THERMODYNAMICS

& HEAT TRANSFER

TEXTBOOKS:
• Faires, Termodinámica
• Cengel Y.; Boles M., Termodinámica, 7ma. Edición, McGraw - Hill, México, 2012, 978 p., 978-970-
10-7286-8
• Cengel Y., Boles M., Transferencia de Calor y Masa - 4ta edición – McGraw – Hill, México, 2011.
UNIT 1
1st LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
DEFINITION
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy.
Thermodynamics is the branch of the physical sciences that deals with
various energy phenomena and the related properties of matter,
especially with regard to the laws of transformation of heat to other
forms of energy and vice versa. Example: convert heat to work,
electricity to heat, work to kinetic energy, etc.
 CLASSIFICATION
• STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS.- It is based on the
average behavior of the molecules of a substance
• CLASSIC THERMODYNAMICS.- provides a way
straightforward and easy for engineering problem solving
 THERMODYNAMIC APPLICATIONS
HOME INDUSTRY
• Heating and air conditioning • Steam plants
• Pressure Cookers • Nuclear plants
• Electric and gas cookers • Electric power generating plants
• Water heaters • Industrial refrigeration
• Hot showers • Heating and air conditioning
• Home automation • Internal combustion engines
• etc. • Jet powered engines
• etc.
 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• English System or
United States
Customary System
(USCS)
• International System
(de Le Système
International d’
Unités SI)
 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Some more common units and their equivalents:
g=9.807m/s2 =32.2 ft/s2
 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Some more common units and their equivalents:
1 foot=12 inches
1 mile=5280 feet
1 lbm=0.45359kg o 1kg=2.2lbm
1 ft 0.3048 m o 1m=3.28ft
1N=1kg*1m/s2
1 lbf =32.174 lbm *1 ft/s2 = 1slug*1 ft/s2 → 1lbm pesa 1lbf
1kgf=1Kg*9.8m/s2 =9.8N
 Density, Relative density, specific weight
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉

𝜌
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝜌𝐻2 𝑂

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑊
S𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝛾 = = = 𝜌𝑔
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
S𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣 = =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
 Work or Energy
1𝐽 = 1𝑁 ∗ 1𝑚 𝑆. 𝐼.
BTU (British thermal unit), which is defined as the energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water by 1°F to
68°F.
caloría (cal), which is defined as the energy required to raise
the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C to 14.5°C.
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ
 CLOSED AND OPEN SYSTEMS
A system is defined as a quantity of matter SURROUNDINGS
or a region in the space chosen for analysis.
The mass or region outside the system is
known as surroundings. The real or
imaginary surface that separates the system
BORDER
from its surroundings is called the border.
The boundary of a system can be fixed or
mobile.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS
• Closed.- it consists of a fixed quantity of
mass and no other can cross its border. That
is, no mass can enter or leave a closed
system, but energy, in the form of heat or
work, can cross the border; and the volume
of a closed system does not have to be
fixed.
– Isolated system.- Energy does not cross de
border.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS
• Open System or Control Volume.- Both
mass and energy can cross the boundary
of a control volume. Example: A water
heater, a car radiator, a turbine and a
compressor.
• The boundaries of a control volume can
be real or imaginary, example: a nozzle
has both real and imaginary boundaries.
 CASES OF CONTROL VOLUMEN
A control volume can have fixed or mobile borders
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
Are its characteristics.
• Intensive.- Does not depend on the mass. Ex: pressure,
temperature.
• Extensive.- depend on the size or extension of the system.
Ex: mass, volume.
If a system is divided, the intensive properties retain their
value, while the extensive properties are also divided
 WORKING SUBSTANCE
It is usually a fluid where energy can be storaged and after
take out.
Example: vapor, gas, water, air, air+fuel, electrons.
Frequently in this subject, a system is a working substance
 PURE SUSBTANCE
A pure substance has the same molecular structure through
the whole system.
Example:
oxygen, dry air are pure substance
Chemical process, combustion are not pure sustance.
As we will see later, a pure fluid can be defined by just two
independent properties, they define it´s state
 PHASE
Usually, a pure substance can exist in whatever three phases (solid,
liquid, gas o vapor) under any particular condition, or at three phases
at same time.
Phase change:
• vaporization, boiling
• liquefaction
• solidification
• sublimation
 STATE AND BALANCE
The state of a system is described by its properties.
A system is in equilibrium state, if its properties do not vary
in a certain time interval.
Remember that a system can be open or close
 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Property A
Any change from one equilibrium
state to another experienced by a State 2
system is a process, and the series of
states a system goes through during
this process is a process path. To fully Path of the Process
describe a process, its initial and final
State 1
states must be specified, as well as
Property B
the path it follows and the
interactions with the surroundings.
 Quasi-static, or Quasi-equilibrium process
Is a process developed in such a way that all the time the
system remains infinitesimally close to a state of equilibrium

Non Quasi- Quasi-static

static process process
 SOME COMMON KIND OF PROCESS IN
THERMODYNAMICS
• Isobaric
• Isothermal
• Isometric
 STATIONARY FLOW PROCESS
Stacionary.- There is not change
with the time
Non-stacionary.- There is change
with the time
Uniform.- There is not change with
location
 PRESSURE
𝐹
𝑝=
𝐴
p=pressure
F=force
A=area
CONVERSION OF UNITS PRESSURE

1 atm = 1 bar
= 1 kg/cm²
= 14.7 lb/pulg²
= 100.000 pa
= 100 Kpa
= 0.1 Mpa
= 10 m c.a.
OTHER PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

ATMOSPHERIC LAYER
EARTH
¿ What the manometers measure?
p = 50 psi

Absolute pressure
Pressure gauge

64.7 psi
50 psi
p = 0 psi
Atmospheric
pressure
14.7 psi

Vacum

Lecture = 50 psig or 64.7 psi absolute

 BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Determine the atmospheric pressure
at a place where the barometric
reading is 740 mm Hg and the
gravitational acceleration is g=9.81
m/s². Suppose the temperature of
mercury is 10 °C, at which its density
is 13,570 kg/m³
 BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 13570 3 9.81 2 0.74𝑚
𝑚 𝑠
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 98.5𝑘𝑃𝑎
 VACUM UNITS

Presión atmosférica = 760 mm Hg

= 30 pulg Hg
VACUUM METERS
 Variation of pressure with depth
Δx

Let us assume, and it is true that, within Δz

Δy
a fluid, the pressure does not vary in
the horizontal directions, only in the
vertical direction.
𝐹
෍ 𝐹𝑍 = 𝑚𝑎𝑍 = 0 𝑃 = → 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴
𝐴
𝑃2 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 − 𝑃1 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 − 𝑊 = 0
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑉𝑔 = 𝜌∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧𝑔
 Variation of pressure with depth
Δx

𝑃2 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 − 𝑃1 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 − 𝑊 = 0 Δz
Δy
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑉𝑔 = 𝜌∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧𝑔
𝑃2 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 − 𝑃1 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 − 𝜌∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧𝑔 = 0
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 − 𝜌∆𝑧𝑔 = 0
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌∆𝑧𝑔 = 𝛾∆𝑧
For a differential element and ρ
variable:
𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑃 = 𝛾𝑑𝑧 𝑜𝑟 =𝛾
𝑑𝑧
 Variation of pressure with depth
𝑃2 𝑧2
𝑑𝑃
= 𝛾 → න 𝑑𝑃 = න 𝛾𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝑃1 𝑧1
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝛾𝑧
Si el punto P1 = P0 or Patm entonces
𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑛 = 𝛾𝑧
 EXERCISE 1
A manometer is used to measure the
pressure in a container. The fluid used has
a relative density of 0.85 and the height of
the gauge column is 55 cm, as illustrated in
Figure. If the local atmospheric pressure is
96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure
inside the container.
 EXERCISE 1
𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑛 = 𝛾𝑧
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝛾𝑧
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 = 𝜌𝑅 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 𝑔
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑁
𝛾 = 0.85 1000 3 9.81 2 = 8338.5 3
𝑚 𝑠 𝑚
𝑁 𝑁
𝑃2 = 96000 2 + 8338.5 3 0.55𝑚
𝑚 𝑚
𝑁
𝑃2 = 100,586.17 2 = 100.5𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑚
 EXERCISE 2
The water in a container is pressurized with
air and the pressure is measured using a
multi-fluid manometer, as shown in Figure.
The container is located on a mountain at an
altitude of 1,400 m where the atmospheric
pressure is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air
pressure in the container if h1 = 0.1 m, h2 =
0.2 m and h3 = 0.35 m. Take the densities of
water, oil, and mercury equal to 1,000 kg/m³,
850 kg/m³, and 13,600 kg/m³, respectively.
 EXERCISE 2
𝑃2 = 85.6𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃3 = 𝑃2 + 𝛾𝐻𝑔 ℎ3 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔ℎ3
𝑁 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 5 85.6 kPa
𝑃3 = 85600 2 + 13600 3 9.81 2 0.35𝑚
𝑚 𝑚 𝑠
𝑁 4 4 4
𝑃3 = 132295.6 2
𝑚
𝑃4 = 𝑃3 − 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑔ℎ2 3 3
𝑁 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑃4 = 132295.6 2 − 850 3 9.81 2 0.2𝑚
𝑚 𝑚 𝑠
𝑁
𝑃4 = 130,627.9 2
𝑚
 EXERCISE 2
𝑃5 = 𝑃4 − 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 𝑔ℎ1
𝑁 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑃5 = 130,627.9 2 − 1000 3 9.81 2 0.1𝑚 5 85.6 kPa
𝑚 𝑚 𝑠
𝑁
𝑃5 = 129,646.9 2 ≈ 130𝑘𝑃𝑎 4 4 4
𝑚

3 3
 EXERCISE 2’
Water flows through pipes A and B. Lubricating oil is in the
upper portion of the inverted “U”. Mercury is in the bottom
of the manometer bends. Determine the pressure difference
PA-PB, in units of lb/in²
 TEMPERATURE AND ZERO LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
The zero law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are
in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
This law serves as the basis for the validity of the
temperature measurement. If the third body is replaced by a
thermometer, the zero law can be re-expressed as two
bodies are in thermal equilibrium if they both have the same
temperature reading even if they are not in contact
 TEMPERATURE
Terms:
• Thermal equilibrium
• Reference standards (freezing temperature and boiling
water at atmospheric pressure)
• Proportionality with temperature
– Length, volumen, pressure, electric current, electric resistance,
etc.
 TEMPERATURE
POINTS OF REFERENCE

SCALE T of freezing T of boiling

Celcius 0°C 100°C
Farenheit 32°F 212°F

5
°𝐶 = °𝐹 − 32
9
9
°𝐹 = °𝐶 + 32
5
 EXERCISE 3
Find a formula to find out the temperature change in °C,
known the temperature change in °F.
5
𝑇2 °𝐶 = 𝑇2 °𝐹 − 32
9
5
𝑇1 °𝐶 = 𝑇1 °𝐹 − 32
9
5 5 5 5
𝑇2 °𝐶 − 𝑇1 °𝐶 = 𝑇2 °𝐹 − *32− 𝑇1 °𝐹 + *32
9 9 9 9
5
∆𝑇 °𝐶 = ∆𝑇 °𝐹
9
 ABSOLUTE CELSIUS DEGREES
Kelvin (°K)

-273 °C 0 °C 100 °C

0 °K 273 °K 373 °K
ABSOLUTE FAHRENHEIT DEGREES
Rankine (°R)

-460 °F 32°F 212 °F

0 °F absolutos 492 °F absolutos 672 °F absolutos

 INTERNAL ENERGY (U)
Molecules move continuously and randomly, therefore they
have kinetic energy, formed by translation, rotation and
vibration of the atoms of the molecules.
At the same time, the molecules also have potential energy
due to the change in position between them.
The sum of these two energies is called internal energy
 ENTALPY
It is a compound property, applicable to all fluids, given by:
𝑃𝑉
𝐻=𝑈+ = න ℎ𝑑𝑚
𝐽
𝑃𝑣 𝐶𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑇𝑈
ℎ=𝑢+ 𝑜
𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑙𝑏
Since what is most commonly interested is the change in enthalpy, then:

𝑃2 𝑣2 𝑃1 𝑣1
ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + − 𝑜𝑟
𝐽 𝐽
𝑑 𝑃𝑣 𝑃𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑑𝑃
𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + = 𝑑𝑢 + +
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
WORK
Mobile border
Non-fluent system work:
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝐴𝑑𝑙 System

𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃 𝐴𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝐵
𝑊 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 (𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒)
𝐴
𝐵
𝑤 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑣 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘)
𝐴
WORK

Fluent system work:

𝐹 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 → 𝑊𝑓1 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 𝐿 = 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊𝑓2 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
∆𝑊𝑓 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
∆𝑊𝑓 = 𝑃2 𝑣2 − 𝑃1 𝑣1 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘)
PRINCIPLE OF ENERGY CONSERVATION
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Initially the First Law of Thermodynamics was expressed as
"Work and Heat are mutually convertible".
Then it was expanded and today it is extended to all forms of
energy saying: "One form of energy can become another“
1Cal=4186J
1BTU=1055J=778lb-p
 DEFINITION OF MACHINE

1era Ley: La energía no puede ser creada ni destruida. Solo puede ser transformada
 ENERGIES
Energy classes:
• Work.- A mass has energy when that mass has the capacity
to produce work
• Potencial energy.- Energy due to position
• Kinetic energy.- Energy due to velocity
• Heat.-
• Internal energy
• Enthalpy
 EQUATION OF ENERGY CONSERVATION

ENERGY ENERGY OUT

CHANGE OF ENERGY IN
ENTERING = + OF THE
THE SYSTEM *
THE SYSTEM SYSTEM

ENERGY ENERGY OUT

INITIAL ENERGY - OF THE FINAL ENERGY
+ ENTERING =
STORED SYSTEM STORED
THE SYSTEM

* ΔU for the nonfluent, ΔE for the general case

 STATIONARY CURRENT OR FLOW ENERGY
EQUATION
Remember that in steady or constant flow, there is not
variation of energy or mass stored in the system, then:
Energy entering the system = Energy leaving the system
 STATIONARY CURRENT OR FLOW ENERGY
EQUATION

𝑃𝑜𝑡1 + 𝐾1 + 𝑊𝑓1 + 𝑈1 + 𝑄 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡2 + 𝐾2 + 𝑊𝑓2 + 𝑈2 + 𝑊𝑠

𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊𝑓 + ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑃𝑜𝑡 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊𝑓 + 𝑑𝐾 + 𝑑𝑃𝑜𝑡 + 𝑑𝑊𝑠
STATIONARY CURRENT OR FLOW ENERGY
EQUATION

𝑃𝑜𝑡1 + 𝐾1 + 𝑊𝑓1 + 𝑈1 + 𝑄 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡2 + 𝐾2 + 𝑊𝑓2 + 𝑈2 + 𝑊𝑠

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝐾1 + + 𝑈1 + 𝑄 = 𝐾2 + + 𝑈2 + 𝑊𝑠
𝐽 𝐽
𝐾1 + 𝐻1 + 𝑄 = 𝐾2 + 𝐻2 + 𝑊𝑠
𝐾1 + ℎ1 + 𝑄 = 𝐾2 + ℎ2 + 𝑊𝑠
 EXERCISE 4
A compressor takes air at the absolute pressure of 1.05
kg/cm² and expels it at 7 kg/cm² ; v₁ = 0.12 m³/kg and v₂ =
0.031 m³/kg. The internal energy increase is 22 Cal/kg and
the work is 39 Cal/kg; The height difference between suction
and discharge is small, as are the speeds. How much heat is
transmitted?
𝑃𝑜𝑡1 + 𝐾1 + 𝑊𝑓1 + 𝑈1 + 𝑄 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡2 + 𝐾2 + 𝑊𝑓2 + 𝑈2 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑄 = 𝑊𝑓2 − 𝑊𝑓1 + 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑊𝑠
 EXERCISE 4
𝑄 = 𝑊𝑓2 − 𝑊𝑓1 + 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑄= − + 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑊𝑠
𝐽 𝐽
𝑃2 𝑣2 𝑃1 𝑣1
𝑄= − + 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑊𝑠
𝐽 𝐽
𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
7 2 0.031 1.05 2 0.12 𝐶𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑙
𝑐𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑐𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝑄= − +22 − 39
𝐽 𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
 EXERCISE 4
𝑘𝑔 10000𝑐𝑚2 9.8𝑁 𝑚3 1𝐽 1𝐶𝑎𝑙
𝑃2 𝑣2 = 7 2 2
0.031
𝑐𝑚 1𝑚 1𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 1𝑁𝑚 4186𝐽
𝑃2 𝑣2 = 5.08𝐶𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑔 10000𝑐𝑚2 9.8𝑁 𝑚3 1𝐽 1𝐶𝑎𝑙
𝑃1 𝑣1 = 1.05 2 2
0.12
𝑐𝑚 1𝑚 1𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 1𝑁𝑚 4186𝐽
𝑃1 𝑣1 = 2.95𝐶𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔
If we do the following mathematical operation:
4186𝐽
= 427 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝐼 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑜𝑟 728 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑠𝑦𝑡𝑒𝑚
9.8𝐶𝑎𝑙
 EXERCISE 4
𝐶𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑙
𝑄= 5.08 𝑘𝑔 − 2.95 𝑘𝑔 +22 𝑘𝑔 − 39 𝑘𝑔 = −14.87 𝑘𝑔 (𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟)
 POWER
𝑊
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡
Interpretation: How quickly energy turns into work
Units:
HP CV kw BTU/s
HP 1 1.014 0.75 0.71
CV 0.9863 1 0.74 0.7
kw 1.34 1.36 1 0.95
BTU/s 1.41 1.43 1.06 1
 EXERCISE 4’
A gas expands slowly within a piston and cylinder apparatus in the
absence of friction from 0.10 to 0.3 m³. It is possible to describe the
process using P = 7.4 - 40V + 60V², where P is in bars and V in m³.
Obtain the numerical value of the pressure when the volume is equal
to 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 m³ and graph the process on a P-V diagram.
b) In which units should the constants 40 and 60 of the expression be
reported for P.
c) Calculate the job and its address in KJ.
 EXERCISE 4’’
A substance flows through a turbine with a mass flow of 45.4
kg/min with Δk = 0 and Q = 0. At the entrance, its pressure is
12.3 kg/cm² absolute, its volume 0.197 m³/kg and internal
energy 648.16 Cal/kg. At the outlet, its pressure is 0.0572
kg/cm² abs, its volume 20.5 m³/kg and internal energy 475
Cal/kg. a) How many CVs are produced? b) The same as
literal "a" except that there is a loss of heat in the turbine of
5.5 Cal/kg of steam.