 0.3 5.5 5 0.0035 250 68' 100 4.2 11 I meg. 4400
6BA7 Pentagrid Conv. SCT 6.3 0.3 Osc. 20kg 250 1 100 10 3.B 1 meg. 950
SBC4 Uhl Medium-" Triode SoR 6.3 0.115 2.9 0.16 1.6 150 100' 14.5 4.BK 10K 48
SBE6 Pentagrid Conv. 7CH 6.3 0.3 Osc. 20k!) 250 1.5 100 6.8 2.9 1 meg. 475
Medium-,u Triode 1.8 1.5 1.8 150 56' 18 5K 8500 40
S8E8A! SEG 6.3 0.45
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 4.4 2.6 0.04 250 68' 110 3.5 10 400K 5100
6BF5 Beam Pwr. Amp, 7BZ 6.3 1.2 14 6 0.65 110 7.5 110 4 10.5 39' 11K 7500 36' 1.5K 1.9
6BF6 Dual Diode - Medium·" Triode 7BT 6.3 0.3 1.8 0.8 2 250 -9 - - 9.5 8.5K 1900 16 10K 0.3
6BH6 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7CM 6.3 0.15 5.4 4.4 0.0035 250 -I 150 2.9 7.4 1.4 meg. 4600
Medium-" Triode 2.6 0.38 2.4 150 5 9.5 5.15K 3300 17
6BH8! SOX 6.3 0.6
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7 1.4 0.046 200 B2' 115 3.4 15 150K 7000
SBISA Remote Cut-off Pent. 7CM 6.3 0.15 4.5 5.5 0.0035 250 I 100 3.3 S.2 1.3 meg. 3800
6BJ7 Triple Diode SAX 6.3 0.45 Max. peak inverse plate voltage - 330 V. Max. de plale current each diode - 1.0 mA
6BlS Dual Diode Medium·Jot Triode SER 6.3 0.6 2.8 0.38 2.6 250 9 8 7.15K 2BOO 20
6BK6 Dual Diode High-" Triode 7BT 6.3 0.3 250 2 1.1 62.5K 1600 100
6BK7B Medium-,u Dual Triode1O SAl 6.3 0.4 3 I I.B 150 56' 18 4.6K 9300 43
Triode 2.5 I.B 1.5 250 1.3 14 5000 20
6BLS SOC 6.3 0.43
Pentode 5.2 3.4 0.025 250 -1.3 175 2.8 10 400K 6100 47
6BN4A Medium-.u Triode 7EG 6.3 0.1 3.2 1.4 1.2 150 210' 9 6.3K 6800 43
6BNS Gated-Beam Pent. 7DF 6.3 0.3 4.2 3.3 0.004 80 -1.3 60 5 0.23 68K
68NS! Dual Diode High-" Triode SER 6.3 0.6 3.6 0.25 1.5 250 -3 1.6 18K 2500 70
SB05 Pwr. Amp. Pent. SCY 6.3 0.76 10.8 6.5 0.5 300 -7.3 200 10.8 49.5' 38K 5.2K 17'
6B07A Medium-,u Dual Triode 1o SAl 6.3 0.4 2.85 1.35 1.15 150 110' 9 6.IK 6400 39
Medium-,u Triode 2.5 0.4 I.B 150 56' 18 5K 8500 40
BBRSA! SFA 6.3 0.45
Sharp Cut·off Pent. 5 2.6 0.Dl5 250 68' 110 3.5 10 400K 5100
6BSS Low-Noise Dual Triode lO SAl 6.3 0.4 2.6 1.35 1.15 150 120' 10 5K 7100 36
6BXS Dual Triode 1o 9Al 6.3 0.4 1.4 65 -1 9 - 6700 25
6BZ6 Semiremote Cut-off Pent. 7CM 6.3 0.3 7.5 1.8 0.02 100 180' 150 2.6 11 600K 6100
6BZ7 Medium-,u Dual Triode 1o SAl 6.3 0.4 2.5 1.35 1.15 150 220' - - 10 5.6K 6800 38
6BZS Dual Triode" SAl 6.3 0.4 - - - 125 100' - - 10' 5.6K 8000 45
6C4 Medium-p. Triode 6BG 6.3 0.15 I.B 1.3 1.6 250 8.5 10.5 7.7K 1100 17
6CB6A! Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7CM 6.3 0.3 6.5 1.9 0.02 200 lBO' 150 2.8 9.5 600K 6200
6CE5! Rf Pent. 7BD 6.3 0.3 6.5 1.9 0.03 200 180' 150 2.8 9.5 600K 6100
6CG6 Semi remote Cut-off Pent. 7BK 6.3 0.3 5 5 0.008 250 8 150 1.3 9 710K 2000 - -
6CG7! Medium-,u Dual Triode lO SAl 6.3 0.6 1.3 1.2 4 250 8 9 7.7K 2600 20
6CL6 Pwr_ Amp. Pent. SBY 6.3 0.65 11 5.5 0.12 250 3 150 77.1 31' 150K 11K 30' 7500 2.8
6CW4 Triode 12AO 6.3 0.13 4.1 1.7 0.92 70 0 8 5.44K 12.5K 68
Medium·~ Triode 2.1 0.38 4.4 150 150' 9.2 B.7K 4600 40
6CXS SOX 6.3 0.75
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 9 4.4 0.06 200 68' 125 5.2 24 70K 10K
6CY5 Sharp Cut-off Tetrode 7EW 6.3 0.2 4.5 3 0.03 125 -7 80 1.5 10 lOOK 8000
6018 Twin Triode gAl 6.3 0.365 3.3 1.8 1.4 90 1.3 15 11.5K 33
60K6 Sharp Cut·off Pent. 7CM 6.3 0.3 6.3 1.9 0.01 300 -6.5 150 3.8 11 9800
6054 Hi~h-# Triode 12AO 6.3 0.135 4.1 1.7 .91 70 0 - - 8 5.44K 11.5K 68
6DT6 Sharp Cut-off Pent. lEN 6.3 0.3 5.8 0.02 150 560' 100 2.1 1.1 150K 615
60W5 Beam Pwr. Amp. SCK 6.3 1.1 14 9 0.5 100 -22.5 150 2 55 15K 5500
Triode 3 0.3 1.7 330 11 IB 5K 8500 40
6EA8! SAE 6.3 0.45
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 5 2.6 0.01 330 9 330 4 12 80K 6400 -
High-" Triode 2.4 .36 4.4 330 5 1 37K 2700 100
6EBS SOX 6.3 0.75
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 11 4.1 0.1 330 9 7 15 75K 12.5K
6EH5 Power Pentode 7CY 6.3 1.1 17 9 0.65 135 0 117 14.5 41 11K 14.6K 3K 1.4
&fil7 Remote Cut-oIl Pent. SAO 6.3 0.3 9 3 .005 200 2 90 4.5 12 500K 11.5K
Triode 2.8 1.7 1.8 125 -I 13.5 7500 40 ._-
6EH8
6EJ7
Pentagrid Conv.
Sharp Cut-oIl Pent.
SIG
9AO
6.3
6.3
0.45
0.3
4.8
10 3
1.4 0.01
.005
125
200
-I
--1.5
125
200
4
4.7
12
10
170K
350K
6000
15K --
----=-
6ER5 Tetrode 7FN 6.3 0.18 4.4 3.0 0.38 100 -1.1 0 0 10 8K 10.5K 80
-- ---
 TABLE I-MINATURE RECEIVING TUBES-ContInued V17
- ! -~ --
FII. or Capacitances
pF
- --~-- ----,-----
E I .:-==c- ET~
,I~ ~ ~ ~
>
Type I Name Base
Heater
c \ c a
C,. Il-a: ... ~~i ~< ..a" < ~ ~ l;~ t~ 1 ~ . ~S-
BES8 Dual Triode 90E
V

6.3
Amp.

0.365 3.4
Cout

1.7
e..
1.9
,,"
ii:~
130
't:~
"
--1.2
.
~

ell:!! I elIE
- -
iLE
15
it.! t!:,g
12.5K
c~
34
.3& 1:6
BEU7 Twin Triode 9LS 6.3 0.3 1.6 0.2 1.5 100 1 - - 0.5 80K 12SO 100
6EU8
Triode
9lF 6.3 0.45
5.0 2.6 0.02 ISO - - - 18 5K 8500 40
Pentode 3.0 1.6 1.7 125 ·-1 125 4 12 80K 6400
6EZB
Triple
Triode
Triode No.1
Triodes No.2 & 3
SKA 6.3 0.45 2.6 11.2* 1.5 330 -4 - - 4.2 13.6K 4200 57 - -
BFV6 Sharp Cut-off Tetrode 7FQ 6.3 0.2 4.5 3 0.03 125 1 80 1.5 10 lOOK 8000
BGC5 Pwr. Pent. SEU 6.3 1.2 18.0 7.0 0.9 110 7.5 110 4 SO 13K 8000 ... 2K 2.1
Triode 3.4 1.6 2.6 125 1 13.5 5K 8500 40
BGlB SAE 6.3 0.6
Pentode 8 2.4 0.36 125 ·-1 125 4.5 12 lSOK 7500
6GK5 High·" Triode 7FP 6.3 0.18 5 3.5 0.52 135 1 11.5 5400 15K 78
SGK6 Power Pentode SGK 6.3 0.76 10 7.0 0.14 250 7.3 250 5.5 48 38K 11.3K 5.2K 5.7
6GM6 Pentode 7CM 6.3 0.4 10 2.4 0,036 125 125 3.4 14 200K 13K
High·" Triode 2.4 0.36 4.4 250 -2 2 37K 2700 100
6GNB SOX 6.3 0.75
Sharp Cut·off Pent. 11 4.2 0.1 200 150 5.5 25 60K 11.5K
BHB6 Power Pentode 8PU 6.3 0.76 13 8.0 0.18 2SO lOll' 250 6.2 40 24K 20K
Bl4 Grounded·Grid Triode 7BQ 6.3 0.4 7.5 3.9 0.12 150 lOll' 15 4.5K 12K 55
! Medium·" Al Amp.IO 100 SO' 8.5 7.1K 5300 38
6leAt 7BF 6.3 0.45 2.2 0.4 1.6
Dual Triode ~ ISO 810' 4.8 10.2K 1900 Osc. peak voltage _ 3 V
Sharp Cut·off Pent. 5.0 2.6 0.Ql5 125 -1 110 3.5 9.5 200K SOOO
BK08 SAE 6.3 0.4
Medium·" Triode 1.5 2.8 1.8 125 1 13.5 7500 40
Medium-Jl Triode 2.4 2.0 1.3 125 68' 13 5.0K 8000 40
6KE8 90C 6.3 0.4
Sharp Cut·off Pent. 5.0 3.4 .015 125 33' 125 2.8 10 125K 12K
Sharp Cut·off Pent. 13 4.4 0.075 200 82' 100 3.0 19.5 60K 20K
BKR8 SOX 6.3 0.75
Merlium-Il Triode 4.2 3.0 2.6 125 68' -- - 15 4400 10.4 46
SKTB Remote Cut·off Pent. SPM 6.3 0.3 9.5 3 0.19 125 56' 125 4.2 17 18K --
High·" Triode 32 1.6 3.0 250 2 -- 1.8 31.5K 3200 100
SKT8 I SQP 6.3 0.6
Shar Cut-off Pent. 7.5 2.2 0.046 125 1 125 4.5 12 150K 10K -
Sharp Cut·off Pent. 5.5 3.4 0.Ql 125 -1 125 4 12 200K 7500 ---
8KZ8 SFZ 6.3 0.45
Medium-~ Triode 3.2 1.8 1.6 125 -1 - - 13.5 5400 8500 46
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 5.5 3.4 0.015 125 33' 125 3.5 12 125K 13K
6LlB 9GF 6.3 0.4
Medium-Jot Triode 2.4 2.0 1.4 125 68' - 13 5K 8000 40
High-" Triode 2.6 2.8 3.8 200 2.0 1.0 59K 1700 100
6LYB 90X 6.3 0.75
Sharp Cut·off Pent. 13.0 4.4 0.75 200 100 3 19.5 60K 20K --.
BMU8
Medium·" Triode
9AE 6.3 0.6 3 2.2 2.2
330 0 - 11.5 5.8K 6000 35 - -
Sharp Cut·off Pent. 330 0 150 4.2 19 165K 9000
6T4 Uhf Triode 70K 6.3 0.225 2.6 0.25 1.7 80 ISO' - - 18 1.86K 7000 13
mAt _i_TriPle Diode·High·" Triode 9E 6.3 0.45 1.6 1 2.2
100 -1 - - 0.8 54K 1300 70
2SO --3 - - 1 58K 1200 70 -
6USA!
Medium-" Triode
9AE I 6.3 0.45
2.5 0.4 1.8 ISO 56' - - 18 5K 8500 40 -
Sharp Cut·off Pent. 5 2.6 0.Ql 2SO 68' 110 3.5 10 400K 5200
Medium·" Triode 2.0 0.5 1.4 100 lOll' 8.5 6.9K 40
ex8At 9AK 6.3 0.45 ZOO,
Sharp Cut-off Pent. I 4.3 .'J.7 0.09 2SO 150 1.6 7.7 7SOK
12AB5 Beam Pwr. Amp. ~ 9EU I 12.6 0.2 8 8.5 0.7
250 12.5 2SO 4.5/7 47' SOK 4100 45' 5R- f---rr'
AB, Amp.' 2SO 15 2SO 5/13 79' 6OK' 37;u 70' 10K' 10
~ 2SO -12.5 2SO 4.5/7 47' 52K 4100 45' 5K 4.5
12AQ5 Beam Pwr. Amp. 7BZ 12.6 0.225 8.3 8.2 0.35
AB, Amp.' 2SO --15 2SO 5/13 79' 6OK' 37SO' 70' 10K' 10
12.6 0.15 2.2' 0.5' 1.5' 100 270' 3.7 15K 4000 60
12AT7 High·" Dual Triode" 9A
6.3 0.3 2.2' 0.4' 1.5' 2SO 200' 10 10.9K 5500 60
12.6 0.15 1.6' 0.5' 1.5' 100 0 lI.8 6.25K 3100 19.5
12AU7A Medium-I-' Dual Triode1o 9A 1
6.3 0.3 1.6' 0.35' 1.5' 250 -8.5 10.5 7.7K 2200 17
12.6 0.225 3.1' 0.5' 1.9' 100 120' 9 6.1K 6100 37
12AY7 Medium-II Dual Triode 1O 9A
6.3 0.45 3.1' 0.4' 1.9' ISO 56' 18 4.8K 8500 41
1 ~~~~-triode ~
12.6 0.15 1.6' 0.46' 1.7' 2SO -2 1.2 62.5K 1600 100
12AX7A 9A
6.3 0.3 1.6' 0.34' 1.7' 300 0 40' l4' 16K' 7S
Medium·" A, Amp. 12.6 0.15 2SO 4 3 17SO 40
12AY7 Dual Triode" Low·Level Amp.
9A
6.3 0.3
1.3 0.6 1.3
ISO 2700' Plate resistor - 20K. Grid resistor _ 0.1 meg. V. G. - 12.5
12.6 0.225 3.1' 0.5' 1.9' 100 270' 3.7 15K 4000 60
12AZ7A! High·" Dual Triode" 9A 60
6.3 0.45 3.1' 0.4' 1.9' 2SO 200' 10 10.9K 50UIJ
12.6 0.3 3.2' 0.5' 2.6'
12BH7At I Medium-" Dual Triode" 9A
6.3 0.6 3.2' 0.4' 2.6'
2SO -10.5 - - 11.5 5.3K 3100 16.5 - -
12.6 0.3
12BY7At Sharp Cut·off Pent. 9BF
6.3 0.6
11.1 3 0.055 2SO 68' ISO 6 25 90K 12K 1200 - -
35B5 Beam Pwr. Amp. 7BZ 35 0.15 11 6.5 0.4 110 .7.5 110 37 41' 5800 40' 2.5K 1.5
50B5 Beam Pwr. Amp. 7BZ SO 0.15 13 6.5 0.5 lIO -7.5 110 4/8.5 50' 14K 7500 49' 2.5K 1.9
5CFK5 Pwr. Pent. 7CY SO 0.1 17 9 0.65 110 62' 115 12 32 14K 12.8K 3K 1.2
5616 Beam Pwr. Pent. 9G 6.3 0.35 6.4 8.5 0.11 2SO -12.5 250 3' 27' 45K 3100 9K 2.7
5617 ~ Medium-,u Dual TriodelO 9H
12.6 0.45 4' 0.5' 4' 120 -2 - - 36 l.7K 11K 18.5
6.3 0.9 4' 0.5' 4' 2SO --12.5 - - 12.5 3K 5500 16.5
5722 Noise Generating Diode 5CB 6.3 1.5 2.2 200 35
4A2{
15874 High-. Triode 9Y 6.3 0.3 9.0 1.8 0.55 ISO 62' - - 26 1.8K 24K 43 - -
5979 Sharp Cut·off Pent. 9AO 6.3 0.15 2.7 2.4 0.15 2SO .. 3 100 0.4
9.6
l.B 2m~. 1000
4.25K 4000 17
-- --
6386 Medium-~ Dual Triode lO 6Cl 6.3 0.35 2 1.1 1.2 100 200'
6187 Dual Diode 6BT 6.3 _u.2 Max. peak inverse plate voltage - 360 V. Max. dc plate current each diode _ 10 rnA.
6973 Pwr. Pentode 9EU 6.3 0.45 6 6 0.4 440 -15 300 73K 4800
718SA Pwr. Pentode 9CV 6.3 _U.76 10.8 6.5 0.5 2SO -7.3 2SO 5.5 48 40K 11.3K
Shar~ Cut-off 7 2.4 0.4 330 125 3.8 12 170K 7800
7258 90A 12.6 0.195 21
Medium·" Triode 2 0.26 1.5 330 ···3 15 4.7K 4500
7586 Medium-" Triode 12AQ 6.3 0.135 4.2 1.6 2.2 75 lOll' 10.5 3000 11.5K 35
7537 Sha!Jl Cut-off Tet. 12AS 6.3 0.15 6.5 1.4 om 125 68' 50 2.7 10 200K 10.5K
7695 Hi h-. Triode 12AQ 6.3 0.135 4.2 1.7 0.9 110 0 7 6800 9400 64
8059 Medium·" Triode 12AQ 6.3 0.135 4.0 1.7 2.1 12 0 5.8 1.6K 8000 12.5
V18
- --,
TABLE I-MINIATURE RECEIVII~G TUBES-Continued
-, - - "
-r==
Fil. or Capacitances
Type
Heater pF > E
.c c~ .c
E
Name Base c c
ei I~ t, !"
0 §c
c!l &isU
'L
" . 21
0
V Amp. C,. Co., c.. -a.
.!!~
,,~

'i:.!! -!1Ii t!l:; E ~~

f8
"Ill "ao cl!~ cl!Eii:E ii:ol! 0-" "ol! .sol!
-
CD58 Hi h-# Triode 12CT 6.3 0.135 6,0 0.046 L3 110 47" 10 -- 10K
8393 Medium·Jot Triode 12AQ 13.5 0,060 H 1.7 2.4 75 100" 10.5 3000 lUK 35 -- -
8628 Hi h-# Triode 12AQ 6.3 0.10 10 3.4 1.7 ISO 3.3K" 0.3 41K 3100 127 7K -
8677 Power Triode 12CT 6.3 0.15 6.0 1.2 180 l.2K" 20 3K 5400 70 -. 1.4
sm Sharp CuI-off Pent. 7BD 6.3 0.15 3.6 3 O.ot 2SO 3 100 0.7 2 1 meg. 1400 - - -
a:32 Uhl Triode 7BS 6.3 0.15 1.2 1.1 1.4 2SO -7 -- 6.3 ll.4K 2200 25 - -
9::33 Remote Cut-off Pent. 7BD 6.3 0.15 3.4 3 0.1 2SO -3 100 2.7 6.7 700K 1800 - - -
Se3S
,~

Uhl Diode 6BH 6.3 0.15 Ma>. ac vollage - 270. Max. dc oulpul current _ 5 mAo
t Controlled heater warm-up characteristic. 1 Per Plate. 5 No signal plate rnA. , Oscillator gnd current rnA.
n Oscillator gridleak or screen-dropping resistor ohms. 2 Maximum-signal current for full-power output. " Effeclive plale-Io-plale. 10 Values for each section.
* Calhode resistor ohms. 3 Values are for two tubes in push-pull. 'Triode No.1. 11 Micrornhos.
•• Space-charge grid. 4 Unless otherwise noted. I Triode No.2. " Through 33K.

TABLE II-METAL RECEIVING TUBES

Characteristics given in this table apply to all tubes having type numbers shown, including
metal tube., glals tube. with "G" suffix, and bantam tub.s with IIGT" suffix.
For "G" and "GT"4ub.s not listed (not having metal counterparts) see Tables III and V
== --, .- -- .- "--" --
Type Name Base
Fl!. or
H""ter
Capacitances
pF >
~ c c
-
E
.c
c~
ou
uc
.~
E
.c
". 21
e 0 0
ea.
~~ e $. ~!!
C,.
. '" a.1l
,,~
-a.
V Amp. Co.t c.. "Ill "ao
't:.!!
.!!~
cl!~ cl!E
f" -;'"
ii:E ~=
~U
~~
0-..,
Em
" ...
m~

.sol! ~8 .
250 -3 100 2.7 3.5 360K 550
6AS Pentagrid Conv. 8A 6.3 0.3 - - -
Ebb (OSC.) 250 VIhrough 20K. Grid resistor (Osc.) 50K. Ib - 4 mAo I I - 0.4 mAo
SAC7 300 ISO" ISO 2.5 10 1 meg. 9000
1852 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 8N 6.3 0.45 11 5 0.15
300 ISO" SOK' 2.5 10 I meg. 9000
6AG7 Pwr. Amp. Pent. SY 6.3 0.65 13 7.5 0.06 300 3 ISO 7/9 30/31 130K 11K 10K 3
6B8 Oual-Diode - Pent. SE 6.3 0.3 6 9 0.005 2SO -3 125 2.3 10 600K 1325
AI Amp.I,S 2SO 20 20" 31/34 2.6K 2600 6.8 4K 0.85-
3SO 730" 132" SO/SO 10K' 9
AB, Amp.'."
3SO -38 123" 48/92 6K' 13
6F6 Pwr. Amp. Pen!. 7S 6.3 0.7 6.5 13 0.2 2SO -16.5 2SO 6jll 34/36 80K 2500 7K 3.2
A, Amp.' 7K 4.8
285 -20 285 7/13 38/40 78K 2500
AB, Amp.'
375 26 2SO 5/20 34/82 - -- 82" 10K' 18.5
375 340" 2SO 8/18 54/77 - - 94" 10K' 19
8J5 Medium-# Triode 6Q 6.3 0.3 3.4 3.6 3.4 2SO 8 9 7.7K 2600 20
Sharp Cul- A, Amp. 2SO -3 100 0.5 2 1 meg. 1225
6J7 7R 6.3 0.3 7 12 0.005
off Pen!. Biased Oeleclor 2SO 10K" 100 ero signal cathode currenl - 0.43 mAo 0.5 me•.
125 2.6 10.5 1650 990
SK7 Variable-#
Pen!. ~
Mixer
7R 6.3 0.3 7 12 0.005
250
250
3
10 100
600K
Osc. peak volts - 7
-
-3 6 2.5
SKI Triode-
Hexode Cony. ~
Triode
SK 6.3 0.3 - - -
250
100 SOK'
100
3.8
600K 350
I I (Osc.) - 0.15 mAo
Al Amp,l,5 2SO -20 20 10 40/44 1.7K 4700 8 5K 1.4
AI Amp.s 2SO 167" 2SO 5.4/7.2 75/78 14" 2.5K 6.5
Sell Bias 300 218" 200 3/4.6 51/55 12.7" 4.5K 6.5
A, Amp.' 250 14 2SO 57.3 72/79 22.5K 6000 14 10 2.5K 6.5
Fixed Bias 3SO -18 2SO 2.5/7 54/66 33K 5200 18" 4.2K 10.8
A, Amp.' 2SO 125" 250 10/15 120/130 35.6" 5K' 13.8
Beam Sell Bias 270 125' 270 11/17 134/145 28.2" 5K' 18.5
6U·GB' Pwr. Amp. Al Amp.e 7AC 6.3 0.9 11.5 9.5 0.9
2SO 16 2SO 10/16 120/140 24.5' 5500' 32" 5K' 14.5
Fixed Bias 270 -17.5 270 11/17 134/155 23.5' 5700' 35" 5K' 17.5
AB, Amp." Sell Bias 3SO 270" 270 5/17 88/100 40.6" 9K' 24.5
-22.5 270 45 11 3.8K' 18
AB, Amp.' 3SO 5/11 88/140
Fixed Bias 360 -22.5 270 5/15 88/132 45" 6.6K' 26.5
AB, Amp." 3SO -18 225 3.5jll 78/142 - - 52 11 6K' 31
Fixed Bias 3SO -22.5 270 5 16 88/205 - - 7211 3.8K' 47
_3 14 -
617 Penlagrid -
Mixer Amp. ~
Mixer
7T 6.3 0.3 - - -
2SO
2SO
-3
-6
100
ISO
6.5
9.2
5.3 600K
3.3 I meg.
1100
3SO -15"
6N7GT Class-B B Amp.'
SB 6.3 O.S - - - 300 0 - - 35/70 - - 82" 8K' io~
Twin Triode ~ 250 -5 - - 6 11.3K 3100 - -
6Q7 Dual Diode High-# Triode 7V' 6.3 0.3 5 3.8 1.4 2SO 3 1 58K 1200 70
6R7 Dual Diode Triode 7V' 6.3 0.3 4.8 3.8 2.4 2SO 9 9.5 8.5K 1900 16 10K 0.28
6SA7GT Penlagrid Conv. eR' 6.3 0.3 9.5 12 0.13 2SO 0' 100 8 3.4 800K Grid No. I resisl.r 20K.
100 1 100 10.2 3.6 SOK 900 .,.
6SB7Y Penlagrid Conv. SR 6.3 0.3 9.6 9.2 0.13 2SO 1 100 10 3.8 I meg. 950 '.
2SO 22K' 12K" 12/13 6.8/6.5 OSC. Seclion in 88-108 MHz. Service.
6SC7 High-# Dual Triode' 8S 6.3 0.3 2 3 2 2SO 2 - - 2 53K 1325 70 -
6SF7 Diode Variabre-~ Pent. 7AZ 6.3 0.3 5.5 6 0.004 250 1 100 3.3 12.4 700K 2050 -
6SG7 HI Amp. Pen!. SBK 6.3 0.3 S.5 7 0.003 2SO 2.5 ISO 3.4 9.2 1 meg. 4000
6SH7 HI Amp. Pen!. 8BK 6.3 0.3 S.5 7 0.003 2SO 1 150 4.1 10.8 900K 4900
6SJ7' Sharp Cut -off Pen!. SN 6.3 0.3 6 7 0.005 2SO 3 100 O.S 3 I meg. 16SO
8SK7 Variable-# Pent. SN 6.3 0.3 6 7 0.003 2SO 3 100 2.6 9.2 800K 2000
8SQ7GT Dual Diode High-# Triode SQ 6.3 0.3 3.2 3 1.6 2SO 2 0.9 91K 1100 100
6SR7 Dual Diode Triode 8Q 6.3 0.3 3.6 2.8 2.4 2SO 9 9.5 8.5K 1900 16
180 8.5 180 3/4 29/30 SOK 3700 8.5" 5.5K 2
At Amp,S 2SO -12.5 2SO 4.5/7 45/47 SOK 4100 12.5" 5K 4.5
6V6GTA Beam Pwr. Amp. 7AC 6.3 0.45 10 11 0.3 315 -13 225 2.2/6 34/35 80K 3750 13 10 S.5K 5.5
- 2SO -15 2SO 5/13 70/79 60K 37SO 30" 10K' 10
AB, Amp.'
285 -19 285 4/13.5 70/92 70K 3600 38" ,,- 8K' 14
1628 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7R 6.3 0.3 7 12 0.005 250 -3 100 0.5 2 1 meg. 1225
5693 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 8N 6.3 0.3 5.3 6.2 0.005 2SO -3 100 0.85 3 I meg. 16SO
• Cathode resistor-ohms. , Also Iype 6SJ7Y. ·Osc. grid leak -Scm. res. 12 Mlcromhos.
I Screen tied to plale. 5 Values are for single tube or section. t Values for two units. 11 Unless otherwise noted.
, No conneclion to Pin No.1 lor 6l6G, 6Q7G, 6RGT/G, eValues are for two tubes in push·puH. " Peak al grid vollage. 14 G1 voltage.
, ~~i~Gbi~~A!GlC~~~~ s~s:.~~r:oscillator excilalion is used.
7 Plate-to-plate value. " Peak af G-G vollage. 15 Units connected in parallel.
 TABLE 111-6.3-VOLT GLASS TUBES WITH OCTAL BASES
(For "Gil and "GT"-'ype tubes not listed here, see equivalent type in Tables II and V; characteristics and connections will be similar)
V19
-~ T -~-~r:r ~~-r--"Fll.O~ - C.-p';;'i~:nc•• ~~~ -~-~- -~ -~~c·1 ~=~-Ji
Type
.,
Name
=j;
0.-
~g
it
Base

V
Heater

Amp. Cln tout

pF

Cgp
18::E:
>
b
a:Jl "m ~~
;;
e! !c
eX E
~c
a.. E
.:
.,0
10-
a:&
0'"
~C
i!~
1-"0
I" ~~
c~
1:
.c
0

.30:
1ft'S
i~
~o

SAL7GT Electron-Ray Indicator BCH 6.3 0.15

Outer edge of any of the three iiluminated areas displaced 'I"
in. min. outward with +5
volts to its electrode. Similar inward disp. with --5 volts. No pattern with __~~<!:
6A07GT Dual Diode- BCK 6.3 0.3 2.8 3.2 250 -2 2.3 44K 1600 70
High-. Triode
SARB Beam Pent. 6BO 6.3 1.2 11 0.55 250 -22.5 250 77 21K 5400
6AR7GT Dual Diode- 70E 6.3 0.3 5.5 7.5 0.003 250 -2 100 1.8 1.2 meg. 2500
Remote Pent.
6AS7GA Low-p Twin Triode- SBO 6.3 2.5 6.5 2.2 7.5 135 250* 125 0.28K 7000
DC Amp.'
6AU5GT Beam Pwr. Amp.' 10 SCK 6.3 1.25 11.3 0.5 115 -20 175 6.8 60 6K 5600
6Bl7GTA Medium-,u Dual Triode l BBO 6.3 1.5 4.4 0.9 250 --9 40 2.15K 7000 15
SBOSGTB Beam Pwr. Amp.' 6AM 6.3 1.2 15 0.6 250 ·-22.5 150 2.1 57 14.5K 5900
SCUS 11
SBX7GT Dual Triode l eBO 6.3 1.5 3.4 4.2 250 390' 42 l.3K 7600 10
6CB5A Beam Pwr. Amp.' 26 SGO 6.3 2.5 22 10 0.4 175 -30 175 90 5K 8800
6COSGA Beam Pwr. Amp.' 20 5BT 6.3 2.5 24 9.5 0.8 175 -30 175 5.5 75. 7.2K 7700
SCK4 Low-", Triode BIB 6.3 1.25 1.8 6.5 550 -26 55 1.0K 6500 6.7
6Cl5 Beam Pwr. Amp.' 25 SGD 6.3 2.5 20 11.5 0.7 175 -40 175 90 6K 6500
SON6 Beam PWr. Pent. 3 15 5BT 6.3 2.5 22 11.5 0.8 125 -18 125 6.3 70 4K 9000
Dissimilar 2.2 0.7 350 -8 9K 2500 22
SON7 Dual Triode SBO 6.3 0.9
4.6 5.5 550 ·-9.5 • 68 2K 7700 15
BOOS Beam Pwr. Amp.' 24 SIC 6.3 2.5 23 11 0.5 175 25 125 110 5.5K 1O.5K
600BB Beam Pwr. Amp.' 18 BAM 6.3 1.2 15 0.55 250 22.5 150 2.4 75 20K 6600
6017 Twin Pwr. Pent) 13.2 SIP 6.3 1.52 11 0.6 300 120' 250 15 so 9K' 12
6E5 Electron Ray - Triode 6R 6.3 0.3 250
Dissimilar- 2.2 0.6 350 -3 1.5 34K 1900 65
8EA7 Dual Triode BBO 6.3 1.05
l.3 550 --25 95 770 6500
8EF6 Beam Pwr. Amp.' 7S 6.3 0.9 ll.5 0.8 250 18 250 50 5000
BEYS Beam Pwr. Pent. 7AC 6.3 0.68 8.5 0.7 350 -- 17.5 300 44 60K 4400
6El5 Beam Pwr. Pent. 7AC 6.3 0.8 0.6 350 20 300 3.5 43 50K 4100
BFH6 Beam Pwr. Pent. 6AM 6.3 1.2 33 0.4 770 22.5 220 1.7 75 12K 6000
6GW6 Beam Power Amp.s 17.5 6AM 6.3 1.2 17 0.5 250 22.5 150 2.1 70 15K 7100
6K6GT Pwr. Amp. Pent. 7S 6.3 0.4 5.5 0.5 315 21 250 4/9 25/28 llOK 2100 9K 4.5
8Sl7GT High-. Dual Triode' BBO 6.3 0.3 3.4 3.8 2.8 250 2.3 44K 1600 70.
6SN7GTB Medium-,u Dual Triode 1 SBO 6.3 0.6 1.2 250 -8 7.7K 2600 20
6W6GT Beam Pwr. Amp. 7S 6.3 1.2 15 0.5 200 ISO' 125 2/8.5 46/47 28K 8000 4K 3.8
IY6GA Beam Pwr. Amp. 7S 6.3 1.25 15 0.7 200 - 14 135 2.2/9 61/66 18.3K 7100 2.6K
1135 High-. Dual Triode SB 6.3 0.6 300 6.6/54 12K' 10.4
8550 Power Pentode 35 7S 6.3 1.6 14 12 0.85 400 -16.5 225 18 105 27K 9000 3K 20
7027A Beam Pwr. Amp. BHY 6.3 0.9 10 7.5 1.5 450 ..3D 350 19.2 194 6000 6K' 50
7591 Beam Pwr. Amp. 19 SKO 6.3 0.8 10 0.25 450 200' 400 22 94 9K' 28
• Cathode resistor-ohms. 2 Plate-to-plate value. , Harz. DeflectIOn Amp . 4 Mlcrom hos. A
1 Per section. 'Vert. Deflection mp.

TABLE IV - CONTROL AND REGULATOR TUBES

=--== - - .... .. --
-~~~

FII. or Heater Peak

~~

Max. Minimum
.
Oper- Oper-
~

Tube
Type Name Base Cathode Anode Anode Supply atlng atlng Grid Voltage
Volts Amp. Voltage rnA Voltage Voltage mA Resistor Drop
OA2
6073 Voltage Regulator 5BO Cold - .- - - 185 150 5-30 - -
CA3A VR75 Voltage Re~ulator 4AI Cold - - -- - 105 75 ~O - -
OB2
6074 Voltage Regulator 5BO Cold - - - - 133 lOB 5-33 - -
OB3 VR90 Voltage Regulator 4AI Cold - .. 125 90 ~O
OC2 Voltage Regulator 5BO Cold -- 105 75 5-30
OC3A VR105 Voltage Regulator 4AI Cold 135 105 ~O
003A VR15 Voltage Regulator 4AI Cold - - 185 150 ~O
5551 Volta~e Regulator 5BD Cold - ll5 115 87 1.5-3.5 ~

5682 Thyratron -. Fuse Fig. 79 Htr. 6.3 1.5 200 1 I. to fuse -150 Amp., 60 cycle, half-wave 50V
5&95 Relay Service 7BN Htr. 6.3 0.15 500' 100 rna. peak current; 25-ma. avera~e.
5727 Gas Thyratron 7BN Htr. 6.3 0.6 650 - -
5823 Relay or Trigger 4CK Cold ..- --- Max. peak inv. volts - 200; Peak rnA - 100; Avg. rnA _ 25.
5962
5998
Voltage Regulator
Series Regulator
2AG
BBO
Cold
Htr.
-
6.3
-
2.4
-
250 125
730
-
700
llO
5/55'
100 350'
1 Pea k Inverse voltage. 2 Values In microamperes.
(
TABLE V - RECTIFIERS - RECEIVING AND TRANSMlnlNG
See Also Table IV - Controls and Regulator Tubes

014 .. G Full-Wave Rectifier 4R Cold 300 75 1000 200 GAS

~tg~~~/~+-~H~a~lf-~w~av~e~R~ec~ti~fie~r--~~3~C---1--~Fi~II.~~r---1-.25---r--0-.2---t----_~---t--~~1.0---r--~33~000~--t---~3~O---t---H~V~

I"K"3-;;1""13.--t--'H'-'al"f-"W'ave Rectifier 3C Fil. 1.25 0.2 0.5 26000 50 HV

';-~~;;~1-_A.------r---i:~;;:Iii-I::_;~iT.::: ~:~:~:; !~B ~~I;. ~:~25 ~:;5 4500 ~:~7500 10 ~~
2Y2 Half-Wave Rectifier 4AB Fil. 2.5 1.75 4400 5.0 HV
2~Z;:2"'G"'S'"4--+--';;H"'al;"'f-wave Rectifier 4B ._. Fil. 2.5 1.5 __.L..__---"350:::....__-'-__--...::50=---__-'-________-'-______- J__---"H-'-V_
V20 TABLE V - RECTIFIERS - RECEIVING AND TRANSMITTING _ Continued
See Also Table IV - Controls and Regulator Tubes

o~i~~t In~:;~e
C~~~t
Max.
Fl!. or Heater AC
Type Name Base Cathode Type
Volts Amp. Voltage Current Peak
Per Plate mA Voltage
I Fig. i
).U 3.0 - 60 20000 300
1.5' 3.0 - 30 20000 150
3828 Half·Wave Rectifier 4P rll. 1.5 5.0 - 250 10000 1000 GAS
5AT4 Full·Wave Rectifier ~L Htr. 5. 2.25 550 800 1550 - HV
300' 350'
5AU4 Full·Wave Rectifier 5T Fil. 5.0 4.5 .400' 325' 1400 1075 HV
500' 315'
450' 150'
550' 150'
150'
:=:~~A ~'
950' 175'
~U46 rull·Wave Rectifier n FII. 5.U 3.0 S, me as Type 5Z3 HV
300' 175'
5U4GA Full·Wave Reclifier 5T Fil. 5.0 3.0 450' 150' 1550 900 HV
550' 250'
300' 300'
5U4GB Full·Wave Reclifier 5T Fil. 5.0 3.0 450' 275' 1550 1000 HV
5AS4A
550' 175'
i ~:
'46A Full·W'ave 5L Hlr. 5.0 2.0 375' 1400 525 HV
',·6·61 Full·W'ave i 51 Fil. 5.0 2.0 arne as Type 80 HV
Full-W'ave i 4C Fil. 5.0 3.0 500 150 1400 - HV
Full·W'ave i 5L Hlr. 5.0 2.0 400 115 llOO -
IV4 Full·Wave i er 5BS Hlr. 6.3 0.95 - 90 1150
6AX5GT Full·Wave Reclifier 6S Hlr. 6.3 450 115 1150
6BW4 FUll-Wave Rectifier 901 Hlr. 6.3 0.9 450 IOU 1175
6BX4 Full-Wave Rectifier 5BS Hlr. 6.3 0.6 - _90 1350
6BY5G Full·Wave Reclifier 6CN Htr. 6.3 1.6 375' 175 140U
FUll-Wave Rectifier 9M Htr. 6.3 1.0 350' 150 1000
Half-Wave Rectifier 4CG Fil. 6.3 1.6 - 175 5000 IOU HV
Full-Wave Rectifier 9M Hlr. 6.3 ).6 350 90 - - HV
7CF
l~~
/6063
I il
6S
Half-wave Rectifier 4. HI. b.' U 50 - - HV
70 1250 210
, Reclifier
1250 210
2525 1.3 - 500
35W4 I lave :ecllller U.l5 j,U 600
3524GI I ave ifier 0.15 IOU 600
3rg5G I 'ave itler '.15 - -
36AM, I 'ave ifler ,b: 530
500G4 I ave Iller 1.15 100 330 720 HV
50Y661 I ave Iller 85 - - HV
125
I i 125
~ rUIl-Wave Recllller 4G fil. 5.U '.U 100 800
83-V J:IlII:.Wave Rectifier 4AO Htr. 5.U 1.0 IOU -
1NlGT Rectlfler-Telrode 8AY Hlr. 117 0.09 JOU 450
1123 Half-Wave Reclifier 4GB Hlr. 0.04 300 -
816 Half-Wave Rectifier 4P Fil. :.5 2.0 500 500
838 Half-Wave Rectifier 4P Htr. 1.5 5.0 - - 5000 1000 HV
868-A-A: Half-Wave Rectifier 4P Fil. 2.5 5.0 3500 150 10000 1000 MV
866B Half-Wave Rectifier 4P Fil. 5.0 5.0 - - 8500 1000 MV
666 Jr. Half-Wave ~ectltler 4B Fil. :.5 1250 150' - - MV
872A/872 Half-Wave Rectifier 4AI Fil. 5.U '.5 - 1250 10000 5000 MV

: ~:~~~1r f~t~i~~~~:r.sput. : ~~~t~ti~p~1Put.

' Using only one-half of "ament.

TABLE VI- TRIODE TRANSMITTING TUBES

Maximum Ratings

. ... . .
Cathode Capacitances Typical Operation

.. . g- .
.
..d!!~
E N"
E :':': ~
c

t;, Cn., E E
U
a,;:
SoB
E ~,;:
Type
S~
sN $~
G

.
.c c
~

...
IE" i§o f
x.
Cln
pF pF Base
';8
sN
G
~ 'C
~i
~~
.c
... 0 e~

818A'
~:8
ii:it
1.5
a'::
300
ii:u
30
~
,,~
l!!ll
16
e:S
......
250
.....
"'~
E

32
..
II
~
6.3
.E

0.45 1.2 1.6 0.4 7BF C·T

gj'e
OJ! ri:~
150
~~
,,>
-10
$~
~~
"'u
30
l!!ll
1.6
~;
:.f
0.Q35
H
.. .3
"';
.....
"'0
3.5
15
8F4 2.0 150 20 8.0 500 17 6.3 0.225 2.0 1.9 0.6 7BR C·J.O 150 550' 20 7.5 0.2 - 1.8
2000'
12AU7A' 2.76' 350 12' 3.5' 54 18 6.3 0.3 1.5 1.5 0.5 9A C·T·O 350 100 24 7 6.0
Be4 5.0 350 25 8.0 54 18 6.3 0.15 1.8 1.6 1.3 6BG C·T·O 300 27 25 7.0 0.35 5.5
5675 5 165 30 8 3000 20 6.3 0.135 2.3 1.3 0.09 Fig. 21 G·G·O 120 8 15 4 0.05
6N7GT' 5.5' 350 30' 5.0' 10 35 6.3 0.8 8B C·T·O 350 100 60 10 14.5
2C40 6.5 500 25 500 36 6.3 0.75 2.1 1.3 0.05 Fig. 11 C·T·O 250 5 20 0.3 0.075
0.Q7 c.T 350 33 35 13 2.4 6.5
5893 8.0 400 40 13 1000 27 6.0 0.33 2.5 1.75 Fig. 21
C·P 300 -45 30 12 2.0 - 6.5
2C43 12 500 40 - 1250 48 6.3 0.9 2.9 1.7 0.05 Fig. 11 C·T·O 470 - 387 - - 97
25 2000 75 c.T 2000 -130 63 18 4 100
3C24 17 1600 60 7" 60 24 6.3 3.0 1.7 1.6 0.2 20 C·P 1600 -170 53 II 3.1 68
25 2000 75 AB z7 1250 -42 24/130 270' 3.4' 21.4K 1\2
C·T·O 1000 90 100 20 3.1 75
1823 30 1000 100 25 60 20 6.3 2.5 5.7 6.7 0.9 3G c·p 750 -125 100 20 4.0 55
87 1000 40 30/200 230' 4.2' 12K 145
 TABLE VI- TRIODE TRANSMlnlNG TUBES - Continued V21
- .. r_-::
Maximum Ratings Cathode Capacitances Typical Opo ration
..
...
.~ c
E
...
c
E N'"
. '".
0 c
E
c
E
...'C ..
c

..ei-
U E
'il
t~
0-

....Z'= {~:~
:.E
~
Typo
IE. Ct. Cout

.
.!!~ ~~ .c ~~
il Base
.... ....
~

....
~
G C pF pF OG G G C ... 0 e;
"c
~! 1 • .!!
,;~'" :!!:ll'" .sf ClI~
~~ !l
.",
Sf J!I
...... a:~
~

0:3 ga ~~ '0
>
E
C ~~ D:~ C:;~
.~
-~
...... g3 .....
"'0
S•
iL.3 c"'0
200
...
C·T 1500 70 173 40 7.1
811·A 65 1500 175 SO 60 160 6.3 4.0 5.9 5.6 0.7 3G
c·p 12SO -120 140 45 10.0 - 135
G·G·B 12SO 0 27/175 28 12 165
AB, 12SO 0 27/175 13 3.0 155
C·T 1500 120 173 30 6.5 190
elH 65 1500 175 35 60 29 6.3 4.0 5.4 5.5 0.77 3G c·p 12SO -115 140 35 7.6 - 130
B' 1500 -48 28/310 270' 5.0 13.2K 340

100TH 100 3000 225 60 40 40 5.0 6.3 2.9 2.0 0.4 2D ~

c·p 3000 -200 165 51 18 - 400
B' 3000 -65 40/215 335' 5.0' 31K 6SO

3·1CGA2
~
C·P
3000 -400 165 30 20 - 400
10~Tl
100 3000 225 SO 40 14 5.0 6.3 2.3 2.0 0.4 2D
G·M·A 3000 560 60 2.0 7.0 90
B' 3000 185 40/215 640' 6.0' 30K 4SO
3CX1C~A5"
100 1000 125"
SO 2500 100 6.0 1.05 7.0 2.15 0.035 - G·G·A 800 20 SO 30 6 - 27
7U 600 100 14 C·P 600 15 75 40 6 18
G·I·C 600 -35 60 40 5.0 - 20
2e39 100 1000 60 40 500 100 6.3 1.1 6.5 1.95 0.03 - N·O
C·P
900
600
-40
-ISO
90
100" SO
30 -
.-
-
-
40
-
AX9SC~1
N 2500 -200 200 40 16 - 390
5BSS"
135 2500 200 40 ISO 25 6.3 5.4 5.8 5.5 0.1 FIE. 3 C·P 2000 -225 127 40 16 - 204
B' 2500 -90 SO/330 3SO' 14' 15.68K 560
C·T 16SO 70 165 32 6 205
512B/T16GL 160 27SO 275 - - 170 6.3 4.0 - - - 3G
G·G·B' 2400 2.0 90/500 100 600
C·T 2500 180 300 60 19 575
810 175 2500 300 75 30 36 10 4.5 8.7 4.8 12 2N
C·P 2000 3SO 2SO 70 35 - 3SO
G·M·A 22SO 140 100 2.0 4 - 75
B' 22SO -60 70/4SO 380' 13' 11.6K 725
8813 200 2200 2SO - 500 160 6.3 3.2 19.5 7.0 0.03 Fig. 81 AB, 2000
2000 -100
- 22/500 98' 27'
357 94 29 -
- S05
464
C·T·O
3000 -ISO 333 90 32 - 7SO
250TH 250 4000 350 40" 40 37 5.0 10.5 4.6 2.9 0.5 2N
2000 -160 2SO 60 22 - 335
C·P 2500 -180 225 45 17 - 400
3000 -200 200 38 14 - 435
AB,' 1500 0 220/700 460' 46' 4.2K 630
2000 -200 3SO 45 22 455
N·O - 7SO
3000 3SO 335 45 29
2000 520 2SO 29 24 - 335
25DTl 2SO 4000 3SO 3513 40 14 5.0 10.5 3.7 3.0 0.7 2N
c·p 2500 520 225 20 16 - 400
3000 520 200 14 11 - 435
1 AB,' 1500 40 200/700 7SO' 38' 3.8K 580
2500 70 300 85 7511 - 555
I 3000 95 300 110 8SH 710
PL·6569 2SO 4000 300 120 30 45 5.0 14.5 7.6 3.7 0.1 FIE. 3 G·G·A 3500 110 285 90 8511 S05
4000 120 2SO SO 7011 820
8815 300 2200 2SO 500 160 6.3 3.2 19.5 7.0 0.03 - AB, 2000 22/500 98' 27' S05
1500 -125 665 115 25 700
C·T·O 900
5.0 25 2000 200 600 125 39
1500 200 420 55 18 500
304TH 300 3000 900 6013 40 20 13.5 10.2 0.7 4BC
C·P 2000 300 440 60 26 680
10 12.5 2500 -3SO 400 60 29 - 800
AB,' 1500 65 1065' 330' 25' 2.B4K 100if
N·O
1500 250 665 90 33 - 700
2000 300 600 85 36 - 900
5.0 25 2000 500 2SO 30 18 - 410

304Tl 300 3000 900 SOI3 40 12 12.1 8.6 4BC

C·P
2000 -500 500 75 52 - 810
425
0.8 2500 525 200 18 11
2500 -5SO 400 50 36 - 830
10 12.5 1500 -118 270/572 236' 0 2.54K 256
AB.' 8.5K 610
2500 -230 160/483 460' 0
AB,' 1500 -118 1140' 490' 39' 2.75K 1100
C·T·O
22SO -125 445 85 23 - 780
3SO 3300 30 3000 -160 335 70 20 - 800
833A 500 100 35 10 10 12.3 6.3 8.5 FIE. 41
c·p 2500 -300 335 75 30 - 635
4SO" 4000" 20" 3000 -240 335 70 26 - 800
B' 3000 -70 l00/7SO 400' 20' 9.5K 16SO
8814 400 2200 2SO - 500 160 6.3 3.2 19.5 7.0 0.03 - AB, 2000 221500 98' 27' - S05
3·4m 400 3000 400 - 110 200 5 14.5 7.4 4.1 0.07 Fig. 3 G·G.B 3000 0 100/333 120 32 - 655
4000 -110 350 92 105 11 1080
PL·65eO 400 4000" 3SO 120 - 45 5.0 14.5 7.6 3.9 0.1 5BK G·G·A 2500 -70 3SO 95 85 660
8163 400 3600 400 20u 30 350 5.0 14.1 8.0 5.0 0.3 FIE. 3 G·G·B 2500 0 72/400 140 35 640
G·G·B 3000 . 370 115 30 5K 7SO
3·sen 500 4000 400 - 110 160 5 14.5 7.4 4.1 0.07 FIE. 3 - 850
C·T 3500 75 300 115 22
3·1C~DZ 1000 3000 800 - 110 200 7.5 21.3 17 6.9 0.12 Fig. 3 G·G·B 3000 0 180/670 300 65 1360
8877 1500 4000 1000 2SO 200 5.0 10 42 10 0.1 AB, 2500 8.2 1000 57 1520
• Cathode resistor In ohms. G·G·O - Grounded·grld osc. • Pea k af grld·to·grld volts.
, KEY TO CLASS·Of·SERVICE ABBREVIATIONS G·I·C - Grid·isolation circui!. 10 Plate· pulsed 1000·M Hz. osc.
11 Includes bias loss, grid dissipation, and feed-
~h, g:::::~h~fp~~~.~I~llo:i modulator.
G·M·A - Grid·modulated amp.
: Z Twin triode. Values, except interelectrode capaci- through power.
tances, are for both sections in push-pull. 12 lOOO-MHz. cw osc.
~B, : g:::::~~'u~~:~~flu~~ ~o~~ra~~r~or. 13 Max. grid dissipation in watts.
C·M - Frequency multiplier. : g~~r~a~ :e~~s~~fn ohms. 14 Max. cathode current in rnA.
C·P - Class·C plate· modulated telephone. 5 Peak values. 15 Forced-air cooling required.
C·T - Class·C telegraph. 'Per section. II Plate· pulsed 3300·MHz. osc.
C·T·O - CI,ss·C amplifier·osc. 'Values are for two tubes in push· pull. 17 1900.MHz. cw osc.
G·G·A - Grounded·grid clm·C amp. , Max. signal va lu •. 11 No Class·B data available.
G·G·B - Grounded·grid cl",·B amp. (Single Tone).
V22 -
TABLE VII - TETRODE AND PENTODE TRANSMlnlNG TUBES
--"-
Maximum Ratings Cathode Capacitances
-- - -- -
Typical Operation
i

i"c·~i ·.!.CII
==
Q~ ~.~ C,. ~ '"Ec 'E" .~~
'Ec" ·c= i E
'S
~2
.!!::t
... i! pF C;:, . .. ~f
,,~
Typo Cout
. : e! :~ . ~~
Base .c
U
Cc c" IE ... pF !& et
....
U C U
u" l:. ce a. O
~~
I 0::[ ~~ ,H
I!:!l! u-
"'- :l !
E ~i
';5 a::: !~ g;~ ..,J!i
~~
uf
f~ ..,t g;~1 ~~
cl!~ ~~ ~ Ucn cl!~ ~::
"t:"S
"'> a.u
u~
cnu
"£:::::I
",a. a. ... "'0
",a.
8203 1.8 400 "-. 250 6.3 '"
0.16 4.2 2.2 1.6 12AQ C·P/C·T 155 - 14/2700' 21
"'u
5 0.4 1.55
C·T 200 200 -20 60 13 2 1.0 - 7.5
5939' i 7.5 275 3 200 500
12.6 ~
-M- 0.375
6.6 0.15 1.55 Fig. 13 C·P
C·M
180
200
ISO
190
-20
68K'
55
46
1l.5
10
1.7
2.2
1.0
0.9
- 6

1551
1558 i 12 300 2 250 175
6.3 ~
rW- 0.8
10 0.15 5.5 9lK
C·T
C·P
300
250
250
250
-
-
-55
-75
SO
70
5.1
3.0
1.6
2.3
1.5
1.0
- 10
7.5
-
MH
6417 13.5 350 2 250 50 I-M- -A!J,.
12.6 0.375
9.5 0.3 4.5 9K
C·T
c·p
C·M'
C·M'
350
300
300
300
250
250
250
235
- -28.5
42.5
75
100
48.5
50
40
35
6.2
6
4
5
1.6
2.4

1
I
0.1
0.15
0.6
0.6
12
10
2.1
r-#-
~
C·T 600 185 -45 66 10 3 0.17 27
6893 13.5 600 2.5 200 125 rM-
12.6 -#-
0.4
12.5 0.2 7 7CK C·P 500 180 50 54 9 2.5 0.15 18
AB, 500 200 25 9/45 107 0 0 15
I
C·T 300 200 45 100 3 3 0.2 18.5

12.6 ~
rM-
6360' C·P 200 100 15K' 86 3.1 3.3 0.2 9.8
300 2 200 200 6.2 0.1 2.6 Fig. 13
114 0.41 C·Ml1 300 150 100 65 3.5 3.8 0.45 4.8
AB, 300 200 21.5 30/100 1(11.4 64' 0.04 6.5K 17.5
C·T·Q 450 250 45 75 15 3 0.4 24
2E25 ! 15 450 4 250 125 6 0.8 8.5 0.15 6.7 5Bl C·P 400 200 45 60 12 3 0.4 16
AB 26 450 250 30 44/150 10/40 0.97 6K 40
750 200 - 2.8 0.19 26
12.6 40.8
CoT 65 48 15
832A' 15 750 5 250 200 1-J4- 8 0.07 3.8 7BP
C·P 600 200 65 36 16 2.6 0.16 17
C·T 600 250 - -60 140 14 4 2.0 - -
12.6 40.65
I-£-
6252, 20 750 4 300 300 6.5 - 2.5 Fig. 7 C·P 500 250 -80 100 12 3 4.0
AX910'
B 500 250 26 25/73 0.7/16 52' 20K 23.5
C·T 450 250 45 100 8 2 0.15 31
1614 25 450 1 3.5 300 SO 6.3 0.9 10 0.4 12.5 lAC C·P 375 250 -50 93 7 2 0.15 24.5
AB j 6 530 340 -36 60/160 20 7 7.2K 50
1 25 500 200 - -45 17 2.5 0.13 55
12.6 40.8
C·T·O 150
815' 500; 4 : 200 125 1-J4- 13.3 0.2 8.5 8BY
- 327 0.367 8K
AB,
C·T
500
'""
125
IIU
-15
-bb
22/150
I" , ,., u.
54
48
m:A 6.3 1.25 750 160 - -62 120 II 3.1 0.2 - 70
1- -
aon-
6883 25 750 3 250 12.6 0.585 13 024 7CK
C·T12 400
400
190
150
-
-
-54
-87
150
112
10.4
7.8
2.2
3.4
3.0
0.4
-
-
35
32
60 8.5 C·P
- 1- - 600 150 - -87 112 7.8 3.4 0.4 - 52
AB z6 600 190 - -48 28/270 1.2 '20 27 0.3 5K 113
750 165 - -46 22/240 0.3/20 2.6 7 0.4 7.4K 131
6159B
I 26.5 0.3
i AS l 6 750 195 - -50 23/220 1/26 100' 0 8K 120
600 200 - -44 3.7 0.2 - 56
~25
C·T 120 8
6850
600 - 300 100 I-M -i#J,-
12.6 0.625
7 0.11 [ 3.4 ' Fig. 76 c·p 500 200 - -61 100 7 2.5 0.2 40
AB, 500 200 - -26 20/116 0.1(10 2.6 0.1 II.1K 40
831 C·T 750 250 - -45 100 6 3.5 0.22 50
801W i 30 750 3.5 300 60
6.3 0.9
12 0.2 7
5AW C·P 600 275 - -90 100 6.5 4 0.4 42.5
5933 AB, 750 300 - ·-35 15/70 3/8 75' 0 - 72
rnr- I-rr.6 015 5Al BIO 750 - -- 0 15/240 - 555' 5.3 7 6.65K 120
2E22 30 750 10 250 - 6.3 1.5 13 0.2 8 51 C·T·O 750 250 22.5 -60 100 16 6 0.55 - 53
C·T 750 200 - -77 160 10 2.7 0.3 , - 85
6146B/
m!A 35 750 3 250 60 6.3 1.125 13 0.22 8.5 7CK C·P 600 175 - -92 140 9.5 3.4 0.5 - 62
AB 750 200 - -48 25/125 6.3 - . 3.6K 61
AX·
9833' 40 600 7 250 250 rM- ...g...
12.6 0.9
6.7 0.08 2.1 Fig. 7 C·T 600 250 - -SO 200 16 2 0.2 - 80
5894A
C·T 500 200 - -45 240 32 12 0.7 - 83
829B'
3E29'
40 750 7 240 200 rM-
12.6 ~
1.125
14.5 0.12 7 7BP C·P
B
425
500
200
200
-
-
-60
-18
212
27/230
35
-
11
56'
0.8
0.39 4.8K
63
76
3D24 45 2000 10 400 125 6.3 3 6.5 0.2 2.4 Fig. 75 C·T·Q
2000 375 - -300 90 20 10 4.0 - 140
1500 375 - -300 90 22 10 4.0 - 105
12.6 1.6 fir. 26 C·T
750 300 - -100 240 26 12 1.5 - 135
4D22 25.2 0.8 600 300 - -100 215 30 10 1.25 - 100
- 50 750 14 350 60 I-- - 28 0.27 13
c·p 600 - - -100 220 28 10 1.25 -- 100
4032 6.3 3.75 Fig. 27 550 - - -100 175 17 6 0.6 - 70
AB 26 600 250 - -25 100/365 267 70' 0.457 3K 125
8117' 60 750 7 300 175 ~
12.6 0.9
..g.... 11.8 3.7 0.09 Fir. 1 AB, 600 250 - -32.5 60/212 1.9/25 - !- [1410 76

814 65 1500 10 300 30 10 3.25 13.5 0.1 13.5 fig. 64

C·T 1500 300 - -90 150 24 10 1.5 - 160
c·p 1250 300 -150 145 20 10 3.2 130
C·T·O
1500 250 -85 150 40 18 3.2 -- 165
3000 250 - -100 115 22 10 1.7 - 280
4·65A 65 3000 10 600 150 6 3.5 8 0.08 2.1 Fig. 25 1500 250 125 120 40 16 3.5 140
c·p 2500 250 -135 110 25 12 2.6 - 230
AB, 2500 400 -85 15/66 37 - 100
C·T 750 5.5 123
1854' 68 1000 8 300 175 eM-
12.6 -U-
0.9
6.7 2.1 0.09 Fir. 7
c·p 600
260
225 --
-75
-75
240
200
12.7
7.8 5.5
3.5
3.5 85
4E27/ 75 4000 30 750 75 5 7.5 12 0.06 6.5 7BM
C·T 2000 500 60 200 150 II 6 1.4 -- 130
8COI c·p 1800 400 60 ·130 135 II 8 1.7 -. 178
1000 400 0 --115 150 12 5 0.8 120
Pl·117A 75 2000 10 7.5 Fig. 14 C·T·C·P 100
600 175 6 3.1 0.06 4.2 1000 400 0 105 150 16 5 0.7
AB, 1000 600 115 25/175 0(7 0 0 210
~ C·T 850 400 -- -100 175 15 8 10 - 135
13.5 41.25
7270
1211 80 1350 - 425 175 8 0.4 0.14 fig. 84
AB, 665 400 -- -119 110 15 6 10 85
8072 100 2200 8 4,00 200 J.3i .~.3 16 0.13 0.01l fir. 85 C·T·O 700 100 -- -30 300 10 20 5 - 85
\
TABLE VII- TETRODE AND PENTODE TRANSMITTING TUBES - Continued
---
V23
= --·Cathod'; - Cap~cltanc;'--;- ~
-~=Maximu';'--Ratin9s
..
~:- ~ ~-.

TyplcaTOperation
;
~I
e D.~
.~~. = !I 'c"E ·c= ~ 1;=
I

~~
~ ';:'"
N=' Co., ~
~~
~
..
om
~
:.5

1
03: C'n
Type IE 10 i! pF pF Base o~ ~ e~
~: ::. ~~ ~~:
°e
~i SJ!
Il. ee ell.
f .. ":I "'-
"0 .0:
1 m'E ~i
~
2:!~ II.'" ~~ s~
ee
e~ ..,t
~
ii
h ...... i> m~ D._
11.11. ii:~ .)lit !'3 E
ii.ll a::~ .)I~
~o
Ul> ,,> itc3 .)Ic3
'>:::::11
IOU
11.0
"'II. its :If
6.3
'"
2.1
C·T·O 900 300 . ~
-30 170 , 1 10 3 -+--,0-

r~~£g=
eSIS' C·P 700 250 - 50 130 10 10 3
sm-- 115 ,. 1000 4.5 300 400
26.5 0.52
14 0.OS5 0.015 Fig. 77
AS,'
AB 2e
8SO 300 .. 15 SO/200 0(20 30' 0
8SO 300 --15 80/335 0/25 46' 0.3 }.96K, 1_4L
12SO 300 0 -75 180 35 12 1.7 - . 170
C·T·O
22SO 400 0 -155 220 40 15 4 -"±3~L
813" 125 2500 20 800 30 10 5 16.3 0.25 14 5BA AB, 2500 750 0 95 25145 27' 0 0 245
2000 750 0 -90 40;mt-n/58 230' 0.\1 i6KI455
AB 2' 2500 ; 7SO 0 -95 35/360 1.2/55 235' 0.35' 17k~
2000 3SO 100 200 SO 12 2.8 275
C·T-O
4-125A 3000 350 .- -150 167 30 9 2.5 375
4021 125 3000 20 600 120 5 6.5 10.8 0.07 3.1 5BK AS z' 2500 3SO -43 93/260 0/6 178' 1.0' 22K 400
6155 AB 16 2500 600 ' 96 SO/232 0.3/8.5 192' 0 2O.3K 330
GG 2000 0 0 10/105" 3017 55" 16" 10.5K 145
4E27A/ 3000 . 500 60 200 167 5 6 1.6 .. - 375
5-125B 125 4000 20 7SO 75 5 7.5 10.5 0.08 4.7 7BM C· TOOO--+7SO 0 ·170 160 21 3 0.6 115
&:13 125 C·T 2000 500 40 90 160 45 12 2 210
2000 30 600 20 10 5 17.5 0.15 29 5J
C·P 1600 400 . 100 -80 ISO 45 25 5 . 155
C·T 1500 400 -100 330 20 5 4 =----hlo
7094 125 2000 20 400 60 6.3 3.2 9.0 0.5 1.8 Fig. 82 C·P 1200 400 - 130 275 20 5 5 . 240
AB, 2000- 400 ··65 :ill/ZOO 35' 50' 0 1zr+iso-
C·T·O 12SO ; 250 . , 90 200 20 10 0.8 195
~ ISO' . 2000 6 2.6 15.5 0.03 4.5 Fig. 75
12 400 500 C·P 1000 250 105 200 20 15 2 140
2.5 6.25 27 0.035 4.5 - AB 26 12SO 300 ··44 475' 0/65 100' 0.15' 5.6Ct-"425"
8121 150 2200 8 400 500 13.5 1.3 16 0.13 0.011 Fig. 5 C·T·O 1000 200 - -30 300 10 30 5 165
C·T·O
2500 500 ISO 300 60 9 1.7 - 575
4-250A
3000 500 - ·180 345 60 10 2.6 8:10
5022 2SO' 4000 35 600 110 5 2S00 400 .- 200 200 30 9 2.2 375
14.5 12.7 0.12 4.5 5BK C·P
6156 3000 400 -310 225 30 9 3.2 510
AB 2' 2000 300 -48 -510' 0/26 198' 5.5' 8K 6SO
AB,' 2500 600 - .. 110 430' 0.3/13 180' 0 11.4K 625
, C·T·O 2000 250 - 90 250 25 27 2.8 - 410
4X250B 2SO' 2000 12 400 175 6 2.1 18.5 0.04 4.7 Fig. 75 c·p 1500 250 -100 200 25 17
- 100' r-n- --=---+-250
7C3~' 2SO 2000 12 300 6 2.6
AB I '
C·T·O
2000 350
2000 2SO
- -50
--88
500'
r--
2SO
30'
24 8 .h-- 8.26K"S50-
~370
4Xl OA
ISO 16 0.03 4.4 Fig. 75
c·p 1600 . 2SO .- -118 200 23 5 3- -=---+-230
7035" 2SO 2000 12 400 AB 2e 2000 300 -50 100/500 0(36 106' 0.2 8.1K 1630=
4XI00 26.5 0.58
AB l 6 2000 300 .- sO 100/470 0(36 100' 0- 8.76K 5ll:J
4CX- C·T 2000 2SO - -90 2sO 25 27 2.8 - I 410
30~A 300' 2000 12 400 500 6 2.75 29.5 0.04 4.8 - C·P 1500 2SO 100 200 25 17 2.1 .=-hsO'
AB I ' 2000 3SO -SO 500' 30' 100' 0 -S.26K
I 650
4000 600 0 -200 3SO 29 6 1.4 ' 960
175A 400 4000 25 600 - C·T·C·P
5 14.5 15.1 0.06 9.8 Fig. 86 2500 600 0 -180 350 40 7 1.6 -- 600
AB, 25CD 750 143 1CO/350 U5 0 0 570

~ ~~
C·r.C·P 300 -170 270 22.5 10 10 720
4·4C~A 400' 4000 35 600 110 5 14.5 12.5 0.12 4.7 5BK 2500 0 0 BO/270" 55 17 100" 38 11 4.0K 325
AB, 2500 750 130 95;317 0:14 0 0 425
8122 400 2200 8 400 500 13.5 1.3 16 0.13 0.011 Fig. 86 C·T-O 2000 200 -30 300 5 30 5 300
5-5CDA 500 4000 35
rc:r' 3000 500 0 ··220 432 65 35 12 '--~805-

600 30 10 10.2 19 0.10 12 - C·T 3100 470 0 -3\0 260 50 15 6 580

AB, 3000 750 0 112 320 26 612
c.T 3000 500 -ISO 700 146 38 11 -- 1430
BI6S~ C·P 3000 500
4-100A 1000 6000 75 1000 - 7.5 21 27.2 .24 7.6 - AB, 4000 500
-200 600 ~
60 300/1200 0/95
145 36
-. \1
12
'til rjjj(jO
1m

GG 3000 0 -- 0 100/7oo17 \OS" 170" 130" 2.5K 1475

2006 325 55 500(2000 4/60 ~ 2,aif mo
4CXICOOA 1000 3000 12 400 400 6 12.5 35 .005 12 - AB,' 2500 325
3000 325
. 55 500/2000 .4/60 3.1K 2920
55 5OO/1800 3.85K 33W
2000 500 35 -175 850 %~ -To -r-r.g - i155'
C·T 2500 500 35 ··200 840 40 \0 2.1 1440
m 51 1000 3000 30 600 - 6 8.2 38 .09 18 -
AB,
3000 500 35
2000 500 35
2500 500 35
-200
·110 200/800
-110 200/BOO
820 42
12/43
11/40
10
\10'
2.1
2.65K
3.5K
1770
1040
1260
115'
,Grid resistor. 3000 500 35 -115 22O/800 11139
"KEY TO CLASS-OF-SERVICE ABBREVIATIONS
115' 4.6K 1590
~-

'Doubler to 175 MHz. AB, _ Class-AB,.

, Dual tube. Values for both section~ in push·pull. Interelectrode AB, - Class-AB,.
capacitances, however, are for each section. B - Class·B push-pull af modulator.
'Tripier to 175 MHz. C·M - Frequency multiplier.
, Filament limited to intermittent operation. C·P - Class·C plate·modulated telephone.
• Values are for two tubes C·T - Class-C telegraph.
7 Max.-si~nal value. C·T·O - Class-C amplifier-osc.
I Peak grod-to·grid volts. GG .. Grounded-grid (grid and screen connected together).
• Forced-air cooling required. 15 No Class B data available.
10 Two tubes triode connected, G2 to G1 through 20K n, Input to Gl • "HK257B 120 MHz. full rating.
11 Tripier to 200 MHz. 17 Single tone.
:: Ztf~o?t~eration at 175 MHz.
V24 TABLE VIII- SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES! r
This list contains but a small percentage of the available diode types. A complete listing would be impractical.
Small.SignaJ General.Purpole Diod ••
=~-
- - -~- ~----= ~. ~ - P~;k'---=-r=-----=-~M~: Forward-~ r --- Ma;.-=-------=-f-~---Max~
Type Material 2
I Use Reverse
Volts
Voltage at
Max. mA
Forward
mA at Max. V
Reverse
J'-amp
IN34A G General Purpose 75 50 5.0 30
IN35 G General Purpose 50
IN52A
- - 2000
G General Purpose 85 SO 5.0 100
IN60 G Video Detector 25 50 5.0 40
IN67A G General Purpose 100 I 4.0 5
IN64A G General Purpose 100 1.0 4.0 5
IN94 S High·Speed 75 1.0 10.0 5
1"270 G General Purpose 100 90 100
IN458A S Signal Diode 125 I 100 25
IN634 G 60·Voll Very Low Z 120 SO.O 45
IN645A S Signal Diode 225 I 400 .05
IN914 S Fast Logic/HF Del. 75 I 75 .025
IN3754 S Rectifier 100 1.2 ISO 300
IN4001 S Rectifier SO 1.1 1000 30
IN4OO2 S Rectifier 100 1.1 1000 30
IN4OO4 S Rectifier 400 1.1 1000 30
IN4719 S Rectifier 50 1.0 3000 lSOO
~SD700()_. S _ pual _~~rie~_pi~d.:. _
- -" ----~- -.~IQO 1.1 ._ ~OO .~ --- ~ ---'.I!.-
Microwave Mixer and UHF Diodes
Type ~M8teriaI2 --- U~-;·~ =-=----=--- - ~- -~~Ayerage Freq. ~-~"'T -~.. Noise FI or;
IN2If' G Mixer 3060 MHz 6dS
IN82A S Mixer 1000 MHz 14dS
MSD!Ql S Mixer (y, ~ 4v) lQQQ MHz (e, ~ IpF@l,QY)_ 7dS
I A bar, plus sign;-or color d;;t';;sually denotes the cathode end of crystal diodes.
Diode color code rings are grouped toward the cathode end.
2 S - Silicon. G - Germanium.
, Polarity is such that the base is the anode and the tip is the cathode, R·types have opposite polarity.

TABLE IX - SEMICONDUCTORS
SMALL-SIGNAL TYPES
Maximum Ratil gs Othe~
No. Type Mate-
riall
Dlss.
(Watts) ~
.Vc~o _ Ie
(de)
h,.
(Min.)
Case
Slyle Application

ZN4IJtj ~ -=. Gen. Purpose uen. Purpose

ZN7UI JmA 4UU~ -=. _rt . 'Wlll:nmg
mA bU MHZ
. 'OU· , -: - ImA - ntAmp.
.oA - _- computer , Amp.
.3A -- computer , Amp.
S() m z>OMHz ~ uen 'urpose vnr, USC
)m 160 MHz _2.8 Gen 'urpose ,rt,l·t,at
160 MHz 1.9 AUdio LOW· rreamps.
- Uen. 'urpose lAmp.
-
1M)
- 1m,
-=- i i
,mA 1m, 4 rt USC., Amp., MIX.
- ,mA JM uen. purpose ~~
'mA JM uen. Purpose ..'!."!.~
'mA ~pose ~ ""hQSC'-
'mA - ~uter Amp.
~N4: J mA zou mHZ ~l'urJlose ~ Imp.• Usc.
ZN· ZOO mA z>u IllH; , Audlo·r
ZN' - ZUU mA z>u IllH; • Audlo·r -
2N'
2NNPN .s..
--=-
600mA2501\1Hz.
-=
-=-
-
Gen. Purpose --,!,£,rf,i·f,af
2N ....N-""I _:; !.l". SO 250mA ~ -=. Gen. Purpose USI., rf, i·f,af
2N495I .J'NI' ",:; 30 30 mA 20 ~ ~ rtAmp. ...!!. Imp., Mix., Osc.
~ rfAmp. ...!!. mp., Mix., Osc.
~ rfAmp. ~w·noise rf Amp.
rf Amp. ~w·nolse rf Amp.
zrj508!1, ~ -"- ~ -25 -SOmA ,,450 II!J!!I.'f' rf Amp. N·nolse rf Amp.
Zl'!5109 ~ -"- ~ 40 0.4 A ..!D... -=- 2. vhf Amp. wlae·oand Amp.
~ rfAmp. unf Amp., OSC.,..F/ilx.
-=- Gen. Purpose ~ Osc., Amp.
zrj51~ ~ -"- ~ -15 -SOmA ~ ~ -=. rf Amp. ...'!. "mp., Mix., Video.':,_
E rfAmp. ...'!. "mp., Mix., Osc.
~ Audio . and Drivers
!Uht Amp. usc., MIX.
HEP51 J'I1I'. s.. J!,6" -25 -600 mA I MHz _'" - --""-
HEP53_ ~ -"- !:I!. 30 600 mA JII'iH -= - ~ un Osc.
~~~~~~1~+-~~~~~i~~~~10_~(J_~mA4-~4-~~~-r~~+-~Amp~~.osc~.~~-+~i-i~r-t~unf~Amp~

=
. "o~sc.-------
"e" u.j!.J.8....J.OIl..rn!\ ~ ~ -=. ~rpose III lSC., Amp.
_"eN , --""" Z; IUU mA ,,- uen. rurpose m I Amp.
MPS3563_ ....N-""I _s.. ~ lZ - _'" 'lViI1z -= Amp. --"'- ~mp., USC
~ ....N-""I ",:; ~ 45 - _40 lll'lHz...... rfAm~ ~ 'HZ Amp
F/iPS369! ....N-""I ",:; ~ 45 - 100 JIl'iHz:..! rf Am~ --""- Z Amp.
F/II'S37l1Z, .J'NI' ",:; ~ -25 I -200 mA __60 lll'iHz -= Gen. Purpose ~ )SC., Amp.
 TABLE IX - SEMICONDUCTORS - Continued V25
SMALL-SIGNAL TYPES - Continued

No. Type Mate- Diss. VCEO Ie hfE fT Noise Use Case Base Manu-
rial' (Watts) (Volts) (dc) (Min.) (Typ.) (~&i (Typ.) Style Conn. facturer2 Application

MPS6514 NPN S .3 25 100 mA 150 480 MHz 2.0 Audio·rf TO·92 2 M af·ri Amp.
~M;oPS6~53~Orlc...;;N""PNO--.f-Si<--+--;;0~.31;n0·'+-';:40;c.-hsO<OO"'m"'Ai-1c--~30;c.--h3;';;90"'MCiiH:;Oz-+--"_"-+--""A"'m"-p."--+~TO;<-.~92-+---;2 M Complementary" A~m-p---
~~-+~~~~~~.-r~-+~~~~~~~~+-~-4~77~-+~~+--7-+-T.--~~~~~~~-- -
MPS6534 PNP S 0.310' -40 -SOO mA SO 2S0 MHz - .hf Amp. TO·92 2 M Complementary Amp.
MPS6543 NPN S 0.310' 25 25 750 MHz Osc. TO·92 2 M uhf Osc.
MP56569 NPN S 0.310' 20 20 300 MHz S i·f Amp. TO·92 18 M vhf Amp., Video i·f
MP5A12 NPN S 0.310' 20 35 Audio Amp. TO·92 2 M High·Z Pre·amp.
MP5A55 PNP S 0.5 -SO -500 mA 50 50 MHz - Audio Amp. TO·92 2 M Audio Amp.
TI548 NPN - 1.2' 40 500 mA 40 500 MHz - ri TO·92 3 TI ri, Switching
T1554 PNP 0.25' 12 80 mA 30 300 MHz ri TO·92 3 TI ri, Switching
!!2<~~~ _.~~20 30 mA 20 630MHz 4. ri TO·72 4 TI. ~mp., vhf/uhl
LARGE-SIGNAL TYPES
Other Data
No. Type Application

2~~44~1-+~~~~+-f-G~15~O-+~-40-4~-.IIS~;A~r-~20-+~0lli-hf~-~~~Gen. ~Purp~ose-r~T~0.36-+~1~3r-~M-+~Swit~ch"A~mp.~____ _
2Nl491 NrN ~ 3.0' 30 100 mA 15 300 MHz - rf Amp. TO·39 8 R vhf Amp., Mix.
2Nl970 rNr G 170 -50 -15 A - - Gen. Purpose TO·36 13 M Switch, Amp.
2N2102 NPN S 65 IA 20 100 MHz 6 Gen. Purpose TO· 8 R af, ri Amps. (Linear:
2N2157 PNP - -60 ·30 A 40 100 kHz _ af M af. dc Ami, Switch.
2N2270..s. .A 10 - 6 Amo. TO· R .ow·noise Amo.
2N263lm 1.5 A - 200 MHz _ TO· If -Class :rtAmo. Osc.
!869 - - I -10 A 50 200 kHz - -Gen. Puroose TO· R aCOSC:~mD.:SWllCh.

S 7+ IA 10 500 Mf - :Ias~, Osc.

S 35t 2A 10 15Mf - hVGen.Puro. ~
PN 5 23' 3A - 400 MH _ rt 'mo. Pwr. Amo.. Osc
2N3733 NPN S 23' 3A - 400Mf - "ri 'iiiD. ~
2N377: NPN S 150 20 A 15·S0 800 kHz _ PWe. AniD. TmD.
2N386S NPN S 5t 30 ).4 A - 800 MHz _ I A, B. I Mult., Amo. lJSc:
2N3924 NPN S 7' 18 500 mA - 350 MHz _ rt 'mo. Pwr. An Osc
2N3948 NPN S I' 20 400 mA 700 MHz - r f .1iiiD. PWr:Arr ,Osc.
2N4012 NPN S .. S' 40 1.5 A - 500 MHz - r t liiiD. PWr:Ari :eSc:"
2N.4037 PI S 7t -40 -I A 50 SO MHz _ Gen. 'u,pose .R .mo .. Switchi"

=
2Il,4396. SO A SO 4 MHz - Gen. Purpose TO· R ri;-aTOsc.: m1D.dcAiiiD.
2N~27-4~~~~~~1.5'~~~+-4~0'~mA4-_=--~~~~*:~:~_~-4-_~ri'A~mp.~~~TO.~~8~~R~~U~hfIA~~
'" rf Amp. TO·SO - R uhl Pwr ... ~~
000" ,. ri Amp. ______
-

- 301Hz _30 MHz Amp. Amp. TO·SO 12 R

'N - 7S 1Hz -50 MHz Amp. Amp. TO·SO 12 R
1PN 20 mA - 2GI _ uhf Amp.
Microwave Osc" Amp. _ - R
A 5 - _ ' Amp.
400 MHz. rt Amp . _ 23 M
.,A 5 - - rf Amp.
400 MHz. rt Amp. - 23 M
,A - - ri Amp.
400 MHz ri Amp. - 23 M
~~-+~~-F-+~__r-~+-~~A~~5~~~--+~-~~~~Amp~.~_~-~~23~~M~~4~00M~fu. ~rtIAm~D~ . ______
:A 5 - - i Amp. - 23 M 400MHi riA"'p.
5 - - rt Amp. - 23 M 400 MHz. riAmD.
- 901Hz - uhf Amp. TO·39 8 R 432 MHz AmP.
- 90 _ uhf Amp. - - R 432 MHz Amp.
N5' 80 - uhf Amp. - - R 432 MHz Amp.
!N5' PN 40 - uhf Amp. - - R 220 MHz Amp.
2N5' NPN 3t 70 - uh . Amp. - - R Mi, rowave Osc" Amp.
2N5941 NPN 8( Amp. - 25 M ~Hz ri Amp.
2N5942 NPN S 140 12, Amo. - 26 M ' rf Am •.
2N59~ NPN S 5 O.4A 47 - I Amo. - 27 M Hz 'Amo.
2N5945 NPN S 15 IS 1.8 A 470! - AiiiD. - 27 1,1 Hz 'AiiiD.
2N5946 NPN S 37.5 IS 2.0 A 470 MH - uf I Amp. - 27 -r.\ HZrfAiiiD.
2N5995 NPN S 10.: 14 .. 5 A - 175 MHz - vhf Amp. - 23 R vhf AiiiD.
2N5996 NPN S 35. 18 5.0 A - 175 MHz - vhl Amp. - 23 R vhf AmP.
2N6136 NPN S So 18 S.O A 20 470 MHz - uhf Amp. - 27 M 432 MHz if 11m
MJ480 NPN S 87t 40 IA 30 4 MHz - Gen. Purpose TO': M af, riAmP .. OSC.
MPS·UOI NPN S .0' 3( 1.5 A 70 50 MHz - af Amp. - 20 M AudioAmp.
PNP S J.O· -30 -1.~A. .lQ. . 5I!MJ1z. . -: Gen. Purpo-,"- - 2 0 . f! . at Amp,
FIELD-EFFECT ""''':''.~r~:[~ ~~=~~". r~~~~=~~~'~
No. Type Diss. MIN. C1SS lOSS Case Base Manu-
(mW) VDS VGS ~ MHOS (pF) (rnA) Style Conn. facturer Application
2N~16 N Ht I~ 30 -6.0 4000 450 TO· 15 M vh: uhf I Amo . Mix Osc.
2N~I. N ttl 30 -30 4500 3.5 15 400 22 UC vhf uhf Amo.
2N~46U Ht - 40 1000 5 5 - "0·92 19 M Gen. Puroose Audie
V26 TABLE IX - SEMICONDUCTORS - Continued

FIELD·EFFECT TRANSISTORS - Continued

Diss. MAX. Top

No. Type VD. V•• MIN. CISS
IDSS Freq. Ca.e Base Manu- Application
(mW) I'MHOS (pF) (mA) (MHz) Style Conn. facturer
2N5461 P JFET 310 40 1500 5 9 TO·92 19 M Gen. Purpose Audio
2N5463 P JFET 310 40 1000 5 5 TO·92 19 M Gen. Purpose Audio
2N5465 P FET 310 60 2000 5 16 TO·92 19 M Gen. Purpose Amp.
2N5669 N JFET 310 25 1.0 1600 4.7 4 TO·92 6 M Amp. Swilching
2N5670 N JFET 310 25 2.0 2500 4.7 8 TO·92 6 M Amp. Switching
3NI28 N IGFET 100 20 5000 5.8 200 TO·72 14 R af, rt, Amp., Mix., Osc.
MOS n·channel
3N187 Depletion type 330 20 -6+6 7000 4 8.5 300 TO·72 16 R -
MOS n·channel
3N21lO Depletion type 330 20 -6+6 10,000 8.5 - 500 TO·72 16 R uhf rt Amp.
N Dual·Gate
4060Il FET 400 20 -8 10,000 5.5 18 250 TO·72 16 R uhf rt Amp.
N Dual·Gate
40601 FET 400 20 -8 10,000 5.5 18 250 TO·72 16 R vhf Mixer
N Dual·Gate
40602 FET 400 20 -8 10,000 5.5 18 250 TO·72 16 R vhf Amp.
N Dual·Gate
40603 FET 400 20 -8 10,000 5.5 18 - TO·72 16 R rt Amp.
N Dual·Gate
40604 FET 400 20 -8 10,000 5.5 18 - TO-72 16 R rtMix.
N Dual-Gate
40673 FET 330 20 -6 12,000 6 35 400 TO-72 I 16 R rf Amp.
E300 NJFET 250 1 9000 5.5 30 100 - 4 SI vhf Amp.
HEPBOI NJFET 200 20 3000 9 - TO-72 14 M af Amp.
HEPB02 NJFET 200 25 - 2000 - 20 - TO-92 6 M rt Amp.
MMT3823 NJFET 225 30 30 3000 4.0 20 - - 21 M rt Amp., Mix.
MPFl02 NJFET 200 25 -2.5 2000 4.5 20 200 TO-92 6 M af, rt Amp., Mix., Osc.
MFFl03/
2N5457 NJFET 310 25 -25 1000 4.5 5 - TO-92 6 M Gen. Purpose Audio
MPFl04/ 1500 4.5 TO-92
2N5458 NJFET 310 25 -25 9 - 6 M Gen Purpose Audio
MPFl05/ 4.5 16 100 6 af, rt Amp., Mix., Osc.
2N5459 NJFET 200 25 -4.5 2000 TO·92 M
MPFl06/ NJFET 25 -25 2500 5 30 432 TO-92 6 M af, rt Amp., Mix., Osc.
2N5484 200
MPFl07/ -25 1000 5 20 400 TO-92 6 M vhf-uhf rt Amp.
2N5486 NJFET 310 -
N Dual-Gate 24 M rt Amp.
MPFl20 MOS FET 500 25 ±20 8000 4.5 18 105 -
N Dual-Gate 10,000 4.5 24 M rt Amp.
MPF121 MOS FET 500 25 ±20 30 200 -
N Dual·Gate 24 M rtMix.
±20 8000 4.5 20 200 -
MPFl22
MDS~~~..7" 25
.-~.~ ~-~--'~- ~-- --,~~ --- ------==-==-=-
• _ Ambient Temp. of 25 C (No heat sink). t - Case Temp. of 25o C (with
•
heat sink).
I S _ Silicon. G _ Germanium. ' GE _ General Electric. M - Motorola. R - RCA. SI ~ Siliconix. TI _ Texas Instuments. UC - Union Carbide.

B B

§E C B (I)
Q
C BE
(2)
Q
DGS
(3)
GO
D •

S • (4)
8
EBCASEC
(5)
(fi1)
• ••
G S D
(6)
EOC

(7)
EUC

(8)
B B C E C B
(5C S

EQC

CASE (9)
0 E (10)
~
B ( II)
EGC
CASE (12) B (13)
D
~
~
•
G •
43

CASE (14)

~ ~~C(TAB1~
G

·2. D
S~I
4 3
Q L!!lJ 0 S

•
CASE (17)
C E B
(i8) G D S(l9) (20) G (21)
E Be

~
~ (22) (24)
.r ~ E~'
.
X o 8
(25)
E
C E
E c§:r---i
' .....
C

_/' E

(26)
(27)
B
The leads are marked C - collector, B - base, E- emitter, G- gate, D- drain, and S - source.
 Some Abbreviations used in Text and Drawings

A - ampere HFO· heterodyne frequency oscillator PLL .. phase-locked loop

ac - alternating current Hz - hertz pm .. phase modulation
AID analog-to-digital IARU .. International Amateur Radio pnp positive-negative-positive
af .. audio frequency Union pot· - potentiometer
afc .. automatic frequency control IC integrated circuit PRY peak-reverse voltage
afsk audio frequency-shift keying ID· inside diameter PSHR - Public Service Honor Roll
age - automatic gain control i-f .. intermediate frequency PTO .. permeability-tuned oscillator
alc .. automatic load (or level) control in./s·· inch per second PTT .. push-to-talk
a-m .. amplitude modulation IRC .- International Reply Coupon RACES .. Radio Amateur Civil Emer-
ani automatic noise limiter ITU .- International Telecommunication gency Service
ARC .. amateur radio club Union RCC - Rag Chewers Club
AREC - Amateur Radio Emergency IW .. Intruder Watch rcvr receiver
Corps JFET .. junction field-effect transistor rf - radio frequency
ARPSC - Amateur Radio Public k·· kilo rfc -- radio-frequency choke
Service Corps kc kilocycle RFI radio-frequency interference
A TV amateur television I<Hz kilohertz RM Route Manager
ave - automatic volume control kW - kilowatt RM-(number) FCC rulemaking
be .. broadcast LED .. Iight-emitting diode rms - root·mean-square
BCD binary-coded decimal If .. low frequency RO Radio Officer (c.d.)
bci - broadcast interference LMO .. linear master oscillator RST .. readability-strength-tone
bcl .. broadcast listener LO .. local oscillator RTL .. resistor-transistor logic
BFO .- beat-frequency oscillator Isb ... lower sideband RTTY .. radio teletype
BPL .. Brass Pounders League LSB - least-significant bit s.a.e. - self-addressed envelope
CB .. Citizens band LSD .. least-significant digit s.a.S.e ... stamped s.a.e.
CCIR International Radio Consultative LSI· .. large-scale integration SCM .. Section Communications Manager
Committee luf .- lowest usable frequency SCR silicon-controlled rectifier
ccw counterclockwise rnA .. milliampere SEC .. Section Emergency Coordinator
c.d. ~ civil defense MARS .. Military Affiliate Radio System SET .. simulated emergency test
CD Communications Department Mc . Megacycle S.M ... silver mica (capacitor)
(ARRL) mf medium frequency SNR .. signal-to-noise ratio
CMOS or COSMOS complimentary- MG ... motor-generator spdt .. single-pole double-throw
symmetry metal-oxide semiconductor mH millihenry spst .. single-pole single-throw
coax - . coaxial cable, connector MHz .. Megahertz SS . Sweepstakes (contest)
COR .. carrier-operated relay mic - microphone ssb -- single sideband
CP .. Code Proficiency (award) mix·· mixer SSTV· slow-scan TV
CR .. cathode ray MO master oscillator SWL .. short-wave listener
CRT - cathode-ray tube MOSFET .- metal-oxide semiconductor SWR .. standing wave ratio
ct - center tap field-effect transistor sync - synchronous, synchronizing
crcss .. continuous tone-controlled MOX .. manually-operated switching TCC .. Transcontinental Corps
squelch system ms .. millisecond TD .. transmitting distributor
cw .. continuous wave (code), clockwise m.s. _. meteor scatter TE . transequatorial (propagation)
DI A - digital-to-analog MSB ... most-significant bit tfc .. traffic
dB .. decibel MSD most-significant digit tpi - turns per inch
de - direct current MSI .. medium-scale integration T-R - transmit-receive
DF _. direction finder muf .. maximum usable frequency TTL or T2L transistor-transistor
DOC Department of Communications MUX .. multiplex logic
(Canadian) mV - millivolt TTY .. Teletype
dpdt - double-pole dOUble-throw mW·· milliwatt TV - television
dpst -. double-pole single-throw nbfm -- narrow-band frequency TVI - television interference
dsb· double sideband modulation UJT - unijunction transistor
DTL diode-transistor logic fl.C. - no connection usb .. upper sideband
DX - long distance NC .. normally closed uhf .. ultra-high frequency
NCS .. net control station V .. volt
DXCC - DX Century Club
EC .. Emergency Coordinator NO .. normally open VCO .. voltage-controlled oscillator
ECO _. electron-cou pled oscillator npn - negative-positive-negative VCXO .. voltage-controlled crystal
ECL emitter-coupled logic NTS .. National Traffic System (ARRL) oscillator
EME - earth-moon-earth OBS· Official Bulletin Station VFO - variable frequency oscillator
emf .. electromotive force (voltage) OD .. outside diameter vhf .. very high frequency
FAX facsimile 00 .. Official Observer vlf very low frequency
FCC· Federal Communications op amp .. operational amplifier YOM volt-ohm-milliammeter
Commission OPS .. Official Phone Station VOX .. voice-operated break-in
FD Field Day ORS Official Relay Station VR .. voltage regulator
FET field-effect transistor ose - oscillator VTVM .. vacuum-tube voltmeter
FF . flip-flop OVS .. Official VHF Station VXO - variable crystal oscillator
fm frequency modulation oz - ounce W - watt
FMT - frequency measuring test PA - power amplifier WAC .. Worked All Continents
fsk frequency-shift keying pc printed or etched circuit board WAS .. Worked All States
GDO grid·dip oscillator PEp· peak-envelope power wbfm· wide-band fm
GHz gigahertz PEV peak-envelope voltage wpm words per minu te
GMT Greenwich Mean Time pF picofarad ww - wire wound
gnd ground PIV peak-inverse voltage wv - working voltage
H _. henry pk .- peak xtal .. crystal
hf .. high frequency pk-pk .. peak-to-peak f.l . micro (10-6)
PL ... private line
III
~
AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE
Administrative Headquarters: Newington, Connecticut, U. S. A. G6W

........................ 19 ....

AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE,

Newington, Conn., U. S. A. 06111

Being genuinely interested in Amateur Radio, I hereby

apply for membership* in the American Radio Relay League.
I enclose remittance (57.50 in the U. S., 58.50 in Canada,
59.00 elsewhere, U. S. funds) in payment of dues for ....... .
. . . . . . . . . . year(s), including subscription to QST for the
same period. Please begin QST with the ................. .
issue. Amount enclosed: 5 ............................. .

The call of my station is ............................... .

The class of my operator's license is ..................... .
I belong to the following radio societies .................. .

Send Membership Certificate 0 or Membership Card 0

Name

Address

City. Slate. Zip Code

A bona fide Interest in amateur radio is the only essential requirement, but full
voting membership is granted only to licensed radio amateurs of the
United States and Canada. Therefore, if you have a license,
please be sure to indicate It above.

"'Membership is available only to individuals. Life Membership is granted to Full Members

for 5150 (5170 Canada, 5180 elsewhere). Write the Secretary for details.
Any member of the immediate family, living at the same address, may also become a League
member, without QST, at the special rate of 52.00 per year. Such family membership must
run concurrently with that of the member receiving QST.

1974 Handbook
 Index
Stabilizing 161,201
A Straight .136
Voltage 67
"A" Battery 61 Amplitude ..... 15
A-Frame Mast .619 Amplitude Modulation .58,371,377
A-I Operator Club .661 Amplitude Modulation and Double-Sideband
Ac 16 Phone .368
Ac-Operated Power Supplies .105 Angle of Radiation .559
Af 17 Anode. . . . 61
Afsk .460 Antennas:
Agc ...... · 251-253 160 Meter .603
Agc, Audio-Derived .252 Bandwidth .588
~~ T~m~ ~o~s~a~t .252
.394
Beam
Big-Wheel
.609
.328
Alc Circuits .394 Collinear · 623,632
A-m .368 Conductor Size · 591
AMSAT .9 Construction, Hf:
AREC .654 Inverted-V .593
ARPSC .9,654 An End-Fed Hertz .598
ARRL .9 Broad-Band Dipole .599
ATV ......... .458,461 Multiband Vertical .601
Abbreviations for Cw Work .. . ... .663 Trap Vertical for 40-10 Meters .602
Abbreviations Used in Text and Drawings Interlaced 20-15-Meter Short Yagi .613
page prior to Index Optimum-Gain 15-10-Meter Beam .614
Absorption ....... .558 Triband Quad · 615
Absorption Frequency Meter . 519 Con~truction, Vhf:
Adapters, Fm Receiving .432 5-Over-5 for 50 MHz .628
Advanced Class License 10 6-Element 50-MHz Yagi .629
Alpha (Transistors) 85 5-Element 144-MHz Yagi .630
Alternating Current . 16,31 13-Element Yagi for 144 MHz · 631
Aluminum, Cutting & Finishing .548 II-Element Yagis for 220 and 432 MHz 632
Amateur Radio . 7 Helical Antenna for 432 MHz .634
Amateur Radio History . 7 Dipole .590
Amateur Radio Emergency Corps (AREC) .654 Dummy .522
Amateur Radio Public Service End-Fed Hertz .598
Corps (ARPSC) 9,654 Field Strength .588
Amateur Television .461 Ground-Plane .601
Amateur's Code, The .6 Half-Wave · 590,593
Amperes 17 Halo (Vhf) .330
Amplification 63 Helical Whl . .634
Amplification Factor 64 Helical- .p .326
Amplifiers: Helically-Wound .606
Audio (Modulators) .377 Impedance .588
Buffer .136 Input Impedance .576
Cascade 68 Inverted V .593
Circuits .154 Isotropic .623
Common-Base 86 Limited-Space .604
Common-Collector 86 Loading Coils, Mobile .323
Common-Emitter 86 Long-Wire .594
Class A 67 Mobile · 322-331
Class Al 67 Mobile (Vhf) · 328-331
Class A2 67 Multiband .595
Class AB 68 Multi-Band Vertical .601
Class AB1 .69,203 Parabolic .633
Class AB2 69 Parasitic . . . . . . . . . . . .609
Class B 68 Quarter-Wavelength Vertical (Vhf) · 330
Class C 69 Random-Length .582
Design (Vhf) .200 Remote-Resonating .327
Differential .93,101 Supports .619
Grounded-Grid .72,154 "Trap" .596
IC 93 "Trap" Vertical for
Intermediate Frequency · 249,256 40-10 Meters .601
Linear 68 Turnstile · 328-330
Operational .93,101 Vertical .600
Parallel .154 Yagi .623
Power 67 Alternator Noise .320
Push-Pull . 154 Antinode .569
Rf
Speech
· 260,290
.385
Army Amateur Radio System
ARRL Operating Organization .658
.8
I
Assembling a Station .639 Bridged-T Filter .259
Astable Multivibrator · 518 Bridges, Ac .515
Attenuators, Receiver Front End 263,264 Bridge, Wheatstone .509
Audio Circuits (Receiver) .268 Bridge Sensitivity .509
Audio Frequencies 17 Broadband Dipole . . . . .599
Audio-Frequency Image .257 Broadcast Station Interference (Bci) . 262,484
Audio-Frequency Oscillators .521 "Brute Force" Line Filter .485
Audio Frequency-Shift Keying .460 Buffer Amplifier · 136
Auroral Propagation .563 "Bug" Key . . . .640
Autodyne Detectors . 235 Buncher 77
Automatic Gain Control (Agc) 251-253 Bypass Capacitor .53,553
Autopatch .440 Bypassing, Series-Resonant .298
Autotransformer 40 Bypassing, Vhf .52,298
Average Power .389
Average Value 17 c
Awards, ARRL .660 "c" Battery 64
CAD · 141
B CCS Ratings · 149
CHU .540
"B" Battery 61 CMOS · 100
BCD 98 COR .436
Bci . 262,484 C.p.s. 17
BFO 235,243,251 CTCSS .436
BPL · 661 Cw Procedure .650
BWO 78 Cw Reception .268
Back Emf 30 Cable, Lacing .549
Backscatter .560 Capacitance 23
Backwave . . . . . . .352 Capacitance, Distributed 53
Backward Wave Oscillator 78 Capacitance, Tube . . . 71
Balanced-Emitter Transistor 84 Capacitance, Interelectrode 70
Balanced Emitters · 151 Capacitive Coupling .496
Balanced Modulator · 379 Capacitive Input Filters · 115
Ballasting Emitters · 151 Capacitive Reactance . 33
Balun, Coax . 611 Capacitive Reactance (Formula) 33
Baluns 579,580,625 Capaci tors: 23
Baluns, Coil .580 Bandspread .242
Band-Pass Coupling 47 Bypass .53,553
Band-Pass Filters .49,257 Ceramic (Color Code) .553
Bands, Amateur 13,14 Coupling 66
Bandsetting .242 Electrolytic 24
Bandspread Capacitor .242 Fixed 24
Bandspreading .242 Fixed (Color Code) .553
Bandwidth . . 236,422 Ganged-Tuning .243
Bandwidth, Antenna .588 Grid 75
Base (Transistor) 83 "Hypass" .494
Battery 16 Main-Tuning .242
Bazooka . . . . . .579 Mica (Color Code) .553
Beam, 20-Meter Vertical .617 Padding .243
Beam, Rotary .611 Plate Spacing · 165
Beam Tetrode 72 Power Supply Output .116
Beam, Two-Band 613,614 Resonance of Disc Bypass .553
Beams, Quad · 612 Screen Bypass . 74
Beams, Rotary . 613 Series and Parallel 25
Beat Frequencies . .... 58 Series, Filter · 117
Beat-Frequency Oscillator (BFO) 235,243 Trimmer .243
Beat Oscillator · 251 Variable 24
Beats 57 Capture Effect .427
Beta (Transistors) 84 Carbon Microphone .385
Bias and Tube Protection · 150 Carrier .368
Bias, Cathode 73 Carrier Balance .402
Bias, Con tact Potential 74 Carrier Frequency 58
Bias Power Supplies · 126 Carrier Oscillator .384
Bias Stabilization Transistor 88 Cascade Amplifiers 68
Big-Wheel Antenna .328 Catcher 77
Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD) 98 Cathode 61
Bipolar Transistor Symbols · 104 Cathode Bias 73
Blankers . . . . . . . . . .253 Cathode, Directly Heated 62
Bleeder Resistor, Power Supply · 114 Cathode Follower 72,73
Block-Grid Keying .355 Cathode Resistor 73
Blocking Capacitance 52 Cathode, Thoriated Tungsten 62
Boolean Algebra 98 Cavity Resonators 56
Brass Pounders League (BPL) · 661 Cell . . . . . . . 16
Break-In . 641,649 Ceramic Microphone · 385
Break-In Keying . 357,358 Channel Frequencies, Fm .435
Bridge Circuits .509 Characteristic Curves (Tube) 63
Bridge Rectifier · 111 Charge 15
Chassis, Working with .545 Coupled Coils 29
Chirp . . . . . . . . . 140,352 Coupler, Directional .636
Choke-Coupled Modulation .372 Coupling:
Choke, Filament · 155 Band-Pass 47
Choke-Input Filters, Power Supply · 116 Broadband · 161
Chokes, Color Code for Rf .555 Capacitive .496
Chokes, Filter · 117 Capacitor . 66
Chokes, Rf · 165 Coefficien t of .521
Chokes, Swinging · 116 Critical 47
Circuit Board Fabrication · 551 Impedance 66
Circuits, Balanced 53 Inductive 46
Circuits, Single-Ended 53 Inductive Link · 157
Circuits, Unbalanced 53 Interstage · 147
Circular Polarization .634 Link 47
Class A Amplifiers 67 Resistance .66,386
Class A 1 Amplifiers 67 Resonant Circuit 46
Class A2 Amplifiers 67 Transformer 66
Class AB Amplifiers 68 Tuned. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Class ABI Amplifiers 69 To Wave Guides & Cavity Resonators 57
Class AB2 Amplifiers 69 Course in Radio Fundamentals 13
Class B Amplifiers 68 Critical Coupling 47
Class C Amplifiers 69 Critical Frequency .559
Clipping, Speech 391,395 Cross Modulation 261,502
Closed Repeater .436 Crystal: · 237
Club Aff:t1iation, Radio .659 Discrirnina tor .431
Club Training Aids .659 Filters 257,383
Coaxial Cable, Testing .575 Microphone · 385
Coaxial Line · 572,573 Oscillators · 137
Code, Learning the 11 Oscillators (VhD .200
Code Proficiency Award .661 Piezoelectric 51
Code, Teleprinter .459 Resonators 51
Code Transmission .352 Tester . . . . . . . . · 534
Codes, Color .553 Current Amplification Factor 84
Coefficient of Coupling .29,521 Current, Electric .... . 15
Coil, Primary 37 Cut-Off Frequency 49,86
Coil, Secondary 37 Cycle 16
Coil, Winding · 551
Coils, Iron-Core 27 D
Coils, Oscillator · 141 D Region .559
Coils, Wire Sizes · 165 Dc 16
Cold Side (Circuit) 53 DOC 11
Collector (Transistor) 83 DTL ...... . 99
Collinear Antenna · 623,632 DX Century Club Award .660
Color Codes . 553 DX Operating Code . .652
Color Television .505 DX, Working . . . . .650
Colpitts Oscillator .139 D'Arsonval Instrument .506
Comparator . . . . . . . 104 De-Emphasis .424
Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor 100 Decay Time, Keying .352
Complex Waves 17 Decibel (dB) 40
Component Ratings 165 Decibel Chart 40
Component Values .552 Deflection, Horizontal .523
Compressor Circuit .390 Deflection, Vertical .523
Computer-Aided Filter Design (CAD) · 141 Degenerative Feedback 69
Concentric Line .572 Delta Loops .612
"Conditional" License 10 Delta Match . 592,625
Conductance 19 Demodulator (RTTY) . . . . . . . .460
Conductors 16 Department of Communications (DOC) 11
Connectors, Assembling .550 Depletion Region 83
Constant-Voltage Transformers · 107 Detection and Detectors .58,235,237
Construction Practices and Data Tables .543 Detectors:
Contact-Potential Bias 74 Autodyne .235
Continental (International Morse) Code 12 Crystal · 237
Control Grid 63 Diode .237
Controlled Carrier ModUlation .373 Fm .430
Conversion Efficiency .246 Grid-Leak · 241
Converter .243 Heterodyne .239
Converter, Receiving (RTTY) .460 Infinite-Impedance .239
Converter Stage .243 Plate .238
Cooling · 152 PLL .431
Core, Choosing 59 Product .239
Corona-Discharge Noise .322 Ratio .430
Countries List, ARRL · 661-662 Regenerative . .241
Coupled Circuits 45 Superregenera tive .241
Deviation, Frequency .420 EME .474
Deviation Linearity .426 Emf 16
Deviation Meter .425 Eddy Currents 28
Deviation Meter, Heterodyne .541 Efficiency 22
Deviation Ratio .421 Efficiency, Transformer 38
Dials, VFO . 143 Efficiency, Plate 67
Dielectric 23 E Layer .558
Dielectric Constant 23 Electric Fields 15
Differential Amplifiers .93,101 Electrical Bandspreading .242
Differential Keying . . . . .355 Electrical Laws and Circuits 15
Digital-Logic Integrated Circuits 96 Electricity 15
Diodes: Electrode 61
Color Code, Semiconductor . 556 Electrolytic Capacitor 24
Detectors . 237 Electromagnetic Fields 15
Germanium 80 Electromagnetic Waves 15
In Parallel . 113 Electromotive Force 16
In Series . 113 Electron . . . . . . . . 15
Junction . . . . . . 80 Electron-Coupled Oscillator .138
Light Emitting (LADS) . 144 Electronic Keyers 362,365,366
Mixer .294 Electrostatic Fields 15
Noise Generator . 535 Emergency Communication · 656
PIN .83,139 Emergency Coordinator (EC) · 659
Protection of . 112 Emergency Equipment · 319
Semiconductor 29,79 Emf, Back 25
Silicon 80 Emf, Induced 25
Switching . 139 Emitter (Transistor) 83
Transformer . 251 Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL) 99
Transistor Logic (DTL) 99 End Effect .590
Voltage-Variable Capacitor 81 End-Fed Hertz Antenna .598
Zener .80,121 Energy 22
Dip Meter . 520 Equivalent Noise Resistance .236
Dipole Antenna . . . . . 590 Etched Circuit Boards . . .551
Dipole Antenna, Feeding . 592 Exciting Voltage 67
Dipole, Broad-Band . 599 Extra Class License 10
Dipole, Folded . . . . . 577 ,592
Dipole, Open-Wire Folded . 592 F
Dipoles, Indoor . 605
Direct Conversion Receiver . 237 FLayer .559
Direct Current 16 Fl and F2 Layers . 559
Direct Wave . 558 FAX .471
Directional Coupler . 636 FCC 10
Directly Heated Cathode 62 FCDA .657
Director (Antenna) . 609 FET 90
Directors, ARRL 10 Fm .420
Discriminator, Crystal . 431 Fm Adapter .432
Discriminators (Fm) . 429 Fm Bibliography . 447
Dissipation, Plate . 149 Fm Channel Frequencies . 435
Distributed Capacitance 53 Fm Communications .433
Distributed Inductance 53 Fm Transmitters, Testing . 425
Divisions, ARRL 10 Facsimile .471
Dominant Mode . . . . .. . 56 Fading .560
Double-Conversion Superheterodyne Receiver 244 Farad . . . . . . . .. 23
Double-Sideband Generators . 374 Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA) 657
Doubler . 136 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) 10
Down Channel, Fm .436 Feedback .69,260
Drift . 140 Field-Effect Transfer Symbols . 104
Drift Frequency . 352 Field-Effect Transistors (FET) 90
Drift Oscillators 76 Field Intensity 15
Drill Sizes . 545 Field Strength . 588
Driver Stage .68,136 Field Strength, Antenna . 588
Driver Stages (VhO . 203 Field Strength Meter .531
Drivers . 146 Fields 15
Driving Impedance . 151 Filament Choke . 155
Ducting . 563 Filament Transformers . 108
Dummy Antennas . 522 Filament Voltage . 149
Duplex .436 Fil ter Chokes . 11 7
Dynamic Characteristic 64 Filtering, Negative Lead . 117
Dynamic Microphone . . . . . . 385 Filtering, Power Supply . 114
Dynamic Regulation, Power Supply . 114 Filters:
Dynamotors . 331 Active 103,271
Band-Pass .49,257
E Band-Rejection .263
Bridged-T .259
EC .659 "Brute Force" Line .485
ECL 99 Capacitive Input · 115
 Choke Input . . . . . . . . 116 Gauges, Standard Metal .................. 548
Crystal . . . . . . 257,383 General License ......................... 10
Design Formulas . . . . . . . . 50 Genera tor .............................. 16
For Phone and Cw, An Audio . . . 272 Generator Noise ........................ 320
For Vhf Transmitters . . . 499 Geophysical Alerts ...................... 540
Half-Lattice . . . . 258 Grid .................................. 63
High-Pass .49,141,502 Grid Capacitor .......................... 75
Low-Pass .49,141,497 Grid Current ............................ 63
M-Derived . . . . 49 Grid-Dip Oscillator (GDO) ................ 529
Mechanical . . 257,383 Grid Excitation ......................... 76
Strip-Line . . . . 500 Grid Leak .............................. 75
T-Match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Grid-Leak Detectors ..................... 241
Fire Protection ......................... 643 Grid Loading .......................... 163
Five-Band WAS Award ................... 660 Grid Modulation ........................ 373
Five-Band DXCC Award .................. 660 Grid-Plate Oscillator ..................... 138
Fixed Capacitor ......................... 24 Grid Resistor ........................... 66
Flat Frequency Response .................. 69 Grid Separation Circuit ................... 72
Flat-Topped Curves ..................... .47 Ground ................................ 53
Flip-Flop (FF) ....................... 97,98 Ground, Imperfect ...................... 589
Flip-Flop Latch (FL) ..................... 97 Ground-Plane Antenna ................... 601
Flux Density ........................... 15 Ground Potential ........................ 53
Flux Lines ............................. 15 Ground-Reflected Wave .................. 558
Folded Dipole ... : .............. 577 ,592,625 Ground Waves ......................... 558
Forward Scatter ........................ 560 Grounded-Grid Amplifier .............. 72,154
Free-Running Multivibrator ............... 518
Free Space Pattern ...................... 589 H
Frequencies, Standard ................... 540
Frequency ............................. 16 Hf Antennas ........................... 588
Frequency Checking (Fm Channels) ........ .425 Hf Transmitting ........................ 136
Frequency, Critical ...................... 559 HTL ..................................99
Frequency, Cut-Off ..................... .49 Hz ................................... 17
Frequency Deviation ................... .420 Half-Wave Antenna ...................... 590
Frequency, Lower Side ................... 58 Half-Wave Rectifier ..................... 111
Frequency Marker Circuits ................ 518 Halo Antenna (VhO ..................... 330
Frequency Marker Generator .............. 517 Halyards ............................. .421
Frequency, Maximum Usable .............. 559 Harmonic Suppression, TVI .............. .491
Frequency Measurement ............. 517-519 Harmonics ............................. 17
Frequency Meter, Absorption ............. 519 Harmonics by Rectification ............... 501
Frequency Modulation .................. .420 Hartley Oscillator ....................... 139
Construction: Hash Elimination, Vibrator Power Supply .... 332
Fm Transmitter for 2 Meters ......... .447 Heat-Sink Design ....................... 152
Solid-State Rf Amplifier ............. .450 Heat Sinks ............................. 86
Two-Meter Receiver ................ .454 Heat Sinks, Semiconductor ............... 546
Exci ters ........................... .4 24 Heater Voltage ......................... 149
Jargon ............................. .436 Height Gain ........................... 623
Methods ........................... .423 Heising Modulation ..................... 372
Reception of ....................... .426 Helical An tennas ....................... 634
Frequency Modulation and Repeaters ...... .420 Helical Resonators ...................... 293
Frequency Multiplication .................. 17 Helically-Wound Antennas ................ 606
Frequency Multiplier ............. 136,145,200 Henry ................................. 26
Frequency, Resonant .................... .41 Hertz ................................. 17
Frequency Response .................... 386 Hertz Antenna, End-Fed ................. 598
Frequency-Shift Keyer .................. .460 Heterodyne Detectors ............... 235,239
Frequency Spectrum ..................... 17 Heterodyne Deviation Meter .............. 541
Frequency Spotting ..................... 640 Heterodyning ........................... 58
Frequency Stability (Oscillators) ............ 76 Hi-Fi Interference ...................... .486
Frequency Standards .................... 518 High-,u Tube ............................ 64
Frequency, Upper Side .................... 58 High-C Circuit ......................... .45
Front-to-Back Ratio ..................... 588 High-C Oscillators ........................ 76
Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier ................ 111 High Band, Fm ........................ .436
Full-Wave Rectifier ...................... 111 High Pass Filter .............. 49,141,502-503
Fundamental Frequency .................. 17 High-Threshold Logic (HTL) ............... 99
Fusing ........................... 106,642 High-Vacuum Rectifiers .................. 111
Holes ................................. 79
G Horizontal Angle of Maximum Radiation ..... 588
Horizontal Deflection .................... 523
Gain, Antenna ......................... 588 Horizontal Sweep ....................... 523
Gain Bandwidth ........................ 588 Horizontally Polarized ................... 557
Gain Bandwidth Product .................. 85 Hot-Carrier Diodes ....................... 82
Gain Control .......................... 387 How to Become a Radio Amateur ........... 13
Gain, Rf Amplifier ...................... 290 Hum, Filament .......................... 73
Gamma Match .................. 578,611,625 Hybrid Circuits ........................ .4 77
Ganged-Tuning Capacitors ................ 243 "Hypass" Capacitor .................... .494
Gates (IC) .............................. 97 Hysteresis .............................. 28
 I Ion, Positive/Negative ..................... 15
Ionospheric Storms ..................... 560
IC .................................... 93 Ionosp~eric Waves ...................... 558
IC Amplifiers ........................... 93 IsotropIc Antenna ...................... 623
ICAS Ratings .......................... 149
ICs, Digital ............................ 100 J
I-f ................................... 243
I-f Alignment .......................... 269 J-K Flip-Flop ........................... 98
I-f Interference ......................... 502
I-f Transformers ........................ 251 K
lTV ................................. 505 Key Clicks ............................ 352
Ignition-System Noist~ ............... 319-322 Key, Code ............................. 12
Ionized ................................ 15 ~eyer, Electronic .. : ............. 362,365,366
Image-Audio-Frequency .................. 257 eyer, Frequency-Shift ................. .460
Image Ratio ........................... 244 Keying:
Images ............................... 244 Audio Frequency-Shift ................ .460
Impedance (Z) ...................... 35,589 Block-Grid .......................... 355
Antenna ............................ 588 Break-In ........................ 357,358
Bridge, Rf ........................... 536 Differential .......................... 355
Characteristic .................... 567,573 Monitoring ...................... 358,359
Coupling ............................. 66 Oscillator .......................... .354
Driving ............................. 151 Pulling ............................. 353
Input .............................. 570 Saturated-Diode ..................... .460
Matching ........................ 39,624 Shaped ............................. 352
Matching Networks ................... .48 Speeds ............................. 355
Modulating ......................... .372 Testing ............................ .358
Ohm's Law for ........................ 36 Kilo (k) ............................... 20
Parallel ............................. .43 Kilocycle .............................. 17
Ratio ............................... 38 Kilowatt ............................... 22
Resistive ............................ .43 Kilowatt-Hour .......................... 23
Surge .............................. 567 Klystron .............................. ,77
Terminating ..........................49
Transformation ................... 44,471 L
Transmission Line .................... 567
Tube Input ........................... 72 L Network ............................ .48
Tube Output ......................... 72 LADs ................................ 144
Voltmeter ........................... 514 L/C Constant .......................... .45
Impulse Noise .......................... 253 L/C Ratio ............................. .45
Incident Power ......................... 568 LEDs ................................ 144
Indicators, Tuning ...................... 255 LSI ................................... 98
Indirectly Heated Cathode ................. 62 Laminations, Core ....................... 28
Inductance ............................. 25 Large-Scale Integration (LSI) ............... 98
Inductance, Calculating ................... 26 Leakage Flux ........................... 38
Inductance Charts ....................... 27 Learning the Radio Telegraph Code .......... 11
Inductance, Distributed ................... 53 Length, Electrical ....................... 574
Inductance Nomograph (Toroid) ............ 60 License Fee ............................ 10
Inductance, Series and Parallel .............. 29 Licensing, Amateur ................... 10-11
Inductive Reactance ...................... 33 Light-Emitting Diodes (LADs) ............. 144
Inductive Reactance (Formula) ............ .33 Lightning Arrester ...................... 643
Inductor, Toroidal ....................... 58 Lightning Protection .................... 643
Infinite-Impedance Detector .............. 239 Limiters ............................. .428
Instantaneous Value ...................... 17 Limiters, Noise ........................ .322
Instrument Noise ....................... 321 Limiting, Audio ........................ 253
Insulated-Gate .......................... 91 Line Sampler .......................... 636
Insulators .............................. 16 Line-Voltage Adjustment ................. 107
Integrated Circuits (IC) ................... 93 Linear Amplifiers ........................ 68
Integrated Circuits, Digital-Logic ............ 96 Linear Baluns .......................... 579
Interference: Linear Sweep .......................... 523
Broadcast Station ..................... 262 Linear Transformers ..................... 576
From TV Receivers ................... 505 Linearity, Rf .......................... 376
I-f ................................. 502 Link Coupling ...................... 47 157
Hi-Fi .............................. .486 Lissajous Figures ...................... :524
Organ ............................. .488 Load Resistance, Power Supply ............ 114
P-A System ......................... .488 Load Resistor ........................... 62
Telephone ......................... .488 Log, Station ........................... 652
TV ............................... .489 Logging(Fm) ......................... .438
Interference with other Services ........... .484 Logic, Digital ................ . . . . . . . . .. 96
Intermediate Frequency .................. 243 Logic ICs .............................. 93
Intermediate Frequency Amplifiers ......... 256 Long-Wire Antennas ..................... 594
International Prefixes .................... 662 Low-J.I Tube ............................ 64
Inverse Distance Law .................... 557 Low.c Circuit .......................... .45
Inverted-V Antenna ..................... 593 Low Band, Fm ........................ .436
Inverted V, Multi-Band ................... 594 Low Pass Filter .................. 49 141 497
Inverters (IC) ........................... 97 Low-Pass Filter (TVI) ............... : ... :497
Inverters, Dc to Ac ...................... 335 Lower Sideband ......................... 58
 M A Transmatch for QRP Rigs ............. 350
Mobile Power Supplies ................... 331
Mode, Dominant ........................ 56
M-Derived Filter ........................ .49 Modulating Impedance ................... 372
MARS ............................... 8-9 Modulating Index ...................... .421
Mc .................................... 17 Modulation ............................. 57
Mho .................................. 19 Amplitude ........................... 58
MHz .................................. 17 Balanced ............................ 379
MOS .................................. 99 Choke-Coupled ....................... 372
MOSFET ............................. 90 Collector ........................... 371
MOX ................................ 398 Controlled Carrier .................... 373
Muf ................................. 559 Cross .......................... 261,502
Machine, Fm ......................... .436 Envelope ........................... 368
Magnetic Fields ......................... 15 Fm ............................... .420
Magnetic Storms ........................ 560 Grid ............................... 373
Magnetizing Current ...................... 38 Heising ............................. 372
Magnetostatic Fields ...................... 15 Percentage .......................... 369
Mast, 40-Foot .......................... 619 Phase ............................. .420
Mast Antenna .......................... 619 Plate ............................... 371
Maxim, Hiram Percy ....................... 7 Screen Grid ......................... 373
Maximum Average Rectifier Current ......... 80 Modulator, Balanced .................... 379
Maximum Safe Inverse Voltage (PlV or PRy) .. 80 Modulator, General Purpose ............... 377
Maximum Usable Frequency (MuO ......... 559 Modulator, Phase ...................... .424
Mechanical Bandspreading ................ 242 Modulator, Reactance .................. .423
Mechanical Filter ................... 257,383 Monimatch ............................ 517
Medium-~ Tube ......................... 64 Monitor, Cw ........................... 359
Medium-Scale Integration (MSl) ............. 98 Moon Bounce .......................... 564
Mega (M) .............................. 20 Moving-Vane Instrument ................. 506
Megacycle .............................. 17 Multi-Band Inverted V ................... 594
Message Form .......................... 653 Multi-Band Vertical Antenna .......... 595,601
Message Handling ....................... 654 Multihop Propagation .................... 560
Metal, Cutting and Bending ............... 548 Multipliers, Frequency ................... 145
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) .......... 99 Multivibrator, Astable ................... 518
Meteor Scatter ......................... 564 Multivibrator, Free-Running ............... 518
Meter, Field Strength .................... 531 Mutual Conductance (Gm) ................. 64
Metering .............................. 164 Mutual Inductance ....................... 29
Metering Circuits ....................... 164
Metric Equivalents ...................... 556
Metric Multiplier Prefixes ................. 555 N
Micro~) .............................. 20
Microammeter ......................... 506 N-Type Material ......................... 79
Microfarads~) ........................ 23 NTS ............................. 656
Microhenry~) ........................ 26 National Traffic System (NTS) ......... 655,656
Micromho .............................. 19 Naval Communications, Reserve .............. 8
Microphones ........................... 385 Negative ............................... 15
Microphones, Carbon .................... 386 Negative Feedback ....................... 69
Microphones, Dynamic ................... 386 Net Directory, ARRL ................... 656
Microphones, Piezoelectric ................ 386 Nets ................................. 657
Military Affiliate Radio System (MARS) ..... 8-9 Network Operation ...................... 656
Miller Effect ............................ 70 Networks, Impedance-Matching ............ .48
Milli (m) ............................... 20 Neutralizing ........................... 162
Milliammeter .......................... 506 Nixies ................................ 144
Milliamperes ............................ 17 Noise:
Millihenry (mH) ......................... 26 Alternator .......................... 320
Milliwatt ............................... 22 Corona-Discharge ..................... 322
Mix, Don ............................... 9 Elimination ......................... 319
Mixer ..................... 243,246,294-296 Generator ........................... 320
Mixer, Balanced ........................ 248 Ignition-System .................. 319-322
Mixer Circuits .......................... 295 Impulse ............................ 253
Mixer, Diode .......................... 294 Instrument .......................... 321
Mixer Products ......................... 244 Shot-Effect .......................... 236
Mixer, Ssb ............................ 384 Spark Plug .......................... 320
Mixer Stage ........................... 243 Thermal-Agitation .................... 236
Mixer (VhO ....................... 246,294 Wheel and Tire ....................... 321
Mobile and Portable/Emergency Equipment Noise Figure ........................... 236
and Practices ........................ 319 Noise Generator, Diode .................. 535
Mobile Antennas ................... 322-331 Noise Limiters ......................... 322
Mobile/Portable Construction: Noise-Limiter Circuits ................... 253
Power Supply for Transceivers ........... 333 Noise Reduction ........................ 253
Dc-to-Ac Inverters .................... 335 Noise Silencer, I-f ....................... 255
Band-Switching Field-Strength Meter ...... 337 Nonresonant Lines ...................... 571
Portable Station for 3.5 and 7 MHz ....... 337 Nonsynchoronus Vibrator Power Supplies .... 332
Portable Transceiver for 144 MHz ........ 342 Novice License .......................... 10
Ultra Portable Cw Station for 40 Meters ... 347 Nucleus ............................... 15
 o Page Pr~nter .......................... .459
ParabolIc Antennas ...................... 633
Official Bulletin Station (OBS) ............. 659 Parallel
P lllFCircuits,
d Resonance . .............. .42
Official Observer (00) ................... 659 ara e ee ............................ 52
Official Phone Station (OPS) .............. 659 Parallel Resistance ....................... 20
Official Relay Station (ORS) .............. 659 Parasitic Oscillation, Low-Frequency ........ 164
Official Vhf Station (OVS) ................ 659 Paras!t!c Oscillation, Vhf ................. 163
Ohmmeter ............................ 508 ParasitiC Suppression (VhD ............... 202
Ohms ................................. 18 Parts, Finding .......................... 556
Ohm's Law ........... '............... 19 20 Pass-Band Filter ........................ .49
Ohm's Law (Impedance) ................. :36 Peak Envelope Power (PEP) ........ 153,370,389
Ohm's Law (Reactance) ................... 34 Peak Power ............................ 389
Old Timer's Club (OTC) ................. ,662 Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV) .............. 110
On-Card Regulators ..................... 124 Pen to des ............................... 71
Op Amps ............................. 101 Permeability ............................ 27
Open Repeater, Fm .....................436 Permeability-Tuned Oscillator (PTO) .... 144,242
Open-Wire Folded Dipole ................. 592 Phase ................................. 31
Phase-Inverter Circuits ................... 387
Operating a Station ..................... 646 Phase-Locked Loop ................. 143,431
Operating an Amateur Radio Station . ... 654,655 Phase, Measuring ........................ 32
Operating Angle ......................... 69 Phase Modulation ...................... .420
Operating Point ......................... 65 Phase Modulator ....................... .424
Operational Amplifiers ................ 93,101 Phase-Splitter Circuits ................... 387
Organ Interference ..................... .488 Phone Activities Manager (PAM) ........... 658
Oscar, Project Inc ..................... 9,458 Phone Patching .........................476
Oscillation ............................. 70 Phone Patch Circuits ................... .477
Oscillators ............................. 75 Phonetic Alphabet ...................... 652
AUdio-Frequency ..................... 521 Pi Network ............................ .49
Beat ............................... 251 Picofarads (pF) .......................... 23
Beat. Frequency (BFO) ............. 235,243 Piezoelectric Crystals ..................... 51
Carner ............................. 384 Piezoelectric Effect ...................... 51
Circuits ............................. 137 Piezoelectric Microphone ................. 386
Coils ............................... 141 Pilot Lamp Data ........................ 555
Colpitts ............................ 139 Pinch Off .............................. 91
Crystal-Controlled ............. 136,137 200 Pi Network ............................ 158
Dynamic Instability .................. : .76 Pi-Network Coupling .................... 147
Electron-Coupled ..................... 138 Pi-L Output Tanks ...................... 159
Frequency Stability .................... 76 Pi Output Tanks ........................ 159
Grid-Plate ........................... 138 Plate .................................. 61
Ground Point ......................... 76 Detectors ........................... 238
Hartley ............................. 139 Dissipation .......................... 149
High-C .............................. 76 Efficiency ............................ 67
High-Frequency ...................... 248 Modulation .......................... 371
Keying ............................. 354 Resistance ...........................64
Penneability-Tuned (PTO) .......... 144242 Resistor ............................. 66
Pierce ............................. :137 Transformers ........................ 108
Self-Controlled ....................... 136 Voltage ............................. 150
Tunable ............................ 297 Point.{:ontact Diode ...................... 79
Twin-T Audio ........................ 522 Polarization ........................... 588
Variable-Frequency (VFO) ....... 136,139,200 Polarization, Circular .................... 634
Vhf ................................ 200 Polarization, Radio Wave ................. 557
Voltage-Controlled .................... 143 Portable Station for 40 Meters ............. 347
Oscilloscope ........................... 523 Positive ................................ 15
Oscilloscope Circuit ..................... 524 Positive Feedback ........................ 69
Oscilloscope, Using the ............ 374 399 468 Potential ............................... 15
Overlay Transistor ................. .' ... : .84 Potential, Ground ........................ 53
Overmodulation ........................ 370 Power ................................. 22
Oxide-Coated Cathode .................... 62 Amplification Ratio .................... 67
Amplifier ............................ 67
p Average ............................ 389
Factor .............................. 36
P-Type Material ......................... 79 Incident ............................ 568
~-A System Interference ................. .488 Input .............................. 149
AM ................................ 658 Input (Tube) ......................... 62
~~P ........................... 153,370,389
N DIOdes ......................... 83,139 ~~~~ti~e' : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :~~~
PLL ............................. 143431 Reflected ........................... 568

ff~~: •.•••.••••.•••..•••••••.••••••. 'iii

Sensit.ivity ............., .............. 67
Power Line Connections .................. 105
Power Line Safety Precautions ............. 107
Power Supply:
PSHR ............................... 662 B~ttery Charger ...................... 134
PTO ............................. 144242 Bias .............................. 126
Padding Capacitor ..................... :243 Bleeder Resistor .................... : .114
 Choke Input Filters ................... 116 RST System ........................... 647
Construction RTL .................................. 99
3.5-21 Volt (1.5 amps) Regulated ...... 127 RTTY ............................... .458
Heavy-Duty Regulated supply ........ 129 Radiation ............................. 571
Universal Supply .................. 130 Radiation Angle ........................ 589
3000-Volt Power Supply ............ 133 Radiation Resistance .................... 591
Nichel-Cadmuim Battery Charger ...... 134 Radio Amateur Civil Emergency
Dynamic Regulation ................... 114 Service (RACES) ............ 9,654,657,658
Economy ........................... 117 Radio Amateur's Handbook ................ 10
Filtering ............................ 114 Radio Amateur's License Manual ............ 11
Load Resistance ...................... 114 Radio Frequencies ....................... 17
Mobile ............................. 331 Radio Frequency Amplifiers (Receiving) ..... 260
Power Supplies, Mobile, Construction Radio Frequency Choke (Rfc) .............. 52
Power Supply for Transceivers ......... 333 Radio Theory .................. ' ......... 13
Dc to Ac Inverter ................... 335 Radiogram ............................ 654
Output Capacitor ..................... 116 Rag Chewers Club (RCC) ................. 661
Resonance .......................... 116 Random Access Memory (Digital ICs) ....... 100
Ripple Frequency ..................... 114 Ratings, Component ..................... 165
Static Regulation ..................... 114 Ratio Detector ........................ .430
Transformerless ...................... 105 Ratio, Deviation ....................... .421
Vibrator ............................ 331 Ratio, Front-to-Back .................... 588
Voltage-Multiplying Circuits ............. 118 Ratio, Image ........................... 244
Voltage Regulation ................ 114,120 Ratio, Power-Amplification ................ 67
"Powerstat" ........................... .40 Reactance .............................. 32
Pre-Emphasis ......................... .424 Reactance Modulator ................... .423
Predictions, Ionospheric .................. 561 Reactance, Ohm's Law for ................. 34
Prefixes, International ................... 662 Reactance Table ......................... 34
Premixing, VFO ........................ 143 Reactance Values ....................... .45
Prescaler .............................. 100 Reactances in Series and Parallel ............ 35
Preselector, Receiver .................... 265 Reactive Power .......................... 35
Primary Circuit ......................... .45 Read-Only Memory (Digital ICs) ........... 100
Primary Coil ............................ 37 Receiver:
Printed Circuit Boards ................... 551 Alignment .......................... 269
Printer, Page .......................... .459 Audio Circuits ....................... 268
Printer, Tape ......................... .459 Characteristics ....................... 235
Probe, Rf ......................... 515,535 Construction, Hf
Probe, Meter ........................... 511 80-10 FET Preselector ............... 265
Product Detectors ...................... 239 Active Audio Filter ................. 271
Propagation ........................ 557-564 Universal Hf Receiving Converter ....... 274
Propagation, Vhf ................... 562-564 A Receiving Package for
Propagation Forecasts ................... 540 30 to 144 MHz ................... 277
Propagation, Modes of .................... 55 High-Performance Solid-State
Public Service ........................ 8, 652 Receiver ........................ 284
Public Service Communications ........ 654 Ultra Portable Cw Station for
Public Service Honor Role (PSHR) .......... 662 40 Meters ....................... 347
Pulleys .............................. .4 21 Universal Hf Receiving
Pulling ............................... 140 Converter ....................... 274
Push-Pull Circuit ........................ 146 Construction, Vhf
Push-Pull Multiplier ..................... 146 MOSFET Preamplifiers for 10,6, and
Push-Pull (Tubes) ........................ 68 2 Meters ......................... 298
Push-to-Talk Switch ................. 640,641 Low-Noise Converters for
50 and 144 MHz ................. .300
Q High Performance 2-Meter Converter ... .304
220-MHz Converter ................ .310
QRP Equipment .................... 347,350 Low-Noise 432-MHz Converter ....... .313
Q Multipliers .......................... 259
Q Section ......................... 576,626 Direct Conversion ..................... 237
Q Signals ............................. 647 Double-Conversion Superheterodyne ...... 244
Q, Tank .............................. 156 Preselector .......................... 265
Q, Unloaded ........................... .42 Selection ........................... 271
QSL Bureaus .......................... 653 Sensitivity, Improving ................. 264
QSL Cards ............................ 653 Stability ............................ 237
QST ................................ 8,10 Superheterodyne ..................... 243
Quad Beams ........................... 612 Superregenerative ..................... 297
Quad, Triband ......................... 615 Tracking ............................ 262
Quieting (Fm) ........................ .428 Tuning ......................... 242,268
Fm ............................... .426
R Improving Fm ...................... .446
Receiver Independent Tuning .............. 399
Receiving Converter .................... .460
Rf .................................... 17 Receiving Systems ...................... 235
Rf Chokes ............................ 165 Rectification ........................... 62
RIT .................................. 399 Rectifiers:
RM .................................. 658 Circuits ............................. 110
Rms .................................. 17 Bridge .............................. 111
 High-Vacuum .................... 111,VI9 Selective Fading ........................ 560
Instruments ......................... 512 Selectivity ...................... .42,47,235
Ratings ............................. 111 Selectivity, Improving ................... 256
Semiconductor ................... 111, V24 Selectivity, Rf ......................... 293
Silicon Controlled .................... 100 Semiconductor Bibliography .............. 104
Reflected Power ........................ 568 Semiconductor Devices ............... 79,V24
Reflectometer ......................... 516 Semiconductor Symbol List .............. V26
Reflector (Antenna) ..................... 609 Sensitivity ............................ 235
Refraction ............................ 558 Series Circuits, Resonance in .............. .41
Regeneration .......................... 257 Series Feed ............................. 52
Regenerative Detectors ................... 241 Series Resistance ........................ 20
Regenerative Feedback ....................69 Section Communications Manager (SCM) ..... 658
Regulators, IC ......................... 123 Sharp-Cutoff Tubes ...................... 72
Regulators, On-Card ..................... 124 Shielding, TVI ........................ .492
Regulators, Solid-State ................... 123 Shields ................................ 54
Regulator Tubes, Gaseous ............ 120,VI9 Short-Circuit Current Transfer Ratio ......... 86
Reinartz, John ........................... 8 Shorting Stick ......................... 642
Remote Base, Fm ...................... .436 Shot-Effect Noise ....................... 236
Repeater Circuits ...................... .437 Shunt, Meter .......................... 507
Repeaters, Fm ........................ .435 Sideband, Lower ........................ 58
Reperforator ......................... .459 Sidebands ............................. 368
Resistance ............................. 18 Sideband Transmitter, Testing ............. 399
Resistance Coupling .................. 66,386 Sideband, Upper ......................... 58
Resistance, Equivalent Noise .............. 236 Signal-Strength Indicators ................ 255
Resistance, Parallel and Series .............. 20 Signal-to-Image Ratio .................... 244
Resistance, Plate ......................... 64 Signal-to-Noise Ratio .................... 290
Resistance, Radiation .................... 591 Silicon Controlled Rectifier ............... 100
Resistors ............................... 19 Simplex ............................. .436
Bleeder .............................. 14 Single Shot (SS) ......................... 97
Cathode ............................. 73 Single Sideband Construction:
Color Code .......................... 553 Transverter for \.8,21, or 28 MHz ....... .405
Grid ................................ 66 Solid-State Transceiver for 160 Meters . . 414
Plate ................................ 66 Single Sideband, Filter Method ....... 379,382
Screen Dropping ....................... 74 Single Sideband for the Radio Amateur . ..... 379
Transistor Logic (RTL) ................. 99 Single Sideband, Phasing Method ........... 379
At Radio Frequencies .................. 522 Single Sideband Phone Reception .......... 268
Resonance Curve .................... 42,236 Single-Sideband Transmission .............. 379
Resonant Frequency .................... .41 Single-Signal Effect ..................... 256
Resonance in Parallel Circuits .............. .4 2 Single-Signal Reception .................. 257
Resonance in Series Circuits ............... .41 Skin Effect ............................. 19
Resonances, Natural ...................... 53 Skip Distance .......................... 559
Resonance, Power Supply ................ 116 Skip Zone ............................. 559
Resonant Line ...................... 54,571 Skirt Selectivity ........................ 236
Resonators, Cavity ....................... 56 Sky Wave ............................. 558
Resonators, Helical ...................... 293 Slow-Scan Television ................... .466
Ripple Frequency, Power Supply ........... 114 Soldering ............................. 548
Route Manager (RM) ................... 658 Solid-State Devices ....................... 79
Space Charge ........................... 61
Space Communications ................. .474
s Space Wave ............................ 558
Spacing Wave .......................... 352
Scam ............................... .467 Spark Plug Noise ....................... 320
Scfm ................................ .467 Specialized Communications Systems ...... .458
SCR Motor-Speed Control ................ 544 Spectrum, Frequency ..................... 17
SCM ................................. 658 Speech Amplifier ....................... 385
SCR ................................. 100 Speech Clipper, Rf ..................... .395
S Meters .............................. 255 Speech Clipping .................... 391,395
S-Meter Circuits ........................ 256 Speech Processing ............... .391,396,424
SSTV ............................ 458,466 Speech Processor, Audio ................ .396
SWR ................................. 570 Sporadic-E Ionization .................... 561
SWR Measurement ...................... 516 Spurious Response (Chart) ................ 245
Safety ................................ 642 Squelch Circuits ........................ 267
Satellites (Amateur) .................... .474 Stability .............................. 235
Saturated-Diode Keying ................. .460 Stability, Receiver .................. 235, 237
Saturation Point ......................... 62 Stability, Rf Amplifiers .................. 290
Scaler ............................... .426 Staggered Tuning ....................... .47
Scatter (Propagation) .................... 563 Standard Frequencies and Time Signals ...... 540
Schmitt Trigger (ST) ..................... 97 Standards, Slow Scan ................... .467
Schnell, Fred ............................ 8 Standing Waves ......................... 568
Screen-Grid Modulation .................. 373 Start-Stop (RTTY) ..................... .459
Screen-Grid Tubes ....................... 71 Static Regulation, Power Supply ........... 114
Screen Voltage ......................... 150 Station Assembly ................... 639-645
Secondary Circuit ....................... .45 Station Operating ................... 646-663
Secondary Coil .......................... 37 Stop-Band Filter ........................ .49
Secondary Emission ...................... 71 Strip-Line Filters ....................... 500
Subcarrier A-m ........................ .467 TransatIantics ............................ 8
Subcarrier Fm ........................ .467 Transceiver, Portable for 144 MHz .......... 342
Sunspot Cycle ......................... 560 Transceiver, Telefax .................... .472
Superheterodyne Receiver ................ 243 Transceivers, Single Sideband .............. 397
Superregenerative Detectors ............... 241 Transconductance ....................... 64
Superregnerative Receiver ................ 297 Transequatorial Propagation ............... 562
Suppressor Grid ......................... 71 Transformers ........................ 37,58
Surface Wave .......................... 558 Construction ......................... 39
Surge Impedance ....................... 567 Coupling ......................... 66,387
Sweep, Linear .......................... 523 Iron-Core ............................ 37
Swinging Chokes ....................... 116 Constant-Voltage ..................... 107
Switch ................................ 19 Diode .............................. 251
Switching, Diode ....................... l39 Filament ............................ 108
Symbols, Bipolar Transistors .......... 104,V26 I-f ................................. 251
Symbols, Field-Effect Transistors ........... 104 I-f1nterstage ......................... 251
Symbols, Logic .......................... 96 Lead, Color Code for .................. 554
Symbols, Schematic ...................... .4 Linear .. ,............................ 576
Synchronous Vibrator Power Supplies ....... 332 Plate ............................... 108
Quarter-Wave ........................ 576
T Rewinding .......................... 109
Triple-Tuned ........................ 251
T-Match .......................... 578,611 Transient Problems, Diode ................ I l3
T-Notch Filter ......................... 259 Transistors:
TE Propagation ........................ 562 Arrays (IC) ...................... 93,95,96
T-R Switch ............................ 357 Balanced Emitter ...................... 84
TRF Receiver .......................... 237 Characteristic Curves ................ 85,92
TTL .................................. 99 Characteristics ........................ 84
TVl ................................ .489 Cooling ............................. 152
TVl, Vhf ............................. 204 Current Sink .......................... 93
TWT ...................... ·· .... ·····78 Field Effect (FET) ..................... 91
Tank Circuit Design (Vhf) ................ 201 Low-Frequency Parasitics ............... 164
Tank Coils ............................ 165 Multipliers .......................... 146
Tank Q ............................... 156 Overlay .............................. 84
Tape Printer .......................... .459 Parameters ........................... 86
Technician License ....................... 10 Power Supplies ................... 332-336
Telefax Transceiver .................... .472 Ratings ......................... 151,V24
Telephone Interference .................. 488 Testers ......................... 533,534
Teleprinter Code ...................... .459 Unijunction ......................... 100
Television, Amateur .................... .461 Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) ........... 99
Television, Color ....................... 505 Transition Region ........................ 83
Television Interference .................. .489 Transmatches .......................... 625
Television, Slow-Scan ................... .466 Transmatch Construction
Television, Uhf ......................... 504 For Balanced or Unbalanced Lines ........ 583
Television, Vhf ........................ .489 For QRP Rigs .·.··.· ................ 350
Temperature Compensation ............... 140 Rollerless Transmatch ................. 586
Tertiary Winding ....................... 251 For 50 and 144 MHz ................. 635
Test Equipment and Measurements ......... 506 Transmission Lines .................. 567,624
Test Equipment Construction Transmission Lines, Losses ................ 574
Marker Generator for 100,50, Transmitter Construction, Hf
and 25 kHz ........................ 525 Two-Band VFO Controlled Transmitter . 166
Two-Tone Audio-Test Generator ......... 527 A 75- to 120-Watt Cw Transmitter ........ 172
Dip Meters for the Hf-Vhf-Uhf Range ..... 529 A High-Ou tpu t Transistor VFO .......... 175
Absorption Frequency Meter for A 6-Band Transmitter for Cw ............ 179
1.6-300 MHz ......... _ ............ 531 A Sweep-Tube Linear Amplifier .......... 184
Tester for FET and Bipolar Transistors .... 533 Conduction-Coolt<d Two-Kilowatt Amplifier 186
Rf Impedance Bridge for Coax Lines ...... 536 A One-Kilowatt Amplifier
Low-Power RF Wattmeter ............ 539 Using a 3-500Z ..................... 190
Heterodyne Deviation Meter ............ 541 Two-Kilowatt Amplifier Using
Tetrode Transmitting Tubes .............. V22 an 8877 ........................... 194
Thermal-Agitation Noise ................. 236 A Solid-State Linear Amplifier ........... 196
Thermal Runaway .................... 86,88 Ultra Portable Cw Station for
Thermionic Emission ..................... 61 40 Meters ......................... 347
Thermistors ............................ 89 A 75-Meter Transceiver Using ICs ........ .409
Thermocouple Meter .................... 512 Solid-State Transceiver for 160 Meters . . 414
Thoriated Tungsten Cathode ............... 62 Transmitter Construction, Vhf
Time Constant ....................... 29-31 500-Watt Fm and Cw Transmitter
Time Signals ........................... 540 for 220 MHz ....................... 212
Tone Burst, Fm ....................... .439 Varactor Tripier for 432 MHz ........... 217
Tools ................................ 543 Grounded-Grid 50-MHz Amplifier ........ 219
Toroidal Inductors ....................... 58 Kilowatt Amplifier for 144 MHz ......... 222
"Touch-Tone" ........................ .440 Resonant Cavity Amplifier for 432 MHz ... 226
Tower, Tilt-Over ........................ 620 Grounded-Grid Amplifier for 1296 MHz ... 228
Tracking, Receiver ...................... 262 500-Watt Amplifier for 432 MHz ......... 232
Transadmittance ......................... 92 A Solid-State FM Transmitter for 146MHz 447
Transmitter Distributer ..................459 Variable-Frequency Oscillators ...... 136,139,200
Transmitter Power Output ................ 153 "Variac" .............................. .40
Transverse Electric Mode (TE) .............. 55 Varicap ................................ 81
Transverse Magnetic Mode (TM) ............. 55 Vault, Fm ............................ .436
Transverter ............................ 199 Vertical Angle of Maximum Radiation ....... 588
Transverter Construction Vertical Antennas ....................... 600
50-MHz ............................ 204 Vertical Deflection ...................... 523
Two Meter .......................... 208 Vertically Polarized ..................... 557
Transverter for 1.8,21, or 28 MHz ....... .405 Vibrator Power Supplies .................. 331
"Trap" Antenna ........................596 Vertical Height ......................... 558
Trapezoidal Pattern ..................... 375 Voice Operating Procedure ................ 649
Trapping (Propagation) .................. 563 Volt .................................. 17
Traps, Harmonic ....................... .492 Volt-Ampere Rating ..................... 109
Traps, Parallel-Tuned .................... 263 Volt-Ampere-Reactive (Var) ................ 35
Traps, Series-Tuned ..................... 263 Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter (VOM) ............ 506
Traveling Wave Tube ..................... 78 Voltage:
Triacs ................................ 100 Amplification Ratio .................... 65
Trimmer Capacitor ...................... 242 Amplifier ............................ 67
Triode Transmitting Tubes ............... V20 Breakdown ........................... 24
Triodes ................................ 63 Controlled Oscillator (VCO) ............. 143
Tripier ............................... 136 Dividers ............................ 126
Tropospheric Bending ................... 563 Doublers ............................ 118
Tropospheric Propagation ................ 561 Drop ................................ 21
Tropospheric Waves ..................... 558 Dropping ........................... 119
Tube Element ........................... 61 Exciting ............................. 67
Tube Ratings ...................... 149, VI Gain ................................ 66
Tube, Uhf and Microwave ................ 77 Plate ............................... 150
Tubes, Screen Grid ....................... 71 Quadruplers ......................... 118
Tubing, Aluminum ...................... 618 Regulation, Power Supply .......... 114,122
Tune-Plate-Tune-Grid-Circuit ............... 75 Screen ............................. 150
Tuned-Radio-Frequency Receiver (TRF) ..... 237 Stabilization ...................... 81,120
Tuning Rate ........................... 242 Triplers ............................. ll8
Tuning, Receiver ....................... 242 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator .............. 143
Turns Ratio ........................... .37 Voltage Loop .......................... 569
Turnstile Antenna .................. 328-330 Voltage Node .......................... 569
Twin-T Audio Oscillator .................. 522 Voltage Regulation, Electronic ............. 122
Two-Tone Test ..................... 402,527 Voltmeter ............................. 507
Two-Wire, Half-Wave Antenna ............. 592 Volume Compression .................... 391
u w
UJT ................................. 100 WWV ................................ 540
Uhf Circuits ............................ 54 WWVH ................... , ........... 540
Uhf Television ......................... 504 WIAW ............................ 10,659
Understanding Amateur Radio . ............. 13 Watt .................................. 22
Unijunction Transistor ................... 100 Watt-Hour ............................. 23
Units, Electrical ......................... 17 Wattmeter, Low-Power RF ............... 539
Up Channel, Fm ........................436 Watt-Second ............................ 23
Upper Sideband ......................... 58 Wave Angle ............................ 559
Wave Envelope ......................... 374
v Wave-Envelope Patterns .............. 392,401
Wave Forms ............................ 17
Var ................................... 35 Wave Front ............................ 557
VCO ................................. 143 Wave Guides ............................ 55
VFOCircuits ...................... 139,141 Wave Guide Dimensions ................... 56
Vhf and Uhf Antennas ................... 623 Wave Propagation ....................... 559
Vhf and Uhf Receiving Techniques ......... 290 Wavelength ............................. 17
Vhf and Uhf Transmitting ................ 199 Wheatstone Bridge ...................... 509
Vhf Parasitic Oscillation .................. 163 Wheel and Tire Static .................... 321
Vhf Television ........................ .489 Whistle On, Fm ....................... .439
VhfTVl .............................. 204 Wire, Color Code for Hookup .............. 555
VOM ................................ 506 Wire Table, Copper ...................... 556
VOX ............................. 398,477 Wiring ............................ 549,642
VOX, Transistorized .................... .403
VR Tubes ......................... VI9,120 XYZ
VTVM ............................... 510
Vacuum-Tube Principles ................... 61 X (Reactance) .......................... 32
Vacuum-Tube Voltmeter (VTVM) .......... 510 Vagi Antenna .......................... 623
Vacuum Tubes and Semiconductors ......... Vi Yagis, Short and Long ................... 627
Varactor ............................... 81 Yagis, Stacking ......................... 627
Varactor Multiplier (Vhf) ................. 200 Z (Impedance) .......................... 35
Variable-J.l Tubes ........................ 72 Zener Diodes ....................... 80,121
Variable Capacitor ....................... 24 Zero-Bias Tubes ......................... 68