Numerical Modeling of Wet

Cooling Towers-Part 1:
A. K. Majumdar
Mem.ASME Mathematical and Physical Models
The paper discusses the limitations of current practices of evaluating thermal
A. K. Singhal performance of wet cooling towers and describes a more advanced mathematical
Mem.ASME model for mechanical and natural draft cooling towers. The mathematical model
computes the two-dimensional distributions of: air velocity (two components);
CHAM of North America, Inc., temperature, pressure, and moisture content; and water temperature. The down-
Huntsville, Ala. 35810 ward direction of water flow is presumed. The local interphase heat and mass
transfer rates are calculated from empirical correlations for which two options are
D. B. Spalding provided. In the first option, only one constant (Ka, based on Merkel's ap-
proximations) is employed; in the second option, two separate constants for heat
Mem.ASME
Imperial College,
and mass transfer are used. Boundary conditions can be either of the prescribed
London, England cooling range 01' of the prescribed hot water temperature types. The governing
equations are solved by a finite difference method. The model is embodied into a
computer code (VERA2D) which is applicable for the natural and mechanical
draft towers of both the crossflow and counterflow arrangements. Several ap-
plications of the code are described in Part II of the paper.

Introduction
The function of a wet cooling tower is to cool water by 3 An empirical expression relating overall heat and mass
bringing it into direct contact with air. This cooling is ac- transfer coefficient, Ka, with L/O
complished by a combination of sensible heat transfer and The set of equations is solved by graphical method (see Fig.
evaporation of a small proportion of water. The contact time 2). Merkel's equation is substituted into the heat balance
and area between air and water are increased by spraying equation, and the resulting equation is numerically integrated
water over a fill (a grid of bars or plates), and passing air for a given cooling range. The integral is plotted against L/O.
through the fill. Two flow arrangements, counterflow and This is known as demand curve since it represents cooling
cross flow , are commonly used. The air flow is maintained by requirement at a particular ambient condition. The heat and
the buoyancy (chimney) effect in a natural draft tower, and by mass transfer coefficient of the fill, which is also expressed as
a fan in a mechanical draft tower. Schematic representations a function of L/G, is superimposed on the same plot; this is
of commonly used designs are shown in Fig. 1. known as the characteristic curve. The intersection of the
In order to predict the thermal performance of a given demand and characteristic curves indicates the value of L/O
design, one needs: for accomplishing the required cooling.
(a) A Mathematical model which provides an accurate Cooling Tower Institute [1] has published a set of demand
solution of the conservation equations for mass, momentum,
and energy
(b) Physical models to express resistance to airflow and ROUND TOWERS
interphase heat and mass transfer Natura' Draft Natura' Or.ft
CounUirflow Tower ero_low Tower
The current methodology of cooling tower design lacks in
both respects. The present paper describes a mathematical
model to meet the first requirement and also provides
suggestions for improvement in the second. It is also argued
that the development of an accurate mathematical model is a Water Spray
primary requirement, since it aids in the development of / ' " Nozzles

physical models and associated empirical correlations. Air In

j;[.~~~ Fill
Air In
~r"'->"">""+""'-~~
...... ~ ~ _~ ......_ _+ - _ - J . l " .
Review of Existing Methods r.v r.v

Table 1 presents a summary of the capabilities and

limitations of the existing methods of thermal performance
RECTANGULAR TOWERS
analysis of cooling towers. In the conventional methods [1, 2],
Mochanicsl Dr.f, Mechanical Drift
the ratio of water to air mass flow rate (L/O) to accomplish a eTO.nOW Tower Count.rf'ow Tow.,
specified cooling requirement is obtained from the solution of
the following three equations: x.U
AirOut
t
1 Heat balance equation

~
ttt

2 Merkel's [3] equation expressing heat transfer being

proportional to the enthalpy difference between saturated
vapor and air

..
Air In
~

Contributed by the Heal Transfer Division and presented at the 21st -~

Y.V
ASMEI AIChE National Heat Transfer Conference, Seattle, Washington, July
24-28, J 983. Manuscript received by the Heat Transfer Division J lily 19, i 982. Fig. 1 The coordinate systems for round and rectangular towers

7281 Vol. 105, NOVEMBER 1983 Transactions of the ASME

Copyright © 1983 by ASME
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 Table 1 A summary of the available mathematical models for 10 1 1—i—i—i i i i • -i 1 r
analyzing wet cooling towers
Fill Characteristic Curve
Applicability to tht Typai of Towtr MithittMtic&l Mod*li
Author! Natural M*chinical
Y«r

Cnunt« Croa c w . Cron

H M I TrnnolM *,- Coupled
17)

Chilton (41 1952 9 OD" OD Y I I

Rish (5.) 1961 0 0D OD Y «

Smgham & Spalding lg) 1955 9 OD OD Yes

Foster & Wheeler 1943 9 OD OD No

PntchardS Co. (S.) 1957 9 OD OD No

Cooling Tower Inst. (J.) 1967 9 OD OD No

Mesarovic (21 1973 9 1D OD No

Ziv.ft Brand f.tfl) 1956 Not Solved

Baker & Shryock ( L I ) 1961
0 2D

Not Solved
-
0 2D
-
Cross etal (12)
Kelly (21
1976
1970
0 0

0 2D
Not Solved
OD
-
No
1D for Counter
WmnarskiS. TichBnor f]_3.l 1978 9 9 OD Yes
2D far Cross
Penny, Rosten & Spalding 1.14) 1979 9 9 2D 2D Yes

I.A. Furzer (151 1978 9 2D 2D Yes

Majumdar, Singh«l and Spalding 1981 O e 0 9 2D 2D Yes

(VEHA2DCode)

curves for counterflow towers by integrating the one-

dimensional thermal equation by Tchebycheff's method. Zivi
and Brandt [10] developed a numerical method for integrating
this equation for crossflows in two dimensions. By making
use of this method, Kelly [2] generated a similar set of demand
curves for crossflow towers. The main limitations of these Fig. 2 Graphical solution of thermal equation at a given range and
wet-bulb temperature
simplified methods are discussed below.
Lack of Flexibility to Accept Empirical Input in a General
Form. The graphical method of performance evaluation
saturated air at the water temperature (hs), and the enthalpy
makes a presupposition that heat and mass transfer coef-
of the main air stream (hG). Mathematically,
ficient (KaV/L) is a function of L/G only (Fig. 2). This
assumption is questionable and restricts the applicability of q'"=Ka(hs-hG) (1)
data. A rigorous processing of test data could reveal that it is Since, in reality, total heat transfer from water to air
more appropriate to express heat and mass transfer coef- consists of sensible as well as evaporative heat transfer, a
ficients in terms of fundamental dimensionless parameters general expression of heat transfer should at least have:
such as Reynolds number, Prandtl number, and other
geometrical parameters. It is difficult, however, to generalize (a) Two separate coefficients for heat and mass transfer
the graphical methods [1, 2] to use different forms of em- (b) Two driving forces: temperature difference and vapor
pirical correlations. fraction difference
A recognition of two driving forces calls for the solution of
Simplifying Assumptions of Merkel's Equation. Merkel an additional conservation equation of moisture fraction,
[2] expressed the heat and mass transfer process as a com- which is not feasible in most of the existing methods.
bined process by considering the enthalpy difference as the
basic driving force. Therefore, Merkel's equation expresses Nonuniformity of Flow. In both natural and mechanical
heat transfer as a product of overall heat and mass transfer draft towers, air changes its direction as it enters the tower
coefficient (Ka) and the difference between the enthalpy of horizontally and leaves vertically. Therefore, the air flow

Nomenclature

area of transfer fs moisture fraction of

surface per unit saturated moist air, hF = specific enthalpy of
volume, m 2 / m 3 kg/kg water, J/kg
a
E<aW>aNtaS — coefficients of finite Jxxly resistances to air hs = specific enthalpy of
difference equation flow in x- and y- saturated moist air,
(13), kg/s directions respec- J/kg
A = cross-sectional area, tively, N / m 3 hT = specific enthalpy of
m2 mass flow rate of transferred sub-
CP.air ~ specific heat of dry dry air, kg/s stance, J/kg
air, J/kg°C G' = mass flux of dry air, hfg = l a t e n t heat of
-'P.vapor specific heat of kg/m 2 s vaporization, J/kg
vapor, J/kg°C gravitational ac- 'stack = height of the stack,
cG = specific heat of celeration, m/s 2 m
moist air, J/kg°C H = heat transfer coef- K = mass transfer
D = diameter of the ficient, W/m 2 °C coefficient, kg/m 2 s
tower, m ^Fill = height of the fill, m L = mass flow rate of
fa moisture fraction of specific enthalpy of air, kg/s
moist air, kg/kg h0 = moist air, J/kg L' = mass flux of water,
moisture fraction of specific enthalpy of kg/m 2 s
dry air, kg/kg hh = dry air, J/kg m'" = rate of mass transfer

Journal of Heat Transfer NOVEMBER 1983, Vol. 105/729

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 through the tower deviates significantly from uniformity.
Nonuniformity in flow distribution can be accounted for only
by performing two- or three-dimensional analysis of fluid
flow and heat transfer inside the tower.
Coupling Between Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer. The
fluid flow and heat transfer processes in a natural draft tower
are strongly coupled, because:
(a) The amount of air flow through the tower depends on
the difference between the density of air inside the tower and
that of ambient air
(b) The density of air inside the tower depends on the
extent of heat and mass transfer from water to air in the fill
and spray region
(c) Heat and mass transfer from water to air depends on
the available air flow rate
Fig. 3 Schematic representation of the coupling between fluid flow
A schematic representation of this coupling of process is and heat transfer processes in a natural draft tower
shown in Fig. 3. Similar coupling exists in mechanical draft
towers; however, its influence on airflow rate is not so im-
portant because of the presence of a fan. on temperature of water as well as pressure. Thus in Merkel's
Earlier mathematical models, such as Singham and equation, hs is a function of water temperature and pressure.
Spalding [6] and Winnarski and Tichenor [13], attempted to Current methods [1,2] employ a polynomial expression to
account for this coupling by solving a simplified equation calculate enthalpy of saturated air, and therefore, they are
called a "buoyancy equation." This equation is based on the applicable for standard atmospheric pressure only. In order to
postulation that the hydrostatic pressure difference, caused by account for the effect of ambient pressure, one needs to:
the difference in densities of the warm moist air inside the (a) Express hs as a function of the moisture fraction of
tower and that of the cooler drier air outside, is equal to the saturated air, fs
pressure loss that would be experienced by the air stream (b) Evaluate/s from fundamental equations, e.g., Clasius-
flowing through the tower in the absence of hydrostatic Clapeyron equation and law of ideal gas mixture
pressure difference. Mathematically,
Present Mathematical Model
G°amb - Pi0v,a)gH=Ntt [ — pamb ( D°/A) J (2)
The present model treats airflow to be two-dimensional and
The left-hand side of equation (2) represnets the driving force elliptic, while the water flow is considered to be one-
due to buoyancy. The right-hand side represents the resistance dimensional. It obtains simultaneous solution of conservation
to flow of air through the tower. While calculating ptower, air equations for:
is assumed saturated above the fill. Since equation (2) neglects (a) Mass continuity of air
several terms such as due to convection, pressure gradient, (b) Mass fraction of moisture in air
and wall friction, and since it does not account for spatial (c) Mass continuity of water
variation, the coupling of processes is not represented (d) Air momentum in vertical direction
adequately. (e) Air momentum in active horizontal direction
Effect of Ambient Pressure Variation on (/) Enthalpy of air
Evaporation. The rate of evaporation from water depends (g) Enthalpy of water

Nomenclature (cont.)
r e ff = effective exchange
r = radial coordinate, m coefficient, kg/ms
per unit volume, SU,SP = c o m p o n e n t s of X = empirical constant
kg/m3s source term of finite for fill, m" 1
Nu = number of velocity difference equation Meff = effective viscosity,
heads lost in the T = temperature, °C kg/ms
tower u = vertical component P
=
density of moist air,
n = empirical constant of velocity, m/s kg/m 3
for fill v = horizontal com- ffeff effective Prandtl
p = pressure, Pa ponent of velocity, number, dimen-
P = input power to fan, m/s sionless
W V = tower volume per <>/ = dependent variable
q'" = rate of heat transfer unit plan area,
per unit volume, m 3 /m 2 Subscript
W/m3 VG = specific volume of amb _ ambient
R = universal gas air, m 3 /kg bs = base of the fan stack
constant, J/kg-mol W = molecular weight DB = dry bulb
K f Rii = width of the fill, m elim = eliminator
q" = rate of heat transfer x = vertical Cartesian F = water
per unit area of coordinate, m G = moist air
transfer surface, y = horizontal Cartesian S = saturated
W/m2 coordinate, m WB = wet bulb

730/Vol. 105, NOVEMBER 1983 Transactions of the ASME

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 The calculation domain extends from the vertical inlet
section to the horizontal outlet plane and thus covers the
entire cooling tower. For the sake of generality, both polar
and Cartesian coordinates are considered (Fig. 1). Following
are the governing conservation equations in polar coor-
dinates.
Mass of Air:
3 1 3
— (pu) + — — (prv) •• (3) P - Parr*: / G " / G , amb
dx r or IV. - h,
Mass of Water:

(pFuF)=m™ (4)
dx
x-Direction Momentum:
1 3 d / dv
dv \
(pw )+
dx TTr{prVU)-o-x\^-dx~)

1 d / dv \
(5) P - P b s Calculated from Equation 12

--VYrV^-di) 3"G„3/G.

dp
-fx-(p-Pamb)g
dx
/•-Direction Momentum:
d i1 d
a ^, da / dv \
(puv) + — — (prv1) - — (/xeff — )
ax r dr dx \ dx /
1 33 / dv \_ dp
(6)

Air Enthalpy:
a . . 1i aa d / dfir,\
d~x (puhG) + — yr (prvhG) - — [Tttf -~ j
3hG
-llfrT )-a'" (7)

Water Enthalpy:

(pFuFhF) = -q" Fig. 4 Calculation domain, grid layout and boundary conditions for (a)
(8) natural-draft counterflow tower and (b) mechanical-draft crossflow
dx
tower
Moisture Fraction of Air:
set of equations become appropriate for the Cartesian
3 1 3 , 3 r
— (pufG) + — — (prvfc) - —
dx r dr dx ( -f) coordinates in rectangular towers.
• OT^'and q'" represent the sources of mass and enthalpy,
and fx and fy represent resistances to air flow due to the
1 3
Tr K-^)=«.- (9) presence of solid obstacles. Expressions for calculating m'J,
q'", fx, and fy are described later in the section entitled
Equation of State: "Physical Models."
• hG is the specific enthalpy of moist air, and fa is the
pWG
P= - (10) fraction of vapor content of moist air. Since hydrodynamic
R(TDB+213) equations solve for velocities and pressure of moist air, it is
The following features of the conservation equations (3-10) appropriate to solve for specific enthalpy and moisture
may be noted. fraction of moist air. However, specific enthalpy of dry air,
8 hG, and moisture fraction of dry air, JQ, can be evaluated
All conservation equations for air are coupled through from the following expression:
convective fluxes (p« and pv), In addition, momentum
equations (5) and (6) are coupled through pressure.
h'r = (ii)
• The gravity term in equation (5) uses a density difference l-/o
(p ~ Pamb) rather than density (p). This is in accordance with
the reduced pressure method [19]. The pressure, p, used in
r0= (12)
these equations is the reduced pressure, i.e., the relative 1-/0
pressure with reference to the ambient pressure at the same
elevation. This practice of using reduced pressure and density Finite Difference Equations. The calculation domain is
difference is based on the exact transformations employing subdivided into finite number of control cells (Fig. 4). The
the following relation: finite difference equations are obtained by integrating the
partial differential equation over the finite volume
/ ? = P s t a t i c < PambS X represented by a cell [20].
» By setting r to unity and changing d/dr to d/3.y, the above Typical grid distributions for a natural draft counterflow

Journal of Heat Transfer NOVEMBER 1983, Vol. 105/731

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 tower and a mechanical draft crossflow tower have been
shown in Fig. 4. Nonuniform grid distributions are employed
with larger number of control cells located in the fill region.
Grid is nonorthogonal to suit the hyperbolic shape of natural GUESS INITIAL DISTRIBUTION OF
PRESSURE, VELOCITIES, AIR AND
draft tower. All scalar quantities (such asp, hG,fG, etc.) are WATER ENTHALPIES, AND VAPOR
FRACTION AND SET STER-0
calculated at the center of the control cells; and velocity
components (u and v) are calculated at the cell faces.
The general form of finite difference equations is

gE<j)E + aw4>w + aN4>N + as<j>s + Su

(13) CALCULATE VELOCITIES AT INLET
AND OUTLET BOUNDARIES. IMPOSE
aE + aw + aN + as-SP RELEVANT BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
FOR ENTHALPY AND VAPOR
FRACTION OF AIR
where <>/ stands for any dependent variable such as u, v, hG,
hF, a n d / 0 ; and link coefficients aE, aw, aN, and as express
the effects of convection and diffusion between the grid point,
P, and its neighboring grid nodes in East, West, North and
South directions, respectively. Sv and SP are the components CALCULATE MASS CONTINUITY
of source term, S, which is linearized as: ERRORS; SOLVE FDE's FOR PRESSURE
CORRECTION. ADJUST VELOCITIES TO
SATISFY CONTINUITY
S = Sy+Sp4>

Boundary Conditions. The following quantities are

specified as system boundary conditions:
ADJUST HOT WATER TEMPERATURE,
1 Hot water flow rate IF FIXED HEAT LOAD BOUNDARY
CONDITION IS APPLICABLE
Either cooling range or hot water temperature
Dry-bulb temperature, TDB
Wet-bulb temperature, TWB
Ambient pressure
The specified conditions for each dependent variable at all
four boundaries of the calculation domain are also shown in
Fig. 4.
The moisutre fraction and enthalpy of inlet air are
calculated from the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures by
employing the following thermodynamic relations.
CGLe (TDB — TWB) (1 —fs) PRINT FIELD
/ G.amb Js (14) PRINTOUT,
h•fa PRINT
OUTPUT
CONTOUR
MAPS AND
SUMMARY OUTPUT
SUMMARY
—
— (1 / o . a m b ) W ? TDB + / <G.amb "fg
A/i (15)

Equation (14) has been derived from the thermal equilibrium

equation for a wet bulb temperature [21]. Equation (15) Fig. 5 Illustration of the main calculation steps in VERA2D
follows from the definition of specific enthalpy of moist air.
Calculation off, is to be described in the section of Physical calculation procedure are depicted in Fig. 5. The convergence
Models. of numerical scheme is checked by the normalized residual
Pressures are specified at the inlet and outlet boundaries, errors of all conservation equations in each control cell of the
while the velocities are calculated from the local differences calculation domain.
between the ambient pressure and the pressure inside the
tower. Pressures at the inlet and outlet sections of a tower are Physical Models
the same as that of ambient. For mechanical draft towers, the
fan and stack are simulated by way of a "point" model, i.e., Resistances to Air Flow. The flow resistances offered by
no distributions of flow variables are calculated in the stack. various solid obstacles and water flow within the tower are
The pressure at the bottom of the stack, pbs, is calculated expressed for each control cell in the following integrated
from Bernoulli's equation by considering the input power and form.
efficiency of fan and the area changes in stack. Appendix A
describes the calculation steps forpbs. The final form is \fxdV=N. — pu2AV+Niouva — pu2AA
P'/fai
Pbs —Pamb "
mc +Naim — pu2AA (17)
1
P "fan
v/1 1
y pv2AV+NlouvN — pv2AA
L
plenum /
nenum v
- ^ stack /
J
\fydV=N-
- (Pamb-P)g ^stack (16)
where P is the input power to fan and iVstack is the number of
velocity heads {= p u2an/2) lost in the stack. +Nelim — pv2AA (18)

Solution Procedure. Since the governing equations are where AKis the volume, and AA is the area of the control cell
coupled and nonlinear, they have to be solved by means of an face normal to the velocity component. N is the number of
iterative procedure. An implicit solution scheme based on the velocity heads lost per unit air travel distance in the fill or in
procedures of [17] and [18] is employed. The main steps of the the spray region. 7Viouver and /Velim are the total number of

732/ Vol. 105, NOVEMBER 1983 Transactions of the AS ME

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 velocity heads lost in the louver and eliminator, respectively. O X = 12' (3.7m)
Available empirical data for coefficients of resistances to A X = 14' (4.3 m)
airflow in cooling towers have been compiled and presented in D X = 16' (4.9m)
X = 18' (5.5m)
a separate report [23]. O

V X = 20' (6.1m)
Turbulence Model for Air Flow. The effective viscosity of Y = 8', 18', 24', 30', 36', 42'
air is calculated from an algebraic model of turbulence [24] 10

i i i r
9
which states /zeff = C pamb «avg yh where wavg is the average .8
.7
-
flow velocity in the tower, yt is characteristic length, and C is .6
.5

i
an empirical constant ( = to 0.06). The length scale, yt, is
taken to be equal to the pitch of fill elements. Effective ex-
.4
-
change coefficients (r eff ) for enthalpy and moisture fraction
.3 - -
are calculated as .2 ^^8fe_
Ka
Meff L"
(19) .10
tfeff ( mV-- 1 ) .09
.08
where aeff is the effective Prandtl number and has been .07
assumed to be unity. .06
Ka „ L Y " n
h -
.05
More sophisticated models of turbulence [24] will not be .04
Xh(—x—)
L G X
useful unless control cell dimensions are smaller than the pitch
Xh=.257
of the fill element. The typical grids in a natural draft .03 -
n h = .532
counterflow tower are 2 to 3 m wide, whereas the pitch of the .02
fill elements are in the order of 2 to 5 cm. Computations with .01 i i J 11III
several control cells between successive fill elements would be .2 .3 .4.5.6.7.8.9 2 3 4 5 6 789
1.0 10
extremely expensive, and cannot be justified unless the ac- L X
curacy of empirical correlations for pressure drop and heat — x
G Y
and mass transfer are significantly improved.
Fig. 6 Heat transfer characteristics of standard wood lath crossflow
Psychrometric Property for Air. The calculation of m™ fill (vertical pitch = 10.16 cm, horizontal pitch = 20.32 cm)
[equation (9)] and/ G i a m b [equation (14)] requires a knowledge
mass flow ratio (L/G) and fill aspect ratio (H¥ill/1Vm). For
of moisture fraction of saturated air, fs. T h i s / , is a function
example, Fig. 6 shows the data for the plastic wedge fill.
of pressure and temperature and is determined with the help Therefore, the Ka correlation is considered to be of the
of Clausius-Clapeyron equations and the equation of ideal gas following form
mixture. These equations are
Ka / L Hm
dPs = hfg (24)
(20) ~^~ V G W....
^~G~~ Pin J
dT TVG
It may be noted that for round towers, L' ^ L/Wm and G'
fs W„ Ps j± G/Hm. Available data for both counterflow and
1 f w <21> crossflow fills have been compiled and reported [23].
l-/s ^air Pamb-Ps An expression of evaporation rate, wi™, consistent with
where ps and Va are the saturation pressure of water vapor at equation (22), is
the water temperature and specific volume of moist air.
Further details on integration of equation (20) appear in m?=KaVs-fG) (25)
Appendix B. The use of fundamental equations, rather than
tables or polynomial curve fits, increases the range of ap- Remarks on the Current Practice. The current practice of
plicability of the method. Equations (20) and (21) are ap- calculating q'" employs only one coefficient (Ka) to represent
plicable to all ambient pressures. both sensible and evaporative heat transfer processes. Also,
the coefficient, Ka, is expressed as a function of water to dry
Heat and Mass Transfer Models. air mass flow ratio, (L/G), only. Such simplifications have
The Current Practices. Equations (7) and (9) require the narrowed down the range of applicability of the empirical
expressions for the rates of heat and mass transfer from water data. Strictly speaking, the data are applicable only for the
to air (i.e., for q'" and m'"). The current practice for q'" is conditions at which they were deduced from the experiments.
based on the use of MerkePs model, which is Evidence of such restrictions can be seen from the need of ad
hoc corrections, such as the hot water correction [11, 25, 26].
q'"=Ka(hs-hG) (22)
where Ka is an empirical mass transfer coefficient, and hs — Suggestions for Improvement. These limitations can be
hG is the difference between the enthalpies of the saturated air removed by employing a more accurate expression for heat
and dry air. For counterflow fills and sprays, Lowe and and mass transfer from water to air and by expressing the
Christie [16] have reported empirical data in the following coefficients of heat and mass transfer in terms of fun-
form damental dimensionless parameters, such as Reynolds
number, Prandtl number, and Weber number.
Ka
(23) The complete expression of heat transfer can be written as
-<•£)-
where L' and G' are the mass fluxes of water and dry air, and Ka //,-/,
(JS-JG\.
X and n are empirical constants. Different fills have different •TG +
Ha.
values of X and n. (26)
For crossflow fills, Kelly [2] has reported data for Ka values
as a function of L/G for different heights and widths of a fill. HaK + Haair
As a result, a large number of fill characteristic curves appear
in [2]. Further analysis of this data has indicated that Ka can
be expressed as a function of the product of water and dry air where

Journal of Heat Transfer NOVEMBER 1983, Vol. 105/733

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 hT = CP, vapor TG + hfg. (27) References
Equation (26) has been derived from the Reynolds flow 1 "Cooling Tower Performance Curves," Cooling Tower Institute,
model [21, 22]. //a waler , Haair are the heat transfer coefficients Houston, Texas, 1967.
for water and air side, and Ka is the mass transfer coefficient. 2 Kelly, N. W., "Kelly's Handbook of Crossflow Cooling Tower Per-
These three coefficients are required to be determined from formance," Neil W. Kelly and Associates, Kansas City, Mo., 1976.
3 Merkel, F., "Evaporative Cooling," Zeits. Verein deutscher Ingenieure,
experiments. The assumption of i/awater > > Haak simplifies Vol.70, 1926, pp. 123-128.
equation (26) to 4 Chilton, H., "Performance of Natural Draught Water Cooling Towers,"
Proceedings Inst. Elec. Eng. London, Vol. 99, 1952, pp. 440-452.
5 Rish, R. F., "The Design of a Natural Draught Cooling Tower,"
q'"=Ha3ir(TF~TG)+Ka^fhT (28) Proceedings International Heat Transfer Conference, Colorado, pt. V, 1961,
1 Js pp. 951-958.
Equation (28) requires only two empirical coefficients, 6 Singham, J. R., and Spalding, D. B., "The Performance of Natural
namely, Ka and Haail. Draught Cooling Towers: Comparison of Theory with Experiment," Second
Two further assumptions, namely, fs < < 1 and hfg = hT, Int. Congress on Chetn. Eng., Chetn. Equipment and Automation, Marienbad,
Czechoslovakia, 1965; (reprinted by Department of Mechanical Engineering
reduce equation (28) to Imperial College, Aug. 1965, Report No. ED/TN/1).
q'" = Hasit (TF~TG)+Ka(fs-fG) hfg (29) 7 Foster Wheeler Corporation, New York, Bulletin CT43-2,1943.
8 J. F. Pritchard and Co. of California. "Counterflow Cooling Tower
Finally, with the additional assumption that Lewis number Performance," 1957.
H/KCG unity, equation (29) reduces to Merkel's equation 9 Mesarovic, M. M., "Ararat—A Computer Code for Thermal Design of
Cooling Towers," Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. 24,1973, pp. 57-70.
(25), which involves only one empirical constant. 10 Zivi, S. M., and Brand, B. B., "An Analysis of the Crossflow Cooling
Further discussion and analysis of the abovementioned Tower," Refrigerating Engineering, Vol. 64, 1956, pp. 31-34 and 90-92.
models of heat and mass transfer and possible ways of 11 Baker, D. R., and Shryock, H. A., " A Comprehensive Approach to the
evaluating necessary coefficients will be the subject of a future Analysis of Cooling Tower Performance," ASME JOURNAL OF HEAT TRANS-
FER, Vol. 83, 1961, pp. 339-349.
communication. 12 Cross, K. E., Park, J. E., Vance, J. M., and Van Wie, N. H., "Theory
The present mathematical model (embodied into a com- and Application of Engineering Models for Crossflow and Counterflow In-
puter code VERA2D) has built-in options for employing duced Draft Cooling Towers," Union Carbide Report No. K/CSD-1, May
1976.
equations (25), (28), or (29). Option for equation (26) can be 13 Winniarski, L. D., and Tichenor, B. A., "Model of Natural Draft
easily included. Therefore, VERA2D provides a framework Cooling Tower Performance," Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division,
for the development of a suitable heat and mass transfer Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 96, 1970, pp.
model and associated empirical coefficients. Until such 927-943.
developments, the option of Merkel's model [equation (25)] 14 Penney, T. R., Rosten, H. I., and Spalding, D. B., "Validation of
Cooling Tower Analyzer," Vol. 1 and 2, EPRI Report No. FP-1279, Dec. 1979.
must be used for consistency with the available empirical 15 Furzer, I. A., "An Improved Thermodynamic Analysis of Hyperbolic
data. Cooling Towers," Proceedings of Sixth International Heat Transfer Con-
ference, Toronto, Aug. 7-11, 1978, pp. 103-109.
16 Lowe, H. J., and Christie, D. G., "Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop
Summary Data on Cooling Tower Packings, and Model Studies of the Resistance of
A general, two-dimensional mathematical model applicable Natural Draught Towers to Air Flow," Proceedings International Heat
Transfer Conference, Colorado, pt. V, 1961, pp. 933-950.
for natural and mechanical draft towers of counterflow or 17 Patankar, S. V., and Spalding, D. B., "A Calculation Procedure for Heat
crossflow arrangements has been described. The main Mass and Momentum Transfer in Three Dimensional Parabolic Flows," In-
features of the present model are the following: ternational Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 15, 1972, pp. 1787-1806.
18 Singhal, A. K., and Spalding, D. B., "Mathematical Modeling of
(a) Simultaneous solutions of coupled nonlinear equations Multiphase Flow and Heat Transfer in Steam Generators," Multiphase
governing fluid flow, heat transfer and mass transfer are Transport Fundamentals, Reactor Safety, Applications, Vol. 1-5, Hemisphere
obtained. Publishing Corporation, Washington, D.C., 1980, pp. 373-406.
19 Spalding, D. B., "The Calculation of Free-Convection Phenomena in
{b) Physical model for heat and mass transfer has been Gas-Liquid Mixtures Heat Transfer," Heat Transfer and Turbulent Buoyant
incorporated in a manner which permits separate calculation Convection, Vol. II, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, D.C.,
for sensible and evaporative heat transfer. 1976, pp.569-586.
(c) Any form of empirical correlation for heat and mass 20 Patankar, S. V., Numerical Heat Transfer, Hemisphere Publishing
Corporation, Washington, D.C., 1980.
transfer can be inserted in the computer program. 21 Spalding, D. B., Convective Mass Transfer, Edward Arnold Limited,
(d) The model has been embodied in a user-oriented London, 1963.
computer code VERA2D [22] which can be 'used for per- 22 Majumdar, A. K., Singhal, A. K., and Spalding, D. B., "VERA2D—A
formance evaluations as well as for developing physical Computer Program for Two-Dimensional Analysis of Flow, Heat and Mass
Transfer in Evaporative Cooling Towers: Vol. 1—Mathematical Formulation,
models and associated empirical correlations. Some ap- Solution Procedure, and Applications," EPRI report, Contract No. RP 1262-1,
plications of the computer code have been described in Part 2 1983.
of the paper [28]. 23 Majumdar, A. K., and Singhal, A. K., "VERA2D—A Computer
(e) The model is extensible for three-dimensional and Program for Two-Dimensional Analysis of Flow, Heat and Mass Transfer in
Evaporative Cooling Towers: Vol. II—User's Manual," EPRI Report No. CS-
transient analysis to account for effects such as cross wind, 2923, Contract No. RP 1262-1, 1983.
blockages inside the tower, and changes in operational and 24 Launder, B. E., and Spalding, D. B., Mathematical Model ofTurbulence,
climatic conditions. Academic Press, 1972.
25 Kelly, N. W., "A Blue Print for the Preparation of Crossflow Cooling
Tower Characteristics," Cooling Tower Institute Paper TP-146A, Jan. 1976.
Acknowledgment 26 Hallet, G. F., " A Review of Present and Recently Proposed Methods for
Thermal Evaluation of Atmospheric Water Cooling Equipment," Cooling
The work has been supported by Electric Power Research Tower Institute Paper No. 224A, Jan. 1980.
Institute, Palo Alto, California under the contract number 27 Keenan, J. H., Keyes, F. G., Hill, P. G., and Moore, J. G., Steam
RP 1262-1. The authors wish to acknowledge Mr. Hugh E. Tables, John Wiley and Sons, 1979.
Reilly of EPRI for his comments and suggestions. Thanks are 28 Majumdar, A. K., Singhal, A. K., Reilly, H. E., and Bartz, J. A.,
"Numerical Modeling of Wet Cooling Towers—Part 2: Application to Natural
due to Kelli King and Lynn Wilson for the preparation of the and Mechanical Draft Towers," ASME JOURNAL OF HEAT TRANSFER, Vol. 105,
typescript. No. 4, Nov. 1983, pp. 736-743.

734/Vol. 105, NOVEMBER 1983 Transactions of the ASME

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 P V(WP , 1
A f a n - Available Area at 2-2 Pbs =Pl ~ ^ + ?
N
A
stack =
Available Area at 3-3
O" Z L ^plenum '
-(Pamb-P)g hl-2+hL,_, (A2)

Substituting equation (A2) in equation (Al) and introducing

the following definitions
''STACK (A3)
^stack='!l-2+'!2-3
1
^ L = ^ L , „ 2 +hL2_3 =A'stacky" P "fa, (A4)

The final expression of pbs is written as

P VfanP _ _j_ p ?an
Pbs ~~Pamb
2 " [(zT^)
u v
-^plenum '

J
^ A stack '
- ( P a m b - P ) g ''stack (A5)

Fig. 7 Schematic representation of fan and stack in a mechanical

draft tower
APPENDIX B

APPENDIX A Integration of Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

The Clausius-Clapeyron equation (20) is integrated by using
Modeling of Fan and Its Stack
the equation of state
The fan and stack have been schematically shown in Fig. 7.
pbs of equation (16) is determined from Bernoulli's equation R
Vr. (Bl)
applied in the stack; this accounts for: W„ Ps
(a) Energy supplied by fan and the correlation of latent heat with temperature
(b) Energy available due to buoyancy in the stack hfg=A0-B0T (B2)
(c) Energy loss due to skin friction and form drag
id) Energy leaving tower where A0 ( = 3.148856 x 106) and B0 ( = 2.372 x 103) are
curve fit constants for hfg in J/kg and T\s in K. The values of
Calculation of Pbs. Pressure at plane 2 (p2), shown in Fig. A0 and B0 as given above are appropriate for 0°C to 80°C
7, is related with the ambient pressure ( = to/? amb ) by applying temperature range [27]. The integration of equation (20)
Bernoulli's equation and continuity equation between plane 2 provides the following expression
and 3.
1 Ps =Ae,exp[ ^ [A0 ( ^ - - 1 ) -B0 (Ln T ref )]j (B3)
Pi -Pamb "
*["(&)] ^•**stack '
where TreS and preS is the absolute temperature and vapor
-(Pamb-P)g ^2-3+^2-3 (Al) pressure of a given reference point. The computer program
Similarly, pressure at plane 1 ( = to pbs) is related with the employs 273 K as the reference temperature and 610 Pa as
pressure at plane 2(p2). corresponding vapor pressure [27].

Journal of Heat Transfer NOVEMBER 1983, Vol. 105/735

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