TRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when acted upon by a shear stress

𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜇 ; 𝜏𝑦𝑥 is shear stress = momentum flux
𝑑𝑦

NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜇
𝑑𝑦

Viscosity (dynamic or absolute, 𝜇)

- constant of proportionality
- resistance to flow

Fluidity (𝜑)
1
- reciprocal of viscosity; 𝜑 =
𝜇
- unit is the reciprocal of poise (𝑐𝑚 − 𝑠 − 𝑔−1 )
1 𝑐𝑚−𝑠 −1 𝑔
* 1 𝑟ℎ𝑒 = ( ) =1
𝑔 𝑐𝑚−𝑠

Newtonian Fluid
- any fluid that obeys the Newton’s Law of Viscosity equation

𝑑𝑣𝑥
A linear relationship exists between the shear stress 𝜏 and shear rate
𝑑𝑦
Non-Newtonian Fluids
- blood
- toothpaste
- ketchup
- grease
- cake batter
- polymer melt

NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

Food
- Emulsions (mayonnaise, ice cream)
- Foams (ice cream, whipped cream)
- Suspensions (mustard, chocolate)
- Gels (cheese)

Biofluids
- Suspensions (blood)
- Gel (mucin)
- Solution (spittle)

Personal Care Products

- Suspensions (nail polish, face scrubs)
- Solutions/Gel (shampoo, conditioner)
- Foams (shaving cream)

Electronic and Optical Materials

- Liquid Crystals (monitor displays)
- Melts (soldering paste)

Pharmaceuticals
- Gels (creams, particle precursors)
- Aerosols (nasal spray)

Why are these fluids non-newtonian?

Non-newtonian behavior is frequently associated with complex internal structure.

 The fluid may have large complex molecules (like a polymer) or
 The fluid may be heterogeneous solution (like a suspension)

Fluid systems may be non-ideal in two ways:

1. The viscosity may depend on the shear rate
2. The viscosity may depend on time
 * Some may have both

SHEAR STRESS BEHAVIOR

For Newtonian Fluids For Non-Newtonian Fluid

𝑑𝑣𝑧 𝑑𝑣𝑧
𝜏𝑟𝑧 = −𝜇 𝜏𝑟𝑧 = −𝜂
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟

𝜂 – apparent viscosity (non-constant for

Non-Newtonian fluids)

VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT DEVICES

1. Bostwick (consistometer) – measures the consistency of fluids such as tomato
sauce and coating
2. Ubbelohde Capillary Viscometer
3. Spindle Type Viscometer (Brookefield)

A fluid is said to be:

 Invicidor Ideal (Euclidean) if it has no resistance to shear stress (zero viscosity).
It is incompressible in nature. *zero viscosity = defy gravity
 Viscous/Viscid or Real (Pascalian) if it has positive viscosity. It is compressible
in nature.
Viscous = μliquid >μwater
Mobile = μliquid <μwater
VISCOSITY OF FLUIDS

Gases
 increases with increasing temperature independent of pressure (up to 1000
kPa)
 at > 1000 kPa, viscosity increases with increasing pressure

Liquids
 decreases with increasing temperature independent of pressure

How to get the viscosity of fluids?

𝐶2
exp ( 𝐶1 + + 𝐶3 ln 𝑇 + 𝐶4 𝑇 𝐶5 )
𝑇

Determine the viscosity of toluene (C7H8) at 30°C

T = 30°C = 303.15 K
C1 = -226.08 C2 = 6805.7 C3 = 37.542 C4 = -0.060853 C5 = 1

−226.08+6805.7
+37.542 ln(303.15)+(−0.060853)(303.15)1 )
𝑒( 303.15
−13
= 1.166529527 𝑥 10

FLUID REGIME

Osborne Reynolds’ Apparatus (1893) demonstrating the onset of turbulent flow

 These drawings were published in Reynolds’ influential 1883 paper “An experimental
investigation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion of water in parallel channels
shall be direct or sinuous and of the law of resistance in parallel channel”

LAMINAR (Viscous)

● Occurs at low velocities

● Layers of fluids seem to slide by one another without eddies or swirls
● No lateral mixing in the fluid
● Fluid travels smoothly and in regular paths

TURBULENT

Turbulent - produces electric charge

● Fluid travels in random, chaotic paths
● Heavy lateral mixing occurs
● Eddies form
THE REYNOLDS NUMBER (NRE)

Re = ρ u L / μ
= ρ u2 / (μ u / L)
=uL/ν
Re = Reynolds Number (non-dimensional)
ρ = density (kg/m3, lbm/ft3)
u = velocity based on the actual cross section area of the duct or pipe (m/s, ft/s)
μ = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2, lbm/s ft)
L = characteristic length (m, ft)

ν = μ / ρ = kinematic viscosity (m2/s, ft2/s)

Reynolds Number for Flow in Pipe or Duct

 For a pipe or duct the characteristic length is the hydraulic diameter.
 L = dh

Where; dh = hydraulic diameter (m, ft)

The Reynolds Number for the flow in a duct or pipe can with the hydraulic diameter be expressed
as:

Re = ρ u dh / μ
= u dh / ν (2)
Where; dh = hydraulic diameter (m, ft)

Reynolds Number for a Pipe or Duct in Imperial Units

The Reynolds number for a pipe or duct expressed in Imperial units

Re = 7745.8 u dh / ν (2a)

Where;

Re = Reynolds Number (non-dimensional)

u = velocity (ft/s)
dh = hydraulic diameter (in)
ν = kinematic viscosity (cSt) (1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s)
 The Reynolds Number can be used to determine if flow is laminar, transient or turbulent.
The flow is:

● laminar - when Re < 2300

● transient - when 2300 < Re < 4000
● turbulent - when Re > 4000

In practice laminar flow is only actual for viscous fluids - like crude oil, fuel oil and other oils.

Example:

A Newtonian fluid with a dynamic or absolute viscosity of 0.38 Ns/m2 and a specific gravity
of 0.91 flows through a 25 mm diameter pipe with a velocity of 2.6 m/s.

Density can be calculated from the specific gravity of the fluid and the density of the specific
gravity reference water 1000 kg/m3 - as

ρ = 0.91 (1000 kg/m3)

= 910 kg/m3

Reynolds Number can then be calculated using equation (1) like

Re = (910 kg/m3) (2.6 m/s) (25 mm) (10-3 m/mm) / (0.38 Ns/m2)
= 156 ((kg m / s2)/N)
= 156 ~ Laminar flow
1 (N) = 1 (kg m / s2)

Seatwork: Reynolds Number

An oil is being pumped inside a 10.00 diameter pipe at a Reynolds number of 2100.
The oil density is 855 kg/m^3 and the viscosity is 2.1 x 10-2 Pa-s.

a) What is the velocity in the pipe?

b) It is desired to maintain the same Reynolds number of 2100 and the same velocity as
in part (a) using a second fluid with a density of 925 kg/m3 and a viscosity of 1.5 x 10-2
Pa-s. What pipe diamater should be used?
OVERALL BALANCES

Systems Vs Control Volumes

Momentum transfer problems often involved using the conservation laws to analyze
the performance of devices

Airfoil

Pump
Two approaches two analyzing devices

1. Control Mass/System (sys) - focus on a set of fluid particles

2. Control Volume (CV) - Focus on a region in space surrounded by control volume
surfaces (cs)

In most situations, it is easier to observe a device which occupies a region of space

( CV) than to track individual particles as they travel through device (sys)

● Control Volumes may move and/deform

MASS BALANCE

General Continuity Equation

For A Mass Balance

min= mout+ dM/dt

For an Overall Mass Balance, no mass is being generated

mout - min + dM/dt = 0 (If mass is generated, It violates the law of Conservation of Mass)
Δm + dM/dt = 0

Note: Nuclear reaction basically generates a mass because it forms new element

At Steady State, rate of Accumulation is zero thus;

Δm = 0

min =mout

● Transaction of Electrons happens in Chemical Reaction

● Reaction that takes place in the nucleus and where the Law of conservation of mass does not
apply happens in Nuclear Reaction

The Steady State Mass Balance

Where;

m1 (mass rate, kg/s) m2

V1(velocity, m/s) V2

ρ1 (density, kg/m3 ) ρ2

G1 (mass flux/velocity, kg/s-m2) G2

q1 (volumetric flow rate, m3/s) q2

mass flow rate in = mass flow rate out

m1 = m2

● We cannot perform a mass balance in as reactive system, instead of a mass balance, use
mole balance (mole is not conserved in reactive system)

Mole Balance Approaches

● Elemental Mole Balance

● Molecular Species Balance -in terms of molecule
● Extent of Reaction

Continuity Equation

mass flow rate in = mass flow rate out

Simplified Mass Balance Equation

A. If the Fluid is incompressible (liquid, constant density)

m1 = m2

ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2 ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ

A1V1 = A2V2

q1 = q 2
 B. If the fluid is incompressible and the pipe are identical (same size)

A1V1 = A2V2 A1 = A 2 = A

V1 = V2

Example: Steady-State Mass Balance

A petroleum crude oil having a density of 892 kg/m 3 is flowing through the piping
arrangement shown at a total rate of 1.388 ×10-3 m3/s entering pipe 1. The flow divides equally in
each of pipes 3. The steel pipes are schedule 40 pipe. Calculate the following using SI units.

a. The total mass flow rate in pipe 1 and pipe 3

b. The volumetric flow rate in pipe 2
c. The average velocity in 1 and 3
d. The mass velocity G in 1

Assumptions

1. Steady State
2. Incompressible

Data (Table 10-22, Perry’s Hand Book)

2 in sch 40 = D1 =2.067 in

3 in sch 40 = D2= 3.068 in

1 ½ in sch 40 = D3= 1.610 in

a. For Pipe 1 c. For Pipe 1

ρ1 = 892 kg/m3 2 Possible Ways
q1 = 1.388 × 10-3 m3/s 1. m1 = ρ1 A1 V1
m1 = ρ1 q1 = 892 (1.388 × 10-3) 2. q1 = A1 V1
= 1.2381 kg/s q1 = A1 V1

m1 = m2 1.388 × 10-3 m3/s= [Π/4 (2.067 in)2][(0.0254 m)2/1 in2] V1

m2 = m3a + m3b ;m3b = m3 V1 = 0.6411 m/s
 m2 = 2m3
1.2381= 2m3
m3 = 0.6191 kg/s
b. For Pipe 2 d. For Pipe 3
m1 = m2 m 1 = ρ 1 A1 V1
ρ1 q1 = ρ2 q2 ; ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ 0.6191 = (892)[Π/4 (1.61 in)2][(0.0254 m)2/1 in2] V3
q1 = q2 V3 = 0.5284 m/s
q2 = 1.388 × 10-3 m3/s
m 1 = G 1 A1
1.2381 = (G1)[Π/4 (1.61 in)2][(0.0254 m)2/1 in2]
G1 = 571.8965 kg/s-m2

Seatwork: Steady State Mass Balance

A lube oil (0.85 g/cm3 ) is pumped to a header at the rate of 4000 liters/hr. At the header the
flow branches in 2 lines, one pipe has an inside diameter of 7 cm while the other 15 cm. Assuming
that the flow is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the flow, calculate for both pipes:
a. The flow velocity in m/s
b. The mass velocity in kg/hr-m3
c. The volumetric flow rate in m3 /hr

Assumptions
1. Steady State
2. Incompressible

Practice Problem: Steady State Mass Balance Compressible

At a given average velocity of 2.282 m/s, a hydrocarbon liquid enters a simple flow system
where A1 = 5.33×10-3 m2 and density = 905 kg/m3. During the process the liquid is being heated and
the exit density is 880 kg/m3. The cross-sectional area at point 2 is 2.30×10-3m2. The process is in a
steady state. Calculate the (a). Mass flow rate and volumetric flow rate at entrance and exit and (b)
the average velocity and mass flux at point 2.

V = 2.282 m/s = V1 = V2 m1 = ρ1 q1
A1= 5.33×10-3 m2 11.0075693 = 905 q1
ρ1 = 905 kg/m3 q1 = 0.01216306 m3/s
ρ2 = 880 kg/m3
A2= 2.30 ×10-3 m2 m2 = ρ2 q2
m1 = ρ1 A1V1 11.0075693 = 880 q2
q2 = 0.01250860148 m3/s
= 905 (5.33×10-3)(2.282)
= 11.0075693 kg/s m2 = G2 A2
m1 = m2 11.0075693 = G2 (2.30 ×10-3 m2)
G2=4785.899696

m2 = ρ2A2V2
11.0075693 = 880 (2.30 ×10-3 m2) (V2)
V2 = 5.438522381 m/s

The Essence of Energy Balance

Often we want to know how much energy is required for a process to occur or how much
energy is required for a process to occur or how much energy can be extractor from a device

Example: Energy Balance (English)

One thousand one hundred pounds per hour of steam drives a turbine. The steam enters the
turbine at 44atm and 842°F at a linear velocity of 197ft/s and leaves at a point 16.5ft below the
turbine inlet at atmospheric pressure and a velocity of 1181ft/s. The turbine delivers shaft work at a
rate of 51630 lbf-ft/s, and the specific enthalpy change associated with the process is -217459 lbf-
ft/lbm. Determine the heat loss from the turbine in lbf-ft/s and in BTU/h.
Example: Energy Balance

Water at 30°C is to be pumped from a river to a storage tank at a rate of 0.43m 3/min. The piping
system consists of 8cm diameter pipes before the pump and 6cm diameter after the pipe. The
discharge into the tank (6cm dia) is 30m above the water level of the river. The pressure inside the
tank is kept at 200 kPa. If no heat is added to the water how many kW of energy is required for
pumping? Neglect the energy lost by the water moving past the walls of the pipes. Take the specific
volume of water at 0.001m3/kg.

(point 1 river, point 2 tank) (system is isothermal and steady state)

Systems in Thermodynamics

1. Open system 2.Closed system 3. Isolated system

FORMS OF ENERGY
1. Associated with mass (possessed/carried by fluid)
 Internal Energy (U)
 Potential Energy (PE)
 Kinetic Energy (KE)
 PV-Work (Wpv)

Internal Energy (U) – due to the atomic and molecular energy of the matter of which is
constituted
Potential Energy (PE) – due to the position of the fluid w/ respect to an arbitrary reference plain
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
g= 9.81 𝑠 2 = 32.174 𝑠 2
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡
gc= 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠 2
𝑔
PE = m𝑔 z
𝑐
Kinetic Energy (KE) – due to fluid motion - Correction factor, α to account for velocity
distribution ranges 0.5 (laminar) to 1.0 (turbulent)

α=0.5 α= 0.91 – 0.95 α=1.0

Note: Omission of α usually produces insignificant error

Saturated vapor = liquid and gas exist in equilibrium

Psat = saturated pressure

𝟏
KE = 𝟐α𝑔 mv2
𝑐

Flow (PV) Work (WPV) – work done by surroundings to push the fluid into the system
- energy necessary to cause flow in an open system

Wpv = PV

𝑉
Wpv = Fd = PA(𝐴) = PV

2. Transferred between system and surrounding (energy in transit)

Heat (Q)
- Energy that flows into and out of the system as a result of temperature differs between a
system and its surroundings
- Positive if heat is transferred to the system from surroundings
- Negative if system to the surrounding
- Excludes heat generated by friction

Shaft Work (Ws)

- Network done on the system by the surroundings
- Any mechanical energy other than that necessary for flow
- Work associated with moving parts

Convention (IUPAC)
 - Positive if the work done on the system
- Negative if the work is done by the

system

SPECIFIC PROPERTIES AND ENTHALPY

EXTENSIVE PROPERTY – dependent of the quantity of material
Examples:
- Mass, volume, mole
- Mass flowrate, volumetric flowrate, molar flowrate (for a continuous stream)
- Rate of transport of energy (kinetic, potential, internal)

INTENSIVE PROPERTY – independent of the quantity of material

Example: temperature, pressure, density
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦
SPECIFIC PROPERTY – an intensive property obtained by 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
Examples:
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒/𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑚3 𝐿/𝑚𝑖𝑛
Specific property = or units: or 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠/𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑔

Note: We will use the symbol ^ to denote a specific property.

Specific Enthalpy
Ĥ = Û + Pv̂
The total Energy Balance
Energy balance from point 1 to point 2:
Energy input = energy output + accumulation

𝑑(𝑚𝑢)
Û1 + 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝑃𝐸1 + 𝑃1 v̂ 1 + 𝑄̇ + Ẇ𝑠 = Û2 + 𝐾𝐸2 + 𝑃𝐸2 + 𝑃2 v̂ 2 + 𝑄̇ +
𝑑𝑡
𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑑(𝑚𝑢)
ṁ (Û1 + + 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑃1 v̂1 ) + 𝑄̇ + Ẇ𝑠 = ṁ (Û2 + + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑃2 v̂2 ) +
2α 2α 𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝑚𝑢) 𝑉2
+ ṁ Δ (Û + + 𝑔𝑧 + Pv̂) = 𝑄̇ + Ẇ𝑠
𝑑𝑡 2α
But Ĥ = Û + Pv̂
So,
𝑑(𝑚𝑢) 𝑉2
+ ṁ Δ (Ĥ + + 𝑔𝑧) = 𝑄̇ + Ẇ𝑠
𝑑𝑡 2α

𝑑(𝑚𝑢)
Cancel out since the system is in steady state:
𝑑𝑡
𝑉2
ṁ Δ (Ĥ + + 𝑔𝑧) = 𝑄̇ + Ẇ𝑠
2α
𝑘𝑔 𝐽 𝑚 2 𝑚 2 𝐽 𝐽
SI: 𝑚= +
𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑠 2 𝑠 2 𝑠 𝑠
𝑓𝑡2 𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑡 𝑠2 𝑠2 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑡
English: 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡 ft = +
𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠2 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠2

Example: Energy Balance (SI)

Water at 93.3 °C is being pumped from a large storage tank at 1 atm abs at a rate of .189
3
m /min by a pump. The motor that drives the pump supplies energy to the pump at a rate of 1.49
kW. The water is pumped through a heat exchanger, where it gives up 704 kW of heat and is then
delivered to a large open storage tank at an elevation of 15.24 m above the first tank. What is the
final temperature of the water to the second tank?
Approach 1: Use steam table to get the enthalpy values of water
Approach 2: Assume that the heat capacity of water is constant over the range of temperature.

 Specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g K

Assumptions:
- Steady state
- No heat loss in the tanks along the pipes
- Velocity in the tank is also zero.
-

Approach 1:
Get ρ and H from steam table at 93.3°C
ρ = 963.2561 kg/m3
Ĥ1 = 390, 838.1521 J/kg

𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
m = ρ1q1 = (963.2561 ) (0.189 )( )
𝑚3 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60𝑠
m = 3.0343 kg/s

Get H2 from EB
3.0343 [(Ĥ2 – 390838.1521 + 9.81 (15.24)] = (-704x103) + 1.49x103
Ĥ2 = 159165.7264
Find T2 in the table
T2 = 38.01°C
Approach #2:

ṁ 𝛥 (𝐻 + 𝑔𝑧) = 𝑄 + 𝑊𝑠
Find ΔH
3.0343 [( 𝛥𝐻 + 9.81 (15.24)] = −704𝑥103 + 1.49𝑥103
𝑱
𝜟𝑯 = −𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟔𝟕𝟐. 𝟒𝟐𝟓𝟕
𝒌𝒈
Isobaric
ΔH = CpΔT
𝐽 1000𝑔
-231672.4257 = 4184𝑔 𝐾 ( ) (𝑇2 − 93.3)
1 𝑘𝑔
T2 = 37.92896.136°C