CHAPTER # 11

HEAT

1
By using Kinetic Molecular Theory show that P  ρV 2
3

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Drive Boyles and Charles law from KMT.

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Describe the construction and working of a Carnot engine and drive the expression for the efficiency of Carnot engine
also draw labeled graphical representation of the Carnot cycle.

CARNOT ENGINE:
In 1824, a French engineer Sadi Carnot, introduced a heat engine, which has maximum possible efficiency.

CONSTRUCTION:
Carnot engine consist of an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder of movable frictionless piston whose walls & top
are non-conducting but has conducting base.

CARNOT CYCLE:
Carnot engine operates in a cycle, which consists of four steps. This cycle unknown as Carnot cycle. The cycle
made up of two adiabatic and two isothermal process, as discussed below.

WORKING:

STEP#1 (ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION):

In step 1 the Carnot engine is placed over a hot body and gas is allowed to expand by decreasing the pressure
P1 to P2 by which volume is increases from V1 to V2 and the temperature of the system should be fall but
system absorb heat from the base and maintain the constant temperature. This process is known as
Isothermal expansion.

STEP #2 (ADIABATIC EXPANSION):

In step-2 the Carnot engine is placed over an insulator, gas is allowed to expand by decreasing the pressure P 2
to P3 by which volume is increases from V2 to V3 and the temperature of the system decreases from T 1 to T2.
This process is called adiabatic expansion.

STEP 3# (ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION):

In step-3 the Carnot engine is placed over a cold body, gas is allowed to compressed by increasing from P 3 to
P4 ,the volume is decrease from V3 to V4, and the system eject some amount of heat from base and maintain
the constant temperature. This process is called isothermal compression.

STEP 4 (ADIABATIC COMPRESSION):

In step-4 the Carnot engine is once again placed on an insulator and pressure of the system is increased from
p4 to p1 by which volume is decreased from v4 to v1 and the temperature increases from T2 to T1, therefore the
process is called adiabatic compression.

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Show that the difference between molar specific heat at constant pressure Cp molar specific heat at constant volume Cv
is equal to the universal gas constant R. -OR- CP – CV =R

Proof:
We consider two process of first law of thermodynamic

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 CHAPTER # 14
MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM
LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
Drive an expression for the Mutual Induction or self-induction.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
In 1830 Joseph Henry and Faraday observed that an E.M.F. is setup in a coil placed in a magnetic field
whenever the flux through the coil changes. The phenomenon is called Electromagnetic Induction.

FLUX LINKAGE:
The product of number of turns N and the flux ф through each turn of the coil is called flux linkage i.e.
Flux Linkage = N ф

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:

There are three laws of Electromagnetic Induction.
FARADAY’S FIRST LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
An emf is induced in a coil through which the magnetic flux is changing. The emf lasts so long as the change of
flux is in progress and becomes zero as soon as the flux through the coil becomes constant or zero.

LENZ’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:

Lenz’s law states that" "The direction of induced current is always such as to oppose the cause which
produces it". That is why a –ve sign is used in Faraday’s law.

MUTUAL INDUCTION:
If two coils close together, then changing current in primary coil sets up a changing magnetic field in the
secondary coil and so induces an emf in it. This phenomenon is called mutual induction.

FORMULA:
The induced emf in the secondary coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of current in primary coil
and is given by;
dI1
ξ2 α -
dt
dI1
ξ 2  - constant
dt
 constant  M
dI1
ξ2  - M
dt
dI
ξ -M
dt
Where M is the mutual inductance of the pair of coils. Its value depends upon the number of turns of the coil.
UNIT:
The unit of mutual inductance is Henry.

HENRY:
The mutual inductance of two coils is one Henry if a current at the rate of one ampere per second in the
primary causes an induced emf of one volt in the secondary coil.

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A.C GENERATOR:
A Generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
A.C Generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction (motional emf). In generator an emf is
induced between the poles of a magnet.

CONSTRUCTION:
A.C Generator consists of the following parts.
1. Field magnet with concave poles. 2. Armature 3. Rectangular coil 4. Slip rings 5. Carbon brushes

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TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is a device which is used for stepping up and stepping down an alternating emf.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction of pair of
coil. When current in the primary coil is changed the flux linked to
the secondary coil also changes. Consequently an
EMF is induced in the secondary coil.

CONSTRUCTION:
Two coils of insulated copper wires, a primary coil and a secondary
coil are wound on a laminated soft iron core and thus these are
linked magnetically.
The presence of soft iron core ensures that all the flux associated with one coil also passes through the other.

WORKING:
Suppose an alternating emf Ep is applied to the primary coil having number of turns Np produce magnetic
flux. According to Faradays law;
Δ
EP  NP
Δt
EP Δ
      (1
NP Δt
Similarly Es is the alternating emf of the secondary coil having number of turns Ns. According to Faradays law;
Δ
ES   NS
Δt
ES Δ
      ( 2
NS Δt

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 Due to the presence of soft iron core all the flux associated with primary also passes through the secondary
and therefore the rate of change of flux in both coils is same. So by comparing equation 1 and 2
ES E
 P
NS N P
ES NS

EP NP

This expression shows that the magnitude of EMF depends upon the number of turns in the coil.

RECTIFICATION:
The process of converting alternating current or voltage into direct current or voltage is called rectification. A
semiconductor p-n-junction diode can be used as a rectifier.

HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION:

The process in which half alternating current is converting into direct current is called half wave rectification.

When an alternating voltage is applied across a semi-conductor diode, during the positive half cycle the junction
is in forward biased and offers low resistance hence current is conducts. Whereas during the negative half cycle
it is in reversed biased and offers high resistance so it does not conduct current. Hence in the external circuit
current flows only when positive half cycle acts across the diode, no current flows when negative half cycle acts
across it. Hence only half cycle of alternating voltage is rectified, this process is called half wave rectification.

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FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION:
The process in which all alternating current is converting into direct current is called full wave rectification.

WORKING:
To convert alternating current completely into direct current we used two semi-conductor diodes D1 and D2
which are connected by using center tapped secondary winding. The diode D 1 is used to convert +ve half cycle
of Ac current into direct current whereas diode D2 is used to convert -ve half cycle of Ac current into direct
current. In this way all alternating current is converted into direct current.

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 Chapter # 15
Electrical Measuring Instruments

AVO METER (Universal meter):

The word AVO meter is stand for Ampere - volt - ohm-meter. AVO meter is a single compact meter with
common galvanometer which used to measure the current, voltage and resistance of different range or orders
by using selector cum range switch. A rectifier circuit is also used in the meter to convert AC current into DC
current before they pass through the galvanometer. AVO meter is also called Universal meter.

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METER BRIDGE:
Meter bridge is also called slide-wire bridge which is used to measure the unknown resistance, in meter bridge
one meter wire of Manganin or Constantans is used. Meter bridge is works on the principle of Wheatstone
bridge.

POST OFFICE BOX (PO Box):

Post office Box is works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge, was first introduced for finding the resistance
of telegraph wires and fault finding work in the post and telegraph office.

POTENTIOMETER:
A potentiometer is a device for measuring the Potential difference between the two points of a circuit also find
out the ratio the emf of two cells. In potentiometer the larger the length of the wire greater will be the
accuracy of measurement. In potentiometer ten meter wire of Manganin or Constantans is used.

**************************
WHEAT-STONE BRIDGE:
Wheat stone bridge is an electrical circuit which is used to
measure the unknown resistance design by Wheatstone so called
Wheat stone bridge.
If four resistance R1, R2, R4 ,and R3 are connected end to end in
such a way that they form a closed circuit ABCDA ,a sensitive
galvanometer "G" is connected between B and D through the key
‘K2’and a battery is connected between the points A and C
through the key ‘K1’then circuit so formed is called Wheat stone
bridge.

BALANCED WHEAT-STONE BRIDGE:

When both the Keyes ‘K1’ and K2 is closed then the current
start flowing through the circuit and galvanometer shows its deflection. If the resistance R 1, R2, R3 and R4 or at
least one of them are so adjusted that galvanometer shows no deflection than is state is known as "Balanced
state of Wheat stone bridge ".

AT BALANCED STATE:
VAB = VAD
but [V = IR]
I1R 1 = I 2 R 3
R1 I2
  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (I)
R 3 I1
Similarly,
VBC = VCD
or
I1R 2 = I 2 R 4
R 2 I2
 - - - - - - - - - - - -(II)
R 4 I1
by 1 and 2
R1 R 2

R3 R4
R1 R 3

R2 R4

APPLICATIONS OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE:

A number of resistance measuring devices have been devised on the principle of Wheatstone bridge.
For example:
Meter bridge, Post office box, Carey Foster's bridge, Griffith's bridge

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MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER:
Galvanometer is an electronic device which is used for the detection (or measurement) of small amount of
electric currents.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
When a current flows in a rectangular coil suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it experiences a magnetic
couple of torque.

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF GALVANOMETER:

Essential parts of a Galvanometer are.
1. A U-shaped permanent magnet with concave poles.
2. Flat rectangular coil of thin enameled insulated wire ‘C’.
3. A soft iron cylinder 'B'.
4. A pointer or needle.
5. A scale.

CONSTRUCTION:
The flat rectangular coil of thin enameled insulated wire of suitable number of turns wound on a soft iron
cylinder and suspended between the concave poles of magnet. In the space between it and the pole pieces,
where the coil moves freely, the soft iron cylinder makes the magnetic field stronger and radial such that into
whatever position the coil rotates, the magnetic field is always parallel to its plane.

WORKING:
When a current passes through the galvanometer coil, it experiences a magnetic deflecting torque, which
tends to rotate it from its rest position. The magnitude of deflecting torque is given;
Deflecting magnetic torque  τdef = BINA Cosα
The soft iron cylinder makes the magnetic field stronger and radial such that into whatever position the coil
rotates, the magnetic field is always parallel to its plane (=0o)
Deflecting magnetic torque  τ def = BINA Cos0o
 Cos0o  1
τ def = BINA - - - - - - - (1

As the coil rotates it produces a twist in the suspension strip. The twist in the strip produces an electric
restoring torque.
As the coil rotates it produces a twist in the suspension strip. The twist in the strip produces an electric
restoring torque which is directly proportional to the Angle of twist.
Restoring torque τ res α θ
τ res  C θ - - - - - - - -(2
Where  = Angle of twist and C is a constant called couple per unit twist.
The coil rotates until the elastic restoring torque due to the strip does not equal and cancels the deflecting
magnetic torque, then it attains equilibrium and stops rotating any furthers. At equilibrium position.
Deflecting magnetic torque  Restoring torque
τ def = τ res
RES

BINA  Cθ
C
I θ
BNA
C
is constant
BNA
Iαθ

Thus current through the coil is directly proportional to the angle of twist of the suspension.
If the magnetic field were uniform (as with flat pole pieces) would continuously increase with q and Cos α
factor would not be constant. Then the current "I" would not be proportional to "q" and the scale of the
galvanometer not linear. However, due to the radial magnetic field the plane of the coil is always parallel to
the field irrespective of the position of the coil rotates. So "a" the angle between the plane of the coil and
𝐂𝐪
direction of the field is always zero. Hence Cos a = I. The equation (i) therefore, reduces to: I =
𝐁𝐀𝐍
Since C, B, A and N are constant for a galvanometer, therefore, I A q
Thus current through the coil is directly proportional to the angle of twist of the suspension (or deflection) q.

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SENSITIVITY OF GALVANOMETER:
The current in micro ampere required to produce large deflection on a scale of galvanometer (/I).The
sensitivity is; θ BNA
S 
I C
Sensitivity will be large if
(i) "C" should be small
(ii) Area of coil should is large (iii) "N" Number of turns of coil should be increased
(iv) "B" should be large: This is achieved by:
(a) Using powerful magnet.
(b) Introducing iron core in coil.

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 Chapter # 16
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND ELECTRONICS
SEMI-CONDUCTORS:
Elements of group IV of the periodic table are called semi-conductors, the electrical conductivity of semi-
conductors are lies between conductors and insulators. Silicon and Germanium are called semiconductors.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:
The pure semiconductor before doping is called intrinsic semiconductors.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:
The semiconductor after doping is called extrinsic semiconductors.

DOPING:
To improve the conductivity and electrical properties the elements from group III or group V are added as an
impurity to tetravalent Germanium “Ge”. This process of addition of impurities is called doping.

TYPES OF DOPING:
There are two types of doping.
1. Donor doping 2. Acceptor doping

SEMI-CONDUCTOR DIODE OR P-N JUNCTION:

When a block of p-type material is put adjacent to a block of n-type
material, their common plane is termed as p-n junction. And the device is
called semiconductor diode. A kind of barrier is set up at the junction that
prevents the flow of electrons and holes across the junction, this barrier is
called potential barrier. A current can be made to flow across the junction
only when a potential difference is applied.

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BIASING:
The application of some electric al potential across the diode is known as biasing. There are two types of
biasing.

FORWARD BIASING:
If the external voltage applied across a p-n junction in such a way that the p-type semiconductor is connected
with the positive terminal of the battery and n- type is connected with the negative terminal of the battery,
then this type of biasing is known as forward biasing. In which we get maximum current and low resistance.

REVERSE BIASING:
If the external voltage applied across a p-n junction in such a way that the n-type semiconductor is connected
with the positive terminal of the battery and p- type is connected with the negative terminal of the battery,
then this type of biasing is known as reverse biasing. In which we get maximum resistance and current does
not conduct through the circuit.

RECTIFICATION:
The process of converting alternating current or voltage into direct current or voltage is called rectification. A
semiconductor p-n-junction diode can be used as a rectifier.

HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION:

The process in which half alternating current is converting into direct current is called half wave rectification.

When an alternating voltage is applied across a semi-conductor diode, during the positive half cycle the junction is in
forward biased and offers low resistance hence current is conducts. Whereas during the negative half cycle it is in
reversed biased and offers high resistance so it does not conduct current. Hence in the external circuit current flows
only when positive half cycle acts across the diode, no current flows when negative half cycle acts across it. Hence only
half cycle of alternating voltage is rectified, this process is called half wave rectification.

FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION:

The process in which all alternating current is converting into direct current is called full wave rectification.

WORKING:
To convert alternating current completely into direct current we used two semi-conductor diodes D1 and D2
which are connected by using center tapped secondary winding. The diode D 1 is used to convert +ve half cycle
of Ac current into direct current whereas diode D 2 is used to convert -ve half cycle of Ac current into direct
current. In this way all alternating current is converted into direct current.

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PHOTODIODES:
Photodiodes is a semiconductor device, which convert light energy into electrical energy.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):

Light emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device, which give off visible light when it is energized energy
into electrical energy.

SOLAR CELL:
Solar cell is a semiconductor device, which convert light energy into electrical energy.

TRANSISTOR:
A three terminal semiconductor electronic device which have three electrodes is called transistor. The world
transistor is the combination of two wards first transfer and second resistor. Transistors are widely used in
electronic appliances such as computers, radio, audio video equipment, bio medical instrument etc. to amplify
the small A.C signals to high A.C signals, invented by Shockly, Brattain and Bardeen in 1948.

CONSTRUCTION:
A transistor is consist a very thin central layer of one type of semiconductor material sandwiched between two
other types of semiconductor.

TYPES OF TRANSISTORS:
There are two types of transistor

1. p-n-p-TRANSISTORS:

2. n-p-n-TRANSISTOR:

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF TRANSISTORS:

There are three essentials parts of a transistor.

1. BASE:
It is the central layer denoted by b.2.Emitter: It is the outer layer denoted by e. 3.Collector: It is the outer layer
denoted by c.

WORKING OF p-n-p-TRANSISTOR:
Consider any one of the transistors for example a pnp-transistor. Let the two p-end are connected to two
batteries as shown in the diagram. The forward bias causes the holes in the p-type emitter to flow towards the
base which constituent Ie current. These holes cross into the n-type base, they try to combine with electrons
but the base is lightly doped and is very thin. Therefore only few holes combine with electrons and the
remaining holes cross into the collector and generates collector current I c. In this way almost the entire emitter
current flows in the collector circuit. From the above description it is clear that;
Ie = I b + I c

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 Thus there are two current paths through a transistor. One is the base-emitter path or input and the other is
the collector-emitter path or output.

WORKING OF n-p-n TRANSISTOR:

Consider n-p-n transistors with forward bias to emitter-base junction and reverse bias to collector-base
junction. The forward bias causes the electrons in the N-type emitter to flow towards the base which
constituent Ie current. As electrons flow through P-type base, they try to combine with holes but the base is
lightly doped and is very thin therefore only a few electrons less than 5% combine with holes to constitute
base current Ib .the remainder 95% cross over the collector region to constitute collector current I c in this way
almost entire current flows through the circuit therefore the collector current can be written as Ie = Ib + Ic

THE BAND THEORY OF SOLID:

The theory, which explains the structure and electrical properties of solid in the form of energy bands, called
band theory of solid.

The solid consist of large no of atoms, which are very close to each other. Due to interaction of atomic nucleus,
these atoms are appeared in the form of energy bands.
There are three types of energy bands.
1. Valence band. 2. Conduction band. 3. Forbidden band

1. VALENCE BAND:
The lowest available energy band which is corresponds to ground state is called valence band. Normally
valence electrons exist in this band, which are tightly held with the atomic nucleus.

2. CONDUCTION BAND:
The energy band next to the valence band is called conduction band. This band is completely filled by the
conduction electrons. It is the upper most band of the atom.

3. FORBIDDEN BAND:
The region in which electrons cannot occupy is called forbidden band. This band lies between the valence band
and conduction band.

BAND STRECTURE OF INSULATORS:

In insulators, the valence band is completely filled by the electrons but conduction
band is empty. In between valence band and conduction band, the forbidden band has
wide gap, hence insulators don’t conduct current even at higher temperature.

BAND STRECTURE OF SEMI-CONDUCTORS:

In semi-conductors, the valence band is partially filled by the electrons but conduction
band is empty. In between valence band and conduction band, the forbidden band has
small gap, hence at very low energy some of the electrons can easily transferred from
the valence band to the conduction band, which conduct slightly conduct.

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BAND STRECTURE OF CONDUCTORS:
In conductors, the valence band and conduction band are overlapped and there is no
forbidden band. The valence band is completely filled by the electrons but conduction
band is partially filled by the electrons hence electrons can easily transferred from the
valence band to the conduction band, which conduct maximum current easily.

N- TYPE SEMI CONDUCT OR ACCEPTOR DOPING:

When tetravalent element of group IV such as Germanium “Ge” is doped with pentavalent element of group V
such as Antimony (Sb) then we get four covalent bonds, while the fifth electron will remain as free charge
carrier, which makes a “Ge” as a batter conductor. This type of doping is called donor doping and this type of
semiconductor in which current is flow due to the flow of electrons is called n-type semi-conductor.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR DONOR DOPING:

When tetravalent element of group IV Germanium “Ge” is doped with trivalent element of group III such as
Indium (In) then we get three covalent bonds and a vacancy is exist due to the shortage of an electron, called
Hole. Which behaves like a positive charge, which makes a “Ge” a batter conductor. This type of doping is
called acceptor doping and this type of semiconductor in which current is flow due to holes .is called p-type
semi-conductor.

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 CHAPTER # 17
ADVENT OF MODERN PHYSICS
COMPTON`S EFFECT:
“When x-rays are scattered due interaction with light body such as electron, the scattered rays exhibit lower
frequencies (higher wave lengths) than the incident radiations".

This phenomena was first observed by Arthur Compton in 1926 so called Compton’s effect, which provided a
solid support of photon theory of light.

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION:
Consider x rays photon of energy E=h1 and momentum h1/c is incident on stationary electron of energy
Eo = mo c2 and momentum (p=0). After collision the photon is scattered at an angle of  with its original line of
action, while electron moves forward at an angle of  with its original direction. The collision between photon
and electron is elastic collision, elastic collision is that collision in which total momentum before and after
collision is conserved.

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM NE ALONG THE LINE OF IMPACT:

hυ1 hυ 2
 cosθ  Pcos - - - - - (1
c c
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUMACROSS THE LINE OF IMPACT:
hυ 2
0 sinθ - Psin - - - - - (2
c
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY BEFORE AND AFTER COLLISION:

h1  mo c 2  h 2  E      (3

By solving above three equations we get following result;

This is the famous Compton formula for the shift in wavelength.

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ENERGY EXPRESSION FOR PAIR PRODUCTION:
When a -rays photon of energy h passes in the vicinity of a heavy nucleus a part of energy 2moc2 (1.02 Mev)
is used to eject the electron- positron pair and remaining part of energy is converted as a form of kinetic
energies of the pair which can be represented by;

LASER:
The word laser is an abbreviation of the statement of;
“Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation”
The laser is a device for producing very intense highly directional and monochromatic light beam.

TYPES OF LASER:
1. Solid state laser 2. Gas laser 3. Liquid laser 4. Semi-conductor laser

PRINCIPLE OF LASER:
The Principle Of Laser Is Based Upon Three-Flowing Process.
1. STIMULATED ABSORPTION.
2. SPONTANEOUS EMISSION.
3. STIMULATED EMISSION.

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 1. STIMULATED OR INDUCED ABSORPTION:
We consider three energy level systems in which atoms are in the ground state E1, when a beam of photons of
energy E  h is incident on the atoms, the atom absorb the photon and reaches the excited state E 3.This
process is known as stimulated or induced absorption, at this energy state atom can stay only for limited time
called life time of the state- usually of the order of 10-8 sec.

2. SPONTANEOUS EMISSION:
After passing time 10-8 sec the atom will fall back to the lower energy state E 2 with the release of random
character and is incoherent photons. This process is known as spontaneous emission in which atom can stay
for a time of the order of 3  10 3 sec.

Mata stable state:

In energy state E2 atoms can stay for the time 3  10 3 sec, which means that the atoms reach state E2 much
faster than they leave state E2 , this increased the number of atoms in state E2 as compared to the number of
atom in E3 . This energy state which has a longer time period than the other energy state is called Mata Stable
State.

Population inversion:
The time period of energy state E2 is much greater than the time period of energy state E 1 ,as a result large
number of atoms are obtain in the energy state E 2 .This phenomena in which we get large number of atoms in
the energy state E2 is called population inversion.

3. STIMULATED EMISSION:
After attaining the population inversion, the energy state E 2 is exposed by the beam of photons of energy h ,
as a result number of coherent photons are fall back towards the energy state E1 which are identical and are in
same phase causes very intense highly directional and monochromatic light beam of light called laser. This
process is known as Stimulated emission.

RUBY LASER:
The most common laser is made by ruby crystal,
which is actually a compound of AL2O3 (alumna) in
which small no of aluminum atoms are replaced by
chromium (Cr+++) ions.

CONSTRUCTION:
The ruby laser is a cylindrical rod 5cm long and 1cm
in diameter, with parallel, optically flat reflecting
ends. The ruby rod is surrounded by a helical flash
lamp. Two concave mirrors one of which is partially
reflected are provided at the ends of the rod.

WORKING:
The helical flash lamp provides necessary pumping energy. The chromium atoms absorb energy and are
excited form ground energy E1 state to excited state E2 under the action of stimulated or induced absorption,
at this energy state E2 atom can stay only 10-8 sec and then fall back to the lower energy state E 3 with the
release of random character and is incoherent photons under the action of spontaneous emission, these
incoherent photons are reflected from the partially reflecting ends of concave mirror for recycle. At the energy
state E3 atom can stay for a long time of the order of 3  10 3 sec as a result Mata Stable State is obtain The
time period of energy state E2 is much greater than the time period of energy state E3, as a result large number
of atoms are obtain in the energy state E2 and population inversion are achieved. After attaining the population
inversion it exposed by the beam of photons of energy h , as a result number of coherent photons are fall
back towards the energy state E1 which are identical and are in same phase causes to emitted very intense
highly directional and monochromatic light beam of light from the partially reflected end which is called laser.
This process is known as Stimulated emission.

APPLICATION OF LASER:
1. MEDICAL & SURGERY:
Laser is used in removing tumors and breaking stones in kidney and gall bladder.( Lithotripsy )
2. EYE SURGERY.
It is also used in eye surgery.

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 3. HOLOGRAPHY:
Three dimension images of objects obtained by laser. This process is called holography.
4. COMPUTER PRINTING:
The laser is also used in computer printing.
5. CUTTING OF MATERIAL:
It is also used in industries for cutting metals.

PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

DEFINITION:
When ultraviolet light falls on certain metals, electrons
are emitted. This phenomenon in which certain metals
emit electrons when exposed to light of suitable
frequency, is called PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT.
In short, ejection of electrons by means of light is called
'photo electric effect'.

EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT TO OBSERVE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

If suitable light is allowed to fall on plate 'P', it will give out photo electrons as shown in the figure. The photo
electrons are attracted by the collector 'C' connected to the +ve terminal of a battery. The glass tube is
evacuated. When the collector 'C' is kept at +ve potential, the photo electrons are attracted by it and a current
flows in the circuit which is indicated by the galvanometer.

THRESHOLD FREQUENCY:
Threshold frequency is defined as the minimum frequency of incident light which can cause photo electric
emission i.e. this frequency is just able to eject electrons without giving them additional energy.
It is denoted by

WORK FUNCTION:
Minimum amount of energy which is necessary to start photo electric emission is called Work Function. If the
amount of energy of incident radiation is less than the work function of metal, no photo electrons are emitted.
It is denoted by.
Work function of a material is given by.
It is a property of material. Different materials have different values of work function. Generally, elements with
low I.P values have low work function such as Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs.

STOPPING POTENTIAL:
The negative potential of the plate 'C' at which the photo electric current becomes zero is called stopping
potential or cut-off potential. Stopping potential is that value of retarding potential difference between two
plates which is just sufficient to halt the most energetic photo electrons emitted.
It is denoted by "Vo".

DEPENDENCE OF PHOTO ELECTRONS:

The number of photo electrons depends upon:
The nature of material
The frequency of incident radiation
The intensity of incident radiation
Potential difference b/w the electrons

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EFFECT OF FREQUENCY:
The graph shows that a threshold frequency '' is a minimum frequency below which no electrons escape from
the metal surface. The photo electric effect occurs above the frequency while ceases below this frequency.

EFFECT OF INTENSITY:
If we draw the photo electric curve by plotting the photo electric current 'I' verses the accelerating voltage 'V',
the graph so obtained is shown below. Graph shows that there is a saturation current for different intensities
and even when V=0, there is some photo electric current Io. The curve shows that the stopping potential is
independent of the intensity of radiation.
If these curves are plotted for different frequencies V1 and V2 but with same intensity (graph on right), the
curve shows the behavior as shown:
* The saturation current depends upon intensity and not on frequency.
However, the stopping potential becomes more negative from (V o) 1 to (Vo) 2 with the increase in frequency.

OTHER FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF PHOTO ELECTRIC EMISSION:

The no. of electrons emitted per second i.e. photo current is proportional to the intensity of incident light.
If frequency of incident radiation is below threshold frequency, no photo electric emission will take place.
The max. velocity or max. K.E of photoelectrons depends on the frequency of radiation not on intensity. K.E.
Increases with the increase in frequency.
The rate at which the electrons are emitted from a photo cathode is independent of its temperature.
This shows that photo electric effect is entirely different from thermionic emission.
For a given metal surface, stopping potential (Vo) is directly proportional to frequency but independent of
intensity.

EINSTEIN'S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION:

According to Plank's quantum theory, light is emitted from a source in the forms of bundles of energy called
photons.
Einstein made use of this theory to explain how photo electric emission takes place. According to Einstein,
when photons of energy fall on a metal surface, they transfer their energy to the electrons of metal. When the
energy of photon is larger than the minimum energy required by the electrons to leave the metal surface, the
emission of electrons take place instantaneously.
He proposed that an electron absorbs one whole photon or none. The chance that an electron may absorb
more than one electron is negligible because the number of photons is much lower than the electron. After
absorbing the photon, an electron either leaves the surface or dissipates its energy within the metal in such a
short interval that it has almost no chance to absorb second photon. An increase in intensity of light source
simply increases the number of photon and the number of photo electrons but no increase in the energy of
photo electron. However, increase in frequency increases the energy of photons and photo electrons.
According to Einstein's explanation of photoelectric emission, a photon of energy 'E' performs two operations:
1. Removes the electron from the surface of metal
2. Supplies some part of energy to move photo electron towards anode Since minimum amount of energy to
remove electron from a surface is equal to work function, we can write Einstein equation as: Energy Supplied =
Energy Consumed in ejecting an electron + maximum Kinetic energy of electron
Equations from (1) to (6) are identical and are known as Einstein's photoelectric equations.

THEORY OF RELATIVITY

FRAME OF REFERENCE:
Motion of a body is always described with reference to some well-defined coordinate system. This coordinate
system is referred to as 'frame of reference'. In three dimensional space a frame of reference consists of three
mutually perpendicular lines called 'axes of frame of reference' meeting at a single point or origin. The
coordinates of the origin are O (0, 0, 0) and that of any other point 'P' in space are P(x, y, z).The line joining the
points O and P is called the position vector of the point P with respect to O.

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INERTIAL FRAME OF REFERENCE:
A frame of reference that remains at rest or moves with constant velocity with respect to other frames of
reference is called 'INERTIAL FRAME OF REFERENCE'. An inertial frame of reference is actually an
Un-accelerated frame of reference. Newton's laws of motion are valid in all inertial frames of reference. In this
frame of reference a body does not acted upon by external forces. All inertial frames of reference are
equivalent for the measurement of physical phenomena.

Example
Our earth.
A space shuttle moving with constant velocity relative to the earth.
A rocket moving with constant velocity relative to the earth.

NON-INERTIAL FRAME OF REFERENCE:

A frame of reference is said to be a non-inertial frame of reference when a body, not acted upon by an
external force is accelerated. In non-inertial frame of reference, Newton's laws of motion are not valid.
Example:

SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY:

The part of relativistic mechanics which is related to uniform motion,
is called 'Special Theory of Relativity'.

POSTULATES OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY:

Einstein proposed his famous theory of special relativity in the year 1905. Einstein's special theory of relativity
is based on the following fundamental postulates: There is no preferred or absolute inertial frame of reference
i.e. all inertial frames are equivalent for the description of all physical laws such as Newton's laws as well as
Maxwell's electromagnetic equations. The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all observers in uniform
translational relative motion and is independent of the motion of the observer and the source.

GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY:

The part of relativistic mechanics which is related to accelerated motion, is called 'General Theory of
Relativity'.

CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY:

We observe that in the development of special theory of relativity, frames of reference in relative motion with
a constant speed V have been used. If the speed V becomes large enough to approach the velocity of light C,
then the Galilean's transformations are found to be noticeably wrong. To correct the state of affairs it will be
necessary to introduce a factor called 'Lorentz Factor' or 'Relativistic factor'. Lorentz Factor is equal to: This
factor is in fact a measure of departure of Galilean's transformation. If is much smaller than as it is in our
common situations, then is so small that the relativistic factor is essentially equal to unity. Under these
conditions the classical and the relativistic physics predict nearly identical results. However when V
approaches c (e.g.: V = C/5), Then the Galilean transformation will be incorrect. Based on these considerations,
if we interpret the result of special theory of relativity we end up in some very interesting consequences.
Without going to make actual mathematical calculation, We may summarize the important consequences of
the theory of special relativity which are as under:

MASS VARIATION:
According to the special theory of relativity, the mass of an object in a frame of reference at rest is called its
rest mass mo. if this mass is measured by an observation moving with a constant speed V relative to the object,
then it will not remain constant if the speed V is comparable to C. The mass m in the moving frame will very
according to the mass variation given by:
This mass variation formula shows that mass changes with the velocity and not in general a constant nor the
same for all observes but it is quantity that:

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 (a) depend upon the reference frame from which the body is being observed.
(b) is greater than or equal to the rest mass m o when the body is at rest in the frame of reference from which
the body is being observed.

LENGTH CONTRACTION:
In the theory of special relativity it has been found that the measurement of length of a rod in a stationary
frame of reference is not the same when the rod is measured by the observer in the moving frame of
reference with the velocity relative to the rod, provided the measurement is made along the direction of
motion.
Hence, if Lo is the length of rod in the frame at rest, and L is the length of same rod in the moving frame, then:
Since v/c is less then unity, the length L is less then Lo i.e. there is a contraction in length along the direction of
motion. This is called the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction.
above equation tells us that an observer past whom a system is moving with a speed v measures object in the
moving system to be shortened in length along the direction of motion by a factor:
It is important to note that only the dimension along the line of motion is changed and there is no change in
the other two perpendicular directions.
With the development of special theory of relativity it became apparent that there is no physical contraction of
the moving objects. There is, however, an apparent contraction of body for an observer where there is a
relative motion of the object and the observer. In the natural sense the observer in moving frame cannot
detect the contraction because in this frame it does not exist; where is in the rest frame, it does exist, but the
measuring rod in the moving system has shrunk too further we must note that for moderate velocities (v/c<<1)
of the objects the contraction in length is negligible as observed in our everyday observation.

TIME DILATION:
Time is regarded as an absolute quantity in classical mechanics whereas in the special theory of relativity it is
considered to be a relative entity based on the measurement of time in frame of references in relative motion.
The time interval between two events taking place at the same point in space as timed with a clock at rest with
respect to that point is called the proper time interval and is denoted Dto=To. Time measured with a clock in
motion with respect to the events is known as relativistic time it is represented by Dt=T. Both of the time
intervals To & T refer to the time elapsed between the same pair of events occurring in the two frames moving
with a relative speed v. then, according to special relativity the two times are related by the formula:
Above equation represents , what we call as the time dilation phenomena. According to the time dilation
formula we mean that from the point of view of an observer at rest, the time of the observer in motion is
dilated i.e. the clocks in moving frame run slowly and the Lorentz factor Gives us the ratio of the rates of clocks
for normal speeds, this factor is so close to unity (1.00) that we are quite unable to detect time dilation effect,
but for speed comparable to the speed of light c the time dilation effect is quite significant.
We can now conclude that for every observer his own clock in his frame of reference run faster than do any
other clocks which are moving relative to him. We may also note that every observer may consider himself to
be at rest and consider all that moves as moving relative to him. This is actually an outcome of the principle of
special relativity stated earlier: Every observer is equivalent to every other observer.

MASS ENERGY RELATION:

In the beginning of this section we have stated the postulates of relativity that the speed of light is a universal
constant. We cannot reach speeds greater than the speed of light by the relativistic addition of velocities. The
equation is how to reconcile with this result of special relativity with Newton's second law, F=ma? It would be
seen that any constant force, no matter how small, applied for a considerably very long time, should
continuously accelerate any mass 'm' at a rate a=f/m until the speed was arbitrarily very large. Einstein,
concluded that energy has inertia i.e. the more energy a body possess, the more inertia that body will display.
Since, inertia is a property of matter, which is associated with mass. Thus from Einstein's argument mass is
simply a property attributed to the total energy of the body and only the total energy is required, to know the
total mass of the body. Thus, in special theory of relativity total energy and mass are related by the famous
Einstein's equation. E=mc2

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from this relation between mass and energy it has been predicted that any process that changed the mass by a
detectable amount would involve huge amounts of energy. For example, a mass change of 1.00 gram is equal
to an energy change of 9 x 1013 joules.

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 CHAPTER # 19
THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS

GEIGER COUNTER:
INTRODUCTION:
Geiger counter is a portable device which is used for the detection and counting of ionized particles and
radiation.

CONSTRUCTION:
It consists of a hollow metallic cylinder, one end of which is closed by an insulating cap. At the center of the
cap is fixed a stiff straight wire along the axis of cylinder .A thin mica or glass disc closes the other end which
also serves as the entrance window for ionizing particles. The tube contains a special mixture of air, argon,
alcohol at a pressure of 50-100 mmHg.

WORKING:
A potential difference of the range of 1000V is maintained between the metal cylinder and the axial wire
through a suitable series resistor of 109 ohms. When an ionizing particle enters the tube through the window,
it ionizes some gas molecules in it. These ions are accelerated by the strong radial electric field which produces
ionization current which flows between the wire and the cylinder and also through the resistor R. The ends of
“R” are connected to a loud speaker or an electronic counter.

COUNTING OF PARTICLES:
Each time a particle enters the counter and ionization current pulse is created which gives a click in the loud
speaker or a count in a counter.
In the case of ionizing radiation, the numbers of counts register by the counter measures the intensity or
ionizing power of incident radiation.

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 CHAPTER # 20
NUCLEAR RADIATIONS

HALF LIFE:
"Half-life of radioactive element is the time interval during which one half (50%) of the atom are
disintegrated". OR
"Half-life of a radioactive element in the time interval during which (50%) of parents atoms are converted into
daughter atoms or daughter element.
FORMULA:
0.693
T1/2 
λ
Where  = Decay constant and T1/2 = Half-life. Different substances have different half-life.

FOR EXAMPLE:
1. Half-life of Krypton is 3.16 minutes. 2. Half-life of Radon 1s 3.82 days.
3. Half-life of Radium is 1600 years. 4. Half-life of Uranium is 4.47 x 109 years.

MASS DEFECT:
The mass of the nucleus is always less than the mass of the constituent nucleus. This difference in mass m is
known as the mass defect.
m = (Z mp +N mN ) - M(nucleus)
Where Z is the number of protons, N is the number of neutrons, M (nucleus) = Mass of nucleus
Mass of proton mp =1.6724 x 10-27 kg , mass of neutron mN =1.6748 x 10-27 kg.

BINDING ENERGY:
Nuclei are made up of proton and neutron but the mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the
individual masses of the protons and neutrons which constitute it. The difference is a measure of
the nuclear binding energy which holds the nucleus together. This binding energy can be calculated from
the Einstein relationship
Nuclear binding energy = Δmc2

PACKING FRACTION:
The binding energy per nucleon is called packing fraction.
Binding Energy
Packing Fraction 
A
FISSION REACTION:
"The process in which a heavy nucleus in broken into two lighter nuclei with the release of energy and neutron
is called Nuclear Fission."
Example: In 1939, Hann and Stressman discovered that fission can be produced by bombarding 92u235 with slow
neutrons. When 92u235 is bombarded with neutron, it is broken down into two lighter nuclei Barium (Ba) and krypton
(Kr) with the release of three additional neutrons and about 200Mev energy is released in this process.

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EQUATION OF FISSION
1
0n +92u235 ---------------- 56Ba144 + 36Kr90+30n1 + energy (200Mev)

Fission reaction in uranium can be explained by the following schematic diagram;

FISSION CHAIN REACTION:

In fission reaction of 92u235 nucleus, three additional neutrons are obtained when these neutrons further
reacted with in uranium nucleus, more and more neutrons are emitted with the release of huge amount
energy called nuclear bomb and this uncontrolled fission process is called FISSION CHAIN REACTION.

This reaction can be control by using some material called moderator which absorb the emitted neutrons, the
cadmium, graphite and heavy water is used as good moderator.

NUCLEAR FUSION:
"The combining of two lighter nuclei to form a relatively heavier nucleus with the release of energy is called
"NUCLEAR FUSION."

The major difficulty in getting a fusion reaction to take place is that two positive charged nuclei have to be
brought together to cause the reaction. For this purpose the two particles must have a huge amount of kinetic
energies to overcome the electrostatic repulsion as two nuclei approaches each other. A temperature of more
than of million OoC is required for. No fusion reaction has so far been possible in which the heat or
temperature obtain from the fusion process can be utilized for peaceful purposes. This is due to the fact that
scientists have not been able to maintained the high temperature for long enough for the reactions to be
maintained. It is strongly believed that the energy output of the sun and other is due to the fusion process.

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 CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWERS FROM THE GIVEN OPTIONS:

1. In moving coil galvanometer, the deflecting couple depends on?

a) Area of the coil & strength of Magnetic field. b) Current in the coil and angle of deflection.
c) Number of turns in the coil d) all of these

2. The deflection of a moving coil galvanometer is proportional to?

a) Current through the coil b) torque per. unit twist c) Area of the coil d) None of these

3. A galvanometer of resistance 40 ohms shows full scale deflection when a current of 0.002 ampere flows
through it. If it is converted into ammeter of 10 ampere then the value of shunt resistance will be?
a) 0.004 Ω b) 0.008 Ω c) 0.001 Ω d) 0.002 Ω

4. A galvanometer of 10,000 Ω shows full scale deflection for current of 0.02 ampere. If it is converted into
voltmeter of 250 volts range, then the value of resistance will be?
a) 5000 Ω b) 500 Ω c) 2500 Ω d) 15000 Ω

5. The slide-wire bridge is also called?

a) Meter bridge b) Wheatstone bridge c) Post office box d) Potentiometer

6. Post office Box was first introduced for finding?

a) The letters in a post office b) Resistance of post office wires.
c) The resistance of telegraph wires and fault finding work in the post and telegraph office
d) to collect letters in it

7. A voltmeter is connected to the circuit?

a) In series b) in parallel c) both of these (a) & (b) d) None of these

8. If a wheat stone bridge is in balance condition then?

a) heavy current flows through the galvanometer b)no current flows through the galvanometer
c) the current in each of the four arms R1, R2, R3 and R4 are same
d) a low current flows through the galvanometer.

9. A potentiometer is a device for measuring?

a) Potential difference between the two points of a circuit
b) Voltage between the two points of a circuit. c) E.M.F. of a current source d) All of them

10. AVO meter is used to measure?

a. Current b. Resistance c. Voltage d. All of them

11. A Meter Bridge is used to measure?

a. Voltage b. Capacitance c. Inductance d. Resistance

12. A galvanometer converts?

a) Electrical energy into heat energy b) mechanical energy into induced emf
c) electrical energy into magnetic energy d) electrical energy into a mechanical energy.

13. In moving coil galvanometer pole-pieces are made concave to produces?

a) Strong and uniform field b) weak and radial field c) radial and strong field d) weak and uniform

14. The accuracy of a potentiometer is increase by?

a) Increasing the length of the wire. b) Decreasing the length of the wire
c) using a thin copper wire of short length. d) Using twisted wire.

15. A rectifier circuit used in AVO meter to converts?

a) Magnetic field into electrical field. b) Alternating current into Direct current.
c) Current into emf d) All of these

15. A rectifier circuit used in AVO meter to converts?

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 a) Magnetic field into electrical field. b) Alternating current into Direct current. c) Current into emf
d) All of these

16. The selector — cum — range switch of AVO meter Is used to measure?
a) Alternating current and direct current b) currents, voltages or resistances of different range
c) Current only d) Potential difference

17. Universal meter is also called as?

a) Ammeter b) Multi-range ammeter c) AVO meter d) Potentiometer

18. In a multi range voltmeter, a number of resistance of appropriate values are connected?
A) In series b) in parallel c) with keys in parallel d) to a low resistance

19. Restoring torque in given by?

a) C b) C/  c) B  d) C² 

20. Deflecting magnetic torque is given by?

a) BINA sin b) BINA Cos  c) BINA d) BIN

1) Drive the equation for balanced Wheatstone bridge?

2) A galvanometer of 100 is converted into a voltmeter of range 5 volt by connecting a 4900resistance. What
additional resistance should be connected to double its range?
3) How a galvanometer can be converted into an Ammeter and a Voltmeter.
4) What is the function of the concave pole pieces and soft iron cylinder in the moving coil galvanometer?

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