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Art of Public Speaking Chapter Summaries

Public Speaking (Clemson University)

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Art of Public Speaking

Chapter 1 : Speaking in Public

 “One who forms a judgment on any point but cannot explain it clearly might as well
never have thought at all on the subject”
 Public speaking is the way of making your ideas public, sharing them with others, and
influencing people
 Speeches should be clear, well reasoned, compelling, and articulate
 Oldest known handbook was written 4500 years ago in Egypt
 Aristotle’s Rhetoric is still considered to be the most important work on its subject
 Skills required to talk to people: organizing your thoughts, tailoring your message to
your audience, telling a story to maximize impact, adapting to listener feedback
 Public Speaking vs conversation
o Public speaking is more highly structured (more detailed planning and
preporation)
o Public speaking requires more formal language
o Public speaking requires a different method of delivery (speak clearer, more
erect posture, avoid distracting mannerisms/verbal habits)
 Positive nervousness- Controlled nervousness that helps energize a speaker for her or
his presentation
o Acquire speech experience
o Pick speech topics you are passionate about
o Each minute of speech time requires one to two hours of preparation
o Think positively: for every bad thought counter it with 5 good ones
o Use visualization: picture yourself giving a successful speech
o Know that most nervousness is not visible
o Don’t expect perfection
 Critical thinking- focused, organized thinking and the ability to see the relationship
among ideas
o Ability to spot weaknesses in other people’s arguments and to avoid them in
your own
o Distinguishing fact from opinion
o Judging the credibility of statements
o Assessing the soundness of evidence
 Seven elements: speaker, message, channel, listener, feedback, interference, and
situation
o Speaker-The person who is presenting an oral message to a listener (should be
audience-central)
o Message- Whatever the speaker communicates to someone else (verbal or
nonverbal)
 You send a message with your words, tone of voice, appearance,
gestures, facial expression, and eye contact
 Don’t let your nonverbal distract from your verbal
o Channel- The means by which a message is communicated
o Listener- The person who receives the speaker’s message

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 Frame of reference- The sum of a person’s knowledge, experience, goals,

values, and attitudes. No two people have the exact same frame of
reference
o Feedback- The message, usually nonverbal, sent from a listener to a speaker
o Interference- Anything that impedes the communication of a message.
(External or internal)
o Situation- time and place where the communication occurs
 Ethnocentrism- belief that one’s own group or culture is superior to all other groups or
cultures

Chapter 2 : Ethics and Public Speaking

 The goal of public speaking is to gain a desired response from listeners but not at any
cost
 Speechmaking is a form of power and therefore carries with it heavy ethical
responsibilities
 Ethics- the issue of right vs wrong in human affairs
 Idealistically public speakers would be truthful and devoted to the good of society but
power if speech is often abused
 We should formulate meaningful ethical guidelines not inflexible rules. Your ethical
decisions will be guided by your values, your conscience, your sense of right and wrong
 Ethical decisions- sound ethical decisions involve weighing a potential course of action
against a set of ethical standards or guidelines
 Make sure your goals are ethically sound
 Explore your topic as thoroughly as possible by learning about all sides and viewpoints
 Juggling statistics, quoting out of context, misrepresenting sources, painting tentative
findings as firm conclusions, citing unusual cases as typical examples, and substituting
innuendo and half-truths for evidence and proof are subtle forms of being unethical
 Name-calling: the use of language to defame, demean, or degrade individuals or
groups
 Global plagiarism – stealing a speech entirely from a single source and passing it off as
one’s own
 Patchwork plagiarism – stealing ideas or language from two or three sources and
passing them off as one’s own
 Incremental plagiarism- failing to give credit for particular parts of a speech that are
borrowed from other people
 Lead into quotations by saying “according to ….. in his book …….”
 Paraphrase- Restate or summarize an author’s ideas in your own words
 You don’t have to quote basic standard facts of someone’s life
 As a listener you should be courteous/attentive, avoid prejudging the speaker, and
maintain the free and open expression of ideas

Chapter 3: Listening

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 Hearing vs listening: You can hear what someone is saying and react to it all without
actually knowing what they are saying. When you listen you are paying close attention
and making sense of what you are hearing
 We usually only grasp 50% of what we actually hear
 Appreciative listening-listening for pleasure or enjoyment
 Empathetic listening- listening to provide emotional support
 Comprehensive listening- Listening to understand the message of a speaker
 Critical listening – listening to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or
rejecting it
 Spare “brain time” – The difference between the rate at which most people talk (120-
150 words a minute) and the rate at which the brain can process language (400 to 800
words a minute)
 Active listening- Giving undivided attention to a speaker in a genuine effort to
understand the speaker’s point of view
 Passive listening- multitasking while listening
 Keep yourself alert by anticipating what the speaker is going to say and then compare
it to what they actually say
 Resist distraction by going over what the speaker said in your head to make sure you
understand it
 Do not prejudge, a closed mind is an empty one
 Develop better listening skills
o Listen for the main points
o Listen for evidence
 Is it accurate?
 Is it taken from objective sources?
 Is it relevant to the speaker’s claims?
 Is it sufficient to support the speaker’s point?
o Listen for techniques
 Analyze the introduction (What methods does the speaker use to gain
attention)
 Study the speaker’s language (Is it clear, vivid appropriate)
 Note the strengths and weaknesses
 Key-word outline: An outline that briefly notes a speaker’s main points and supporting
evidence in rough outline form

Chapter 4 : Giving your First Speech

 Ice breaker speech- A speech early in the term designed to get students speaking in
front of the class as soon as possible
 Developing the speech
o Focusing your topic
 Common mistake is trying to cover too much information
 Don’t make the topic too narrow either

o Developing your topic

 Find creative ways to express your ideas/thoughts

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 Paint your words

 Organizing the speech
o Introduction – opening section of a speech
 Pose a question, tell a story, make a startling statement, open with a
quote
o Body- main section of a speech
 Chronological order- A method of speech organization in which the
main points follow a time pattern
 Topical order- A method of speech organization in which the main
points divide the topic into logical and consistent subtopics
 Main point- the major points developed in the body of a speech
 Transition- a word or phrase that indicates when a speaker has finished
one thought and is moving on to another
o Conclusion- The final section
 Make sure to let your audience know your about to end by reinforcing
your main ideas
 If possible end on a clever, dramatic, or thought provoking note
 Extemporaneous speech- A carefully prepared and rehearsed speech that is presented
from a brief set of notes combined with spontaneity and enthusiasm of an unrehearsed
talk
 Assume a relaxed but upright posture with your feet shoulder width apart and allow
your arms to hang by your sides
 It’s ok to use gestures as long as they don’t become too distracting

Chapter 5 : Selecting a Topic and a Purpose

 Topics you know a lot about

o Draw on your own knowledge and experience
o Think about unusual experiences or special expertise
 Topics you want to know more about
o Explore a new topic for the first time or do more research off prior knowledge
 Brainstorming- A method of generating ideas for speech topics by free association of
words and ideas
o Personal inventory- list of your experiences, hobbies, interests, skills, beliefs
o Clustering- make a chart with 9 columns labeled: person, places, things, events,
processes, concepts, natural phenomenon, problems, plans/policies and write
down the first 4/5 things that come to mind
 General purpose- The broad goal of a speech (inform or persuade)
o Inform- communicate information clearly, accurately, and interestingly
o Persuade- win listeners over with your point of view
 Specific purpose- A single infinitive phrase that states precisely what a speaker hopes
to accomplish in his or her speech
o Write the purpose statement as a full infinite phrase, not as a fragment
o Express your purpose as a statement, not as a question
o Avoid figurative language in your purpose statement
o Limit your purpose statement to one distinct idea

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o Make sure it isn’t too vague or too general

 Questions to ask about your specific purpose
o Does my purpose meet the assignment?
o Can I accomplish my purpose in the time allotted?
o Is the purpose relevant to my audience?
o Is the purpose too trivial for my audience?
o Is the purpose too technical for my audience?
 Central idea- A one-sentence statement that sums up or encapsulates the major ideas
of a speech (what you expect to say)
o Simple declarative sentence that refines and sharpens the specific purpose
statement
 Should be expressed in a full sentence
 Should not be vague or overly general
 Should avoid figurative language
 Should not be vague or overly general
 Residual message- What a speaker wants the audience to remember after it has
forgotten everything else in the speech

Chapter 6 : Analyzing the Audience

 Audience-centeredness: Keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech

preparation and presentation
o To whom am I speaking?
o What do I want them to know, believe, or do as a result of my speech?
o What is the most effective way of composing and presenting my speech to
accomplish that aim?
 Identification- A process in which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by
emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences
 Auditory perception is always selective
 Every speech contains two messages: one sent by the speaker and one received by the
listener
 Egocentrism- people will be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and
well-beings
o Your listeners will hear and judge what you say on the basis of what they
already know and believe
o You must relate your message to your listeners, show how it pertains to them
and why they should care
 Demographic audience analysis- Audience analysis that focuses on demographic
factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial,
ethnical, or cultural background
o Identifying the general demographic features of your audience
o Gauging the importance of those features to a particular speaking situation
 Situational audience analysis- Audience analysis that focuses o situational factors such
as size of the audience, the physical setting for the speech, and disposition of the
audience towards the topic/speaker/occasion (interest, knowledge, attitude)

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 Stereotyping- Creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually

by assuming that all members of the group are alike
 Getting information about the audience
o Fixed-alternative questions- questions that offer a fixed choice between two or
more alternatives (true/false)
 Clear, unambiguous answers
o Scale questions- Questions the require responses at fixed intervals along a scale
of answers
 Good for getting the strength of an answer
o Open ended questions- Questions that allow respondents to answer however
they want
 More detail but not always on the answer you were looking for
 Audience adaptation before the speech
o Assess hoe your audience is likely to respond to what you say in your speech
o Adjust what you say to make it clear, appropriate, and convincing as possible
 Audience adaption during the speech
o Modify your presentation to fit need (time cut in half, projector not available)

Chapter 7 : Gathering Materials

 We often speak best about subjects we are familiar with

 Drawing on personal experience adds more meaning to the points your trying to
convey
 Catalogue: A listing of all the books, periodicals, and other resources owned by a
library
 Call number: A number used in libraries to classify books and periodicals and to
indicate where they can be found on the shelves
 Periodical database: A research aid that catalogues articles from a large number of
journals or magazines
 Abstract: A summary of a magazine or journal article, written by someone other than
the original author
 All-purpose databases
o Proquest Research Library- general-interest periodicals and academic journals
o Academic Search- full text of articles from periodicals, popular and scholarly
o Reader’s Guide Full Text- general-interest periodicals
o Lexis/Nexis Academic- legal, news, reference, and business sources
 Reference work- A work that synthesizes a large amount of related information for
easy access by researchers
o Encyclopedias, yearbooks, quotation books, biographical aids
 General Encyclopedia- A comprehensive reference work that provides information
about all branches of human knowledge
 Special Encyclopedia- Comprehensive reference work devoted to a specific subject such
as religion, art, law, science, music
 Yearbooks- A reference work published annually that contains information about the
previous year

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o World Almanac and Book of Facts

 Quotation book
o Quotes from historical and contemporary figures
 Biographical Aids- A reference work that provides information about people
 When using google if you put quotation marks around a phrase your search results
will contain that exact phrase
o If you do one phrase in quotes and then a plus sign and another phrase in
quotes it will only show search results using both exact phrases
 Virtual Libraries- A search engine that combines Internet technology with traditional
library methods of cataloguing and assessing data
o Doesn’t evaluate the quality of the search results
o Librarians’ Internet Index and Internet Public Library
 Government Resources
o USA.gov
o Statistical Abstract- Standard reference source for numerical information on
social, political, and economic aspects of American life
o World Factbook- information on every country in the world on topics like
people, government, economy, communication, transportation, and
transnational issue
 Multicultural Resources
o Yahoo! Regional
o Virtual Library- history, language, culture, education, health, art
o Princeton University Library
o Latino/Hispanic Resources
o African American Web Connection
 Evaluating Internet Documents
o Is the author of the document clearly identified?
o If the author is identified, is she or he an expert on the topic?
o If the author is not an expert, can his or her opinions be accepted as objective
and unbiased?
o If the author is not identified, can the sponsoring organization be determined?
o Is the sponsoring organization a government agency, an educational
institution, or a nonprofit group?
o Does the sponsoring organization have a reputation for expertise and
objectivity?
o Does the document include a copyright date, publication date, or date of last
revision?
o If a date is included, is the document recent enough to cite in the speech?
 Sponsoring Organization- An organization that, in the absence of a clearly identified
author, is responsible for the content of a document on the internet
 Research Interview- An interview conducted to gather information for a speech
o What to do before the interview
 Define the purpose of the interview
 Decide whom to interview
 Arrange the interview
 Decide whether to record the interview
 Prepare questions

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o AVOID ASKING:
 Questions you can answer without the interview
 Leading Questions
 Hostile, Loaded questions
o What to do during the interview
 Dress appropriately and be on time
 Repeat the purpose of the interview
 Set up the recorder, if you are using one
 Keep the interview on track
 Listen Carefully
 Don’t overstay your welcome
o What to do after the interview
 Review your notes as soon as possible (discover the main points and pull
out specific, relative details)
 Transcribe your notes
 Tips for doing research
o Start Early
o Make a preliminary bibliography
 A list complied early in the research process of works that look as if they
might contain helpful information about a speech topic.
o Take Notes Efficiently
 Take plenty of notes
 Record notes in a consistent format
 Make a separate entry for each note
 Distinguish among direct quotes, paraphrases, and your own ideas

Chapter 8 : Supporting Your Ideas

 Your speech should answer these three questions:

o What do you mean?
o Why should I believe you?
o So what?
 Supporting material – The material used to support a speaker’s ideas. The three major
kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony
 Get the audience involved
 Example- A specific case used to illustrate or to represent a group of people, ideas,
conditions, or experiences
o Specific incident to focus on
o Sets the stage with details of time, place, color, action
o Audience can see themselves there
 Without examples it seems vague, impersonal, and lifeless
 Brief examples- A specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point
o Can be used to reinforce a point
 Extended examples- A story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to
illustrate a point
 Hypothetical Example- An example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation

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o Create a realistic scenario that directly relates to her listeners and gets them
involved
 Tips for using examples
o Use examples to clarify unfamiliar or complex ideas
o Use examples to reinforce your ideas
o Make sure it is representative (doesn’t just deal with rare or exceptional cases)
o Use examples to personalize your ideas
o Make your examples vivid and richly textured
o Practice delivery to enhance your extended examples
 Statistics- numerical data
 Statistics can be used t show the magnitude or seriousness of an issue
 Mean- The average value of a group of numbers
 Median- The middle number in a group of numbers arranged from highest to lowest
 Mode- The number that occurs most frequently in a group of numbers
 Tips for using statistics
o Use statistics to quantify your ideas
o Use statistics sparingly
o Identify the source of your statistics
o Round off complicated statistics
o Use visual aids to clarify statistical trends
 Testimony- Quotations or paraphrases used to support a point
o Expert testimony- Testimony from people who are recognized experts in their
fields (more for credibility)
o Peer testimony- Testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or
insight on a topic (personal view on a topic)
 Direct quotation- Testimony that is presented word for word
o Brief but can convey the message better than you can
 Paraphrase- To restate or summarize a source’s ideas in one’s own words
o Use when the wording of a quotation is obscure or cumbersome
o When the quote is longer than 2 or 3 sentences
 Tips for using testimony
o Quote or paraphrase accurately
o Quoting out of context- Quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its
meaning by removing the statement from the words and phrases surrounding it
o Use testimony from qualified sources
o Use testimony from unbiased sources
o Identify the people you quote or paraphrase
 To orally cite a source identify some combination of the following
o Book, magazine, newspaper, or web document
o Author or sponsoring organization
o Author’s qualifications with regards to the topic
o Date on which the document was published, posted, or updates

Chapter 9 : Organizing the Body of the Speech

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 Strategic Organization- Putting a speech together in a particular way to achieve a

particular result with a particular audience
o Specific Purpose
o Central Idea
o Main Points
 Main points- The major points developed in the body of a speech. Most speeches
contain from two to five main points
o Main points form the skeleton of the body of the speech
o Most speeches will have two to three main points
 Chronological Order- A method of speech organization in which the main points follow
a time pattern
 Spatial order- A method of speech organization in which the main points follow a
directional pattern
 Casual Order – A method of speech organization in which the main points show a
cause-effect relationship
 Problem-Solution order- A method of speech organization in which the first main point
deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to
the problem
 Topical Order- A method of speech organization in which the main points divide the
topic into logical and consistent subtopics
 Tips for preparing main points
o Keep main points separate
o Try to use the same pattern of wording for main points
o Balance the amount of time devoted to main points
 Supporting materials- The materials used to support a speaker’s ideas. The three
major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony
 Connective- A word of phrase that connects the ideas of a speech and indicates the
relationship between them
 Transition- A word or phrase that indicates when a speaker has finished one thought
and is moving on to another
 Internal preview- A statement in the body of the speech that lets the audience know
what the speaker is going to discuss next
 Internal summary- A statement in the body of the speech that summarizes the
speaker’s preceding point or points
 Signpost- A very brief statement that indicates where a speaker is in the speech or that
focuses attention on key ideas (First cause, second cause, last cause)

Chapter 10 : Beginning and Ending the Speech

 Introduction has four objectives:

o Get the attention and interest of your audience
 Relate the topic to the audience
 State the importance of your topic
 Startle the audience
 Arouse the curiosity o the audience
 Question the audience

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 Rhetorical Question- A question that the audience answers

mentally rather than out loud
 Begin with a quotation
 Tell a story
 Referring to the occasion
 Inviting audience participation
 Using audio equipment or visual aids
 Relating to a previous speaker
 Beginning with humor
o Reveal the topic of your speech
 State clearly or people will not know what the speech is about
o Establish your credibility and goodwill
 Credibility- The audience’s perception of whether a speaker is qualified
to speak on a given topic
 Goodwill- The audience’s perception of whether the speaker had he best
interest of the audience in mind
o Preview the body of the speech
 Preview statement- A statement in the introduction of a speech that
identifies the main points to be discussed in the body
 Provides a smooth transition to the body of the speech
 Tips for preparing the introduction
o Keep the intro brief (shouldn’t be more than 10%-20% of your speech)
o Be on the lookout for possible introductory materials as you do your research
o Be creative in devising your introduction. Experiment with two or three
different openings and choose the one that seems most likely to get the
audience interested in your speech
o Don’t worry about the exact wording of your introductions until you have
finished preparing the body of the speech. After you have determined your main
points, it will be much easier to make final decisions about how to being the
speech
o Work out your introductions in detail. Some teachers recommend that you
write it out word for word, others prefer you outline it. Whichever you use,
practice the introduction over and over until you can deliver it smoothly from a
minimum of notes and with strong eye contact. This will get your speech off to a
good start and give you a boost of confidence.
 Conclusion has two major functions
o Let the audience know you are ending the speech
 Crescendo ending- A conclusion in which the speech builds to a zenith of
power and intensity
 Vocal pitch, choice of words, dramatic content, gestures, pauses,
and possibly loudness
 Dissolving ending- A conclusion that generates emotional appeal by
fading step by step to a dramatic final statement
o Reinforce the audience’s understanding of, or commitment to, the central idea
 Summarize your speech
 End with a quotation
 Make a dramatic statement
 Refer to the introduction

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 Tips for preparing the conclusion

o As with the introduction, keep an eye out for possible concluding materials as
you research and develop the speech
o Conclude with a bang, not a whimper. Be creative in devising a conclusion that
hits the hearts and minds of your audience. Work on several possible endings,
and select the one that seems likely to have the greatest impact
o Don’t be long-winded. The conclusion will normally make up no more than 5%
to 10% of your speech
o Don’t leave anything in your conclusion to chance. Work it out in detail, and
give yourself plenty of time to practice delivering it. Many students like to write
out the conclusion word or word to guarantee it is just right. If you do this,
make sure you can present it smoothly, confidently, and with feeling—without
relying on your notes or sounding wooden. Make your last impression as
forceful and as favorable as you can.

Chapter 11 : Outlining the Speech

 Preparation outline- A detailed outline developed during the process of speech

preparation that includes the title, specific purpose, central idea, introduction, main
points, subpoints, connectives, conclusion, and bibliography of a speech
 Guidelines for the preparation outline
o State the specific purpose of your speech
o Identify the central idea
o Label the introduction, body, and conclusion
o Use a consistent pattern of symbolization and indentation
 Visual framework- The pattern of symbolization and indentation in a
speech outline that shows the relationships among the speaker’s ideas
o State the main points and subpoints in full sentences
o Label transitions, internal summaries, and internal previews
o Attach a bibliography
 Bibliography- A list of all the sources used in preparing a speech
o Give your speech a title, if one is desired
 Brief
 Attract the attention of your audience
 Encapsulate the main thrust of you speech
 Speaking Outline- A brief outline used to jog a speaker’s memory during the
presentation of a speech
o Follow the visual framework used in the preparation outline
o Make sure the outline is legible
o Keep the outline as brief as possible
 Shouldn’t be reading notes off a paper
o Give yourself cues for delivering the speech
 Delivery cues- Directions in a speaking outline to help a speaker
remember how she or he wants to deliver key parts of the speech
 Certain ideas or phrases that need special emphasis (more
loudly, softly, slowly, rapidly)

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Chapter 12 : Using Language

 Denotative Meaning- The literal or dictionary meaning of a word of phrase

o Precise, literal, objective
 Connotative Meaning- The meaning suggested but the associations or emotions
triggered by a word or phrase
o Variable, Figurative, Subjective
o Feelings, associations, emotions
 Thesaurus – A book of synonyms
 Use Language Clearly
o Speakers meaning must be immediately comprehensible
o Use familiar words (Jargon)
o Choose concrete words
 Concrete words- Words that refer to tangible objects
 Person, place, thing
 Abstract words- words that refer to ideas or concepts
 General concepts, qualities, attributes
 A speech dominated by concrete words will almost always be clearer,
more interesting, and easier to recall than one dominated by abstract
words
o Eliminate Clutter
 Clutter- Discourse that takes many more words than are necessary to
express an idea
 Use Language Vividly
 Animated language
o Imagery- The use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions,
or ideas
 Concrete words are the key to effective imagery
 Concrete words call up mental impressions of sight, sound, touch,
smell, and taste
 Simile- An explicit comparison, introduced with the word “like” or “as”,
between things that are essentially different yet have something in
common
 Cliché- A trite or overused expression
 Metaphor- An implicit comparison, not introduced with the word “like”
or “as”, between two things that are essentially different yet have
something in common
o Rhythm- The pattern of sounds in a speech created by the choice and
arrangement of words
 Use rhythm and flow of language to enhance your meaning
 Parallelism-The similar arrangement of a pair or series of related
words, phrases, or sentences
 Repetition- Reiteration of the same word or set of words at the
beginning or end of successive clauses or sentence
 Alliteration- Repetition of the initial constant sound of close or
adjoining words

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 Antithesis- The Juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel

structure
 Using Language Appropriately
o Appropriate to the occasion
o Appropriate to the audience
o Appropriate to the topic
o Appropriate to the speaker
 Inclusive language- Language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people
based on gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, and other factors
o Avoid the generic “he” (Use of he to refer to both men and women)
 Instead use she or he
 Instead use they
o Avoid the use of “man” when referring to both men and women
o Avoid stereotyping hobs and social roles by gender
 Instead use businessperson
o Use names that groups use to identify themselves
 Up-to-date politically correct names

Chapter 13 : Delivery

 Nonverbal Communication- Communication based on a person’s use of voice and

body, rather than on the use of words
 Good delivery doesn’t call attention to itself. It conveys the speaker’s ideas clearly,
interestingly, and without distracting the audience
 Methods of Delivery
o Reading from a Manuscript
 Absolute accuracy is essential to the situation
 You risk sounding wooden and artificial
o Reciting from Memory
o Speaking impromptu
 A speech delivered with little or no immediate preparation
 1st state the point you are answering
 2nd state the point you wish to make
 3rd support your point with appropriate statistics
 4th summarize your point
o Extemporaneous speech- A carefully prepared and rehearsed speech that is
presented from a brief set of notes
 Conversational quality- Presenting a speech so it sounds
spontaneous no matter how many times it has been rehearsed
 The Speakers Voice
o Volume- The loudness of softness of the speaker’s voice
o Pitch- The highness or lowness of the speaker’s voice
o Inflections- Changes in the pitch or tone of a speaker’s voice
o Monotone- A constant pitch or tone of voice
o Rate- The speed at which a person speaks
o Pauses- A momentary break in the vocal delivery of a speech

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o Vocalized Pause- A pause that occurs when a speaker fills the silence
between words with vocalization such as “uh”, “er”, and “um”
o Vocal Variety- Changes in a speaker’s rate, pitch, and volume that give the
voice variety and expressiveness
o Pronunciation- The accepted standard of sound and rhythm for words in a
given language
o Articulation- The physical production of particular speech sounds
o Dialect- A variety of a language distinguished by variations of accent,
grammar, or vocabulary
 The Speakers Body
o Kinesics- The study of body motions as a systematic mode of communication
 Posture, facial expression, gestures, eye contact
 Major aspects of physical action that will affect the outcome of your speech
o Person appearance
o Movement
o Gestures- Motions of a speaker’s hands or arms during a speech
o Eye contact- Direct visual contact with the eyes of another person
 Practicing Delivery
o Go through your preparation outline aloud to check that what you have
written translates into spoken discourse
 Is it too long/too short
 Are the main points clear
 Are the supporting materials distinct, convincing, and interesting
 Do the introduction and conclusion come across well
o Prepare your speaking outline
o Practice the speech aloud several times using only the peaking outline
o Now begin to polish and refine your delivery
 Answering Audience Questions
o Preparing for the question and answer session
 Formulate answers to possible questions
 Practice delivering your answers
o Managing a question and answer session
 Approach questions with a positive attitude
 Listen carefully
 Direct answers to the entire audience
 Be honest and straightforward
 Stay on Track

Chapter 14 : Using Visual Aids

 Kinds of Visual Aids

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o Objects
o Models
 An object, usually built to scale, that represents another object in detail
o Photographs
o Drawings
o Graphs
 A visual aid used to show statistical trends and patterns
 Pie graph- A graph that highlights segments of a circle to
illustrate simple distribution patterns
 Line graph- A graph that uses one or more lines to show changes
in statistics over time or space
 Bar graph- A graph that uses vertical or horizontal bars to show
comparisons between two or more items
o Chart
 Visual aid that summarizes a large block of information, usually in list
form
 Transparencies
 A visual aid drawn, written, or printed on a sheet of clear acetate
and shown with an overhead projector
 Video
 Multimedia Presentation
 A speech that combines several kinds of visual and/or audio aids
in the same talk
 Guidelines for preparing Visual Aids
o Prepare visual aids in advance
o Keep visual aids simple
o Make sure visual aids are large enough
o Use fonts that are easy to read
 Font- A complete set of type of the same design
o Use color effectively
 Guidelines for Presenting Visual Aids
o Avoid using the chalkboard
o Display visual aids where listeners can see them
o Avoid passing visual aids among the audience
o Display Visual Aids only while discussing them
o Taking to your audience, not to your visual aid
o Explain visual aids clearly and concisely
o Practice with your visual aids

Chapter 15 : Using Speaking to Inform

 Informative speech- A speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding

o Is the information communicated accurately?
o Is the information communicated clearly?
o Is the information made meaningful and interesting to the audience
 Types of informative speeches

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o Analysis
o Organization
 Speeches about object
o Object- Anything that is visible, tangible, and stable in form
 Speeches about Process
o Process- A systematic series of actions that lead to a specific result or product
 Speeches about events- Anything that happens or is regarded as happening
 Speeches about concepts- Beliefs, theories, ideas, principles, notions
o More abstract that objects, processes, or events
 Guideline for Informative speech
o Don’t overestimate what the audience knows
o Relate the subject directly to the audience
o Don’t be too technical
o Avoid Abstraction
 Descriptions- A statement that depicts a person, event, or idea with
clarity and vividness
 Comparison- A statement of the similarities among two or more people,
events, or ideas
 Contrast- A statement o the differences among two or more people,
events, or ideas
o Personalize your ideas
 To present one’s ideas in human terms that relate in some fashion to the
experience of the audience

Chapter 19 : Speaking in Small Groups

 Dyad – A group of two people

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 Small group- A collection of three to twelve people who assemble for a specific purpose
 Problem-solving small group- A small group formed to solve a particular problem
 Leadership in small groups
o Kinds of leadership
 The ability to influence group members so as to help achieve the
goals of the group
 Implied leadership- A group member to whom other members defer
because of her or his rank, experience, or other quality
 Emergent leader- A group member who emerges as a leader during the
group’s deliberations
 Designated leader- A person who is elected or appointed as leader when
the group is formed
o Functions of leadership
 Procedural needs- Routine “housekeeping” actions necessary for the
efficient conduct of business in a small group
 Task needs- Substantive actions necessary to help a small group
complete its assigned task
 Maintenance needs- Communicative actions necessary to maintain
interpersonal relations in a small groups
o Responsibilities in a small group
 Commit yourself to the goals of the group
 Hidden agenda- A set of unstated individual goals that may
conflict with the goals of the group as a whole
 Fulfill individual assignments
 Avoid interpersonal conflicts
 Encourage full participation
 Keep the discussion on track
 Reflective-Thinking method
 A five step method for directing discussion in a problem-solving small
group
o Define the problem
 Question o policy- A question about whether a specific course of action
should or should not be taken
o Analyze the problem
o Establish criteria for solution
 Criteria- Standards on which a judgment or decision can be based
o Generate potential solutions
 Brainstorming- A method of generating ideas by free association of
words and thoughts
o Select the best solution
 Consensus- A group decision that is acceptable to all members of the
group
 Presenting the recommendations of the group
o Oral report- A speech presenting the findings, conclusions, or decisions of a
small group
o Symposium- A public presentation in which several people present prepared
speeches on different aspects of the same topic

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o Panel Discussion- A structured conversation on a given topic among several

people in front of an audience

Chapter 16 : Methods of Persuasion

 Speakers are persuaded by speakers because:

o They perceive the speaker has having high credibility
o They are won over by the speaker’s evidence
o They are convinced by the speaker’s reasoning
o Their emotions are touched by the speaker’s ideas or language
 Ethos- the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to
as credibility
 Credibility- The audience’s perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a
given topic. The two major factors influencing a speaker’s credibility are competence
and character
 Competence- how an audience regards a speaker’s intelligence, expertise, and
knowledge of the subject
 Character- how an audience regards a speaker’s sincerity, trustworthiness, and
concern for the well-being of the audience
 Initial credibility- The credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak
 Derived credibility0 The credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says
and does during the speech
 Terminal credibility- The credibility of a speaker at the end of a speech
 Enhancing your credibility
o Explain your competence- advertise your expertise
o Establish common ground with your audience
 Creating common ground- A technique in which a speaker connects
himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the
audience
o Deliver your speech fluently, expressively, and with conviction
 Evidence- Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something
 Tips for using evidence
o Use specific evidence
o Use novel (new) evidence
o Use evidence from credible sources
o Make clear the point of your evidence
 Logos- The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major
elements of logos are evidence and reasoning
 Reasoning- The process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence
 Reasoning from specific instances- Reasoning that moves from particular facts to a
general conclusion
o Avoid generalizations
o Watch your wording
o Reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony
 Hasty generalization- An error in reasoning from specific instances, in which a speaker
jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

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 Reasoning from principle- Reasoning that moves from general to principle to a specific
conclusion
 Causal reasoning- Reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between cause
and effect
 False cause- An error in causal reasoning in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that
because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second event. This
error is often known by its Latin name, post hoc, meaning after this, therefore because
of this
 Analogical reasoning- Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and
infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second
 Invalid analogy- An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially
alike
 Fallacy- An error in reasoning
o Red herring- Introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject
under discussion
o Ad hominem- A fallacy that attacks the person rather then dealing with the
real issue in dispute
o Either-or – Forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more
than two alternatives exist
o Bandwagon- Assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good,
correct, or desirable
o Slippery Slope-Taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be
prevented
 Pathos- Name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to
as emotional appeal
o Use emotional language
o Develop vivid examples
o Speak with sincerity and conviction

Chapter 17 : Speaking to Persuade

 Persuasion- The process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people’s beliefs or actions

o Job is to get listeners to agree with you and act on that belief

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o Goal is to defend an idea, refute an opponent, sell a program, or inspire people

to action
 Degrees of Persuasion
o Strongly opposed
o Moderately opposed
o Slightly opposed
o Neutral
o Slightly in favor
o Moderately in favor
o Strongly in favor
 Mental dialogue with the audience- The mental give-and-take between speakers and
listeners during a persuasive speech
 Target audience- The portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to
persuade
 Question of fact- A question about the truth or falsify of an assertion
 Questions of value- A question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth od an
idea or action
 Question of policy- A question about whether a specific course of action should or
should not be taken
 Speech to gain passive agreement- A persuasive speech in which the speaker’s goal is
to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the
audience to take action in support of the policy
 Speech to gain immediate action- A persuasive speech in which the speaker’s goal is to
convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy
 Need- The first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Is there a serious problem
or need that requires a change from current policy
 Burden of proof- The obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change
from current policy is necessary
 Plan- The second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: If there is a problem
with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem
 Practicality- The third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Will the speaker’s
plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems?
 Problem-Solving order- A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first
main point deals with the existence if a problem and the second main point presents a
solution to the problem
 Problem-cause-solution order- A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which
the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of
the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem
 Comparative advantages order- a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which
each main point explains why a speaker’s solution to a problem is preferable to other
proposed solutions
 Monroe’s motivated sequence- A method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek
immediate action.
o Attention- gain attention of audience
o Need- Make the audience feel a need for change
o Satisfaction- Provide a solution to the problem
o Visualization- How will listener benefit

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o Action- Say what you want the audience to do

Chapter 18 : Speaking on Special Occasions

 Speech of introduction- A speech that introduces the main speaker to the audience
o Build enthusiasm for the upcoming speaker
o Build enthusiasm for the speaker’s topic
o Establish a welcoming climate that will boost the speaker’s credibility
 Be brief
 Make sure your remarks are completely accurate
 Adapt your remarks to the occasion
 Adapt your remarks to the main speaker
 Adapt your remarks to the audience
 Try to create a sense of anticipation and drama
 Speech of presentation – A speech that presents someone a gift, award, or some other
public recognition
o Tell the audience why the recipient is receiving the award
o Achievements related to the award
 Acceptance speech- A speech that gives thanks for a gift, an award, or some other form
of public recognition
 Commemorative speeches- speeches of praise or celebration that pays tribute to a
person, group of people, an institution, or an idea
o Don’t simply recount the details of the person’s life
o Metaphor, simile, parallelism, repetition, antithesis, alliteration

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