THE UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE

MECHANICS OF SOLIDS-II
(Lab Part)

PRESENTED BY:
Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq
[email protected]

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Fluid Mechanics 1
 EXPERIMENT # 03

To Study The Elastic Stress-strain Behavior

In Bending Using Electrical Resistance
Strain Gages.

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 2
 EXPERIMENT # 03

To Study The Elastic Stress-strain Behavior In Bending Using

Electrical Resistance Strain Gages.
PURPOSE:
To learn the use of strain gauges for measuring the strains in bending.
APPARATUS
• Model beam (Maximum extreme fiber stress = 250 N/mm2)
• Strain gauges (Cemented to beam, gauge factor = 2.05)
• Strain meter
• 45 Volt D.C battery
• Pressure cell and hydraulic jack
• Vernier caliper
• Measuring tape
• Connecting wires
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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 3
 Related Theory

Multi-switch box Strain meter

Hydraulic Electrical Resistance

Cantilever
Jack Strain Gauges
I- beam
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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 4
 Related Theory

Strain
Strain is the amount of deformation produced in a body due to an applied force. More,
specifically strain (ε) is defined as the fractional change in length, as shown in figure

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 5
 Related Theory

Normal Strain
Strain along the longitudinal axis of the member is called as normal strain.

Shear Strain
Change in tangent of angle with respect to original face of the body when shear force is
applied.

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 6
 Related Theory

Measurement of Strain
Practically it is more convenient to measure strain instead of stress because strain is a
physical quantity while stress is not. Therefore, many techniques of strain measurement are
developed.
1- Mechanical Strain Gauges
Mechanical measurement of strain is the oldest and direct method. Because of very small
deformations precise instruments are necessary e.g., micrometer, extensometer, dial
gauges and other mechanical accessories are used either directly or as to magnify the
deformation.

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 7
 Related Theory

Advantages
• These may be made demountable so that a number of gauge stations may be measured
with one instrument.

Disadvantages
• Only surface strain can be measured and at only accessible points.
• Automatic reading is not possible.
• Only static strain can be measured.
• Result may be unreliable due to wear and tear of the instruments.

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 8
 Related Theory

2-Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges

These are very fine metal wire grids having some paper base and are cemented on the
surface of structural member to measure normal surface strain in any desired direction.

Components
• Filament
• Paper base/carrier (plastic, Bakolite)
• Terminals/leads

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 9
 Related Theory

Working Principle
R L Where,
R = resistance of conductor in ohm
1 L = length of conductor
R
A A = cross-sectional area
L Ρ = resistivity of material or specific resistance R  L
R
A R L
L 
R= R L
A Resistance increases with increase in length and
decreases with increase in cross-sectional area
of the wire. Change in resistance can be
measured with the help of wheatstone bridge.
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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 10
 Related Theory

Construction of strain gauge

• Length of filament = 10 to 25 mm
• Diameter of filament = 0.025 mm
• Range of gauge resistance,
60 to 1000 ohm old literature
30 to 3000 ohm new literature

But 100, 120, 350 and 1000 ohm being the most common values
• Safe current = 25 to 50 mA
• Range of voltage = 35 to 50 volts
• Metals used
i. Alloy of copper and nickel
ii. Alloy of nickel, chromium and iron with some other minor elements
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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 11
 Related Theory

Requirements of metals
1. Material should be very sensitive to change in resistance with change in length.
2. Proportional limit for the strain gauge material should be more than stress strain limit
of the structural component.

Metal foil gauges

Metal foil gauges are cut from a plate of the metal whereas in simple wire gauges, the wire
is bent in the required shape.

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 12
 Related Theory

Gauge factor
Gauge factor or axial sensitivity of the electrical strain gauge is the ratio of the rate of
change of resistance to the rate of change of length, denoted by Ka.
R
Ka = R
L
L
• Value of gauge factor is provided by the manufacturer.
• Range of gauge factor is from 1.9 to 4.0 (in lab range = 2 to 4).
• Gauge factor is constant directly relating the unit change in resistance to strain.

R
Ka =
L
R  Ka =
R
R
 =
R
Ka R
L
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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 13
 Related Theory

Measurement of strain using electrical resistance strain gauges (the Wheatstone bridge)

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 14
 Related Theory

The electrical resistance strain gauges depend upon the simple method of measuring the
change in resistance by means of wheatstone bridge circuit in which the four arms of the
bridge contains resistances R1, R2, R3 and R4. The potential difference between A and B is
measured by means of a Galvanometer and power is supplied using a battery. According to
the Kirchoff’s law for flow of current in the circuit and Ohm’s law for potential difference,
we have an equation.
R1 R2
=
R3 R4
Now any one of the resistances is replaced by the strain gauge (called as active strain gauge
Ra)
Ra R2
=
R3 R4
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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 15
 Related Theory

At the time when load is zero there is no deformation, consequently, change in resistance
will be zero and the equation will be valid. As the load is applied the resistance changes,
leaving the equation invalid. The equation is again balanced with the help of the strain
meter and the difference between the two readings is recorded as the change in resistance.
Finally, strain can be computed using the following relation.
1  R 
=
Gauge factor  R 

This method for determining the change in resistance is known as Null Method.

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 16
 Related Theory

Temperature effect
Change in temperature can effect in two ways

L R T
1)  
L R T

2) Coefficient of thermal expansion

Change in temperature will cause the change in resistance. Strain gauge material and
structural component materials are two different materials and having different coefficient
of thermal expansion values, so due to change in temperature there will be change in strain
which is source of error. So we can’t ignore the temperature effect, even a single degree.
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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 17
 Related Theory

Temperature compensation
The simplest solution to compensate the temperature effect is by using a dummy strain
gauge.

Dummy strain gauge

It is a strain gauge having the same resistance and sensitivity as the active strain gauge
on the component. It is cemented on a separate piece of metal which is of same type and
is placed close to the actual component.

Dummy strain gauge then forms one arm of the Wheatstone bridge so that if there is any
change due to temperature of the active gauge, same change occurs in the dummy gauge
and this compensation leaves the balance of the bridge unaltered.

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 18
 Related Theory

Humidity effect
Humidity can also affect the result in two ways.
• Corrosion of the filament
• Short-circuiting

Solution
After cementing the electrical resistance strain gauge to the structural component, apply
few coats of water proofing agent (petrosene wax, digel).

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 19
 PROCEDURE Related Theory

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 20
 Related Theory

Strain Distance from N.A.

Gauge # y(mm)
1 -30
2 0
Le 3 30
4 64.45
P 5 -64.45

P is the applied load and Le is the effective length

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 21
 Observations & Calculations

Total Length = L =182.4 cm = 1824 mm

Effective Length = Le = 112.4 cm = 1124 mm
Thickness of Upper Flange = tf1 = 3.2 mm
Thickness of Lower Flange = tf2 = 4.4 mm
Thickness of Web = tw = 4.45 mm
Width of Upper Flange = bf1 = 73.45 mm
Width of Lower Flange = bf2 = 74.4 mm
Web height = d = 122 mm
Avg thickness of Flanges = tf = 3.8 mm
Avg width of Flanges = bf = 73.925 mm

Moment of Inertia = 2896882.87 𝒎𝒎𝟒

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 22
 Observations & Calculations (Experimental Determination)
Calibration Equation of Hydraulic Jack: Load (Kg) = 9.4066 x Pressure (Psi)

Moment SG # 2 SG # 3 SG # 4 SG # 5
Load SG # 1
M = P x Le
Y= -30mm Y= 0mm Y= 30mm Y=64.45mm Y= - 64.45mm
Psi Kg N N-mm μ∈ μ∈ μ∈ μ∈ μ∈

0 0 0 0 0 0

20 -107.413 0 107.413 230.760 -230.760

40 -214.827 0 214.827 461.519 -461.519

60 -322.240 0 322.240 692.279 -692.279

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 23
 M .y 
Observations & Calculations (Theoretical Determination) = =
I E

Moment SG # 2 SG # 3 SG # 4 SG # 5
Load SG # 1
M = P x Le
Y= - 30mm Y= 0mm Y= 30mm Y=64.45mm Y= - 64.45mm
Psi Kg N N-mm
σ ∈ σ ∈ σ ∈ σ ∈ σ ∈

20

40

60

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 24
 Observations & Calculations

SG # 2 SG # 3 SG # 4 SG # 5
SG # 1

Y= - 30mm Y= 0mm Y= 30mm Y=64.45mm Y= - 64.45mm

 exp  th  exp  th  exp  th  exp  th  exp  th

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Engr. Muhammad Hassan Ashfaq Mechanics of Solids-II 25