PHYS101 GENERAL PHYSICS I

Spring 2020–21
Lecture materials are ailable at moodle
moodle.ciu.edu.tr → General Physics I

2
 CYPRUS INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY - FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

SYLLABUS
2018-2019 FALL SEMESTER
Weekly Course Hours
Course Code Course Name Course Type Credits ECTS Weekly Time Schedule

Syllabus
T A L

PHYS 101 General Physics I 3 2 4 6

Prerequisite Prerequisite to PHY102

Course Lecturer Prof. Dr. Ayhan Bilsel Gr.01, 06 TU: 14.30-16.20 (ST119); FR:
Office Hours
14.30-15.20 (ST120), Gr. 02, 07 WE: 14.30-
Schedule
E-mail 16.20 (ST121); FR: 13.30-14.20) (ST119)
[email protected]
Phone 2449 (A. Bilsel) Office / Room No ST-220 [A. Bi l s el ]
Teaching Ahmed Sultan [email protected]
Collins Ineneji, [email protected] Phone 2469, 2472
Assistant(s)
Ernest Mbelu, [email protected]
E-mail Office / Room No ST243

After compl eti ng thi s cours e the s tudents wi l l be a bl e to:

2. Explain (4) laws, central principles, and models of kinematics, dynamics,
1. Identify (2) a nd use (3) the voca bul a ry a nd s ta nda rd uni ts of mecha ni cs
and statics.
Learning 4. Apply (3) ma thema ti ca l methods to formulate (3) phys i ca l
3. Apply (4) funda menta l l a ws a nd pri nci pl es to s ol ve probl ems i n mecha ni cs .
Outcomes phenomena .
5. Analyse (4) a nd interpre t (4) experi menta l res ul ts a nd gra phi ca l repres enta ti ons of 6. Identify (2) the type of s upport rea cti ons a nd draw (2) free body
phys i ca l phenomena . di a gra ms .
SOLO AVERAGE = [(2+3)/2 + 4 + 4 +( 3+3)/2 + (4+4)/2 + (2+2)/2]/6 = 3,25

This is the first of the two-module Level -1 Physics courses. The course aims to provide a basic grounding in elementary mechanics including kinematics of
Course motion, Newton's Laws of motion and gravitation; principles of 'Work and Energy' and 'Impulse and Momentum'; the conservation laws of momentum and
Objectives energy and collisions; the rotational dynamics of rigid bodies, equilibrium statics together with moments of inertia and angular momentum. Students are
also required to perform (about) 6 laboratory experiments and write proper laboratory reports about their findings.

1 Jewett a nd Serwa y, Phys i cs for Sci enti s ts a nd Engi neers , 9th ed., Brooks /Col e Cenga ge Lea rni ng, 2013.
Textbooks
and/or 2 Gi a ncol i , Phys i cs for Sci enti s ts a nd Engi neers wi th Modern Phys i cs , 4th ed., Pea rs on, 2008.
References Ha l l i da y, Res ni ck, a nd Wa l ker, Funda menta l s of Phys i cs , Wi l ey, 2010.
3

WEEK # Dates TOPICS Reference No - Section

Week 1 3.10..2018 Uni ts a nd di mens i ons Ref:1 1,1-1,7

Week 2 10.10.2018 Uni forml y a ccel era ted moti on Ref:1 2.1-2.5

Week 3 17.10.2018 Free fa l l , vector ma thema ti cs Ref:1 2.6-2,7 3,1-3,4

Week 4 24.10..2018 Two di mens i ona l moti on Ref:1 4,1-4.6

Week 5 31.10.2018 Newton's l a ws of moti on Ref:1 5,1-5,6

Week 6 07.11.2018 Appl i ca ti ons of Newton's l a ws Ref:1 5.7-5.8

Week 7 10.11. - Mi d-term exa ms Ref:1 6,1-6.2 6.5

Week 8 21.11.2018 Mi d-term exa ms

Week 9 28.11.2018 Circular motion Ref:1 7.1-7.5 7.6-7.9 8,1-8,6

Week 10 05.12.2018 Work and energy; Conservation of energy Ref:1 9.1-9.7

Week 11 12.12.2018 Momentum a nd col l i s i ons Ref:1 10.1-10..9 11.1-11.3

Week 12 19.12.2018 Rota ti ona l ki nema ti cs Ref:1 12.1-124

Week 13 26.12.2018 Sta ti c equi l i bri um

Week 14-15 3-15.1.2019 Final Exams.

Evaluation Tool Quantity Date

Weight in Weight in 3
Total (%) Semester Evaluation (%)
Final 1 To be a nnounced 50 50
Te x t b o o k :

Giancoli:
Physics for Scientists and
Engineers
4th edition
(Pearson)

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R e c o m m e n d e d Te x t b o o k s :

Young and Freedman: Sears and Zemansky’s

University Physics, 14th ed. (Pearson)

Serway and Jewett: Physics for Scientists and

Engineers, 9th ed. (Cengage)

5
For more advanced students:

Feynman:
Lectures on Physics, Vol. 1.
(Basic Books)

Frautschi, Olenic, Apostol, and Goodstein:

The Mechanical Universe
(Cambridge University Press)

6
Evaluation tools

Laboratory 20%
Quiz 20%
Midterm examination 25%
Final examination 35%

7
Unit 1 Measurement and Estimating
M31 Andromeda galaxy. Source: NASA
 Classical Physics
Mechanics and electromagnetism are basic to all other branches of classical
and modern physics.

Classical physics

▪ Developed before 1900

This course deals with Classical Mechanics

▪ Also called Newtonian Mechanics or Mechanics

Modern physics
▪ From about 1900 to the present

9
 Objectives of Physics

• To find fundamental laws that govern natural phenomena.

• To use these laws to develop theories that can predict the

results of future experiments.

• Express the laws in the language of mathematics

▪ Mathematics provides the bridge between theory and

experiment.

10
 Should engineers study physics?
• An understanding of
physics is a must for
anyone making a
career in Engineering.

• For example,
engineers must know
how to calculate the
forces within a
structure to design it (a) This Roman aqueduct was built 2000 years ago and still stands. (b) The
so that it remains Hartford Civic Center collapsed in 1978, just two years after it was built.

standing.
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Scientific Notation
 Scientific notation is a useful way to write numbers that are very large or very small

 To write a number in scientific notation:

 Move the decimal point to create a new number between 1 and 10

 Not including 10

 Count the number of places the decimal point was moved

 This is the exponent of 10

 The exponent is positive if the original number is greater than one

 The exponent is negative if the original number is less than one

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Uncertainty in Measurements
• There is uncertainty in every measurement – this uncertainty carries
over through the calculations.
• May be due to the apparatus, the experimenter, and/or the number of measurements

made

• We will use rules for significant figures to approximate the uncertainty in

results of calculations.

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Significant Figures
• All nonzero digits are significant.

2.536 g has 4 significant figures

2.5 g has 2 s.f.

• Zeros between nonzero digits are significant.

1005 kg has 4 s.f.

5.04 mL has 3 s.f.

• Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digits are not significant.

0.005 kg has only 1 s.f.

0.045 kg has 2 s.f.

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 Significant Figures
• Zeros which follow a number after the decimal point are significant.

0.200 g has 3 s.f.

0.034 mL has 2 s.f.

• When a number ends in zeros that are not to the right of a decimal
point, use scientific notation.

1.02 x 104 kg has 3 s.f.

1.020 x 104 kg has 4 s.f.

1.0200 x 104 kg has 5 s.f.

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Significant Figures in Calculations

• Addition and subtraction

• The location of the least significant digit in the answer is determined by the location of the

least significant digit in the starting quantity that is known with the least accuracy

Example: 4.52 + 1.2 = 5.72 ~ 5.7

• Due to the location of the significant digit in the 1.2

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Exact Numbers
• Some values are exact

• Not measured

• Defined

Examples:
• 1 min = 60 sec
• Appears to have 1 significant figure, but it is a definition

• Can be thought of as 60.00000000… seconds

• The number of significant figures in a calculation is determined by the number of

significant figures in other quantities involved

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Idealized models

To simplify the analysis of

a baseball in flight, we use
an idealized model.
Units of measure
• Each measured quantity must have a unit of measure for that quantity

• Three basic quantities

• Length

• Mass

• Time

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Standards of Fundamental Quantities

• Standardized systems

• Agreed upon by some authority, usually a

governmental body

• SI – Systéme International
• Agreed to in 1960 by an international committee

• Main system used in this course.

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 Fundamental Quantities and Their Units

Quantity SI Unit
Length meter

Mass kilogram

Time second

Temperature Kelvin

Electric Current Ampere

Luminous Intensity Candela

Amount of Substance mole

2
Definition of the Meter
• The original definition of a meter was
in terms of the Earth’s circumference

• Then changed to be based on this

platinum-iridium bar

• Now defined in terms of the length of

the path traveled by light in
1/299,792,458 second.
Historical International Prototype Metre bar,
made of an alloy of platinum and iridium, that
was the standard from 1889 to 1960.

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Definition of a Second

• The value of the second is based on the

frequency of light emitted by cesium
atoms.

• Time required for 9,192,631,770 periods

of radiation emitted by cesium atoms.

• Shown is a cesium clock in the National

Institute of Standards and Technology.

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Definition of Kilogram
• Mass is related to the amount of
material contained in the object.

• Defined in terms of a standard kilogram

• Composed of platinum and iridium.

Stored in Sèvres, France.

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International System of Unit s (SI)

The International Bureau of Weights

and Measures (BIPM) was set up by
the Metre Convention and has its
headquarters near Paris, France.

The task of the BIPM is to ensure

world-wide uniformity of
measurements and their traceability to
the International System of Units (SI).

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Other Systems
• CGS

• Uses centimeters (length), grams (mass) and seconds (time)

• U.S. Customary System

• Uses feet (length), slugs (mass), and seconds (time)

26
Units Summary

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Example 5 (Midterm Exam Spring 2016)

According to Einstein, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 for an object with mass m

(c is the speed of light). The unit of E is
a. kg m/s
b. kg m2/s2
c. kg2m
d. kg/m
e. kg m2/s

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Example 5 (Midterm Exam Spring 2016)

According to Einstein, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 for an object with mass m

(c is the speed of light). The unit of E is
a. kg m/s

b. kg m2/s2
c. kg2m
d. kg/m
e. kg m2/s

Hint:
The unit of m is kg and the unit of v is m/s.
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Units, Standards, and the SI System
Units, Standards, and the SI System
Units, Standards, and the SI System
 Prefixes
• Prefixes correspond to powers of 10.

• Each prefix has a specific name.

• Each prefix has a specific abbreviation.

• The prefixes can be used with any basic units.

• They are multipliers of the basic unit.

Examples:

• 1 mm = 10-3 m

• 1 mg = 10-3 g

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Prefixes, cont.

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Derived Units
Derived quantities can be expressed as a mathematical combination of
fundamental quantities.

Examples:
• Area
• A product of two lengths
• Speed
• A ratio of a length to a time interval
• Density
• A ratio of mass to volume

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 Dimensions
• Technique to check the correctness of an equation or to assist in deriving an equation.

• Dimensions are

• Length – L

• Time – T

• Mass – M
• Dimensions are independent of the particular units.
• Dimensions can be treated as algebraic quantities.

• Add, subtract, multiply, divide

36
Using Dimensional Analysis

• Any relationship can be correct only if the dimensions

on both sides of the equation are the same.
• The dimensions must be the same on both sides of the equals
sign in an equation
• Using dimensions as a check can sometimes reveal errors in a calculation

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Dimensional Analysis, example

Given the equation: x = ½ at 2

• Check dimensions on each side:

L
L=  T 2
=L
T 2

• The T2’s cancel, leaving L for the dimensions of each side.

• The equation is dimensionally correct.

• There are no dimensions for the constant.

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Example
Which of the following quantities has the same dimensions
as kinetic energy, ½ mv2 ?
a. ma
b. mvx
c. mvt
d. mgh
e. mgt

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Example
Which of the following quantities has the same dimensions
as kinetic energy, ½ mv2 ?
a. ma
b. mvx
c. mvt

d. mgh
e. mgt

Hint:
Note: [a] = [g] = LT-2; [h] = L and [v] = LT-1.
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Example (Midterm Exam Fall 2017)
The equation for the change of position of a train starting at x = 0 m is
given by x = ½ at2 + bt3 . The dimensions of b are:

a. T-3

b. LT-3

c. LT-2

d. LT-1

e. L-1T-1

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Example (Midterm Exam Fall 2017)
The equation for the change of position of a train starting at x = 0 m is
given by x = ½ at2 + bt3 . The dimensions of b are:

a. T-3

b. LT-3 Solution:
The dimensions of bt3 must be [L].
c. LT-2
 The dimensions of b are LT -3
d. LT-1
LT -3 T 3  L
e. L-1T-1

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Conversion of Units

• When units are not consistent, you may need to convert to

appropriate ones.

• Units can be treated like algebraic quantities that can cancel each
other out.

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Conversion
• Always include units for every quantity, you can carry the units
through the entire calculation.

• Will help detect possible errors

• Multiply original value by a ratio equal to one.

Example: 15.0 in = ? cm
 2.54 cm 
15.0 in   = 38.1cm
 1in 

• Note the value inside the parentheses is equal to 1, since 1 inch

is defined as 2.54 cm.

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Checking Units
• The same approach used with dimensions can be used with units

• The units need to be in the same system

• The units should be correct for the quantity being calculated

• Always check the dimensions and units of your answer

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Mathematical methods you may need ...

... include
• Algebra

• Trigonometry

• Vectors

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Tr i g o n o m e t r y
Right triangles

• Pythagorean Theorem

• r2 = x2 + y2

• Trigonometric functions

• sin θ = y / r

• cos θ = x / r

• tan θ = y / x

• Trigonometric identities

• sin² θ + cos² θ = 1

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Inverse Functions and Angles
• To find an angle, you need to use the inverse
of a trigonometric function

• If sin θ = y/r then

θ = sin-1 (y/r)

• Angles in the triangle add up to 90°

• α + β = 90°

• Complementary angles

• sin α = cos β

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Angle Measurements
• Various units

• Degrees

• Radians

• 360°= 2 π rad

• Definition of radian

• θ = s/ r

• s is the length of arc

• r is the radius

• s and r must be measured in

the same units

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Order of Magnitude

• Approximation based on a number of assumptions

• The order of magnitude is the power of 10 that applies.

• Estimating too high for one number is often canceled by estimating too low for
another number.

• Working the problem allows you to drop digits, make reasonable

approximations and simplify approximations.

• With practice, your results will become better and better.

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Order of Magnitude: Rapid Estimating – Example

Volume of a lake.

Estimate how much water there is in a

particular lake, which is roughly
circular, about 1 km across, and you
guess it has an average depth of
about 10 m.

Answer:

V = πr2h  (3)(500 m)2 (10m)

 8  106 m3  107 m3 .
Order of Magnitude: Rapid Estimating – Example

Thickness of a page. Estimate the thickness of a page of your

textbook.
Approach: At first you might think that a special measuring device, a
micrometer is needed to measure the thickness of one page since an
ordinary ruler clearly won’t do. Make use of symmetry: we can make the
reasonable assumption that all the pages of the book are equal in
thickness.

Solution: We can use a ruler to measure many pages at once. If you

measure the thickness of the first 500 pages of the book you might get
something like 1.5 cm. Note that 500 numbered pages is 250 sheets. So
one page must have a thickness of about

1.5 𝑐𝑚
≅ 6 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚
250 𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 52
Order of Magnitude: Rapid Estimating – Example
Estimate the height of the building
shown with the help of a bus-stop
pole and a friend. (See how useful
the diagram is!)

Answer:

2 1.5
=
18 𝑥
x = (1.5)(18)/2 = 13.5 m

The building is

13.5 m + 1.5 m = 15 m
Example
◄ Estimate the number of gumballs in
the machine.

SOLUTION.

1. Counting gumballs across the

bottom, there are about 10 in a row.

2. Thus we estimate that one layer

contains about 100 gumballs.

3. In counting vertically, we see that

there are about 15 rows.

4. Thus we estimate that there are 1500

gumballs in the machine.
54
Unit 2: Describing Motion
Kinematics in One Dimension
What Is Motion?

Kinematics is the study of motion

• Defined in terms of various concepts

• Look at motion in terms of

• Position

• Velocity

• Acceleration
Representations of Motion

A shows a motion diagram

• Multiple images of a hockey puck traveling across an

icy surface

B shows a position – time graph of the

motion
• The dots correspond to the images of the puck

C shows a velocity-time graph of the motion

Position
The object’s position is its location with respect to a chosen reference point.
 2-1 Reference
Displacement Frames and Displacement
vs. distance

We make a distinction between distance

and displacement.

Displacement (blue line) is how far the

object is from its starting point,
regardless of how it got there.

Distance traveled (dashed line) is

A person walks 70m east, then 30 m west. The total distance
measured along the actual path. traveled is 100 m (path is shown dashed in black); but the
displacement, shown as a solid blue arrow, is 40 m to the east.
 2-1 Reference Frames and Displacement
Displacement
The displacement is written:

Left: Right:
Displacement is positive.
Displacement is negative.
 Distance vs. Displacement – An Example

Assume a player moves from one

end of the court to the other and
back.

• Distance is twice the length of the

court

• Distance is always positive

• Displacement is zero

• Δx = xf – xi = 0 since xf = xi
 Example
You and your dog go for a walk to the
park. On the way, your dog takes many
side trips to chase squirrels. When you
1) yes
arrive at the park, do you and your dog
2) no
have the same displacement?
 Example
You and your dog go for a walk to the
park. On the way, your dog takes many
side trips to chase squirrels. When you
1) yes
arrive at the park, do you and your dog
2) no
have the same displacement?

Yes, you have the same displacement. Since you and your dog had the
same initial position and the same final position, then you have (by
definition) the same displacement.

Follow-up: Have you and your dog traveled the same distance?
S p e e d a n d Ve l o c i t y

Speed: how far an object travels in a given time interval

Velocity includes directional information:

A v e r a g e Ve l o c i t y
• The average velocity is rate at which the displacement occurs.

• The dimensions are length / time [L/T]

• The SI units are m/s

• Is the slope of the line in the position – time graph

Average Speed

• Speed is a scalar quantity.

d
• Has the same units as velocity
v avg 
• Defined as total distance / total time: t
• The speed has no direction and is always
expressed as a positive number.
• Neither average velocity nor average speed gives
details about the trip described.
Ve l o c i t y a n d P o s i t i o n

The average velocity

is the slope of the line
segment that connects
the positions at the
beginning and end of
the time interval.
Ve l o c i t y E x a m p l e

A shows a multiple exposure sketch

of a rocket powered car

B shows the position-time graph

C shows the velocity-time graph

• In this case, the speed of the car
increases with time
Instantaneous Velocity
• Average velocity does not tell us anything about details during
the time interval.

• To look at some of the details, smaller time intervals are needed

• The slope of the curve at the time of interest will give the
instantaneous velocity at that time

• Will be referred to as velocity

Average Speed and Average Velocity

The average speed is not the magnitude of the average

velocity.
• For example, a runner ends at her starting point.

• Her displacement is zero.

• Therefore, her velocity is zero.

• However, the distance traveled is not zero, so the speed is not zero.
Finding velocity on an x-t graph
Finding velocity on an x-t graph
x-t graphs
 Average velocity - Example
The position of a runner as a function of time is plotted as moving along the x axis of
a coordinate system. During a 3.00-s time interval, the runner’s position changes
from x1 = 50.0 m to x2 = 30.5 m, as shown. What was the runner’s average velocity?
Example ( M i d t e r m e x a m q u e s t i o n S p r i n g 2 0 1 6 )

Consider the graph below.

What is the average velocity
of the object during the first
20 s of its motion in m/s?

SOLUTION:
vav = x/t = 8 m/20 s = 0.4 m/s

21
 Average acceleration

• Acceleration is related to how velocity changes in time

• Acceleration is defined as the rate at which the velocity is changing:

• SI unit is m/s²
 Instantaneous Acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration can also be defined:

 The instantaneous acceleration is the slope of the

velocity-time graph at a particular instant in time

 In this case, the average acceleration equals the

instantaneous acceleration
Notes About Acceleration

Negative acceleration does not necessarily mean

the object is slowing down.
• If the acceleration and velocity are both negative, the object is

speeding up.
A vx-t graph
A x-t graph
EXAMPLE The position of a particle moving along the x axis is given
by x = (21 + 22t - 6.0t 2) m, where t is in s. What is the average velocity
during the time interval t = 1.0 s to t = 3.0 s?

SOLUTION
xf = x(3) = 21 + 22 (3) – 6 (3)2 = 33 m
xi = x(1) = 21 + 22 – 6 = 37 m

vav = (xf – xi) / (tf – ti)

= (33m – 37m) / (3s – 1s) = - 2.0 m/s

27
Acceleration - Example

This figure shows the velocity as a function

of time for two cars accelerating from 0 to
100 km/h in a time of 10.0 s. Compare
(a) the average acceleration;
(b) instantaneous acceleration; and
(c) total distance traveled for the two cars.

Solution: (a) Average acceleration is the same; both have the same change in speed over the same
time.
(b) Car A accelerates faster than B at the beginning but then slower than B towards the end (look at
the slope of the lines).
(c) Car A is always going faster than car B, so it will travel farther.
28
 Example
1) it speeds up all the time
The graph of position versus
2) it slows down all the time
time for a car is given below.
3) it moves at constant velocity
What can you say about the 4) sometimes it speeds up and
velocity of the car over time? sometimes it slows down
5) not really sure

t
 Example
1) it speeds up all the time
The graph of position versus
2) it slows down all the time
time for a car is given below.
3) it moves at constant velocity
What can you say about the 4) sometimes it speeds up and
velocity of the car over time? sometimes it slows down
5) not really sure

x The car moves at a constant velocity

because the x vs. t plot shows a straight
line. The slope of a straight line is
constant. Remember that the slope of x
vs. t is the velocity!
t
 Example
1) it speeds up all the time
The graph of position vs. 2) it slows down all the time
time for a car is given below. 3) it moves at constant velocity
What can you say about the 4) sometimes it speeds up and
velocity of the car over time? sometimes it slows down
5) not really sure

t
 Example
1) it speeds up all the time
The graph of position vs. 2) it slows down all the time
time for a car is given below. 3) it moves at constant velocity
What can you say about the 4) sometimes it speeds up and
velocity of the car over time? sometimes it slows down
5) not really sure

The car slows down all the time x

because the slope of the x vs. t graph is
diminishing as time goes on.
Remember that the slope of x vs. t is
the velocity! At large t, the value of the
position x does not change, indicating
t
that the car must be at rest.
Example
1) Yes
If the velocity of a car is non-zero
2) No
(v  0), can the acceleration of the
3) Depends on the
car be zero?
velocity
Example
1) Yes
If the velocity of a car is non-zero
2) No
(v  0), can the acceleration of the
3) Depends on the
car be zero?
velocity

Sure it can! An object moving with constant velocity

has a non-zero velocity, but it has zero acceleration

since the velocity is not changing.

Equations to Describe Motion with Constant Acceleration

v = vo + a t
• vo is the velocity at some initial time t = 0

x = xo + vo t + ½ a t2
• xo is the position at some initial time t = 0

v2 = vo² + 2 a (x - xo)
• Obtained by eliminating t from the above equations.

Which equation to use depends on what information you are

given in the problem and what you are asked to find.
C o n s t a n t A c c e l e r a t i o n E q u a t i o n s , Summary
Example . (Midterm exam question Fall 2017)

A car moving along a straight track changes its velocity from 40

m/s to 80 m/s in a distance of 200 m. What is the (constant)
acceleration of the vehicle during this time?

SOLUTION:
v2 = v02 + 2a (x – x0)
802 = 402 + 2a (200)
a = 12 m/s2
37
E X A M P L E . A particle starts from rest at xi = 0 and moves for 10 s with an
acceleration of +2.0 cm/s2. For the next 20 s, the acceleration of the particle is -1.0
cm/s2. What is the position of the particle at the end of this motion?

SOLUTION
Use xf = xi + v0t + ½ at2
First 10 s: x1 = 0 + 0 + ½ (2)(10)2 = 100 cm
After 10 s: v = v0 + at = 0 + 2(10) = 20 cm/s
Next 20 s: x2 = 100 + 20(20) + ½ (-1)(20)2
= 100 + 400 – 200 = 300 cm = 3 m
38
Example . (Midterm exam question Fall 2017)

An object moving on the x axis with a constant acceleration increases its

x coordinate by 80 m in a time of 5.0 s and has a velocity of +20 m/s at
the end of this time. Determine the acceleration of the object during this
motion.

Solution:
v = v0 + at  20 = v0 + 5a
x – x0 = v0t + ½at2  80 = 5v0 + ½ (25)a
Solve: a = 1.6 m/s2
39
Example . (Midterm exam question Spring 2019)

A car accelerates from 12 m/s to 21 m/s in 6.0 s.

(a) What was its acceleration?

(b) How far did it travel in this time? (Assume constant acceleration)

Solution:
(a) v = v0 + at  21 m/s = 12 m/s + a (6 s)  a = 1.5 m/s2
(b) v2 = v02 + 2a (x – x0)  (21 m/s)2 = (12 m/s)2 + 2 (1.5 m/s2) (x – x0)
 x – x0 = 99 m
40
The law of falling bodies

 ARISTOTLE (4th cent. B.C.)

Heavy bodies fall faster than light ones.

ALBERT OF SAXONY (14th cent.)

Speed is proportional to the distance fallen.

◄ NICOLE ORESME (14th cent.)

Speed is proportional to time spent falling.

41
The law of falling bodies

LEONARDO da VINCI (15th cent.)

Distances fallen in successive time

intervals are proportional to
consecutive integers

1, 2, 3, …

42
The law of falling bodies
G A L I L E O (1638)

Distances fallen in successive time

intervals are proportional to odd numbers
1, 3, 5, …

In a vacuum, all bodies fall with the same

constant acceleration.

Gravity has the same effect on all bodies.

43
44
Galileo’s law of falling bodies

Time Distance Total distance

fallen fallen
1 1 1 12

2 3 3+1=4 22

3 5 5+4=9 32

4 7 7 + 9 = 16 42

5 9 9 + 16 = 25 52

45
Galileo’s law of falling bodies

Galileo’s law:

Distance  (time)2

or y = ct2 .
Galileo’s law of falling bodies

46
Acceleration of freely falling object

The acceleration due to gravity, g, at the Earth’s

surface is approximately 9.80 m/s2.

At a given location on the Earth and in

the absence of air resistance, all
objects fall with the same constant
acceleration.
Freely Falling Objects

In the absence of air

resistance, all objects fall
with the same
acceleration, although
this may be hard to tell by
testing in an environment
where there is air
resistance.
Acceleration of Freely Falling Object
• The acceleration of an object in free fall is directed downward, regardless of the
initial motion.
• The magnitude of free fall acceleration is g = 9.80 m/s2.

• We will neglect air resistance.

• Free fall motion is constantly accelerated motion in one dimension.

• Let upward be positive

• Use the kinematic equations

• With ay = -g = -9.80 m/s2

• Note displacement is in the vertical direction

 Example
When throwing a ball straight up,
1) both v = 0 and a = 0
which of the following is true 2) v  0, but a = 0
about its velocity v and its 3) v = 0, but a  0
acceleration a at the highest point 4) both v  0 and a  0
in its path? 5) not really sure
 Example
When throwing a ball straight up,
1) both v = 0 and a = 0
which of the following is true
2) v  0, but a = 0
about its velocity v and its
3) v = 0, but a  0
acceleration a at the highest point
4) both v  0 and a  0
in its path?
5) not really sure

At the top, clearly v = 0 because the ball has

momentarily stopped. But the velocity of the y
ball is changing, so its acceleration is definitely
not zero! Otherwise it would remain at rest!!

Follow-up: …and the value of a is…?

 Example
Alice and Bill are at the top of a 1) Alice’s ball
building. Alice throws her ball 2) it depends on how hard
downward. Bill simply drops the ball was thrown
his ball. Which ball has the 3) neither -- they both have
greater acceleration just after the same acceleration
release? 4) Bill’s ball

Alice Bill
v0

vA vB
 Example
Alice and Bill are at the top of a 1) Alice’s ball
building. Alice throws her ball 2) it depends on how hard
downward. Bill simply drops the ball was thrown
his ball. Which ball has the 3) neither -- they both have
greater acceleration just after the same acceleration
release? 4) Bill’s ball

Both balls are in free fall once they are Alice Bill
released, therefore they both feel the v0
acceleration due to gravity (g). This
acceleration is independent of the initial vA vB

velocity of the ball.

Follow-up: Which one has the greater velocity when they hit
the ground?
Example
Alice and Bill are at the top of a cliff of 1) vA < vB
height H. Both throw a ball with initial 2) vA = vB
speed v0, Alice straight down and Bill 3) vA > vB
straight up. The speeds of the balls when
4) impossible to tell
they hit the ground are vA and vB. If there
is no air resistance, which is true?

Alice v0 Bill
v0
H
vA vB
 Example
Alice and Bill are at the top of a cliff of 1) vA < vB
height H. Both throw a ball with initial 2) vA = vB
speed v0, Alice straight down and Bill 3) vA > vB
straight up. The speeds of the balls when
4) impossible to tell
they hit the ground are vA and vB. If there
is no air resistance, which is true?

Bill’s ball goes up and comes back

down to Bill’s level. At that point, it is Alice v0 Bill
moving downward with v0, the same v0
as Alice’s ball. Thus, it will hit the H
ground with the same speed as vA vB
Alice’s ball.

Follow-up: What happens if there is air resistance?

Solving Problems

1. Read the whole problem and make sure you understand it.
Then read it again.

2. Decide on the objects under study and what the time interval is.

3. Draw a diagram and choose coordinate axes.

4. Write down the known (given) quantities, and then the unknown ones that you need to
find.

5. What physics applies here? Plan an approach to a solution.

Solving Problems
6. Which equations relate the known and unknown quantities? Are they valid
in this situation? Solve algebraically for the unknown quantities, and check that
your result is sensible (correct dimensions).

7. Calculate the solution and round it to the appropriate number of significant

figures.

8. Look at the result— is it reasonable? Does it agree with a

rough estimate?
9. Check the units again.
The law of falling bodies - Example
Give examples to show the error in these two common
misconceptions: (1) that acceleration and velocity are always in the
same direction, and (2) that an object thrown upward has zero
acceleration at the highest point.

1. If acceleration and velocity were always in the same direction,

nothing could ever slow down!
2.At its highest point, the speed of thrown object is zero. If its
acceleration were also zero, it would just stay at that point.

58
 Example ( M i d t e r m e x a m q u e s t i o n F a l l 2 0 1 7 )

A stone is thrown from the top of a building with an initial velocity of

20 m/s downward. The top of the building is 60 m above the ground.
How much time elapses between the instant of release and the instant
of impact with the ground? (Take g = 10 m/s2)

SOLUTION:
y y = y0 + v0t + ½ at2  0 = 60 – 20 t + ½ (-10)t2
5t2 + 20t – 60 = 0 or t 2 + 4t – 12 = (t - 2)(t + 4) = 0

0
 t = 2 s.
x
59
 Unit 3
Kinematics in two dimensions
1
Coordinate Systems

• Used to describe the position of a point in space

• Common coordinate systems are:

• Cartesian
• Polar

2
Cartesian Coordinate System

• Also called rectangular

coordinate system

• x- and y- axes intersect

at the origin

• Points are labeled (x,y)

3
Polar Coordinate System
• Origin and reference line are
noted.

• Point is distance r from the

origin in the direction of angle ,
ccw from reference line.

• The reference line is often the

x-axis.

• Points are labeled (r,)

4
Polar to Cartesian Coordinates

• Based on forming a right

triangle from r and 

• x = r cos 

• y = r sin 
• If the Cartesian
coordinates are known:
y
tan =
x
r = x2 + y 2
5
 Example

The Cartesian coordinates of a point in

the xy plane are (x,y) = (-3.50, -2.50) m,
as shown in the figure. Find the polar
coordinates of this point.

Solution:

r = x2 + y 2
y −2.50 m
= ( −3.50 m)2 + ( −2.50 m)2 tan = = = 0.714
x −3.50 m
= 4.30 m  = 216 (signs give quadrant)

6
Ve c t o r s a n d S c a l a r s

A vector has magnitude as well

as direction.
Some vector quantities: displacement,
velocity, force, momentum

A scalar has only a magnitude.

Some scalar quantities: mass, time,
temperature

◄ The green arrows represent the velocity

vector at each position.
7
Vector Representation
 The length of the arrow indicates
the magnitude of the vector.

 The direction of the arrow

indicates the direction of the
vector with respect to a given
coordinate system.

8
Vector Notation

• Text uses bold with arrow to denote a vector: A

• Also used for printing is simple bold print: A

• When dealing with just the magnitude of a vector in print, an

italic letter is used: A or |A |

• The magnitude of a vector is always a positive number.

• When handwritten, use an arrow:

A

9
Addition of Vectors—Graphical Methods

For vectors in one

dimension, simple addition
and subtraction are all that is
needed.

You do need to be careful

about the signs, as the figure
indicates.
 Addition of Vectors—Graphical Methods

If the motion is in two dimensions, the situation is somewhat more complicated.

Here, the actual travel paths are at right angles to one another; we can find the displacement by
using the Pythagorean Theorem.
 Addition of Vectors—Graphical Methods

Even if the vectors are not at right angles, they can be added
graphically by using the tail-to-tip method.
Adding Vectors
• Draw the first vector

• Draw the second vector starting at the tip of

the first vector

• Continue to draw vectors “tip-to-tail”

• The sum is drawn from the tail of the first

vector to the tip of the last vector

• Example:

13
Subtracting Vectors
To subtract a vector, you add its opposite

14
Multiplying Vectors by Scalars
• Multiplying a vector by a positive
scalar only affects the vector’s
magnitude

• It will have no effect on the

vector’s direction

• Example:

• If = 10.0 km @ 10.0°and K = 2,
then

= 20.0 km @ 10.0°

15
Multiplying Vectors by Scalars, cont.
• If K > 1, then the resultant vector is longer than the original vector

• If K < 1 and positive, then the resultant vector is shorter than the
original vector

• If K is negative, then the resultant vector is in the opposite

direction from the original vector

• If = 10.0 km @ 10.0° and K = - 2 then

= 20.0 km @ 190.0°

16
Components of Vectors

• The x- and y-components of a vector

are its projections along the x- and y-
axes

• Calculation of the x- and y-components

involves trigonometry

• Ax = A cos θ

• Ay = A sin θ

17
 Vector from Components
• If you know the components, you can find the
vector

• Use the Pythagorean Theorem for the

magnitude:

• Use the tan-1 to find the direction:

18
Adding Vectors Using Components

• Assume you are adding

two vectors:

• To add the vectors, add

their components

• Cx = Ax + Bx

• Cy = Ay + By

• Then the magnitude and

direction of C can be
determined

19
 Vector Example

• A particle travels from A to B along the path

shown by the broken line.
• This is the distance traveled and is a
scalar.
• The displacement is the solid line from
A to B
• The displacement is independent of the
path taken between the two points.
• Displacement is a vector.

20
 Unit vectors
• A unit vector is a dimensionless vector with a
magnitude of exactly 1.

• Unit vectors are used to specify a direction

and have no other physical significance.

• The symbols î , ĵ, and k̂ represent unit

vectors.

• They form a set of mutually perpendicular

vectors in a right-handed coordinate system.

• The magnitude of each unit vector is 1 ˆi = ˆj = kˆ = 1

 Unit Vectors in Vector Notation

• Ax is the same as Axî

and Ay is the same as Ay ĵ
etc.

• The complete vector can

be expressed as:

A = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj

22
 Position vector

• A point lies in the xy plane and has

Cartesian coordinates of (x, y).

• The point can be specified by the

position vector.

rˆ = x ˆi + yˆj
• This gives the components of the vector
and its coordinates.

23
Adding vectors using unit vectors

• Using R = A +B
• Then
( ) (
R = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj + Bx ˆi + By ˆj )
R = ( Ax + Bx ) ˆi + ( Ay + By ) ˆj
R = Rx ˆi + Ry ˆj

• So Rx = Ax + Bx and Ry = Ay + By

Ry
R = R +R 2
x
2
y  = tan −1

Rx

24
 Adding Vectors with Unit Vectors

Note the relationships

among the components of
the resultant and the
components of the original
vectors.

Rx = Ax + Bx

Ry = Ay + By

25
 Three-Dimensional Extension

Using R = A +B
Then
( ) (
R = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj + Azkˆ + Bx ˆi + By ˆj + Bzkˆ )
R = ( Ax + Bx ) ˆi + ( Ay + By ) ˆj + ( Az + Bz ) kˆ
R = Rx ˆi + Ry ˆj + Rzkˆ

So Rx= Ax+Bx, Ry= Ay+By, and Rz = Az+Bz

Rx
R = Rx2 + Ry2 + Rz2  x = cos−1 , etc.
R

26
Example
(a) Determine the magnitude and direction of the sum of the
three vectors V1 = 4.0 ˆi − 8.0 ˆj, V2 = ˆi + ˆj, and V3 = 2 2.0 ˆi + 4.0 ˆj.
(b) Determine V1 − V2 + V3.

SOLUTION (a)
( ) ( ) ( )
V1 + V2 + V3 = 4.0ˆi − 8.0ˆj + 1.0ˆi + 1.0ˆj + −2.0ˆi + 4.0ˆj = 3.0ˆi − 3.0ˆj
−1 −3.0
V1 + V2 + V3 = 3.0 + 3.0 = 4.2  = tan
2 2
= 315
3.0
(b)

( ) ( ) ( )
V1 − V2 + V3 = 4.0ˆi − 8.0ˆj − 1.0ˆi + 1.0ˆj + −2.0ˆi + 4.0ˆj = 1.0ˆi − 5.0ˆj

−5.0
V1 − V2 + V3 = 1.0 + 5.0 = 5.1
2 2
 = tan −1
= 280
1.0
27
Example (Midterm exam Spring 2016)
A vector 𝐵, when added to vector 𝐶Ԧ = 3𝑖 + 4𝑗 yields a resultant vector which
Ԧ What is
is in the positive y direction and has a magnitude equal to that of 𝐶.

the magnitude of 𝐵?

Solution:
Magnitude of C = √(32 + 42) = 5.
Thus Bx i + By j + 3i + 4j = 5j
Bx + 3 = 0 or Bx = -3
By + 4 = 5 or By = 1
(Bx 2 + By 2) = 3.2
28
Position vector

The position vector r from

the origin O to point P has
components x, y, and z.

29
Vector kinematics
At time t1 the particle is at
point P1 given by the position
vector r1; at t2 the particle is at
point P2 given by the position
vector r2.

The displacement vector for

the time interval t2 – t1 is:

30
Vector kinematics
We define the average velocity as the displacement divided by the time
interval:

Instantaneous velocity (a.k.a. “velocity”) is the instantaneous rate of change

of position with time:

31
Vector Kinematics
We define the average acceleration as the change in velocity divided by
the time interval:

Instantaneous acceleration (a.k.a. “acceleration”) is the instantaneous

rate of change of velocity with time:

32
Vector kinematics

Using unit vectors,

33
Vector kinematics

Generalizing the one-dimensional equations for constant acceleration:

34
E x a m p l e 10
At a particle starts from rest at x=0, y=0 and moves in the xy plane with an acceleration a =
(4.0i + 3.0j) m/s2. Determine
(a) the x and y components of velocity,
(b) the speed of the particle, and
(c) the position of the particle, all as a function of time.
(d) Evaluate all the above at t = 2.0 s.

SOLUTION
(a) (
v = v 0 + at = 4.0t ˆi + 3.0t ˆj m s → ) v x = 4.0t m s , v y = 3.0t m s

(b) v= v x2 + v 2y = ( 4.0t m s )2 + ( 3.0t m s )2 = 5.0t m s

(c) r = r0 + v 0t + 1
2
at 2 = ( 2.0t 2
)
ˆi + 1.5t 2 ˆj m

(d) ( )
v x ( 2.0 ) = 8.0 m s , v y ( 2.0 ) = 6.0 m s , v ( 2.0 ) = 10.0 m s , r ( 2.0 ) = 8.0 ˆi + 6.0 ˆj m
35
Example
Suppose the position of an object is given by r = (3.0t2i – 6t3j) m.
(a) Determine its velocity v and acceleration a as a function of time.
(b) Determine r and v at time t = 2.5 s.

SOLUTION
(a)

v=
dr
dt
( )
= 6.0 t ˆi − 18.0t 2 ˆj m s a=
dv
dt
( )
= 6.0 ˆi − 36.0t ˆj m s 2

(b)


2 3

 (
r ( 2.5s ) =  3.0 ( 2.5) ˆi − 6.0 ( 2.5) ˆj m = 19 ˆi − 94ˆj m )

 
2
( )
v ( 2.5s ) =  6.0 ( 2.5) ˆi − 18.0 ( 2.5) ˆj m s = 15 ˆi − 110ˆj m s
36
Example (Midterm exam Fall 2017)

A particle starts from the origin at t = 0 with a velocity of (16 i + 12j) m/s and
moves in the xy plane with a constant acceleration of a = (3.0i + 6.0j) m/s2.
What is the speed of the particle at t = 2.0 s?

Solution:
v = v0 + at
= (16 i - 12j) + 2 (3.0i + 6.0j)
= 16i + 12j + 6i + 12j = 22i + 24j
v = |v| = √(222 + 242) = 32.6 m/s

37
Example (Midterm exam Spring 2019)
The position of a particular particle as a function of time is given by r = (7.60t i
+ 8.85 j – t 2 k) m. (a) Determine the particle’s velocity and acceleration as a
function of time. (b) What was the average velocity of the particle between t =
1.00 s and t = 3.00 s?

(a) v = dr/dt = (7.6 m/s)i – (2 m/s2)t k

a = dv/dt = - 2 m/s2 k
(b) r(1) = (7.60) (1) i + 8.85 j – (1)2 k
r(3) = (7.60) (3) i + 8.85 j – (3)2 k

vav = Δr/Δt = [r(3) – r(1)]/(3 – 1)

= (7.60 m/s)i – (4 m/s)k
38
Projectile

A projectile is an object
moving in two dimensions
under the influence of
Earth's gravity; its path is a
parabola.
Projectile Motion
Artillery theory in the 16th century

Santbech, D.
Problematum
astronomicorum et
geometricorum
septem. Basel, 1561

40
Copernicus (1473 – 1543)
1543 De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium:

Earth is spinning on its axis

and revolving around the
sun.

41
Copernicus 1543 De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium:

42
Projectile motion

 Aristotelian description
of objects in free fall on
(a) a rotating earth
and (b) a moving ship.

43
G a l i l e o (1632):
(in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems)

Copernicus
is right!
44
Galileo’s experiment

?
45
 Inertia
Galileo concluded that:
– An object will maintain its state of motion unless it is acted upon by a force
• This is the LAW OF INERTIA.
• The velocity is its state of motion
– Demonstrated by Galileo’s experiments
– Showed that one can have motion without a force
• Broke Aristotle’s link between force and velocity
– Still did not explain exactly how the force is linked to the motion
• Newton’s Laws provide this link

Galileo: All arguments against a rotating earth is due to a failure to

understand the law of inertia.

46
 Inertia
Path of a stone falling from a ship as seen from the shore:

47
Projectile motion
Galileo: Projectile motion is a consequence of inertia.
Motion of a cannonball is a combination of two motions:

 horizontal – INERTIA

 vertical – GRAVITY
These two motions do not interfere with one another.

48
Projectile motion
The speed in the x-direction is constant;

x(t) = vx0 t.
In the y-direction the object moves with constant
acceleration g.

y(t) = vy0 t - ½ gt2

◄ GALILEO WAS CORRECT! This photograph shows

two balls that start to fall at the same time. The one on
the right has an initial speed in the x-direction. It can be
seen that vertical positions of the two balls are identical at
identical times, while the horizontal position of the yellow
ball increases linearly.
49
Projectile motion

Calculating a particular trajectory:

b R

Horizontal motion: x(t) = vx0 t

Vertical motion: y(t) = vy0 t - ½ gt2

To find the trajectory eliminate t from the above equations.

50
Projectile Motion

We find t = x/vx0 . Substituting into last equation, we obtain

vy0 x gx 2
y= −
vx 0 2v x20
By completing the square we can rewrite it in the form
2
−g  vx 0v y 0  v y20
y=  x −  +
2v x 0  g  2g

which is the equation of a parabola, y – h = a(x – b)2 with a, b, h

constants.

The trajectory of any projectile (ignoring air

resistance) is a parabola.
51
Projectile motion
2
−g 
v y20 vx 0v y 0 
y− =  x − 
2g 2v x 0  g 

y – h = a (x – b)2

v y2 0
Height : h=
2g
2v x 0 v y 0
Range:
R = 2b =
g

2v y 0
Time of flight: t =
g

52
Projectile
Projectilemotion
motion

It can be understood by

analyzing the horizontal

and vertical motions

separately.

53
 Projectile Motion
Projectile motion
If an object is launched at an initial angle of θ0 with the
horizontal, the analysis is similar except that the initial velocity
has a vertical component.

54
Projectile Motion
In vector form
v(t) = (v0 cos θ) i + (v0 sin θ – gt) j

r(t) = r(0) + v0 t + ½ at2 = (v0 cos θ i + v0 sin θ j) t - ½gt2 j

= v0 cos θ t i + (v0 sin θ t - ½gt2 ) j

Time for maximum height:

vy (tm) = 0  v0 sin θ – gtm = 0 tm = (v0 sin θ)/g .

Maximum height of projection:

hmax = ry(tm) = v0 sin θ (v0 sin θ /g) − ½ g (v0 sin θ /g)2

= (v02 sin2 θ)/2g

55
Projectile Motion

Time of flight:

ry (tf ) = v0 sin θ tf - ½gtf 2 = 0

tf = 2 (v0 sin θ)/g tf = 2 tm

Range:

R = rx (tf ) = (v0 cos θ) (2 v0 sin θ /g)

= (2 v02 cos θ sin θ)/g

= (v02 sin 2θ)/g

56
Projectile motion – kinematic equations

Projectile motion is motion with constant acceleration in two

dimensions, where the acceleration is g and is down.

57
 Example Dropping the Ball I
From the same height (and 1) the “dropped” ball
at the same time), one ball 2) the “fired” ball
is dropped and another ball 3) they both hit at the same time
is fired horizontally. Which 4) it depends on how hard the ball
one will hit the ground was fired
first? 5) it depends on the initial height

58
 Example Dropping the Ball I
From the same height (and 1) the “dropped” ball
at the same time), one ball 2) the “fired” ball
is dropped and another ball 3) they both hit at the same time
is fired horizontally. Which 4) it depends on how hard the ball
one will hit the ground was fired
first? 5) it depends on the initial height

Both of the balls are falling vertically under the influence of

gravity. They both fall from the same height. Therefore, they will
hit the ground at the same time. The fact that one is moving
horizontally is irrelevant—remember that the x and y motions are
completely independent !!

Follow-up: is that also true if there is air resistance? 59

 Example Dropping the Ball II
1) the “dropped” ball
In the previous problem, 2) the “fired” ball

which ball has the greater 3) neither—they both have the

same velocity on impact
velocity at ground level?
4) it depends on how hard the
ball was thrown

60
 Example Dropping the Ball II
1) the “dropped” ball
In the previous problem, 2) the “fired” ball

which ball has the greater 3) neither—they both have the

same velocity on impact
velocity at ground level?
4) it depends on how hard the
ball was thrown

Both balls have the same vertical velocity

when they hit the ground (since they are
both acted on by gravity for the same
time). However, the “fired” ball also has a
horizontal velocity. When you add the two
components vectorially, the “fired” ball
has a larger net velocity when it hits the
ground.

61
 Example Dropping the Ball
A projectile is launched 1) just after it is launched
from the ground at an 2) at the highest point in its flight
angle of 30°. At what 3) just before it hits the ground
point in its trajectory does
4) halfway between the ground and
this projectile have the
the highest point
least speed?
5) speed is always constant

62
 Example Dropping the Ball
A projectile is launched 1) just after it is launched
from the ground at an 2) at the highest point in its flight
angle of 30º. At what 3) just before it hits the ground
point in its trajectory does
4) halfway between the ground and
this projectile have the
the highest point
least speed?
5) speed is always constant

The speed is smallest at

the highest point of its
flight path because the
y-component of the
velocity is zero.
63
 Example

A battleship simultaneously fires two shells at two enemy

submarines. The shells are launched with the same initial
velocity. If the shells follow the trajectories shown, which
submarine gets hit first ?

1 2

3) both at the same time

64
 Example

A battleship simultaneously fires two shells at two enemy

submarines. The shells are launched with the same initial
velocity. If the shells follow the trajectories shown, which
submarine gets hit first ?

The flight time is fixed by the

motion in the y-direction. The
higher an object goes, the longer
it stays in flight. The shell hitting
submarine #2 goes less high,
therefore it stays in flight for less 1 2
time than the other shell. Thus,
submarine #2 is hit first. 3) both at the same time
65
Example (Midterm exam Spring 2016)

You are throwing a ball straight up in the air. Describe the ball’s
velocity and acceleration at its highest point.

a. Velocity and acceleration are zero

b. Velocity is nonzero but acceleration is zero

c. Velocity and acceleration are both nonzero

d. Acceleration is nonzero but velocity is zero

e. Not sufficient information

66
Example (Midterm exam Spring 2016)

You are throwing a ball straight up in the air. Describe the ball’s velocity and
acceleration at its highest point.

a. Velocity and acceleration are zero

b. Velocity is nonzero but acceleration is zero

c. Velocity and acceleration are both nonzero

d. Acceleration is nonzero but velocity is zero

e. Not sufficient information

67
 Solving Problems Involving Projectile Motion
1. Read the problem carefully, and choose the object(s) you are going to analyze.
2. Draw a diagram.
3. Choose an origin and a coordinate system.
4. Decide on the time interval; this is the same in both directions, and includes only
the time the object is moving with constant acceleration g.
5. Examine the x and y motions separately.
6. List known and unknown quantities. Remember that vx never changes, and that
vy = 0 at the highest point.
7. Plan how you will proceed. Use the appropriate equations; you may have to
combine some of them.

68
Example
A driver on a motorcycle speeds horizontally off a
50.0-m-high cliff. How fast must the motorcycle
leave the cliff top to land on level ground below,
90.0 m from the base of the cliff where the
cameras are? Ignore air resistance.

Solution: The x velocity is constant; the y acceleration is constant. We know x0, y0,
x, y, a, and v y0, but not vx0 or t. The problem asks for vx0.

y = y0 + v yot + ½ ayt2 - 50 = 0 + 0 + ½ (-9.8) t2

gives t = 3.19 s.
x = vxot 90 = vxo (3.19) gives vxo = 28.2 m/s.
69
Example
Extreme-sports enthusiasts have been known to jump off
the top of El Capitan, a sheer granite cliff of height 910 m
in Yosemite National Park. Assume a jumper runs
horizontally off the top of El Capitan with speed 5.0 m s
and enjoys a freefall until she is 150 m above the valley
floor, at which time she opens her parachute .

(a) How long is the jumper in freefall? Ignore air

resistance.

(b) It is important to be as far away from the cliff as

possible before opening the parachute. How far from
the cliff is this jumper when she opens her chute?

70
Example (Solution)
(a) Take the ground to be the y = 0 level, with upward as the positive direction.

( )
y = y0 + v0 y t + 12 a y t 2 → 150 m = 910 m + 12 −9.80 m s 2 t 2 →

2 (150 − 910 )
t= = 12.45s  12s
( −9.80 m s )
2

(b) The horizontal motion is at a constant speed, since air resistance is being ignored.

x = v x t = ( 5.0 m s )(12.45s ) = 62.25 m  62 m

71
Unit 4:
Newton’s Laws
of Motion
 Force
Identifying forces…
(a) Non-contact forces… arise between two objects even though they do not
touch each other.
– Gravity . Weight
– Electromagnetic forces.
– Nuclear interaction forces.
(b) Contact forces … arise when two objects touch each other.
– Push or pull.
– Tension … act along the length of a rope.
– Normal forces … are perpendicular to a surface.
– Frictional forces… are parallel to a surface.

2
Newton’s Laws of Motion

• The laws are three separate statements about how things move

• Newton’s First Law is a statement about inertia

• Newton’s Second Law gives the link between motion and forces

• Newton’s Third Law explains where forces come from

Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727)

4
Apple tree, University of Cambridge, September 2006
Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727)

6
Newton’s First Law of Motion
Newton’s first law is often called the law of inertia:
Every object continues in its state of rest, or of uniform velocity
in a straight line, as long as no net force acts on it.

F represents the force applied by the person and Ffr represents the force of friction.
7
Newton’s First Law
• If the total force acting on an object is zero, the object will
maintain its velocity forever

• Constant velocity means the same speed and in the same

direction
• Remember velocity is a vector
Newton’s First Law of Motion

Conceptual Example : Newton’s first law.

A school bus comes to a sudden stop, and all of the backpacks on

the floor start to slide forward. What force causes them to do that?

Answer: No force; the backpacks continue moving until stopped by

friction or collision.

9
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Newton’s second law is the relation between acceleration and force.
Acceleration is proportional to force and inversely proportional to mass.

It takes a force to change either the direction or the

speed of an object. More force means more
acceleration; the same force exerted on a more massive
object will yield less acceleration.

◄The bobsled accelerates because the

team exerts a force.
10
Mass
Mass is that property of an object that specifies how much
resistance an object exhibits to changes in its velocity.

In the SI system, mass is measured in kilograms.

Mass is not weight. Weight is the force exerted on that

object by gravity.

If you go to the Moon, whose gravitational acceleration is about

1/6 g, you will weigh much less. Your mass, however, will be the
same.

11
W e i g h t — the Force of Gravity

Weight is the force exerted on an object by gravity.

Close to the surface of the Earth, where the gravitational force is

nearly constant, the weight of an object of mass m is:

where

12
 Force Units

• The SI unit of force is the newton (N)

• Deriving the newton unit:
Newton’s Third Law

When one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts a
force of the same magnitude and opposite direction on the first object
• Often called the action-reaction principle

Example
• Force on ball

• Force on bat
 Newton’s Third Law - Consequences

• Forces come in pairs.

• The two forces are always equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction

• The forces act on different objects

• Person exerts a force on the refrigerator

• The refrigerator exerts a force on the person

Action-Reaction Example

• The normal force (table on monitor)

is the reaction of the force the monitor
exerts on the table.

• The action (Earth on monitor) force is

equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the reaction force, the force
the monitor exerts on the Earth.
Free body diagram

• In a free body diagram, you want the

forces acting on a particular object.

• Model the object as a particle

• The normal force and the force of gravity

are the forces that act on the monitor.
 Free Body Diagram

• The most important step in solving problems

involving Newton’s Laws is to draw the free body
diagram.
• Be sure to include only the forces acting on the object of interest.

• Include all forces acting on the object.

• Do not assume the normal force equals the weight.
Using Newton’s Second Law
Assumptions

• Objects can be modeled as particles.

• Interested only in the external forces acting on the object

• Masses of strings or ropes are negligible.

• The force the rope exerts is away from the object and parallel to the rope.

• When a rope attached to an object is pulling it, the magnitude of that force is
the tension in the rope.
The Particle in Equilibrium

• If the acceleration of an object that can be modeled as a

particle is zero, the object is said to be in equilibrium.

• Mathematically, the net force acting on the object is zero.

F = 0
 F = 0 and  F
x y =0
Equilibrium, Example

A lamp is suspended from a chain of negligible

mass.

The forces acting on the lamp are:

• the downward force of gravity

• the upward tension in the chain

• Applying equilibrium gives

F y = 0 → T − Fg = 0 → T = Fg
Equilibrium, Example
• Conceptualize the traffic light

• Assume cables don’t break

• Nothing is moving

• Categorize as an equilibrium problem

• No movement, so acceleration is zero

• Model as a particle in equilibrium

Equilibrium, Example , cont.
Analyze

• Construct a diagram for the forces acting on

the light

• Construct a free body diagram for the knot

where the three cables are joined

• The knot is a convenient point to choose since all
the forces of interest act along lines passing
through the knot.

• Apply equilibrium equations to the knot

Equilibrium, Example , final

Analyze, cont.

• Find T3 from applying equilibrium in the y-direction to the light

• Find T1 and T2 from applying equilibrium in the x- and y-directions to

the knot

Finalize

• See if the results are reasonable.

Particle under a net force
• If an object that can be modeled as a particle experiences an acceleration, there
must be a nonzero net force acting on it.

• Draw a free-body diagram.

• Apply Newton’s Second Law in component form.
Newton’s Second Law, Example

Forces acting on the crate:

• A tension, T acting through

the rope, is the magnitude of
force

• The gravitational force, Fg

• The normal force, n,
exerted by the floor
 Newton’s Second Law, Example, cont.

• Apply Newton’s Second Law in component form:

F x = T = max

F y = n − Fg = 0 → n = Fg
• Solve for the unknown(s)

• If the tension is constant, then a is constant and the kinematic equations

can be used to more fully describe the motion of the crate.
 Note About the Normal Force
• The normal force is not always equal to
the gravitational force of the object.

• For example, in this case

F y = n − Fg − F = 0
and n = mg + F

• n may also be less than Fg

Inclined Planes
• Categorize as a particle under a net force since it
accelerates.

• Forces acting on the object:

• The normal force acts perpendicular to the plane.

• The gravitational force acts straight down.

• Choose the coordinate system with x along the incline and y

perpendicular to the incline.

• Apply the model of a particle under a net force to the x-

direction and a particle in equilibrium to the y-direction.
Multiple Objects

• When two or more objects are connected or in contact, Newton’s laws may be
applied to the system as a whole and/or to each individual object.

• Whichever you use to solve the problem, the other approach can be used as a
check.
Multiple Objects, Example – Atwood’s Machine

• Forces acting on the objects:

• Tension (same for both objects, one string)

• Gravitational force

• Each object has the same acceleration since they

are connected.

• Draw the free-body diagrams

• Apply Newton’s Laws

• Solve for the unknown(s)

 Multiple Objects, Example

• Draw the free-body diagram for

each object
• One cord, so tension is the same for both objects
• Connected, so acceleration is the same for both
objects
• Categorize as particles under a net force

• Apply Newton’s Laws

• Solve for the unknown(s)
Solving Problems with Newton’s Laws
1. Draw a sketch.

2. For each object, draw a free-body diagram, showing all

the forces acting on the object. Make the magnitudes and directions as

accurate as you can. Label each force. If there are multiple

objects, draw a separate diagram for each one.
3. Resolve vectors into components.

4. Apply Newton’s second law to each component.

5. Solve.

33
 Example
A 10-kg box is resting on the smooth (frictionless)
horizontal surface of a table.

(a) Determine the weight of the box and the normal

force exerted on it by the table.

(b) Now your friend pushes down on the box with a

force of 40.0 N. Again determine the normal force
exerted on the box by the table.

(c) If your friend pulls upward on the box with a force of

40.0 N, what now is the normal force exerted on the
box by the table?
 Example
What happens when a person pulls upward on the
box in the previous example with a force greater than
the box’s weight, say 100.0 N?

Solution: The box accelerates upward

because FP > mg.

The net force is

∑ Fy = FP – mg = may

100.0 N – 98.0 N = (10.0 kg) ay

ay = 0.20 m/s2
35
 Example
A stage light is suspended above the stage by two ropes, as drawn below. The stage light
weighs 200 N. What is the tension in the rope 1.

T2
60°
T1
60°
rope 1

200 N

Solution: Applying Newton’s 2nd law we have:

∑ Fx = T2 cos 60° - T1 = 0
∑ Fy = T2 sin 60° - 200 N = 0

Solving the above equations for T1 we get T1 = 115 N.

36
 E xa m p l e

Two boxes, A and B, are connected by

a lightweight cord and are resting on a smooth table. The boxes have masses of 12.0 kg and 10.0 kg.
A horizontal force of 40.0 N is applied to the 10.0-kg box. Find (a) the acceleration of each box,
and (b) the tension in the cord connecting the boxes.

SOLUTION: Apply Newton’s 2nd law to box A: ∑ Fx = FP - FT = mAa

box B: ∑ Fx = FT = mBa
Adding the two equations (mA + mB ) a = FP - FT + FT = FP
or a = FP / (mA + mB ) = (40.0 N)/(22.0 kg) = 1.82 m/s2.
FT = mBa = (12.0 kg) (1.82 m/s2) = 21.8 N.
37
E xa m p l e : M i d te r m e xa m S p r i n g 2 0 1 6
For the system below, what is the acceleration of the 5 kg block? Neglect any
effects due to friction.

Solution:
∑ Fx = max
30 N = (15 kg) ax
ax = 2 m/s2

38
E xa m p l e : M i d te r m e xa m S p r i n g 2 0 1 6

What is the normal force exerted by an elevator on a 55 kg person if the elevator is

moving upward at a constant velocity of 2.2m/s?

Solution:

Constant velocity  zero acceleration

FN = mg = (55 kg)(9.8 m/s2)

= 539 N

39
E xa m p l e : M i d - te r m e xa m Fa l l 2 0 17 - 1 8

If the tension, T, is 15 N and the magnitude of the acceleration, a, is 3.0 m/s2, what
is the mass, m, of the suspended object? Assume that all surfaces and the pulley
are frictionless.

mg

Solution: mg – T = ma
T = m(g – a)
15 = m (9.8 – 3)
m = 15/6.8 = 2.2 kg

40
 Example
A 65-kg woman descends in an elevator that briefly accelerates at
0.20g downward. She stands on a scale that reads in kg.
(a) During this acceleration, what is her weight and what does the
scale read?
(b) What does the scale read when the elevator descends at a
constant speed of 2.0 m/s?

Solution: (a) From Newton’s 2nd law, ∑F = ma

mg – FN = m (0.20g) FN = 0.80 mg.
Her weight is always mg = 640 N, but the normal force is 0.8 mg, which the scale
reads as 0.8 m = 52 kg.
(b) Now a = 0 and mg – FN = 0  FN = mg. The scale reads her true weight, or a
41
mass of 65 kg.
 Example
The advantage of a pulley. A mover is trying to lift a piano
(slowly) up to a second-story apartment. He is using a rope
looped over two pulleys as shown. What force must he exert
on the rope to slowly lift the piano’s 2000-N weight?

Answer: Applying Newton’s 2nd law to the pulley-piano

combination of mass m:
2FT – mg = ma
“Slowly” means with a constant speed,
i.e., a = 0 so the tension in the rope is
FT = mg/2 = 1000 N,
half the piano’s weight.

42
 Forces of Friction

• When an object is in motion on a surface or through a viscous medium, there will be a

resistance to the motion.

• This is due to the interactions between the object and its environment.

• This resistance is called the force of friction.

Forces of Friction, cont.

Friction is proportional to the normal force.

ƒs  µs n and ƒk= µk n
• μ is the coefficient of friction

• For static friction, the equals sign is valid only at impeding

motion, the surfaces are on the verge of slipping.

• Use the inequality for static friction if the surfaces are not

on the verge of slipping.

 Forces of Friction, final

• The coefficient of friction depends on the surfaces in contact.

• The force of static friction is generally greater than the force of kinetic friction.

• The direction of the frictional force is opposite the direction of

motion and parallel to the surfaces in contact.
• The coefficients of friction are nearly independent of the area of contact.
Static friction

• Static friction acts to keep the object from

moving.

• As long as the object is not moving, ƒs = F

• If F increases, so does ƒs

• If F decreases, so does ƒs

• ƒs  µs n
• Remember, the equality holds when the

surfaces are on the verge of slipping.

Kinetic friction

• The force of kinetic friction acts

when the object is in motion.

• Although µk can vary with speed,

we shall neglect any such
variations.

• ƒk = µk n
Some coefficients of friction
F r i c t i o n , Example
• The block is sliding down the
plane, so friction acts up the
plane.

• This setup can be used to

experimentally determine the
coefficient of friction.

• µ = tan q

• For µs, use the angle where the

block just slips.

• For µk, use the angle where the

block slides down at a constant

speed.
 F r i c t i o n , Example

• Draw the free-body diagram, including the

force of kinetic friction.

• Opposes the motion

• Is parallel to the surfaces in contact

• Continue with the solution as with any

Newton’s Law problem.

• This example gives information about the

motion which can be used to find the
acceleration to use in Newton’s Laws.
F r i c t i o n , Example

• Friction acts only on the object in contact with another surface.

• Draw the free-body diagrams.
• Apply Newton’s Laws as in any other multiple object system problem.
 Example 21

You can hold a box against a rough wall and prevent

it from slipping down by pressing hard horizontally.
How does the application of a horizontal force keep
an object from moving vertically?

Answer: Friction, of course!

The normal force points out from the wall, and
the force points up. The harder you push, the
greater FN is and the greater Ffr can be.

52
 Example 11
When you must brake your car very quickly, why is it safer if the wheels don’t lock? When driving
on slick roads, why is it advisable to apply the brakes slowly?

• When the wheels of a car are rolling without slipping, the force between each tire and the road is
static friction, whereas when the wheels lock, the force is kinetic friction.
• μs >μk for a set of surfaces, so the force of friction between the tires and the road will be greater if
the tires are rolling.
• Once the wheels lock, you also have no steering control over the car.
• It is better to apply the brakes slowly and use the friction between the brake mechanism and the
wheel to stop the car while maintaining control.
• If the road is slick, the coefficients of friction between the road and the tires are reduced, and it
is even more important to apply the brakes slowly to stay in control.

53
 Example

Your little sister wants a ride on her

sled. If you are on flat ground, will you
exert less force if you push her or pull
her? Assume the same angle θ in each
case.

Answer: Pulling decreases the normal

force, while pushing increases it. Better
pull.

54
 Example
This skier is descending a 30° slope, at constant speed.
What can you say about the coefficient of kinetic friction?

SOLUTION
∑ Fx = mg sinθ – μk FN = max = 0 
∑ Fy = FN – mg cosθ = may = 0 
Substituting FN from  into  gives
mg sinθ – μk mg cosθ = 0
or μk = tanθ = tan 30° = 0.58

55
 Example
A hockey puck 1) more than its weight
slides on ice at 2) equal to its weight
constant velocity.
3) less than its weight but more than zero
What is the net
force acting on 4) depends on the speed of the puck
the puck? 5) zero
 Example
A hockey puck 1) more than its weight
slides on ice at 2) equal to its weight
constant velocity.
3) less than its weight but more than zero
What is the net
force acting on 4) depends on the speed of the puck
the puck? 5) zero

The puck is moving at a constant velocity, and

therefore it is not accelerating. Thus, there must

be no net force acting on the puck.

Follow-up: Are there any forces acting on the puck? What are they?
 Example
A very large truck sits on a 1) it is too heavy, so it just sits there
frozen lake. Assume there
2) it moves backward at constant
is no friction between the
speed
tires and the ice. A fly
suddenly smashes against 3) it accelerates backward
the front window. What 4) it moves forward at constant speed
will happen to the truck? 5) it accelerates forward
 Example
A very large truck sits on a 1) it is too heavy, so it just sits there
frozen lake. Assume there
2) it moves backward at constant
is no friction between the
speed
tires and the ice. A fly
suddenly smashes against 3) it accelerates backward
the front window. What 4) it moves forward at constant speed
will happen to the truck? 5) it accelerates forward

When the fly hit the truck, it exerted a force on the truck
(only for a fraction of a second). So, in this time period,
the truck accelerated (backward) up to some speed. After
the fly was squashed, it no longer exerted a force, and the
truck simply continued moving at constant speed.
 Example
What can you say 1) Fg is greater on the feather

about the force of 2) Fg is greater on the stone

3) Fg is zero on both due to vacuum
gravity Fg acting on a
4) Fg is equal on both always
stone and a feather?
5) Fg is zero on both always
 Example
What can you say 1) Fg is greater on the feather

about the force of 2) Fg is greater on the stone

3) Fg is zero on both due to vacuum
gravity Fg acting on a
4) Fg is equal on both always
stone and a feather?
5) Fg is zero on both always

The force of gravity (weight) depends

on the mass of the object!! The stone
has more mass, and therefore more
weight.
 Example
A block of mass m rests on the floor of 1) N > mg
an elevator that is moving upward at
2) N = mg
constant speed. What is the
3) N < mg (but not zero)
relationship between the force due to
gravity and the normal force on the 4) N = 0
block? 5) depends on the size of the
elevator

m
 Example
A block of mass m rests on the floor of 1) N > mg
an elevator that is moving upward at
2) N = mg
constant speed. What is the
3) N < mg (but not zero)
relationship between the force due to
gravity and the normal force on the 4) N = 0
block? 5) depends on the size of the
elevator

The block is moving at constant speed, so

it must have no net force on it. The forces v

on it are N (up) and mg (down), so N = mg,

just like the block at rest on a table.
m
 Example
A block of mass m rests on the 1) N > mg
floor of an elevator that is 2) N = mg
accelerating upward. What is 3) N < mg (but not zero)
the relationship between the
4) N = 0
force due to gravity and the
5) depends on the size of the
normal force on the block?
elevator

m
 Example
A block of mass m rests on the 1) N > mg
floor of an elevator that is 2) N = mg
accelerating upward. What is 3) N < mg (but not zero)
the relationship between the
4) N = 0
force due to gravity and the
5) depends on the size of the
normal force on the block?
elevator

The block is accelerating upward, so

N
it must have a net upward force. The
m
forces on it are N (up) and mg (down), a>0
mg
so N must be greater than mg in order
to give the net upward force! S F = N – mg = ma > 0
Follow-up: What is the normal force if \ N > mg
the elevator is in free fall downward?
 Example 17
Consider two identical 1) case A
blocks, one resting on a 2) case B
flat surface and the other
3) both the same (N = mg)
resting on an incline. For
4) both the same (0 < N < mg)
which case is the normal
5) both the same (N = 0)
force greater?
 Example
Consider two identical 1) case A
blocks, one resting on a 2) case B
flat surface and the other 3) both the same (N = mg)
resting on an incline. For
4) both the same (0 < N < mg)
which case is the normal
5) both the same (N = 0)
force greater?

In case A, we know that N = W.

In case B, due to the angle of
y

the incline, N < W. In fact, we N x

f
can see that N = W cos(q).

q Wy
W
q
 Example
1) moves to the left
A box of weight 100 N is at
rest on a floor where ms = 0.4. 2) moves to the right
A rope is attached to the box 3) moves up
and pulled horizontally with
4) moves down
tension T = 30 N. Which way
5) the box does not move
does the box move?

Static friction T
(ms = 0.4 ) m
 Example
1) moves to the left
A box of weight 100 N is at
rest on a floor where ms = 0.4. 2) moves to the right
A rope is attached to the box 3) moves up
and pulled horizontally with
4) moves down
tension T = 30 N. Which way
5) the box does not move
does the box move?

The static friction force has a

maximum of msN = 40 N. The
Static friction T
tension in the rope is only 30 N. (ms = 0.4 ) m
So the pulling force is not big
enough to overcome friction.