NIX 1

Marian Nix
HIST 108
Final Exam

The History of Science, Technology, and Politics

The history of science and technology cannot be separated from the history of great

minds innovating amazing discoveries, and occasionally being oppressed, or their ideas being

stolen, or even weaponized to the ends of mass destruction. This paper will argue how the

history of science and technology cannot be separated from the history of politics, which

unfortunately far too often includes the history of racism, sexism, and other forms of oppression

and discrimination. The examples of the censorship of Galileo Galilei by the Catholic Inquisition,

the removal of Lise Franklin from the discovery of nuclear fission, and the suppression of

Rosalind Franklin’s contribution to the discovery of the double helical structure of DNA, as well

as refuting the idea that a scientific discovery can be separated from the political undertones of

the times.

Any discussion of the great work of Galileo without mention of Copernicus, the man who

so inspired Galileo with the idea of heliocentrism, is incomplete. Copernicus, a lifelong member

and agent of the Catholic church, published his greatest work, De Revolutionibus Coelestium, in

1543, waiting until shortly before his death for fear of the repercussion of the geocentric model

pushed by the Catholic church’s theology.1 After his death, Galileo used a newer, much more

powerful telescope to make his own observations, and came to the conclusion that Copernican

heliocentrism, not the Aristotelean idea of geocentrism so tied to the Catholic theology of the

day, was correct. In 1616, the church banned his work that supported these ideas because they

went against the way that the Catholic church saw the universe2. Later, when Galileo developed

1
James E. McClellan, III, and Dorn, Harold. “Science and Technology in World History: an
Introduction.” (Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, Maryland, 2015).

2
James E. McClellan, III, and Dorn, Harold. “Science and Technology in World History: an
Introduction.”
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a relationship with Pope Urban, he wrote his “Dialogue on Two Chief World Systems”. He was

urged by the Pope to equally consider both the ideas of geocentrism and heliocentrism, but his

Dialogue clearly made a mockery not only of geocentrism, but indirectly of the Pope for asking

Galileo to be neutral in his consideration. This was taken as Galileo mocking not only the

Catholic doctrine, but the Pope himself, and he was banished for life and continued the rest of

his days under house arrest. While there, he continued his brilliant explanations of mathematical

and physical sciences. After his death, no statues or mementoes were allowed to be made of

him to commemorate his mind and achievements. In this example, politics can clearly be seen

as playing a role to suppress the scientific ideals of Galileo. The Catholic church had a great

deal of power, whether direct or indirect, and literally controlled the flow of ideas and

advancement.

The example of Lise Meitner and the discovery of nuclear fission cannot be left out of a

discussion of how politics negatively impacts the history of science and technology. Lise Meitner

was a German nuclear physicist working at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry during the

rise and occupation of Nazi Germany3. Very interested in Fermi’s work, she experimented with

the idea of nuclear fission, inspiring Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann, who she would work

alongside. Lise Meitner was forced to leave Germany due to the relentless persecution of the

Jewish people, of whom she was a member, but continued her research into nuclear physics

remotely and communicated with Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman frequently. Though her work

was integral to the project in many ways, her name was purposely left off of the discovery, and

therefore the consideration for the Nobel prize. Otto Hahn, fearing the political and social

backlash that came with working with a Jewish scientist in Nazi Germany, glossed over her

contribution and took the credit for himself. He never mentioned her in any interviews or

memoirs after the fact to acknowledge her leadership and contributions to what was largely

3
Sime, Ruth Lewin. “Lise Meitner and the Discovery of Nuclear Fission.” (Scientific American:
January 1998.) 80-85.
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known at that time as his discovery.4 Lise Mietner died before her work was recognized, which is

a tragedy. If the political climate of the time had not been so harsh on the Jewish people,

perhaps things would have been different and Mietner would have found herself receiving a

Nobel prize, instead of being largely forgotten.

Another female scientist whose contribution was hidden was Rosalind Franklin, whose

x-ray photograph of DNA was stolen by James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice WIlkins,

who all received Nobel prizes for their discovery of the double helical structure of DNA, which

would have been nearly impossible to prove without Franklin's photograph. They used her now

famous photograph 51 in their presentation. Instead of giving her credit for her photograph and

brilliantly accurate measurements of DNA, James Watson went as far as to claim that Franklin

hindered the project and that they could have made the discovery much faster without her

skepticism of the helical structure.5 The fact was that they could not have proven the discovery

without her work that she did not even know that they were using, and they refused to give her

any ounce of credit. Watson, Crick, and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel prize after Franklin’s

death, and James Watson continued to downplay her accomplishments that he co-opted for

years after. While James Watson, who certainly seemed like an arrogant man may have

downplayed her contribution, his work was made easier by the time in which he worked,

publishing their discovery in 19536, when women were starting to enter the workplace en masse

after World War II, and sexism was much more common and casual. The Nobel Prize

Organization should have done more research into who the credit of the photograph belonged

to, and not simply listened to Watson and Crick that Rosalind Franklin’s contribution was minute

and unnecessary to the project.

4
Sime, Ruth Lewin. “Lise Meitner and the Discovery of Nuclear Fission.” (Scientific American:
January 1998.

5
Sime, Ruth Lewin. “Lise Meitner and the Discovery of Nuclear Fission.”
6
Ruth L. SIme. “Lise Meiner and the Discovery of Nuclear Fission.”
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In refutation of the idea that politics can be removed from the history of science and

technology, some may point to Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press, which is sometimes

seen as a pure scientific discovery untouched by politics. The reality is that the printing press

came at a time of religious upheaval and revolution of the Protestant Reformation, and without

the printing press, the reformation would have taken much, much longer, if it had happened as it

is known at all. Another example would be the democratization of science after the scientific

revolution, but as demonstrated by Rosalind Franklin and Lise Meitner, just because the

scientific world is no longer controlled by a religious group or political party does not mean that

the worlds of science and politics are separated wholly. Lise Meitner’s discovery of nuclear

fission was instrumental in the development of nuclear warfare, during which the bombing of

Japan was a largely political decision. From the horrors of the Tuskegee project to the stolen

work of Rosalind Franklin, politics have been historically involved in politics, and will probably

always be.

As evidenced in this paper, the history of science and technology cannot be separated

from the history of politics and power. The examples of Galileo, Lise Meitner, and Rosalind

Franklin all point to instances of scientific discovery being suppressed due to the politics of the

time, which challenges the idea of pure science and discovery that I came into the class with. It

is extremely important for history to be taught and remembered, otherwise so much

advancement, and the people behind those developments will be lost.

Works Cited

James E. McClellan, III, and Dorn, Harold. “Science and Technology in World History: an

Introduction.” (Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, Maryland, 2015).

Sime, Ruth Lewin. “Lise Meitner and the Discovery of Nuclear Fission.” (Scientific American:

January 1998.) 80-85.

Maddox, Brenda. “The Double Helix and the ‘Wronged Heroine’”. (Nature Vol. 42: January

2003.) 407- 408.