1

1. Nationalistic Fervoured Historical

Literature Of Early Twentieth
Century Assam
*Dr. Munin Saikia

In the beginning of the twentieth century a number of Assamese writers

attempted to highlight on various aspects of the history of Assam. The historians
were gifted with better sense of interpretation, but most of them were not
acquainted with the scientific method of writing history. In their writings
subjective approach and emotions usurped the place of reason and objectivity,
balance perspective and detachment.
Padmanath Gohain Barua (1871-1946) the first president of
AsomSahityaSabha, attempted to recreate the glorious events of Assam history
by recounting the heroic deeds of such historical figures as Sadhani, Joymati,
Gadadhar, Banraja and Lachit Barphukan1. While his purpose of writing the
dramas, 'Sadhani' and 'Joymati' was to portray the character of Sadhani and
Joymati as ideals of womanhood, the purpose of the Gadadhar', 'Ban raja' and
'LachitBarphukan' was to praise patriotism of the historical figures. His
AsamarBuranji (1899) deals with the history of Assam from ancient times to
the British rule in the province. A brief description of the hill tribes of the
region has also been included in the work. The most outstanding feature of
Gohain Barua's historical writing is his endeavor for collecting all kind of source
material relevant to the study. While writing AsamarBuranji he consulted a
large number of historical works like treatises, essays, journals, vamsawalis,
copper plates, inscriptions, records, chronicles etc. From the treatment of the
subject matter, use of source materials and conclusions arrived at,
GohainBarua's work is the first one to be called 'history' in the true sense . The
work is however not an objective account of events.
Lakshminath Bezbarua (1864-1938) the doyen of Assamese literature had
also contributed towards the evolution of historiography of the region by his

*Associate Professor of History, Bapujee College, Sarukshetri, P.O.-Sarthebari, Assam.

2 Dr. Munin Saikia
translation of English version of E. Marsman's History of India to Assamese2.
Moreover, the ardent patriotic zeal of Bezbarua inspired him to write a few dramas
on certain significant episodes in the history of Assam. While his purpose of writing
the drama 'JoymatiKonwari' was to portray the character of Joymati3 an ideal of
Assamese woman who gladly sacrificed her life for the sake of her husband and
her own country. His 'Chakradhvaj Singha'4 and 'Belimar'5 which means 'Sun-set'
incorporate elements of historical facts, albeit colored by patriotic emotions. His
'Dhowa-Khowa',6 although far short of history by any definition is nevertheless a
true depiction of the lethargic nature of the Assamese people. His folk tales
BurhiAair Sadhu7 are like the mirrors wherein contemporary Assamese social life
and culture are reflected vividly. Bezbarua's Assamese nationalism found a strong
base in the traditional Vaishnava religion of Assam as propagated by Sri
SriSankardeva. He was attracted by liberal and democratic Neo-Vaishnavite
philosophy unburdened with rituals, ceremonies and superstitions and wanted to
acquaint the new generation of Assam with this rich philosophy. With this objective
in view, he published his magnum opusMahapurush Sri SankardevaAru Sri
Madhavdevain1914. Though the work mainly deals with the sketch of the lives
and philosophy of these two great saints, here he occasionally makes references on
some aspects of the history of Assam. Chandibar settled down later at Bardowa in
Nagaon District where his great grandson Srimanta Sankardev was born8.
Ananda Chandra Agarwala's (1874-1939) historical study is characterized
by the glorification of ancient history of Assam and their heroes and heroines. In the
Presidential address of the fifteenth session of AsomSahityaSabha held at Mangaldoi
he observed: "A nation lives by the memory of its heroes.' And without their worship
and memory, a nation is destined to decline.9" While writing history Agarwala
discarded scientific criticism in preference of imagination. He accepted the events
narrated in the religious scriptures like KalikaPuran, Yogini Tantra, Brahma Puran
as historical fact. His anthropological articles 'AamarDesharAdivasiManuh10,' 'Momba
Vot11' and M?ManasaNandi AruBodoJati12' written on the basis of these
sources are full of information but not based on reason. Moreover, to
glorify the history of Assam he mentions that the ancient Kamrupa was the
original abode of the Aryans; Saraswati and Drisadvati, the rivers mentioned
in the Vedas , flew throw Assam13, and the first sign of human existence was
found in the Kamakhya hills14.
BenudharSarma (1894-1981) regarded the biographies of national heroes and
heroines as the soul of historical study. He observed that the history of the freedom
movement, the names of national heroes and heroines like Ningruthumunga of
Singpho, Indrasingha of Jayantia, Tikendrajitsingha of Manipur, Rani Gaidalu of
the Naga Hills and TularamSenapati of Cachar should get their rightful places. And
without inclusion of their names the national history will remain incomplete.'15
The passionate nationalistic zeal of Sarma stimulated him to write a
number of biographical works related to certain significant episodes of the
 Nationalistic Fervoured Historical Literature ... 3
history of Assam. The most prominent among his works was one on
ManiramDewan.16 In the work he describes how Mani ram Dewan's effort for
the revival of Ahom monarchy and restoration of the Ahom nobility earned
suspicion of the British Government, which ultimately led to his arrest and
execution. A significant feature of BenudharSarma's biographical study is his
emphasis on the positive aspects of the character of his favorite hero and
indifference towards the negative aspects. It is worth mentioning that so long
as his properties and privileges were protected, he was a staunch supporter of
the colonial rule. It is only after the confiscation of his property that he started
to conspire against the British. Sarma's 'DeshdrohiKonBadan Ne Purnananda,'17
reflects similar characteristics. Sarma's sole objective of writing the article was
to glorify the character of BadanBarphukan. He naturally, attempts at making
PurnanandaBuragohain responsible for the Burmese oppression of Assam rather
than BadanBarphukan for the Burmese invasion of Assam. His article
'BangalBairiLachit Barphukan'18 depicts the heroic achievement of Lachit during
the Ahom -Mughal war ; and 'YuvarajTikendrajitSinghaSenapati'19 portrays the
character of the Manipuri hero Tikendrajit, who fought against the British for
the independence of his motherland. Moreover, Sarma immortalized the
character of MomaiTamuliBarbarua an efficient administrator during the time
of Ahom king PratapSingha, through his article 'BarbaruaMomai Tamuli'.20 He
describes how the perseverance and industry helped MomaiTamuli in rising to
the level of Barbaruaship from a very humble position.Sarma wanted to inspire
the people of Assam through the examples left by the great personalities. The
biographies of some renown persons like Lakshminath Bezbarua, Kanaklal
Barua, Tarunram Phukan, Nabin Chandra Bordoloi included in his work
Arghawali21 bears testimony to this objective. Moreover, he was successful in
bringing out some of the neglected aspects of history and historical persons
through his colorful prose style. His KangrecarKancialiRodot was one among
his works written in this style. In the work, he includes some neglected
fragmentary events of the freedom movement, such as Rayat Sabah of Salaguri
and Charing,22 Non Co-Operation Movement at Amguri23, author's bitter
experience as a prisoner in the Sibsagar24 and Jorhat jails25and the activities of
some freedom fighters like Sonaram Chutia, Konak Chandra Phukan,
GuliramBarua etc.26
Some events that had symbolized the socio-political unity among the
people of the hills and plains of medieval Assam received Sarma's particular
attention. From 15th century onwards the small states were united and from the
time, socially, politically and economically the people of the hills and plains
were attached to one another.'27
Benudhar Sarma was the first historian of Assam, who recognized the
importance of oral tradition as a source of history. He wrote "Assam is rich for
4 Dr. Munin Saikia
their proverbs and idiomic expressions. Compared to the other states of India,
The proper collection of these sources would be of immense help in discovering
some tangled facts of history."28 His description of Ahom capital Gargaon written
on the basis of Assamese proverbs: 'GargaonGargaon, the name surprises"29
and reference to the economic condition of the people of early colonial Assam,
on the basis of ' Mani ram Dewanar Geet' : 'plums fall down plenty; after the
death of ManiramDewan, tax of taxi increased rapidly',30 bears the testimony to
the use of these source

Glossary of Vernacular Terms

GohainBarua - An Assamese Surname
Sadhani - An Assamese Queen
Joymati - do
Gadadhar - An Assamese King
Banraja - do
LachitBarphukan - An AssameseGeneral
Buranji - Chronicle
Vamsavalis - Genealogical Narratives
Bezbarua - An Assamese Surname
Konwari - Princes
DhowaKhowa - Tobacco Smoker
BurhiAair Sadhu - Story told by grandmother.
EkSarania Nam Dharma - A religion propagated by Sri Sankardeva.
Kaystha - An Assamese Caste
Lengemaguri - Name of a place in Assam
AdivashiManuh - Adivashi people
MombaVot - The people of Bhutan
ManasaNadi - Name of a river
BodoJati - Bodo (a tribe) of Assam
ManiramDewan - An Assamese martyr of 1857
Deshadrohi - Enemy of own country, malicious
BadanBarphukan - An Assamese Minister
BarbaruaMomaiTamuli - do
KancialiRodot - Dawn
RayatSabha - Peasants meeting
Garo, Jayantia, Kachari,
 Nationalistic Fervoured Historical Literature ... 5
Manipuri, Naga - Tribes of North-East
Geet - Song.

References:-
1. C.P. Saikia (ed.) GohainBaruaRachanavali, Guwahati(Ghy)-1971.
2. J.Goswami&P.Goswami (ed) BezbaruaGranthavalivol-II,Ghy-2005, p-8.
3. A.C. Hazarika (ed) BezbaruaGranthavali, vol-II,Ghy-1968, p-1137
4. ibid, p-1093
5. ibid, p-1175
6. A.C. Hazarika (ed) BezbaruaGranthavali, vol-I,Ghy-1968, p-641.
7. ibid, p-855.
8. LakshminathBezbarua, Mahapurush Sri SankardevaAru Sri Madhavdeva, Ghy-1988, pp-2-
3.
9. A.C. Agarwala "Presidential Address" of AsomSahityaSabha, fifteenth session, in
J.Goswami&M.Bora (ed) Ananda Chandra AgarwalaGranthavali, Ghy-1974, p-3.
10. A.C.Agarwala, "AamarDesharAdivasiManuh", Alochani, 8th year 1853 Saka, cited in ibid,
p-441.
11. A.C. Agarwala, 'MombaVot', Awahan, 2nd year 6th issue,1842 Sakacited in ibid, p-443.
12. A.C. Agarwala, "M?Manasa Nandi AruBodoJati", Awahan, 2nd year 4th issue 1842 Saka,
cited in ibid, p-435.
13. A.C.Agarwala, "AsomatAryaBasati", Banhi, 10th year issue 1842 Saka, cited inibid,pp-
192-193.
14. A.C. Agarwala , "KamruparTirthaVivaran", Awahan, 6th year 4th issue 1856 Saka, cited in
ibid, p-197.
15. BenudharSarma, Presidential Address of the History Session, AsomSahityaSabha, Shillong,
1953 in A.C.Hazarika&J.N.Goswami (ed& compiled) AsomSahityaSabhaBhasanawali:
Buranji, Jorhat-1992, p-142.
16. BenudharSarma, ManiramDewan, Ghy-1966.
17. BenudharSarma, "DeshdrohiKonBadan Ne Purnananda", in J.Sarma and A .Sarma (ed)
BenudharSarmaRachanavali, Vol-II, Ghy-1987, p-79.
18. BenudharSarma, "BangalBairiLachitBarphukan", ibid, p-52.
19. BenudharSarma, "YuvarajTikendrajitSinghaSenapati",ibid, p-155.
20. BenudharSarma, "BarbaruaMomaiTamuli", ibid, p-31.
21. BenudharSarma, Arghawali, Ghy-1969 p 7
22. BenudharSarma, KangrecarKancialiRodot, 1915 Saka, p-245.
23. ibid, p-127.
24. ibid, .P-144.
25. ibid, p-155.
26. ibid,pp-58-61.
27. BenudharSarma, "Presidential Address "of the History Session, AsomSahityaSabha, Shillong,
1953 in A.C.Hazarika&J.N.Goswami (ed) AsomSahityaSabharBhasanawali: Buranji,Jorhat-
1992, p-136.
28. BenudharSarma, "PatantararParvatitBuranjirAk" in J.Sarma&A.K.Sarma (ed)
BenudharSarmarRachanavali, Vol-III,Ghy-1987, p-393.
29. ibid, p-395. BenudharSarma, "AsomiyaBordoiGeet" in J.Sarma&A.K.Sarma (ed)
BenudharSarmarRachanavali, Vol-III, Ghy-1987, p-411.
*****
6

2. Indigo Peasant Movement-

The Greatest Struggle Against
British Colonial Power
* Dr. Vinay Shrivastava

The planting of Indigo and its use as a dye staff in India began at least in the
time of 'Panini', the great grammarian(sixth to fifth century B.C.).Panini's Astadhyayi
furnishes the earliest known evidence of the use of indigo (Nil).That indigo had
already been introduced to textile industries is well attested by Panini's explanation
that nil also denoted a type of cloth (acchadana),obviously dyed blue.1
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea informs us of the export of indigo to the
"West" from the port of Barbaricum situated on the Indus delta.2 But the Periplus
is not clear on whether it was a local product or brought to this from somewhere
else.
In western India during medieval times , Bayana in Rajasthan attained
considerable fame for the cultivation of very high quality indigo. This is clearly
seen from the accounts of Pelsaert during the reign of Jahangir in the seventeenth
century.3 Medieval Gujarat particularly Sarkhej near Ahmadabad, was also well
known for good quality indigo plantation.4 Gujarat however, has a long tradition
of producing indigo, both chau-ju-kua( A.D. 1225) and Marco polo(A.D.1295)
are eloquent about its indigo.5
Indigo plantation by the European began in the latter half of the eighteenth
century.6 Indigo was important from West Indies and South-American colonies
and was used in the English textile and for coloring the British navel costumes.
But as a result of the French revolution the emancipation of Negro slaves in the
French colonies took place specially into Santo Domingo, and the production of
indigo sharply declined. Earlier about the year 1847 most of the planters in West
Indies, particularly Jamaica, gave up indigo cultivation owing to the high duty
imposed on it. A number of planters then came to India and began indigo plantation.7
For Indigo cultivation high and un -inundated land was considered suitable. Indigo
cottage industries were built mostly on the banks of the lakes because they needed

*Professor of History, Chhtrasal Govt. P.G. College, Panna (M.P.)

 Indigo Peasant Movement- 7
ample water supply for the manufacture of dye.8
This was an important reason for in the beginning from the point of view
of Indigo cultivation and the manufacture of dye "Bengal was in full swing".
Bengal had many advantages, Calcutta being the main market and port for the
sale and the export of dye, the Bengal Indigo factories had to incur only a very
small amount of expenditure of transport compared with the factories of other
state of North -East part because of its geographical location.9
The Indigo plant , the original source of the dye used for bluing cotton
textiles, formed the basis of a flourishing sector of commercial, agriculture in
Bengal by the beginning of the nineteenth century. From the very outset ,
however the riots , that is the tenant cultivators were made to grow Indigo
under much coercion, for the surplus appropriated by the planters, mostly
Europeans and the methods they used, mod this crop most uneconomic for the
producers. A stump in the London prices of Indigo between 1839 and 1847, the
fall of the Union Bank of Calcutta, a consequent credit squeeze and the takeover
of smaller concerns by large "Indigo signori's" increased the pressure on the
ryot and his misery still further. By 1860 the regional grievances localized acts
of resistance among the peasantry snow balled into a general uprising in nine
Bengal districts.10
With the emergence of industrial revolution in Europe ,cotton industries
were flourished in Britain tremendously. Indigo-a herbal product was the
essential ingredient to allow required brightness of con products. The colonial
British made India the supplier of raw materials for their mills and factories by
destroying our cottage industries. They forced the planters to plant Indigo
instead of paddy, tobacco and other crops. The planters faced in human
oppression even worst then that was against the bonded negroes in then America.
During the latter part of eighteenth century Indigo plantation was started in
Bengal. By the third decade of 19th century ,forceful Indigo plantation expanded
enormously and colonial oppression touched the peak.11
Under the supremacy of the British in India, the economic condition of
the rural India was much affected. The peasants were ruthlessly crushed and
they were forced to cultivate Indigo in their lands instead of food crops. The
peasants continuously crushed, gradually organized a revolt was primarily
directed against the British planters who behaved like the feudal lords in their
estates.
Indigo Revolt- The Indigo revolt was a peasant movement and subsequent
uprising of Indigo farmers against the Indigo planters that across in Bengal in
(1859-1861). The Indigo revolution was one of the greatest struggle against the
British colonial power in eighteenth century. The back stage of the revolt goes
back half a century.12 When the Indigo plantation act was established. After the
courageous fight by the Sepoy independence in 1857 in February-March 1859
the farmers resolutions were dramatically stronger than anticipated from a
community victimized by brutal treatment for about half a century. Most
importantly is was a revolt of both the major religious group of farmers in
Bengal, notable a farmer Hajimolla of Nischindipur said that we would "rather
8 Dr. Vinay Shrivastava

beg than saw Indigo".13 The farmers were in no possession of any types of
arms, it was totally a non violent resistance.14
Causes of the Revolt- Indigo planting in Bengal dated back to 1777 A.D.
Louis Banard was probably the first Indigo planter .With expansion of British
power in the Nawabate of Bengal, Indigo planting became more and more
commercially profitable due to the demand for blue dye in Europe. It was
introduced in large parts of Burdwan,Bankura , Birhum,Murshidabad etc. The
Indigo planters left no stones unturned to make money. They mercilessly pursued
the peasant to plant Indigo instead of good crops. They provided loans, called
dadon at every high interest. Once a farmer took such loans he remained in debt
for whole of his life before passing it to his successors. The price paid by the
planters was meargre,only 2.5% of the market price. So the farmers could make
no profit by growing Indigo. The farmers totally unprotected from the brutal
Indigo planters. Who resorted to mortgage or destruction of their property if they
were unveiling to obey them. Government rules favored the planters. By an act in
1833, the planters were granted a few hand in oppression. Even the Zamindars
,money lenders and other influential persons sided with the planters .Out of the
severe oppression unleashed on them the farmers resorted to revolt.15 The Bengali
middle class supported the peasants whole heartedly.
The Revolt- The Revolt started from Nadia where Bishnucharan Biswas
and Digambar Biswas first took up arms against the planters. It spread like wildlife
in Murshidabad,Birbhum,Burdhman,Pabna,Khulna,Narail etc. Indigo planters
were put into public trial and executed. The Indigo depots were burned down.
Many planters fixed to avoid being caught. The Zamindars were also targets of
revolting peasants.16
The revolt was ruthlessly suppressed. Large forces of police and Military
backed by the British Government and the Zamindars mercilessly slaughtered a
number of peasants. In spite of this the revolt was fairly popular, involving almost
the whole of Bengal. The Biswas brothers of Nadia, Kader Molla of Pabna,Rafique
Mandal of Malda were popular leaders. Even some of the Zamindars supported
the revolt, the most important of whom was Ramratan Mullick of Narai . The
company is also facing competition from the Netherlands and France in
international market. 17
The effect on the British Rulers in India- The Historian Jogesh Chandra
Bagel describes the revolts as a non-violent revolution and gives this as a reason
why the Indigo revolt was a success compared to the Sepoy Revolt.
R.C.Majumdar in "History of Bengal".18 goes so far as to call it a forerunner of
the non-violent passive resistance later successfully adopted by Gandhi. The
revolt had a strong effect on the government immediately appoint the "Indigo
commission" in 1860.19 In the commission report , E.W.L. tower noted that
"not a chest of Indigo reached was a without being stained with human blood."
Evidently it was a major triumph of the peasants to incite such emotion in the
Europeans minds even though the statement might have been an over statement.
Cultural Effect- Dinabandhu Mitra's 20 1859 play "Nil Darpan" is based
 Indigo Peasant Movement... 9
on the revolution. It was translated into English by Michael Madhusudan Dutta
and published by James Long.21It attracted much attention in England ,where
in people were stunned at the savagery of their countrymen. The British
government sent Rev.Long to a mock trial and punished him with imprisonment
and fine . Kaliprasanna Sinha paid the fine for him. The play is the first play to
be staged commercially in the National Theatre in Calcutta.22

References-.
1. V.S.Agrawal,'India as known to Panini' ,Lucknow,1953,p-209, or Indigo figures in iv.1.42
of Panini's Astadhyayi.
2. Lionel Casson,translated.,"The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea"(Princeton 1989),Paras 39-
40 of the text, and Ranbir Chakravarti,"The export of Indigo from India to the 'west' in the
11th century." Research Paper published in "The Indian historical Review" ,P-26.,vol.-
XVIII,1-2,July 1991 and Jan.1992.
3. Pelsaert's description of the production of Indigo in Bayana has been strikingly confirmed
with the help of archaeological materials by Iqtidar Alam Khan "Pre Modern Indigo vats of
Bayana" ,Research Paper presented to the Annual Meeting of Indian Archaeological Society
,New Delhi,Jan.1986, and S.P.Gupta,'The Agrarian system of Eastern Rajasthan 1650-
1750,Delhi 1986,PP-60,86,110-113,115.
4. Irfan Habib,"An Atlas of the Mughal Empire",Delhi,1982,Plate 7B and Joseph E.
Schwartzberg," A Historical Atlas of south Asia, New York,1978,P-207B, for the production
of Indigo near Ahmadabad in Gujarat.
5. F.Hirth and W.W. Rockhill,translation chau-Ju-Kua;His work on the Chinese and Arab Trade
in the 12th and 13th centuries ,st.Petersburg,1911,P-92, V.K.Jain," Trade and Traders in
western India" A.D.1000-1300,Delhi,1990,P-102.,Ranbir Chakravarti,op.cit.-P-27.
6. Buchanan."The Development of capitalistic Enterprise in India,London-1966,P-36.s
7. Watt,"The Commercial products of India.London-1908,P-668.
8. Grison, "Bihar peasant life",Patna,1926,PP-243-244.
9. Wilson ,"History of Bihar Indigo factories",Calcutta,1908,P-62,63,64..
10. Ranjit Guha,"The Journal of Peasant studies",Vol.2,Issue-1,PP-1-45.
11. Watt,Op.Cit.;PP-668-669.
12. Nildarpan (Play by Mitra,Britanica online Encyclopedia.)
13. Social Scientist ,Vol.5,No.60,July-1977,P-14.
14. Ibid, P-14.
15. Ibid,P-15.
16. Ibid,P-16.
17. R.C.Majumdar,"The History of Bengal" ISBN No. 81-7646-237-3,
18. Ibid, The government in 1860 enacted the the Indigo Act. According to which No planter
could be forced to cultivate Indigo against this Bill.."The History of Bengal" ISBN No.81-
7646-237-3.
19. Social Scientist,V.5,No.60.July-1977,P-14.
20. Dinabandhu Mitra: Nil Darpan or the Indigo planting mirror, translated by Michael
Madhusudan Dutta,edited by Suchi Pradhan and Sailesh Sen. Gupta.Calcutta: Paschimbanga
Academy,1977, Nildarpan( Play by Mitra) -Britannica online Encyclopedia.
21. Pre face of Nil Darpan,"By James Long, edited by Suchi Pradhan.P-XI
22. Nildarpan,Op.Cit.
*****
10

3. Reflections Of Hill People Role in The

Politics Of Manipur, 1946-1952 With
Special Reference To Kuki Chiefs
*Priyadarshina M Gangte

Monarchy was the form of governance before 1947 in Manipur with a

written Constitution "Loyumba Shilyen" or "Loyamba Shin yen" since Meidingu
Loyamba (Loiyamba) who reigned in the 11th Century A.D. i.e. 1074 - 1112
A.D.1. Legacy of Manipuri Monarchy was horizontal or well as vertical
according to time and situation, however, early and the pre-colonial times
"Ningthou Pongba Tara as well as "Phumdou Humphumari" played a great role
in maintaining stability and upholding, inter alia, the socio-cultural ties among
the inhabitants who were different ethnic communities.2
The Manipuri's influenced by the Civil Disobedience Movement started
by Mahatma Gandhi in British India, started agitation for the establishment
Government in Manipur since 1939 3. The Manipur State Congress, a branch of
the INC supported the proposal and the Maharaja accepted it, and constituted a
constitution - making committee4 named as the Manipur State Constitution
Making Committee of whose Chairman was Mr. F.F. Pearson, POS (Indian
Political Service) the then President of the Darbar5. The Committee framed the
Constitution known as the Manipur Constitution Act which was brought into
force in 1948. Meanwhile a Council of Ministers also known as His Highness
Maharaja in Council with a Chief Minister was constituted by the Maharaja
Bodhchandra Singh before the conduction of elections to the Legislative
Assembly after dissolving the Manipur State Durbar on 30 June, 1947 6 before
the Indian independence. Thus, as for Manipur after 1891, she ceased to be a
sovereign power and a era of colonialism continued till 1947 7.
Regarding politics in Manipur Hills 1946-52, Irawat was, in fact the first
person who wanted to keep the integrity of Manipur, therefore, under his

*Sr. Lecturer, Damdei Christian College, Manipur.

 Reflections of Hill People Role... 11
leadership, the Praja Sangha organized a joint meeting of the representatives of
the political parties of the Hills and Valley of Manipur8. The following
organizations were represented in the meeting : (i)Tangkhul Long. (ii) Kuki
National Assembly, (iii) Kabui Association, (iv) Khulmi Union, (v) Mizo Union,
(vi) Manipur Praja Sabha, (vii) Manipuri Krishak Sabah, (viii) Meitei Mar up
and (ix) Nongpok Apunba Marup9. This Conference demanded a full responsible
government and decided to keep the territorial integrity of Manipur and formed
a United Front of Manipur10. It was, of course, a rare historical event of its kind
where nine organizations belonging to different ethnic communities from hills
and plain, held at Manipur Dramatic Union, on 30th November, 1947 presided
by M.K. Shim ray of Tangkhullong11. Irawat, rendering his speech, focused on
the politics of the Naga National Council and its impacts on Manipur12. Thus
we notice the affirmative policy in Irawat's political aspiration, i.e. to bring
unity among the hill and plain peoples13. Lamphel Singh of Meitei Marup,
Ibomcha Singh and Kanhai Singh of Krishak Sabah, Lunneh of Kuki National
Assembly and Kakhangai Kabui of Kabui Association gave speeches on the
various socio-economic problem that the people of both the plain and the hill
areas had been facing14. The meeting realized genuine necessaries for forming
a United Front of all the parties in the hills and plain and therefore, resolved to
constitute an organizing committee with Irabot Singh as the President and M.K.
Shim ray as the Secretary15.The different attitude shown towards the hill as
well as valley people by their socio-political leaders also could easily seen,
perhaps, out of cultural arrogance16. When the Meitei's became the followers of
Vaishnavism this historically given cultural arrogance, according the value
system of the new faith, has been express in the framework of pollution parity
relationship and has alienated the non-Hindu tribes17. The tribes who embraced
Christianity, also have alienated themselves from the Meiteis18. This social gap
resulted from the mutual alienation became wider and wider with the
metamorphosis of the colonial subjects into free citizens of independent India
because political democratization has stimulated primordial sentiments19.
It was during this period in the hills of Manipur socio-political
organizations: such as the Kuki National Assembly (KNA) (which later on
converted into political party and finally to secessionist group) and the Khulmi
National Union (KNU) were also established20; on 24th October, 1946 and 6th
July, 1947 under the leaderships of Zavum Misao and Thangkhopau Kipgen
and Teba Kilong and T.C. Tiankham21 The Constituent member tribes of KNA
were (i) Anal, (ii) Chiru; (iii) Gangte; (iv) Guite; (v) Hmar; (vi) Koireng; (vii)
Kom; (viii)Monsang; (ix) Paite, (x) Simte; (xi) Thadou; (xii) Vaiphei and (xiii)
Zou. Not pleased with the Thadou dominancy and arrogance, the non Thadou
ethnic groups, searched for a more democratic pan tribal organisation as an
alternative to KNA22, as an outcome of the subject matter, a parallel body - the
12 Priyadarshina M Gangte
KNU, came into existence with its constituent tribes, namely : (i) Aimol; (ii)
Anal, (iii) Baite; (iv) Chiru; (v) Doungel; (vi) Gangte; (vii) Hanghal; (viii)
Khongsai (Lunkim, Changsan, Hlangum, Lengthen); (ix)Kom; (x)Manchong;
(xi) Manlhun, (xii) Maring; (xiii) Mate; (xiv) Moyon; (xv) Paite; (xvi) Purum,
(xvii)Saum; (xviii) Simte; (xix) Tarao; (xx) Vaiphei and (xxi) Zou. As a pan
non-Naga tribal political organization KNU contested in 1948 election of
Manipur State Assembly and seven of its member become victorious in the
said election23. The year 1947 also witnessed the birth of another association of
non-Naga tribes, called the Kom Rem Association of which Kom, Aimol, Chiru,
Koireng, Purum and Kharam were the member tribes24. However, the idea of
adopting this generic term did not last long as the Government of India did not
recognized, creating an environment to the formation of splinter groups like
the Hmar National Organization, the Tiddim Chin Union, the Baite National
Government Council and the Mate Tribal Union25 due to the lack of mutual
trust and a common ideology and also partly of arrogant, dominant attitude of
the Thadous26. Moreover, the southern part of Churachandpur District bordering
Mizoram was affected by the movement of Mizo Union, formed on 11th April,
1946 at Aizawl, Mizoram27. The Mizo movement Union was the first ever
Regional Political Party established in the erstwhile Lushai Hills (now Mizoram)
28
born on 9th April, 1946 at Lungleh in its adhoc basis uner the style of Mizo
Common People's Union29. A branch of the same had opened in Manipur under
the leaderships of L. Tawna and G.L. Daka as its President and Secretary30
The other regional political parties in the Hill areas of Manipur were also
the Naga National League (NNL) formed in September, 1946 with its manifesto
to bring all the Nagas under one Flag31 and the Naga Peoples League under the
leadership of Athiko Daiho Mao. It will be worth mentioning that 18 MLA's
from the hills joined the coalition government on the condition that the Deputy
Speaker of the Assembly should be a tribal, secondly no part of Manipur should
never be merged with any other State, thirdly the individuality of the State
should be maintained at any cost32. Subsequently the M.L.As from the hill areas
also insisted that if any neighbouring areas desire to join Manipur, it should
welcome and be permitted to do so33. Thus the political environment was in
fact, smooth and healthy with all assurances and promises to, including
responsible form of government with the Maharaja as its constitutional head
made by the Council of Minister, was, however, did not last long.
A totally different political scenario developed in Manipur with the
Maharaja signing the Merger Agreement with India on 21st September, 1949
and enforced in 15th October, 1949 along with Banaras and Tripura, Manipur
became a part of the Indian Union rather under "Part-C" status by the enacted
"Part-C", Act to which everyone in Manipur felt extremely regretted and insulted.
 Reflections of Hill People Role... 13
Resist and protest of all kinds erupted in the state, Joykumar34 emphatically
maintained :
"The most significant epoch making development in political history of Manipur
was the movement for the merger of Manipur into the Indian Union."
As a consequence, during the last part of 1949, the D.O.C. and the Red
Guard undertook major organizational changes of which the latter became very
active in the beginning of 195035. It will be also imperative to note the contention
of Pillai (G.K. Pillai, former Union Home Secretary) on September 26, at a
lecture titled "Manipur - the way forward" at Delhi,36:
"the ancient kingdom, which had a constitution even before India wrote her
own, had its own proud history and was overnight turned into a C-category
state in 1948".
Thus, political developments in the pre and post-merger period produced
a serious psychological effect on every sensitive educated youth of the State37.
It will be interesting to know the politics developed during this transitional
phase from monarchy to democracy in the domains of Kuki Chiefs also. Before
administration of the entire hill territories was entrusted to a single officer (the
Vice President who was already overburdened with his usual duties in the
durbar38. The British employed well known policy of 'divide et impera' - a policy
that played a crucial part in ensuring the stability indeed, the viability of nearly
every colonial system,39. Moreover Kamei40 has contended their Indirect Rule
both in the valley and hills was fraught with troubles - Manipur became a part
of the Dominion of India from 15th August, 1947, as a result of signing the
Instrument of accession and stand-still Agreement by the Maharaja on 11 August,
194741. Kukis who were chiefs, and not were vehemently stood against such a
dare political step of whose a few names worth mentioning were: (1)
Thanggoumang Sitlhou, Chief of Sangnoa; (2) Mangkhokai, Younger brother
of Kilkhong Khotinthang, Chief of Jampi, (3) S. L. Lunneh, Chief of Matbung,
(4) Sumkhohen Haokip, Chief of Nabil; (5) Lhukhomang Haokip, Chief of
Chahsad; (6) Sumkhohao Haokip, Chief of Ukha Tampak; (7) Paokhohang
Haokip of Saitol; (8) Thangkhosie Chongloi, Chief of Khengjang; (9) Otngam
Sitlhou, Chief of Khaochongbung; (10) Lhunkhopao Singsong, Chief of
Lungthulien; (11) Pakang Haokip, Chief of Maokot; (12) Paolen Haokip, Chief
of Saitu; (13) Demjalam Kipgen, Bunning; (14)Thangkhopao Kipgen, Bunning,
(15) Lunkhopao Singsong, Chief of Songsang.42 Despite their strong opposition
to abolish monarchy from Manipur, Manipur was reduced to a fiefdom of the
Chief Commissioner43. Bhubon44 also supplemented by maintaining that tribals
and their followers came in huge numbers to defend their Maharaja the thinking
that along with the abolition of Maharajship.. In this connection, it is relevant
to mention that Irawat the leftist leader was also strongly against the same,
tried hard to preserve sovereignty of Manipur45. Based on Mr. Stewart's Report,
14 Priyadarshina M Gangte

the Governor then advised the agitators to preserve the sanctity of the temple
and the agitation frittered away slowly on the fifth day after signing a no-side-
sin agreement.46
On the other side the Nagas with the Zeliangrong (1930-1949) movements
led by Haiphou Zadonang and carried on by Gaidinliu made the Tamenglong
hills though suppressed but it revealed impact of the powerful current of peoples
movements throughout India maintained Sarojini47. The consequences of the
Merger of Manipur to the Dominion of India and the Government of India's
attitude towards Manipur - at one time a princely kingdom, well known and for
that matter, in the south east Asia in particular and the world in general, the
merger of this entity to the Indian Union, and, thereby placing her in "Part C"
State. This very historical event of extremely undermining and insulting the
Manipuri's is, in fact, the root cause of all sorts of movements specifically to the
freedom fighters or insurgents or terrorists.

References :
1. Naorem Sanajaoba : Manipur : Past And Present, Vol.I, Mittal Publications, Delhi-35, 1988;
p.307)
2. Naoreoibam Indramani, 52 years, Microphotographs, Manipur State Archives, Government
of Manipur, interviewed on 25.1.2013.
3. R.K. Jhalajit : A Short History of Manipur, R.K. Jhalajit Singh, Yaiskul Hiruhanba Leikai,
1965, 1992 (Rep); p.336
4. Vide Palace Order No.30; p.1946
5. H. Bhuban Singh : The Merger of Manipur, Pritam Haobam, Lamphel, Manipur, 1988, p.62
6. S.N. Pandey (ed): Sources of the History of Manipur, National Publishing House, Delhi - 2,
1985; p.89
7. Ibid; p.89
8. Lal Dena (ed): History of Modern Manipur (1826 - 1949), Orbit Publishers, Delhi - 55;
1991; p.168
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. N. Lokendra Singh: op. cit; p.215
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. Anouba Yug, 1st December, 1947
16. W. Nabakumar's paper "Communalism And Ethnic Divide - Anathema To Secular Society",
presented in the Two-Day National Seminar in North East India organised by the Department
of History, Manipur University, Canchipur with the sponsorship of MAKAIAS, Kolkata, at
Senate Hall, M.U. on 27-28 July, 2005
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
 Reflections of Hill People Role... 15
19. Ibid.
20. Kamkhenthang in his paper "Kuki Linguistic Groups in Historical Perspective" presented in
the National Seminar on Kuki Society: Past, Present, Future organised and sponsored by the
Kuki Research Forum in collaboration with the Kuki Students" Organisation held at Sielmat
Christian College, Lamka, Churachandpur, Manipur on 19th - 20th February, 2010
21. Pu Holkhomang Haokip, Ex M.P., Outer Parliamentary Constituency, at his residence, at
Haokip Veng, Imphal, Manipur on 7/4/2012
22. W. Nabakumar : Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid.
27. Sangkima : A Modern History of Mizoram, Spectrum Publication, Guwahati/Delhi, 2004;
p.89
28. Dr. T.S. Gangte, The Kukis Under Contemporary Political Scenario (Unpublished Paper)
29. Ibid.
30. Dongzakai Gangte, 70 years, Chief of Hill Town, Churachandpur Manipur, interviewed on
12/8/2011
31. Position Paper & Declaration for an alternative arrangement intervention: United Naga
Council, 2010
32. Dr. H. Kampu Gangte, one of the advisors to the Advisory Board, Manipur Territorial Council,
deliberation with Laljalien Gangte, Compounder, Old Lambulane, at the residence of the
Advisor in 1959
33. Ibid.
34. N. Joykumar Singh: Social Movements in Manipur, Mittal Publications, N. Delhi 59, 1992;
p.112
35. N. Lokendra Singh, Op. cit p.231
36. Imphal Free Press : 28.9.2011
37. N. Joykumar Singh : Revolutionary Movements in Manipur, Akansha Publishing House, N.
Delhi, 2005; p.31
38. Lal Dena Op. cit; p.80
39. Ibid: p.81
40. Colonial Policy and Practice in Manipur, Imphal Free Press; 3-11/8/2011)
41. H. Bhuban Singh, Op. cit; p.130
42. Information provided by Lhingjaneng Gangte, age 72, Ex-MLA, Old Lambulane, Imphal,
Manipur on 6/3/2011
43. H. Bhubon Singh : Op. cit; p.142
44. ibid: p.80
45. Lal Dena: Op. Cit; p.171
46. Ibid.
47. Kh. Sorojini Devi : British Political Agency in Manipur (1835 - 1947), Linthoi Publications,
MLA Quarter, Colony, Majorkhul, Imphal, 2005; p.88

*****
16

4. BANGARH: A Leading Ancient And

Early Medieval City Of Eastern India
*Kartick Chandra Barman

Bangarh is one of the leading ancient and early-medieval cities of Eastern

India. At present, the ruined City is located in the Shibbari Gram Pachayet
area, one and half miles to the north of Gangarampur, on the eastern bank of the
River Punarbhava1and about 45 Km. from the District Headquarter of Balurghat
town in the District of Dakshin Dinajpur. Dr.D.C.Sen claims that the identified
ancient Kotivarsa is the synonym of present Bangarh.2Now, Kotivarsa has been
identified by archaeological evidence, with the name of Bangarh, as a capital
city of the legendary Daitya king Bana or Banasur. Banasur was the first Kirat
king who ruled central Nepal and was killed by Lord Krishna3 in the battlefield.
According to R.L.Barua, during that period, Dravidians were designated as
Daitya but not Demon, Danavas and Asuras etc.4
The Bangarh Grant5 of Mahipala-I which has been recovered from
Bangarh Village6 and the Belwa Copperplate Inscriptions of Bhoja Barman,
which were issued in the fifth year of his reign, i.e. in 993 A.D.,7 suggest that
once Bangarh was known as an important city in the name of Kotivarsa.
Dr.K.G.Goswami suggests that these names i.e. Vaijayanti, Devikotta and
Kotivarsa of the ancient and medieval fame were the same.8During the period
of the Pala dynasty, Bangarh was known as Visaya9and enlarged as a local
administrative centre under their Empire. Four Damodarpur Copperplate
Inscriptions of Gupta period,10 dating to 443 A.D., which have been discovered
from Dakshin Dinajpur District,11have also mentioned that Kotivarsa was a
Visaya and a chief administrative centre, belonging to Pundravardhana
Bhukti.12The fame and importance of Kotivarsa,13were very remarkable, like
other cities of ancient India, i.e. Mathura, Ujjain, Patliputra, Konauj, Koushambi
etc. Certainly, Kotivarsa was a famous city, like any international city during

*Krishna Chandr College (govt.sponsored) Hetampur* Birbhum, (West Bengal)

 BANGARH: A Leading Ancient ... 17
the period of conquest of Bengal by Bhoja Barman, the King of “The Barman
dynasty”14.On the other hand, another Copperplate Inscription of Damodarpur,
has mentioned that at the same time, Bangarh was a chief administrative and
cultural centre of Kotivarsa Visaya and Mahasthangarh was its only
Capital.15R.K.Gupta suggests that during the reign of the Pala dynasty, Kotivarsa
visaya had been more flourishing as a trade center than earlier, alongside other
administrative centers of ancient Bengal. However, Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyaya,
a pioneer historian of ancient India, who maintains a claim that the whole
northern part of Varendri or Varendra, was then recognized by the name of
“Kotivarsa” from the beginning of the seventh ago. The above statements have
further proved by the facts given from the “Bangarh Grant” of Mahipala-I16
which revealed in the 9th year of his reign.17
However, the Turkish Invader named Iktiyaruddin Muhammad Bin-
Bakhtiyar Khilji, who had invaded Bengal and forcibly entered into the palace
of Lakshana Sena, 18 the king of Bengal, during the early 13th century
A.D,19conquered Nadia or Navadwip.20Md.Bin-Bakhtiyar applied his mind to
arrange a new expedition with a large army towards Bhutan, Assam21 and also
the Tibetan regions.22In course of his so-called Tibet expedition,23 he captured
Kotivarsa and built there an army camp for sheltering his troops. After that, he
founded the Muslim rule in Rah24and Gouda or Lakhnawati in 1205 A.D.25 and
established his capital at Kotivarsa within his subjugated area.26From that time,
the identification of Kotivarsa has gradually been changed and recognized in
the name of Devkot. Soon after the Turkish conquest of the Bengal delta in
1204, Muslim immigrants came from different places and were settled down in
Kotivarsa, besides other emporia like Gouda, Pandua, Sonargaon, Deotala and
Chittagong, principally as long-distance traders, administrators, soldiers and
literary persons.27Medieval historian of the Sultanate period, Minhaj Siraj,
visited Bengal forty years after Bakhtiyar’s “Inroads of Bengal” and personally
collected some reports by oral traditions concerning it,28 about where Bakhtiyar
had settled himself firmly as a governor or ruler of Bengal.29 Dr. Ahmed Sharif
said that he was indeed the maker of the medieval history of Bengal.30
During the period of Bakhtiyar Khilji, the ancient Devkot flourished day
by day as a second capital of his reign and soon it also emerged as an early
urban settlement of the Muslim period in Bengal31 and it maintained its
continuing development up to the reign of Ali Mardan. Ali Mardan, another
follower of Bakhtiyar, came to Kativarsa as the next Governor of the Muslim
rule in Bengal, appointed by Qutub-ud-din after the death of Iktiyar-ud-din in
A.D.1206.32 It is important that, “Ancient Devkot” or “Deokot” then flourished
as the first capital city during the Muslim period in Bengal.33Subsequently,
Ghyas-uddin Was transferred the capital34 of Muslim Bengal from Devkot to
the historic city of Gouda-Lakhnawati during the year of 1219-2035but the real
18 Kartick Chandra Barman

causes for transferring the capital, remains vague and unidentified even
today.36Certainly, the ancient “Devkot” was then recognized as an active
administrative centre of Muslim power in Bengal,37 especially during the reign
of Bakhtiyar Khilji and for 20 years after his death.38As per the written records
of J.F.Bourdillon, Deokot or devkot was a local trade centre and also a capital
city of Varendra or Varendri.39 According to Dr.A.B.M.Habibullah, the same
Visaya, i.e. Kotivarsa has been identified with the name of ancient Devkot or
Devikotta,40 which was locally known as Bangarh under the Pundravardhana
Bhukti.
The place which now exists as Bangarh was, in ancient times, called
Devikotta or Banapura, some “Stone Inscriptions”, which were recovered in
the area of Kotivarsa Visaya.41 According to the records of Abhidhanachintamani
collected by Hemchandra, Dovecote or Diw-kot, Umavan, Ushaharan, Shonitpur,
Banapur etc. might be synonymous of ancient Kotivarsa.42"Purushottomer
Trikhandashesha”43suggests that Bannagara or Bangarh was then known by
different names i.e. Devikot, Deokot or Diw-kot, Kotivarsa etc. The truth of the
statement has been further proved after the excavations, led by the Director of
Archaeological survey of India on the ruined place of Bangarh in the year of
2009.44 Dr.W.W.Hunter, has clearly mentioned in his great book, “A Statistical
Accounts of Bengal, Voll-V,” at the advent of the Muslim era, Devkot Pargana
belonged to the north of Madnabati paragon under Pundravardhana Bhukti.45The
Secret Book of Jain, “Jaina “Prajnapana” has mentioned that Kotivarsa or
ancient Devkot, as a city, flourished in Radha Mondale.46
Nearly two thousand years ago, F.B.Hamilton who visited the site of
Bangarh in 1833,47 tracing the routes of Hieun Tsang, reported that the ruins of
‘Bannogar’ occupied the east bank of the Punarbhava which at this point flew
from the north-east to the south-west for about 2 miles, beginning a little above
“Dum-dumah”.48The unknown Komboja intruder expanded his territory in North
Bengal49 and built a temple of Lord Shiva at Bangarh,50 which is now falling
into decay.51The above have been learnt from “A Pillar Inscription” of Kamboja
dynasty, which has now been discovered from Bangarh Village.52At the same
time, the rulers of Kamboja family, led by Rajyapala, tried to expand their
possession towards North Bengal,53 during the reign of Pala dynasty54but soon
were driven away by the local rulers.55Bana or Banasur, the king of Bangarh,
himself was a great worshipper of the Lord Siva.56
Moreover, there was a beautiful Buddhist Monastery at ancient Devkot or
Bangarh, which had been destroyed by the sudden attack of Turkish Soldier,
Bakhtiyar Khilji, probably in 1199 A.D. He also demolished there many Hindu
temples and built Mahommedan mosques, palaces, and caravanserais with the
materials,57though, he was not bloodthirsty and took no delight in massacre or
in flinching misery on his subjects. In the advent of the Muslims in Bengal that
 BANGARH: A Leading Ancient... 19
the significance and numbers of the ancient deities had greatly changed. Most
of them had disappeared from the popular pantheon, the importance of others
had enormously varied, and a number of new ones had risen into
favors.58Sandhyakara-Nandi, the biographer of Ram Pala,59.Dr.R.C.Majumdar,
Bangle Dasher Itihas (Prachin-Yug), General Printers & Publishers Pvt.Ltd.,
Kolkata, in 2002, P-87 highly praised in his book of “Ramcharita, the excellence
of Bangarh at the same time.

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Published in 1982.ISBN81-86946-13-6
3. History and Culture of Kirat people, P.5
4. RaiK.L.Barua Bahadur, History of Early Kamrupa (From the earliest time to the end
16th c.), p.29, Shillong, Published in 1933
5. R. Bandyopadhyaya, Bungler Itihas, p.151, Day’s Publishing, Kolkata, ISBN 978-81-
295-0791-4
6. R. K.Chakraborty, Gourer Itihas, p.82.Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata, in1999, ISBN 81-
7612-444-3
7. Dr.R.S.Sharma, Early Medieval Indian Society, p.222, Orient Black Swan, Hyderabad,
First published in 2001.ISBN 8 1-250-2523-5
8. Dr.K.G. Goswami, Excavations at Bangarh, Ashutosh Museum Memoir, No. 1, (C.
1948), p. 2
9. Dr.D.C.Sircar, Select Inscription-I, pp. 191-192
10. Dr.D.C.Sirkar, Pal-Purba-Yuger Banshanucharita, p.141,Sahityaloke, Kolkata, First
Published in 1985and first reprinted in 2009, ISBN 81-86946-13-6
11. Mr.Himanshu Kr. Sarkar, Dinajpur Namer Utsa Sandhane, p. 28, Itihas Anusandhan
Voll 25.Paschim Banga Itihas Samsad, Kolkata, published in 2011 and ISBN 978-81-
910874-1-3
12. Dr.S.K.Mukhopadhyaya, The Past In Ancient-A Political Social Economic and Cultural
History, (from the earliest times to 650 C. E.), p.460,Progressive Publishers, Kolkata,
Published in 2012, ISBN 978-93-80036-35-9
13. Dr.Nihar Ranjan Roy, Bangalir Itihas (Adiparba), p. 301, Day’s, Kolkata, and Published
in 1999, ISBN 81-7079-270-3
14. K.C.Das, “Itihaser Alokey Paschim Dinajpur” Madhuparni, Paschim Dinajpur Zilla,
p. 400, published in 1993
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16. Dr.Dilip Kr.Ganguly, Bharat-Itihaser Sandhane (Bengali), p.353, Sahityaloke, Kolkata,
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17. Akshay Kumar Maitra, Gaur Lekhamala, Kolkata, p.91
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20 Kartick Chandra Barman
19. Dhananjoy Roy, Dinajpur Ziller Itihas, p.6, K.P.B. & Company, Kolkata.2006, ISBN
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41. H.K.Barpujari, Edited, Comprehensive History of Assam, Voll-I, P.65, Assam
Publication Division, Guwahati, Published in 1990
42. Hemchandra, Abhidhanachintamani, Voll-IV, P.977
43. Dhananjoy Roy, Dinajpur Ziller Itihas, p.4, K.P.B. & Company, Kolkata.2006, ISBN
81-7074-293
 BANGARH: A Leading Ancient... 21
44. Aloke Kr.Ghosh & Nikhil Sur, Edited, Bharater Itihas, , 2005,,P-45
45. W.W. Hunter, A Statistical Account of Bengal-Vol, VII, Maldah, Rangpur & Dinaj
pur, P.438, Concept Publishing Company (P) Ltd, New Delhi First Published in
1877.ISBN 10:81-8069-327-9
46. Dr.R.C.Majumdar, History of Ancient Bengal, Ibid, p.12, TulshiPrakashani, Kolkata,
Tulshi first Edition in 2005, ISBN 81-89118-01-3.
47. M.Martin, Eastern India, Voll 3, Cosmos Publications, Delhi and published in 1976,
P-664
48. F.B.Hamilton,’ A Geographical, Statistical and Historical description of the District of
Dinajpur, 1833, Martin-Eastern India, Vol. II, p. 661
49. Dr.R.C.Majumdar, Dr.H.C.Roychoudhury & Dr.Kalikinkar Dutta, Edited, An Advanced
History in India, Macmillan & Company Ltd.London, Published in 1946, ISBN
10:0333-902-980, P-158
50. Dr.R.S.Tripathi, History of Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd.,
Delhi, First published in 1942 & 9th Reprinted in 2006, ISBN 81-202-0018-4, P-359
51. Nagendranath Basu, Banger Jatio Itihas (Rajannya khanda), Day’s Publishing, Kolkata,
2004 ISBN 81-295-0262-3, P156
52. Dr.D.C.Sirkar, Pal-SenYuger Banshanucharita, Sahityaloke, Kolkata, First Published
in 1982, ISBN 81-86946-13-6, P-100
53. Dr.Bhaskar Chattopadhyaya, Gaur-Banger Itihas O Sanskriti, Part-I, Progressive
Publishers, Kolkata and published in 2003, ISBN 81-8064-013-2, P76
54. Dr.K.M.Munshi & Dr.R.C.Majumdar, Edited, The History and Culture of the Indian
People, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, Published in 1957, P-24
55. Dr.A.K.M.Shahnawaz, Viswa Sabhyata, Pratik Prakashana Sanstha, Bangladesh,
Published in 1997, ISBN 984-446-044-1, P-228
56. Mr.Harendra Nath Barman, Unpublished Works “The King of Bangarh”,
Written on 6th July 1988, P-5
57. J.C.Marshal, The History of India, Harrison and Sons Printers, London, Published in
1869, P-46
58. Dr.Tara Chand, Influence of Islam in India, , The Indian Press, Allahabad, Published
in 1922, P-5
*****
22

5. Establishment Of Sea Trade in

Bengal During Mughal Period
*Dr. Asha Shrivastava

The Original name of Bengal is Bang.1 This subah is situated in the second
clime.2Its length from Chittagong to Garhi3 in four hundred kos.Its breadth
from the northern rang of mountains to the southern frontier of the Sarkar of
Mandaran is two hundred kos,and when the country of Orissa was added to this
subah ,the additional length was forty-three kos and the breadth twenty three.It
is bounded on the east by the sea,on the north and south by mountains and on
the west by the subah of Bihar.4
Its river are countless and the first of them in this province is the
Ganges.Rising in the mountains towards the north,it passes through the province
of Delhi, and imperials Agra, and Allahabad and Bihar into the province of
Bengal,and near Qazihattah in the Sarkar of Barbakabad,it divides into two
streams.One of these flowing east-wards,falls into the sea at the port of
Chittagong.At the parting of the waters,it takes the name of 'Padmawati'and
pursues a southern course.It is divided into three streams-one,the Saraswati,
second the yamuna and the third the Ganga or Trabeni and held in high
veneration. The third stream after spreading into a thousand channels,joins the
sea at Satgaon(Hugli).The Saraswati and the yamuna unite with it.5

Another river is the Brahmaputra. It flows from khata6(china)to Kuch and

thence through the Sarkar of Bazuha and fertilizing the country, falls into the
sea. And again there is the sea which is here a gulf of the great ocean,extanding
on one side as far as Basrah and on the other to the Egyption Qulzum7and
thence it washes both Persia and Ethiopia where are Dahlak and Suakin,and is
called(the Gulf of)Oman and the Persian sea.
Among all the provinces of the Mughal empire Bengal was most lavishly
favoured by nature. Its numberless rivers and tanks with their abundance of
fish and its fruit laden or- chards richly supplement the corn-fields.8 In the
sixteenth century Bengal had been an unhappy scene of anarchy and desolation
*JRF, ICHR, New Delhi, 778, Vikas Nagar, Neemuch (M.P.)
 Establishment of sea trade...
23
from the decay and dismemberment of its independent provincial sultanate and
the long wars of Mughal conquest. But during Akbar's reign Mughal rule in Bengal
was more like an armed occupation then a settled administration.9 After the
accession of Jahangir his new viceroy, Islam khan, who governed the province
for six years(1608-1613)was a most ambitious, active and high-spirited noble.
By a series of campaigns he crushed all the independent Zamindars of Bengal,
destroyed the last remnant of Afghan power and direct imperial administration
upon all the parts of Bengal.10 Thereafter Bengal enjoyed profound internal peace
nearly a century and a half and recovered wealth and population,trade,expended
by rapid strides, industries developed. The Arrakanese,and subsequently their
agents, the Portuguese pirates of Chittagong were a pest to the riverside districts
of East Bengal, but this evil was removed early in Aurangzeb's region(1666)by
Shaista khan; the trade of the English and the Dutch grew by leaps and bounds
from the middle of the century onwards, and their factories and purchase-agencies
stimulated production and wealth in the country.11
Trade and commerce expanded in Bengal during the seventeenth century
due to a number of factors. An important factor was the political integration of
the country under Mughal rule and establishment of conditions attention to
roads and sarais.Taxes were levied on goods at the point their entry into the
empire. Road cesses or rahdari was declared illegal, though in continued to be
collected by some of the local rajas. The Mughals minted silver rupees of high
purity from mints scattered all over the empire. Any trader could carry silver to
the royal mint, and have coins in exchange on payment of a batta(discount).The
Mughal rupee became a slandered coins in India and abroad and thus helped
India's trade.12 In India there was a number of ports and towns from which brisk
trade between India and the outer world was carried on. The advent of the
Portuguese into India towards the end of the fifteenth century. During the
seventeenth century, many other European traders, specially the
Dutch,theEnglish and later the French came to India for purpose of trade. This
enterprise was a direct result of the growth of the European economy consequent
upon a rapid expansion in the field of agriculture and manufactures. The
Portuguese power had begun to decline during the second half of the sixteenth
century. Despite vehement Portuguese opposition, the Dutch established
themselves at Masulipatam13 obtaining a Farman from the ruler of Golconda in
1606.The Dutch had originally come to the coast for the sake of the spice trade.
But they quickly realized that spices could be obtained most easily in exchange
for Indian textiles. The cloth produced on the Coromandal or Bengal coast was
the most acceptable in south Asia, and also cheapest to carry. Hence the Dutch
spread south from Masulipatnam to the Coromandal(Bengal)coast, obtaining
Pulicat from the local ruler and making it a base of their operations.14
Like the Dutch, the English also had come to the east for the spice trade,
but the hostility of the Dutch who had more resources and had already established
themselves in the spice Islands forced the English to concentrate on India. After
24 Dr. Asha Shrivastava

defeating a Portuguese fleet outside Surat they were able, at last, setup a factory
there in 1612.15
Thus the first quarter of the seventeenth century, both the Dutch and the
English were well set in the India trade. The Dutch joined the English in their
new venture, exporting both calico and indigo from the Coromandal.16
Most important were their efforts to develop the trade of Bengal and Orissa.
The activities of the Portuguese and the Magh pirates in east Bengal made this
development slow. However, by 1651 the English had set themselves up at
hoogly17 and at Balasore18 in Orissa, exporting from their raw silk and sugar in
addition to textiles. Another item which was developed was the export of salt
peters which supplemented the European source for gun powder. it was also
used as a ballast for ships going to Europs.The quality salt peters was found in
Bihar. Exports from the eastern areas grew rapidly, and were equal in value to
the exports from the Coromandal by the end of the century.
Thus, the English and the Dutch companies opened up new markets
and articles of export for India.19 There is long chain of events behind the arrival
of British in Bengal.20 European traders arrived late in the fifteenth century,
their influence grow until the British East India company gained taxation in
Bengal subah or provinces. The agents of East India company first visited the
provinces of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, for trade during the period of Islam
khan21(1608-1624),the subahdar (governor)of Bengal at the time of Delhi
Emperor Jahangir. The first factory was established in Surat in 1620 and later
in Agra, and agents were further sent from these places to the eastern provinces
to see the possibility of opening factories there. However the transportation
costs and logistics weight against them and the plan was abandoned. In 1634, a
fireman was obtained from the Emperor Shah jahan which allowed them to
make factory in Bengal and the company agents to reside at Pipili,Orissa and
for the time the English ships arrived at an eastern ports. During 1638 Shah
Jahan appointed his son Shah Shuja 22 as the subahdar of Bengal, and
Mr.Boughton visited the capital at Rajmahal and in return the company was
allowed to establish factory in Bal sore and Hooghly in addition Pipili.Shaista
khan was appointed as the Governor of Bengal in ca-1664-by Delhi, Emperor
Aurangzeb and was relived upon the request in ca-1677.23 while he was returning
to Delhi, Englishman sent with him a request to the Emperor to obtain a special
fireman to do business forever in Bengal. The Emperor was pleased to provide
them the fireman and the occasion was celebrated with 300 gun salutes at
Hooghly. The investment in Bengal soared, the Bengal residency was separated
from Madras and Mr. Hedges was appointed as the chief officer to oversee
trade in Bengal. His residency in Hooghly was secured with a bunch of soldiers
come on the soil of Bengal, however the fireman was vague in many aspects
and soon disputes to grow between the English and the governor.24
 Establishment of sea trade... 25
Thus Bengal has played an important role in the history of India. Under
the Mughal rule, west Bengal became a commercial hub where industry and
trade thrived. These kingdoms contributed greatly to the economic and cultural
landscape of Bengal. Extensive land reclamations in forested and marshy areas
were carried out and trade as well as commerce were highly encouraged.
However the downfall of the Mughal Empire led to the oppressive British rule
when India became an establishment trade colony of the east India company.
Following the battle of Plassy in 1757,when Siraj-ud-Daulah,the last independent
Nawab was defeated by the British.25

References-
1. Abul Fazal-Allami, 'A-IN-I-AKBARI',(trans. by Blochmann) Low price
publication,1949,vol.II,p.180.
2. Ibid,p.129.
3. Ibid,p.130.
4.Ibid,p.130
5. Ibid,p.133.
6. Ibid,p.133.
7. Qulzum-This is the ancient Klysma,the site of the modern Suez, in the neighborhood of
which the Tel Qulzum still retains the name which has been given to the Red Sea.
8.Ibid,p.133..Sarkar jadunath,'A short history of Aurangzib'orient Black swan private
limited,2009,ISBN-978-8125036906,p.p.333,334.
9. Ibid,pp.,333,334.
10. Ibid,pp.,333,334
11. Ibid,pp.,333,334.
12. chandra,Satish,'History of Medieval India 'orient Longman private Limited,2007,
pp.310-311.
13. Sarkar,Jadunath,op.cit.p.320.
14. chandra,Satish,op.cit.p.313.
15. Sarkar,Jadunath,op.cit.p.320.
16. Chaudhuri,K.N.'Trade and civilization in the Indian ocean 'New Delhi Munshiram
Manoharlal 1985(Indian edition)and Chandra,Satish Chandra,pp.314,315.
17. Sarkar,Jadunath,op.cit.p.320.
18. Ibid,p.320.
19. Ibid,p.315.
20. Ibid,p.315.
21. Bennett,Ahindle,I(1996)London Review of Books; An Anthology.verso,p.p.63-70,Isbn-1-
85984-121-x
22. Sarkar Jadunath,op.cit.p.334.
23. Ibid,p.334.
24. Chaudhary,s. Mohsin Km,'Sirajuddaula'Banglapedia Asiatic Society of
Bangladesh,Retrived,2 March 2012.
25. Ibid,p.202.

*****
26

6. The Rise Of Satnami Cult in

Chhatisgarh Region Of
South Kosala
*Dr. Biswajit Pradhan

Like the Mahimas of Orissa, the Satnamis represent the poor lower class
community in area boardering Western Orissa. The area of their habitation is
confined to Chhatisgarh with which the people of Western Orissa have close
social association. The tradition of the Satnami faith came from Oudh region.
Guru Ghasidas is regarded as proponent of this sect in between 1820-1830
A.D. There are many legends and miracles centering around to influence the
people's mind. He was a great social reformer.
The Satnami movement was a social revolt on the part of the low class
Chamars. The fundamental tenet of the gospel of Ghasidas appears to have
been abolition of caste and, with it, the authority of the Brahmanas. It provoked
a bitter and permanent antagonism between the two Hindu classes - the caste
Hindu landlords and the Chamar cultivators. The spread of Christianity among
the Chamars was in one respect aided by the Satnami movement, as a Chamar
hoped also to throw off the social stigma attached to him by caste Hindus by
embracing Christianity.
The Satnamis, a religious group in the Central Provinces, are a dissenting
sect founded by a Chamar reformer in the Chhatisgarh area. The Satnami
movement in Chhatisgarh was started by one Ghasi Das, a native of Bilaspur
District between A.D. 1920 and 1830. Ghasi Das got his inspiration from a
follower of the older Satnami sect of northern India founded by Jagjiwan Das
in Bara Banki district of Uttar Pradesh.1 Thus, the Satnami movement was
carried from Oudh into the Centrl Provinces by Ghasi Das, a Camar.2 He was
the propounder of the Satnami cult in the Chhatisgarh region. Chislom, an

*P.G. Deptt. Of History, Sambalpur University, Jyoti Viha, Sambalpur, Odisha.

 The Rise of Satnami Cult... 27
English officer, regarded Sant Ghasi as an incarnation of a divine being in
human form.3 ghasi Das was born in 18 December 1756 in Girod, a small village
formerly in Bilaspur and now in Raipur district near Sonakhan forest.4 He was
a poor farm servant in Girod. His childhood days were spent in a miserable
condition. In spite of his poverty he visited many sacred places. On one occasion
he and his brother started on a pilgrimage to the Puri, but only got as far as
Sarangarh from which they returned ejaculating 'Satnami' 'Satnam'.5 Then he
abandoned pilgrimage and began an ascetic life. Ghasi Das next retired to the
forest for a season and emerged with what he called a new revelation for the
Camars. Ghais Das gave up all worldly cares ad dedicated himself to the
propagation of the Satnami cult. He became a great social reformer.

Message of Guru Ghasi Das :

The all-round development which took place during the last half of the
eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth century in Chhattisgarh
region was mainly due to Baba Ghasi Das who was a follower of truth and
non-violence. He was well-known to the whole community, having travelled
much among them, had the reputation of being exceptionally sagacious and
was worship of the name of the seven precepts of Ghasi Das included the
worship of the name of the solitary Supreme God, abstinence from meat,
liquor and certain vegetables like lentils, chillies and tomatoes because they
resembled the colour of blood, the abolition of idol worship, the prohibition
of employment of cows for cultivation and of ploughing after midday or taking
food to the fields.7 Casteism was abolished and all men were to be socially
equal except the family of Ghasi Das, in which the priesthood of the cult was
to remain hereditary.8 The Satnamis worship the Sun, morning and evening,
as representing the deity, crying out 'Lord Protect Us".9 They have no visible
sign or representation of the Supreme Being. They are opposed to idolatry,
and are enjoined to cast all idols from their homes. Theoretically, they have
no temples, public religious services, creed and form of devotion. The
Satnamis profess to adore the so-called True Name alone, the one God, the
cause and creator of all things, the nirguna or He who is void of all sensible
qualities, without beginning or without end. They recognize the absolute Hindu
pantheon, and although they profess to worship but one God, they pay
reverence to his manifestations as revealed in incarnations, particularly those
of Rama and Krsna.10 Their moral code enjoins indifference to the world, its
pleasure and its pain, devotion to the guru or spiritual guide, clemency or
gentleness, rigid adherence to truth, the discharge of all social and religious
obligations and the hope of final absorption into the Supreme.11
28 Dr. Biswajit Pradhan

Social and Religious Customs of The Satnamis :

Regarding the social and religious customs of Satnamis, it is observed that idolatry
of every form is eschewed and the Supreme Being is worshipped without any
visible sign or representation. All worshippers are socially equal. The religious
act simply consists of muttering the name of God and asking for his blessings.
A Satnami protagonists himself before the Sun, morning and evening, crying
Satnami, the True Name or the True One.12 Their social customs generally
resemble those of other Camars. They admit into their community all except
members of impure castes, such as dhobis (washerman), ghasi as (grass-cutter)
and mehtar (sweeper) whom they regard as inferior to themselves. Their women
social order, as this ornament was formerly forbidden to the lower caste. Another
method by which the Satnamis show their contempt for Hinduism is by throwing
milk and curd at each other in sport and trampling it under foot. This is a
parody of Hindu celebration of the Janamastami or Krsna's birthday, when
vessels of milk and curd are broken over the heads of the worshipers. The milk
and curd are eaten by all castes indiscriminately in token of family.13
The creed enunciated by Ghasi Das was of creditable simplicity and purity,
of too elevated a nature for the Camars. The religion was originally of a high
order of morality. But it rapidly got degraded to its own level, when adopted by
a people who were incapable of living up to it. The crude of living up to it. The
crude myths associated with the story of Ghasi Das made the religion obscure.
Ghasi Das lived up to eighty years and died in AD 1850.14 The number of
disciples then were more than a quarter of a million. He was succeeded in the
office of high priest by his eldest son Balak Das.15 Balak Das managed things
badly. He outraged the feelings of the Hindus and was finally assassinated by
a party of Rajputs in AD 1860.16 Since the later gurus were extravagant the
Satnami movement felt a great setback. The Camars who has raised their social
status by adopting the Satnam-panth preached by Ghasi Das felt the need for a
dignified leadership and divisions started among themselves.
However, the origin of the Satnami cult may be attributed to a reaction
against Hinduism and the despised position to which the lower classes were
relegated by the caste system. The unconscious genesis is of the revolt may be
taken to be social rather than religious. The Satnami movement represents the
efforts of the lower and impure castes to free themselves from the tyranny of
the caste system and the Brahmanas who stand at the head of the system. So
the Satnamis are always in conflict with orthodox Hinduism and Brahmanas.
Ghasi Das himself had been deeply impressed by the misery and debasement
of the Camar community.
The spread of Christianity among the Camars in Chhattisgarh is in one
respect a replica of the Satnami movement. by becoming a Christian the Camar
 The Rise of Satnami Cult... 29
hopes to thwor off the social bondage of Hinduism. However Ghasi Das created
self-confidence amongst the depressed sections of the society for their right
against injustice and untouchability. They started establishing their own identity
and courage to fight against injustice. Hence, the Satnamis originated as a
religious sect but were successful in getting the status of a caste by the end of
the twenties.17

References :
1. James Hastings (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Edinburg, 1915, Vol. XI, p.
210.
2. G.W. Briggs, The Religious Life of India, the Camars, Oxford, 1920, p. 79.
3. Chislom, Report of the Land Revenue Settlement of Bilaspur District in the Central Provinces,
1968, p. 46.
4. A.E. Nelson, District Gazetteer, Raipur District, Vol. A, Bombay, 1909, p. 79.
5. Russel and Hirala, The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, Vol. I, 1911, pp.
308-309.
6. Chisolom, Op cit., p. 45.
7. Guru Ghasi Das Smriti Patrika, Published by the Satnami Vidyarthi Parisad, 18,12.1986.
8. James Hastings, Op cit., pp. 309-10.
9. G.W. Brigs, Op cit., P. 222.
10. Ibid., P. 223.
11. James Hastings, Op cit., pp. 210-11.
12. M.A. Sherring, Hindu Tribes and Castes, Delhi, 1879, Vol. II, p. 110.
13. Russel and Hirala, Op cit., p. 314.
14. District Gazetteer, Raipur District, p. 82.
15. G.W. Brigs, Op cit., P. 222.
16. Ibid.
17. Gazetteer of India, Madhya Pradesh, Durg, 1972, pp. 89-91.

*****
30

7. British Land Revenue Policies in India

With Special Reference To Bengal

*Dr. Chand Singh Mor

As land revenue was the main source of income, the East India Company
tried to make maximum out of it. In 1762 the Company started with the new
experiment in the districts of Burdawan and Midnapore in Bengal. Land was
sold for a period of three years. With the objective of getting maximum revenue
from those territories, the Company sold the estates by public auction. Though
this system was profitable to the state, it harmed the interests of the peasants.
Since the grant of Diwani for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in 1765, the major
concern of the East India Company’s administration in India was to maximize
revenue extraction. Consequently they began with the temporary settlement of
land in 1772. Introduced by Warren Hastings in Bengal, this system known as
the farming system was based on the assumption that all land belonged to the
sovereign. He started the system of auctioning the land to the highest bidders..
The net result of this whole period of rash experimentation was the ruination of
the agricultural population.1 As experienced revenue servant put it: “The
fluctuations of the revenue since the English…have opened the largest field of
abuses.”2
So in order to streamline the revenue administration the British government
sent Lord Cornwallis to India in 1784. In 1786 the East India Company Court
of Directors first proposed a permanent settlement for Bengal, changing the
policy being pursued at that time by Calcutta, which was attempting to increase
taxation of zamindars. Between 1786 and 1790 the new Governor-General Lord
Cornwallis and Sir John Shore (later Governor-General himself) entered a heated
debate over whether or not to introduce a permanent settlement with the
zamindars.

*Assistant Professor (History) Govt. College, Israna, Panipat, Haryana

 British Land Revenue Policies.... 31
Permanent Settlement or the Zamindari System
When Lord Cornwallis came to India he realized that the existing land
revenue system could not come up to the expectations of the Company .The
Company hoped that by implementing this system of assessment, corruption
would be minimized, the landlords will invest more money in land improvement
and the Company would get its taxes regularly.
The Permanent Settlement was introduced in 1793 in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa,
Varanasi and Northern Karnataka, which roughly covered 19 percent of the
total area of British India. It was so called because it set the land revenue
assessment forever.3 Under this system, a new class of zamindars was declared
to be the owners of the land and they had to collect the land revenue out of
which one-tenth to one-eleventh was retained by them as their remuneration,
and the rest was handed over to the Company. If the zamindar did so, then he
was the proprietor or owner of the land, he could sell, mortgage and transfer it;
land could also be inherited by heirs. The revenue had to be deposited by them
with rigid punctuality before sunset of the appointed day.
The Permanent Settlement vested the ownership right in the zamindars,
who previously enjoyed only revenue collecting right. The provision of patta,
or written agreement between the peasant and the zamindar providing a record
of the amount of rent to be paid, was seldom followed by the zamindars. The
regulations of 1799 and 1812 gave the zamindars the right to confiscate property
of the tenants in case of non-payment of rent without any permission of a court
of law.4
The British zamindar under the Permanent Settlement was a petty capitalist.
On account of the right of sub-infeudation of estates and holdings by the
zamindars, the competition for land increased and there emerged a chain of
middlemen and intermediary rent receiving interests between the original
landlord and the cultivator, whose position was that of a mere tenant at the
mercy of the zamindar. Since the zamindars appropriated a good portion of the
income from the land, the economic condition of the mass of tenants in the
zamindari zones gradually worsened.
Though the settlement was pro-zamindar, they too had to face a number
of difficulties. Daniel Thorner had opined that the creation of private property
in land was a misnomer, as the absolute ownership was retained by the imperial
government. From the point of view of zamindars, the worst feature of this
system of settlement was the rigid system of collection of revenue by the
government. As a result of the high revenue demand, the zamindars found it
difficult to collect taxes and there were also the uncertainties of nature. The
outcome was the frequent sale of zamindari estates. In this regard, B.R Mishra
remarks: “Government, entirely for political consideration, subordinated and
32 Dr. Chand Singh Mor

sacrificed the interests of the millions to the interests of the few.”5

Diametrically opposed views have been expressed about Permanent
Settlement. Those who support it regard it as a solution for all the agrarian and
economic ills which were causing problems in Bengal. R.C Dutt opines that
this measure “has done more to secure the prosperity and happiness of British
subjects in India than any other single measure of the British government”.
Marshman remarks that, “it was a bold, brave and wise measure”. It gave the
state fixed and stable revenue without expenses and problem involved in fixing
the land revenue intermittently.
Opponents of the settlement point out that it was a sad blunder. It was
believed that the new class of landlords would initiate modern farming practices
and regenerate agriculture. In actual practice, the landlords (Bhadralok)
impoverished the cultivators through excessive rents and lived a luxurious life
in the towns.6 Arbitrary fixation of revenue threw a huge financial burden on
the zamindars and in many cases it led to the ruination of big landlords.

Ryotwari Settlement
The Ryotwari System of assessment of land revenue was started by
Alexander Reed and Thomas Munro in Madras, Berar, Bombay and Assam
which covered about 52 percent of the cultivable land. Under this system, the
riots were given the ownership and occupancy rights in land and they were
directly and individually responsible for the payment of land revenue to the
state. They could use, sell, mortgage, bequeath, and lease the land as long as
they paid their taxes. Thus a system of individual proprietorship in land was
created, but it was vested in the peasants, rather than the zamindars. The main
features of this settlement were: assessment upon individual cultivators,
measurement of field and estimate of produce and fixing of government demand
at 55 percent of the produce. This system, in order to be successful, required a
comprehensive survey of all the land: the quality of soil, the area of the field
and the average produce of every piece of land had to be assessed and on the
basis of that the amount of revenue was to be fixed.7
But the actual working of the system, according to Venkatsubbiah, was a
chronicle of frustration. Although the peasant become the proprietor of land,
this right failed to improve his condition. The revenue estimates were often
speculative and the revenue demand was often so high that they could only be
collected with great difficulty or could not be collected at all. “The zamindari
system had revolutionized the relationship between the landlords and tenants;
the ryotwari system revolutionized the relations between the creditors and the
debtors and thus introduced another grasping and exploiting element into the
rural society.” Rates of interest were so high that the cultivator at best was able
 British Land Revenue Policies.... 33
to pay only the interest on the loan. So the ryotwari system was almost abandoned
soon after Munro’s departure for London in 1807.
The situation however began to change in 1820 as Thomas Munro returned
to India as the governor of Madras. The Madras government was persistently
short of funds and so it decided to introduce the Ryotwari Settlement in most
parts of the presidency. In many areas no surveys were carried out and the tax
of a ryot was assessed on an arbitrary basis, based on village accounts. In those
areas where the survey was carried out it was often ill conceived and hastily
executed, resulting in over assessment.8

Mahalwari System or Village Settlement System

When the permanent settlement as well as the ryotwari settlement failed
to come up to the expectations of the British, they decided to introduce a third
system known as the Mahalwari settlement. In the agrarian system of North-
Western Provinces, there was on one hand, a small group of magnates known
as the taluqdars. Nurul Hassan has described them as the intermediary zamindars,
which contracted with the state to realize the revenue of a given territory. There
were on the other hand, a large group of primary zamindars, who were the
holders of propriety rights over agricultural as well as habitational lands. Many
of the big taluqdars who resisted the new regime and its high revenue demand
and were liquidated with utter brutality. As a result by 1820 many of the
undeveloped magnate class of upper India either lost their position entirely or
were left in shrunken condition.9
The revised system was worked out by R.M. Bird and James Thomson
between 1833 and 1853 in Punjab, the Central Provinces and parts of north-
western provinces (present U.P). It covered about 29 percent of the total
cultivable land. It provided for an extensive survey of the land to assess the
revenue of an entire mahal (estate) or fiscal unit, based on the net value of
potential produce of the field. Under this system settlement was not made with
the individual landlords, but with the village as such. But the settlements
initiated by Bird and completed by Thomson, were also based on imperfect
survey, inaccurate calculations and therefore over-assessment.

Conclusion
To sum up we can say that by the middle of the 19th century the British
introduced three systems of land revenue, creating private property in land and
granting the proprietary right on three different groups. The Permanent
Settlement was made with the zamindars, the Ryotwari Settlement was made
with the riots or peasant proprietors and the Mahawari Settlement with the village
34 Dr. Chand Singh Mor
community. Whereas the Permanent and the Ryotwari Settlements were inferior
adoptions respectively of the English and the French systems, the Mahalwari
Settlement was an improvisation of the traditional Indian systems of an economic
community. A common feature of all these settlements was over-assessment, as the
primary aim of the Company’s government was to maximize revenue income. In
their consequence, all the three systems led to the gradual impoverishment of the
Indian farmers. But contrary to these views modern research in this field has revealed
that the effects of changes in land tenure were less impressive than once imagined.
The agrarian society proved to be more resilient than once it was thought to be.

References
1. Shekhar Bandyopadhyaya, 2006, From Plessey to Partition: A History of Modern India,
Orient Longman, pp.82-83.
2. S.N Sen., 2006, History Modern India, New Age International Publishers, p.75.
3. John McLeod, 2002, The History of India, Greenwood Press, p.71.
4. Shekhar Bandyopadhyaya., p.84.
5. Satish Chandra Mittal, 2003, Modern India-NCERT, p.89.
6. Gurmukh Ram Madan, Radhakamal Mukerjee, 1989, Economic Problems of
Modern India: Problems of Development, Allied Publishers p.24-25.
7. Ibid., pp.86-87.
8. N.Mukherjee, 1962, The Ryotwari System in Madras 1792-1827s, Published by
Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta, p27
9 Eric Stokes, 1982, Agrarian Relations: Northern and Central India. In the Cambridge
Economic History of India, Vol.2, ed. Dharma Kumar,pp 36-86.

*****
 35

8. Historical Geography And River

System Of Cooch-Behar State
*Binay Barman

Cooch-Behar is, at present, one of the Districts of West-Bengal. But present

North-Bengal (including six Districts of North-Bengal such as Cooch-Behar,
Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Two Dinajpurs and Maldah, Districts of Bangladesh such
as Rangpur, Dinajpur, and Bogra.) with the whole of North-Eastern Region was
known as Pragjyotisha. The Pragjyotisha, we came across the name first in the
Ramayana where Pragjyotisha had been described as a city was built with gold
and was ruled over by a Danava known as Naraka.1 On the other hand the
Mahabharata describes Naraka as a great Danava, the son of Danu.2 The name
Pragjyotisha is also mentioned in the Kalhana’s “Rajtarangini”, Raghuvamsam,
Mahapuranas and Bishnupuranas.3 It is to be noted that this Pragjyotisha was
known as Kamarupa in later times. Kamarupa, which also appears under the name
of Kamrud, Kamru and kanwru is often mentioned together with Kamata.4 The
Kamata kingdom later became Kamatapur with its separate political entity. This
Kamata or Kamatapur was known as Kamata-KuchBehar (present Cooch-Behar).
During the 15th century, the District Rangpur (in undivided Bengal now in
Bangladesh) was in the hands of the Rajah of Kamata. The European traveler
Ralph Fitch visited Cooch-Behar State and mentioned Chechakhata and Duars as
a realm of Cooch-Behar State.5 It is to be noted that this Cooch-Behar State did
not belong to Bengal.6 Geographical boundary of Kamata-Cooch-Behar and Cooch-
Behar State is not the same.
The penetrating effect of geography on history is comprehensible in the
following utterance: History would be meaningless without the knowledge of
geography.7 According to B. N. Mukherjee, Annals of a country of a given period
cannot be correctly evaluated without having an idea of its geopolitical conditions
during the relevant age,” A knowledge of space, no less that of time,” is particularly
necessary for following the course of history in an area.8

*Assistant Professor, Department of History. Saldiha College, Saldiha, Bankura.W.B.

36 Binay Barman
Geographical boundary of Cooch-Behar State: Cooch-Behar lies between
25°57× 40Ø and 26°32×20Ø North latitude, and between 88°47×40Ø and 89°54×
35Ø East longitude. Cooch-Behar State is bounded on the north by the foot hills
of Bhutan, on the east Pargana Ghurla of Goalpara district of Assam, on the south
Kakina and Kazirhat in the District of Rangpur( Now in Bangladesh), and on the
west the District of Jalpaiguri.
Derivatives of Cooch-Behar: In course of historical study of present Cooch-
Behar District, it is found that it belonged to Kamarupa. Hsuan Tsang mentioned it in
his book “Si-Yu-Ki”. “Tabaqat-i-Naciri” also reads it. In 1586 one of English trade
man called it ‘Couch”9 Stephen Casila named it “Cocho”10 In the maps of Bleaves
(1650) it is mentioned as “Comotay” state.11 During the Mughal period Nawab
Mirzumla’s co-passenger called it”Cooch-Behar”12 (after a long march, we entered
into “Kosiba”, a country lying between the kingdom of Bengala and Azo, of which
the general easily became master.13). Finally, it can be said that Cooch-Behar gets its
name through different changes. Most of the dynasties of ancient Bengal were founded
by the people from the present geographical area of North-Bengal.14
The geography of Cooch-Behar State has been conditioned by its river system.
The rivers of Cooch-Behar State flow downwards from the north to south. Cooch-
Behar is a river-based country through which so many rivers, smaller or larger,
flow. The most prominent of its rivers is the Tista. It has been found in the Rennels
map in which it flowed through three channels such as the Punarbhava, Atreyi and
Karatoya. The word Tista is derived from the Sanskrit word”Trisrota” meaning
three streams.15 The Kalika Puranas gives the following account of its origin: The
goddess Parvati, wife of Siva, was fighting with an infidel(Asur) whose crime was
that he would only worship her husband and not herself. The monster becoming
thirsty during the combat, prayed to his patron deity for water to drink, and, in
consequence, Siva caused the river Tista to flow from the breast of the goddess in
three streams, and thus it has ever since continued to flow.16 The river Tista rises
from Chalamu lake in Tibet. The river Tista first flows in Sikkim then it enters
Darjeeling in the north-east corner, and flows through Darjeeling to northern part
of Jalpaiguri and it flows through Mekhiliganj Sub-Division of Cooch-Behar State.
Tista finally flows south-east part of Rangpur District (now in Bangladesh) and
meets with Brahmaputra .Tista has three channels such as Dadai, Bura Tista, and
Karatoya, Atreyig, Punarbhava. It is to be noted that Karatoya played an important
role in hydrographical situation of present North-Bengal in ancient times. We find
mention of Karatoya in the description of foreign traveler Al-Biruni.17 In ancient
times it was very large and wide flowing through the western part of Cooch-Behar
State which had watered into Brahmaputra.. Hsuan Tsang also crossed the river
karatoya (Kalatu). In ancient times it was the Ganges of present North-Bengal.
Torsha is the main river of Cooch-Behar State which flows down touching
the present Cooch-Behar city. The word “Torsha” is derived from the
word”Toyarosha”18 meaning angry water. ‘Navatoya’ 19 was the ancient name of
the Torsha River. It originated from south Tibet and in Bhutan it is called “Am-
 Historical Geography and River.... 37
Muchu.It was shown in the Rennels map. Torsha is also known as Bura Torsha,
Shil Torsha, and Mulingi and so on, in different places of its course.20
Kaljani is another important river of Cooch-Behar State. The river Kaljani
rises from the Bhutan hill. According to Sunder,” this Kaljani is the combined
waters of the Alaikuri and Dima rivers, which first take the name of Kaljani after
their junction at Alipur, the present head quarters of the Buxa Sub-Division. The
Alaikuri, which supplies the greater portion of the water to the Kaljani, is a river
of some size which takes its rise in the Bhutan hills and after flowing in a southerly
and south easterly course through the western Duars, joins its waters with the
Dima, as stated Kaljani above, and becomes the Kaljani.”21 The Dima which
forms the course affluent of the Kaljani is also a considerable stream, rising in
the lower Bhutan Hills near Buxa, and flowing southward to its confluence with
the Alaikuri.22 The Kaljani, Gadadhar and Raidak made a great confluence at
Balabhut and entered into Rangpur (Now in Bangladesh) and falls down into the
Brahmaputra. In the Rennells map the river Kaljani is shown and called it
Saradinga which was the eastern boundary of Cooch-Behar State. But it was
evidently a mistake. On the other hand Dr. Buchanan Hamilton noticed this mistake
in 1809 and commented the following words: To former (Kaljani), being the larger
river of the two, Major Rennells, as usual with European geographers, seems to
have considered as the proper Chhannakosh, which probably induced him to curtail
the territory of the Vihar Raja by about 200 square miles. He probably was
informed, that the boundary extended along the Chhannakosh, and therefore made
it terminate on the Kaljani, where as it goes along the Chhannakosh to the
Gadadhar, and ascends the right bank of that river until it reaches the same parallel
of latitude as the other northern frontier of his territory.23
The river Jaldhaka is another important river of Cooch-Behar State. It was
also known as Manshai, Singimari and Dharla, in different parts of its course
flowing through Cooch-Behar State. It rises in the Bhutan Hill and hill men called
it “De-Chu”. It is to be noted that the Bhutan foot hills and the plain of Jalpaiguri
District it is called “Dharla”. In Jalpaiguri and Duars area where the river Shutanga,
Mujnai, the Dolong, Dina, and Duduya meet with river Jaldhaka. Once the river
Dharla was the longest and most important river of Cooch-Behar or Kamata.
Raidak is one of the most important rivers in the eastern part of Cooch-
Behar State. It rises in the Bhutan Hills. In Bhutan the river Raidak was known as
Chin-chu. The Raidak has two courses. The new course which is now wider in
size bifurcating at Bhutan flows through Barabisha and falls into Sankosh or
Swarnakosh at Falimari of Tufanganj subdivision and bears the name Gangadhar
while flowing through western part of present Kokrarjhar and Dhubri district of
Assam and falls into Brahmaputra. The older course of the main course flows
through Bhutan, Hatipota and Turturi and enters into Tufanganj Sub-division of
Cooch Behar. This main course is also called ‘Buranadi’. This Raidak has two
different names from Dorko down to Devgram it is known as Raidak. Gadadhar
is a small stream which enters the Cooch-Behar State at Chhat Rampur. On the other
38 Binay Barman

hand river Raidak at the place of Dhal pal (Near Tufanganj) is known as Dipa-Raidak
and it meets with Brahmaputra. The river Sankosh or Swarnakosh was the eastern
boundary of the Cooch-Behar State during the period of king Naranaraya.

Figure: Geographical Boundary and Rivers of Cooch-Behar State

 Historical Geography and River.... 39
In conclusion we can say that except these rivers mentioned above there
are so many small rivers flowing through Cooch-Behar State, such as Saniajan,
Chenakata, Gridari, Chhoto Manshai, Sansyasikata, Baniadaha etc. Finally, it
should be borne in mind that the natural calamities-such as, over flood, earth
quack has changed the hydrographic system of the rivers, severely, those flows
through Cooch-Behar State, now and then.

References:
1. Dr. Dimbeswar Sarma, “Kamarupa Sasanavali”, Publication Board, Assam, 1981,
2. ibid,p-9
3. Khan Chowdhury A.Ahmed, “ Cooch-Beharer Itihas” in Bengali, Modern Book Agency,
Kolkata,pp-1,2 4)
4. .For Kamata vides below-Hussein Shah is said to have invaded Kamarupa and Kamata,
and the Ain says, Kamarupa and Kamata are the possession of the Rajah of Cooch-Behar.
H.Blockman,” Contribution to the Geography and History of Bengal”, Reprint, 2003, the
Asiatic Society, Kolkata, p-29.
5. ibid, p-34.
6. ibid, p-32.
7. Amitabha Bhattacharyya,” Historical Geography of Ancient and Early Medieval Bengal”
S.P.Bhandar, Kolkata, 1977, p-Foreword Letter.
8. ibid, p-Foreword Letter.
9. ibid, Khan Chowdhury A.Ahmed, p-2.
10. ibid,p-2
11. ibid,p-2
12. ibid,p-4
13. Bengal Past and Present, volume, xxix, pp-10.
14. Dr.Ananda Gopal Ghosh and Dr.N.S.Das,” Utter Banger Itihas O Samaj” in Bengali, Dipali
Publishers, 2009, p-16.
15. D.R.Bhandarkar,” Physical Features of Ancient and Medieval Bengal,” Bhandarkars
volume, Kolkata, 1945, pp-324-45.
16. H.N.Chowdhury, “The Cooch-Behar State and Its Land Revenue Settlement,” Cooh-Behar
State Press, 1903, pp-8, 9.
17. D.C.Sircar,” Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India,” Matilalbanarassidas,
1971, p-51.
18. H.N.Chowdhury,Op.Cit; p-24.
19. Dr.N.N.Paul.” Itikothay Cooch-Beharer Itihas,” in Bengali, Anima Prakashani, Kolkata,
2000, p-22.
20. Sujan Barman, “Kamatapuri Abhidhan” K.B.U.B. Dinhata, 2011, p-517.
21. H.N.Chowdhury, Op.Cit; pp-30.Sunders,” Settlement Report of the Western Duars”
Jalpaiguri District, Part one, Chapter one, 1895, p-34.
22. Martins,” Eastern India” volume-iii, 1895, pp-381,382 .
*****
40

9. An Aspect Of Tamang Tribe

Part II
Contd. from volume I, No. 4
*Sudash Lama

The most important aspect of Tamang rites and customs is the marriage
ceremony; it is social recognition of men and women as husband and wife.
This is the basis of social life and relation into the framework of society making,
leading to the right of sexual inter personal relation in order to continue clan
lineage. The marriage system represents the exchange and unity among the
families and also a stepping stone for making a nucleus family.
The Tamang society is formed on the basis of cross cousin marriage, which
results for the most part not in extensive alliances across a large population but
in intensive alliances among a small set of patricians residing in neighboring
village. (Holmberg 2005:30). According to the Tamang tradition they are in
favor of knotting the couples among the people whom they know, and there is
also a system of exchange, among the clan group for the marriage. Holmberg
(2005:77) has stated the theoretical explanation of exchange of women as "to
describe a social system as a system of exchange (Levi-strauss:1969) implies
nothing directly about the status of men or women as actors. Such kind of ritual
polarities of inter exchange of women within the segments of patricians retained
the cultural virginity of Tamang. Generally, marries took place within the limited
geographical area, and most of the time within the same village. The Tamang
may marry anytime after the first legar (puberty) has passed although there is
clearly tension between the conflicting desires to retain women in the household
when they reach their full labor potential and the usefulness of marriage for
extending reciprocity with other household. (Fricke1993:134).
As I have already mentioned that basis of Tamang society is cross-cousin
marriage or Mama-Fupu Chela-Cheli Biwaha padhati which directed the whole
ritual and its process. Tamang insist the marriage within the marriageable clan
*Asstt. Professor, Department of History, University of North Bengal, Darjeeling
 An aspects of Tamang Tribe.... 41
group and much emphasis is given to the cross cousin marriage system. The
marriage outside this system is not restricted, but marriage within the same
clan (Thar) is totally prohibited. Widow Remarriage is socially recognized, but
she can not marry to the elder brother of her husband.
According to the Buddhist text "Chi" (Tibetan book of birth and death
ritual), which extensively discussed the nature and character of every human
kind. This decides the Lho and Kham of particular person by following the
Tibetan calendar. According to the calendar there are twelve Lho and five kham,
which match and mismatch the coeval for the marriage. These twelve Lho and
five kham are;
(1). Myung or Chiwa (Mouse), (2). Mey or Lang (Ox), (3). Chyan (Tiger),
(4). Tawar (Hare/Cat), (5). Drug (Dragon), (6). Pukhi (Serpent), (7). Ta (Horse),
(8). Gyu or Luk (Sheep), (9). Makar (Monkey), (10). Jiwa or Namyang (Bird),
(11). Nagi or Khi (Dog), (12). Fak (Pig) . This calendar of year is revolves
around the animals which determine the age of a person with certain formula.
The five elements which makes a human body called Kham are; (1). Mey (fire:
male and female), (2). Sha (Earth: male and female), (3). Cha (Iron: male and
female), (4). Kui (Water: male and female), (5). Shi (Wood: male and female),
in this way year is counted, by evaluating all the elements e.g. Female-Wood-
Bird-Year-2005. This is the cardinal properties of a particular person which
have to match before going into the ties of marriage.
Chiri:- if a Tamang men married to the women of higher caste of Hindu
caste system like Chettri, Bahun then socially they are not acceptable in the
society neither their Childs is accepted in the clan system of the Tamang. These
childes are called Chiri and they are subject to purify themselves automatically
after three consecutive generation.
Chuhi or Nharba:- the offspring of Tamang men and Newer women are
called Nharba in Tamang society. They are regarded impure for three generation,
and after they are accepted in the domain of Tamang clan system.
Jhari:- The Tamang are totally against of marriage within same clan or
Thar, this system is called Jhari in Tamang society. The children out of such
marriage are regarded as Shangri and they can not be included into the Tamang
clan system.
The marriage in Tamang community is a compulsory rite like other social
community of the world. However there is some fundamental difference in the
marriage rite of Tamang and of the others. They give much importance to cross
cousin marriage system. The Tamang use to marry within the marriageable
clan of their community and some time within inter village boundary.
Tamang are follower of Lamaist form of Buddhism, and they have deep
rooted influence of the Buddhism and its tradition. In Buddhism the Lho and
Kham has great value and it is mandatory to match the lho and kham of the both
42 Sudash Lama
the boy and girl before marriage. If there is any contradiction either in lho and
kham then marriage can not be finalized. The Tamang community is closely
related with the maternal uncle and he has great role in almost all of the ceremony.
In marriage ceremony too the necessary items of decoration and dress is the
responsibility of maternal uncle. The system of using vermillion in the part of
the hair is not the custom to Tamang but due to the influence of Hindu culture
some Tamang prefer this custom. Considering the marriage system of
Tamang,.Tamang are very different forms of rite and customs which is totally
different from other community, there are some rite which reflects the closed
relation between wife giver and wife receiver. The rite of 'kanyadan' is not
prevailed in Tamang people, according to their 'sacred promising mantra' of
marriage.
The marriage ceremony is one of most important ritual of Tamang as well
as it connects one group of Tamang to other group. This is very long and complex
ritual, and to conclude the marriage it needs various social institution of the
community. The involvement of Temba, Lama, and maternal uncle and brothers
of bride is very important. The Lama works as religious priest,

2.3 Death Ritual:-

Tamang are practically multi-religious, but their religious ceremony reflects
the believer of Tibetan Lamaist Buddhism.
 43

10. Women in Manipur

*Dr. Madhu Rajput

Manipur like all north-east Indian states has a rich and varied socio-cultural
heritage. It is predominantly a tribal society which wants to preserve its cultural
and traditional uniqueness, but it cannot completely ignore the effects of
globalisation and liberalisation taking place across the globe. In history Manipuri
women are portrayed as brave, courageous and always standing for a common
cause. Compared to women in other parts of India they enjoy better freedom,
higher social status and economic independence. The conditions are quite
encouraging in the health, economic and socio-political field but literacy level
still needs improvement.
In this paper, an attempt is made to study their involvement in the women’s
movements in Manipur and the important role they play in the socio-economic
and political spheres.

Women Movements in Manipur

In 1904, the first Anti-British Movement was launched by womenfolk of
Manipur in Imphal. It started on July 06, 1904 when some unidentified person
burnt down the market of Khwairamband- an all women’s market founded in
1580. Again on July 15th, official residences of two British officers were
destroyed by fire. On September 30, 1904, Mr. Maxwell the Superintendent of
State issues an order that local members should rebuild the residencies. Women
of Manipur reacted against the order by coming out in large number on October
3 rd, and marched to the official residence of the Political Agent and
Superintendent of the State. The agitation continued for several days and the
Khwayi Bazar was closed for many days. Expecting deterioration in the situation
the order was withdrawn and the houses had to be built by the British on their

*Associate Professor, Department of History, University of Lucknow, Lucknow U.P.

44 Dr. Madhu Rajput

own expense.
In 1925, water tax was increased by the State authorities. Confrontation
between the British and the business women of Manipur further escalated after
this. In 1939 women of Manipur protested against the British and the Maharaja
of Manipur due to acute scarcity of rice. Before the induction of motor vehicles,
rice was carried in bullock and hand carts. With the facilities of transportation
improving, the rice export trade was captured by immigrant Marwari
entrepreneurs. It gave them a monopoly on cart tax and the Lal Pass. The former
allowed free movement of rice, the exporters merely paying the levy known as
the Cart Tax, the second category rice was exported under a contract between
the Manipur State and the Government of Assam.1
In 1939, World War II broke out, and also excessive rain continued well
beyond the monsoon season till October which affected the harvest to a great
extent. Again, in mid November hailstorm destroyed most of the standing crops
ready for harvesting. The state faced a severe shortage of food. On 13th
September, the state Darbar, in apprehension of the food shortage, passed a
resolution to ban rice export by denying license for export to any individual.
But they still had to commit the export of rice to Kohima civil station in Assam
as per agreement to the supply for the battalions of British soldiers. This
reopening of rice export was directly responsible for creating additional shortage
of rice and hence for the outbreak of Nupi Lan, 1939-41.2
Women’s agitation against scarcity of rice on 12th December 1939 is a
well recorded movement. It was natural that they could not sit quietly at home
when their children were crying of hunger. They demanded a ban on the export
of rice from Manipur. The number of the agitators was around four thousand.
As they encircled the President of the Darbar, civil surgeon and some other
officers in the Telegraph Office, they were warned to clear the route but it
didn’t deter the agitators. In the process of firing, around 21 women got injured.
The boycott continued for more than one a half years. The movement was a
great success. Women showed that they were convinced of their purpose and
wanted rice not to be exported at the expense of the local loss. They demanded
that economic policies of maharaja and Marwari businessmen should be
changed. Later this movement became a focal point for constitutional and
administrative reforms in Manipur.
 Women in Manipur...
45
Below is a table depicting the rice export figures from 1922-1939 in Manipur:

Year Area under Rice Quantity of Rice Remarks

Cultivation (acres) Exported (maunds)

1922-23 1,69,537 80,000 Amount exported from

31.3.22 to December
1922. Export banned in
December 1922. Embargo
lifted on April 1, 1923

1924-25 1,74,215 1,81,370

1925-26 1,75,537 1,55,014 Quantity exported up to

February 1926, banned
subsequently

1926-27 1,77,058 40,729 Export restricted to

Kohima Civil Station and

Sibsagar.

1927-28 1,77,670 47,499 Embargo lifted.

1928-29 1,78,118 1,65,983

1929-30 1,78,473 1,64,510

1930-31 1,78,291 1,51,725

1932-33 1,79,648 2,77,389

1933-34 1,79,841 2,23,523

1934-35 1,79,346 2,54,619

1935-36 Report not

available

1936-37 1,83,486 2,40,625

1937-38 - 2,61,716

1938-39 1,85,213 3,72,174

1939-40 1,85,859 46,359 Banned on 13.12. 1939

Source: Administration Reports for the State of Manipur from 1922 to

1940
Another renowned movement is ‘Meira Paibi’ (Torch Bearer) where elderly women
46 Dr. Madhu Rajput

take lead in solving day-to-day social problems. Every married woman is a member of
local Meira Paibi Association. During day time, they work to meet the requirements of
their family either by selling vegetable, fish or clothes or by weaving clothes and farming.
Even after their full day’s hard work they volunteer to vigil their locality from different
forms of socio-political evils.
Meira Paibi has been an active agent in the establishment of public health
clinics for detoxification and rehabilitation for the widespread problem of
substance abuse. It is also extremely active against human rights abuse by the
state security forces.3 Every locality in Manipur has a ‘Meira Paibi’ organization
which stays up late into the night to prevent any untoward incident in the locality.4
They persuade the armed rebels to refrain from attacking state security forces
and to stop fratricide. The disturbing feature about women’s response to the
ongoing conflict is their perpetual engagement in fighting against conflict and
the multiple roles they take up. Both features affect their well-being and disturb
the contours of social capital.
All Manipur Nupi Marup is the oldest women organization working as a
pressure group to ensure that independent, indigenous communities should exist
harmoniously without any differentiation of caste, colour, race, sex and business
etc. They participated in the movement for inculcation of Manipuri language in the
eighth schedule of the Indian constitution in 1980s. They also fight for basic human
rights for the people in the state.
There are some other organizations such as All Manipur Social Reformation and
Development Samaj, Manipur University Working Women Association, Ushoipokpi, The
Kukis Women Human Right Network, Kuki Mother’s Association, Kuki Women’s Union
andAll Tribal Women’s Organization, Chandel. These organizations have actively advocated
the interest of Manipuri women and have pressed for demands which further their position
socially, economically and politically.5
Gender Issues
Socially women of Manipur enjoy considerable freedom, liberty and rights
in many respects, despite Manipuri society being patriarchal. The practise of child
marriage, female infanticide or Sati is alien to Manipuri society. There is no social
taboo linked to widow re-marriage. However, discriminatory customary laws and
practices are strictly adhered to in many areas. In some communities the laws
sanction polygamy and child marriage; in others, land, property rights and custody
of children are given only to the males. Sometimes, women are debarred from
taking part in political decision making. In addition to it, the inherent gender
biases of the traditional systems, greater contact and exposure to other cultures
have also resulted in acculturation and dilution of some of the positive and women
friendly aspects of the indigenous cultures.6
Earlier there was no formal education for women in Manipur. The
constitutional provision of free and compulsory education for all children gave
 Women in Manipur... 47
an impetus to female education in the state, raising female literacy rates from
0-4% in 1901 to 2.75% in 1951, and further to 18.87%, 22.87%, 47.6%, and
59.7% in 1961, 1971, 1981 and 1991 respectively. However, the male-female
differential of literacy is high at 24.03% (1991 census). The drop-out rate of
female students is much higher than that of their male counterparts.
Effects of Armed Conflict on Women
The insurgency movement has had adverse effects on the social fabric of
Manipuri society and women and children have borne the brunt of it. Insurgency
and subsequent clamp down by security forces has brought in many related
problems in the region. The problems which women face due to it are as follows:

· Widows of insurgent are forced to earn for their livelihood and survival of
their children.
· More families are being managed by single women, either by choice or by
chance, with concomitant problem.
· Increasing responsibility within and outside household has resulted into
deteriorating health of women.
· Fear psychosis, sleepless nights are the common features among Manipuri
women.
· Torture and rape of women by armed forces are common phenomena in
the state.
· Women are also being recruited in armed militant groups and also as
helpers.
· Women organizations and many NGOs are trying to bring peace in the
state. They are playing the role of mediator because they don’t want to
lose any of them.
· Many women have entered into the flesh trade. An interview with prostitute
women revealed that they have chosen this path as means of their earning
and to support family requirement.
· There are reports of women being trapped in smuggling of arms and
narcotic drugs.
Points noted here are just the tip of the iceberg. There are many more
unreported cases which directly or indirectly affect the women of Manipur. Little
study has been done to analyse how women, constituting half of the community,
are affected by insurgency and ethnic clashes.7
Development Process
Since Manipur became part of the Indian Union, efforts have been to
48 Dr. Madhu Rajput
streamline the process of development so that the benefits reach the society. A
sample random survey was conducted by me in 2011 to see how urban educated
Manipuri women cope up with the changes occurring in the society. Below are
given their responses to various questions asked:
To the question “Up to what level education is considered necessary for
girls”, 57.9% women said that it was necessary till Higher Level, 31.5% said it
was required till professional level, 10.5% chose secondary level.
As reasons for girls to drop out from school, 42% said it was due to lack of
financial support, 21% said it was because of lack of proper infrastructure, 21%
opined that they left school out of their own choice, 10.5% held parental pressure
responsible for it, 5.3% said both parental pressure and lack of financial support
was responsible for it.
73.68% women felt that education was directly linked with employment for
women while 26.31% did not agree with it.
89.47% women in Manipur preferred government jobs above any other field,
while 10.5% preferred business.
In Manipur, 89.47% women said that they were free to choose a profession
of their choice, while 10.5% said they had to consider others’ opinion on it.
When asked whether their parents gave dowry in their marriage despite their
being educated, 42% replied in negative, 21% said yes, rest 36% did not comment.
57.9% reported working for six hours every day at work place, 21% said
there working hours at office were eight hours, 21% did not reply.
Similarly, at home, 21% reported working for two hours, another 21% said they
worked at home every day for four hours, 10.5% said that they had to devote one hour
per day for household duties, 5.2% said it was five hours, 42% did not comment.
73.68% Manipuri women said that they were paid equal salary as that of
their male counterparts, 26.3% refrained from making a comment.
When asked whether urbanization had changed their role in the family,
73.68% Manipuri women responded in affirmative, 26.3% did not respond.
To the question whether modernization has helped in more employment
opportunities, 84.2% women replied in affirmative, 15.8% did not reply.
63.15% women were well versed with modern technology such as computer,
31.5% responded in negative, 5.2% did not comment.
73.68% Manipuri women said that they had never faced sexual harassment
at work place, 5.2% said ‘yes’, 5.2% said they had to face it occasionally, 15.78%
gave no reply.
42% working women in Manipur said that there was no helpline at work
place to deal with the cases of sexual harassment, 42% said they were not aware of
its existence, 15.7% replied that such a helpline did exist at their work place.
On the question of domestic violence, 68.42% women reported that it seldom
happened in society, 21.5% reported it often happened, 10.5% it never occurred.
When asked whether they knew about the law against domestic violence,
57.9% said ‘Yes’, 26.3% were unaware of it, 15.7% had no idea at all about it.
42% Manipuri women were aware of the women NGOs active in the State,
 Women in Manipur... 49
42% were not aware, 15.7% had no idea at all about them.
47.36% Manipuri women feel that the maternity leave granted to them is
insufficient, 31.57% were satisfied with the duration of maternity leave, 21%
were not married.
When asked what stops women from coming in to politics, 31.5% said it
was attitude of the political parties that prevented them, 31.5% said there were
not many opportunities, 15.78% said that it was due to family opposition, 21%
were not interested in the field.
Conclusion
Manipuri women have always actively participated in development process
in organized as well as unorganised sector. In their quest to improve quality of
life for themselves and their families they have worked hard at business front, as
entrepreneurs and in offices. They are aware of the facilities and their rights given
by the constitution. Meira Paibis organisation can take up a very important role
of mother and mediator. On political front they do lag behind in number in the
state legislature but of course they participate in the political process as the voters.
Women voters always outnumber the men voters. With modernisation they face
some new challenges such as the HIV/AIDS and health concerns. The armed
conflicts and insurgency related problems are the main factors for the rise in
number of mental diseases. The upbringing of violence affected children is also a
cause of concern.
The problems may be manifold but as in past Manipuri women have risen
to the challenges posed, with immense potential for development the hurdles of
insurgency could also be overcome.

Reference:
1. Thockchom Asha, Role of Women in Freedom Struggle A Case of Manipur “Nupi Lan” -
1939 quoted in Sumangali, A Journal of Gender and Heritage, Vol. II, No. 2, March, 2011,
Centre for Women Studies, Shri Lal Bahadur Shashtri Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeeth,
New Delhi, p. 166.
2. Ibid., p. 168.
3. Gangtey M. Priyadarshini, Women of North East in Present Context, Maxford Books,
New Delhi, 2011, p. 17.
4. Ibid., p. 19.
5. Thockchom Asha, Role of Women in Freedom Struggle A Case of Manipur “Nupi Lan” -
1939 quoted in Sumangali, A Journal of Gender and Heritage, Vol. II, No. 2, March, 2011,
Centre for Women Studies, Shri Lal Bahadur Shashtri Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeeth,
New Delhi, p. 133.
6. NEN Research on VAW in Tamenglong district of Manipur in January 2004.
7. National Seminar on Impact of Insurgency on Women and Children in North East Region,
Aizwal, Mizoram, 17-18 September, 2002, p. 34.

*****
50

11. Economic Development Of The

Bhuiyan Tribes Of Keonjhar

*Dr. jagnyaseni Chhatria

Introduction
Changes are bound to be there in economic life. The influence of the new
age of knowledge has a great impact on economic life of the Bhuiyan tribes of
Keonjhar district of Orissa receiving a new dimension.1In the historical
interpretation changes are noticed in the economic life of the Bhuiyan tribes of
Keonjhar.2 For assessment of such changing pattern of the economic life of the
tribal of Orissa particularly the Bhuiyans history is not considered enough, as
an interdisciplinary method in Indian context.

Objectives
¾ To analyzes the economic problems of the tribal shortly.
¾ To analyze the economic development of the Bhuiyan tribe.
¾ Government plans and programmes for tribal development.
In context of the Bhuiyan villages of Keonjhar are found different types of
economic organizations and economic problems. The typical Bhuiyan tribes have
preserved their economic characteristics an age old traditions. However, with
accelerating impact of urbanization and industrialization, agro based economy is
gradually deteriorated. These changes are found in their traditional activities,
participation in the dance and other cultural activities, dress and food habits, etc.3
Most of the Bhuiyans of Keonjhar are dependent on agricultural products
and use the traditional equipments, scattered and uneconomic, that is why they
are not able to improve their economic standard. The income from such primitive
type of agriculture is meager. As a result they are kept below poverty line.4 To
carry out a smooth economic life, the tribes, like the Bhuiyan have adopted the method
of shifting cultivation known as podu or dangara chasa. They select a patch of the hilly

*Lecturer in History, Kuchinda College, Kuchinda, Odisha

 Economic Development of the Bhuiyan... 51
region every year, clean the forest slopes, burn the fallen trees and bushes, prepare the
field in broad ash-covered solid for cultivation. All the forest goods are collected by the
businessmen at a very cheap rate. As a result they fail to acquire sufficient necessaries
of life in term of the product they sell. So they look for economic relief, from other
sources.5

Keonjhar about their economic condition.

The Paudi Bhuinyas have stubbornly stuck to shifting cultivation. They
practice shifting and settled cultivation. In the shifting cultivation they used
different types of land; they are Biringa, Kaman, Guda, Nala, Bakadi and Bila
or Jami. Rice is their staple food and considered superior to all other types.
This economy does not provide subsistence for the whole year. That is why the
Bhuiyan people of Keonjhar are very fond of collecting different kinds of edible
roots, shrubs, fruits and leaves, etc. from the forest. Moreover, to avoid such
critical situation a group of people come forward and engage themselves in
mining, industries or specialized in some professions.6 They have sow biri,
kolatha, jutang, maka, castor-seeds and cotton and plant pumpkins, bottle gourd,
brinjals, black-gram and sweet potatoes.

Bhuiyan, Kusumita, Keonjhar.

Among the alcoholic drinks, the Bhuiyans take Mahua liquor, rice-beer
called pachhi, toddy extracted from date-palms, salap drink extracted from
sago-palms and liquor prepared out of cereals. The Bhuyan’s are habituated to
both chewing and smoking.
In Orissa 21 Integrated Tribal Development Agencies have been set up
for the all-round development of Scheduled Tribes. Keonjhar district also
include this agencies.7 Mohapatra,D., “Tribal Sub-Plan: An Effective Approach
for Tribal Development”, ed.,
Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru, the chief architect of the Indian Planning and
Development, was very much in favour of the integration of tribal’s with the
mainstream of the nation. Though the foundation and basic approach of the
tribal development of Scheduled tribes in the line of the constitutional framework
was laid down by Nehru (1961), it was further evolved by the Dhabar
Commission (1961). This Commission recommended an integrated approach
based on the minimum basic items like food, drinking water, employment,
education, health and village roads. In the community development blocks
various programmes for the rural upliftment are in operation. Tribal sub-plan
made for development of STs. Main objectives of Tribal sub-plan are-(a) Socio-
economic development of the Scheduled Tribes and their habitats,(b)protection
of tribal’s against exploitation. Towards the end of the Fifth Plan period,
52 Dr. Jagnyaseni Chhatria
Modified Area Development Approach was adopted to cover smaller areas of
concentration of tribal population. The areas having 10,000 or more population, of
which 50% or more were tribal’s, were earmarked as MADA pockets.In several
villages, Govt. has dug tube wells. Still then the Bhuiyans of Keonjhar prefer to
use the water of the well and stream.
In the economic field the establishment of the tribal development co-
operative corporation of Orissa is considered as an important step. But the society
is not able to compete with the globalised traders and middlemen. The tribal
themselves find that the cumbersome procedure adopted by the society for granting
loan is not suitable. So the problem of tribal indebtness becomes acute.8 As far
as the remedy is concerned, the economic upliftment needs rapid spread of
education in the tribal areas. But the education will be such as, will in calculate
in the mind of the tribal, a sense of inspiration, confidence and benefit.9 The
people’s involvement in such educational agency should render duties under a
special programme.10

Suggestions
In implementing the government programme, adequate attention is required
to the anti-exploitation measures by elimination of indebtedness. There should be
demonstration to improve agricultural practices in Bhuiyans areas and efforts made
to persuade them to take advantage of modern agricultural benefit, so that the
primitive system of agriculture will be gradually replaced by the technology based
agriculture.
The best way for having free cultural inters use between the tribal and non-
tribal is to provide an adequate transportation and communication facility; roads
should be constructed in the inaccessible tribal regions. This will not only bring
educative value, but also improve the commercial and economic base of the tribal
areas particularly Bhuiyan populated area of Keonjhar and others area of Orissa.
But at the same time, adequate precautions should be taken against the exploitation
of the tribal from the hands of the unscrupulous, businessmen.11
With the abolition of restrictions and infiltration of old types of traders there
is scope for the tribal people for entering into larger market economy.12 In the
present context extension of market is not an unmixed blessing.13 Through
marketing, there is large scale exploitation and pauperization of tribal areas. But it
is inevitable and the Bhuiyan people should learn how to adjust with the new
economy, after the introduction of science and technology, in the field of agriculture
as well as in the transporting system. With planning, new economic opportunities
are possible at the doors of Bhuiyan people.
No doubt the economic development has taken peace among the Bhuiyan in
Orissa. Not only the hereditary right of Bhuiyan people over their land should be
safeguarded but also the Bhuiyan youths should be trained in new types of skills
and they should engage themselves in local developmental works.
 Economic Development of the Bhuiyan... 53
Conclusion:
From the survey of the economic life of the Bhuiyan tribe it may thus be
concluded that they are slowly progressing upward in economic life. Though most
of them continuing to cling to their age old primitive agricultural practices, the modern
methods of agriculture, use of chemicals, fertilizer and compost, adoption of improved
seeds and high yielding crops are in use in some Bhuiyan villages. With the advent
of the time and the development of new thoughts of science and technology and the
process of industrialization, the economic life pattern of the Tribes of Orissa has
been changed particularly the Bhuiyan tribe to a great extent. Since 19th century, the
process of acculturation has been accelerated in the life pattern of the tribal
communities in Orissa with certain ideas and thoughts. After the second half of the
19th century and 1st part of the 20th century the tribal particularly the Bhuiyan have
been proved their multifacets talents in the field of education, economy, social customs,
rituals, mode of worship, religious pursuits, food habits, shelters, etc. These changes
provide a new socio-economic and cultural life in the Bhuiyans tribe of Keonjhar
district of Odisha.

References:-
1. Chhatria, J., “The Socio-economic changing scenario of Tribes: A study on Orissa”, ed.,
R.C.Sahoo and R.K.Sahoo, Tribals: Socio-Economic and Cultural perspective, Dominant
Publishers and Distributors Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi, 2009-10, pp.21-27.
2. Ibid, pp.21-27
3. Ibid, pp.21-27
4. Behura, N.K., “Tribal Societies in Orissa”, Tribes of Orissa, Tribal and Harijan Research
Cum-Training Institute, Government of Orissa,Bhubaneswar,1990, pp.10-20
5. Swain,A.K., “The Socio-economic Scenario of the Tribes in Orissa”, ed., R.C.Sahoo and
R.K.Sahoo, Tribal’s: Socio-Economic and Cultural perspective, Dominant Publishers and
Distributors Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi, 2009-10, pp. 1-9.
6. Sahu, C., Primitive Tribes of India, Sorup and Son Publication, New Delhi, 1998, pp.19-20.
7. Mohapatra,D., “Tribal Sub-Plan: An Effective Approach for Tribal Development”, ed.,
R.C.Sahoo and R.K.Sahoo, Tribal’s: Socio-Economic and Cultural Perspective,
Dominant Publishers and Distributors Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi, 2009-10, pp.14-15
8. Government of Orissa, Tribal Education in Orissa, in the context of Education for all by
2000 A.D., A status paper, Tribal Welfare Department, Bhubaneswar, 1994, pp.vii-xi.
9. Ray, B.C., Tribal of Orissa, The Changing Socio-Economic Profile, Gyan Publishing House,
New Delhi-110002.
10. Mohapatra, K., Primary Education in Tribal Language, Adivasi, No.2, THARTI,
Bhubaneswar.
11. Chhatria, J., Op.Cit, pp.11-19.
12. Mohanty, U.C. Tribal of Orissa, An Analysis of the Improved Economic Life of the Tribal
of Orissa and the way towards Integration, Govt. of Orissa, 21-25 June, 2005, p. 43.
13. Bhandari,J.S., The Tribal Situation in India, Industrialization and Urbanization, in Singh
Bhupinder & Bhandari, J.S., ed.,1980; The Tribal World and its Transformation, Concept
Publishing Company, H.-13, Bali Nagar, New Delhi, 1980, pp.53-82.

*****
54

12. Khanikar Puthi Of Assam And its

Relevance in Recent Days:
A Historical Study

*Debo prasad Gogoi

**Biblop Gogoi

The Mighty Ahoms who had ruled in Assam for more than six hundred
years (1228-1826A.D. )contributed in every aspect of the society. And literatures
were one of the important parts in which the role of the Monarchs was
praiseworthy.1 In Assam, the efflorescence of the vernacular literature came
with the Vaishnava reformers, the most distinguished among them being
Sankardeva and Madhavadeva themselves who were the leaders of the Vaishnava
movement.2 Sankardeva’s Kirtan Ghosa is the Bible of the Vaishnavas. His main
disciples Madhavadeva’s Namghosa supplemented the works of his teacher
and exercised tremendous influence on the minds of the people. With the passage
of time the Vaishnava movement became one of the most important religion of
the state and many times created more problem for the Ahom kingdom. 3
It was during the reign of Ahom King Chandrakanta Singha (1811-
1817A.D .) That the Burmese had invaded Assam in the year 1817 and another
two in the year 1819 and 1821. It was during their invasion that they had
completely destroyed the power of the mighty Ahom kingdom and shattered
the economy as well as the society. Although the Burmese Army destroyed
almost everything in Assam they left alone a famous book in Assamese language
known as “Khanikar Puthi”. 4 Khanikar Puthi is a combination of Kirtan Ghosa
written by Mahapurush Srimanta Sankardeva and Namgosa written by
Mahapurush Madhavadeva.This khanikar Puthi was copied by some anonymous
copier in 1690 A.D. This Puthi is called Khanikar Puthi because the Puthi has
been being kept by the khanikar family in Khanikar village in Golaghat District.

*Assistant Professor (History) D.R. College, Golaghat, Assam

**Assistant Professor of Political Science, D.R. College, Golaghat, Assam.
 Khanikar Puthi of Assam... 55
The people of the area believe that a super power exits within the puthi. Many
people all over the state invite the Puthi to their families. The Puthi is always
taken to different places on foot with respect from the Khanikar village. It is
believed that the desired can be achieved if we pray the puthi. This is a legacy
that is going on. 5 In this article we are trying to highlight the Historical process
of the Puthi and how it has become the property and organization for the
Assamese people.
Introduction-Khanikar Puthi is written in a particular paper Known as
the “Hasi pat” (Hasi Bark) that was used during the Medieval period of Assam
to write down anything important. Khanikar Puthi is a combination of “Kirtan
Ghosa” written by Mahapurush Srimanta Sankardeva and “Namghosa” written
by Mahapurush Madhavadeva. It is preserved by the Khanikar family in
Khanikar village of Misamora , 25 K.M.away from the Golaghat District of
Assam.6 Although the present Assamese society and culture is the mixture of
many ideas from other culture but still this two Historical Puthi composed by
the Two Mahapurush of Assam is getting more importance and influence the
Assamese society culturally . It is written in “Hasi pat” by using an ink named
Hengul (Ink). with Haital pen. In the whole of Assam this two Historical puthi
is attracting the attention from more and more people because of its legacy that
whatever we pray can be achieved if we pray the puthi that is rare to find
anywhere in Assam .7 In This article our effort will be to find out the Historical
process of the development of the two puthis and how it has become the property
and organization of the Assamese people.
Aims and objectives- We have designed this study with the following
objectives:
(i) To find out the Historical process of the two puthis how it has become
a property and organization of the Assamese people.
(ii) Examine why these two puthis can attract large number of Assamese
people
(iii) How it can become an important place for tourist to visit the place for
earning knowledge.
Methods-We have visited several times the Khanikar village of Misamora
and other parts of Assam where these two Puthis are invited by various people
.Information’s are collected from primary as well as the secondary sources.
The family (lineage) associated with the two Puthis has been traced and
interviewed for primary sources. Interview is also conducted to the local
community of the Puthi Namghar of Misamora village where the two puthis
used to be kept for the local people.
Historical process of the Khanikar puthi-Though there is no any proper
56 Biblop Gogi ∗ Debo prasad Gogoi

History about the author of these two puthi yet there are some sources with the
family (lineage) of Khanikar Gaon of Misamora village and some written articles
which help us to know the History of these two Puthis.
The original men of the Baruah family were Nara Hari and his son and
grandson Krishna Hari and Moni Baruah respectively. Moni Baruah had a son
named chadi and chadi had three sons named Kothi,Naram and Bogai. During
their time a gurugriha was constructed and this two puthis kept over there.
More so during their time it was realized that these two Puthis should be
preserved and hence a carpenter named late Lila ram Bora constructed two
wooden boxes to keep these two Puthis. 8It was during the time of late Rameswar
Baruah that a new system was introduced of inviting the two Puthis by people
to their Home for showing their respect to these great Puthis.9 it is learned that
during the Burmese invasion in Assam in the year 1819A.D. AND 1821
A.D.perhaps these two puthis came into the village of Khanikar gaon of
Misamora. At this time Late Moni Baruah was so old that he could not move
anywhere from his house .Burmese army looted his house and left a packet
advising him to keep it properly. 10
After Burmese army had left Moni Baruah’s house he opened the
packet and found four Historically prestigious books which were written in
hasi pat and they were ‘kirtan”,”Dasam”,”Namghosa” and “Bhakti Rantawali”.
Gradually these two Great Puthis became popular among common peoples
because of some miracles. Slowly it becomes the important way of salvation
the “bhakatas” (Disciples of Sankardeva and madhavadeva) and peace for the
common people.11 It is worth mentioning that from the Ancient time this
Misamora region was an important place of the Vaisnava culture .Even the
manners of the people of this place and in their religious behavior were
influenced by new vaisnava tradition. And the house of late Moni Baruah became
an important place of Vaisnava culture and this way also this two great Puthis
known as ‘Khanikar Puthi ‘perhaps created.12
Subject matter of the Khanikar Puthis- Actually Khanaikar puthi of
Misamora is the collection of the Mahapurush Sankardeva’s ‘Kirtan’ and
Mahapurush Madhevadeva’s creation ‘Namghosa’. Since these great Puthis
are preserved by the Khanikar Village of Misamora for a long period and hence
these two puthis came to be known as the “Khanikar Puthis” .Both of the
Puthis are written in Hasipat in Assamese script that was known as
“BROJAWALI”(language use in Assam during the medieval period) . This two
Puthi are kept in a separate wooden box covered with Gamosa.(traditional piece
of cloth use by the Assamese people to show respect others)13
Kirtan Puthi is consisted of 105 pages and two pages are cover pages
which is known in the Assamese language as “Bakala”(cover page). it is written
in the last part of the Kirtan Puthi is as “1690 sakar 5 mah, 4 bar,1 tithi samapta”
 Khanikar Puthi of Assam... 57
.It means that Kirtans was completed by the end of August 1768A.D.Mahapurush
Srimanta Sankardeva was died in the year 1568A.D. And this Kirtan Puthi was
written 200 years after the death of Mahapurush Srimanta Sankardeva.14 “Kirtan
Ghosa” is the main book of the Vaisnavas of Assam. Here Srimanta sankardeva
Kirtana Ghosa included 28th chapters and all of them were for the spread of the
religion. In every chapter Sri Krishna is the Principal Figure and sraban-
Kirtan is the only way in the path of religion.15 ‘Namghosa’ has total 53 pages.
One page of this Puthi is Called ‘Bakala’. It becomes clear that this Puthi
Nanghosa was completed in the month of may year 1768 A.D. Mahapurush
Madhevadeva was died in the year 1596 A.D. And ‘Namghosa’ was written
after 172 years of the death of Mahapurush Madhavdeva.16"Namghosa” of
Madhavdeva’s is one of the basic for Bhaktimarg for the Bhakatas (Disciples).
In the words of DR.Banikanta kakati ’’Namghosa has three basic features”. i)
glory of Gurus Sankardeva or punyasloka sankar smrti, ii) self criticizing or
madhavdeva’s atama Loghima or Daishya Bhava, iii)Krishna Bhakti
Mahatmaya.17
Its relevance:-For last one hundred years these two puthis were popular
because of its liberal character among the local people of the Misamora region.
Gradually it has attracted a large number of Assamese people and this way
became a centre of attraction for every class, caste and religion. 18 There is a
register maintain by the local committee of the Khabikar Namghor where anyone
who would like to invite this two Puthi can mention their name, address and the
particular date on which they are going to invite this two puthis. It has come to
our notice this time that these two puthis are reserved till the end of December
2013 that shows its importance among the people.19 There is a tradition that
these two puthi can be carried everywhere on foot. No other medium of
transportation is followed till today.20
Conclusion- Among the archaeological monuments of Assam
“Charaidew “ (Moidams of the Ahom Kings ) and some temples are getting
importance but very few work has been done to preserve this two Historical
Puthi and the Khanilar Village of Misamara of Golaghat District which has
been attracting a large number of Assamese people of Assam. Every day this
two puthi is getting importance among the people because of its secular nature
but neither the State government nor the central government is giving importance
to preserve these two puthis for the future generation. Thus from the above
discussion it can be conclude that this two puthis are creating a good relation
among the people of Assam without any distinction of class, caste and religion.
There is no other reprint version of these two puthis. Hence the State government
as well the Archaeological survey of Assam should come forward to preserve
these two puthis for the future generation.
58 Biblop Gogi ∗ Debo prasad Gogoi
References
1. Dr. S.L Baruah, A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram Monoharlal publishing
Pvt. Limited, Delhi, 3rd Addition 1985, p. 327.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Tirtha Nath Boruah, Misamorar oitijya : oitihasik khanikar puthi, Khanikar Gaon Misamora,
Khanikar Puthi Namghor Golaghat, 29 March 2010, p. 06.
5. Ibid, p.07.
6. Ibid, p.08.
7. Khogeswar Bora, Mohima Mandit Khanikar Puthi Namghar, Dutta Offset Printers Dhekial
Golaghat, 29 March 2010, p. 06.
8. Narayan Boruah, Mohima Mondit Khanikar Puthi, Khanikar Dutta Offset Printers Dhekial
Golaghat, 30 March 2010, p.02.
9. Ibid, p.03.
10. Ibid, p.04.
11. Ibid, p.05.
12. Tirtha Nath Boruah, Misamorar oitijya : oitihasik khanikar puthi, Khanikar Gaon Misamora,
Khanikar Puthi Namghor Golaghat, 29 March 2010, p. 07.
13. Ibid, p.09.
14. Bodheswar Kakoti, Prahanga: Asomar Jana Jibonot ‘Kirtana Ghosar’ Prabah, Khanikor
Puthi Namghar, Dutta Offset Printers Dhekial Golaghat, 29 and 30 March 2010 p.12.
15. Jotindra Nath Goswami, Kirtana Ghosha and Nam Ghosa of Sri Sankardeva and Sri Sri
Madhavadeva, Jyoti prakasan, Pan bazer, Guwahati-781001, 1st publication 1989 Guwahati
p.10.
16. Jotindra Nath Goswami, Kirtana Ghosa and Nam Ghosa of Sri Sankardeva and Sri Sri
Madhavadeva, Jyoti prakasan, Pan bazer, Guwahati-781001, 1st publication 1989 Guwahati
p.25.
17. Ibid, p.27.
18. Kirtana Ghosa, Preserved by Khonikar Namghor Preservation Committee Misamora,
Golaghat, 22K.M. From District Head Quarter. pp.26-42.(Original Print, No other Re-
print or Digital version of Khanikor Puthi is there in Assam).
19. Nam Ghosa Preserved by Khonikar Namghor Preservation Committee Misamora, Golaghat,
22K.M. From District Head Quarter. pp.01-46. .(Original Print, No other Re-print or
Digital version of Khanikor Puthi is there in Assam).
20. Bodheswar Kakoti, Prahanga: Asomar Jana Jibonot ‘Kirtana Ghosar’ Prabah, Khanikor
Puthi Namghar, Dutta Offset Printers Dhekial Golaghat, 29 and 30 March 2010 p.15.
21. Interviewed with the following people Arun Bikash Boruah,(Great Grand Son of Late
Moni Boruah, Age 44), Bhobesh Boruah Age 57(Namgharai of Khanikar Puthi Namghar,
Misamora), Anjan Bora Age 42, Robin Kolita Age 47, Sagar Saikia Age 48 and all the
aged and learned people of Misamora Village, Golaghat.

*****
 59

13. Bodoland Movement:

First Phase Of Struggle For Separation
(1986-1993)

*Dr. Vikram Singh Amarawat

Historically and culturally speaking, the North-East India can be located

in Indic and Mongoloid tradition. Politically. the British had merged entire
region under their administration for the first time and after that the region
came to be associated with India.1 Ethnically, it is diverse and heterogeneous
like the rest of the country. The primary inhabitants of the region are tribal
ethnic groups with 213 tribes and 400 dialects. Some 5,633 communities have
been listed by the “People of India”2
Assam is situated in the north-east frontier of India and it touches the
international border of Bhutan and Bangladesh and the state borders of Arunachal
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura and Mizoram. Waves of people
belonging to different ethnic groups poured into this region from time
immemorial. In the process of assimilation of these diverse elements, a composite
culture grew up and that culture is the Assamese culture.’3 Assam is full of the
castes and tribes like, Bodo’s, Santhals, Kalitas, Keots, Bariyas, Yogis, Nadiyals,
Jaluas, Kaivartas, Koches, Marans, Khamtis, Phakials, Aitonias, Turungs, Naras,
Khamjangs, Miris, Manipuris, Singphos, Adis, Mikirs, Nagas, Kukis, and many
more. In this paper I will discuss the first phase of separatist movement of
Assam known as Bodoland movement. Bodo is one of Assam-Burmese branch
of Tibeto-Burman linguistic group.4 Historically the Bodo race later disintegrated
into different groups such as Bodo, Garo, Toto, Naga, Tripuri, Manipuri, Bhutia,
Rai,, Limbu, Lepcha, Dheemal, Koch, Rajbanshi, etc. So differences are now
noticed in the cultures, languages and social behavior of these tribes.5 Presently
Bodo, which is one of the largest tribes of India, has a glorious past.6
In 1950 apart from Manipur and Tripura the whole north-east of India

*Assistant Professor, Department of History and Culture, Mahadev Desai Gramsewa

Mahavidyalaya, Gujarat Vidyapith, Sadra (Gujarat)
60 Dr. Vikram Singh Amarawat

was administratively attached with Assam. In the meantime, four new states
came into existence. In 1963 Naga Hills along with Tuensang hill district became
new state named Nagaland, Khasi, Garo and Jayantiya hills separated as
Meghalaya. In 1987 the Mizo hills and north east frontier agency became
complete states of Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh.7. These all are the hilly
region and their tribes wanted a separate region for themselves. In this scenario,
Bodoland movement came into picture. Bodos were raising the voice for separate
Bodoland.
The political consciousness of Bodos can be traced way back in 1927,
when the demand of a separate electorate for Bodo tribals in Assam was put
before Simon Commission.8 Just before independence, the different Mongoloid
tribes of the plains areas formed the All Assam Plains Tribals League and fielded
its own candidate in the election of 1946.9 On 13th January 1967 Prime Minister
Mrs. Indira Gandhi gave statement on Central Government’s policy about the
reorganization of the state of Assam on the basis of Federal Structure.10 The All
Bodo Student Union which was formed on 9th February 196611 welcomed the
statement and since then they have been making the demand of separate state
for plain tribal of Assam. To serve that purpose, the Plain Tribal Council of
Assam (PTCA) was founded on 26th February 1967.12 The PTCA with the help
of ABSU raised the demand for the creation of a separate Union Territory for
the plains tribals of Assam. This was to be called ‘Udayachal’.13
The year 1986 proved a turning point for the movement. Upendra Nath
Brahma was made the 8th president of ABSU on 31st May 1986 in the conference
of ABSU held in Derange district.14 In the long history of Bodos in Assam or in
north-east, this was the first time when Bodos launched the movement
demanding equality, economic and social justice, rights to land, language and
culture, political rights etc. in the decade of eighties. The task of political
movement for a separate state has been taken over by ABSU from the political
party. Upendra Nath Brahma submitted 92 point charter of demand to the Chief
Minister of Assam Shri Prafulla Kumar Mahanta on 1st January 1987. In these
92 demands, three demands were political and for creation of separate state
and other 89 demands were related to socio-economic, educational and others.15
In 1987 these demands were placed before the then Prime Minister Shri Rajiv
Gandhi, Home Minister Shri Buta Singh and President Shri Gyani Jail Singh.
This was the first time when the demand of separate state was raised in the
Capital. The Bodo People Action Committee (BPAC) was formed by Upendra
Nath Brahma at Dotma in a conference on 8th November 1988.16 The 20th
annual conference of ABSU was held at Bansbari village in Dhubri district
from 18th to 22nd December 1988. In this conference a decision was taken to
demand a separate Bodo state called ‘Bodoland’ for the Bodos.17 The other
 Bodoland Movement: First Phase... 61
important decision was to drop the 89 points of demands related to socio-
economic problems out of 92 point charter and to focus on the three following
political demands-18
1. A separate state for the Bodos on the northern bank of the Brahmaputra.
2. Creation of Karb Anglong Regional Council within the District
Autonomous Council for the nor-Karbi tribal population.
3. Formation of an Autonomous Council for the Bodos on the southern
bank of the Brahmaputra.
After posting these demands the movement accelerated and became bloody.
A total of 955 hours and a 14-day long Bandh was observed on five occasions
between the February to July 1989.19 The then Chief Minister of Assam Shri
Prafulla Kumar Mahata called the armed forces to handle the situation.20 A
large number of Bodos were killed in ethnic clashes, thousands of them became
homeless as their properties and houses were destroyed. More than 60 thousand
Bodos were forced to take refuge in refugee camps at Kakila in Arunachal
Pradesh.21 On the other side the Bodos reacted militantly. They targeted the
public property like railway property and public servants. This rift between the
Bodos and others heightened the antagonism and Bodos became more
determined to secure a separate state. This first tripartite meeting was held on
28th August 1989 in the presidency of Dr. Rajendra Kumari Vajpayee between
the representatives of union and state government and the representatives of
ABSU and BPAC. Unfortunately this meeting ended with more resentment.22
Meanwhile All Bodo Employees Federation (ABEF) was formed on 28th October
1989 which played a vital role in the movement.23 Along with this meeting total
nine tripartite meetings were held in the duration of 28th August 1989 to 7th
January 1992. Mostly these tripartite meetings failed to come to any solution
except the eighth meeting which was held on 11th September 1990. In this
meeting Central Government accepted the proposal of constituting a committee
to study the Bodoland issue. After this meeting Union Labour Minister Shri
Ramvilas Paswan visited Kokrajhar on 21st October 1990. On this occasion
more than one million people gathered to welcome him and show solidarity for
movement. 24 On 31st September 1990 and 3rd January 1991 ABSU and BPAC
staged demonstration in New Delhi to resolve the issue of Bodoland quickly.
According to ABSU and BPAC these recommendations failed to evolve a
formula as to how the Bodoland problem was to be solved, so they rejected the
recommendations.25 After failure of this trial the movement accelerated
vigorously. There were Bandhs, hunger strikes, peace rallies, and demonstrations
in Assam and New Delhi. But government gave only verbal assurances whereas
the movement wanted speedy resolution of the problem. Finally ABSU and
BPAC called a 1001 hour total Assam-Bandh on 21st November 1992 which
62 Dr. Vikram Singh Amarawat
caused extensive annihilation and actions of disruption. In the month of January
and February 1993, the then Home Minister Shri Rajesh Pilot held a private
discussion with ABSU president S.K.Bwiswmuthiary and the then chief minister
of Assam Shri Hiteswar Saikia. These talks proved very fruitful. 20th February
1993 has become an important day in the history of Bodoland movement,
because an agreement known as Bodo Accord was signed by representatives of
central government and state government with ABSU-BPAC.26
The accord brought out many changes in the political agenda of Bodoland
movement. Bodoland Autonomous Council (BAC) was created through this
accord. According to the accord Bodoland Autonomous Council was formed
on 20th February 1993 including 2570 villages of seven districts of Assam.27
The central and state governments made declaration that with this accord the
Bodo issue had been resolved but this was the end of only first phase of Bodoland
movement because still the government has not conceded to the demand of
separate state and for this reason the issue has remained alive. So it can be said
that with doubts as well as aspirations the first phase of six year long Bodoland
movement formally came to an end.

References
1. Shivanand H., Scholar’s Voice: A new way of thinking, Vol-2, No. -1 (Jan-June 2011),
Centre for Defence Sciences Research and Development, Allahabad, p-14
2. Ibid, p-13
3. Baruah S.L., A Comprehensive History of Assam, New Delhi, 1985, p.3
4. Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India, Vol. I, Delhi, 1968, p-62f
5. Satyendra Nath Mondal, History and Cul
ture of the Bodos, Jalpaiguri,2011, p-91
6. Ibid. p-99
7. M.Amarjeet Singh, Conflicts in Assam, Banglore, 2010, p-8
8. Chandrabhushan, Purvottar Bharat aur Algav-vad,Delhi,2003,p-113; Bodoland Movement,
Kokrajhar, 2001,p-I
9. Baruah S.L., A Comprehensive History of Assam, New Delhi, 1985, p.653
10. Bodoland Movement, Kokrajhar, 2001,p-I
11. Satyendra Nath Mondal, History and Culture of the Bodos, Jalpaiguri,2011, p-129
12. Bodoland Movement, Kokrajhar, 2001,p-I; Satyendra Nath Mondal, History and Culture
of the Bodos, Jalpaiguri,2011, p-101
13 Bodoland Movement, Kokrajhar, 2001,p-I; Satyendra Nath Mondal, History and Culture
of the Bodos, Jalpaiguri,2011, p-101; Baruah S.L., A Comprehensive History of Assam,
New Delhi, 1985, p.654
14. Bodoland Movement, Kokrajhar, 2001,p-I
15. ibid,p-IX
16. Satyendra Nath Mondal, History and Culture of the Bodos, Jalpaiguri,2011, p-103
17. Ibid,p-103
 Bodoland Movement: First Phase... 63
18. Bodoland Movement, Kokrajhar, 2001,p-IX
19. Ibid,p-IX; Satyendra Nath Mondal, History and Culture of the Bodos, Jalpaiguri,2011, p-
103-104
20. Chandrabhushan, Purvottar Bharat aur Algav-vad,Delhi,2003,p-114
21. Satyendra Nath Mondal, History and Culture of the Bodos, Jalpaiguri,2011, p-104
22. Ibid,p-105
23. Ibid,p-106
24. Ibid,p-108
25. Ibid,p-109
26. Home Minister Rajesh Pilot represented the Central Govt., Additional Chief Secretary of
Assam Government K.S.Rao, ABSU President Shri S.K.Bwiswmuthiary, ABSU Secretary
Raviram Brahma and BPAC Chairman Subhas Basumatary were presented during the
signing tof the Accord in Guwahati.
27. Satyendra Nath Mondal, History and Culture of the Bodos, Jalpaiguri,2011, p-110

*****
64

14. Sawmi Vivekananda Chicago

Dharma Parishad

*Dr. Mahananda Gondi

The Parliament of Religions which was held in connection with the world
Columbian Exposition in the city of Chicago from September 11, to 27, 1893
was undoubtedly one of the great epoch –making events of the world marking
as it did era in the history of religions especially in that of Hinduism From all
parts of the world delegates, came representing every form of organized religious
belief. It was not only a Parliament of Religions, it was a parliament of humanity.
To unify the of Religious it was vision of mankind and the motive of the workers
who made possible this assembly of by religious ideas and creeds, and if the
Parliament had done nothing more than make the whole of human society aware
of the “ Unity in diversity” “and the diversity in Unity,” of the religious outlook
of man it would still have been unequalled among ecumenical conventions in
character and importance. It roused a wave of new awareness in the Western
world, causing it to be conscious of the Honorable Merwin Marie Snell President
of the Scientific Section of the Parliament.1
Vivekananda visited Mysore Court and stayed there as a guest for same
days and with the help of Maharaja Jaya Chamaraja wader Dr. Palpu and Divan
K. Sheshadri Ayer and Ketri Maharaja Swami reached the Chicago Parliament2
One of its chief advantages has been in the great lesson which it has taught
the Christian World, especially to the People of the United States, namely that
there are other religions, more venerable than Christianity, which Surpass it in
philosophical depth, in Spiritual intensity, in independent vigor of thought and
breadth sincerity breadth and sincerity of human sympathy, while not yielding
to it a single hair’s breadth in ethical beauty and efficiency. eight great non –
Christian religious groups were represented in its deliberations – Hinduism
Jainism Buddhism Judaism, Confucianism Shintiosim Mohammedanism and
*Head Department of History K.L.$ S.S. S College, Athani, Belgaum (Karnataka)
 Sawmi Vivekananda Chicago.... 65
Mazdaism..3
Some of the highest ecclesiastical dignitaries in America had preached
the necessity and the advantages of such a Parliament for some time: and when
the Chicago World Fair was being planned, it seemed to be the proper medium
and opportunity, In the words of the Parliament and Chairman of the principal
organizers of the Parliament Committee “ Since faith in Divine Power to whom
men believe they owe service and worship has been like the sun a life – giving
and fructifying potency in man s intellectual and moral development .
News that the parliament was to be held was heralded to all parts of the
globe, Committees of various kinds were formed to organize it on a proper
basis, and invitations were sent out to the heads or executive bodies of all
acknowledged religious organizations the world over, stipulations were made
and instructions given, and the process of sending delegates was mapped out,
Every religious creed was to send its own delegate or delegates as the case
might be, and reception Comities were to receive them on there arrival in
Chicago. There were many necessary formalities to be observed in order to
systematize the movement. They had Simply recognized the worth of the man
and his ideas and they felt sure that he could introduce himself, as, in one sense
he did.
The historic and unprecedented Parliament of Religions was held in
Chicago’s newly – constructed and imposing Art Institute on Michigan Avenue,
Here, during the seventeen days of the parliament proper, assembled a great
concourse of humanity, which included in its midst many of the most
distinguished people of the world: the audience was sprinkled liberally with
eminent men of every profession, many of the greatest philosophers of the
West were in daily attendance, and among the delegates were high ecclesiastics
of various faiths. The main sessions of the parliament were held morning,
afternoon and evening in the large hall of Columns whose floor and gallery had
combined seating capacity of 4,000/-. And also Hall of washing an took for to
delver main sessions. .
Prior to the convention of the Parliament of Religions adjunct to the World
Columbian Exposition in 1893, which was convened in Chicago, little was known
of Vivekananda in this country, on that auspicious occasion, however, he appeared
in all his magnificent grandeur, It was Monday, September 11th, at 10 A.M. On that
memorable … morning there sat upon the platform of the great Hall of Columbus
representatives of the religions hopes and beliefs of twelve hundred millions of the
human race.
Robes in brilliancy Conspicuous among the followers of Braham Buddha
and Mohammed was an eloquent monk from India. Vivekananda by name. He
was clad in the gorgeous red apparel and word a large turban. his re- markedly
fine features and bronze complexion standing out promi- nently in the great
66 Dr. Mahananda Gondi

throng . Beside him sat Nagarkar of the Brahma Samaj,representative of the

Hindu Theists; next was Dharmapala, ‘Ceylon’s Buddhist representative; next
came Mazoomdar, leader of the Theists (Brahmo Samaj) in From India were
Mazoomdar of the Brahmo Samja and Nagarkar of Bombay, Mr. Gandhi
representing the jains, and we were Mr. Chakravarti representing Theosophy
with Mrs. Amine Besant, of these men, Mazoomdar and Vivekananda were of
course old friends.
Among arch-bishops, bishops, priests and theologians, the people singled
him out by reason of both his apparel and his commanding presence. He himself
was alternately rapt in Silent prayer and stirred by the eloquence of the speakers
who had preceded him. Several times he had been called upon to Speak, but he
had said, “No, not now”, until the Chairman was puzzled and wondered it he
would speak at all. At length, in the late after noon the Chairman insisted, and the
Swami arose. 4
His face glowed like fire. His eyes surveyed in a sweep the huge assembly
before him. The whole audience grew intent; a pin could have been heard to
fall. Then he addressed his audience as “Sisters and brothers of America”. And
with that before he had uttered another word, the whole Parliament was caught
up in great wave of enthusiasm. Hundreds rose to their feet with Shouts of
applause. The Parliament had gone mad; every one was cheering, cheering,
cheering. The Parliament Swami was bewildered. For full two minutes he
attempted to speak, but the wild enthusiasm of the audience prevented it. When
silence was restored, the Swami began his address by thinking the youngest of
nations in the name of the most ancient order of monks in the world, the Vedic
Order of sannyasins, and introducing Hinduism as “ The Mother of Religions,
a religion which has taught the world both tolerance and universal acceptance”.
He quoted two beautiful illustrative passages, taken from the scriptures of
Hinduism : “ As the different streams having their sources in different places
all mingle their water in the sea, So, O Lord, the different paths all which men
take through different tendencies, various though they may appear, crooked or
straight, all lead to Thee”! And the other : “ Whosoever comes to Me, through
whatsoever form, I reach him; all men are struggling through paths which in
the end lead to Me.”5.
The swami announced the universality of religions truths and the sameness
of the goal of all religious realization. And that he did so, was because he had
sat at the feet of a Man of Realization, in far-off Dakshineswar and had learnt
from his Master, through both his teachings and his life, the truth that all religions
were one, that they were all paths leading to the selfsame goal, the selfsame
God. When the Swami sat down almost exhausted as he wrote, with emotion,
the Parliament gave him a great ovation significant of his approval. 6
The other Hindu delegates stood for Societies or churches or sects, but
 Sawmi Vivekananda Chicago... 67
the Swami stood for Hinduism in its universal aspect. He gave forth the ideas
of the Hindus concerning the soul and its destiny; he expounded the doctrines
Vedanta philosophy, which harmonizes all religious ideals and all forms of
worship, viewing them as various presentations of truth and as various paths to
its realization. He preached the religious Philosophy of Hinduism, which declares
the soul to be eternally pure, eternally free, only appearing under the bondage
of matter as limited and manifold. He spoke of the attainment of the goal – the
perception of Oneness – as the result of innumerable efforts of many lives. He
asserted that soul was never created. And he went on to say that death meant
only change of centre from one body to another, and one’s present was
determined by one’s past action and one’s future by the present. He said that in
order to realize Divinity the self that says “I” and “mine “ must vanish. This
however did not mean of the denial of true individuality; it meant, rather, its
utmost fulfillment. By over coming the small egoistical self, centered in selfless,
one attained to infinite, universal individuality. “Science has proved to me that
physical individuality is a delusion, that really my body is one continuously
changing mass in an unbroken ocean of matter: and Advaita (Unity ) is the
necessary conclusion with my other counterpart, the soul”. The pervasive spirit
of his address was the sense of Oneness. And he insisted that of the realization
of the self- that is becoming and being Divinity-led inevitably – led to seeing
Divinity Manifest everywhere. And inspired with this vision like another Vedic
sage, he Addressed the vast mass of humanity before him as “heirs of Immortal
Bliss” and exclaimed with apostolic power : 7
His Mission of the Vedanta - On the occasion of his visit to Kumbhakoham
Swamiji was presented with the following address by the local Hindu
community.
The conviction that the cause of Truth is always safe in the hands of Him
who is the life and soul of the universe has been for thousands of years part of
our living faith; and if today we rejoice at the results of your holy work in
Christian lands, it is because the eyes of men in and outside of India are thereby
being opened to the inestimable value of the spiritual heritage of the pre-
eminently religions Hindu nation.May the God of the universe who is also the
great God Of all nations bestow on you health and long life, and make you
increasingly strong and wise in the discharge of your high and noble function
as a worthy teacher of Hindu religion and Philosophy. 8
His Meseage about Bhakti- IN response to invitations from the Punjab
and Kashmir swami Vivekananda traveled through those parts. He Stayed in
Kashmir for over a month and his work there was very much appreciated by the
Maharaja and his brothers. Subsequently he visited Sialkot and lectured twice,
once in English, and once in Hindi. The subject of the Swamaji’s Hindi lecture
was Bhakti, the Summary is as, the various religions that exist in the world,
68 Dr. Mahananda Gondi
although they differ in the form of worship they take, are really one. All are
true, for if you, look to the real spirit, the real religion, and the truths in each of
them, they are all alike. In some religions god is not worshiped, may, His
existence is not believed in, but good and worthy men are worshipped as if they
were Gods. Upasana in the form of Bhakti is every where supreme, and Bhakti
is more easily attained than Jnana. The latter requires favourable circumstances
and strenuous practice Yoga cannot be properly practiced unless a man is
physically very healthy and free from all worldly attachments. But Bhakti can
be more easily practiced by persons in every condition of life. It is extreme
love for God is Bhakti. 9
Conclusion:- He will discover that hand inn hand with giving the message
of Hinduism to the West the Swami was constantly, observing, and trying to
turn to advantage, every new experience in seeking to solve the problems of his
country. The deep and spontaneous love that welled in his heart for the poor,
the distressed and the despised, was the inexhaustible spring of all his activities.

References-
1. Swami Odhasarnada, The Life of Swami Vivekananda By the his Eastern and western
Disciples, Vol – I, Adhyaksha Advaita Ashram , Mayavati Champ want,
Uttarkhand ,2010, P, 143.
2. Swami Purushtaamandha,Vishva Vijetha Swami Vivekananda, Vol- II , Ramakrishna
Math , Bangalore, 1993, P, - 181-182
3. By his Eastern and Western Disciples, The Life of Swami Vivekananda, Vol – I,
Swami odhasarnada, Adhyaksha Advaita Ashram Mayavati Champ want Uttarkhand
,2010, P, 414.
4. By his Eastern and Western Disciples The Life of Swami Vivekananda, P- 417.
5. IBID, , PP, 417 -418.
6. IBID, P, 418.
7. IBID, PP, 419-420.
8. Lectures from Colombo to Almora, -Swami Odhasarnada, Adhyaksha Advaita Ashram
Mayavati Champ want Uttarkhand, 2011 PP, 85-86,
9. Lectures from Colombo to Almora, PP, 297-298, .

*****
 69

15. Vocalizing Silence :

Subaltern Protest Movement in North Odishan
State Of Keonjhar in 1868

*Ashok Priyadarshi

The modern district of Keonjhar was one of the Garjats or feudatory

princely states and Tributary Mahals of British Orissa.1 It is situated between
200 1' and 220 15' north latitude and 850 15' and 860 21' east longitude.2 The
total area of this feudatory state was 3,450 sq.miles.3 According to 1869 census
its total population was 1,51,295.4 The tribal subjects like Bhuyans had
established close relation with the Bhanja rulers of Keonjhar and formed a
tradition to play a vital role during the coronation of a new king.5
After the establishment of colonial rule in India Raja Janardan Bhanja of
Keonjhar concluded an agreement (sanand) with the British to pay an annual
tribute of Rs. 2,976.6 In 1821 he opposed the movement of the British troops
through his territory against the insurrectory Kolas of Singhbhum.7. On 22nd
March 1861 he died without a male heir which created a serious dispute in
succession to the Gadi or throne of Keonjhar.8 Under the leadership of Ratna
Naik of Bhuyan community the discontented subjects of the Keonjhar started a
terrible revolt against the British authorities and the local chiefs in 1868.9
Therefore this rebellion is called as Ratna Meli.
Political Causes of Rebellion- Maharaja Gadadhara Narayan Bhanja
breathed his last at Tribeni near Calcutta (presently known as Kolkata) on the
22nd March 1861.10 His chief queen or Pata Rani Bishnupriya Patta-Mahadei
had no issue (child) while the younger Rani, who was a phul-bibahi or a common-
law-wife (concubine), had two sons named Dhanurjay Narayan and
Chandrasekhara.11 When Raja Gadadhara Narayan Bhanja died the question of
succession became a vital issue in the state of Keonjhar. Following the death of
the Raja the Bebartha (prime minister) of the state announced on the 3rd April
1861 that Dhanurjay Narayan Bhanja had been placed on the gadi with the

. * Faculty of History, Baripada College, Baripada, Mayurbhanj, Odisha

70 Ashok Priyadarshi

consent of the Rani.12 But on 9th April Brundaban Chandra Bhanja, the grandson
of the Raja of Mayurbhanj, was sent to Keonjhar for installation there. He
claimed that he had been adopted as son by the Raja Gadadhara Bhanja.13 R.N.
Shone, the Superintendent of Orissa tributary mahals, closely examined the
claims in accordance with the established rules as laid down by Regulation XI
of 1816 and decided in favour of Dhanurjay Narayan Bhanja. Thus
discontentment grew among them against the newly recognized king.14
Since Dhanurjay Narayan was minor and since he continued his study at
Cuttack at that time the management of the state was entrusted to one Tahsildar
and one Dewan.15 When the Raja attained majority in September 1867, Mr.
T.E. Ravenshaw, the Superintendent of the Tributary Mahals, handed him over
the charge of the state and made arrangements for his installation on the throne
of Keonjhar. This act was also opposed by the Rani who carried on secret
communication with the hill tribes in order to induce them against the coronation
and opposed the installation of Dhanurjay actively.16 Her effort became fruitful
when Ratna Naik, the leader of the Bhayans and his fellow-Sardars strongly
opposed the nature of British action.17
Administrative and Economic Causes : The Bhuyans were the most
important community in Keonjhar. They believed that the first Raja Jyoti Bhanja
(1128-1158) was installed on the Gadi of the estate with certain terms and
conditions. Sardar appointed two assistants, namely Karan and Amin. This was
a corrupt practice which led to discontentment.18 The Bhuyans were ordered to
pay double tribute. Beheading, killing, heavy tax collection and oppression
continued by the succeeding kings in the Bhuyan pirs of Keonjhar.19 After the
occupation of East India Company in 1804 also Raja Janardana Bhanja collected
various taxes like plough tax, house tax etc. Magan and bethi were retained.20.
In 1825 and 1844 the people resisted against the oppression of the Raja and his
amalas.21 Again in 1849 the Bhuyans and other tribes resisted against the
authority under the leadership of Ratna Naik who was arrested for three days.22
The Dak runners were extorted by the moharirs (mutsuddis). Similar
complaints were lodged against the post office employees in Keonjhar.23 After
the death of Raja Gadadhara Bhanja in 1861, the estate of Keonjhar came under
the British management. Two Bhuyan Gurmanjis or agents use appointed to
induce the Bhuyans to pay tribute in cash instead of grain.24 During British rule
the economic condition of the people was generally unsatisfactory and
unfavourable.25
External Cause : The Sambalpur Rising under Surendra Sai and the
Sareikala Movement under Arjun Singh during the Great Revolt of 1857
naturally have some impact in these states due to their proximity to the disturbed
areas. These developments consequently led to the growth of ill-feeling between
the rulers and the subjects of these states.26
 Vocalizing Silence : Subaltern Protest... 71
Leadership of Ratna Naik - The Bhuyans were extremely conscious of
their rights. They had resisted against the royal injustice in 18th and 19th
centuries. In 1868, under the able leadership of Ratna Naik, the tribal's of
Keonjhar started meli.
Course of The Rebellion- Ratna Naik organized an assembly of the
Bhuyans, Juangas and Kolas. He declared open revolt against the authority of
Raja Dhanurjay Narayan Bhanja on the 21st April, 1868.27 The rebellious tribal
raided the markets of Keonjhar and captured the Chief-Minister of Raja named
Nanda Dhal. They killed another supporter of the king named Beher Jal.28 They
burnt many villages and induced the dissatisfied royts to join with them. The
rebels looted the police weapons. Their number was twenty thousand who burnt
houses, sacked the government daks and disobeyed the authorities.29 Civil
disobedience started. Armed with bows, arrows, axes and swords the rebels
attacked the palace.30 Rani Bishnupriya Pattamahadevi, who had agreed to accept
the pension of the British government and supported the authority of Dhanurjay,
once again championed the cause of adopted son Brundaban Bhanja. The Raja
Dhanurjay Bhanja sought the military help of the British government.31
The Commissioners of Cuttack and Chhotnagpur immediately came
forward to take measures against the rebellion. Police force was stationed at
Bal sore to move to Keonjhar. T.E. Ravenshaw, Commissioner of Cuttack, issued
prawns to Ratna Naik and the Rani Bishnupriya.32 Dr. Hayes reached Jayantigarh
on 1st May, 1868 and then Keonjhargarh on 7th May, 1868 with a small guard.
On 9th May 1868 he made an expedition with Chaibasa Police when the rebels
did not respond.33 Dr. Hayes moved towards Bethiapara and Tarpur, the
residence of Ratna Naik, where he got no result.34 At Janardanpur and
Keonjhargarh he was able to disarm large number of insurgents. But as Bhuyan
chief Ratna Naik, Nanda Naik, Nanda Pradhan, Babu Naik, Dasarathi Kuanr,
Padu Naik and Tuni Pradhan did not surrender and were prepared for an offensive
encounter, Dr. Hayes collected more police force and marched towards
Keonjhar.35 Babu Hare Krishna Das, Assistant Superintendent of Tributary
Mahals, was also deputed to Keonjhargarh for helping the Raja in the suppression
of rebellion.36 With a total strength of 1134 armed men Dr. Hayes proceeded
from Keonjhargarh to the hill Ghats where the insurgents were staying. But
bad weather, sickness and weak supply of food prevented him to undertake
serious operation.37 T.E. Ravenshaw notified on 19th May, 1868 that the
Governor General of India was determined to bestow the authority of Raja
Dhanurjay Bhanja in Keonjhar and to support him at all cost. Therefore, anybody
supporting or aiding the rebels would be liable to severe punishment.38
The Government of Bengal gave serious attention to suppress the rebellion.
More and more troops and armed police were requisitioned from the tributary
chiefs of Orissa and also from Chhotnagpur and Burdwan. Colonel E.T. Dalton,
72 Ashok Priyadarshi

the Commissioner of Chhotnagpar came forward to control the problem. Two

thousand British troops stationed at Keonjhar by 13th June 1868.39 T.E.
Ravenshaw also marched personally from Cuttack and reached Keonjhar on
7th July, 1868.40
Lt. R. Hunter, the Assistant Superintendent of Garjat Police attacked the
village of Ratna Naik and rescued a party of constables confined by the rebels
and many plundered mails. However he captured some insurgents and restored
peace in one part of Keonjhar.41 Many villages of insurgents were burnt, many
British captives were rescued and many insurgents surrendered.42 Tuni Pradhan,
Ranaiya Kol etc. Gradually the inaccessible hill tracts of Keonjhar were
perpetrated and several rebellious leaders were captured.43 Many Bhuyan and
Juang leaders surrendered to the Raja of Bonai on 1st August 1868.44 Ratna
Naik was, it would be an infamous victory."48 Actually this victory was short
lived. This tribal movement, though suppressed, was a prelude to the nationalist
movement and freedom struggle captured by the Raja of Pal- Lahara and Nanda
Naik was captured by the Dewan of Bonai on 15th August, 1868. By the end of
August all the rebel chiefs were captured and "the country was entirely
subjugated".45
Consequence of the Rebellion- The captured rebels, numbered 183,
were sent for trial. Among them Ratna Naik and six others were sentenced to
death, twenty seven to transportation for life, and the rest to different periods
of imprisonment.46 On 30th November, 1868 Ravenshaw ordered the execution
of Ratna Naik, Dasarathi Kuanr, Baikuntha Kol, Padu Naik, Tuni Pradhan,
Margasiri Kol and Bairagi Kol. C.E Buckland, wrote, "A severe but necessary
example was thus made, as a warning against similar outbreak in future."47
Conclusion : However, to conclude, the Bhuyan uprising was natural and
spontaneous. It was a subaltern agitation where the main actors were
downtrodden indigenous tribal people of the backward region of Odisha. Since
the king of Keonjhar was supported by the British the uprising was targeted
indirectly against the British through the king. So it was both anti-Colonial and
anti-feudal in nature. Utkal Dipika quoted the statement of Indian Daily News,
"If the British won victory against the British.48

References-
1. Senapati, N.(ed.), Orissa District Gazetteers (Keonjhar), Cuttack, 1967, p.2
2. Ibid.
3. Cobden Ramsay, L.E.B., Feudatory States of Orissa (Bengal Gazetteers), pp. 215-216
4. Proceedings of Lieutenant Governors of Bengal (Revenue), Orissa State Archives ( hereafter
OSA ), J. Johnston (Assistant Superintendent of Tributary Mahals) to T.E. Ravenshaw
(Superintendent), No. 22, 1 April 1870.
5. Cobden-Ramsay, op.cit.
 Vocalizing Silence : Subaltern Protest... 73
6. Ibid.
7. Proceedings of Lieutenant Governors of Bengal ( hereafter PLGB ) (Judicial), vol. J / 7,
OSA, W. Hunter to T. Pokenham, 17 March 1821.
8. Cobden Ramsay, op.cit..
9. Ibid
10. Ibid.
11. Singh, Jagabandhu, Prachina Utkala (O), Cuttack, 1956, p.377.
12. PLGB (Political), Proceedings of the court of Superintendent of Orissa Tributary
Mahals, OSA, 19 March, 1862.
13. Cobden-Ramsay, op.cit.
14. Ibid
15. Ibid, p. 219.
16. PLGB, vol.612, OSA, reports on Keonjhar Rebellion of 1868.
17. PLGB, vol.612, J. Johnston to T.E. Ravenshaw, No.22, 1 April, 1870.
18. Ibid.
19. Cobden-Ramsay, op.cit., p.219
20. PLGB, vol-108, A.J.M. Mills to Lt. Haines, 15 February 1844.
21. PLGB, vol- 612, Johnston to Ravenshaw, No. 22, 1 April, 1870.
22. Mishra, Prasanna Kumar, Political Unrest in Orissa in 19th Century, Calcutta, 1983, p.140-
141.
23. PLGB, vol.612s, Johnston to Ravenshaw, No. 22, 1 April, 1870.
24. Utkal Dipika (Oriya Daily), 9 May, 1868.
25. Mishra, Prasanna Kumar, op.cit.
26. Buckland, C.E., Bengal Under Lieutenant Governors, Vol-1, Calcutta, 1902, p.422.
27. PLGB, vol. 612, Report on Keonjhar Rebellion of 1868.
28. Ibid.
29. Utkal Dipika, 9 May 1868.
30. Ibid, 16 May 1868.
31. PLGB, vol. 612s, op.cit.
32. Buckland, op.cit., pp. 420-426.
33. PLGB, vol. b12 s, op.cit.
34. Utkal Dipika, 16 May 1868.
35. Ibid.
36. Buckland, op.cit., p.423.
37. Utkal Dipika, 23 May 1868.
38. Ibid, 30 May 1868.
39. Ibid.
40. Utkal Dipika, 13 June 1868.
41. Ibid, 11 July 1868.
42. Buckland, op.cit., p.423.
43. Utkal Dipika, op.cit.
44. Buckland, op.cit., pp.423-426
45. Cobden-Ramsay, op.cit.
46. Buckland, op.cit, p.426
47. Ibid.
48. Utkal Dipika, 25 July, 1868.
*****
74

16. Translated Literature Of Koch

Behar in Medieval Age

*Abhijit Barman

The Bengali literature of medieval age was mainly based on destiny.

Different types of religious epics were written on the basis of this literature –
such as Mangal Kabya, Translated Literature, Nath Sahitya etc. There was a
historical reason behind the creation of translated Literature. A great revelation
of social atmosphere of Bengal was affected due to attack of Turkic in 1202. It
was spread up to Bihar in North-East.1 As a result an atmosphere of unrest was
seen among the people of Bengal. There was no sign of safety in the life of
common people. So the creation of basic literature was not possible.
Brahma culture and ancient culture were already deep-rooted in the age
of Gupta in Bangladesh. The kings of Pal were also lover of ancient epic. The
defeated Hindus tried to recover this status. The language of the ruler becomes
Arabic and Persian because the power of Hindu King has been transferred in
the hands of Muslim ruler. Not merely the language a huge number of people of
Brahma culture realized that their power and language were being over looked.
So they tried to save their own culture by mixing between the culture of high-
born and low-born people. After the creation of translated literature - Ramayana,
Mahabharata, Bhagabata and other ancient epics in Sanskrit are included in
this translated Literature.2 To deal with the History of Koch Behar Dr. Ramesh
Chandra Majumder opined that almost all Bengal were dominated by Muslim
King except Koch Behar and Tripura. They tried to keep the liberty intact against
the powerful Muslim king.3 Gradually the state become Hindu state and naturally
literature was based on purana.
Infect the dynasty of Koch was started under the reign of Koch-King
Biswa Singa. But the written form of literature was handed down from 13th and
14th century. We came to know this literature in the practice of puran of Kamta
Raj Durlav Narayan and Indra Narayan. The Kings of Koch were particularly
worshiper of shiv but they had sympathy towards the other religion.4 However
*Research Scholar, Department of Bengali, Assam Central University, Silcher
 Translated Literature of Koch.... 75
there were many erudite person who wrote many literature in the royal court.
Most of them were translation of Sanskrit, Ramayans, Mahabharata and Purana.5
The literature of kamata was mainly two types: 1) Translated literature. 2)
Basic literature. But Translated literature is the best literature. It has three types
1) Translation of Bhagabata, 2) Translation of Ramayana, 3) Translation of
Mahabharata. Beside some Sanskrit and other translated books was less important.6

Purana:
The beginning of literature in Koch Behar was started through the practice
of reading purana in medieval age. Hem Saraswati, Harihar Bipra and Kabi
Ratna were three distinguished court poet in 14th century. Kabi Hem Saraswati
wrote ‘Prohllad charita’ and ‘Horogouri Sambad on the basis of Baman purana
and Narosingha purana.7
From 16th to 19th century the number of translated purana and sub-purana
of Kamata State was eleven. e.g. Markandeya purana, Bhagabata purana,
Narodiya purana, Bishnu purana, skandha purana, Brahma-Baibarta purana,
Shiv purana, Gorur purana, Dharma purana, Brihat Dharma purana, Nrisingha
purana. Among them Markandeya purana and Bhagabata 10th chapter were edited
under the reign of King Biswasingha. Narodiya purana was composed during
the period of King Upendra Narayan and the rest of the purana were composed
under the reign of Harendra Narayan and Shibendra Narayan.8
Among the puranas Bhagabata purana was the most popular purana. Pitamber
Das Composed 10th chapter of Bhagbata and Markendeya purana during the period of
Biswasingha. All chapters of Bhagabata were translated by Sankar Deb and his followers.
Manuscripts of ancient books are preserved in North Bengal. Some Manuscripts were
of 450 years old. The following manuscripts of purana and Bhagabata are stated below:
Manuscript No.- 2) Brihat Dharma Purana (Middle Part) - Maharaja
Harendra Narayan (1783) 3) Gorur Purana, 7) Nrisingha purana – Dwija
Ramananda (1777). 8) Markendeya purana – Pit amber (1602). 10) Bhagabata
6th chapter – Dwija Jagannath (19th century). 12) Brahmabaibarta purana –
Baidhya Nath (19th century). 13) Markendeya purana – Pitambar (1777). 14)
Markendeya chandi – Mahinath Sarma (19th century). 16) Shiv Sanghita or
Shiva Sangkritana - Rameswar. 18) Padma purana – Baidyanath. 19) Padma
purana – Baidyanath. 21) Vishnu purana – Madhab ch. Sharma (1783). 22)
Brihat Dharma purana (Uttar khanda) – Maharaja Harendra Narayan (1783).
23) Skandha purana – Raja Harendra Narayan (1783). 28) Naradiya purana –
Dwija Narayan (1714-1764). 29) Chandikar Bratakatha – Madhab Chandra
(1839). 30) Chaitannya Bhagabata (Adi khanda) – Brindaban Das. 31)
Chaitannya Bhagabata (Madhya khanda) – Brindaban Das. 32) Sri Chaitannya
Bhagabata ( Anta khanda) – Brindaban Das. 33) Sri Bhagabata Baishnab Charita.
76 Abhijit Barman

34) ,Baishnab bandana – Brindaban Das. 35) Chaitannya Gita – Kali Das. 36)
Hari Nam Kabaj – Krishna Das. 54) Shiv purana – Dwija Baidhya Nath(19th
century). 56) Brahmabaibarta purana (Brahma Kanda) – Ripunjay(19th century).
57) Dharma purana – Ramananda(1719). 57) (A) Dharma purana –
Ramanada(1719). 58) Bhagabata (10th chapter) – Pitambar (1522-1554).9
In medieval age there was no difference of regional languages between
Koch Behar and Assam. But it is interesting to note that there was a separate
book-house of Assam’s in Koch Behar State library. The followings are the
books of purana and Bhagabata of Koch Behar library.
Manuscript No.- 1) Gorur purana – Mahapuras Sankar Deb. 2) Gopi
Utbhab Sambad–Sankar Deb. 3) Gita – Gobinda Mishra. 4) Bhagabata – Sankar
Deb. 5) Bhagabata(Harish Chandra Upakhyan) – Sankar Deb(16th century). 7)
Gopi Tuba Sambad–Sankar Deb (16th century) 8) Gita. 9) Bhakti Ratnabali –
Madhab Deb(17th century). 13) Bhagabata (1st Chapter) – Sankar Deb(16th
Century) 14) Bhagabata (2nd Skandhya) – Anirudhya. 15) Sri Krishna Janma
Rahashya – Madhab Deb (17th Century). 16) Bhagabata (Eleven Scandh Shankar
Deb(16th Century). 19) Bhagabata – (10th Chapter) – Ananta Kandali.10
Through the translation of the purana we came to know Indian eternal
thinking and clear conception of the king of the period. At present if we analyses
this translated literature we find the patronage of the king of that period, the
aesthetic Sentiment of the poet, collection of words, rhetoric and prosody, and
poetic genius of the poet and over all the social awareness of the people.11

Ramayana:
Ramayana was not read in entire Koch State as purana and Mahabharata.
After 16th century it has been stopped for about two hundred years. Next, at the
patronage and behest of the king Harendra Narayan the reading of Ramayana
started. He himself took the responsibility of translating it. The poet of the
Ramayana of 15th century was Madhab Kandali, Ananta Kandali and Kabi
Durgabar. It is mentionable that there was no trace of ancient books in Koch
Behar Sava Sahitaya bhander .12The books which are found in Koch Behar
puthishala are state below Manuscript No.- 59) Ramayana – Adbhutacharjya. 60)
Ramayana (Sunder kanda) – Maharaja Harendra Narayan. 61) Ram–Narayana –
Raghunath(19th century). 62) Ramayana (Lanka Kanda) – Braja Sunder Dwija
(19th century). 63) Ramayana (Utter khanda) – Saradananda, Shatananda and
Raghuram (1729). 64) Ramayana (Aranya Kanda) – Maharaja Harendra Narayan.
66) Ramayana (Ajodhya Kanda) – Raghuram(1783). 67) Ramayana (Kiskindhya
Kanda) – Debananda, Srinath Dwija and Dwija Raghunath. 68) Ramayana (Lanka
Kanda) – dwija Braja Sunder (19th century). The books of Ramayana which are
found in Assamise manuscript are:Manuscript No. 12) Ramayana (Adi Kanda)
– Madhab Deb(17th century). 17) Ramayana (Bal Kanda) – Dwija Madhab.13
 Translated Literature of Koch.... 77
Mahabharata:
From 16th to 19th century the manner of writing literature prevailed in the
whole kamata Koch Behar was translation of Mahabharata. In this respect Koch-
King was sympathizes and patronage of this manner of writing, spread, diversity
and popularity of this literature. In 16th century Mahabharata was translated into
four chapters (Sava, Udyog, Visma and Dron) in the kindness of Koch-King. In 17th
century it has been translated into six chapters - for example – Kirat, Dron, Adi,
udyog, Visma, and goda. In 18th century only one part of Mahabharata has been
translated. But in 19th century the translation of Mahabharata has been done widely
in the reign of Maharaja Harendra Narayyan. In this time the part of Mahabharata
which are translated are as follows – Adi parba, Sava, Bana, Visma, Karna, Salya,
Santi, Aswamedh, prasthanic, Aishik, Mousad, Goda, Aswamedh, and sargarohan
parba. Some parbas are translated by many poets. Perhaps the practice of reading
Mahabharata with great enthusiasm will not be found in any dynasty of world
history.14 The Manuscript of Mahabharata which are found in the North Bengal
State library are stated below :-
Manuscript No.- 69) Mahabharata, Nal Damayanti , Upakhyan, Bana
Parba. 70) Mahabharata, Prasthanic parba – Mahinath(19 th century). 71)
Mahabharata, Masual parba- Dwija Baidhyanath (19th century). 72) Mahabharata,
Swargarohan parba- Madhab Chandra.(1754). 73) Mahabharata, Aishik parba –
Maharaja Harendra Narayan (1783). 74) Mahabharata, Karna parba- Manahar
Das. 75) Mahabharata, Goda parba – Dwija Ramananda. 76) Mahabharata, Sava
parba – Jay Dey, Maharaja Harendra Narayan and Dwija Braja Sundar. 77)
Mahabharata, Adi paraba – Srinath Brahaman(1718). 78) Mahabharata, Droupadi
Swayambar – Srinath Brahman. 79) Mahabharata, Karna parba – Laxi Ram (1771).
80) Mahabharata, Shalya parba – Maharaja Harendra Narayan. 81) Mahabharata,
Visma parba – Dwija Raghuram. 82) Mahabharata, Karna parba – Laxmi Ram.
83) Mahabharata, Shakti parba – Dwija Raghuram (1496). 84) Mahabharata,
Ashramik parba – Dwija Kriti Chandra (1783). 85) Mahabharata, Dron parba –
Srinatha Brahman and Dwija Kabiraj (17th century). 86) Mahabharata, Droupadi
Swayambar – Srinath Brahman (17th century). 87) Mahabharata, Droupadi
Swayambar – Srinath Brahman (17th century). 88) Mahabharata, Salya parba –
Dwija Ramanada. 89) Mahabharata, Visma parba Dwija Kabiraj. 90) Mahabharata,
Kirat parba – Kabi Shekhar(1754). 91) Mahabharata, Aswamedh parba - Dwija
Mahinath(1754). 92) Mahabharata, Adi parba – Dwija Rudra Deb. 93)
Mahabharata, Visma parba – Raghuram. 94) Mahabharata, Visma parba – Dwija
Ram Saraswati(1682-1693). 95) Mahabharata, Visma parba – Dwija Raghunath
and Ram Sarswati. 96) Mahabharata, Santi parba – Dwija Baidhanath(1774).
97) Mahabharata, Dron parba – Srinath Brahman and Dwija Kabiraj(1680).
98) Mahabharata, Bana parba – Dwija Paramananda. 99) Mahabharata, Bana
parba – Dwija Baidhyanath and Mahinath. 100) Mahabharata, Bana parba –
78 Abhijit Barman

Dwija Balaram(1783). 101) Mahabharata, Bana parba – Dwija Baidhyanath

(1783). 102) Mahabharata, Bana parba – Ananta Kandali. 103) Ganga Bhakti
Tarangini – Durga Prasad. 112) Mahabharata, Khandab Dahana.
The Manuscript of Mahabharata found is Assamise pandulipi are as follows :-
Manuscript No.– 6) Mahabharata, – Kangshari. 10) Mahabharata, Shamba
parba – Dwija Gopinath. 11) Mahabharata, Karna parba – Baidhya Panchanan.
20) Mahabharata, Sova parba – Dwija Gopinath.
Finally we may occlude that as the medieval literature is based on religion
the literature of Koch Behar Rajsava has become destiny based. So most of the
literatures of North Bengal depend on purana and Mahabharata. As the branch
of translated literatures has been flourished at the time of the king, Harendra
Narayan so we discussed it briefly. This part of literature was not merely an
imitation even it based on translation. Agreeing with Dr. Shashi Bhusan Das
Gupta I would like to conclude my article that the literature based on Bhagabata
– purana, Ramayana and Mahabharata and backed by Koch Raj-Bansha is not
only the literature of Koch Behar but it enriched the entire Bengali literature also.

Reference-
1. Sri Bhudeb Chowdhuri – Bangla Sahitya Etikatha in Bengali, Days Publishing, August-
2009, Kolkata, page-75.
2. Asit Kr. Bandhyapadhya - Bangala Sahiter Sampurna Etibrita, (10th – 20th century) in
Bengali, Modern Book Agency Private Limited, 2002-2004, Kolkata, page – 38.
3. Ramesh Chandra Majumder – Bangla Desher Etihas (Madhya yuga) in Bengali, General
Printers and Publishers Private Limited, Jan-2003, Kolkata, page – 459.
4. Krishnendu Dey - Coochbehar Paricroma in Bengali, Coohbehar Grantha Prakashana,
May 1985, Coochbehar, page- 54.
5. Ramesh Chandra Majumder – Bangla Dasher Etihas (Madhya yuga) in Bengali,Generel
Printers and Publishers Private Limited, Jan-2003, Kolkata, page – 459.
6. Ajitesh Bhattacharjee – Madhuparni – (Special Publication on Coochbehar District) in
Bengali. 1989, Balurghat, page–231.
7. Swapan Kr. Roy – Coochbehar Raj Darbarer Sahitya Charkha in Bengali, Books Way
publishers, Jan -2011, Kolkata, page – 5.
8. Ajitesh Bhattacharjee –ibid, Page – 232.
9. Hemanta kr. Roy Barman – Coochbeharer etihas in Bengali, 2nd Edition – 1988, Coochbehar,
pp– 109 -110.
10. Ibid, page - 113.
11. Dr. Nipendra Nath Pal – Etikothay Coochbehar in Bengali, Anima Publishers, Jun 2006,
Kolkata, page – 121.
12. Ajitesh Bhattacharjee – ibid, page – 236.
13. Hemanta kr. Roy Barman – ibid, pp – 110-111.
14. Dr. Shachindra Nath Roy – Sahitya Sadhanay Rajanya Shasita coochbehar in Bengali,
Supreme publishers, oct- 1999, Coochbehar, pp 128-129.

*****
 79

17. Genesis Of The Kshatriya

Movement Of The Rajvansis
in North-Bengal And its Impact

*Dipak Roy

The Kamta-Koch kingdom founded by Viswasimha in the 16th century

established their supremacy over North-Bengal, northern parts of Bangladesh
and Western Assam by the prominent Koch kings1 Viswasimha among the Koch
Kings embraced Brahman cal religion and brought Brahmans from Kanauj,
Kasi and from other places in this kingdom2. The Rajopakhyana stated
Viswasimha, the founder of the Kamata-Koch kingdom was the son of Lord
Siva and his mother was Hira, the wife of Haridasa (Haria Mondol). Hira was
a woman of Koch tribe of Chikna hill of Goalpara district in Assam3. Before
the adoption of Hinduism by the Kamata-Koch kings, the Koch’s and the Meches
freely intermarried4.
During the reign of Maharaja Naranarayana (1534-1587) the process of
Hinduisation continued in the form of fourfold caste system introduced in
Kamrupa by Sidhantaragisha5.On the contrary the introduction of Hinduism
led to the struggle between the old religious tribal belief and Hinduism. For
this reason Maharaja Naranarayana had to issue an edict by which the tribal
from of worship prevalent among the Koch’s, Meches and Kacharis were
legalized6. Yet the struggle between the local priests named Kolitas, Deosis
and Rojas and the Brahmans for religious supremacy continued for a long time7.
The anthropologists and historian put forwarded different opinions regarding
the origin of the Koches. Risley opined that the Koch’s were a large Dravidian
tribe of North East and eastern Bengal with some admixture of Mongolian
blood8. Dalton considered the Koch’s belonging to the Dravidian stock9. Oldham
has also expressed the same view10. On the other hand Waddle11 Hodgson12,
Gait13, S.K.Chatterji14, D.C. Sir car15 opined that the Koch’s belonged to the

*Assistant Professor of History, University B.T.$ Evening College, Gunjabari, Cooch Behar,
West Bengal
80 Dipak Roy
Mongolians race. B.N.Das, the noted anthropologist of North East India,
accepted the view that the Koch’s were of Mongolian origin16. It should be
noted here that from the post mutiny period the basic motive of the colonial
historiographers and ethnographers was to know the custom and social division
of India in order to identify its caste allies. So that the Raj could use its caste
allies as a counter force against the nationalist movement17. Even the Raj wanted
to reorganize the native army in such a way that it should be composed of
different nationalists and castes as a general rule mixed promiscuously through
each regiment18.
Since post mutiny period the Raj devoted extraordinary emphasis on the
ethnological enquiries for its own purpose. Gait opined that after Hinduisation,
the Koch’s adopted the appellation Rajbangsi.19 S.N. Bhattacharya has expressed
that after the introduction of Hinduism the Koch’s adopted Rajbangsi
appellation20. But neither the Persian records nor the foreign travellers have
mentioned the Koch’s as Rajbangsi21. Even Darrang Rajvamsabali, the
genealogical account of Koch royal family, has not mentioned the term
Rajbangsi. Here, Haria-Mondol the father of Viswa Simha has been mentioned
as Mach22. Buchanan also described the Koch tribe as non-Aryan and non-
Hindu23. Probably efforts on the part of the Koch kings to promote Hinduism
were revived later on. The major portion of such grants bore dates between
1770 and 1815. We may tentatively suppose that assumption of title of Rajbangsi
by the common tribesmen, as opposed to the tribal elites, commenced sometime
in the latter half of the 18th century”24. Historian D.Nath also believes that the
appellation adopted by the Koch’s later on 25.
In the opinion of Sekhar Bandyopadhyay the spread of Western liberal
ideas and commercialisation of agriculture and the growth of urban industrial
culture had shaken the traditional social structure and opened new avenue for
social upliftment of the lower castes 26. At the same time the British Census
policy from 1891 to 1931 encouraged the different lower community for higher
social status which were denied by the superior castes27. These Rajvansis have
become rich by taking advantage of reclamation of jungle area i.e. north Bengal
in the 19th century28. In the middle half of the 18th century Rajbangsi poet
Ratiram Das first claimed that the Rajvansis are of Kshatriya origin in his Jag-
gan. Probably his claim for Kshatriya origin came as a reaction against the
oppression of Devi Singh 29. Sri Hari Kishore Adhikari of Goalpara district in
his book “Rajbangsi Kulu Pradip” book claimed that Rajvansis are Bratya
Kshatriya and they are separate Caste from the Koches 30. It is interesting to note
that the Rajvansis in the Census of 1891 recorded them as Bratya Kshatriyas 31.
In B.S. 1318 Sri Moniram Kabbya Bhusan in his book “Rajbangsi
Kshatriya Dipak” claimed first that the Rajvansis are Kshatriyas 32. In a
memorandum to the Indian Statutory Commission the Rajvansis claimed that
 Genesis of the Kshatriya... 81
they were the descendants of Raja Kamateswar 33. Krishna Das Bairagi in Gosani
Mongol Kabbya described Niladwaj as a cowherd of a Brahman. Later on with
the help of this Brahman Niladwaj became King of Kamatapur34. The Kamruper
Brandi mentioned Niladwaj as Koch origin 35. According to Kalyan Barua the
first step of conversion Koch from tribal to non-tribal stage is self-imposed
taboo on certain food items(i.e. beef, pork, chicken, rice beer etc). In this stage
they identify themselves as Khena .36 On the other hand Sri Ghanashyam Dalui
has described the Koch Kings as Kshatriya origin 37. In the Census of 1901 the
Kshatriya Rajvansis were enumerated as only Rajvansis. This caused strong
resentment among the Rajbangsi Community. In February 1912 several
thousands of Rajvansis from different parts of North Bengal and Assam
assembled on the bank of the sacred river Karotoya at Debiganj for wearing
sacred threads in presence of the Brahmans. 38 The Samity also claimed that the
representation in the Council of Government must be thorough and from every
community high or low, and every interest should be represented by members
of their Community 39. The samity also distanced away from the ongoing national
movement and sought opportunity for more jobs, education and political favour
from the government 40.
Historian Ranjit Das Gupta explaining the socio-economic background
of the Kshatriyan movement in the Jalpaiguri District mentioned that with the
coming of the British there occurred major dislocation of the socio-economic
life of rural population. This contrary process of development generated social
tension among the Rajbangsi Community, which founded expression in the
Kshatriyan movement 41At the same time administrative posts were occupied
by the immigrant upper caste Bengalis 42. There were also differences of opinion
on different issues among the samity leaders43. To substantiate his observation
Swaraj Basu mentioned that regarding the inclusion of the Rajbangsi Kshatriyas
in the schedule caste list a section of the Kshatriya samity leaders thought that
it would be inconsistent with the Kshatriya status.44. s Prasanna Deb Raikat of
Jalpaiguri was one of the leading members of the Kshatriya Samity. The Jotedar
association was formed with the Jotedars of all communities 45. The landholders
association sent a memorandum to the Eastern State Agency Resident, Col.
Robinson on 22nd May 1934 to retain the Khas collection system.46 Not only
the Kshatriya samity disapproved the hattola movement by the Adhiyars 47,
under leadership of the communist party.
Prof. Tapas Kumar Ray Choudhury observed that the introduction of the
practice of untouchability by immigrant Bengalis was one of the reason for the
growth of the Kshatriyan movement. Jotedars were at the same time cultivators.
Although there was economic division there was no caste division. 48
Upendranath Barman who was one of the prominent leaders of the Kshatriya
samity had lodged a complain to the Kochbehar State Superintendent E.L.L.D.
82 Dipak Roy
Hammonds against the decision of the Victoria college authority to separate
the dining hall of the Rajbangsi students from the upper caste students49. Even
in Rangpur court Panchanan Barma received ill treatment from the upper caste
lawyers.50 Tapas Kumar Ray Chudhury has rightly observed “Varna or caste
caused no upliftment or degradation to any member of the traditional Rajbangsi
Society. This was known as Kshatriya movement of the Rajbangsi community”.51
The reason for Barman’s opposition to the bill was that the bill would
have created division and dissentions within the Hindu community.52 B.Roy
Choudhury opined that the Rajbangsi kshatriya samity not only diatanced
themselves from the Koch’s but they did not support the Rabhas social upward
mobility in the 1930 and 1940, when they claimed the Shudra status within the
Hindu fold. Because it was the practice in North Bengal that Rabhas would
rear fowls on behalf of Rajvansis who used to get their shares from them.53
Most of the historians remained silent why Kochbehar State resisted the
penetration of the Kshatriyan movement in the princely state. In spite of the
opposition of the upper caste Hindus in Rangpur54, the Kshatriya movement
received patronage from the Raj. Panchanan Barrma was honoured with the
title Rai Saheb for helping the Raj during the 1st World War.55 But in the
Kochbehar State Panchanan Burma was ordered not to enter the Kochbehar
State without prior permission of the Regent council 56. On the contrary Maharaja
Harendranarayana and the indigenous officials of the state began to express
their anti British feeling.57
In 1878 the modernization of Kochbehar began. The process included the
introduction of western philosophy, western way of thinking and western value
system.58 In 1872, izaradari system was replaced by jotedari system which
produced an opulent and progressive middle class.59 On the other hand the
princely Kochbehar state remained free from all sorts of ongoing national
movements60. On the other hand, the administrative officers of the state were
not in a mood to allow the rise of any other leadership from the indigenous
people of the state. Even the state officials suppressed the Kshatriyan movement
with the state force.61 On the contrary, the samity explained that the outsiders
opposed the movement out of their fear that any kind of social regeneration
among the local community would have undermined their dominance. 62
In this way, a feeling of anti immigrants was developed among the ‘sons
of the soil’ of Kochbehar State. It was during the reign of Maharaja
Jagadipendranarayana (1922-1970) Kochbehar Hitasadhani Sabha was formed
to curve the dominance of the immigrants in the state. The main slogan of the
Hitasadhani Sabha was “Kochbehar for Kochbeharis”. Maharaja
Jagatdipendranarayana himself patronized the Hitasadhani Sabah. 63 We can
also say that the present Uttarkhand, Kamatapuri and Greater Kochbehar
movement has its roots in the Kshatriyan movement 64
 Genesis of the Kshatriya... 83
References-

1. Kalyan Barua, Ethnicity and Inter -ethnic Relations in Assam. The Koch-Rajbangsi Caste in
Ethnic
groups, Cultural Continuities and Social Changes in North East India, (ed), Indira Barna,
Sarthak
Sengupta,Dipanjana Duttagupta, New Delhi, 2002. p, 37.
2. Khan Choudhury Amanatullah Ahmed. A History Of Coochbehar,Vol. I 1936, p, 95.
3. Joynath Munsi’s Rajopakhyana, (ed), Biswanath Das, Cal, 1985, pp, 7-9.
4. E.A.Gait, History of Assam, Cal, 1906, p, 45.
5. N.N.Vasu, Social History of Kamrupa, Vol-II, New Delhi, Reprint, 1974, p, 58.
6. S.L. Barua, A Comprehensive History of Assam, New Delhi, 1985, p, 443
7. Shinkichi Taniduchi , “A Perspective into the Changing Agrarian Structure “in ‘The Kooch
Bihar Princely State During the 19th Century “in The Kingdom of Kamata Kooch Bihar in
Historical Perspective,(ed) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya, N.B.U, 1990, p, 185
8. H.H.Riseley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal 1891, p, 491
9. E.T.Dalton ,Descriptive Ethnology Of Bengal, Cal, 1872, p, 90
10. Quoted from Risley, op.cit, p, 491
11. L.A. Waddel, Tribes of Brahmaputra Valley Reprint, Delhi, 1975, p48
12. B.H. Hodgson, Essay the first on the Koch Bodo and Dhimal Tribes, Cal, 1874, p VIII
13. E.A. Gait, op.cit, p .4
14. S.K. Chatterji, Kirata Jana Kriti,,p, III, ff
15. D.C.Sircar’s Introduction to Gauda Rajmala By R.P. Chanda, Cal 1975,
16. B.N.Das, “Some Aspects of Physical Anthropology of the Tribes of North East India”( A
paper presented at the seminar of the tribes of North-East India, held in Shillong and sponsored
by the North-Eastern Council of social science research, 1980.)
17. Sekhar Bandopadhyay, Caste, Politics, and the Raj, Bengal, 1872, 1937,cal, 1990, p-23
18. Ibid, 29
19. E.A.Gait, op.cit, p.47
20. S.N.Bhattacharyya, A History of Mughal North-East Frontier Policy Reprint, cal, 1994, p-
21
21. D.Nath ,History of The Kingdom, 1515-1615, Delhi, 1989, p.5.
22. Darrang Rajvamsabli, Suryakhari Daibagya, (ed), Biswanarayan Sastri, Bhabaprasad chaliha,
Gauhati, 2002, p.19.
23. Risley op.cit , p.491.
24. Shinkuchi Tanikuchi, (ed), Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya, op.cit, p 186.
25. D.Nath op.cit, p.5.
26. Sekhar Bandopadhyay op.cit, p 11.
27. Ibid, p. 100.
28. Ibid, p .108.
29. Quoted from Upendranath Barman’s, Rajbangsi Kshatriya Jatir Itihas, 3rd edition, Jalpaiguri,
B.S.1388, pp8-9
30. Quoted from Upendranath Barman’s, op.cit, pp.23.
31. Dr. Rajat Subhra Mukhopadhyay, Uttarkhand Movement, A sociological Analysis,
centre for Himalayan studies N.B.U, 1987, p.12.
32. Upendranath Barman, op.cit, p.3.
33. Swaraj Basu, Dynamics of a Caste Movement, the Rajbangsi’s of North Bengal, 1910- 1947,
New Delhi, 1994, p.67.
34. Radha Krishna, Das Bairagi, Gosani Mongal, Kabbya (ed), Dr. Nipendranath Pal, cal,
Reprint, 1992, p-67
84 Dipak Roy
35. Kamruper Buranji, (ed), S.K.Bhuyan, Gauhati, 1930, p-99
36. Kalyan Barua, Ethnicity and Inter-ethnic Relations in Assam, the Kooch Rajvomgshi (ed)
Indira Barua and others, op.cit, p.40.
37. Sri Ghanashyam Dalui, SACHITRA KOCHBIHAR-RAJ CHITRA, Part I, Cal, 1914,p-1
38. Ranjit Dasgupta, Economy Society and Politics in Bengal, Jalpaiguri, 1869, 1947, New
Delhi,1992. p-90.
39. Letter of Panchanan Burma to the chief secretary to the government of Bengal dated 6th
November,1917.
40. Ranjit Dasgupta ,op.cit pp 91-92.
41. Ibid, p-87
42. Swaraj Basu, op.cit, p-36.
43. Ibid,pp-136-137
44. G.B appoint(reforms) file no-ir-2 of 1933 April 1934 progs no 9-61 serial no 50.
45. Nirmal Chandra Choudhury, Raikat Vamsa-o-Tahader Sankhipta BIBARAN, Jalpaiguri
B.S.1389, P-44
46. Upendranath Barman, Uttar Banglar Sekal-o-Jeban Smriti, Jalpaiguri, B.S.1392,PP,59-60
47. Swaraj Basu, op.cit,P, 125
48. Dr. Shib Sankar Mukherjee’ Kochbiharer Samajik Kathamo, in Madhuparni Kochbihar
Sankhya B.S.1396. Balurghat, edi Ajitesh Bandhopadhyay pp, 104-125.
49. Upendranath Barman, op.cit. pp. 43-44.
50. Nirmal Chandra Choudhury, Chotoder Panchanan Barman ,Jalpaiguri 1990.p-24.
51. Tapas Kumar Raychaudhury ‘Land Control: Class Structure in Western Duars (1871-1905)
in The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh ,Vol. XXXII, no. 1 June 1987,p-43.
52. Jaya Chatterjee, Bengal Divided, Hindu Communalism and Partition 1932-1947, New
Delhi,1996,P,199
53. B. Raychaudhury ,Social Mobility Movement among the Rabhas of North Bengal, Man In
India,Vol,50, March 1970,pp. 89-97
54. A.K.Ray, ‘Some notes on the Kshatriya Movement in North Bengal’ in Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bangladesh; Vol-XX no.1 p53
55. Nirmal Chandra Choudhury, op.cit, p-33
56. Girija Shankar Ray, ‘Kshatriya Andolone Panchanan Burmaner Pratipakhya’ in
Pashchim Bangal, Ray Sahib Panchanan Barman, February,2005, Calcutta,p-37
57. “Partha Sen. , Study of Some Aspects of the history of Kamata Kochbihar since 1772 to
the date of accession of Sivendranarayana, unpublished PHD thesis, N.B.U, 1989, p-21
58. Sailen Debnath, ‘Cultural Imperialism in British India: Case Study of the Coochbihar
Marriage in 1878’ in the ‘Kingdom of the Kamata Kochbihar in Historical Perspective’
(ed) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya,pp-23-29.
59. Memorandum submitted by Khan Chaudhury Amanatulla to the President, Regency
Council Kochbihar dated 22nd may, 1934
60. Dr. Ananda Gopal Ghosh, Bharater Swadhinata Andolan-o-Kochbiharer Rajanya
Barga, in Madhuparni, Sarad Sankhya, B.S.1390, edi, Ajitesh Bhattacharya, pp 9-19
61. Swaraj Basu, op.cit, p-81.
In the census 1891 Kochbihar recorded 30. 10% Muslim population (Sheikh Rahim
Mondale, Muslim Minorities in Kochbihar: their History and Culture, (ed) Pranab Kumar
Bhattacharya op.cit,p
62. Girija Shankar Ray, op.cit,p-43
63. Abbasuddin Ahmed ‘Amar Shilpi Jibon’, p-116.
64. Rajatsubhra Mukkhopadhyay, op.cit, pp, 33-34.
*****
 85

18. Undiscussed Aspects On

Contribution Of Royal Houses Of
Odisha in Freedom Movement
A Theoretical Discourse
*Dr. Sadananda Nayak

Introduction
India is a largest democracy country in the world at present. This Country
is not in a present form what today is before independence in 1947. Though
geographically it was in the same location but politically it was dismembered
into so many smaller and bigger administrative units ruled by Rajas, Maharajas
and Feudal lords. Politically India was scattered into numbers of territory where
there was no unanimity form of government. But in most of territory kingship
rule was there having different ideological system of administrations. Upto
1947 not only in Odisha but throughout India situation was same. From the
last Hindu rule in 1568 to India’s independence in 1947, Odisha had been ruled
by the Afghans, Mughals, Marathas and Britishers but major parts of Odisha
states were under the rule of local Chiefs. During this time so called Odisha
was exploited and humiliated by the respective rulers. The peoples of Odisha
politically dismembered, economically exploited and socially humiliated by
the above rules of Odisha.
In 1803, Odisha was conquered by the Britishers. Britishers became the
master of this land till Indian independence in 1947. They ruled India roughly
two hundred years and during this period they have been exploited till to
crackdown the legs of this land. British administration became blessing in
disguise to Indians. In the course of time, Indians started to revolt against
Britishers and that revolution became the mass movement which is known as
Indian Independence Movement in Indian history. In these mass movement
peoples of all sections participated for Indian independence. In this paper an

*Lecturer, P.G.Deptt. of History, Sambalpur University,Jyoti Vihar Burla, Odisha

86 Dr. Sadananda Nayak
attempt has been made to highlight the character and nature of participation of
Royal Houses of Odisha in freedom movement.

Sources of the Topic

For the purpose of the present study an effort has been made to study the
background, origin, evolution and participation of Royal Houses of Odisha in
freedom movement. Important books on the freedom movement in Odisha have
been written which are given in references has consulted to evaluate the
participation of royal houses in freedom movement. But least books reveal
anything about contribution of Royal Houses of Odisha towards freedom
movement. But some families contributed a little bit to this cause. It could be
more authentic to pledge that some of figures of royal family’s have contributed
a lot for the integration of Odisha Province in 1936. To establish the contributions
of royal houses on freedom movement in Odisha, we have to collect source
materials. It is says that history based on the foundation of truth and evidences.
Unless it historians never be able to establish events as history. We can collect
that information or evidences or proves from different points. These are
archaeological proves, Archival records and literary works. In archaeological
proves we consult archaeological remains, monuments, inscriptions and coins.
The archival sources also one of the most important wings to finish the project
work accumulating evidences from library and record rooms. In literary
evidences we can consult religious literature of all concern religion and from
secular literary works along with records of foreign travelers. These are the
major points from where materials or sources could have been collect to establish
history on the above argument.
So far as our topic is concerned the contribution of royal houses of Odisha
in freedom movement. To write any aspects on this theme is to collect data
from above mentioned sources. But none availability of archaeological materials
as primary sources to establish the events is in darkness. Only archival records
are there to consult for this purpose. The records of royal houses are in different
archives such as Odisha State Archive -Bhubaneswar, Tamilnadu State Archive-
Chennai, and Bengal State Archive-Kolkata. But there is a big question on the
authenticity of sources which have been maintained by the royal houses.
Sometimes record keepers have written in favour of rulers with fear or getting
an extra benefit. Sometimes court poets have exaggerated excess in their writing
out of reality. Dispatches, letters communicated by the local Kings to the British
Officials now in London Archive. When we are going to discuss the research
problem regarding the contributions of royal houses of Odisha in freedom
movement, we have to locate the availability of data from different sources of
different places and it has to be interpreted properly by the historians.
 Undiscussed Aspects on Contribution... 87
3. Meaning and definition of Royal Houses

Royal house indicates the king’s family or families or the members of

royal family. King or family members of king are the rulers of local territory
which define them as the members of royal house upper of the social strata.
The rulers of local territories are known as King or Raja or Feudal Lords. Before
British occupation Odisha was scattered into so many territories and ruled by
the local royal houses but under the British some territories were completely
under their administration and some were independently ruled under their
shadow. Accordingly, there were Princely states which were latter category
and British Odisha states which were the first category. But above all, all ruling
families are known as royal houses so far as our discussion is concern.

4. Royal Houses of Odisha

Royal houses of Odisha which is known as ruling class families who had
been ruling territories of Odisha since long back to Independence of India.
From early times to 1568 local chiefs were the rulers of local territories. After
1568 the so called Odisha region was occupied by the outsiders till to 1803.
During this period Afghans, Mughal and Marathas ruled Odisha region. But
from 1803 to independence of India in 1947, Odisha region had been ruled by
the Britishers. Above all, all territories of Odisha State hadn’t been ruled by the
above mentioned rulers but rest of territories of Odisha state being ruled by the
concerned local kings who are known as royal houses of Odisha. In the time of
Mughal rule, Mughal occupied Odisha territories were known as Mughal Bandi
and the rest regions which had been ruled by the local chiefs known as Garjats.
It is seen that in the British period, British occupied Odisha state and Princely
states. There were 26 princely states in Odisha state grouped 11 in ‘A’ class
states as such Dhenkanal, Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj, Bamanda, Boudh, Gangapur,
Patna, Kalahandi, Sonepur, Sareikala and Nayagarh ; 12 in ‘B’ class states like
Athagarh, Baramba, Narsinghpur, Athamallik, Hindol, Daspalla, Khandapara,
Kharasuan, Rairakhol, Talcher, Bolangir and Nilgiri and 3 in ‘C’ class states as
Pallahara, Ranpur and Tigiria. Except these territories, some of the territories
were there in south part of Odisha such as Paralakhemundi, Khallikote,
Dharakote, Chikiti, Sanakhemundi, Sheragarh, and Athagarh. These estates are
also known as royal houses of Odisha state.

5. Freedom Movement in Odisha

So far as our classification of Indian history is concerned, freedom

movement starts after formation of Indian National Congress in 1885 and it
88 Dr. Sadananda Nayak

continues through different stages up to independence of India in 1947. It is the

all India scenario of freedom movement but this process hadn’t been developed
in Odisha till 1920. Freedom movement in Odisha from 1885 to 1920 was not
in a mainstream rather it was based on regionalism. In 1803 so called Odisha
state was occupied by the Britishers. The different parts of Odisha state was
being ruled by the respective administrative units like Cuttack, Puri and Balasore
under Bengal Province, Ganjam region was under Madras Presidency and
Sambalpur region was under Central Province. The Odia Speaking tracts had
been divided and ruled by the numbers of provincial administration. From 1803
to 1947 Odisha was under the administration of British Government. The concept
of freedom movement was not seen during 1885 to 1920 but during 1803 to
1920 some most important rebellions were taken place in different places of
Odisha such as Paik Rebellion in 1817 at Khurda, Revolt of Surendra Sai (1828-
1862) in Sambalpur regions and Ghumsur Rebellion (1836 – 1857) in Ghumsur
and Kandhamal regions. But these movements are not considering at all as a
freedom movement rather it is called as resistance movement or rebellion. In
the Calcutta session of 1920, Gandhi proposed non-cooperation and it was
accepted by the congress members in large and in the Nagpur session this
proposal was passed by the majority congress men. After coming from Calcutta
session, Gopabandhu Das spread the non-cooperation throughout Odisha by
forming Utkal Pradesh Congress Committee. By the end of the First World
War, Utkalmani Pundit Gopabandhu Das had taken on the role of promoting
the Congress Movement in Odisha along with a group of young patriots .They
were responsible for carrying in the spirit of the struggle to the people at large.
Among them were men like Harekrushna Mahtab, Gopabandhu Choudhury,
Nabakrushna Choudhury, Bagirathi Mahapatra, Jagabandhu Singh, Mukunda
Prasad Das, Nityananda Kanungo, Jadumani Mangaraj, Niranjan Patnaik,
Dibakar Patnaik, Chandra Sekhar Behera, Nanda Kishore Das, Raj Krushna
Bose and others. Pundit Gopahandhu Das was later elected as the President of
the Utkal Provincial Congress Committee.
Gandhiji gave on the call for the Non-Co-operation Movement and
subsequently toured Odisha in March 1921.There was a huge response to his
call from all sections of the people. Though the Mahatma visited a few places
only, the message touched the hearts of the rural mass as well as the elite of
Odisha. Visit of other nationalistic leaders like C. Rajagopalachari, Motital
Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, among others, in 1922, gave a further impetus
to the national movement in Odisha.
Gandhi’s call for the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930 aroused the
entire nation and Odisha came forward for the most vigorous struggle of
independence. Breaking of Salt Law which was became the symbolic feature
of the disobedience. Odisha’s long coastal belt was once a thriving region for
 Undiscussed Aspects on Contribution... 89
salt production. However the Britishers had completely destroyed the industry
by enacting special laws. People thus took to breaking of salt law with vigour.
At Inchudi in Baleshwar district, Salt Satyagraha under Surender Natha Das
became only second to Gandhi’s Satyagraha in Gujarat in importance and impact.
Other notable places that attracted people for breaking salt law included Kujang
in Cuttack district, Kuhudi, Singeshwar and Latra in Puri district; and Huma in
Ganjam district (at that time in Madras Presidency) . Smt. Rama Devi, Smt.
Malati Choudhury, Acharya Harihar Das, Gopabandhu Choudhury, Atal Bihari
Acharya, Govind Misra, Raj Krushna Bose, Smt. Sarala Devi, Smt. Annapurna
Devi, Narayan Birabar Samantha, Birakishore Das, Lakshmi Narayan Misra, Smt.
Binapani Devi, and Surendra Nath Patnaik, among many others, became the
leading spirits of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Apart from these nationalistic uprisings in Odisha proper, there were
revolutions elsewhere in the Princely states or the Garhjat satates. There were
five such risings in Bamra, (Bamanda) three in Talcher, one in Mayurbhanj,
one in Dhenkanal, and one in Nilagiri, besides a dangerous rising of the Kondha
in Dashapalla during the period above mentioned. It is with much brutality, that
the respective authorities could manage to restore order in their areas.
During the Quit India Movement in August 1942, Odisha shot into
prominence with uprisings led by people in the absence of its leaders who had
been arrested and put in jail. At many such places, the British administration
almost vanished for some time. It was during this time that the famous massacre
of Eram in the district of Baleswar took place. It was here that the largest
number of people died in a single police action as compared to any such
action in whole of India. Eram also proved how the revolution in Odisha was
an affair of the poor and common people in far-away villages who required no
leadership to rise, but possessed a spontaneous will to take part in revolution
.Similarly in the district of Koraput; the revolution was carried on under the
leadership of Lakshman Nayak. He had taken the revolution to the grass root
level and the tribal inhabitants had risen spectacularly in defiance of the British
rule. At a place named Maathili several people fall victim to the police firing
and Nayak was injured, arrested and subsequently hanged to death.

6. Participation of Royal Houses of Odisha in Freedom Movement:

Odisha was fully involved during Gandhian phase (1920-1947) of freedom
movement. Peoples of Odisha actively participated in non-cooperation, civil-
disobedience and quit India movement. Though the percentage of people’s
involvement in freedom movement was not so high but the participation of
peoples of all sections was there. In this connection, the involvement and
participation of royal families were so meager with the comparison of other
90 Dr. Sadananda Nayak

parts of India. Most of the royal houses of Odisha were not in favour of
movement rather they had been supported British Authority for long run kingship
rule with their help. Participation of freedom fighters can be in term of Active
and Non-active. In the terms of active participation we can evaluate the
involvement of freedom fighters their involved in the activities like
demonstration, rally, dialogue, slogan and protestation in front of British
Officials and offices and by this being tortured with British boot, lathi and kept
in jails are the front line freedom fighters. Non-active freedom fighters are also
involved not in active form but in silent character like giving moral support and
inspiring through writings in different dailies and platform speech before the
mass gathering of peoples in different feast and festivals having staying outside
of mainstream of movement. But the royal family members of Odisha neither
actively nor silently participated in the movement in high scale. Some of the
Kings like Maharaja Krishna Chandra Gajapati,
Conclusion- Though the freedom fighters struggled for independence
throughout Gandhian Era in Odisha composing peoples of all sections including
royal family members may not place in equal status as freedom fighters. Though
emotionally we never grade them but in fact with the analysis of their
involvement in movement it may consider as active and non-active participants.

References:
1. N.K. Sahu, P.K Mishra and J.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, (5th ed.), Cuttack, 1904
2. S.N. Pattnaik , Odishare Swadhinata Andolana (Oriya), Cuttack, 1972
3. K.M. Patra, Orissa State Legislature and Freedom Struggle 1912-47, Cuttack, 1979
4. S. Patttnaik, History of Freedom Movement in Orissa, Vol. III, Cuttack, 1957
6. S.C. De: History of Freedom Movement in Orissa, Vol.I, Cuttack, 1971
7. C.R. Mishra, Freedom Movement in Sambalpur, 1827-1947, Sambalpur, 1986
8. N.K. Paradia: Ama Garba O Gouraba (Oriya), Bargarh, 1998
9. Jadunath Jena, Odishare Mukti Bidroha (Oriya), Cuttack, 1990
10. Bhakta Puran Sahu, Swadhinata Samgrama re Borasambar ra Bhumika, (Oriya), Orissa
Historical Research Journal, Sambalpur 2009
11. Jagannath Patnaik, Feudatory States of Orissa (1803-1857) vol.I. And Vol. II, Allahabad,
1988
12. Purna Chandra Das, The Economic History of Orissa in the 19th Century, Delhi, 1989.
13. P. Mukherhee, The History the Gajapati Kings of Orissa and their Successors, Cuttack,
1981
14. P.K.Mishra: The Political History of Orissa 1900-1936, Delhi, 1979
15. K.M. Patra, Orissa under the East India Company, Delhi, 1971
16. P.K.Mishra, Political Unrest in Orissa in the 19th Century, Calcutta, 1983
*****
 91

19. History And Historical Sources

Of North Bengal At A Glance

*Mithun Das

To the northern part of the river Ganges there are six districts such as
Coochbehar, Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling, Malda, Uttar Dinajpur, and Dakshin
Dinajpur.These area is called ‘North Bengal’. But from the historical point of
view there is no existence of any such terms.This territory was known by
different names in different times. In ancient times South-Western part of this
territory attained the name of Paundra or Paundra-Bardhana which comprised
Rajshahi, part of Bagura, Maldaha, Purnia, and Dinajpur . Later this
Pundrvardhan got marged to ‘Prag-Jyotishpura’. And Pragjyotisha it assumed
the name of ‘Kamarupa’. The western part of the Kamarupa comprised the
Kamata state which again turned into ‘Kamata-Coochbehar’ later on. It may be
mentioned here that during the reign of Kamaruparaja Vaskaravarman ‘Gour’
achieved the status of a state
I want to focus on the sources of historical studies of ancient North Bengal
in this article in the light of historical sources from Assam.
While discussing the history of ancient North Bengal lack of written
documents is left again and again and is the same case for the accounts for
paucity of written documents of ancient Indian history as India produced no
Herodotus or Thucydides.
We need to discuss the history of Prag-Jyotisha Kamarupa in order to
deal with the history of existing North Bengal. To know and realize the history
of this region we should study the history of Prag-Jyotisha Kamarupa. Later in
Vedic period civilization had flourished in this region keeping Prag-Jyotishapur
Kamarupa in the centre which is now in Assam. The Ahoms came to Kamrupa
in 1228 AD, and managed to establish a kingdom in Saumar Pitha. Gradually

*Research Scholar. (History), Langulia-1, Ghatpar. P.O.Nigamnagar, Dist-Cooch-Behar.

(West Bengal)
92 Mithun Das

this Ahom kingdom became powerful during the later Kamtapura reign. And in
the British India the Assam state was formed. Thus ancient history left far back
from this present name of Assam and North Bengal. Ancient scenario of Assam
and North Bengal thus made an identical histo-politico cultural entity keeping
close socio-cultural resemblance with Mithila.
North Bengal felt the brunt of great Indians hero Raghu’s conquests
towards Prag-Jyotisha Kamarupa and vast adjoining Himalayan regions1.The
Digvijaya of the Pandavas also helped North Bengal greatly in its task of adopting
the programme of aryanisation .Bhima proceeded to the East and conquered
the countries East of the Kuru including Bengal and adjoining lower Assam
valley2. In primitive age this North Bengal came to be known as ‘Paundra’3and
its king Paundraka who had the title of ‘Vasudeva’ and who was known as
Vasudeva Krishna as well killed Narakasur4. There is a reference of the city of
Paundra in Kalhan’s ‘Rajatarangini’ which was once the capital of ‘Gour’5.
In ancient literature, too, names of different places and races of North
Bengal such as Kirat, Rajbanshi etc are found6. They played an important role
to compose the history and culture of North Bengal. It is to be noted that there
are references of 23 princes of Vagadatta in ‘Ain-i-Akbari’ and he participated
in the battle of Kurukshetra7. Vagadatta was killed in this battle and thereafter
his princes ruled Bengal. We should also mention the reign of Sangaldiv who
also helped to compose the history of North Bengal. During the 4th century
B.C. this Rajbanshi ruler not only possessed the present North Bengal but also
occupied up to Gour in Bengal. It is to be noted that the city ‘Gour’ was founded
by Sangaldiv8. The name of this great Rajbanshi Kshatriya warrior is also found
in ‘Riyaz-us- Salatin’.9
We get the name of one of the greatest pala ruler, Dharmapala in Kamarupa
Buranji. He set up his own rule in the Brahmaputra valley.the other two great
ruler of that period were Manickchandra and Mynamati is also found.10
At about 11th century the Ghosh dynasty is said to be existed. An important
Copper Plate regarding this dynasty has been found in Dinajpur District11. It
can be mention that Jitari was the king of Varendrabhumi and Mahipala, one of
the pala kings was his contemporary. He was able to rule upto Jalpaiguri.
On the basis of above discussion we can say that the Asamiya tribals
contributed a lot in composing the ancient history of North Bengal as this region
was under the rule of Kamarupa as Prag- Jyotishpura for a long time.
Resemblance from the cultural aspect is also found between Mithila, Kamarupa
and the present North Bengal.The past history of this region is closely connected
with the culture of Mithila..
 History and Historical Sources... 93
References-
1. Raghuvamsa, canto-v, pp, 81-84, Sir Car. D.C; Studies in the Geography of Ancient
and Medieval India, Varanasi, 1960, pp-7.
2. Barua, B.M. Ashoka and his Inscriptions, Calcutta, 1968, pp-288.
3. “Agno Vanghah Kalingascha Pundra suhmascha….. Etc” Mahabrata, I, 102, 53.
4. “Paundraka Vasudeveti……..etc “Mahabrata, sabha, ch, 14, 20 Vishnu Purana, Book
v, ch.34.
5. Of Rajatarangini, iv, 420-421
6. Sircar, D.C; Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India, Varanasi, 1960, pp
103-104.
7. Ain-I Akbari by Abul Fazl Quoted by Robinson w, Descriptive Account of Assam, Delhi,
1975, p.147.
8. Bhuyan, S.K.Annals of Delhi Badshahate, Gauhati, 1947, p.1.
9. Khanchaudhury, A, Kochbeharer Itihas, Cooch Behar, 1936 .p.15.
10. Bhuyan S.K., Kamarupar Buranji, Gauhati, 1958. p-118
11. Banerjee, R.D., Banglar Itihas, part-I Calcutta, 1974, pp. 281-282.

*****
94

20. Role Of Students Of The Brahmaputra

Valley Of Assam in The Freedom Struggle
(A Case Study On Civil Disobedience
And Quit India Movement)
*Dr. Anjan Saikia
**Basanta Kr. Borah

The student community has occupied a very significant place in discussion

on any type of social movement. Even in the developed countries like France,
England, U.S.A. and Germany or the Scandinavian countries, students had
participated in anti-authoritarian movements at various levels and this
participation had taken various forms ranging from simple anti-authoritarianism
to more complex forms of radicalism.1
Assam Students’ Literary conference, one of the oldest students’
organizations of India came into existence in 1916.2 The origin of this
organization can be traced to the socio-political condition, prevailing at the
time in the province, following the British Government’s introduction of Bengali,
in 1836, replacing Assamese as the language of the schools and courts of Assam.
Therefore, in the first session of the Assam Students’ Literary Conference,
renamed Assam Chatra Sanmilan, held at Guwahati on 25th December, 1916
under the president ship of Lakshminath Bezbaruah3 it was clearly stated that
the conference would have nothing to do with any political propaganda or with
political movement.4 Presidents of various sessions of the Assam Chatra
Sanmilan often advocated the idea of active participation of students in politics’.5
Gradually, the importance of political awareness of students together with the
prevailing conditions of the time, resulted in the student community taking an
active part in politics. In fact, it was the students who began the movement in
Assam.6
*Deptt. of History, Cinnamara College, Cinnamara, Jorhat, Assam
**Deptt. of History, Mariani College, Mariani, Jorhat, Assam
 Role of Students of the Brahmaputra... 95
In the meantime, the nature of political developments in Assam as
elsewhere substantially changed as a result of the emergence of Mahatma Gandhi
in the field of Indian politics.7 Pointing out the influence of M.K. Gandhi in
Indian politics, Judith Brown wrote, ‘with the arrival of Gandhi in Indian politics,
the doors of modern politics were opened not only to the masses or even to all
those who had participated in Non Co-operation, but to the western educated
of the once backward areas and to some vernacular literates from town and
countryside who had acted as sub-contractors for Non Co-operation.’8 In fact,
it is true that the emergence of M.K. Gandhi paved the way of radicalization of
anti-imperialist struggle in India. In the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam also
mentioned above, the emergence of Assam Chatra Sanmilan (Students’
Organization) in 1916 was one of the remarkable development in the history of
radical politics in Assam.9 The students worked with great enthusiasm at the
Tezpur session of the Assam Association held in 1920, where it was proposed
that the decision to launch the Non-Co-operation in the state was to be publicized.
The reception committee erected four welcome gates in the name of Tilok,
Gandhi, Shaukat Ali and Swaraj.10 These gates brought a new impetus during
the session. On the importance of Tapir session, Krishna Nath Sarmah outlines,
“as the sudden political movement in India clasped Assam, Assamese people
now can’t think of starting political movement separately…. young Assam is
all agog to make thunderous participation. I was fascinated at the blessed spirit
of young Assam”.11 It is an admitted fact during the beginning of the Non Co-
operation Movement, the demand of the formation of the Assam Provincial
Congress on the lines of the Nagpur proposal was gaining popular support and
very soon Assam Provincial Congress Committee (APCC) came into existence
in 1921.12 Gradually, on behalf of the APCC, M.K. Gandhi was invited to
propagate the message of Non Co-operation among the Assamese people. In
fact, under the leadership of students’ community, peasantry became a dynamic
force and came into the path of socio-economic exploitation against the colonial
government.13 Against this background, the Non Co-operation Movement had
generated a tremendous revolutionary spirit in the rural places of Brahmaputra
Valley of Assam and here the peasantry spontaneously played a vital role under
the leadership of Chatra Sanmilan. Accordingly, vigorous no-tax campaign
was started at Boko, Luki, Bangaon, Chamaria, Jorhat, Golaghat, Sipajhar,
Patharughat and the like which resulted in heavy fall in government revenue
collection.14 Needless to say, the visit of Gandhi in 1921 and his associates
brought a new impetus. The importance of this historic movement lies to the
fact that many promising and devoted student leaders were the product of this
movement to lead the future movements under the banner of the freedom struggle
in Assam. For instances, Gandhar Borkotoky, Murulidhar Baruah, Ratnadhar
Baruah, Sarbeswar Borchetia, Bidyadhar Baruah, Biswanath Borpujari, Lila
96 ∗Basanta Kr. Borah
Dr. Anjan Saikia∗

Borah, Chandra Kanta Baruah, Dhodhi Mahanta, Sosodhar Malia Baruah,

Babula Phukon, Rohinikanta Hatibaruah, Krishna Nath Sharma, Kuladhar
Chaliha, Gong ram Bormedhi, Maheswar Baruah, Trihi ram Bairagi, Padmanath
Borthakur and so forth were the emerging student leaders from the Brahmaputra
Valley during the course of Non Co-operation Movement.15
Similarly, Gandhi’s historic march to Dandi on 12th March in 1930 had
ushered in a new phase of the national movement. Immediately afterwards,
guidelines were sent to all the Provincial Congress Committees, to spread up
preparations for launching the Civil Disobedience Movement. They argued
that the Salt Law could not be enforced in Assam, as Assam, being remote from
the sea, had no salt mines, and consequently, therefore, there should be no Civil
Disobedience in Assam.16 But the youth of Assam refused to remain mere
spectators in this saga of national resurgence. In the meantime, J.R. Cunningham,
the Director of Public Instructions of Assam issued the notorious Cunningham
Circular on 9th May, 1930, proclaiming that after the summer vacation, boys
would not be readmitted in the Government schools unless the parents, and in
the case of the higher classes, the boys themselves also, gave a written
undertaking that they would abstain from political activities.17 Young Congress
leaders, like Hemchandra Baruah and Omeo Kumar Das, who were eager to
launch the Civil Disobedience Movement in Assam, took advantage of the issue
of this circular and inspired the students to oppose it vehemently. Interesting
enough, the rural peasants also supported this movement and came forward
with a demand for the 50% reduction of land revenue and thus turning the
movement into an anti-imperialistic mass movement under the sole leadership
of student origination of the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam.18 During the phase
of Disobedience Movement, we have seen two interesting aspects also. As a
matter of fact, many peasant organizations began to emerge under the leadership
of the students. Among these Riot Sabah under the right wing student and
Krishkak Sabah under the left wing student leadership were to be emerged.19
Here, discussion regarding the role of peasant organizations is not pertinent
theme. In fact, it is true that peasants cannot represent themselves, they must be
represented.20 Hence, it is seen that the local Congress leaders overcame their
initial reluctance to start Civil Disobedience, the student leaders decided to
extend their picketing against the liquor, bhang and opium shops. For instances,
while Bijoychandra Bhagawati and Robin Kakotis went to Tezpur and Sibsagar
respectively, Narayan Choudhury took charge of Palashbari and Rampur areas
of the Kamrup District.21 Similarly, Tirthanath Sarma went to Korora, Sepoti
and Rangia in the North Bank and Rajanikanta Goswami took charge of the
Nalbari area.22 Simultaneously, Debeswar Sharma, Krishna Nath Sharma,
Harinarayan Baruah, Rameswar Battacharjee, Rajendra Nath Baruah, Shankar
Chandra Baruah, Darakanath Goswami, Bolo ram Chaliha, Surjakanta Phukon
 Role of Students of the Brahmaputra... 97
and the large number of emerging students from undivided Sibs agar District
successfully led the movement to popularize among the rural masses.23
The Quit India struggle was one of the important phases of the student
movement in Assam. The students succeeded in forcing the closure of the schools
and Colleges in Assam, for extended periods, and in bringing the whole
community of students into the struggle. Unfortunately, the Congress call for
the Quit India movement on 8th August, 1942, drove a wedge between the
nationalist students who believed in whole hearted co-operation with the
Congress programmes and the Communist-minded students who believed that
this resolution would not result in Congress League unity, necessary for the
formation of a national Government.24 However, as fierce nationalist feelings
swept the country, it had an electrifying effect inspiring the students to assume
the leadership of the national movement. As a matter of fact the direction of
affairs in many places soon passed out of the hands of the Congressmen.25
However, even amongst the nationalist group of students inspired by war
cry of ‘do or die’, there were two distinct groups with divergent views regarding
the strategy to be adopted for achieving their goal. One group included ardent
followers of Gandhi, not prepared to depart from the principles or non-violence,
under any circumstances. The second group included students like Ajit Barua,
Gopal Goswami, Nilmani Das, Robin Goswami, Shankar Chandra Baruah and
the like. 26 This group known as the ‘Augusteers”, was inspired by the
revolutionary ideas of Jayaprakash Nararayan.27 In the meantime, at the news
of the mass arrest of the leaders, the first group of students organized numerous
processions of unarmed people. The second group of students, firm in their
conviction that the sequence of meetings and processions had become tedious
and fruitless, resorted a series of underground activities which included the
disruption of communication involving the cutting of telegraph and telephone
lines and sometimes even road and railways in addition to the burning down of
government buildings.28 Here we are not going to trace the course of this historic
movement launched by the leadership of the students. Hence, the heroic role
played by the students was acknowledged even by the British Prime Minister
who told the House of Commons very grudgingly that it was a ‘Children’s
Uprising.’29
Thus, it is evident from the above analysis that students of the Brahmaputra
Valley played a dynamic participation through their leadership in the freedom
struggle. It is reflected through the analysis that when Assam Chatra Sanmilon
adopted a formal resolution in order to join the Non-Co-operation movement
in 1920 and since then the Sanmilon continued to take an active part in the
movements launched by the Indian National Congress and thus it gained
momentum as an active students organization of the state.30 Another accepted
fact is also proved that the student movements of Assam, not only of the colonial
98 ∗Basanta Kr. Borah
Dr. Anjan Saikia∗
period but even of the recent times, were dominantly rural-based and therefore
were able to gather considerable support for their movements for a long time,
which has not been the case elsewhere in the country.31

References:
1. Manorama Sharma:‘Students and Nationalism: An assessment of the Assam Chatra
Sanmilan, 1916-1939’ in Apurba Kr. Baruah(ed), Student Power in N.E. India,
Understanding Student Movements, New Delhi, 2002, p.55. For details on this issue see,
A.N. Roy, Students fight for Freedom, Calcutta, 1967, A.R. Desai, The Social Background
of Indian Nationalism, Bombay, 1976.
2. Shiela Bora: ‘Role of Students in the Nationalist Upsurge’ in A.C.Bhuyan(ed), Nationalist
Upsurge in Assam, Guwahati, 2000, p.217. For details see, S. Bora, Student Revolution in
Assam1917-1947 : A historical Survey, New Delhi, 1992, Meeta Decca, Student Movements
in Assam, New Delhi, 1996, Ramesh Chandra Kalita, ‘Swadhinata Andulonot Assomiya
Chatrar Bhumika in Anil Raychaudhury(ed) Natun Prithivi, 9th years, 4 & 5 issue, Guwahati,
1981, pp.67-114.
3. ibid.
4. Constitution of Assam Chatra Sanmilon, Published by Upendra Chandra Rajkhowa,
Guwahati, 1916.
5. Shiela Bora:‘Role of students in the Nationalist upsurge’, in A.C. Bhuyan(ed), op.cit.,
p.218.
6. K.N. Dutta: Landmarks of the freedom struggle in Assam, Guwahati, 1998 (Reprint),
p.56.
7. Anjan Saikia: Riot Sabah in Assam : A study of Peasant Nationalism, 1900-1947,
unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Department of History, N.EH.U. Library, Shillong, 2010, p.69.
8. Referred in ibid, p.70. For detail see, Judith Brown, Gandhi’s Rise to Power: Indian
Politics 1915-1922, Cambridge, 1992.
9. Anjan Saikia: Op.cit., p.71. Saikia has focused in his dissertation regarding the emergence
of Student Organization in order to establish the leadership on Peasantry. Also see, Anjan
Saikia, Prak Swadhinota Andulon aru Swadhinutor Bhartor Riot Sabah, Sramik Andulon
aru Sramikpran Sarbeswar Bordoloi, Centenary lecture on Sramikpran Sarbeswar Bordoloi,
Marini, Its July, 2012.
10. ibid, p.73.
11. ibid.
12. ibid.
13. ibid.
14. ibid.
15. Benudhar Sharma: Congress or Kasiyali Radot, Guwahati, 1960, pp.13-21. For detail,
see, Sager Baruah, History of the Non Co-operation Movement in Assam, Lanka, 2002.
16. History of Freedom Movement Papers, R-I, file No-14/3, a short report of the Congress
Activities with Congress jurisdiction of Guwahati, State Archive, Guwahati.
17. Assam Secretariat Confidential A, No’s 103-126 June, file no 315 C of 1930.
18. Anjan Saikia: Riot Sabah in Assam : A study of Peasant Nationalism 1900-1947, op.cit.
p.77. Also see, Dhodhi Mahanta, Asomat Communist Andulonor Janma aru Bikasar
Samantha, Guwahati, 1993, Ramesh Ch. Kalita, op.cit.
 Role of Students of the Brahmaputra... 99
19. For details see ibid.
20. Karl Marx: ‘The Peasant as a Class’ in Theodor Shan in(ed), Peasants and Peasants
Societies, England, 1976, p,.231.
21. Sheila Bora: Op.cit., p.229, also see, Achyut Kumar Sharma, Satabdir Pandulipi,
Guwahati, 2011. Sharma has focused the role of Robin Kakoty in the freedom struggle
with richly documented evidences in his book.
22. ibid.
23. A.C. Bhuyan(ed): Political history of Assam, Vol-II, 1920-1939, Guwahati, 1978, pp.136-
200. Sager Baruah, Bharator Swadhinota Andulonot Assam, Vol-II, Bokakhat, 2000, pp.1-
31, Benudhar Sharma, op.cit., pp.63-69.
24. Sheila Bora: in A.C.Bhuyan(ed), op.cit., p.236.
25. J.Nehru Collections, Part-V.S. No.72, Nehru Memorial and Museum Library, New Delhi.
26. Shiela Bora: in A.C.Bhuyan(ed), op.cit., p.236.
27. ibid.
28. ibid.
29. ibid.
30. Jagannath Updhaya: Students’ Politics in Assam: A study of the All Assam Nepali
Students’ Union, Unpublished M.Phils Dissertation, Dibrugarh University,
Dibrugarh, 1998, p.4. For further discussion see, Monuj Phukon, Students’ Politics
in Assam, New Delhi, 2005.
31. Meeta Deka: ‘Student Movements in Assam: The Roots of its Continuity and
Sustenance’ in J.B. Bhattacharjee(ed), Proceedings of North-East India History
Association, 7th edition, Pasig hat, 1987, p. 492.

*****
 100

21. Namghar- The Epicentre Of Socio-

Cultural Identity Of Assam
*Gouri Dey

The history of Satras or Namghars is 500 hundred years old. Namghars

literally means ‘The House of Names’. It is a simple structure where the
Vaishnavite Hindus of Assam recite the name of God. The Satras and Namghars
owe its origin to the Vaishnavite saint SankarDev (1449-1569) in Kshatriya
style of architecture which is still in practice. The first ever Satra of Borodowa
at Nagaon district was actually built by him and the subsequent Satras all over
the sate of Assam follows more or less the same style of architecture. 1 The
‘Kirtan Ghar’ or the Satra building is primarily divided into three parts though
look like a single structure. The front is imagined as the foot of the God, the
middle as the body and upper part, ‘the Bhaj Ghar’ (arch house) as the head of
the God. The Bhaj Ghar is slightly bent to give the illusion of a rainbow.2
Besides the main building, a Matha Griha, on the right hand side of the
Kirtan Ghar, is found in the Ahom style of architecture. The walls of the Namghar
exhibit exquisite and sophisticate work of art and culture. The life of Lord
Krishna and his various avatars or incarnations are depicted through the scenes
on the walls. Even the Shlokas from the Gita and the Bhagavatha could be
found in some of the Namghars. To humbly say, it can be said that it reflects the
cultural tour of Assam through the ages and as such are of historical as well as
of artistic interest.3 Aside from religious and memorial services, Namghars serve
as theaters for the performance of the indigenous art-form, the Bhawna(a folk
opera). Spectators almost always overflowed the halls. Since this usually happens
in the evening, rural Namghars without electricity use lanterns for illumination.
4

Namghars primarily have two major spaces, the Monikut (the sanctuary)
and the assembly space. The direction of the principal axis of the Namghars is
always in the East-West direction. The Shinghashon or the altar is placed at the

*Research Scholar, Dept. of History, North Bengal University, Darjeeling

 Namghar- The epicentre.... 101
East facing the West. Devotees sit facing the shinghashon towards East. The
Monikut shelters the shinghashon. The devotees pray in the assembly space of
the Namghar. The Namghar’s architecture reflects its usage pattern, Assam’s
climatic conditions, and the indigenous building materials. Sometimes there is
an added assembly space, particularly when it is attached to the residence of
the Shotradhikar, the spiritual leader of the community.
The public Namghars design is unique in that the assembly space is always
very open, large, bright and airy, unlike temple assembly halls elsewhere in
India. It is a response to the extremely humid, relatively mild temperature and
infrequent breeze during the most oppressive days. The roof is the primary
feature, walls often being a bamboo screen, and sometimes even non-existent.
It was an elegant, cool, environmentally friendly, and economically sustainable
solution. In the late twentieth century, most Namghars have shed their thatches
for tin roofs. Thatch roofing provided unusually high heat penetration resistance,
even today, aside from its beauty and appropriateness in the pastoral and lush
green settings of Assam.In earlier days, the roof used to be supported by timber
columns or bamboo poles although reinforced cement pillars are becoming
common recently.
In earlier days, the floors almost always were of mud. It used to be wiped
before and after an event by hand with a rag mop and clay punning. Today’s
cement floors are an improvement. However, even today, a central longitudinal
area in a Namghar is kept unpaved with cement. This is the area where actors
assemble during the performance of a Bhawna.The Monikut is a small structure
with hipped or gabled roof and has either no windows or very little ones. This
is the mysterious space. Children and those who are not privy are not allowed
to venture into one. It was a space to be entered only by the Shotradhikar.
It is usually an oversized column in the assembly hall. It is the second left
facing North. East from the floor, around this pillar, the ground is raised a little.
It is usually identified by a Gamocha (an ubiquitous hand-woven piece of cotton
cloth that resembles a light towel or scarf that has distinctive borders all around—
usually red in color and is also embroidered with various flowery patterns,
large or small at the two ends along the length)tied around it. No one is allowed
to sit near this pillar as that is considered as the place of Burha-Dangoria (a
holy spirit). When in the Namghar any “Maha-prasad” or offerings are distributed
after a service, the first offering is made to that pillar as a custom. The pillar is
also called Lai Khuta. There were distinct advantages to the thatched roof in
the acoustical quality of the assembly hall. The underside of the roof, which
was the exposed thatched roof soffit (bottom surface), is one of the best
acoustical ceilings one could think of. 5
The Namghars rarely have food service in the manner one sees in temples
elsewhere in India. The maha-chaul, or the fruits and soaked green lentil
102 Gouri Dey

offerings that are distributed after a service are almost always prepared at several
homes, who are eligible to participate in food-serving. Those who serve food
are called deus or deuris and are selected based on their standing in the
community and religious knowledge and competence. This too is a privileged
position. Therefore there never were kitchens or pantries associated with
Namghars.Public facilities such as restrooms were not seen around rural
Namghars, except for a screened facility for the ladies. These were rarely
required, because of the short duration of events taking place there.Namghars
were always at the banks of a pond, the water supply source. This was essential,
for ritual cleansing as well as all other water requirements.6
Namghar is primarily used as a prayer hall according to the Ekasarana
traditions. Devotees sit in rows not facing the east but north and south facing
each other that emphasizes the bhakat (the worshiper, or the congregation) which
is one of the four realms of the religion. The region between the two north and
south group is highly sanctimonious and is never treaded on, except for cleaning.
The prayers are led by the leader called naamloguwa, who sits at the end of the
central region facing the sanctum sanctorum.7
It is the blissful lady-vision of the rich Indian culture in its diversity which
has enriched itself through the weary path of time. Simplicity its forte, we have
a great visionary aspect of the bhakti movement driving the inhabitants through
the literary, socio-cultural and aesthetic value of the land.

References
1. Gadadhar Das “Sankardev and his gospel to mankind” BurahSatriyaBarpeta Assam,pg.2-
10.
2. Ibid, pp-12, 13, 14
3. GobindaTalukdar&DipannitaTalukdar, “SundaridiasatraritiBritti(Assamese book),
PravawatiGranthaghar, Barpeta Assam, pp-6,7,10,15
4. Ibid, pp-10-18 and AbhijitBhuyan”Socio cultural and political role of the Namghar in
Assam: A comparative Study of the Namghar in Assam”, Towards Freedom Publisher,
Kolkata,pp-9,10,11
5. Ibid, pp-20-25 and BhinnajanarDristitSatrarUtpattyAruBichyuti (Assamese Book),
Srikrishnaprakashan Guwahati Assam, pp-4, 5, 6, 7
6. AbhijitBhuyan”Socio cultural and political role of the Namghar in Assam: A comparative
Study of the Namghar in Assam”, Towards Freedom Publisher, Kolkata,pg-20-30 and
NripendraNathGayan, “BarpetaZilarSattriyaJilingani”(Assamese Book), JyotiPrakashan
Guwahati, Assam, pg-9-15
7. Tête-â-tête with the Namghoria and Satradhikar(Head of the Namghar)

*****
 103

22. Birth Of Darjeeling As A Hill

Station (Part II)
contd. from vol. 1 no. 4
*Bhawna Rai

Lloyd knew that he had crossed his limit and as an explanation sent a
letter with a number of recommendations on 23rd March: ‘With respect to giving
Dab gong in exchange for Darjeeling I beg to observe that the extent of the hills
comprised within the boundaries. Supposing Darjeeling be ceded to us, the
first object would be the formation of a road within the hills; this could scarcely
be commenced before the middle of November next, and would require the
superintendence of an Engineer Officer, assisted by some of the sappers and
Miners, as there will no doubt be many rocks to remove by blasting, and various
obstacles which without their assistance would be difficult to overcome; .........’11
With these conditions it appears to the Governor-General- in-Council to
be impracticable to comply. Darjeeling is an uninhabited tract and it would
have been unobjectionable to make over to Sikkim a similar tract in the plains
in exchange for it, but Dab gong is a fertile and populous district which was
settled with (?) inhabitants with the Rajah of Julpye Gooree in the year 1828 in
compensation of injuries sustained by him. Its transfer to Sikkim is therefore
out of the question. It is doubtful how we should be justified in compelling a
settlement of accounts between Rummo Purdhan and the Rajah of Sikkim, and
admitting but the measure be free from objection, it does not appear to be
practicable as the said Purdhan is reported to have absconded....”12
Lloyd once again put forward his reasons for giving Dab gong, but the
Council insisted on ‘the inexpediency of transferring that tract of country to
the Rajah of Sikkim’.13 On 15th June the Council sent a peremptory order which
could not possibly be misunderstood: ‘Sir, In reply to your letter dated 25th
ultimo I am directed to inform you that the Hon’ble, the Governor -General of
India in Council judges from your letter that the Rajah of Sikkim is not to cede

*Research Scholar (History), University of North Bengal, Darjeeling (West Bengal)

104 Bhawna Rai

Darjeeling. You are therefore desired to abstain from urging any further
negotiation having that object in view.14 But on 9th November 1835 the Secretary
to Government in the Political Department received a surprising letter from
Major Lloyd.”Sir, I beg leave to report that in August last the Sikkim Rajah’s
officers forwarded to me the grant of Darjeeling in the form which I had
requested him to draw it out, in fact, the very paper I had forwarded to him was
returned with his seal affixed as I had requested he would do and is now in my
possession.....’15
There was a boundary dispute between Sikkim and Nepal Major Lloyd
was about to investigate and settle it. The Rajah’s reply was as follows. ‘your
letter and present of a box has reached me,...........and you have also many times
written about Darjeeling; but last year the grant of Darjeeling under my red
seal was delivered to you through my vakeels, and there never can be any
departure from that by my Government. If you have understood it differently, I
cannot help.’16.Major Lloyd immediately forwarded the precious document with
an accompanying letter on 5th January 1836. The Government of India replied
to Major Lloyd (Mr.Macnaghten to Major Lloyd 8th February 1836) in the
following notable terms: ‘As it now appears that the transfer has been
unconditionally made by the Rajah, it only remains to consider the best means
of turning it to the advantage of the British Government...Annexed is a copy of
the letter written to the Rajah of Sikkim for your information.’17 General Lloyd
and Dr. Chapman were sent in 1836 to explore the country, to ascertain the
nature of its climate and to investigate the potentialities of the place. Here they
spent the winter in 1836 and partly in 1837. On receipt of their report it was
finally decided to build a sanatorium at Darjeeling. The strip of territory
contained about 138 square miles of land.18 Lloyd was appointed as Local Agent
with power to deal with the applications for land which soon began to pour in
from the residents of Calcutta, and the new settlement progressed rapidly. Both
the morphological patterns of the hill stations and the social practices of their
British inhabitants furthered this nostalgic intent.’19
A. Lamb says, ‘ The cession of Darjeeling was an event of the greatest
importance in the history of northern frontier of India. Not only did it place the
British in close contact with the hill states, their peoples and their politics, but
also it provided a constant reminder of the possibilities of trade with Tibet.’20
He further suggests that what the hill station of Simla was destined to play a
part in the history of Anglo-Tibetan relations, comparable to that played later
by another hill station, Darjeeling. From 1860 onwards, with rapid increase of
the tea industry, the growth and development of Darjeeling had been
spectacular.21 In this long episode, the role played by Lloyd was very significant,
to note it was he who happened to be the first European to visit the place, was
the man chosen for dealing with the Rajah of Sikkim and it was he who did not
 Birth of Darjeeling.... 105
communicate the orders of the Government (Letter dated 15 June) to stop further
negotiation with the Rajah of Sikkim.

References
11. Ibid. No.103, p.123-24
12. Ibid. No.104, p.124-25
13. Ibid. Consultation 4 May 1835, No.104, p.125
14. Ibid.Consultations, 15 June 1835, No. 150 (dated 25 May 1835), p.126
15. Ibid. Consultation 9November 1835,( dated 31 October ,1835), p.126
16. Ibid.Consultation 8 February 1836,No.87( dated 5 January,1836) , p.291
17. Ibid., p.128-29
18. Sen,Jahar,Darjeeling A Favored Retreat, Indus Publishing Company, New
Delhi,1989,p.15.
19. Kennedy, Dane, The Magic Mountains, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1996,
p.10
20. Sen,Jahar,Darjeeling A Favored Retreat, Indus Publishing Company, New
Delhi,1989,p.13
21. Ibid.

*****
106

23. Growth Of Press And Journalism

In Nineteenth Century Orissa And
it's Role In Making Oriss A
Separate Province
* Krushna Chandra Das

The introduction of newspapers and journals one of the most powerful

weapons for creation and building up of public opinion, started an era which
was full of modernist appeals and values. Orissa was not a separate province
then Orissa of the ancient period which for a better pat of the period
extended from the Ganges to the Godavari.1 Covering a vast territory got
squeezed during the medieval period.
Christian Missionaries introduced modern technique of printing Presses
hand written newspaper was already inaugurated in Orissa long before the
coming of these missionaries here. This newspaper was Kujibur edited by
Sadhu Sunder Das in the early part of the nineteenth century. He was the
founder and editor of this journal long before the first publication of the
Utkal Dipika in 1866 by Gouri Shankar Roy, who is generally regarded as
the father of journalism in Orissa. He drew the attention of many Christian
Missionaries towards him by his powerful personality and knowledge. A.
Suttan visited this place Kujibar Math in 1822 and was very much impressed
by the place and simple personality of Sadhu Sunder Das2 He had more than
five hundred disciples and taught them Vedantic knowledge which attracted
John Brown Maris, the Secretary of the Baptist Mission of London who
held Sadhu Sunder Das as the living God, spiritual leader and mentor in his
centenary book A Book from 1792-1892.3
Sadhu Sunder Das founded the Kujibar journal with Gangadhar Sarangi
and Rama Chandra Jachak two of his most obedient disciples as the

*Lecturer in History, Kalinga Institute of Social Sciences (KISS) Bhubaneswar(Odisha)

 Growth of Press and Journalism... 107
Assistant Editors of the journal. He used to write on palm leaves.4 Besides,
other reasons responsible for the degrading position of different sections of
the society were also discussed in his journal.5
The Christian Missionaries also translated some topics of this journal
into English and sent them to Britain where these were published in the
Baptist journal. Further, these were also sent to the kings and distributed
among the people who gathered at different fairs and festivals.6 Sadhu
Sunder Das for the first time realized the necessity of an Oriya newspaper
in Orissa. Accordingly to Lecce a Missionary he died on 16th April, 1838.7
A contemporary of Raja Rammohan Roy, Sadhu Sunder Das provided a
proper nourishment to Orissa which then very much followed superstitions
and blind beliefs. For the first time he developed the political and religious
consciousness of the people of Orissa.8
The first Oriya book to appear in print was the Oriya version of the
Bible New Testament. This was printed in Bengal by the Baptist Missionary
Society in 18099. Till 1837 there was no press in Orissa. In that year the
missionaries installed a press at Cuttack. This is famous as the Cuttack
Mission Press10. From this press apart from the Bible and the propaganda
literature the missionaries brought out three periodicals in Oriya Language -
Jnanaruna in 1849. Prabodh Chandrika in 1856 and Arunoday in 186111 In
the pages of these journals we find some information about the day-to-day
affairs of the then Orissa12. In 1869 the famous antiquarian scholar of
Bengal Rajendra Lal Mitra paid visit to Orissa and in a meeting addressed
by him at Cuttack he put forth the reasons in favor of the abolition of the
Oriya medium of instruction in the School of Orissa.13
Gaurishankar Roy, who was a clerk in the Cuttack Collectorate was the
first native of Orissa to establish a printing press. integrity and courage.
Gourishankar Roy was the first editor of the journal. It was not only the first
journal to be edited by a native of Orissa but also the most lasting of all the
journals of the nineteenth century of Orissa. In fact it is a mirror of the
Orissa of the second half of the nineteenth century.14 Although the Utkal
Dipika was a weekly journal initially it had four pages. The size was
doubled in 1883 and again doubled in 1911.15
What Gourishankar Roy did at Cuttack Fakirmohan Senapati did at Bal
sore. He found as he points out in his autobiography for this reason the Oriyas
were being humiliated by the Bengalis who had a fairly developed press and
literature in their language.16 It would not be necessary to call for special
scripture-readers. The boys can easily acquire learning. No outsider can
abuse the Oriyas as fools".17 With utmost persuasion Rs.1200/- was collected
as the capital and a press company called P. M. Company and Co. was formed.
Out of this capital a second-hand machine was purchased from the Midnapore
108 Krushna Chandra Das
Mission Press. It had two parts. The Bodhdayini part contained literary
writings while the other part captioned Balaswar Sambad bahika contained
news items.18 Published in July 1869 as a monthly journal it was made
fortnightly 3 years later and lastly weekly in June 1872. To this journal
patronage was subsequently accorded by the Samanta Zamindar family of
Balasore.19 During the last thirty years of the nineteenth century thirteen more
presses were established in Orissa.20. After the publication of the Bodhadayini
O Baleswar Sambadbahika another journal called Utkal Darpan appeared at
Bal sore in 1873 through the patronage of the local Zamindar Baikunthanath
Dey.21 Initially a weekly it was made Fortnightly in 1877 .His courageous
writings in which he held the British Government responsible for the
educational backwardness of Orissa impressed the educated people of the
time.22
In 1883 from the Cuttack Mission Press two journals-one monthly
called "Sevak" and a weekly called "Sanskaraks" were published.23 In 1889
through the initiative of the Maharrja of Bamanda a journal called
"Sambalpur Hitaisini"24 was published from the Jagannath Ballav Press of
Deogarh the Capital of Bamanda. In 1889 another journal "Sahitya-Sammilani
Samalochana Patrika" was published at Cuttack.25 Its main objective was to
review the text books in Oriya language A new era in Oriya literature began
when through the initiative of Sriramchandras Bhanjdeo the Maharaja of
Mayurbhanj 'Utkal Prabha' was published in 1891.26 The critics of Bhanja
literature soon published at Bamanda a journal entitled Bijuli. The
controversy between the Indradhanu and Bijuli ushered in literary criticism
in Oriya literature.27 In 1897 a literary journal called ' Utkal Sahityas"
appeared at Cuttack.28
Utkal Dipika various types of news local national and international
were published. Some journals were purely literary. The Cuttack Printing
Company's press and the Utkal Press at Bal sore were visited by the
Commissioner of Orissa division. T. E. Ravenshaw29 . In general all through
the nineteenth century the educated middle class in Orissa was profusely
loyal to the British Government. But loyalty to the Government did not make
them entirely blind to the flaws in the administrative set up.30 In 1869 the
Bales war Sam bad Bahika protested against the forcible dragging of people
to the police station without any cause being told for the purpose of census
survey.31 Utkal Dipika protested against the compulsory provision of Rasad
to the Amalas (the land revenue officials) during their tour in the rural
areas.32 In 1878 during the viceroyalty of Lord Lytton when the licensing
press Act was passed the Utkal Dipika took strong exception to it. Regarding
the act the journal wrote. This Act is very fatal to us (the vernacular journals
and newspapers) Let the readers go through it and consider if we (the
 Growth of Press and Journalism... 109
vernacular journals and newspapers) have any chance of survival.33
We have reposed too much reliance upon the rulers. The commercial
policy of the British Government is day by day leading us to the economic
ruin.34 Regarding the harmful effects of import of foreign goods upon the
economy of India the Utkal Sahitya wrote "We are purchasing foreign good
and pouring money into foreigners coffers almost in a spell-bound manner.
Some of them say that if Indians stop using foreign goods and use the
indigenous goods the money of the country will not be drained out and the
indigenous artisans and laborers will be benefited.35 Analyzing the public
opinion of Orissa in 1893-94 the Commissioner of Orissa division therefore
stated that in Orissa the people kept aloof from the politics of the country as
a whole and were only interested in solving the local problems and had firm
belief in the government and that the educated people in Orissa .36
Most of the journals were short-lived. Although till 1880 altogether
twenty-six journals had been published only four journals were actually
carrying on their publication in 1881-82.37 From the middle of the nineteenth
century till 1890 forty-eight journals had been published in Toto, but in
1890-91 only eight journals were existent.38 Financial stringency mainly
accounts for the short tenure of the journals. The number of persons who
actually read it ranged between twenty and twenty-five.39 "It is universally
acknowledged that the journals are the best means of developing a language.
But why there is so much distaste for them in Orissa".40. The history of any
advanced country's literature reveals that time to time there appear on the
literary scene some dedicated literati who infuse vigor and new life in to
literature.41
Mrutyunjay Ratha thus seems up under five heads the causes of the
backwardness of press and journalism : (1) want of proper management (2)
want of money (3) the editor's lack of qualification patience's and sagacity
(4) lack of responsible writers capable of writing worthy articles and (5)
the readers inability to subscribe.42 Whatever social and political awakening
can be traced among the nineteenth century educated elite of Orissa is due
to the press because journals and books were the main medium of
communication. Such social reform measure like the preservation of the
religion of the Hindu boys who had taken their meal in the free kitchen
during the famine of 1866, 43 female education and emanicipation44 and
abolition of casteism etc. were advocated in the pages of the journals.
The most distinctive contribution of the press was the promotion of
sense of unity among the Oriya-speaking people. It was through the press
that the educated elite in Orissa tried to safeguard the Oriya language and
promote its development protest against the alleged discrimination against
the Oriyas specially in the matter of appointment to the government posts45
110 Krushna Chandra Das
in different administrative divisions and put forth the legitimate grievances
of the people of Orissa. As a result by the end of the nineteenth century a
congenial atmosphere had been created for starting a movement for the
integration of all Oriya-speaking areas into a single province.

References -
1. A. C. Pradhan, A study of History of Orissa, Bhubaneswar, 1985, P. 17
2. The Samaj, Cuttack, 27.5.2001
3. Ibid
4. K. M. Sahu, Mahatma Sadhu Sunder Das (Oriya), Cuttack, 1948, P. 25.
5. (i) Ibid., P. 3
(ii) The Samaj, Op. cit.
6. (i) Ibid
(ii) Chandrasekhar Mahapatra, Odissara Patra Patrika (Oriya), Cuttack, 1958, Pp. 3 4.
7. The Samaj, Op. cit.
8. N. Samantaray, Odiya Sahityara Itihasa (Oriya), Bhubaneswar - 1964, P. 171.
9. Natabar Samantaray, Odiya Sahityara Itihas (1803-1920), Oriya, Bhubaneswar 1964 P.
95.
10. Ibid., P. 171
11. Ibid., Pp. 174-175
12. Sudhakar Pattanayak, Sambadpatraru Odishara Katha, (Oriya) Prathama Khanda,
(1856 - 1881) Cuttack, 1972, Pp. 1-7.
13. Utkala Dipika (the first Oriya weekly journal from Cuttack), dated 13th March 1869. P. 42
14. (i) Chandra Sekhar Mohapatra, Odishara Patrapatrika, Bhubaneswar, Pp. 7-8(ii) Mrutyunjay
Granthabali, Pratham Khanda, Cuttack, 1971 Pp. 407-408.
15. Op. cit., no. 6 (ii) P. 408
16. Fakirmohan Granthabali, Pratham Khanda, Atmajibana charita p. 44.
17. Ibid., P. 46.
18. Ibid., P. 51.
19. Op. cit., No. 6 (ii) P. 408
20. Op. cit, No.1 P. 172
21. Op. cit, No. 6 (ii) P. 409
22. Op. cit., No. 6 (ii) P. 409
23. (i) Op. cit, No. 4 Pp. 645-651 (ii) Op. cit.., No. 6 (ii) Pp. 411-412
24. Op. cit, No. 6 (ii) P. 415
25. Ibid.
26. (i) Op. cit, No. 6 (i) Pp. 13-15.
(ii) Op. cit, No. 6 (ii) P. 416
27. Op. cit No. 6 (i) Pp. 15-16
28. (i) Op. cit No. 6 (i) Pp. 16-17.
(ii) Op. cit No. 6 (ii) P. 419
29. Utkala Dipika 6th March 1869 P. 41.
30. Utkala Dipika 3rd November 1866, P. 14
31. Ibid., 15th May 1869 P. 80
 Growth of Press and Journalism... 111
32. Ibid, 13th February 1869 P. 26
33. Ibid.n13th April 1878 P. 57
34. Utkal Sahitya Falgun 1304 Sakabda Pp. 84-85
35. Ibid Baisakha, 1304 Sakabda P. 83
36. Annual General Administration Report, Orissa Division, 1893-94 P. 185-186, P. 42.
37. (i) Op. Cit I pp. 174-179
(ii) Bengal Administrative Report, 1881-82 P. 390
38. (i) Op. Cit., No. 1, Pp.174-179
(ii) Report on administration of Bengal, 1890-91 Calcutta 1891 p. 39.
39. Op. Cit., No.8 P. 51
40. Utkal Sahitya, Baisakha, 1304 Sakabdra P. 90
41. Ibid., pp. 88-89.
42. Op. cit., No. 6 (ii) P. 421
43. Utkala Dipika, 9th February 1867 P. 14
44. Utkal Sahitya, Jyestha, 1304 Sakabda, P. 205
45. Annual General Administrative Report, Orissa Division, 1891-92, P. 27.

*****
112

24. The Epilogue Of The Contai

Salt Satyagraha

*Sankar Kumar Das

The title of my paper ‘The Epilogue of the Contai Salt Satyagraha’ seems
to be striking to the distinguished scholars and historians who have graced the
assemblage with their valued presence. The title signifies two things: one, the
glorious victory of the movement in compelling the colonial government to
submit to most of the demands of the people and the other, the piteous plight of
the people caused by the stern demoniac repressive measures of the government.
The very significant success of the movement is that the Gandhi- Irwin Pact
(March 5, 1931) raised the political prestige of the Congress and so also the
political morale of the people. At the same time the Pact undermined and lowered
the British prestige as the Pact was concluded as if between two equal powers.
Besides this time it became evident to the government that without the
participation of the Congress no constitutional solution could be attained. In
respect of the arch-enemy the Congress as well as of Gandhi Lord Willington
in this connection expressed thus his grave dissatisfaction: “There seemed to
be two kings in Brentford”. Winston Churchill was also very much averse to
any sort of negotiation with the ‘seditious fakir’ Gandhi on terms of equality.
The Congress in general could not take the Pact whole heartedly though it
agreed that it would participate in the Second Round Table Conference. But
there was every anxiety within the Congress and also of the people as to what
would come out of the Round Table Conference when the higher British officials
were in favour of no truce, no pact and ‘no quarter for the enemy’. On the
contrary they apprehended that something unimaginable and something
detrimental to the nation might come out of the Round Table Conference. This
same thing was sounded by the Gujarati poet Meghani when he, addressing
Gandhi on the eve of his departure for London, sang; chchello katoro jerno aa:
pi jayo, bapu’, which means “Even this last cup of poison, you must drink,

* Assistant Proffesor of History, N.B.U. Darjeeling, West Bengal.

 The Epilogue of the Contai.... 113
Bapu”. It is also to be noted that Gandhiji himself said: “When I think of the
prospects in London, when I know that all is not well in India . . . . . There is
every chance of my returning empty handed”1.
Gandhiji had sailed for London on August 29, 1931 and he landed in
Bombay on December 28, 1931. This is how the first phase of the Civil
Disobedience was over. In T. S. Eliot’s words:
“This is how the world ends, Not with a bang but a whimper”.
Gandhiji’s call to the nation to renew the battle was a great call: so the
people fluctuating between ‘blind hope and blind despairs’ responded to the
call in the way as they did in the earlier movements. There started relentless
repression. The promulgation of harsh and hard ordinances and their stern
application created a sort of Reign of Terror.2 Men and women, young and old
were barbarously treated. Prisoners in jails were not spared from severe corporal
punishment3. Civil liberties were wiped away;4 and confiscation of personal
property became a regular feature.5 As a result of this rule of lawless law the
movement crushed within a few months baring some coastal regions like Kumilla
and Noakhali in East Bengal, Contai and Tamluk in West Bengal and some
Gujarat regions.
In this connection it is to be noted that the people of the coastal regions
of the country particularly those of Bengal and Gujarat remained always adhered
to the Gandhi- ideal of Purna Swaraj attainable by following constructive
programme. In this respect Pichhabani of the Contai subdivision which made a
name in the history of the Salt Law Violation Movement as the second Dandi is
an exemplary instance.
During the second phase of the Civil Disobedience Movement the
Contai people followed the Congress directives relating to the organization of
the movement. No’s-tax campaign to a great extent united them, but the local
landlords played a some what different role. “….the introduction of the Union
Boards would disrupt the rural order by intruding in to the village through its
agents” —— this idea acted in favour of heightening anti- British mobilization6.
Again the anti- chowkidari tax issue played a very effective role in creating a
solid anti- British organization. Since the Non-Co-operation Samgram days
they were following as far as practicable the boycott of foreign goods,
government offices and courts and so on. During the second phase of the Civil
Disobedience they put much importance to boycotting government courts. It is
learnt from the Nihar and other local journals that 31 parallel courts were in
operation in various places in the district of Midnapore.7 This time some agrarian
issues particularly the bhagchasi issue i.e. the share-cropper issue became to a
certain extent critical as it was heading towards a rift between the peasants on
the one hand and the zamindars and jotedars on the other, and threatening the
114 Sankar Kumar Das

multi-class Mahishya dominated platform. Bidyut Chakrabarti writes, “… the

authority preferred to recruit Muslim officers to strengthen its attack on the
Congress which was essentially a Hindu organization …”.8 Besides one Rahamat
Bux, a Bhagawanpur daroga, was reported to have organized the Muslims to
loot the Hindu villages and terrorize the people.9
Gandhiji was aware of the situation and also of the angry consternations
of the people. Yet he was not disturbed a little. This time he in a letter to Nehru
he wrote that he had then no sense of defeat in him , rather he had the hope that
the country was marching fast towards its goal of attaining Purna Swaraj, and
this his hope then was as bright as it was in 1920
The Contai- people are always religion- minded. So their each and
every movement got tuned with their religiosity. They learnt it from the
‘puran- katha asars’ that every demon has his fall. It was this their realization
that prompted the Contai Village- Congress Committee to organise the villages
anew expunging the prevalent ills and abuses of the village people, settling the
land disputes relating to agriculture disputes, encouraging cottage industries
and setting- up of village co- operatives. As a result in the next few months
Contai was made a solid unit for facing any national problem. True, there were
weakness in the work of the village- committees. Yet it is the wonder that Contai
thus kept all along the fire of fight alive in their each and every walk against the
British government till the days of the Quit India Movement.

References:

1. Gandhi, ‘ Collected Works’, Vol.-47, p.36.

2. Nihar, 19 January,1932, V-31, N-19. 25 January,1932, V-31 N-,20. 2 February,1932, V-
31,N 5 July,1932, V-31, N-4,16 August,1932, V-31,N-4, 8 April ,1933, V-32,N-31.
3. Ibid, 30 August ,1932, V-32,N-2, 13 September,1932, V-32,N-4 15 November ,1932, V-
32,N-9. 13 December,1931, 27 December,1932, V-32,N-15.
4. Ibid, 25 January,1932, V-31 N-,20 , 5 July,1932, V-31, N-42.
5. Ibid, 7 February,1933, V-32,N-21.
6. Bidyut Chakrabarti, Local Politics and Indian Nationalism in
Midnapore 1919-1944, Manohar, Delhi, 1997, p. 114.
7. Nihar, 10 March, 1931, V-30, N-26, & IOR, L/PJ/12/25 Bengal, FR (1) March 1931.
8. Nihar, 3 June, 1930, V-29, N-38, & NAI, Home- Poll 248/1930.
9. Prabodh Chandra Basu, Bhagwanpurer Itibritta, Calcutta,1976, pp. 127- 128.

*****
 115

25. Political Change in Kulu and

Lahaul - Spiti With Special Reference
To The Economic Impact
*Vinay Sharma

Historical and Political Background of Kulu

The Kulu Sub-Division of Kangra District situated towards the north-east
was demarcated by a ridge running in northern southern direction. The sub-
division was bordered on the north by Ladakh in Kashmir. Mandy District
confined it on the south-west, and its boundary continued towards the south
right up to its junction with Sutlej River.1 For administrative purposes there
were two tehsils called Kulu and Saraj.2 The period of the political decline of
the Mughal Empire in India is marked by a reordering of the power centres in
the Indian subcontinent. This was accompanied by the rise of two important
powers who played a crucial role in the political history of Himachal. These
two powers were the Gorkhas and Sikhs. The late 18th and early 19th century
saw the Gorkha armies capture large parts of the Himalayan region. For a short
time during this period the Kulu region was subordinate to two superior powers.
They paid tribute to the Gorkha conquerors for Shangri, and to Sansar Chand
for Kulu.3
The defeat of the Gorkha army at the hand of the Sikhs and the gradual
supremacy of Ranjit Singh over the mountain area has already been referred to
earlier. The Sikh ruler demanded a tribute of Rs 40,000. Subsequently, another
demand was made but could not fulfilled by the Kulu Raja. As a result an army
under Divan Mokam Chand crossed the Bajaura pass and encamped in the
Kulu Valley. It was only after collecting and paying a huge amount of money

*Assistant Professor of History, H.P. University, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh

116 Vinay Sharma
that the raja was able to bribe the Sikhs to leave the country.4
A second Sikh force was sent into the hills in 1839 under General Ventura.
Kulu was attacked which has offered no resistance and with the intention of
protecting Sultanpur and his place from plunder, the raja allowed himself to be
taken prisoner.5 The Sikh army then moved to the waziri of Saraj but found that
the people had abandoned the village and fled to the forests. After plundering
whate2ver they could, the Sikh handed over the waziri on ijara (revenue farming)
for an annual amount of 32,000 to the raja of Mandi.6 The new dispensation in
Saraj now discarded the old system of revenue assessment in favour of cash
collection. In Kulu Proper, however, the Sikhs had retained an armed force and
placed a kardar to took after the revenue administration.7 The revenue from
upper Kulu was collected in grain. In March 1846, the hill territories between
the Sutlej and the Ravi and the Jalandhar Doab were ceded to the British.8

Historical and Political Background of Lahaul

It appears very likely that Lahaul was at an early time part of Ladakh.9
The isolated nature of area ensured that Lahaul enjoyed a great degree of political
freedom, and the only indicator of subjection was the yearly tribute that its
rulers paid to Ladakh, Chamba or Kulu at different points of time.10
In 1700 A.D. Raja Man Singh of Kulu strengthened his grip over the country.
He built the fort at Gondla and also married a daughter of the Gondla family. Later
during the reign of Raja Pritam Singh we learn that a Lahaul contingent assisted
Kulu in the war against Mandy at Bajaura though ostensibly they fought under the
banner of Gyephang Lha-the, the spirit of the great peak that looks down upon the
Kulu Valley. Despite this association of Lahaul people with Kulu however, we
learn that when Moorcroft passed through Lahaul in 1820, he still found four villages
in the Chandra Valley that continued to pay tribute to Ladakh.. In Moorcroft's time
the Kulu revenue headquarters in Lahaul were located at Tandy. There was a
storehouse, called kothi where grain was deposited as revenue. It was at Key long
that Moorcroft met Dharma Singh, the Thakur of that place, and the principal man
in Lahaul.11 With the annexation of Kulu by the Sikhs in 1840-41, Lahaul too was
annexed and ruled by them in their usual extortionate manner. With the cession of
most of the hill areas in 1846 to the British, both Kulu and Lahaul came under
direct British rule.

Historical and Political Background of Spiti

From 1720 onwards Spiti appears to have remained a province of Ladakh.
Its remote location, however, meant that the inhabitants were largely to govern
themselves.12 This did not mean that Spiti was entirely free from external
intervention or invasion. Lyell tells us that Gerard mentions that in 1776 the
 Political Change in Kulu... 117
Bushahris held the fort of Danker for two years. He further says that, Moorcroft's
and Trebeck mention a foray that had been made just prior to his visit by a
large body of armed men from Kulu. Lyell again says, that the people of the
Spiti area were not warlike and paid a small tribute to all the surrounding states
by way of blackmail to escape being plundered.13 Spiti was therefore, always at
the mercy of its neighbors, especially Ladakh, Bushier and Kulu. Wherever
their country was invaded, the inhabitants abandoned the villages and fled to
the higher mountains that were difficult to reach. They remained there till the
danger had passed.14
In 1846 the boundary between Spiti, Ladakh and Tibet was drawn up by Cunningham.
For the first three years after 1846 the task of revenue collection was farmed out to Mansukh
Das who was the wazir of the raja of Bushier. In 1849, Major Hay the Assistant
Commissioner of Kulu took charge of Spiti and submitted a detailed report.15

Land Revenue System of Kulu, Lahaul and Spiti

Each large village in the valley of Kulu had a kothi or granary, where the
produce of the area was carried and stored. The main crop of the valley was a
fine variety of rice that was not to be found elsewhere in Punjab. Profits made
in this enterprise were considerable and the kardars speculated in this business
at a personal level. Rice was exported from the valley and the Punjabi traders
on their return brought back rock salt from the Pind Dadan mines in Punjab.16
The process of assessing the revenue was in keeping with the method previously
followed by the Mughal state. Officials visited each village to assess the value
of the crops. The assessed demand was converted into a cash demand according
to existing prices, and this represented the amount that the village was expected
to pay to the state as revenue.17 In addition to this the kardar claimed 6½ per
cent in the form of contingencies or Khurch. It was noted by Barnes that under
the Sikhs, the revenue collection was done before the harvest.18
The Lahore kingdom ruled over Kulu between 1839 and 1846. The
governor who directly administered Kulu was stationed at Sultanpur and it was
only after the First Sikh War that the area came into British control.19 The first
Sikh force was sent under Ventura in 1839 initially against the neighboring
state of Mandy. Thereafter, the opportunity of possessing Kulu seemed exceeding
attractive. The Sindhanwala Sardar was assigned the task. Kulu offered no
resistance and passed quickly into Sikh control.20 The wazir of Mandy abolished
the old revenue assessment in this part of Kulu and converted it entirely into a
cash demand.
As far as Lahaul was concerned, the Sikhs followed the same system as
the Rajas, with an additional levy of Rs.6 per jeola or holding. The reason
Sikhs gave for the additional demand was that the new government did not
118 Vinay Sharma
claim any service or labour ( beggar) from either the Thakur or the peasant.
The Spiti revenue annually was paid to the Sikh officer (thanedar) in charge of
Ladakh. Between 1839 and 1842 this amounted to 'a sum of Rs.2,000 with two
ponies and 25 sheep, and from that year till 1846 a reduced sum of Rs.1,031 but
with 60 sheep instead of 25 and 100 iron crowbars added.'21 Besides these
extractions, they plundered the country mercilessly taking whatever they could
think of.22

Conclusion
The political events occurred in the earlier 19th and mid 19th century
breaded many fold political changes. The Sikhs demanded annual tribute of
Rs. 50,000 in reward to help the Raja and he did not comply the same and fled
away to the higher hill areas. In nut shell, the political changes in the Kulu,
Lahaul and Spiti area were influenced by the Sikhs rulers and local Raja was
under constant threat from Gorkhas and Sikhs as well.
We see that the Sikh administration, by and large, built their revenue system
on the foundations of the system that had existed earlier. Some commodities,
like rice, nevertheless could yield a good profit and were therefore exported. It
is possible that because the large majority of Sikh administrators were not given
a regular cash salary, they attempted to extract as much as possible from the
area through exploitation or profiteering. One of the remarkable aspects of the
Sikh revenue administration was that it was able to penetrate even to the
relatively remote regions of the mountains.

References

1 Bachittar Singh, Final Report of the Fourth Revised Settlement of the Kulu Sub-Division of
the Kangra District, 1945-1952, Controller Printing and Stationery, Punjab, 1951, p. 1.
2 A.H. Diack, Final Report on the Revised Settlement of the Kulu Sub-Division of the Kangra
District, Civil and Military Gazette Press, Lahore, 1898, p. 1.
3 Gazetteer of the Kangra District: Part II to IV: Kulu, Lahaul and Spiti, (Compiled by
A.H.Diack, Civil and Military Gazette Press, Lahore, 1898). p. 22. Moorcroft mentions in
his travels that he heard that Ghamand Chand Katoch Raja of Kangra, father of Sansar
Chand, invaded Kulu.
4 G.C.Barnes and J.B. Lyell, Report of the Kangra Settlement (completed in 1850, jointly
published version of settlements made by G.C.Barnes and J. B. Lyall, Lahore, 1889 has
been used), p. 73.
5 Ibid; p.78.
6 Ibid; p. 79.
 Political Change in Kulu... 119
7 Kangra DG, 1898, p. 25.
8 Lyell, Kangra SR, 1872, p. 79.
9 Ibid; p. 105.
10 J. Hutchison and J.Ph. Vogel, History of the Punjab Hill States, (first published in Lahore,
1933; rpt. Shimla, 1982), Vol-II. p. 39.
11 Ibid; pp. 482.
12 Lyell, Kangra SR, 1872, p. 106.
13 Ibid; p. 106.
14 J. Hutchison and J.Ph. Vogel, History of the Punjab Hill States, Vol-II, p. 486.
15 Lyell, Kangra SR, 1872, pp. 106-107.
16 G.C.Barnes, Kangra SR, 1850, p. 51.
17 Ibid; p. 51.
18 Ibid; p. 51.
19 J. Cold stream, Final Report of the Third Revised Settlement of the Kulu Sub-Division of
the Kangra District, 1910-13, Lahore, Punjab Government Press, p.4.
20 Kangra DG, 1898, p. 24.
21 Diack, Kulu SR, 1898, p. 13.
22 S.C.Bajpai, Lahaul-Spiti, A Forbidden Land in the Himalaya, Indus Publishing Company,
New Delhi, 1987, p. 118.

*****
120

26. Cotton Textile Industry:

A Case Study Of The 17th Century Northern India
*Ram Kumar

The textile tradition of India opens in the third millennium B.C.

Archeologists have found cloth fragments in Indus valley. Excavations at Mohen-
jo- daro and Harappa have proved that textile was woven in India from the very
beginning.1 The discovery of a madder dyed cloth fragment sticking to a silver
jar at Mohenjo-Daro is the earliest datable evidence of a true cotton fabric with
ornamentation.2 In 1500 BC, cotton was referred in several hymns of Rig-Veda.
This Vedic text specifically mentions that the region through which river Purusni
(Ravi) flowed produced dyed or bleached woolen stuffs.3 The technical terms
related to weaving like otu, wool, Tantu, yarn, Tantra, wrap of loom, shuttle
etc. are frequently used in Rigve.4 The contemporary Buddhist literature such
Jatakas mentioned a lot about different stuffs manufactured at that times.5 The
excellence of Indian textile was glorified by even the Greeks in ancient times.6
In this context Megsathnese records India's love for fine ornamental and flowered
garments.7 Kautilya in his creation Arthashastra mentions about different
varieties of textile manufactured in Maurya period.8 He also mentions that
Sutradhyaksh (superintendent of yarns) was responsible for the appointment of
skilled artisans to make finest cloths.9 The standard of Indian textile got retained
continuously. Banabhatta in 7th century AD. recorded the ornamentation of
fabrics through tie and die process.10 The Jain Canon and commentaries also
give lot of information regarding the textile weaving in ancient and medieval
India.11 Ksemendra, an eleventh century writer from Kashmir also provides us
some important information about textile patrons and dyes extracted from
different articles.12 This craft of cotton textile derived considerable impetus
from the sultans of Delhi.
This craft got flourished throughout the Mughal Period. Chronologically,

*Assistant Professor, Department of History, Govt. College, Barwala, District Punchkula

(Haryana)
 Cotton Textile Industry... 121
this industry was growing steadily during the reign of Emperor Akbar, but its
real boom begins with the turn of the seventeenth century and four factors
seems to have been the most determining factors in this direction; first, continual
peace and stability stretching over a long period; secondly, extension of
cultivation of cotton crops; thirdly, freedom of commercial intercourse; and
finally, relative safety and conveniences of the main commercial highway.13
The beginning of the seventeenth century in India opened a new chapter in the
commercial history. There was an apparent growth of commercial interests and
commercial morality among the upper section of society including the mughal
emperors and members of the royal family during the century.14 It was an age of
merchant capitalism. At that time the activities of the Europeans helped in
expanding the demand for certain types of goods which included a considerable
proportion of handicrafts and manufactures.15
Cotton was a widely grown crop during the period under study. It was
cultivated throughout the northern India.16 It was grown extensively in Lahore,
Multan, Thatta, Byana-Medta track, Ajmer to Mandu, Malwa, Agra, Sirsa,
Allahabad and Patna.17 Bernier mentions it as the major crop of Bengal.I8 It is
significant that industries or crafts became localized in the areas where raw
material could be had in abundance and at cheap rate.19
In this sense the cotton textile industry was the most expended industry
during the period under study. No city, town, Paraganah, Kasbah or village of
north India seems to have been devoid of this Industry.20 Delhi, Agra, Lahore,
Machhiwara, Sir hind, Samana, Lucknow, Banaras, Darybad, Khairabad,
Allahabad, Jaunpur, Patna, Dacca, Murshidabad, Surat, Broach, Burhanpur were
some of the important centers of the cotton textile industry.
The process of cotton textile production was based on manual labour.
Cotton with seeds was known as binaulay dar ruyi and was considered the
inferior kind of cotton.21 Seeds (binaulay) were separated from the cotton by
using the Charkhi,22 an apparatus which consisted upon two wooden or iron
rollers, made to revolve towards each other by hand or foot labour communicated
by a crank or wheel. Seed-cotton was put at one side against the roller, the lint
passed through and the seeds fell down in front.23 Even after the seeds were
cleaned, cotton remained full of dirt and knots. The bow was put in contact
with a heap of cotton and the ginner striked the strings with a heavy wooden
mallet, the vibrations opened the knots of the cotton, shacked off the dirt and
raised it to a down fleece.24 Cotton was carded by a special class of itinerant
laborers called dhuniyas.25 Thevenot mentions that cotton carders moved from
village to village to offer their service.26
The next step in the process of manufacturing was the spinning of yarn.
Spinning was a popular domestic industry.27 Yet the spread of professional
spinning in India in 16th-18th centuries, linked with the growth of the weaving
122 Ram Kumar

trade led to the further developments of the productive forces in spinning.28

The spinning equipment consisted of two sets, one a spindle for finer yarns, the
other the spinning wheel used for coarse yarns.29 The spindle was made of
metal, bone, ivory or wood.30 Spindle was a rod with a bulge of clay at the end;
the spinner turned it with the right, sometimes the lower end of the spindle was
placed on a special support.31 While spinning the women used a chalky powder
as a measure against perspiration.32 The woman working on spindle had to
have quickness of sight as well as very nimble fingers to spin the finer thread
like muslin.33 On the other hand charkha was used to spin the coarser sorts of
thread.34 Charkha as a wooden wheel rotated by handle is mentioned by Amir
Khusrau35 and Isami.36 Spinning being comparatively a lighter and less technical
job was quite often done by women and almost every house in the village used
to have its spinning wheel.37 They produced thread even for the market.38 The
women spinning cotton in Bengal often sold their thread to the merchants or
weavers.39 Spinning of Yarn was considered a respectable profession for widows
of even higher carte to earn their livelihood.40
After spinning the next process was weaving. Weaving was done by a
skilled professional class. Hindu weavers were known as Kohri while Muslims
as jolaha.41 Weaving was the leading trade in all the main regions of India in
16th- 17th centuries as regards the number of people employed and its role in
the economy of the feudal society of that period.42 Palsert also testifies that the
population of Bengal town's shahbaspur and Sonargaon including their
surrounding villages... all live by the weaving industry and their produce has
the highest reputation and quality.43
After weaving the cloth was sent for bleaching. The unbleached cloth
brought form the professional weavers was delivered for washing and bleaching
to the professional bleachers Known as dhobi in vernacular.44 Then the cloth
was washed and dried in the Sun. To give the pure whiteness to the cloth some
ingredients like lemon, soap, khar, or Soda carbonate and sulpher were used by
the bleachers.45 According to Tavernier lemon was an important ingredient in
bleaching.46 A special Variety of soap called Iraqi was considered the most
effective in washing47 Abraq or Mica was also used to give the cloth a glossy
touch.48 Baroda, Barouche, Ahmadabad, Surat, Dacca, Sonarganv, Patna were
some popular centers for bleaching.49
Dyeing was a specialized profession and dyers were known as ragrez,
rang bal or rnagari.50 Medieval dyers used clouring substances extracted from
different vegetables, leaves, herbs, roots, barks, flowers and fruits. Makers of
dyestuffs or dealers of dyestuffs were called nil gars, Ach-farosh or gulalsaz.51
Nuskha Khulastul Mujarrebat describes forty eight shades and seventy seven
processes of dyeing.52 Different shades were obtained from boiling the different
parts of plants and herbs like Indigo53, Rose, Turmeric, bark of Babul, Saffron,
 Cotton Textile Industry... 123
Henna, Majetha or Madder, Kachnar etc. Several ingredients such lemon, flower
of Kapuas, lime, alum and sulphate of iron were used as mordants.54
After dyeing different designs were printed on the cloth. Printing by
wooden blocks was known as Chhapa and the printers as Chapkar or Chippis.55
In block printing different designs were engraved on the surface of the small
wooden blocks which were then dipped into a paint and applied to the cloth.56
This printed cloth was called Chintz.57 The cloth painted by a hand brush was
known as Qalamdar and this art was called Qalamkari which was only done
over the cotton fabrics. Tie and dye was also a popular technique used by the
dyers.58
Sabhasrveara a literary work of sixteenth and seventeenth century mentions
as much as 130 Kinds of textile varieties.59 English factory records mentions
about 150 kinds of cotton textile.60 Calico was the popular term used for the
cotton clothes and it was known by different names at different places. For an
instance, Semianoes (Punjab); Amberty (Bihar); Eckbaries (Awadh); Marco
lees (Western Awadh).61 Amberty was a superior kind of white cotton and it
was chiefly woven in Bihar at Patna and its adjoining areas. Gujarat produced
the best kind of Bafta.62 The 'Chint' is derived from Sanskrit word' chitra',63 the
term was used for printed or spotted cotton cloth. The dyers of the pieces of
Chintz were called Chitsaz or Chitgar.64 Agra and Delhi manufactured an export
quality of Chintz which was sent to England.65 Doria was also a popular cotton
stuff and Chiefly produced in Benares, Bajwara and Machhiwara.66
Price of the cloth was decided by its fineness and quality. Following list
contains the prices of some popular stuffs.67

Type of the Cloth Price in Mahmudi

Khasa Rs. 3-15 Mahmudi
Chatlar Rs. 2-9 "
Malmal Rs.4
Tansnkh Rs. 4-5 "
Serisaf Rs. 2-5 "
Gangajal Rs. 4-5 "
Jhona Rs. 1-1 "
Bafta Rs.l/l/2.-5 "
Salu Rs. 3.-2 "
Doriya Rs. 6-2 "
Mihircool Rs. 3-2 "
Dupatta Rs.l.-l "
Fotaha Rs. 1/3-6 "

Thus cotton textile industry during the seventeenth Century was the most
expanded industry in northern India. It played a vital role in the economic growth
of the country. Several varieties of cotton stuffs was produced by the Indian
weaver which had a great demand in the foreign markets. These cotton varieties
were so fine that were given some symbolic titles like Aab-i- Rwan, Shabnami
124 Ram Kumar

and Sharbati. Bleaching, Dying, Printing (Block printing and Qalamkari) were
all become specialized professions of particular skilled classes. With the help
of his indigenous traditional tools and techniques the Indian weaver had been
contribution to the world economy and had established a unique identity in the
world of weaving.

References:
1. Irfan Habib, A people's History of India; The Indus Civilization, New Delhi, 2002, p. 26
2. John Marshall, Mohenjo-Daro and Indus Civilization, London, 1931,pp.32-33
3. Ralph T.H. Griffith, Humans of the Rig-Veda IV, 22.2, V, 52.9, Delhi, 1973. pp. 216-265
4. S ,N. Sahai, Textile industry in Ancient India, JBRS, vol-Lix, Patna, 1973, p.116
5. Moti Chandra, Costumes, Textiles, Cosmetic and Coiffure in Ancient andMedievel India,
Delhi, 1973, pp.10-15
6. Wilfred Scoff, The Peripluls of the Erythraean Sea, New Delhi, 1974, pp. 179-263
7. J.W. Mc Crindle, Ancient India As Described In Magasthenas And Arrian, London, 1887,
pp. 53-66
8. Kautilya, Arthasastra, vol-2, Tr. Radhey Shamashastry, Mysore, 1929, pp. 81-83
9. Zahir Babar, The Science of Empire, Delhi, 1998, p.56
10. Moti Chandra, op.cit, p. 124
11. Jagdish Chandra Jain, Life in Ancient India as Depicted in Jain Canon and Commentaries,
Delhi, 1984, pp. 127-28
12. Kasemendra, Saranymartka, (ed.) Durga Prasad and K.P. Parab, Bombay, 1925, pp. 20-23
13. H.K. Naqvi, Urban Centers and Industries in Upper India (1556-1803), Bombay, 1968, p.
149
14. Satish Chandra,' Commercial Activities of the Mughal Emperors During the Seventeenth
Century,' Essays on Medieval Indian History, Oxford, 2003, p. 234
15. Ibid, p.. 236
16. Irfan Habib, The Agrarian System of Mughal India 1556.1707, Delhi, 2005, pp.43-44
17. Ibid.
18. F. Bernier, Travels in the Mughal Empire, Tr. by A. Constable, Delhi, 2005, p.439
19. M.P. Singh, Studies in Mughal Economy (1556-1707), Jaipur, 2000, p. 138
20. H.K. Naqvi, op. cit., p. 136
21. Ibid, p. 149
22. Irfan Habib, The Agrarian System...., p. 63; see also Zahir Babar, op.cit, p.57
23. G. Watt, The Commercial Products of India, London, 1908, p. 611
24. H.K. Naqvi, op. cit, p. 149,
25. Irfan Habib, The Agrarian System..., op. cit., P. 63
26. Thevenot, Voyage Domego Thevenot, ed. Surendernath Sen., Indian Travels of Thevenot
and Careri, Delhi, 1949, p. 10
27. A.I. Tchitcherov, Changing Economic Structure in the 16th - 18th centuries: An Outline
History of Crafts and Trade, Delhi, 1998, p. 53
28. Ibid, p. 59
29. H.K. Naqvi, op. cit., p. 150
30. Ibid.
 Cotton Textile Industry... 125
31. A.I. Tchitcherov, op. cit., p.59
32. H.K.Naqvi, op. cit, p. 151
33. A,I. Tchitcherove, op.cit., p. 59
34. Ibid.
35. Amir Khusuru, Ejaz-i-Kusuruvi, c.f. H.K. Naqvi, Agricultural Industrial and Urban
Dynamism Under the Sultans of Delhi (1206-1535), New Delhi, 1986, p.55
36. Ishart Alam, Textile Technology in Medieval India, Aligarh, p. 4
37. H.K. Naqvi, op. cit. p. 150
38. A.I. Tchitcherov, op. cit., pp. 52-53
39. Ibid., p. 61
40. Ibid, p. 58
41. H.K. Naqvi, op.cit., p. 145
42. A.I. Tchitcherov, op. cit., p. 145
43. Francisco Pelsaert, The Remonstrantie, Ed. and Tr. by.n P.Geyl andW.H. Moreland, Jahangir's
India, Delhi, 1972
44. Eugenia Vanina, Urban Crafts and Craftsmen in Medieval India (Thirteenth- Eighteenth
Centuries), New Delhi, 2004, p.40
45. H.K. Naqvi, op.cit., p. 157
46. Jean Baptist Tavernier, Travels in Indian, Delhi, 2000 p. 6
47. H.K. Naqvi, op.cit., p. 157
48. Ibid.
49. A.I. Tchitcheroy op. cit, p. 71
50. Eugenia Vannia, op. cit., p.40
51. H.K. Naqvi, op.cit., p. 159
52. Ibid.
53. Pelsaert, op.cit, p. 16
54. H.K. Naqvi, op.cit., p. 161
55. Eugenia Vanina, op.cit, p. 40
56. A.I. Tchitcherov, op. cit, II, p. 4
57. Tavernier, op. cit, p. 72
58. A.I. Tchitcherov, op. cit., p. 73
59. S. A. Natha, Sabhasrngara, Kashi, 1962, p.323, c.f. Eygenia Vanina, Urban Crafts and
Craftsman in Medieval India (13-18 Centuries) ,New Delhi, p. 30
60. Tapan Ray Chaudhuri and Irfan Habib (ed.) The Cambridge Economic History of India
(1200-1750) , Cambridge, 1982, p. 269
61. N. S. Gupta. Industrial Structure of India during Medieval Period, Delhi, 1970, pp. 91-92
62. Tavernier, op. cit, p. 54
63. Hobson- Jobson, A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words And Phrases, (ed.) Henery
Yule and A.C. Burnell, New Delhi, 1995, pp. 818- 19
64. Irfan Habib, Textile Terms in Medieval Indian, Persian Texts-A Glossary, PIHC, 64th session,
Mysore, 2003, p. 529
65. W.Foster (ed.) English Factories in India (1618-21), Oxford, 1934 p.76
66. H.K. Naqvi, op. cit, p. 180
67. Parmod Sangar, Textile Industry in Seventeenth Century, Chandigarh, 1984, pp. 131 -132

*****
126

27. The Encounter Between The East And

The West In Bhabani Bhattacharya"s Novel
"A Dream In Hawaii"
*Tanmoy Kundu

In the present post colonialism as well as globalization era, the East-

West encounter is a formidable, recurrent and thought-provoking study. In
such dynamic and swift changing literary world, the East-West encounter in
human relationship pre-dominates every essential aspects of human life like
love, marriage and religion.It may not be a wrong matter to mention Bhabani
Bhattacharya's A Dream in Hawaii as adding a fuel to the fire of this East-West
encounter.
Bhabani Bhattacharya's A Dream in Hawaii is novel of the clash of the
cultural and moral values of the East and West. A novel full of diverse thoughts
takes a searching look at the wide gulf between the cultural patterns of the East
and those of the West. The novel depicts in clear terms the contrast between the
life way of two different socio-cultural units and collision of ideas governing
those two life ways. While a man enters into an alien culture, the process of
socio-cultural encounter takes place between him and his new, almost imposed
surroundings. In this connection. A Dream in Hawaii examines the philosophical
and cultural duality of the East and West. Bhabani Bhattacharya establishes the
fact that cultural inter-relations are possible between two real human beings.
These relationships are inter-related with the main theme of the novel. On this
Basis of feeling, Stella Greg son thought that the Swami was eminently suited
to be the interpreter of philosophical and cultural identity of the East to the
people of the west. In India it's self-denial. So it is in India Twenty five centuries
ago when the Buddha give up his royal in heritage….."1. Bhabani Bhattacharya's
theme, in its pervasive concern with the clashes of values represented by the
East and West, incorporates and dilates upon the relationship between religion
and art, " Religion and art have the same intend: to go beneath the surface

*Research Scholar Khatra Adibasi Mahavidyalaya, Khatra, Bankura,West Bengal.

 The Encounter Between The East... 127
froms ; to seek, to find the basic truths and ignite them" 2 Stella Greg son,
musing on Swami Yogananda's religious quest wonders: "the swami's relentless
quest was directed to the core of reality behind the appearances which were
'Maya' ,the stuff of illusion . What if he could consume with Neil Weinberger's
she, hide under the rich tones of abundant place? The body's contortions- they
could well be a symbolic expression of something deep within" 3.
Dream in Hawaii is the fictional equivalent of "A passage to America" for
within its structural framework it encompasses the period that begins with the
celebration of Swami Yogananda's ' hundredth' birthday in Hawai, when he
leaves his ashram Sadhana in Risikesh to accompany Stella Greg son, his
American disciple and his return trip to India on a JAL flight, when he
disassociates himself from Dr.Vincent Swift's mercenary dream of a World Yoga
Centre at Hawaii. The garb of an ascetic ix meant to help achieve the union
between the Vedanta thought that he teaches and his practical working out in
his life. Handsome and spiritual as he is, he remains thoroughly human
throughout, playing his roles of a teacher and ascetic with a verve and gusto
that never let him lapse into a banal and incredible mediocrity. Aright balance
of the sensuous and the sublime makes him a fascinating character indeed. The
East and West encounter becomes prominent when we find the several attempts
to divert Devjani;s stead fast attitudes and motives hold out herself as a separate
character from other western style loving characters :'Happiness, Devi, is a
steady date like me.4'. The rock never melt. Devjani knows that 'we in India
interest somewhat higher in value'5. The American are known for their excessive
indulgence and spending time in sexual affairs. Devjani avoids several immoral
advances during her stay in Hawaii. Nishi says, 'Let a mouth pass and you'll be
as Americanized as I!"6. Walter Greg son asks Devjani to make herself flexible,
'you are in America and you've got to know this society.. You to Understand its
values'7.
The twentieth chapters of the novels fall into a neat thematic and
structural pattern : almost help of them are concerned with the depiction of the
surfeit of sex as a symptom of the sick society, that 's this concept of western
society while the other help explores the true nature of spiritualism and salvation
which the author believes, are not reached through self-denial but only through
self fulfillment. Virtually all the characters in the novels are either sexually
timid or sexually frustrated or sexually inhabited or sexually sublimated. Neeloy
Mukherjee turned Yogananda and Devjani represent sexual sublimation. Stella
Greg son feels revulsion for the kind of completely uninhibited four letters,
orgiastic sex demanded by her husband, Walt Greg son, and so she turns to the
India Yogi to seek fulfillment of her spiritual needs.
Walt Greg son, the professor of literature, seeks correlations between the
portrayal of sex in contemporary American fiction and the real-life situations
128 Tanmoy Kundu

in which he himself is a participant, his quest for sexual thrills and she exudes
sex at the level of sheer animality without a single redeeming trace of human
feeling or scruple. And then there is Frieda who believes that Kama sutra is the
new gospel for America. Naturally therefore, the psychic barrier separating the
Indian from the American mind acts as a deterrent factor to the intimacy of
initiation into the secrets of the soul and super-consciousness. That's the reason
Stella, Jennifer and Walt in spite of their great need of Yogananada, can at best
touch his thoughts at the mere periphery. Swami Yogananda was also tormented
within himself between two pools - on one side there was his innermost desire
to be the 'Yogi' and on the other side his genuine love for Devjani. In this
connection it may be referred here that when on one night Swami Yogananda
was fast asleep In his bedroom, Syhia Koo, in the disguise of Devjani, wanted
to ascertain whether Swami had really overcome his weakness for the former
fiancé and had become the Yogi in the truest term. At least for a few seconds
Swami Yogananda was thrilled with the sudden and unexpected midnight visit
of Devjani, as if ,in a dream but Syhia Koo in disguise of Devjani. This incident
finally convinced Swami Yogananda that he would never be able to overcome
his love for Devjani and so it is better to give up a self imposed sainthood and
get united with his beloved Devjani. So Yoganada must return to India and wait
for Devjani to accept him only as Neeloy and to wonder whether a 'firely' is in
any way less glorious than a 'star'.
References:
(1) Bhattacharya Bhabani (1978) A Dream in Hawaii, Delhi: The Macmillan Company of India
Ltd,P.188
(2) Bhattacharya Bhabani (1978) A Dream in Hawaii, Delhi: The Macmillan Company of India
Ltd,P.88
(3) Bhattacharya Bhabani (1978) A Dream in Hawaii, Delhi: The Macmillan Company of India
Ltd,P.175
(4) Bhattacharya Bhabani (1978) A Dream in Hawaii, Delhi: The Macmillan Company of India
Ltd,P.99
(5) Bhattacharya Bhabani (1978) A Dream in Hawaii, Delhi: The Macmillan Company of India
Ltd,P.80
(6) Bhattacharya Bhabani (1978) A Dream in Hawaii, Delhi: The Macmillan Company of India
Ltd,P.96
(7) Bhattacharya Bhabani (1978) A Dream in Hawaii, Delhi: The Macmillan Company of India
Ltd,P.161

*****
 129

28. Quantitative Revolution And

Methodological Development
in Geography
*TARUN BARMAN

The geographers have been using quantitative methods for identification,

explanation and decision making. The quantitative revolution occurred during
the 1950s and 1960s and marked a rapid change in the method behind
geographical research, from regional geography into a spatial science. 1
Quantitative Revolution in Geography:- Quantitative means expression
of geographical values in precise terms as a set of figure rather than description.
Kelvin has said-”If you do not measure what you say or express them in number
of your knowledge about what you are speaking is unsatisfactory”. Ex- Rainfall
in Siliguri 2012-Very heavy, Heavy, Medium, Light. /Yearly average 250cms
and monthly average 25cms. The Quantitative Revolution was one of the major
turning points in the history of Geography. As a consequence of a long
methodological debate upon its scope and content an apparently new perspective
has been opened up under the impact of the so-called Quantitative Revolution
during the mid 20th century.2 Statistical methods were first introduced into
geography in the early 1950s (Burton, 1963). Geography or any other subject
comes under knowledge system. Knowledge system can be classified into two-
*Physical science/Natural science *Social Science/Human science.3
The place of geography is virtually in between physical and social
science. Geography links humanities with physical or natural sciences. Some
scholars said geography is physical science, some said it is a social science, yet
some other said it under humanities. 4 The word ‘Geography’ was first used by
the Greek scholars Eratosthenes in 3rd century B.C. It is derived from two Greek
words ‘Geo’ (means the earth) and ‘graph’ (means the description) .So,
Geography is the description of the Earth. 5

*Research Scholar Department of Geography Visva-bharati University,

Santiniketan, West Bengal
130 TARUN BARMAN

According to Pitter Hogget-(1981 ‘The study of the earth’s surface as the

space within which the human population lives’ 6 Traditionally geography was
considered to be a description of the earth surface, but in due course of time its
definition and nature changed. Now it is concerned with providing accurate,
orderly and rational descriptions and interpretations of the variable character
of the earth surface. In order to achieve this objective of geography and to
ascertain the real picture of a region, geographers started the use and application
of quantitative tools and techniques in geographical ideas since 1960, s.7 That
is called ‘Quantitative revolution’. After the quantitative revolution the content,
scope, method, methodology, approach and techniques in geographical studies
largely changed. 8 In contemporary period(1950’s onwards) geographers are
concentrating more on field studies, generating primary data, utilizing secondary
data and applying the sampling techniques. But in recent period geographer
used –general system theory, more sophisticated models and techniques in
geographical studies. Some of the techniques that epitomize the Quantitative
Revolution include :9
* Descriptive to Analytical- Frequency distribution, Arithmetic means,
Median, Mode, Standard Deviation etc.
* Inferential statistics-Used to make statement about a defined population
from a selected random sample of that population use of probability and
application of significance test etc.
* Basic mathematical equations and models, such as Gravity model of social
Physics or the Coulomb equation;

Methodological development in geography: -

Methodology may be termed as a device or a way through which an
explanation to any phenomena can be made. It is a technique to study any event
or phenomena or a problems.10 A branch of knowledge can be call science only
on condition that it can be studied through scientific Method. 11 A lot of
methodological development have occurred to geography in the present day
.But the development is quite recent – early geographer were concerned with
traditional gazetteers with description of location, geology, land form, climate,
soil, vegetation, population and their primary and secondary activities.
Introduction of statistical methodology has made geographical analysis
more scientific and logical. The use of quantitative methodology has
revolutionized the new geography. Now a day’s geographers are taking more
cores to formalize to theories and models. 12 Research activities adopt scientific
methods-i.e. passes step by step-observation, data collection, data analysis, result
obtained. Each discipline always has its own fundamental method and its
 Quantitative Revolution... 131
methodological basis. The methodology used in geography may be categorized
into-
1. (A) deductive approach (general to particular) (B) Inductive approach
(particular to general)
2. (A) Qualitative- regression, co –relation, variance, co-variance, graphic
space, model simulation, probability.
(B) Quantitative method- quantification means expression of geographical
values, in precise term usually as a set of figure rather than description.
The period (1950-1960) during which the character of geography witnessed
a fundamental change over from ideographic to homothetic approach.
Geography research addressed both the questions of where, as well why
phenomena occur in particular places, geography draws upon and contributes
to numerous other knowledge discipline. Though the qualitative approach in
geography remains important with ethnography and other methodologies used
to investigate theories of spatial phenomena.

References:
1. "The’Quantitative Revolution’ ’, GG3012 (NS) Lecture 4, University of Aberdeen (2011),
webpage: AB12.
2. Rana , Lalita ,’ Geographical Thought: A systematic Record of Evolution’, Concept
Publication company, New Delhi(2008),p .16 .
3. Burton, I., ‘The quantitative Revolution and Theoretical Geography’, Canadian Geography
(1963), Vol.7, pp.151-162.
4 . Adhikari, Sudeepta ,’ Fundamentals of Geographical Thought’,C.S Jain for Chaitanya
Publishing House, Allahabad(2006), pp14-20,
5. Rana,Op.cit pp.266-267.
6. Adhikari,Op.cit pp.1-2..
7. Hosain,MaJid,’Evolution of Geographical Thought’,Rawat Publication,Joipur and New
Delhi(2004),pp.315-317.
8. Hossain,ibit pp.19-20.
9. GG3012 (NS) Lecture 4.Op.cit p. AB.13.
10. Khan, Najma ,’ Quantitative methods In Geographical Research’, Concept Publishing
Company, New Delhi(2003),p.1.
11. Misra,R.P,’Research Methodology, A hand book’, Concept Publishing Company, New
Delhi(2002),pp.3-4.
12. Kathari.C.R,’Research Methodology, Method and Technique’, New age
International(P)Ltd.,New Delhi(2006), pp 8-9.

*****
132

29. Kashmir Accession :

Impact On India - Pakistan Relations
*Chandra Kanta

After a few months of becoming two separate Nations, India and Pakistan
relations have been at Cross Roads. These relations were not totally always
Hostile, but the issue of Kashmir has always been contentious, due to the fact
that Pakistan has all along not accepted the Kashmir issue as settled. It is
worthwhile to mention that both these countries have succeeded in sorting out
their other outstanding issues concerning evacuee properties, Minority rights
to the mutual satisfaction of both the countries, during the summit meetings
held in 1950 between Nehru- Liakat Ali Pact of 1950 and Nehru - Noon Pact of
1958, including the border between the two countries.
However regarding the Kashmir Problem, although numerous efforts were
made for bilateral settlement on various occasions no worthwhile results could
be achieved on this front, in fact during the whole period of the Fifties, Kashmir
remained a thorn in India -Pakistan relations due to unwillingness of both the
countries to compromise on the issue.
General Ayub Khan, in 1958 on assuming the control of Pakistan , had
expressed the desire of having a joint defense between both the countries in
view of the fact, in his opinion , that the subcontinent was vulnerable on the
North and North- western region1. This point was further stressed by him in a
press conference held by him in October for a need of better understanding
between the two countries , in view of recent developments in Tibet and
Afghanistan2
However some signs of Pakistan looking forward of coming closer to
China , taking advantage of the Sino-Indian conflict ,was also seen, form
Pakistani’s view to put pressure on India to get concessions in the Kashmir
issue. Therefore in the same Press Conference where he spoke of understanding

*Research Scholar ( History) Department of History University of Jammu, (J$K)

 Kashmir accession... 133
between India and Pakistan, General Ayub Khan, said that Pakistan wanted to
approach China for a peaceful settlement of the Sino-Indian un demarcated3
border between China and Pakistan.
General Ayub Khan, on 27 November 1959, in an interview in London
said that Pakistan considered itself a party to the Sino- Indian dispute because
according to him Kashmir was a disputed territory and therefore Pakistan, was
not willing to accept any arrangement which India might enter with China on
Ladakh.4
These feelings were also echoed in the Security council by the Pakistan
representivenPrince Ally Khan, where he said that pending a settlement on
Kashmir issue, “no position taken or adjustment made by either India or China
on the present controversy in the future shall be valid...”5
Pakistan also circulated a note on the question of Ladakh at the United Nations
in which it was pointed out that Pakistan being anxious to ease the mounting
pressures in the sub- continent had refrained from doing anything which would
aggravate India’s difficulties. He stressed that a definite settlement of the
Kashmir issue in accordance with the wishes of the people alone could
consolidate peace in the area.6
During this period Pakistan taking the advantage of the Sino-India conflict
started coming closer to China and supporting it in the United Nations. At this
stage it may be noted that Pakistan and China had always had similar objectives
and apprehensions as regards India and therefore their long range policies
have always run parallel. Both of them have precisely appreciated the area of
coincidence in their objectives and policies. They have done this in spite of the
fact that one of them is a militant communist country and the other a professed
ally of the West.7
In the year 1956, Chou En lay , The Chinese Premier, during his visit to Pakistan
went as far as to appeal to both India and Pakistan to settle their border problems
bilaterally.8In 1958, the then President of Pakistan, General Ayub Khan, came
out with a proposal to India to form a “joint defense alliance”. It was conceivable
that the Pakistani ruling clique was playing a vicious role, in its role of being
in Pacts with the Western Powers and as well with China.9
Here it is worthwhile to mention that Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru, had
rejected General Ayub’, proposal regarding Joint Defense ostensibly wondering,
as to, against whom common defense was intended. He made it a point to
explain that a common defense policy implied membership to a Military
alliance.10
The suggestions of a Joint Defense arrangement between India and Pakistan
should therefore be partly assessed in the light of Ayub’s ideological
predilections. If on the other hand we resolve our problems and disengage our
armed forces from facing inwards ...and make them face outwards..., we shall
134 Chandra Kanta

have a good chance of preventing the history of the past being repeated.11
It is evident that the overriding consideration of Pakistan’s alignment with
the United States was India. At that time the main concern for the USA was
containment of communism, and that of Pakistan, was motivated to contain
India,12 because in Pakistanis view communism poses a threat to all and is not
likely to make Pakistan its exclusive target whereas Indians were one enemy
number one.13
In October 1959, Pakistan had offered to negotiate with China on Border
Demarcation, with a hope of reducing the area of tension with China. Since the
area under question was also a part of Kashmir, which was held by Pakistan, it
is non maintainable that that Pakistan was unaware of the implications of such
a move. However the Chinese did not respond to this Pakistan offer for a long
time.14
Pakistan Foreign Minister, Mansur Qadir, inquired from the Chinese
ambassador for the delay by China on this issue and if it was in any way
connected with the fact that it was the disputed territory of Kashmir. In June
1962, at the first session of the newly constituted National Assembly, of Pakistan,
there was a unanimous criticism of the United States for its unwillingness to
pressurize India for a solution to the Kashmir Dispute.
It was held that in the context of American offer of Military aid to India,
the government of Pakistan should reformulate .Its foreign policy and try to
improve its relations with China.15
During the period of its military engagement with China, India had invoked
the support of Pakistan. Nehru had written to President Ayub 0n 12 November
1962, assuring him that the military aid to India by “friendly countries, “would
be solely used to defend the country against the Chinese and that India would
never initiate any conflict with Pakistan.16 In pursuance of its objective of
courting Pakistan at this juncture India even played down the virulent criticism
of its policies in the Pakistani press by maintaining that the later did not reflect
the opinion of either the public or the authorities. This was claimed by Nehru
on 14 November 1962 in the Loksabha.17
A day earlier, Home Minister Shastri had spoken in a similar manner in
the Rajya Sabha when he said:”It sometimes hurt us to read some of the
comments made in the newspapers in Pakistan; they have been very harsh
indeed..... Yet it is not the papers which really place the governments point of
view.”18
Pakistanis reaction to the Sino- Indian conflict was three fold:
1. It held India responsible for the conflict.
2. It sharply disagreed with its Western allies that the Chinese attack constitute
a major threat to the entire sub-continent.19
 Kashmir accession... 135
3. Pakistan was highly critical of western Military aid to India.
And this factor had turned into the highest concern for Pakistan.20
The massive invasion of India by China was dismissed as Nehru’s version
of the Sino- Indian conflict in a Dawn editorial of 27 October 1962. By rejecting
the Chinese offer, Mr. Nehru has let his country in for a long drawn conflict,
the ultimate consequences of which may well be to the disadvantage of India,
despite the Anglo-American military aid....21
In Pakistan the United States and Great Britton had become special targets
of criticism because it was regretted that instead of promoting peace settlement
they were providing weapons to India.22
An editorial in Pakistan Times, argued that India had been Pakistan’s
number one enemy, not merely of being a big neighboring power but profounder
still for ideological motivations,23 and pointed out that instead of treating Pakistan
as an ally the western powers were treating it as a satellite nation .It further said
that the western aid being given to India due to the Chinese aggression, was
much more than required and Pakistan feels that the Chinese conflict was being
used by India to get more weapons to be used against Pakistan.24
These views were echoed, by the Political Parties. Compared to such strong
criticism at home, the Pakistan President, Ayub Khan expressed his bitter
disappointment, in a statement of 5 November 1962 he expressed the desire of
Pakistan to reduce its participation with the western pacts like CENTO and
SEATO, and on Sino-Indian war commented that, “Broadly speaking , we in
Pakistan are seriously disturbed that the differences between China and India
have erupted in to an armed conflict. He further said that an amicable settlement
of the Kashmir issue could not be arrived at due to India’s unwillingness. He
was equally hurt with the outside help that India was getting and said this is for
sure that such a help will help in enlarging and prolonging the conflict between
India and China and add to the serious concern in the minds of the people of
Pakistan, that these weapons may well be used against them in the absence of
an overall settlement with India.25
Despite assurances from the President of the United States , John. F.
Kennedy, that the American aid to India was designed solely to help India to
resist China, Pakistan took the position that the United States, besides being
unmindful of Pakistan’s sincere contribution to the western cause, would
prejudice its case on Kashmir. President Ayub, was therefore not disposed to
give any assurances either to India or the United States. This factor emerges in
a most revealing manner in President Ayub’s response to the American
President’s letter of 28 October 1962.. In his view the developments in the sub-
continent were the direct outcome of distorted and fallacious thinking of Nehru
and “ a consequence of a baseless foreign policy that he has been following.,”26
136 Chandra Kanta

Here it will be observed that during and immediately, after the Indo- Sino
conflict, Pakistan through all its resources, tried its best to undermine the foreign
Policy of India and also to justify its actions in attempting to befriend China
although it was a member of a couple of Pacts with the western powers, and
using them to ensure that the Western powers pressurize India to settle the
Kashmir issue which was in the Security council, in its favor.

References-
1. Pakistan Times(Lahore), 25 April 1959.
2. As Ayub Khan, judged the situation ,”events and developments on the Tibet border
and Afghanistan would make the sub continent militarily vulnerable in about five
years. The situation demands that both countries must take note of the facts.”
Asian Reader (New Delhi), Vol.5,1959,p.3011
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid:p.3061.
5. UN Doc.S/4242
6. Ibid
7. Mohammed Ayub,”India as a factor in Sino-Pakistani relations,”, International
studies(New Delhi), vol.9,no.3,January 1968,p.281.
8. Chinas refusal to commit itself on Kashmir disappointed Pakistan, Suhrawardy, while
visiting United States in 1957,came out with pronouncement against China. For detailed
study of the period see B.N.Goswamy, Pakistan and china(New Delhi,1971)pp.49-59.
9. Peking review,no.30,28 July 1959,p.18,Emphasis added.
10 Rajya Sabha debates,vol.25,1959,col.1676.Emphasis added.
11. Mohamed Ayub Khan, “Pakistan perspective,” Foreign affairs (New York), vol.38,no.
4,July 1960,p.556.
12. Dawn(Karachi)editorial,26 April 1963, which said :” if the main concern of the
Christian West is the containment, of Chinese Communism, the main concern of Muslim
Pakistan is the containment of militarist and military Hinduism.
13. Khalid Bin Sayeed, “Pakistanis Foreign Policy: An Analysis of Pakistani fears and
interests,” Asian Survey(Berkley),vol.4,no.3, march 1964, p.747.
14. Revealed by Ayub,no.31,p.162.Bhutto, disclosed in the Pakistan National Assembly
on 17 July 1963, that some preliminary exchanges of views between Pakistan and
China after Pakistan had made a formal request to China for a boundary agreement
but no substantial progress was made. Z.A. Bhutto, Foreign Policy of
Pakistan(Karachi),1964,p.79.
15. Text of letter in Indian Information ,vol.5,1 June 1963, pp.815-16
16. Foreign Affairs Record,vol.8,,November 1962,p. 301.
17. Rajya Sabha Debates,vol.41,1962, cols. 976-7.
18. The Pakistan Foreign Minister said in the National Assembly on 22 November 1962,
that the conflict stemmed from India’s un realistic and fallacious Foreign
Policy……..been averted.. See National Assembly Debates, 22 November 1962,p.3.
 Kashmir accession... 137
19. The consensus within Pakistan, both at the official and non official levels, was that
the conflict was localized, restricted to the area under dispute and that India had
exaggerated its magnitude in order to procure more arms.
20. Pakistan’s foreign minister said in a statement on 28 October 1962,that any massive
Military aid to India, would disturb the balance of power in the sub continent and
would be considered as an unfriendly act by Pakistan. See Pakistan Times, 29 October,
1962.
21. Dawn, 27 October 1962.
22. The Statesman (Delhi), 2 November 1962.
23. Dawn,31 October,1962.
24. Pakistan Times,1 November, 1962.
25. See the debates at the emergent session of the National Assembly which was summoned
on 21 November at the behest of the Pakistani President to discuss the situation.
26. In his letter to Prime Minister Nehru and President Kennedy, Ayub explained that in
the absence of an overall settlement of Kashmir, Pakistan would not guarantee a good
behavior. See Ayub,n.31, pp.146,141-3.

*****
138

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csgn laosnu”khy ekuh x;hA
lq/kk esa izdkf”kr ftl dfork ^^Hkxr flag ds fy,** dks cgsn vkifRrtud ekuk
tk jgk Fkk mlds ys[kd ^^czEgpkjh lR;iky mUeq[k** FksA iafMr nqykjs yky HkkxZo us
;g dfork xq:dqy dkaxM+h ds okf’kZdksRlo esa vk;ksftr dfo lEesyu esa lquh Fkh]
ftldh v/;{krk os Lo;a dj jgs FksA bl dfork esa dfo us Hkxr flag dh “kgknr dks
efgek eafMr djrs gq, fo”okl O;Dr fd;k Fkk fd] og fnu nwj ugha tc bl “kgknr
ls jk[k esa nch fpaxkfj;ka Tokyk dk :i ys ysaxhA ,d ,slk dksykgy mRiUu gksxk tks
nq”eu ds fnykssa dks ngyk nsxkA3
jkaph ls izsf’kr xksiuh; i= esa lq/kk ds tqykbZ vad ds i`"B la[;k 708 ij
izdkf”kr ftl ys[k dks vkifRrtud djkj fn;k x;k Fkk] og x.ks”k “kadj fo|kFkhZ dh
thouh ij vk/kkfjr FkkA x.ks”k “kadj fo|kFkhZ ds oSpkfjd n”kZu dh O;k[;k djrs gq,
ys[kd ,d LFkku ij dgrk gS fd] ^^og ¼x.ks”k “kadj fo|kFkhZ½ fgalk ds jkLrs ls
vlger Fks] fdUrq blds ckotwn os Økafrdkfj;ksa dh ns”kHkfDr ,oa cfynku ds izfr
muds ân; esa vR;Ur J)k dk Hkko FkkA**
blh izdkj tqykbZ vad ds i`’B la[;k 666 ls 670 ij izdkf”kr ,d dgkuh dks
Hkh Økafrdkjh xfrfof/k;ksa dks efgekeafMr djus okyk crk;k x;kA ;g dgkuh ,d
ØkfUrdkjh efgyk ij dsfUnzr Fkh tks viuh fnYyh ls esjB rd dh ;k=k esa u dsoy
viuh cqf)ekuh ls iqfyl ls cprh gS cfYd lQyrk iwoZd esjB ‘kM;a= eqdnesa esa
fxj¶rkj vkUnksyudkjh ds odhy rd eqdnek yM+us ds fy, 15000 :i, dk “kqYd
Hkh igqapkrh gSA ckn esa irk pyrk gS fd iqfyl vkSj lh-vkbZ-Mh- ml efgyk dk ihNk
,d vU; ØkfUrdkjh Hkxorh pj.k dks [kkst fudkyus ds fy, dj jgs gksrs gSaA4 /
;krRo gS fd Hkxorh pj.k oksgjk vius le; ds cM+s ØkfUrdkjh vkSj Hkxr flag ds
lkFkh Fks vkSj ftl izdkj nqxkZ HkkHkh us lkaMlZ gR;k dkaM ds le; Hkxr flag dks
cpk;k Fkk mldh Le`fr;k¡ Hkh vHkh /kqa/kyh ugha iM+h FkhaA
ijks{k :i ls ;s nksuksa gh izdk”ku ØkfUrdkjh xfrfof/k;ksa dks vknjiw.kZ LFkku nsrs
gq, fn[krs gSaA pwafd buesa lh/ks lh/ks Økafrdkjh xfrfof/k;ksa dk leFkZu ugha fd;k x;k
Fkk] blfy, jkaph okys i= esa blds fy, ^^NyiwoZd Økafrdkjh ny ds izfr lgkuqHkwfr
O;Dr djus dk iz;kl** tSls “kCnksa ls vfHkfgr fd;k x;k FkkA5
12 flrEcj 1931 bZ- dks lq/kk ds tqykbZ vad dks bl iz”u ds lFk fd] ^^ D;k
bl vad dks izfrcaf/kr fd;k tk ldrk gS\**] ^yhxy fjEksEcjsalj* ds ikl lykg ds
fy, Hkst fn;k x;kA 13 flrEcj 1931bZ- dks ^yhxy fjesEcjsalj* us viuk fopkj nsrs
gq, dgk fd] ^^de ls de i`’B la[;k 666 ls 670 ij izdkf”kr dgkuh vkSj x.ks”k
“kadj fo|kFkhZ ds ys[k esa eq>s izfrca/k dk vk/kkj ugha fn[krk fdUrq dfork **Hkxr flag
ds fy,** dh vafre iafDr;k¡] fuf”pr rkSj ij u dsoy Økafrdkjh xfrfof/k;ksa ds fy,
izksRlkfgr djrh gSa cfYd ljdkj ds fo#) ?k`.kk dk Hkh izlkj djrh gSA blfy, esjs
140 ujsUnz 'kqDy
fopkj ls bl ij izfrcU/k yxk;k tk ldrk gSA6
yhxy fjesEcjsalj dh lykg ij vey djrs gq, la;qr izkUr dh ljdkj us] 16
flrEcj 1931 bZ- dks] naM izfØ;k lafgrk 1898 ¼1898 ds ,DV V½ ds vuqPNsn 99 ,
dk iz;ksx djrs gq, gq,] lifj’kn xouZj tujy ds vkns”k ls Hkkjrh; naM lafgrk dh
/kkjk 124 , ds vUrxZr nf.Mr gksus ;ksX; lkexzh izdkf”kr djus ds vkjksi esa] if=dk
lq/kk ds tqykbZ vad dh leLr izfr;k¡ tCr djus ls lEcfU/kr vf/klwpuk] vf/klwpuk
la[;k 2758@ viii- 1573 }kjk vf/klwfpr dj fn;kA7 16 flrEcj dks gh eq[;
lfpo dqoa j txnh”k izlkn us lq/kk ds tqykbZ vad ds] Mkd }kjk izlkj ij izfrcU/k ds
fy, la;qDr izkUr ds iksLV ekLVj tujy dks vknsf”kr dj fn;kA8
bl izfrcU/k ds ckotwn lq/kk ds rsoj detkjs ugha iM+sA lq/kk ds uoEcj 1931
ds vad esa ,d ckj iqu% ,sls izdk”ku fd;s x;s tks iz”kklu dh n`f’V esa vkifRrtud
FksA ;s nksuksa gh izdk”ku dgkfu;ka FkhA igyh dgkuh^^ ejrs ne rd** nks Hkkb;ksa dh
izse dFkk FkhA blh esa ,d LFkku ij tgk¡ buesa ls ,d izseh ;qxy] f=ykspu ,oa ljyk
ds ijLij laokn dk izlax gS] ftlesa jktnzksg fo’k; ij ijLij fopkjksa dk vknku
iznku gksrk gSA ;gh f=ykspu] ljyk ls dgrk gS]
^^lp esa ljyk! jktnzksg ,d [krjukd oLrq gS] fdUrq bl le; turk ds izfr
ljdkj dk joS;k ftl izdkj fo}s’kiw.kZ gS mls ns[krs gq, Hkkjr esa ;g dksbZ ?k‘f.kr
le>h tkus okyh oLrq ugha jghA vc ;g gekjk drZO; cu pqdk gSA**
^^D;k eq>s Hkh bl drZO; dk ikyu djuk pkfg,\ ljyk us ftKklk ls iwaNkA**
^^fcYdqy] rqEgsa djuk gh pkfg,A D;k ns”k ds izfr gekjk dskbZ drZO; ughaA ekrk
ds izfr] ekr`Hkwfe ds izfr] ;gk¡ ds ty ds izfr] ok;q ds izfr]tks gekjs “kjhj dks iksf’kr
djrk gS] ftlesa varr% ge fey tkus okys gSa------A**
^^---------vkSj fo”ks’kdj vkt tc vlgk; eka fons”kh O;kikfj;ksa ds paqaxy esa
tdM+h gqbZ gS vkSj O;fFkr vkokt esa gesa] vius cPpksa dks cqyk jgh gS ----,sls esa ml ij
/;ku u nsuk dk;jrk gksxh——A f=ykspu us mRrj fn;kA**
^^Bhd gS] vkt ls eSa Hkh lnSo] ;gk¡ rd fd ^^ejrs ne rd** jktnzksgh fopkjksa
dk Lokxr d:axhA ---;g dgdj vyfonk fd eqnzk esa gkFk fgykrs gq, ljyk pyh
tkrh gSA**9
lq/kk ds uoEcj 1931 bZ- ds vad dh vkifRrtud djkj nh tkus okyh nwljh
dgkuh lqjthr ljwt ey “kekZ }kjk fyf[kr] ^^ifjorZu** FkhA ;g ,d Økafrdkjh ds
vfgald vkUnksyudkjh ds :i esa ifjorZu dh dFkk FkhA10
lq/kk dks bu dgkfu;kasa dks izdkf”kr djus dk [kkfe;ktk** dkyh lwph** esa “kkfey
gksdj pqdkuk iM+kA**11 /;krO; gS fd] izsl] lekpkj i=ksa o vU; izdk”kuksa gsrq ^^dkyh
lwph** dk fo/kku loZizFke iatkc ljdkj }kjk chloha lnh ds nwljs n”kd esa fd;k
x;k FkkA ftu izsl] i=] if=dkvksa dks buesa “kkfey fd;k tkrk Fkk os fdlh Hkh
 if=dk lq/kk ij izfrcU/k---- 141
ljdkjh foKkiu vFkok ljdkjh lgk;rk ds ;ksX; ugha le>s tkrs FksA12 bruk gh ugha
y[kuÅ laHkkx ds fMIVh dfe”uj th- ,y- fofo;u dks vkns”k fn;k x;k fd] os
O;fDrxr :i ls if=dk ds eqnzd ,oa izdk”kd dks bl lEcU/k esa psrkouh izsf’kr djsa
fd] ;fn Hkfo’; esa iqu% bl izdkj dk lkfgR; izdkf”kr fd;k x;k rc izdk”kd] eqnzd
ls tekur jkf”k ekaxus dh dk;Zokgh dh tk ldrh gSA13 fMIVh dfe”uj fe- fofo;u
}kjk fcydqy bUgha “kCnksa esa lq/kk ds eqnzd ,oa izdk”kd iafMr nqykjs yky HkkxZo dks
psrkouh nh x;hA14 ;g og le; Fkk tc lq/kk dh izlkj la[;k 5000 ds lkFk vius
pje ij FkhA irk ugha ;g psrkouh dk vlj Fkk ;k rRdkyhu jktuSfrd okrkoj.k
dh fLFkjrk] vxys rhu o’kZ rd lq/kk ds Hkhrj Nius okyh lkexzh dkQh larqfyr
jghA bl nkSjku ,d ckj Hkh mls vius izdk”kuksa ds dkj.k fdlh Hkh iz”kklfud leL;k
dk lkeuk ugha djuk iM+kA fdUrq vDVwcj 1935 bZ- ds vad esa ,d ckj iqu% lq/kk dks
ppkZ esa yk fn;kA lcls egRoiw.kZ ys[k ifjiw.kkZuan oekZ }kjk fyf[kr ^^ fdlku leL;k
ds ,sfrgkfld ifjizs{;** FkkA bl ys[k esa ys[kd us LFkkfir djus dk iz;kl fd;k Fkk
fd] ^^iwoZ esa fgUnw vkSj eqfLye nksuksa gh “kkludkyksa esa fdlkuksa dh fLFkfr mruh [kjkc
ugha Fkh ftruh fd ledkyhu fczfV”k vkSifuosf”kd iz”kklu ds varxZr FkhA iz”kklu
dk ekuuk Fkk fd ys[kd ds ;s fopkj ljdkj fojks/kh vkSj mdlkus okys gSaA iz”kklu
dh yxHkx ;gh ekU;rk vxLr 1936 bZ- vad ds nks vU; ys[kksa^^ fQfyLrhu fonzksg
**rFkk** Jherh lq[knk nsoh dh ifo= Le`fr esa ^^ds ckjs esa Hkh FkhA iz”kklu dk ekuuk
Fkk fd lq/kk vius ys[kksa }kjk yksxksa dks lfou; voKk vkUnksyu ls tqM+us ds fy,
izsfjr djrh gSA gkykafd ljdkj us bu ys[kksa ds fy, if=dk ij dksbZ dk;Zokgh ugha
dhA15
Hkkjrh; Lora=rk vkUnksyu esa fuHkhZd i=dkfjrk dk ,d yEck bfrgkl jgk gSA
Lora=rk vkUnksyu ds leFkZd fopkjdksa }kjk lekt rd vkUnksyu dh jhfr uhfr dks
igq¡pkus ds fy, cM+h la[;k esa iszsl] i=] if=dkvksa] ipsZ ,oa vU; eqfnzr lkfgR; dk
iz;ksx fd;k tkrk jgk FkkA iafMr nqykjs yky HkkxZo }kjk y[kuÅ ls eqfnzr ,oa
izdkf”kr dh tkus okyh if=dk lq/kk ,d ,slh gh if=dk jgh tks yxkrkj] izfrcU/k
vkSj psrkofu;ksa ds lkFk ^^iz”kklfud jMkj** ij jgus ds ckotwn] vke tuekul dks
Lora=rk la?k’kZ ds lkFk tksM+us dk iz;kl djrh jghA
142 ujsUnz 'kqDy

lUnHkZ
1- jktdh; vfHkys[kkxkj y[kuÅ ¼ vkxs ls jk-v-y-½A jkaph ls l;qDr izkUr ds eq[;
lfpo dks izsf’kr v/kZljdkjh i= la[;k 4234] gkse iqfyl] i=koyh la[;k 1573]
i`"B la[;k&1
2- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl] i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&17
3- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl] i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&2
4- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl] i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&3
5- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl] i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&1
6- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&5]6
7- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&47
8- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&49
9- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl] i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&7 ]8
10- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl] i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&9
11- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl] i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&10
12- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl] i=koyh la[;k 449
13- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl] i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&13
14- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl] i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&17
15- jk-v-y-A gkse iqfyl] i=koyh la[;k 1573] i`"B la[;k&19 ls 29

*****
 143

31- vlg;ksx vkUnksyu esa oS'kkyh dh

lkekftd i`"BHkwfe
*MkW- js.kq dqekjh

1920 ds n'kd esa fcgkj dk oS'kkyh ftyk frjgqy ize.My dk ,d Hkkx Fkk] ftldk
eq[;ky; eqt¶+Q+jiqj esa FkkA bl dkj.k vlg;ksx vkUnksyu ds dky[kaM esa oS'kkyh
eqt¶+Q+jiqj esa gksus okys jktuSfrd ,oa lekftd xfrfof/k;ksa ls lapkfyr gksrk jgkA
iwf.kZ;k vkSj pEikj.k dh Hkk¡fr eqt¶+Q+jiqj esa Hkh fyYkgksa dk izHkqRo Fkk vkSj muds
vR;kpkjksa ls fdlku =Lr FksA eqt¶+Q+jiqj esa gh fyygksa la?k dk eq[;ky; FkkA bl
{ks= ds fdlku uk;d Lokeh fo|kuUn FksA bUgksaus bl {ks= ds fdlkuksa dks u dsoy
laxfBr fd;k] oju~ muesa fyygksa ds f[kykQ+ vkokt+ mBkus dk lkgl iSnk fd;kA
tkxj.k dh ;g ygj fdlkuksa esa bl rjg QSyh fd mUgksaus fyygs ds lkFk&lkFk
muds laj{k.k esa Qyus&Qwyusokys LFkkuh; t+ehnkjksa ds f[kykQ+ Hkh vkokt+ mBkuh
vkjEHk dj nhA 1920 ds izkjEHk esa gh xk¡/kh th us ?kks"k.kk dj nh Fkh fd ;fn fczVsu
rqdhZ ds lkFk lfU/k ds }kjk Hkkjrh; eqlyekuksa dks larq"V ugha djsxk rks os ljdkj ds
fo#) vlg;ksx vkUnksyu NsM+ nsaxsA1 9 twu 1920 dks bykgkckn esa f[k+ykQ+r dfefV
us loZ&lEEkfr ls vlg;ksx dk izLrko Lohdkj dj fy;k vkSj vkUnksyu ds usr`Ro dk
nkf;Ro xk¡/kh th dks lkSai fn;kA2 xk¡/kh th us tkfy;k¡okyk ckx dh ?kVuk] f[kykQ+r
dk iz'u vkSj Lojkt ds eqn~ns ij blh izdkj dk vkUnksyu pykus ds fy;s dk¡xzsl ij
ncko cuk;kA3 vr% mUgksaus f[kykQ+r ds iz'u dks vlg;ksx dk iz'u cuk;kA blls
dk¡xzsl dk tuk/kkj foLr`r ,oa etcwr gqvkA
dk¡xzsl ds ukxiqj vf/kos'ku ¼fnlEcj 1920½ ds iwoZ gh fcgkj izns'k dk¡xzsl
dfeVh us 31 tqykbZ 1920 dks vlg;ksx vkUnksyu ds izLrko dks eat+wj dj fy;k FkkA
dk¡xzsl ds dbZ cM+s&cM+s usrk vHkh Hkh bl vkUnksyu dks lansg dh n`f"V ls ns[k jgs FksA
*,lksfl,V izksQslj] bfrgkl foHkkx] tequh yky dkWyst] gkthiqj ¼oS'kkyh½]
fcgkj
144 MkW- js.kq dqekjh
vxLr 1920 esa MkW- jktsanz izlkn dh v/;{krk esa fcgkj izkUrh; jktuhfrd lEesyu
Hkkxyiqj esa gqvkA4 ;|fi bl lEesyu esa ckcw cztfd'kksj izlkn] ckcw /kj.kh/kj]
etg:y gd] 'kkg eqgEen tqcSj] ekSyoh eqgEen 'kQ+h] ekSykuk uq#g glu] bR;kfn
vlg;ksx ds leFkZd Fks] fdUrq vHkh Hkh cgqr lkjs usrk vlg;ksx ds fojks/kh FksA bl
lEesyu esa fo|kuUn ds usr`Ro esa fdlkuksa us igyh ckj dkQ+h rknkn esa fgLlk fy;k
vkSj mUgha ds lg;ksx ls vlg;ksx dk izLrko Hkkjh cgqer ls ikfjr gks x;kA5 bu
fdlkuksa us bl lHkk dks ,d cM+s eap ds :i esa ns[kk] tgk¡ ls mudh leL;kvksa dk
lek/kku gks ldrk FkkA6 bl izdkj xqtjkr ds ckn fcgkj nwljk izns'k Fkk tgk¡
vlg;ksx dk izLrko dydRrk dk¡xszl ds fo'ks"k vf/kos'ku ds iwoZ ikfjr gqvk FkkA7
fnlEcj 1920 esa xk¡/kh th us fcgkj dk nkSjk fd;kA ;|fi ;s nkSjk vYidkfyd Fkk fQj
Hkh mlls vlg;ksx vkUnksyu dks dkQh cy feyk vkSj blls lai.w kZ izkra esa tkxj.k dh
ygj QSy xbZA8 eqt¶+Qj+ iqj esa xk¡/kh th us fryd eSnku esa cgqr cM+h mifLFkr HkhM+ dks
lEcksf/kr fd;kA lHkk esa ckcw euksjatu izlkn flUgk jfpr ^^fQjafx;k** dk xkuk jktsUnz
dkWyst Nijk ds HkwriwoZ izkpk;Z }kjk fd;k x;kA9 eqt¶Q+jiqj ds izeq[k jk"Vªh; usrk
ekSyoh 'kQ+h nkmnh] foU/ks'ojh izlkn oekZ] ut+hj vgen vkSj tud/kkjh izlkn uohu
jk"Vªh; dk;ZØe dk lans'k nsrs gq, ftyk dh ;k=k dj jgs FksA vDVwcj ds izkjEHk esa
mUgksaus Hkxokuiqj ds LFkkuh; fefMy Ldwy esa lHkk cqykbZA10 ogk¡ ls fon~nwiqj] nsljh]
egukj] egqvk gksrs gq, os eqt¶+Q+jiqj igq¡ps vkSj eqt¶+Qjiqj ds fryd eSnku esa lHkk
dk vk;kstu fd;k x;k] ftlesa turk ls vkUnksyu esa c<+&p<+dj fgLlk ysus dh
vihy dh x;hA11
xk¡/kh th us vius fcgkj nkSjs ds le; fo|kfFkZ;ksa ls Hkh vkUnksyu esa viuh
Hkkxhnkjh fuHkkus dh vihy dh FkhA bl vihy dk O;kid vlj ns[kk x;kA fcgkj ds
vU; ftyksa ds Nk=ksa dh rjg eqt¶+Q+jiqj ds Nk=ksa us Hkh f'k{k.k laLFkkvksa dk ifjR;kx
dj fn;kA ch- ,u- dkSysft,V Ldwy] Hkwfegkj czkã.k dkSyst vkSj eqt¶+Q+jiqj ftyk
Ldwy ds Nk=ksa esa dkQh mÙkstuk ns[kh xbZA bu laLFkkvksa ds 80% ls vf/kd fo|kfFkZ;ksa
us f'k{k.k laLFkkvksa dk cfg"dkj dj fn;k FkkA12 ljdkjh fjiksZV ds vuqlkj xk¡/kh ds
vkg~oku ij th- oh- dkWyst ds yxHkx 30 Nk=ksa us egkfo|ky; dk ifjR;kx dj fn;k
FkkA cxgk fefMy Ldwy ds iz/kkuk/;kid us Hkh vkUnksyu esa Hkkx fy;k Fkk rFkk
gkthiqj Ldwy ds ,d f'k{kd us Hkh 34 Nk=ksa lfgr Ldwy dk ifjR;kx dj fn;k FkkA13
gkthiqj Ldwy ds f'k{kd foUns'oj izlkn vkSj ckcw t;uUnu >k Hkh buesa 'kkfey FksA14
blgkdiqj egukj ds ia- enu >k] 'kkjnkdkUr >k vkfn us Hkh Ldwy dk ifjR;kx dj
fn;kA HkVkSfy;k ds fo'os'oj izlkn us odkyr NksM+ nhA gkthiqj ds x.ks'k flag us
esfMdy dh i<+kbZ NksM+ nhA ,sls ns'kHkDr vkSj ukStoku Økafrdkfj;ksa ds fy;s gkthiqj
esa xk¡/kh vkJe esa Hkkjrh; fo|kihB dh LFkkiuk dh xbZA ia- t;uUnu >k] x.ks'k flag
 vlg;ksx vkUnksyu esa oS'kkyh--- 145
,oa ikSfg;kj ds pUnznhi ukjk;.k flag ds lR; iz;kl ls egkRek xk¡/kh us Lo;a gkthiqj
esa fo|kihB dh vk/kkjf'kyk j[kh ¼7-12-1920½ tks xk¡/kh vkJe ds uke ls vkt Hkh
izfrf"Br gSA bl izdkj Ldwy] dkWyt s ] vnkyr] Nkouh vkfn NksMd + j jk"Vªh; vkUnksyu
ls tqM+us okys ns'kHkDrksa dks f'kf{kr&izf'kf{kr djus ds fy;s jk"Vªh; fo|kihB dh
LFkkiuk ,d jpukRed dne FkkA15 dk¡xzsl dk ekuuk Fkk fd uxjikfydkvksa] ftyk
vfHk"knksa ,oa LFkkuh; vfHk"knksa esa dk¡xzsl ds lnL;ksa ds gkFkksa esa 'kfDr vkus ls jk"Vªh;
vkUnksyu dk vk/kkj foLr`r gksxk vkSj bu laLFkkvksa dk jk"Vªh;dj.k gks tk,xkA vfizy
1921 esa eqt¶Q+jiqj uxjikfydk pquko esa dk¡xzsl dks mYys[kuh; lQyrk feyhA 12
lhVksa esa ls 7 lhVksa ij vlg;ksx vkUnksyudkfj;ksa dh fot; gqbZA 3 lhV ftyk
dk¡xzsl dfeVh ds vkns'k okys izfrKki= ij gLrk{kj djus okys lnL;ksa dks feyh vkSj
'ks"k 2 lhV oSls yksxksa dks feyh ftUgsa nksuksa ny viuk ekurs FksA16
okMZ&1 ls x;k izlkn flag] foUns'ojh izlkn] Hkokuh lksukj] okMZ&2 ls ';keuUnu
lgk;] tud/kkjh izlkn] okMZ&3 ls gfj'pUnz HkknqM+h] okMZ&4 ls eqgEen 'kQ+h]
cStukFk flag ¼,e- ,y- lh-½] okMZ&5 ls xtk/kj izlkn] vCnqy et+hn] okMZ&6 ls
f'kooD'k ekjokM+h olqnso ukjk;.k fot;h gq,A cStukFk izlkn flag] f'kooD'k ekjokM+h
vkSj ';keuUnu lgk; dks oksV rc rd ugha feyk tc rd mUgksaus vlg;ksx ds
izLrko lEcU/kh izfrKk&i= ij gLrk{kj ugha fd;kA mUgksaus ekSyoh eqgEen 'kQ+h dks
izfrKki= ij gLrk{kj djds lkSai fn;k] ftldk vk'k; Fkk fd ;fn os E;qfuliSfyVh
ds pquko esa fot;h gksrs gSa rks mUgsa ftyk dk¡xzsl dfeVh ds vkns'k ds vuqlkj dke
djuk gksxk vkSj Lojkt izkfIr dks viuk /kkfeZd dÙkZO; le>saxsA17 blds i'pkr~ muds
fojks/k esa [kM+k gksus okys vlg;ksfx;ksa us viuk uke okil ys fy;k gSA vU; nks xtk/kj izlkn
vkSj vCnqy et+hn dks ;|fi nksuksa nyksa dk leFkZu izkIr Fkk fQj Hkh vCnqy et+hn dk
>qdko vlgksfx;ksa dh rjQ gh FkkA18 vlg;ksx vkUnksyu dk dkQh izHkko fdlkuksa ij
FkkA os LFkkuh; tehankjksa rFkk fyygs nksukssa ds f[kykQ FksA fyygs vkSj fdlkuksa ds chp
erHksn dk lcls cM+k dkj.k Fkk pkjkxkg dh HkwfeA dbZ LFkkuksa ij fyygksa ds cktkjksa
dk ifjR;kx dj lekukUrj ckt+kj LFkkfir dj fn;k x;kA19
fyygs ds QSf+ DVª;ksa esa Hkh Jfedksa us dke djus ls euk dj fn;kA dqN us rks LosPNk
ls ,slk fd;k vkSj dqN us vlg;ksfx;ksa ds Hk; lsA csyok] eksrhiqj] cfj;kjiqj bR;kfn
QSf+ DVª;ksa esa gM+rky gks xbZA vkUnksyudkfj;ksa us QSD+ Vªh ds deZpkfj;ksa vkSj etnwjksa dks
QSDVªh esa dke ugha djus dh lykg nhA ,slk ugha djus ij mudk lkekftd cfg"dkj
fd;k tkrk FkkA vkUnksyudkjh fyygs ds fo#) izn'kZu dj jgs Fks vkSj xk¡/kh th dk
t;?kks"k dj jgs FksA blh izdkj djukSy ds uhy QSD+ Vªh dks ogk¡ ds LFkkuh; usrkvksa vkSj
fdlkuksa us ?ksj fy;k vkSj QSDVªh ds veyk dks ihVus dh /kedh nhA20
eqt¶+Qjiqj ds ikrsijq Fkkuk ds fe;k Nijk QSDVªh dks yxHkx 1000 vkUnksyudkfj;ksa
146 MkW- js.kq dqekjh
us ?ksj fy;kA QSDVªh ds ekfyd dks vius ifjokj ds lkFk tku cpkus ds fy;s caxys
esa 'kj.k ysuh iM+hA vkUnksyudkfj;ksa us QSDVªh ds bZ[k ds xksnkeksa dks u"V dj fn;kA
vkUnksyu ds izeq[k usrkvksa ij vkbZ- ih- lh- dh /kkjk 143 vkSj 379 ds rgr lt+k
lqukbZ xbZA bl lt+k ds fojks/k esa vkUnksyudkfj;ksa us QSDVªh ij /kjuk fn;k] eSustj
dk cfg"dkj fd;k vkSj deZpkfj;ksa dks dke djus ls jksdkA21 dkQh la[;k esa QSDVªh ds
deZpkfj;ksa vkSj etnwjksa us] tks eq[;r% lekt ds fuEu oxZ ds Fks] dke NksMd + j vkUnksyu
esa 'kkfey gks x,A efgykvksa us Hkh bl vkUnksyu esa fgLlk fy;kA 'kQ+h nkmnh dh iRuh
tqcnS k nkmnh us bl vkUnksyu esa vge~ Hkwfw edk fuHkkbZ FkhA muds bl iz;kl ls eqfLye
efgykvksa us c<+&p<+dj fgLlk fy;kA 'kQ+h nkmnh ds fxj¶+rkj dj fy;s tkus ij
mUgksua s vyh cU/kqvksa dh ek¡ ckbZ veu ds lkFk tu lHkkvksa dks Hkh lEcksf/kr fd;kA
'kjkc&cUnh ds izpkj ls 'kjkc dh fcØh de gksrh tk jgh FkhA ljdkj dks Mj
gks x;k fd vkenuh dk ,d cM+k t+fj;k [krjs esa iM+ x;kA eqt¶+Qjiqj ds dbZ txgksa
ij gkVksa dh ywV gks x;hA dbZ eqdnes esa yksxksa us tekur nsus ls badkj dj fn;kA
os tsy pys x;sA dgha&dgha eqdnek vUr esa [k+kfjt+ djuk iM+k] D;ksafd dksbZ lcwr
ugha feykA ljdkj vkUnksyu dks jksduk pkgrh FkhA blfy, mlus yqVsjksa ds cnys
dk¡xzslh dk;ZdrkZvksa dks fxj¶+rkj djuk 'kq: fd;kA22
xk¡/kh th ds vkg~oku ij fo|kfFkZ;ksa us ldwyksa] dkWystksa] odhyksa us dpgfj;ksa rFkk
ljdkjh lsodksa us vius&vius inksa dk ifjR;kx dj fn;kA ij dqN ,sls ns'kHkDr Hkh
Fks ftUgsa ljdkjh lsok esa jgrs gq, viuh ekr`Hkwfe dk dtZ pqdkuk iM+ jgk FkkA
gkthiqj Fkkuk ds lc&baLisDVj jkekuUn flag ,sls gh O;fDr Fks ftUgksaus ia- t;uUnu
>k dks cpkus ds fy;s eftLVªsV ds btykl esa >wBs lcwr is'k fd;sA lcwr is'k djus
ds rjhdksa ds fy;s us'kuy Ldwy ds fo|kfFkZ;ksa vkSj f'k{kdksa ds ,d cM+s lewg us u dsoy
mUgsa /kU;okn fn;k oju~ dqN yksxksa us muds pj.kksa dk Li'kZ djrs gq, egkRek jkekuUn
dh laKk ls vfHkfgr fd;kA lwpuk ;g Fkh fd jkekuun ukSdjh ls R;kx&i= nsdj
vkUnksyu esa 'kkfey gksuk pkgrs Fks] fdarq ekSyoh 'kQ+h us jkefouksn flag ds ek/;e ls mUgsa
ljdkjh lsok esa jgdj ltk;k¶+rk ds cpko esa lcwr is'k djus dh lykg nh FkhA23
fu"d"kZr% ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd vlg;ksx vkUnksyu esa oS'kkyh ftys ds gj
rcds ds yksxksa us viuh&viuh Hkkxhnkjh fuHkkbZA buesa cPps Hkh Fks] efgyk;sa Hkh Fkha
vkSj cqtqxZ Hkh FksA fdarq lekt dk ,d rcdk vHkh Hkh ,slk Fkk ftls fczfV'k lkezkT;
ds cus jgus esa gh vius vfLrRo dh j{kk fn[kkbZ ns jgh FkhA ;g oxZ Fkk cM+s tehankjksa
dk ftudk xBtksM+ fczfV'k iz'kklu ds lkFk FkkA bl oxZ us xk¡/kh th ds euk djus
ds ckotwn dkSafly ds pquko esa Hkkx fy;kA bUgksaus u dsoy vius vkidks bl
vkUnksyu ls vyx&Fkyx j[kk oju~ 'kkfUr cuk;s j[kus ds fy;s fczfV'k ljdkj ds
lkFk lg;ksx dh vihy Hkh dhA
 vlg;ksx vkUnksyu esa oS'kkyh--- 147
lanHkZ lwph
1- ch- iêkHkh lhrkjeS;k] n fgLVªh vkWQ n bf.M;u us'kuy dk¡xzsl ¼1885&1935½] ckSEcs
iÉk ifCyds'ku] 1946] i`"B& 322&323
2- ts- lh- >k] n f[kykQ+r ,aM n uudkSijs'ku ewoesUV bu fcgkj ¼1919&22½ n fgLVªh
vkWQ n bf.M;u us'kuy dk¡xzsl bu fcgkj] la- ih- &,u- vks>k] iVuk] ds- ih- t;loky
fjlpZ baLVhV~;wV&1985] i`-&198
3- ih- lh- ceQ+ksMZ] fgLVªh vkWQ n uu&dkSijs'ku ,.M f[kykQ+r ewoesaV~l] ubZ fnYyh] nhi
izdk'ku 1974] i`- 14&15
4- jktsUnz izlkn] vkRedFkk] us'kuy cqd VªLV] bf.M;k] ubZ fnYyh] "k"B laLdj.k&2011]
i`- &139
5- lpZykbV] 3 fnlEcj 1920
6- yrk flag] iksiqyj VªkUlys'kUl vkWQ us'kufyT+e] fcgkj ¼1920&1922½ izkbEl cqDl]
fnYyh&2012] i`"B&86
7- jktsUnz izlkn] iwoksZDr] i`-&139
8- ds- ds- nÙkk] fcgkj dk Lora=rk laxzke] Hkkx&1] fcgkj fgUnh xzUFk vdkneh] iVuk] f}-
laLdj.k&1998] i`-&329
9- ogh] i`-&330
10- ogh
11- ogh
12- yrk flag] iwoksZDr] i`-&86
13- ds- ds- nÙkk] iwoksZDr] i`-&325
14- ogh] i`-&344
15- izQqYy dqekj flag] ekSu] lsukuh] dk¡xzsl 'krkCnh lekjksg lfefr] egukj ¼oS'kkyh½
fcgkj]&1985] i`-&4
16- ohdyh fjikZsV] 7 ebZ 1921
17- yrk flag] iwoksZDr] i`-&31&32
18- QksVZukbVyh fjiksZV] jktuhfr fo'ks"k] lafpdk la[;k] 224@1921
19- yrk flag] iwoksZDr] i`-&190
20- ogh] i`-&36
21- ogh
22- ogh] i`-&160
23- Q+ksVZukbVyh fjiksZV] jktuhfr fo'ks"k] lafpdk la[;k] 88@1921

*****
148

32- mÙkjh e/;izns'k esa uxjhdj.k

,oa O;kikfjd ekxZ
*MkW0 lqjsUnz dqekj foey

uxj] izkphu dky ls gh lH;rk ds lHkh vk;keksa dk ukfHkd jgs gSaA izkjafHkd
cfLr;ka izk;% ufn;ksa dh ?kkfV;ksa esa gksrh Fkh] flapkbZ ds L=ksr ds lkFk gh ;s fofHkUu
cfLr;ksa dks vkil esa tksM+rh FkhA bl rjg lekt dh mRiknd 'kfDr;ka rFkk eky
fofue; ds fodkl ds lkFk gh os dkykarj esa uxjks esa cnyrh xbZA1 Hkkjr esa
uxjhdj.k ds bfrgkl dk izkjaHk rhljh 'krkCnh bZlk iwoZ esa gM+Iik dh vuqie uxj
lH;rk ls gksrk gSA2 cSfnd dky ds ckn dk le; uxjksa ds fuekZ.k dk le; Fkk] bu
uxjksa esa ifjogu ,oa lapkj dk izkjaHk gqvk ftlls dbZ uohu ekxksZ dh [kkst gqbZA vr%
cfLr;ksa ds chp lEidZ LFkkiuk rFkk uxjksa ds chp {ks=h; foLrkj usa Hkh izeq[k Hkwfedk
fuHkkbZA3 uxjksa dk loZizFke LFkkiu vkSj fodkl if'peksRrj izkar esa gh gqvk] ikf.kuh
ds dky rd vkdj izrhP; vapyks esa Hkh vusd uxj cl x;sA ckS);qxhu Hkkjr esa
vusd uxjksa dk fodkl gqvk vkSj O;kikj dk Hkh foLrkj gqvkA4
orZeku mRrjh e/;izns'k dk {ks= izkphu le; ls gh ,sfrgkfld oSHko dk {ks=
jgk gSA blesa Xokfy;j] fHk.M] eqjSuk ,oa f'koiqjh rFkk nfr;k ds dqN Hkkx lfEefyr
gSA5 blesa mRrjh e/;izns'k dk fHk.M {ks= lfEefyr FkkA NBh 'krkCnh bZlk iwoZ rd
bl {ks= esa psfn ,oa oRl egktuinks ds foLrkj ds izek.k feyrs gSaA6 bl le; rd
Hkkjr ds vf/kdka'k Hkkxksa esa izfrf'Br O;kikfjd ekxZ QSys gq, Fks vkSj ekS;Z dky esa mUgha
ekxksZ us lehiLFk {ks+=ksa ds lkFk Lo;a dk Hkh fodkl fd;kA ekS;Zdky esa ,d iz/kkuekxZ
Fkk] tks dydRrk ds lehi xaxk rV ds ,d canjxkg rkezfyfIr ls izkjaHk gksrk Fkk vkSj
xaxk ds mn~xe dh vksj izkphu uxj paik rd vkSj rc ogk¡ ls ikVfyiq= vkSj cukjl
gksrk gqvk dkS'kkEch rd tkrk FkkA ogk¡ ls bldh 'kk[kk fofn'kk rFkk mTtf;uh ds
ekxZ esa ueZnk eq[k ij Hk`xqdPN iru rd tkrh FkhA 'krkfCn;k O;rhr gks tkus ij

*vfrfFk O;k[;krk 'kkl0 Okh0,l0 LukrdksRrj egkfo|ky; Mcjk] Xokfy;j ¼e-iz½

 mÙkjh e/;izns'k esa uxjhdj.k--- 149
;|fi bldk LFkku dqN ifjofrZr gks x;k gS rFkkfi ;g ekxZ mRrj Hkkjr dk loksZifj
xeukxeu ekxZ jgk gSA7 ;g izeq[k ekxZ mRrjh e/; izns'k ds izeq[k {ks=ksa ls gh xqtjrk
FkkA Xokfy;j lfgr lEiw.kZ mRrjh e/; izns'k ij NBh 'krkCnh bZlk iwoZ ds vkjaHk esa
ikVfyiq= ds uUn oa'k dk jkT; FkkA8 ,slk izek.k gS bZlk i'pkr~ izFke 'krkCnh ds
vkjaHk esa Xokfy;j {ks= ds vklikl ukxksa dk jkT; FkkA9 ukxoa'k ds le; esa inekorh
,d izeq[k O;kikfjd dsUnz FkkA ftlds fy, eFkqjk ,oa mTT;fu ls O;kikfjd ekxZ
ekStwn FksA ,d izeq[k O;kikfjd ekxZ tks mRrjkiFk ls nf{k.kkiFk dks tkrk FkkA
in~ekorh ls gh gksdj tkrk FkkA ;g ekxZ eFkqjk] dkafriqjh ¼eqjSuk ds lehi½ in~ekorh]
uyiqj] fofn'kk gksrk gqvk nf{k.k dks tkrk FkkA10 fHk.M Hkh izkphu le; ls gh
O;kikfjd ekxksZ ls tqM+k jgk gSA dkU;dqCt ¼dUukSt½ vkSj dkS'kkEch ls lkFkZokg] vVsj]
fHk.M gksdj in~ekorh] dkafriqj rFkk xksiknzh ¼Xokfy;j½ vkrs FksA fHk.M fLFkr cjgh
ml le; egRoiw.kZ O;kkikfjd uxj Fkk vkSj bls cYyHk uxjh ds uke ls tkuk tkrk
FkkA ;g lwrh oL= O;olk; dk izeq[k dsUnz FkkA11 bl izdkj mRrjh e/;izns'k esa dbZ
egRoiw.kZ O;kikfjd dsUnz LFkkfir FksA ftlds dkj.k bl {ks= dk jktuhfrd ,oa
lkefjd egRo Hkh c<+rk x;kA iwoZ e/;dky esa Hkh O;kikj dk foLrkj iwoZor~ FkkA
g~osulkax usa ledkyhu Hkkjrh; O;kikj vkSj okf.kT; dk fp=.k fd;k gSa mlds le;
esa Hkkjrh; O;kikj vR;ar fodflr FkkA nwj&nwj ds O;kikjh uxjksa esa vkdj dz;&fodz;
djrs Fks rFkk os viuk eky lqnwj izns'kksa rd Hkstrs FksA12 bl dky esa mRrjh e/;izns'k
ds izkphu O;kikfjd dsUnz in~ekorh] dzkafriqjh] cjgh] dk izHkko de gksus yxk FkkA
iwoZe/;dky esa bl {ks= ds O;kikfjd dsUnzksa dss Lo:i esa ifjorZu o vkSj Xokfy;j ,d
izeq[k O;kikfjd dsUnz ,oa uxj ds :i es fodflr gksus yxkA
e/;dkyhu Hkkjr esa uxjhdj.k dh izfØ;k dk fodkl nwljs gh <a+x ls gqvkA
tc rqdZ Hkkjr esa vk, rks muds lEeq[k rhu :dkoVsa FkhA ;gkW vPNh lM+ds ugha Fkh
,oa lapkj ds lk/kuksa dk vHkko Fkk rFkk Qkjlh cksyus okys ,sls vf/kdkfj;ksa dh deh
Fkh tks turk ,oa jkT; ds chp lsrq dk dke dj ikrsA tSls&tSls le; chrrk x;k
oSls&oSls lapkj vkSj ifjogu ds lk/kuksa dk fodkl gqvkA13 bl dky esa d`f"k mit
ds foiqy vf/k'ks"k dh lgk;rk ls O;kikfjd fodkl Hkh laHko gqvkA u, 'kkld
mRiknd ugha Fks oju~ os miHkksDrk Fks tks viO;;h FksA fnYyh lYrur ds uxjhdj.k
dh iz;kstuh; ifjHkk"kk xzg.k djuh gksxhA ,p0lh0 oekZ dh ifjHkk"kk ds vuqlkj
uxjhdj.k ,slh izfØ;k gS ftlds }kjk ,d tuin dk xzkeh.k Lo:i yxHkx yqIr gks
x;k vkSj mlesa clus okys vf/kdka'k yksx xSj d`"kd gks x;s vkSj yxHkx fu;fer :i
ls vius [kkus dk lkeku [kjhnus yxsA14 jksfeyk Fkkij fy[krh gS fd& ^^LFkkuh;
iz'kklu ds dsUnz gksus ds dkj.k izkarh; jkt/kkfu;ksa esa fo'kky cktkj fodflr gks x;s
FksA fnYyh dk cktkj fo'ks"k :i ls le`) dgk tkrk FkkA D;ksafd blls ns'kh rFkk
fons'kh nksuksa izdkj ds O;kikj ls eky izkIr gksrk FkkA**15
150 MkW0 lqjsUnz dqekj foey
fnYyh] lYrur dh jkt/kkuh Fkh vr% og vusd ekxksZ ds }kjk ns'k ds fofHkUu
Hkkxksa ls tqM+h gqbZ FkhA ,d ekxZ dsUnzh; Hkkjr dh vksj eFkqjk] vkxjk ds jkLrs pansjh]
lkjaxiqj] jk;lhu gksdj mTtSu tkrk FkkA mTtSu ls lh/ks xqtjkr ds canjxkg [kaHkkr
tk;k tk ldrk FkkA16 fnYyh ls fudyus okyk ;g ekxZ Xokfy;j ls gh fudyrk FkkA
bl dky esa fHk.M ,oa eqjSuk dk {ks= tks pEcy dk nf{k.kh ,oa if'peh fdukjk Fkk
Mkdqvksa ,oa yqVsjksa dk {ks= cu pqdk FkkA ,sls esa O;kikj ekxZ cgqr gh dfBu gks pqdk
FkkA pawfd ;g {ks= pEcy ,oa bldh lgk;d ufn;ksa tSls dwaokjh] igqt ,oa cSlyh dk
{ks= Fkk] blfy, ;g {ks= dkQh mitkÅ FkkA vr% d`f"k mRiknu bl {ks= ls vf/kd
ek=k esa O;kikfj;ksa }kjk Xokfy;j ds ekxZ ls ys tk;k tkrk jgk gSA Xokfy;j] vkxjk
ls vkus okys ekxZ ds e/; vkrk FkkA fnYyh ,oa vkxjk ls gksrs gq, dbZ ekxZ fofHkUu
fn'kkvksa dks tkrs FksA bCuorwrk fnYyh ls dksy- ¼vyhx<+½ dUukSt] Xokfy;j] [kqtqjkgks]
pansjh] /kkj] mTtSu gksdj nkSyrkckn x;k FkkA17 mlus mRrjh e/;izns'k e/; izns'k dh
d`f"k ,oa m|ksxksa dk o.kZu izLrqr fd;k gSA bCuorwrk ftl ekxZ ls xqtjk Fkk og
lYrur dky dk izeq[k O;kikfjd ekxZ Fkk tks mRrj ls nf{k.k dh vksj tkrk FkkA
Xokfy;j nqxZ ij lYrur dkyhu lqYrkuksa us viuk vf/kdkj cuk, j[kk Fkk vr%
Xokfy;j ds vklikl dk O;kikfjd fu;a=.k fnYyh lYrur ds v/khu gh jgk vkSj
fnYyh ls vkxjk rFkk vkxjk ls Xokfy;j vkSj Xokfy;j ls if'pe esa xqtjkr vFkok
nf{k.k esa fofn'kk dh vksj ,d izeq[k O;kikjh ekxZ cuk jgkA
eqxyksa ds Hkkjr esa izos'k ds le; rd Xokfy;j yksfn;ksa ds v/khu jgkA yksnh
'kkldksa usa vkxjk dks viuk izeq[k iz'kklfud dsUnz cuk;k FkkA vr% vkxjk ,oa
Xokfy;j dk O;kikfjd fu;a=.k mUgha ds v/khu jgkA lu~ 1528 esa Xokfy;j ;k=k ds
nkSjku ckcj vkxjk ,oa Xokfy;j ds e/; ,d ekxZ dk mYys[k djrk gSa tks c;kuk vkSj
/kkSyiqj gksdj tkrk FkkA18 c;kuk vkSj vkxjk eqxy dky esa uhy ds izeq[k O;kikfjd
dsUnz Fks ;gk¡ ls dydRrk ,oa ekyok rd uhy dk fu;kZr fd;k tkrk FkkA ekyok ds
fy, ,d ekxZ fnYyh ls Xokfy;j gksrs gq, tkrk gSa tks fnYyh&Xokfy;j&ukxkSj&ekyok
gksrk gqvk nf{k.k dks tkrk FkkA19 eqxy 'kkldksa }kjk O;kikfjd ekxksZ esa okf.kT; ,oa
O;kikj dks izksRlkgu nsus ds fy, jktekxksZ ij
LFkku&LFkku ij ljk;sa ,oa iqyksa dk fuekZ.k djk;k ftudk e/;dky esa cgqr egRo
FkkA ijorhZ e/;dky esa mRrjh e/;izns'k esa Xokfy;j ,d izeq[k O;kikfjd dsUnz ds
:i esa LFkkfir gks pqdk Fkk ftlesa ejkBk 'kkldksa }kjk O;kikfjd fodkl ds dqN vkSj
iz;kl fd,A
vr% izkphu ,oa e/;dky esa uxjhdj.k vFkZO;oLFkk dk ;Fks"V foLrkj.k gqvk
ftlesa O;kikfjd ekxksZ dh lfdz;rk usa vge~ Hkwfedk fuHkkbZA O;kikfjd mís'; dh iwfrZ
ds fy, fofHkUu LFkkuks ds lalk/kuksa usa bUgh O;kikfjd ekxksZ ds ek/;e ls vius egRo
dks ,d&nwljs ls voxr djk;kA blh rjg mRrjh e/;izns'k Hkh dbZ lalk/kuksa ls iw.kZ
 mÙkjh e/;izns'k esa uxjhdj.k--- 151
jgk gS] dPpk yksgk] cyqvk iRFkj] phuh feÍh ,oa fofHkUu d`f"k mRikn bl {ks= ds
izeq[k lalk/ku jgsA20 orZeku Xokfy;j uxj xksikpy] xksifxjh] XokYgsj vkfn ukeks ds
fodkl dze ds ckn LFkkfir gqvk gS bl fodkl dze esa Xokfy;j ,oa Xokfy;j ds
vklikl ds LFkkuksa ij ukxksa] dq"kk.kksa] xqtZj&izfrgkjks] pansyks] dPNi?kkrks rFkk e/
;dkyhu eqfLye 'kkldks ds i'pkr~ ejkBks ds v/khu jgk] ftUgksusa bl {ks= dk
iz'kklfud fodkl fd;k tks O;kikfjd izksRlkgu Hkh lkfcr gqvkA Xokfy;j nqxZ ds :i
esa ,d lqn`<+ iz'kklfud dsUnz ;gk¡ fLFkr jgk ftldh lgk;rk ls u flQZ bl {ks= dk
O;kikj Qyk&Qwyk vfirq ;gk¡ ls xqtjus okys O;kikfjd ekxZ dks Hkh lqj{kk iznku dhA
mRrjh e/;izns'k ds izkphu O;kikfjd ekxZ ij fLFkr {ks= tSls& Hknkoj] dkafriqjh]
in~ekorh] ,oa uyiqj dkykUrj esa dze'k% fHk.M] eqjSuk] Xokfy;j ,oa ujoj ¼f'koiqjh½
izeq[k uxjh; vFkZO;oLFkk ds dsUnz ds :i esa LFkkfir gks x;sA uxj egRoiw.kZ O;kikfjd
ekxksZ ds feyu fcanq ij fLFkr FksA budk fodkl fo'ks"k O;kikfjd vkSj okf.kfT;d
dsUnzksa ds :i esa gqvkA bu dsUnzksa dk ckgj vkSj vkarfjd {ks=ksa ds lkFk O;kikj gksrk Fkk
vkSj Hkze.k'khy O;kikjh laxBuks ds ek/;e ls bu dsUnzksa dk Hkh fodkl gksrk FkkA bl
izdkj O;kikfjd ekxZ vius ekxZ ds fodkl ds lkFk ekxZ esa vkus okyh izR;sd bdkbZ
ds fodkl dk Hkh dkj.k fl) gq;s gSa D;ksafd O;kikfjd ekxZ dh voLFkk ekxZ dh
bdkbZ;ks ij fuHkZj djrh gSA

lanHkZ xzaFk
1 ,l-lh-feJk] vcZu fgLVªh bu bafM;k ikWflfofYVht ,.M ilZisfDVo] izdk'kd &
vcZu fgLVªh ,'kksfl;s'ku vkWQ bafM;k] ve`rlj i`"B la0 2
2- dksjksRldk;k] Hkkjr esa uxj] ekLdks 1984 i`"B la0 20&21
3- fxfjtk'kadj yky] lYrurdkyhu mRrjh Hkkjr dk vkfFkZd bfrgkl&ekud
ifCyds'ku]i`"B la[;k 65
4- MkW- t;'kadj feJ] izkphu Hkkjr dk lekftd bfrgkl] fcgkj fgUnhxzaFk
vdkneh iVuk i`"B la[;k 603
5- ckYehfd jkek;.k mRrjdkaM 70@6
6- MkW- f'ko'kadj dVkjs] Hknkoj dk bfrgkl] tSu izHkkr i`"B la0 27
7- ,-,y-ck'ke] vn~Hkqr Hkkjr] vkxjk] i`"B la[;k 159
8- ogh i`"B la[;k 29
9- o-lq- d`".ku] Xokfy;j xtsfV;j i`"B la0 19
10- gfjgj fuokl f}osnh] e/; Hkkjr dk bfrgkl izFke [k.M & i`"B la[;k 27
11- iwoksZDr i`"B la[;k 125
12- MkW- t;'kadj feJ] izkphu Hkkjr dk lkekftd bfrgkl i`"B la[;k 610
152 MkW0 lqjsUnz dqekj foey
13- gfj'kpanz oekZ] e/;dkyhu Hkkjr Hkkx 1 fnYyh lYrur i`"B la[;k 407
14- ogh i`"B la[;k 410
15- MkW- t; 'kadj feJ] iwoksDr i`"B la[;k 552
16- ogh i`"B la[;k 401
17- ogh i`"B la[;k 402
18- ogh i`"B la[;k 402
19- fxfjtk'kadj yky] iwoksZDr i`"B la[;k 83
20- o-lq- d`".ku] iwoksZDr iw"B 13&14
*****
 153

33- efgykvksa dk jktuhfrd l'kfDrdj.k

vkSj jktuhfrd ikfVZ;k¡ %
mÙkj izns'k ds lUnHkZ esa (1947-2001)

*fiz;adk vkuUn

efgykvksa ds jktuhfrd l'kfDrdj.k ls rkRi;Z efgykvksa dh jktuhfr esa

fgLlsnkjhA muds Lo;a ds }kjk jktuhfrd vf/kdkjksa ;k lkeF;Z dk iz;ksx] mlls
lEcfU/kr fu.kZ; ysus vkSj uhfr fuekZ.k dh izfØ;k esa leku :i ls Hkkx ysus o mls
izHkkfor djus dh {kerk ls gSA ;|fi vktkn Hkkjr us ,d lEizHkq] lektoknh] /keZ&fujis{k
o yksdra=oknh lafo/kku dks vaxhdkj fd;k gSA bl lafo/kku us fL=;ksa dks leku
jktuhfrd vf/kdkj o tkfr] /keZ] oxZ] fyax] tUe LFkku] 'kSf{kd vkSj lEifÙk ds vk/kkj
ij HksnHkko ds fcuk Hkkjr ds lHkh ukxfjdksa ds fy, leku o;Ld erkf/kdkj dh
O;oLFkk dhA bl izdkj Hkkjrh; lafo/kku esa efgykvksa dh Lora= o lfØ; jktuhfrd
fgLlsnkjh dks Lohdkj fd;k x;k o efgykvksa dh Hkwfedk ds fy, muds jktuhfrd
lcyhdj.k dh t:jr dks js[kkafdr fd;k x;kA1
efgyk,¡ lekt dk ,d egRoiw.kZ fgLlk gSaA vr% lekt ds lok±xh.k fodkl ds
fy, efgykvksa ds lkekftd] vkfFkZd] lkaLd`frd o jktuhfrd fØ;k&dykiksa esa
mudh dk;Z'khy o izHkkoh Hkwfedk dk fo'ks"k egRo gSA ijUrq fofHkUu v/;;uksa ls Li"V
gS fd vkt Hkh efgykvksa dh Hkwfedk dks utjvUnkt+ fd;k tkrk gSA bldh ,d izeq[k
otg efgykvksa dh vius jktuhfrd vf/kdkjksa ds izfr lqlqIrrk o jktuhfr esa muds
vYi lgHkkfxrk gSA Lora= Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh jktuhfrd lgHkkfxrk o jktuhfrd
psruk dh tk¡p izeq[kr% pqukoksa esa mudk ernku] mudh pqukoksa esa mEehnokjh o
uhfr&fuekZ.k izfØ;k esa izHkkoh Hkwfedk ds vk/kkj ij dh tk ldrh gSA vkt Hkh
efgyk,¡ vius jktuhfrd vf/kdkjksa ds izfr fdruh lqlqIr gSa] bldk vUnktk blh ckr

*'kks
'kks / k Nk=kk] bfrgkl foHkkx nh0n0m0 xks j [kiq j fo'ofo|ky;] xks j [kiq j ¼m-iz - ½
154 fiz;adk vkuUn
ls yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd vktknh ds i'pkr~ izFke vke pquko lu~ 1952 ls 2001
rd gq, yksdlHkk] jkT;lHkk] fo/kku lHkk] fo/kku ifj'kn ds pqukoksa esas efgyk izfrfuf/kRo
dk vk¡dM+k 25% dks Hkh ugha Nwvk gSA blh izdkj fdlh Hkh pquko esa efgyk ernku dk
izfr'kr 50% dks Hkh ikj ugha dj ldk gSA ;fn mÙkj izns'k dh efgykvksas dk bu
izfrfuf/k laLFkkvksa esa izfrfuf/kRo dks ns[kk tk,] rks fLFkfr vkSj Hkh n;uh; gSA ;fn
vkt+knh ds ckn ls 2000 rd ds vke pqukoksa esa efgykvksa ds izfrfuf/kRo lEcU/k vk¡dM+s
dks ns[kk tk,] rks fLFkfr Lor% gh Li"V gks tkrh gSA2
1952 ls 1998 rd ds yksdlHkk pqukoksa esa efgyk izfrfuf/k;ksa dh la[;k ,oa mudk izfr'kr

o”kZ dqy fot;h dqy dqy mÙkj izns’k

izfrfuf/k efgyk fot;h esa fot;h
izfrfuf efgyk efgyk
/k izfrfuf/k izfrfuf/k
1952 499 475 57 23 6
1957 500 467 45 24 2
1962 503 459 70 28 6
1967 523 490 67 32 8
1971 521 499 86 26 6
1977 544 523 70 18 2
1980 544 514 142 32 7
1984 544 500 164 46 10
1989 517 502 198 28 6
1991 544 492 325 42 3
1996 543 504 599 41 9
1998 543 503 225 44 9

mÙkj izns'k ds 75 ftyksa esa ls 4 ftys ,sls gSa] tgk¡ vkt rd ,d Hkh efgyk
lkaln dk fuokZpu ugha gqvk gSA ftu ftyksa esa efgyk lkaln fuokZfpr gqbZ gSa] muesa
ls 09 ftys ,sls gSa] tgk¡ flQZ ,d ckj gh efgykvksa dks yksdlHkk esa lQyrk izkIr
gqbZ gSA mu ftyksa ds uke fuEuor gSa& dkuiqj] bykgkckn] >k¡lh] cgjkbp] eFkqjk]
vktex<+] gkFkjl] xkSre cq) uxj] xksj[kiqjA blh izdkj mÙkj izns'k dh jkt/kkuh
y[kuÅ esa lu~ 1980 ds ckn vkt rd fdlh efgyk dks lQyrk izkIr ugha gqbZ gSA
cyjkeiqj ftys esa 1962 esa vkaoyk esa 1971 ds ckn] cjsyh] esjB o pUnkSyh esa 1980
ds ckn] mUuko essa 1984 ds ckn fdlh Hkh efgyk dk lkaln ds rkSj ij fuokZpu ugh
gqvk gSA blh izdkj mÙkj izns'k dh fo/kku dksbZ Hkh jktuhfrd ikVhZ bl y{; dks izkIr
ugha dj ldrh gSA mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij dbZ v/;;uksa ls Li'V gS fd efgykvksa dh
jktuhfrd nyksa esas lnL;rk] lEcfU/kr nyksa dh iwjh lnL;rk dk 10 ls 12 izfr'kr
gh gSA11 Hkkjrh; turk ikVhZ dh jk'Vªh; dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr esa dqy lnL; la[;k&
 efgykvksa dk jktuhfrd l'kfDrdj.k--- 155
147 gS] ftlesa efgyk lnL;ksa dh la[;k flQZ 10 gSA12 turk ny ds 15 lnL;
ikWfyfVdy vQs;j desVh esa efgyk lnL;ksa dh la[;k flQZ 1 gSA13 ;fn cgqtu
lekt ikVhZ ij utj Mkyk tk;] rks ek;korh ds ckn fdlh izHkko'kkyh efgyk us=h
dh izHkkoh o fØ;k'khy Hkwfedk bl ny esa utj ugha vkrhA lektoknh ikVhZ esa Hkh ,d
Hkh efgyk us=h fØ;k'khy jktuhfr esa utj ugha vkrhA ;fn vktknh ds i'pkr~
yksdlHkk o fo/kku lHkk pqukoksa esa jktuhfrd nyksa }kjk ?kksf"kr efgyk izR;k'kh o mueas
ls fot;h efgyk izR;kf'k;ksa dh la[;k dks ns[ksa] rks rLohj vkSj Li"V utj vkrh gSA14
lzksr % pquko vk;ksx dh fjiksVZ&1952] 1957] 1962] 1971] 1977] 1980] 1984] 1989]
1991] 1996] 1998 1952 ls 2000 rd fo/kku lHkk esa efgyk vnyxr la[;|15

lzksr % pquko vk;ksx dh fjiksVZ&1952] 1957] 1962] 1967] 1974] 1977] 1980] 1985]
1989] 1991] 1993] 1995] 2000
Hkys gh fofHkUu jktuhfrd nyksa us efgykvksa dks jktuhfr ls tksM+us dh mudh
jktuhfrd Hkkxhnkjh dks c<+kus dh] jktuhfr esas muds LFkku dks lqjf{kr djus gsrq
efgyk vkj{k.k dh ?kks"k.kk dh gks] ijUrq bUgha jktuhfrd ikfVZ;ksa us efgykvksa dks
vxM+s o fiNM+s tkfr esa ck¡Vdj ns[kus ds iz'u dks mBkdj lqfu;ksftr rjhds ls
yksdlHkk o fo/kku lHkk esa efgykvksa ds jktuhfrd vkj{k.k lEcU/kh fcy dks ikfjr
ugha gksus fn;k gSA fdUrq ,slk Hkh ugha gS fd efgykvksa dh jktuhfrd tkx:drk o
lfØ;rk c<+h ugha gSA os izfrfuf/k laLFkkvksa esa vk jgh gSa] ijUrq bu izfrfuf/k laLFkkvksa
esa budh la[;k rqyukRed :i ls vHkh Hkh dkQh de gSA jktuhfr esa mudh ekStwnxh
izHkkoh ugha gS] mudh jktuhfrd nyksa o uhfr fuekZ.k esa vfLerk o izHkko dks ysdj
vHkh Hkh iz'ufpUg yxk gqvk gSA
156 fiz;adk vkuUn
lUnHkZ xzUFk&lwph-
1 lk/kuk vk;kZ] fuosfnrk esuu] ftfu yksdfurk& ukjhoknh jktuhfr Þla?k'kZ ,oa eqíAs Þ fnYyh&2001]
i`0 la0& 342
2- lh0,l0Mh0,l0 MkVk ;wfuV] osclkbV vkWQ ikfyZ;kesUVA fjQjsUl gS.M cqd okWY;we&2] tujy
bysD'ku&1996 PBI ,.M czkW'ku deh'ku vkWQ bf.M;kA
3- ^fgUnqLRkku* nSfud lekpkj&i=k] laLdj.k&18] xksj[kiqj] 19 tuojh] 2012
4- oghA
5- pquko vk;ksx dh fjiksVZ 1952] 1957] 1962] 1967] 1969] 1974] 1977] 1980] 1985] 1989]
1991] 1993] 1995 ,oa 2000A
6- uhjt flUgk& ohesu bu bf.M;u ikWfyfVDl] ubZ fnYyh&2000] i`0 la0&226
7- LofIuy lkjLor] MkW0 fu'kkUr flag& lekt] jktuhfr o efgyk,¡] ^^n'kk vkSj fn'kkÞ] jk/kk ifCyds'kUl]
ubZ fnYyh] 2004
8- uhjt flUgk& ohesu bu bf.M;u ikWfyfVDl] ubZ fnYyh&2000] i`0 la0&227
9- oghA
10- oghA
11- MkW0 foIyo& efgyk l'kfDrdj.k % fofo/k vk;ke] jkgqy ifCyf"kax gkÅl] esjB] 2013] i`0
la0&177
12- fyFkk dqekjh& ohesu bu ikWfyfVDl] ikfVZlhis"kUl ,.M xojsUl] VeZ vkWQlsV ifCyf"kax gkÅl]
fnYyh] 2006] i`0 la0&92
13- oghA
14- pquko vk;ksx dh fjiksVZ&1952] 1957] 1962] 1971] 1977] 1980] 1984] 1989] 1991] 1996]
1998
15- pquko vk;ksx dh fjiksVZ&1952] 1957] 1962] 1967] 1974] 1977] 1980] 1985] 1989] 1991]
1993]1995 2000

*****
 157

34- fNUnokM+k ftys esa Hkkjrh; Lok/khurk

vkUnksyu dk v/;;u
*MkW
MkW- fuf/k MksMkuh

fNUnokM+k ftyk e/;izns'k ds pqus gq, vkfnoklh ckgqY; ftyksa esa ls ,d gSA
Hkkjr dk izFke Lora=rk vkUnksyu lu 1857 dh Økafr ls izkjaHk gqvk FkkA 1857 dh
Økafr ds vxznwr rkR;k Vksis ds 1858 esa ftys esa vkxeu ij mUgsa ftys ds tkxhjnkj
egkohjflag dk lg;ksx izkIr gqvkA1 fczfV'k 'kklu ds fojks/k esa Lora=rk laxzke
lsukfu;ksa dh xfrfof/k;ksa dk vkjaHk bl {ks= esa 20 oha lnh ds izFke n'kd ls gqvkA
lu+ 1916 esa jk"Vªh; usrk ekSykuk 'kkSdr vyh vkSj eksgEen vyh utjcan dj fNUnokM+k
yk;s x;sA2 buds inkiZ.k ls ;g ftyk jk"Vªh; Lrj ij jktuhfrd xfrfof/k;ksa dk dsUnz
cu x;kA vyh ca/kqvksa us pank bdV~Bk djds fNUnokM+k ds xksyxat esa efLtn dk
fuekZ.k djk;kA blds laca/k esa ia- Hkxor izlkn 'kqDy us fy[kk gS] **;gkWa dh tkek
efLtn lc efLtnksa ls Js"B gSA**3
Lo- ek:frjko vksDVs us fy[kk gS **okLro esa bl f{kfrt esa Lora=rk ds izfr
vdqykgV rks rkR;k Vksis ds inkiZ.k ds ,dne ckn gh 'kq: gks xbZ Fkh] ijUrq vyh ca/kqvksa dh
utjcanh uxj ds yksxksa esa dkSrwgy] vk'p;Z vkSj vkØks'k dk fo"k; cudj psruk dk
vadqj cu xbZA^^4
20 fnlEcj 1920 esa ukxiqj esa dkaxzsl dk vfoLej.kh; ,oa ,sfrgkfld vf/kos'ku
gqvkA fNUnokM+k ftys ls loZJh fo'oukFk nkeksnj lkYisdj] mekdkUr cyoar ?kkVs]
czteksgu oekZ] d`".kk Lokeh uk;Mw] ohjckcw jko gjdjs vkfn usrkvksa us bl vf/kos'ku
esa Hkkx fy;kA5
6 tuojh 1921 dks jk"Vªfirk egkRek xka/kh igyh ckj fNUnokM+k vk;s FksA xka/khth
dk ,sfrgkfld izkarh; nkSjk fNUnokM+k ftys ls 'kq: gqvk FkkA 6 tuojh dh la/;k dks
fpVuohl xat eSnku esa ,d fo'kky lHkk gqbZ yxHkx 10 gtkj yksx mifLFkr Fks] bl

*vfrfFk
vfrfFk fon~oku 'kkldh; isapoyh egkfo|ky; ijkfl;kA
158 MkW- fuf/k MksMkuh
lHkk esa xka/khth us vlg;ksx vkUnksyu ds i{k esa lkjxfHkZr Hkk"k.k fn;k FkkA6 uxj esa
igyh ckj ftyk dkaxzsl desVh dk xBu fd;k x;kAftlds ekrgr /kjuk vkUnksyu]
'kjkc dh nqdkuksa esa fidsfVax] ljdkjh ukSdfj;ksa ls R;kxi= rFkk fons'kh oL=ksa dh
gksyh tykuk tSls dk;ZØe izkjaHk gq,A7A 923 dk >aMk lR;kxzg e/;izkar dk ,d
vf}rh; vkUnksyu Fkk] blesa ftys ds 15 Lora=rk laxzke lsukfu;ksa us Hkkx fy;kA
bldk usr`Ro ejkBh Hkk"kh usrk fo'oukFk lkYisdj vkSj uhydaBjko xqUMs us fd;kA bl
vkUnksyu esa cgqla[;d xksaM tutkfr;ksa dh lfØ; Hkkxhnkjh jghA8
Lkfou; voKk vkUnksyu dk ,d vax fons'kh oLrq dk cfg"dkj ,oa 'kjkc canh
vkUnksyu FkkA ftldk lokZf/kd izHkko ftys ds nf{k.kh Hkkx ij ifjyf{kr gqvkA ftys
ls 150 O;fDr fxjrkj fd;s x;s ftuesa 42 dks dkjkokl dk n.M fn;k x;kA9 29
uoEcj 1933 dks egkRek xka/kh dk bl ftys esa nwljh ckj vkxeu gqvkA xka/khth ds
bl nkSjs dk eq[; mn~ns'; gfjtuksa}kj FkkAmUgksaus NqvkNwr dh leL;k dks Hkkjrh;
lekt ds fy, vfHk'kki ?kksf"kr fd;kA10 blds ifj.kkeLo:Ik bl ftys esa lkEiznkf;d
ln~Hkko LFkkfir gqvkA
31 fnlEcj1936 dks ia- tokgj yky usg: us bl {ks= dh ;k=k dhA usg:th dh
bl ;k=k ds ifj.kkeLo:Ik bl {ks= esa dkaxl sz izR;kf'k;ksa dh 'kr~ izfr'kr fot; gqbAZ 11 xk¡/kh
th vkSj usg:th dh bu ;k=kvksa ls bl {ks= es Lok/khurk vkUnksyu dks ,d ubZ fn'kk
vkSj xfr izkIr gqbAZ 1939 esa fczfV'k 'kklu us Hkkjrh; jktuhfrKksa ds fopkj&foe'kZ fd;s
fcuk gh Hkkjr dks f}rh; egk;q) esa <dsy fn;kA blds dkj.k Hkkjrh; tuekul
vlar"q V gksus ds ckotwn Lora=rk dh 'krZ ij fczfV'k ljdkj dks ;q) esa lg;ksx nsus ds
fy, rS;kj gks x;k ijUrq fczfV'k ljdkj us Hkkjrh; dks Lok/khurk dk dksbZ vk'oklu ugha
fn;kA blds QyLo:Ik egkRek xka/kh us 1940 bZ- esa *O;fDrxr lR;kxzg* vkjaHk fd;k
blesa bl {ks= ds yxHkx 70 lR;kxzfg;ksa us lR;kxzg dks lQy cukus dk iz;kl fd;kA12
fNUnokM+k ftys esa Hkkjr NksM+ks vkUnksyu dk vkjaHk xka/khth lfgr jk"Vª ds izeq[k
usrkvksa dh fxjrkjh ds lkFk gqvkA yksxksa us LokHkkfod :Ik ls bl tu vkUnksyu esa
Hkkx fy;kA ;gk¡ ds yxHkx 45 Lora=rk laxzke lsukfu;ksa dks canh cuk;k x;k vkSj
mUgsa iqfyl ;kruk,¡ nh xbZA13
^^Lok/khurk vkUnksyu** esa fNUnokM+k ftys dk mYys[kuh; ;ksxnku jgk gSA Lok/khurk
vkUnksyu ds nkSjku fNUnokM+k ftys dh turk us jk"Vªh; mRlkg dk ,d Toyar
izek.k izLrqr dj mlesa viuk vfoLej.kh; ;ksxnku fn;k FkkA Lok/khurk vkUnksyu
esa ftys dh efgykvksa dh Hkh lfØ; Hkkxhnkjh jghA
 fNUnokM+k ftys esa Hkkjrh; Lok/khurk---- 159
lanHkZ&
1- fNUnokM+k ftyk xtsfV;j 1907-
2- fj;kt gehnk& eksgEen vyh tkSgj]'kEeh Qkbu vkVZ eksfeuiqjk ukxiqj 1988 i`-104 ¼mnwZ
Hkk"kk½
3- 'kqDy ch- ih-& fNUnokM+k Nfc 1931] i`- 13
4- vksDVs ek:frjko& fNUnokM+k f{kfrt] fNUnokM+k 1993 i`- 253
5- rnSo] i`- 255
6- e-iz- ds Lora=rk laxzke lSfud& [k.M 1 tcyiqj laHkkx& lwpuk rFkk izlkj.k lapkyuky; e/
;izns'k 'kklu Hkksiky] 'kklu izknsf'kd eqnz.kky; bUnkSj vizSy 1978
7- vksDVs ek:frjko& fNUnokM+k f{kfrt] fNUnokM+k 1993 i`- 258
8- 'kqDy ch- ih-& fNUnokM+k Nfc 1931] i`- 83
9- vf[ky Hkkjrh; dkaxzsl desVh Qkby ua- 28@1931 i`- 29
10- f[kjoM+dj ,l- th- & e/;izns'k lUns'k 30 tuojh 1988 tulEidZ lapkyuky; tulEidZ
Hkou ok.kxaxk Hkksiky
11- 'kqDy ch- ih-& fNUnokM+k Nfc 1931] i`- 96
12- rnSo i`- 99
13- vksDVs ek:frjko& fNUnokM+k f{kfrt] fNUnokM+k 1993 i`- 262
*****
160

35- ckS) iap'khy fl)kUr vkSj egkRek xk¡/kh

*MkW- gseckyk

ckS) /keZ fo'o ds egku /keksZa esa ls ,d gSA Hkxoku cq) us lk/kkj.k turk dks
'khy lekf/k rFkk izKk dk mins'k fn;kA Hkxoku cq) us 'khy] lnkpkj rFkk vkpj.k
dh 'kq)rk ij fo'ks"k cy fn;k gSAu, thou ewY;ksa ds izfr"Bkid] ,d loZFkk u, ekuo
/keZ dh LFkkiuk ds os mn~xkrk ekus tkrs gSa] Kku] lR; vkSj izKk ij vk/kkfjr /kkfeZd
ØkfUr ds os ,sls T;ksfr LrEHk Fks ftuls cgqtu fgrk;] viuk thou lefiZr dj fn;k
Fkk A fuokZ.k ds {k.kksa rd ds ifjozktd cus jgsA1 blds fy, mUgksua s lnkpkj dh egRrk
ij cy fn;k D;ksafd lnkpkj ds voyEcu ls ekuo viuh gh 'kfDr ls fuokZ.k ik
ldrk gSA2 Hkxoku cq) ds vuqlkj 'khy ls dk; 'kqf)] lekf/k ls fpRr 'kqf) rFkk izKk
ls vof|k dk uk'k gksrk gSA3 vr% 'khy esa laizfrf"Br gksdj lekf/k ,oa izKk dh Hkkouk
djrk gqvk ;ksxh fu"iziap gks tkrk gS vkSj veks"k/keZ fuokZ.k dk vf/kxe djrk gSA ckS)
lk/kuk esa 'khy dh loksZikfjrk gSA;Fkkxr us ns'kuk nh gS fd es/kkoh dks 'khy dh j{kk
djuh pkfg, & lhy jD[ks¸; es/kkohA4
Hkxoku cq) ds vuqlkj 'khy dk vFkZ gS izk.kfriki vkfn lexz xfgZr deksZa ls
fpRr dh fojfr vFkkZr fpRr dh fojfr gh 'khy gSA5 'khy dkfeZd ,oa okfpd la;e
dk izR;k;d gSA ckS)ksa ds vuqlkj 'khy lE;d deZ] lE;d okd~ rFkk lE;d vkthou
vUrHkwZr gS ftlesa uSfrd vkpj.k dh leLr fu;e lafgrk vuqL;wr gSA6 v'o?kks"k us
lkSUnjuUn esa vk;Z v"Vkafxd ekxZ dks LdU/kkRed ekuk gS vkSj 'khy] lekf/k rFkk izKk
ds :i esa bldk foHkktu fd;k gSA7 ,d vU; LFky ij cq) /keZ ds vuqlkj izKk] 'khy
vkSj lekf/k v"Vkafxd ekxZ ds izrhd gSa ;s rhuksa gh gSaA8 v"Vkafxd ekxZ blh lk/kuk=;
dk iYyfor :i gSa A bldk o.kZu fuEu izdkj gS&
1-lE;d~ n`f"V 2- lE;d~ ladYi izKk
3-lE;d~ okpk 4- lE;d~ defUr
5-lE;d~ vkthfodk 6- lE;d~ O;k;ke
*vfrfFk f'kf{kdk ¼laLd`r½ efgyk dkWyst ,- ,e- ;w- vyhx<+- ¼m-iz-½
 ckS) iap'khy fl)kUr vkSj egkRek xk¡/kh 161
7-lE;d~ Le`fr 8- lE;d~ lekf/k
'khy gh yksd esa dY;k.kdkjh ,oa vuqRrj gSA ¼lhys fdjso dY;k.ka lhyayksds
vuqRrja½A9'khy ds egRo dks izfrikfnr djrs gq, Hkxoku cq) ls ^,d ,slk lkekftd
ekin.M lqfuf'pr fd;k ftls nk'kZfud vkSj lkekftd Hkk"kk esa iap'khy ds uke ls
iqdkjk x;k turk ds fy, ekewyh ls yxus okys 'khy lnkpkj ds ekin.M] fu;e ,d
ubZ lkekftd lajpuk dh fn'kk esa izFke iz;kl FkkA iap'khy fl)kUrksa ds vUrxZr
lekt ds fnXHkzfer ;k cgds gq, yksxksa ls vis{kk dh xbZ Fkh fd os vius uSfrd thou
dks lq/kkjs A lkekftd ca/kuksa vkSj lkekftd e;kZnk dk ikyu djsaA10 ;gh fl)kUr
iap'khy ds uke ls izfl) gq,A11
1- vfgalk ijeks/keZ& izk.kh fgalk ls vyx jgukA
2 vLrs;& pksjh vkfn nq"izo`fRr;ksa ls fojr jguk A
3- czgep;Z& tcju eSFkqu@dkekpkj ls nwj jguk A
4- vlR; vkSj Øqj Hkk"k.k ls fojfDr& e`nq Hkk"k.k dk vH;klA 5e|iku fojr&
u'khys inkFkksZa ds lsou ls vyx jguk A
bu iap'khy fl)kUrksa ds izfriknu ls lekt esa ,d u, fopkj dk tUe gqvk
rFkk yksxksa ds e/; ,drk vkSj lkekftd U;k; dk iFk iz'kLr gqvkA Hkxoku cq) }kjk
izfrikfnr iap'khy fl)kUrksa dk Li"V izHkko gesa Hkkjrh; yksd thou ds vR;f/kd
egRoiw.kZ O;fDrRo egkRek xka/kh ds fl)kUrksa esa ifjyf{kr gksrk gSA egkRek xka/kh txr
ds fy, mnkgj.kLo:i Fks] os egkekuo FksA mudk O;fDrRo cgqeq[kh FkkAmUgksaus
lkekftd] vkfFkZd] /kkfeZd] jktuSfrd vkSj nk'kZfud lHkh i{kksa ij fopkj fd;kA
muds fpUru dk {ks= O;kid vkSj dk;Z{ks= vR;f/kd fo'kky FkkA vfgalk loZxzkgh
lR; dks izkIr djus dk lk/ku gSA xk¡/kh th ds 'kCnksa esa vfgalk dk okLrfod vFkZ gS
ldkjkRed vuq'kkluA egkRek cq) us /kkfeZd U;k; ds fy, ftl vfgalk dks [kM+k
fd;k Fkk] egRek xka/kh th us bl ;qx esa blh fgalk dk mi;ksx lkekftd vkSj vkfFkZd
U;k; izkIr djus ds fy, fd;k egkRekxka/kh us vfgalk dks u;k vk;ke nsrs gq, dgk&
**;fn vfgalk laxfBr ugha gks ldrh rks og /keZ ugha gS ;fn eq>esa dksbZ fo'ks"krk gS
rks ;gh fd eSa lR; vkSj vfgalk dks laxfBr dj jgk gw¡----------tks ckr esSa djuk pkgrk
gw¡ vkSj djds ejuk pkgrk gw¡ og ;g gS fd vfgalk dks laxfBr d:¡------A -------vfgalk
lcds fy, gS] lc txgksa ds fy, gSa] lc le; ds fy, gSA12
lR;] vfgalk vkSj lR;kxzg xk¡/kh ds n'kZu ds vk/kkj Hkwr LrEHk gSA Hkxoku cq)
us vius iap'khy ftls vlR; Hkk"k.k vkSj dVq Hkk"k.k ls fojfDr vFkkZr~ e`nHq kk"k.k
vH;kl dgk gSA mls gh egkRek xka/kh us lR; ds :i esa ekuk gSA xka/kh th us Li"Vr%
lR; dks thou dk vk/kkj ,oa iz;kstu rFkk loZJs"B ewY; ds :i esa Lohdkj fd;k gSA
xk¡/kh us Li"V djrs gq, dgk fd tgk¡ lR; ugha gS ogk¡ 'kq) Kku laHko ugha gks ldrk]
162 MkW- gseckyk

tgk¡ lR; Kku gS ogk¡ vkuUn gh gksxk] 'kksd gksxk gh ugha vkSj lR; 'kk'or gS
blhfy, vkuUn Hkh 'kk'or gksrk gS vkSj euq"; dks ije lq[k dh izkfIr lR; ds ek/
;e ls gh gks ldrh gSA13 xkSre cq) dh 'khy vLrs; dks egkRek xka/kh us vifjxzg ls
tksM+k gSA ifjxzg dk vFkZ gS Hkfo"; ds fy, O;oLFkk djukA egkRek xk¡/kh ds vuqlkj
;fn gekjsikl dksbZ ,slh oLrq gS ftldh gesa vko';drk ugh gS rks Hkys gh og ewyr%
pqjkbZ xbZ oLrq u gks] ij pksjh dh laifRr dh Js.kh esa gh fxuh tk;sxhA14 iap'khyksa esa
ls czgep;Z ds lEcU/k esa Hkh egkRek xk¡/kh ds vuqlkj czgep;Z dk iwjk vkSj lgh vFkZ
gS& czge dh [kkstA,sls O;fDr bZ'oj ls lkfu/; esa fuokl djrs gSA ,sls czgep;Z dk
eulk] okpk] deZ.kk iwjh rjg ikyu djuk laHko gSA15
bl izdkj dgk tk ldrk gS fd ckS) iap'khy fl)kUrks dk egkRek xk¡/kh ds
O;fDrRo ij fo'ks"k izHkko Fkk mUgksus vius thou esa bu fl)kUrksa dk mn~ns'; gh ugh
vfirq iz;ksx djds ekuo thou dks ,d ubZ fn'kk iznku fd os] lR;] vfgalk ds iqtkjh
Fks os vius ;qx ds iqjks/kk ekus tkrs gSaA

lUnHkZ lwph
1- dUgS;k yky papjhd] Hkxoku xkSre cq) % thou vkSj n'kZu&;wfuoflZVh ifCyds'ku&1999
i`0la01 Hkwfedk
2 ia0 cYnso mik/;k; &ckS) n'kZu&cukjl kkjnk efUnj&1946 i`0& 51
3 ia0 cYnso mik/;k; &ckS) n'kZu&cukjl 'kkjnk efUnj&1946 i`0& 30
4- czt eksgu ik.Ms; ^ukfyu* ckS) lk/kuk ,oa n'kZu&v;u izdk'ku izFke laLdj.k&1991 ubZ
fnYyh
5- ia0 cYnso mik/;k; ckS) n'kZu&cukjl 'kkjnk efUnj i`0& 152
6- czt eksgu ik.Ms; ^ukfyu* ckS) lk/kuk ,oa n'kZu& v;u izdk'ku i`0 72
7- ia0 cynso mik/;k; ckS) n'kZu& cukjl 'kkjnk efUnj i`0 69
8- ia0 cynso mik/;k; ckS) n'kZu& cukjl 'kkjnk efUnj i`0 80
9- czt eksgu ik.Ms; ^ukfyu* ckS) lk/kuk ,oa n'kZu& v;u izdk'ku i`0 88
10- dUgS;k yky papjhd & Hkxoku xkSre cq) % thou ,oa n'kZu& ;wuhof'kZVh ifCyds'ku 1999 i`0
49
11- dUgS;k yky papjhd & Hkxoku xkSre cq) % thou ,oa n'kZu& ;wuhof'kZVh ifCyds'ku 1999 i`0
50
12- Mk0 vej T;ksfr flag]&egkRek xka/kh vkSj Hkkjr izFke v/;k; thou ifjp;
13- vkj0 ds0 izHkw] ;w0vkj0 jko& egkRek xka/kh ds fopkj i`0la0 178
14- vkj0 ds0 izHkw] ;w0vkj0 jko& egkRek xka/kh ds fopkj i`0la0 178
15- vkj0 ds0 izHkw] ;w0vkj0 jko& egkRek xka/kh ds fopkj i`0la0 263
*****
 163

36- vaxwBk fu'kkuh

¼21 ebZ 1930½
*MkW0 dapu pkaMd

21 ebZ 1930 bl le; flouh tsy esa iafMr jfo'kadj 'kqDy FksA Jh 'kqDy dks
ukxiqj esa canh cuk dj flouh tsy esa j[kk x;k FkkA¹ bl tsy esa 'kqDy th ds
vfrfjDr yksduk;d ek/ko Jhgfj rFkk fonHkZ ds usrk Jh okeu tks'kh Hkh j[ks x;s Fks
bl volj ij 'kqDy th dks tsy esa T;knfr;ksa ds fo:) i;kZIr la?k"kZ djuk iM+kA
flouh tsy esa vaxwBs rFkk vaxqfy;ksa ds fu'kku ds Nkis ysus dh Lej.kh; ?kVuk
?kfVr gqbZ ftlesa 'kqDyth us vius vnE; lkgl n`<+rk rFkk LokfHkeku dk ifjp;
fn;kA mu fnuksa tsy esa ;g ifjikVh rFkk fu;e lk cu x;k Fkk² fd izR;sd canh dh
igpku ds fy;s mlds vaxqfy;ksa ds fu'kku ysus dh izFkk lh py iM+h FkhA3 tsy
vf/kdkfj;ksa us ,d fnu Jhokeu tks'kh dks cqyk;k vkSj muds vaxwBs rFkk vaxqfy;ksa ds
fu'kku ys fy;s] tc os vius lkfFk;ksa ds ikl ykSVs rks muds dkys gkFk ns[kdj
'kqDyth us iwNk fd D;k ckr gSA Jh tks'kh cryk;k fd tsy okyks us muds vaxqfy;ksa
ok vaxwBs ds fu'kku fy;sA rhljs fnu 'kqDy th dks tsy vf/kdkfj;ksa us n¶rj esa
cqyok;k vkSj mUgsa vaxwBs o vaxqfy;ksa ds fu'kku nsus dks dgk rks mUgksus lkQ badkj
dj fn;k D;ksfd tsy E;sU;wvy esa budh dksbZ O;oLFkk ugh FkhA4 cgqr le÷kkus cq÷kkus
ij Hkh tc iafMr th rS;kj ugh gq,] rks var esa bl dk;Z ds fy;s ,d eftLVªsV cqyk;k
x;k 'kqDy th us fcuk fdlh vfHk;ksx ds eftLVªsV ds lkeus mifLFkr gksus ls badkj
fd;k rc fMIVh dfe'uj lhesu ds vkns'k ij vkj0 ,u0 isBkjdj rRdkyhu bZ0 ,0
lh0] tsy o rglhy ds ckMZj] [kyklh] pijklh bl dk;Z ds fy;s ,d= dj fy;s x;s
ij 'qDy th us oDrO; fn;k fd os viuh bPNk ds fo:) vaxwBs rFkk vaxqfy;ksa ds
fu'kku ugha nsaxs vkSj bl dk;Z dk fojks/k djsxs vkSj ;fn mudks dqN {kfr igqpha rks
mldh leLr ftEesnkjh ljdkj dh gksxhA brus ij Hkh vf/kdkjh cyiwoZd fu'kku ysus
ds fy, rqys gq, Fks] vf/kdkfj;ksa o pijkfl;ksa us 'kqDyth dks tehu ij fxjkdj

vfrfFk fon~oku ’kkldh; dU;k egkfo|ky; Vhdex<+ ¼e-iz-½

*vfrfFk
164 MkW0 dapu pkaMd
tcZnLrh fu'kku ysus dk iz;Ru fd;k] 'kqDy th us iwjh bpNk 'kfDr vkSj n`<+rk ls
mldk fojks/k fd;kA 'kqDyth deZpkfj;ksa ls iwjs 35 & 40 fefuV tedj la?k"kZ djrs
jgsA bu lHkh deZpkfj;ksa us 'kqDy th dks cqjh rjg nck fy;kA5 vkSj cM+h dfBukbZ;ksa
ls vaxqfy;ksa ds vLi"V fu'kku fy;s tk ldsA6
bldk Qy ;gk gqvk fd 'kqDy th ds nksuks gkFk cqjh rjg lwt x;s Fks vkSj
dkQh pksVs vk tkus ls mUgs cq[kkj Hkh vk x;k FkkA 'kqDy th }kjk bl izfrjks/k dk
ifj.kke ;g gqvk fd ?kVuk ds pkj fnu ckn gh ukxiqj ls izkar Hkj esa vkns'k izlkfjr
gks x, fd tc rd iqfyl ds fMIVh tujy dk vkns'k uk gks] fdlh Hkh canh ds
vaxqfy;ksa ds fu'kku uk fy;s tk,A tsy ls NqVus ij 'kqDyth us ljdkj ls 10 gtkj
:i;s dh {kfriwfrZ dk nkok fd;k vkSj ekax dh fd muds lkFk tsy esa fu;eksa dks Hkax
djrs gq, ljdkj us nqO;Zogkj fd;k FkkA7 'qDyth dh vksj ls Jh nqxkZ'kadj esgrk]
izHkkdj jko tVkj ,ao flouh ds cgqr ls odhykas us iSjoh dh FkhA8 vaxzsth 'kklu dh
vksj ls Jh iUukyky HkkxZo csfjLVj us iSjoh dhA uhps dh vnkyr esa ;g nkok [kkfjt
gks x;kA9 ftlds fo:) 'kqDy th us ukxiqj gkbZdksVZ esa vihy dh Fkh gkbZdksVZ us
;|fi mudh vihy Lohdkj ugh dh Fkh ijarq gkbZdksVZ ds ,d U;k;k/kh'k us mudh
ekax dks viuh vYierh; lUefr ls mfpr dgk Fkk] fQj Hkh bl fo"k; esa nksuks U;k;k/kh'kks
esa erHksn FkkA bl laca/k esa 'kqDy th fizoh dkSafly esa vihy djuk pkgrs Fks] ij
lacaf/kr vf/kdkjh fjVk;j gks pqds Fks vkSj 'kqDy th Loa; f'k{kkea=h cu x, Fks Qyr%
mUgksus ekeys dks vkxs ugh c<+k;kA vaxzsth 'kklu ls U;k; ds fy, yM+ dj vius
*LokfHkeku dh j{kk* jfo'kadj 'kqDy th ds thou dh mYys[kuh; ?kVuk gSA10

lanHkZ xzaFk lwph %&

1 ikBd ia0] tkudh izlkn & flouh vkt dy vkSj vkt] 2004 i`"B Øaekd 13
2 ekgs'ojh vkj0 th0 & 'kqDy vfHkuanu xzaFk thouh [kaM 1] 1995 i`"B Øaekd 26
3 usek jktsUnz &xq:/kke if=dk lriqM+k vkOtZ+oj 15 vxLr 1947] i`"B Øaekd 42
4 e/;izns'k ds Lora=rk laxzke lSfud [kaM1tcyiqj laHkkx] lwpuk rFkk izdk'ku lapkyuky;
e0iz0 'kklu Hkksiky] ''kklu izknsf'kd eqnz.kky; bUnSj vizSy 1978 i`"B Øaekd 222
5 f[k[kM+dj ,l0 th0&e/;izns'k lans'k Lok/khurk vkanksyu fo'ks"kkad lwpuk rFkk izlkj.k foHkkx
lapkyuky; izdk'ku 'kk[kk cslesaV lriqM+k Hkou Hkksiky] 15 vxLr 1987 i`"B Øaekd 107
6 ekgs'ojh vkj0 th0 iwoksZDr i`"B Øaekd 26
7 e/;izns'k ds Lora=rk laxzke lSfud [kaM 1] iwoksZDr i`"B Øaekd 222
8 'kekZ ,l0 ,u0 & flouh izkphu vkSj vokZphu] lu~1961 i`"B Øaekd 25
9 flouh lanHkZ esa izdkf'kr tkudkjh ds vk/kkj ij] ftyk ykbZczsjh flouhA
10 e/;izns'k ds Lora=rk laxzke lSfud [kaM 1 iwoksZDr i`"B Øaekd 223
*****
 165

37- e/;dkyhu Xokfy;j esa dyk dk mRÑ"V

izrhd ^^tSu ewfrZdyk lewg^^

*jtuh lDlsuk

1100 bZ- ls 1800 bZ- ds e/; Xokfy;j esa dPNi?kkr] izfrgkj] xqyke oa'k]
f[kYth oa'k] rqxyd oa'k] rksej oa'k] eqxy oa'k] lwjh ,oa flaf/k;k oa'k dk vkf/kiR; jgk
FkkA Xokfy;j dh ewfrZdyk dk bfrgkl ekS;Zdky ds dqN ckn 'kaqxdky ls izkjaHk
gksrk gSA e/;dky rd vkrs vkrs Xokfy;j {ks= esa ewfrZ fuekZ.k dyk vR;ar
fodflr gks pqdh FkhA
^xksikpy ioZr^ dh n`<+ f'kykvksa ij f'kfYir ^Hkxoku ik'oZukFk^ dh izfrek
,oa vU; lgL=ksa fo'kky ik"kk.k&izfrek,a le; ds lqnUjre vonkuksa esa ls ,d
gSA ewfrZdkj f'kykvksa dks dqjns dj vFkok f'kyk [k.Mksa dks x<+dj ewfrZ;ksa dk
fuekZ.k djrs Fks ftudk vkdkj Xokfy;j x<+ dh ioZrkdkj ewfrZ;ksa ls ysdj
vR;ar NksVh ewfrZ rd gSA dqN ewfrZ;k¡ pkjksa vksj ls cuh gS]a dqN iRFkj ij fp=ksa
ds leku mHkjh gqbZ gSAa 1 Xokfy;j fLFkr xksikpy ioZr izkphu tSu ewfrZ lewg dk
vf}rh; LFkku gSA ;gka ds rRdkyhu 'kkld rksej oa'kh; jktk Jh ohje nso] Jh
Mwxj flag ,oa Jh dhfrZflag ds jkT;dky esa fo-la- 1938 ¼lu~ 1341½ ls fo-l-
1536 ¼lu~ 1479½ ds e/; djhc 138 o”kZ rd lalkj izfl) ewfrZ f'kYi fo'ks"kKksa
}kjk ioZr rjk'k dj ;s izfrek,a f'kfYir dh xbZa FkhA tc ;s cudj rS;kj gqbZa
rks rRdkyhu egkdfo ^ia- jb/kw tSu^ us /kwe/kke ls bu ewfrZ;ksa dh izfr"Bk djkbZA2
xksikpy ioZr l`f"V dks vfgalk rFkk fgUnw /keZ esa vkbZ cfy izFkk dks [kRe
djus dk lan's k nsrk gSA ;gka :f<+;ksa rFkk vkMEcjksa esa lq/kkjd tSu /keZ ds

*fjlpZ QSyks] vkb- lh- ,p- vkj-] ubZ fnYyh] 'kks/kkFkhZ] 'kk-ds-vkj-th- LukrdksRrj]
Lo'kklh egkfo|ky;] Xokfy;j e0iz0
166 jtuh lDlsuk
rhFkkZda jksa dh ewfrZ;ka mdsjh xbZ gSAa ;g LFky /kjkry ls yxHkx 200 QhV dh
Å¡pkbZ ij fLFkr gSA bu ewfrZ lewgksa esa Ng bap ls ysdj 57 QqV rd dh ewfrZ;ka
gSAa buesa vkfnukFk Hkxoku dh ckouxtk rFkk Hkxoku ik'oZukFk dh in~eklu
izfrek 'kkfey gSA ;gka ij yxHkx 12 QqV Å¡pkbZ fy, gq, tSu rhFkZd a j
^usfeukFk^ dh [kM+dklu izfrek vofLFkr gSA bl izfrek dks yxHkx ^10x10x5^
vkdkj ds igkM+h pV~Vku dks dkVdj cuk;k x;k gSA3 buds vfrfjDr in~eizHkq]
panzizHkq] 'kaHkqukFk] dqEFkqukFk] egkohj vkfn rhFkZd
a jksa dh ewfrZ;ka Hkh ;gka gSAa bu
izfrekvksa dh la[;k 100 ls Hkh vf/kd gSA ;gka dqy 26 xqQk;sa gSa ftuesa yxHkx
20 izfrek,a 10 QhV ls 30 QhV rd Å¡ph gS]a bruh gh izfrek,a 8 QhV ls 15
QhV Å¡ph gSAa orZeku esa ;gka dh vf/kdrj izfrek,a [kafMr voLFkk esa gSAa bl
ifjlj esa lkekU; :i ls v"Vizfrgk;ksZa tSl& s Hkke.My] nqUnqfHk] f=N=&liZN=]
o`{k] pkej ?kj vkSj flagklu dk fof/kor~ lek;kstu fd;k x;k gSA flagklu ds
nksuksa fljksa ij ;{k&;{kh Hkh iznf'kZr gSAa lkekU; :i ls xt&dy’k vkSj
ekyk?kjksa dk vadu feyrk gSA lHkh esa ykaNu flag n`"VO; gSA4
buesa ls dqN izfrekvksa ds ikn&ikB ij f'kykys[k [kqns gq, ns[kus dks feyrs
gSAa bu vfHkys[kksa dh fyih ukxjh o Hkk"kk laLÑr gSA bu vfHkys[kksa esa rksej ujs'k
^Mwxjflag^ o ^dhfrZ flag^ dk uke vkrk gSA dqN vfHkys[k lEor~ 1528&1530
¼lu~ 1468&1473½ rd ds [kqns gq, gSAa bl izdkj tSu ewfrZdyk lewg rRdkyhu
mRÑ"V LFkkiR; dyk ds egRoiw.kZ mnkgj.k gSAa xqQk pSR;ksa ds Åijh vafre Nksj
ij ,oa eq[; }kjksa esa igkM+h pV~Vku dks lqUnj :i ls rjk'k dj nsoky; dk
vkHkkl djk;k x;k gSA5
rksej ujs'k ^x.kifr nso^ iq= ^Mwxjflag^ dk Xokfy;j ij 'kkludky
yxHkx 1427 bZ- ls 1459 bZ- rd yxHkx 32 o"kZ rd jgk] ftudk izek.k ls
vfHkys[k gSA6 Mwx a jflag dk 'kkludky tSu /keZ ,oa tSu lkfgR; dk Lo.kZ;qx FkkA
bl dky esa tSu /keZ] tSu lkfgR; dh izxfr ,oa tSu ewfrZ;ksa dk fuekZ.k pje
lhek ij FkkA ^jb/kw^ 16oha 'krkCnh ds rksejksa ds vkfJr dfo FksA jb/kw us mYys[k
fd;k gS fd ^Mwxjflag^ dks tSu /keZ ij vkLFkk FkhA tSu ewfrZ;ksa dh Xokfy;j nqxZ
tSu rhFkZ gS]a blfy, bl igkM+h dks tSu x<+ dgk tkrk gSA rksej 'kkld
^Mwxa jflag^ o muds mŸkjkf/kdkjh iq= ^dhfrZflag^ ds jkT;dky ds nkSjku os tSu
izfrek,a cuuk izkjaHk gqbZ Fkh tks Xokfy;j x<+ dks pkjksa vksj ls ?ksjs gq, gSAa tSu
xazFk ^iz'kfLr laxzg^ esa mYys[k gS fd ^Mwx a jflag^ us tSu ewfrZ;ksa dks mRdha.kZ djkus
 e/;dkyhu Xokfy;j esa----- 167
esa i;kZIr /ku O;; fd;kA LFkkiR; dyk ds mRÑ"V izrhd tSu izfrek,a viuh
lqUnjrk esa vf}rh; gSAa bu ewfrZ;ksa ds psgjs ij Hkko iz/kkurk vkSj vk/;kfRedrk
dh iz/kkurk gSA ;s izfrek,a dyk ds mRÑ"V mnkgj.k gSAa x`g rFkk okLrq fuekZ.k
ds lkFk gh ewfrZ vkSj f'kYidyk dk fodkl gqvk ftls /kkfeZd Hkkoukvksa us vkSj
Hkh izfs jr fd;kA bl izdkj ls ewfrZdyk lewg Hkkjrh; LFkkiR; dyk ds vuqie
mnkgj.k gSaA

lanHkZ xzaFk lwph

1- Lo;a ds loZs{k.k ij vk/kkfjr
2- xkSjh] xqykc [kkW] Xokfy;j dk jktuSfrd o lkaLÑfrd bfrgkl] i`-&201] izdk'kd ch-vkj
ifCyf"kax dkiksZjs'ku] ubZ fnYyh] o"kZ 198
3- Lo;a ds loZs{k.k ij vk/kkfjr
4- Lo;a ds loZs{k.k ij vk/kkfjr
5- Lo;a ds loZs{k.k ij vk/kkfjr
6- f=ikBh] ,l-,e-] tSu] uouhr dqekj ,oa rsuokj] Vhde&tSu Kku] 'kks/k i=&Xokfy;j {ks=
esa rhFkZadj egkohj dh izfrek,a&izfrek 'kkL=h; v/;;u ¼izkjaHk ls 15 oha lnh rd½] i`- 316]
o"kZ 2005
*****
168

38- xjhcnklh iaFk o gfj;k.kk dh

yksdlaLd`fr dh ,d >yd &
lUr tSrjke ds fo’ks"k lanHkZ esa

*MkWΠfcUnw eV~Vw

gfj;k.kk ds larksa esa lar xjhcnkl lcls vf/kd izfl) gSaA bUgha ds uke ls
xjhcnklh iaFk dh Hkh LFkkiuk gqbAZ budk tUe LFkku NqMkuh gSA ;gha budh lk/kuk&LFkyh rFkk
iaFk dk izeq[k /kke gSA buds f'k"; ,oa T;s"B iq= tSrjke us viuh ckuh esa xjhcnkl
th dk tUe 1717 bZ- o e`R;q 1778 bZ- ekuh gSA buds firk dk uke cyhjke o ekrk
dk uke jkuh FkkA1 budk tUe ,d fdlku ds ?kj gqvkA os dchj dks viuk izsjd xq#
ekurs FksA tSrjke th dk ekuuk gS fd xjhcnkl lk{kkr~ dchj gh FksA2 ijUrq Lo;a
xjhcnkl th dchj dks viuk xq# gh ekurs FksA3
xjhcnkl th dh ckuh ls irk pyrk gS fd bUgksaus dchj dh ckuh dks i<+k gS
vkSj dsoy dchj ds thou o vkn'kksZa dk v/;;u gh ugha fd;k cfYd mUgsa vius
thou esa viuk;k HkhA4 xjhcnkl th ds iq= tSrjke Hkh vius firk dh rjg gh ,d
izfl) lUr gq,A budh ckuh xzaFklkfgc&Jh tSrjke th dh ckuh dks xjhcnkl th dh
ckuh dh dqath dgk tkrk gSA bldk izdk'ku 1955 bZ- esa lar nwyunkl th
dchj&iaFkh us djok;k FkkA5 xjhcnklh iaFk esa mÙkjkf/kdkjh dks Jh egUr dgk tkrk
gSA egUr rqjrhjke us xjhcnkl th dk lqUnj fp=dkjh ls ltk gqvk Å¡ps xqEcn okyk
Lekjd cuok;k Fkk ftls Nrjh lkgc dgrs gSaA6 xjhcnkl dh f'k"; ijEijk esa 20
izeq[k f'k";ksa dk uke fy;k tkrk gS] ftlesa tSrjke th bl :i esa vyx gSa fd bu
chl f'k";ksa esa ls dsoy buds }kjk jfpr dkO; lkfgR; miyC/k gksrk gSA 'ks"k mUuhl
dk dksbZ lkfgR; miyC/k ugha gSA7
xjhcnkl th dh e`R;q ds i’pkr~ ekrk ds dgus ij vius NksVs HkkbZ rqjrhjke dks
xíh lkSai dj ;s djkSaFkk vk x,A egUr f'kon;ky us Nrjh lkgc esa v[k.M T;ksfr
*,lksf'k,V izksQslj] bfrgkl egf"kZ n;kuUn fo'ofo|ky;] jksgrd] ¼gfj;k.kk½
 xjhcnklh iaFk o gfj;k.kk dh--- 169
tykus dh izFkk izpfyr dh Fkh tks vc rd pyrh vk jgh gSA8 izLrqr 'kks/k&i= esa
geus xjhcnklh izeq[k lar tSrjke dh ckuh ls gfj;k.kk dh yksdlaLd`fr dh >yd
fn[kkrs gq, gfj;k.kk ds egRoiw.kZ L=ksr dks mHkkjus dk iz;kl fd;k gSA ledkyhu
yksd&laLd`fr o lkekftd ewY;ksa dk fp=.k tkus&vutkus mudh ckuh esa >ydrk
gSA tSrjke th dh ckuh Hkh vk/;kfRed gksrs gq, Hkh gfj;k.kk dh yksdlaLd`fr dh ,d
>yd izLrqr djrh gSA
tSrjke th us lekt esa jgrs gq, vk/;kfRed lk/kuk dh gSA mUgksaus jktuhfrd
o vkfFkZd izHkkoksa ls eqDr gksdj lkekftd o uSfrd ewY;ksa dks iz/kkurk nh gSA mudh
ckuh esa gesa la;qDr ifjokj ds n'kZu gksrs gSaA ckuh ls irk pyrk gS fd cgw dks lkl
ds funsZ'ku esa ?kj dk dke djuk iM+rk FkkA tc cgw xxjh mBkdj ikuh Hkjus iu?kV
ij tkrh gS rks cgqr [kkstus ij Hkh mls dgha Hkh ikuh ugha feyrkA cgw cgqr ijs'kkuh
esa gS fd vxj [kkyh xxjh ysdj xbZ rks lkl yM+sxh vkSj ifr MkaVsxkA9 okLro esa os
dgrs gSa fd lkl ds bl izdkj ds O;ogkj ds dkj.k ;s fL=;k¡ llqjky dh vis{kk
ek;ds esa jguk vf/kd ilUn djrh gSaA uSgj 'kCn bl lalkj dk og llqjky ls
vfHkizk; ijekRek dh lehirk gSA mUgksaus ifr ds lkFk feydj jgus okyh fL=;ksa dh
iz'kalk dh gS vkSj bl fo”k; esa gfj;k.kk dh cgqr xoZ ls iz’kalk dh gSA10 dU;kvksa ds
}kjk ?kj esa >kMw&cqgkjh ds lkFk&lkFk [ksr ds dke esa gkFk caVkrs fn[kk;k x;k gS tks
gfj;k.kk ds xzkeh.k ifjos'k dh ,d >yd izLrqr djrh gSA11
cgqiRuh dh izFkk ledkyhu jktkvksa esa ik;h tkrh Fkh vkSj mudh ns[kk&ns[kh
lekt ds vU; oxksZa esa Hkh cgqiRuhRo dh izFkk ds izpyu dk o.kZu feyrk gSA mUgksaus
lkSrsyh lUrku ds izfr fd, tkus okys O;ogkj dk o.kZu Hkh bl izdkj fd;k gS fd
firk iVjkuh ds izHkko ds dkj.k viuh vU; ifRu;ksa ls lUrkuksa dks I;kj nsus ds bPNk
j[krs gq, Hkh I;kj ugha dj ikrsA12 uxj o xk¡o dk o.kZu djrs gq, os uxjksa ds cM+s&cM+s
vkoklksa] caxyksa rFkk xk¡o ds vius HkkX;kuqlkj ?kkl&Qwl ls cus NIijksa dh VwVh >ksiM+h
dk fp=.k fd;k gSA13 lUr th dh ckuh esa yksd&thou ds [kk|&inkFkksZa dh ,d yEch
lwph feyrh gSA nw/k] ngh] [khj] pkoy] nky vkfn ds vykok fepZ] ghax] byk;ph
vkfn elkyksa dk rFkk esFkh] rksjh vkfn lfCt;ksa dk ,oa yM~Mw] tysch+s14 vkfn fe”Bkuksa
dk o.kZu djrs gq, izns'k dks nw/k&ngh ls Hkjk&iwjk crk;k gS] ftlds dkj.k ;gk¡ ds
yksxksa dh dk;k esa ,d ped fn[kkbZ nsrh gSaA15
[kk|&inkFkksZa ds led{k gh gfj;k.kk dh os'kHkw"kk dk vanktk Hkh mudh ckuh ls
yxk;k tk ldrk gSA os dgrs gSa fd vehj] nhoku vkfn js'keh oL= o xgus igurs
gS] 'kky&nq'kkyk vks<+rs gSaA xjhcnkl th ds oL=ksa ds ek/;e ls mUgksaus rRdkyhu
iq#"kksa ds ifj/kkuksa esa flj ij ixM+h] 'kjhj ij vaxj[kk] dej ij /kksrh] da/ks ij nwiêk]
iSjksa esa twrh dk ftØ fd;k gS16 o L=h ifj/kkuksa esa vks<+uh] pksyh] lkM+h] fcanh yxkus]
ek¡x Hkjus] dkty yxkus o xgus iguus ij izdk'k Mkyk gSA17ckuh esa gfj;k.kk esa igus
170 MkWΠfcUnw eV~Vw
tkus okys eksVs diM+s jsts+18 rFkk vke yksxksa }kjk iz;ksx gksus okys rfd;k] xíh] xyhpk
vkfn dk Hkh ft+Ø feyrk gSA19 blh izdkj ls ckuh ls ledkyhu mRlo o R;kSgkjksa]
tks fd Hkkjrh; laLd`fr dk ,d fgLlk gSa] ds euk, tkus dh Hkh fp=.k izkIr gksrk gSA
R;kSagkjksa esa clUr esa Qkx o lkou esa >wyk >wyus dk fo'ks"k :i ls o.kZu gSA lkSgknZiw.kZ
okrkoj.k esa dslfj;k jax ?kksydj fipdkjh ekjus dk mYys[k djrs gq, gksyh [ksyrs
gq, <ksy] eathjs] >ka> vkfn ok| ;U=ksa dks ctkus dk Hkh ft+Ø feyrk gS] tks gksyh ds
R;kSgkj dks izR;{k :i ls n'kkZus esa fl) gksrs gSaA20
lUr th us vk/;kfRed :i ls egqok ihdj vthc eLrh esa Hkjdj gksyh [ksyus
dk fp= izLrqr fd;k gSSA gksyh ds volj ij fL=;ksa }kjk iq#"kksa dks MaMs ls ihVus dk]
iq#"kksa }kjk mu ij jax Mkyus dk mYys[k feyrk gSA21 gksyh ds leku gh [kq'kh ds
okrkoj.k esa lkou ds eghus esa >wyk&>wyrs le; laxhr 'kCn ls gfj;k.kk esa ml le;
xk, tkus okys xhrksa dk ladsr Hkh izkIr gksrk gSA22 mRloksa ds lkFk&lkFk vketu ds
vU; euksjatu ds lk/kuksa dk Hkh fp=.k izkIr gksrk gSA uV&uVh dh rqyuk vusd :i
/kkj.k djus okyh ek;k ls dh xbZ gSA os dgrs gSa fd ftl izdkj uV vusd&Lokax jp
viuh dyk ls lcdks pfdr dj nsrk gS] mlh izdkj bZ'oj viuh peRdkjh yhykvksa
ls lcdks pfdr dj nsrk gSA23 lalkj dks ckthxj dk rek'kk dgk x;k gSA24
blh izdkj irax mM+kus25] dBiqryh ds rek'ks26] dq'rh27] ,oa pkSiM+ ds [ksy28
vkfn dk mYys[k Hkh ckuh esa feyrk gSA ckuh vk/;kfRed o.kZu djrs gq, vizR;{k :i
ls lekt esa izpfyr cqjkbZ;ksa tSlk tqvk [ksyus29] efnjk ihus30 dh vksj Hkh ladsr djrh
gS] ftuds tfj, yksx viuk euksjatu djrs FksA mRloksa o euksjatu ds lk/kuksa ds
vykok ckuh esa cM+ksa dk lEeku djus] mUgsa vfHkoknu djus o lUrtuksa dks n.Mor
djus dh f'k{kk nh xbZ gSA31 os vfrfFk lRdkj dh Hkkouk dks egRoiw.kZ crkrs gq, lUrksa
dh lsok djus32 o ik[kaMh lk/kqvksa dk fojks/k djus ls Hkh ugha pwdrsA33
tgk¡ ,d rjQ ckuh ls yksdkpkj ds fo”k; esa Kku izkIr gksrk gS] ogha nwljh vksj
yksdfo'okl] lekt esa izpfyr vU/kfo'oklksa dh Hkh tkudkjh izkIr gksrh gSA ckuh esa
va/kfo'oklksa o :f<+;ksa dh dM+h vkykspuk djrs gq, yksxksa }kjk rU=&eU= ij fo'okl
djrs gq, crk;k x;k gSA tSrjke th us ,sls fo'okl dks ik[k.M dk uke fn;k gSA34
lk¡i ds dkVus ij ea= i<+dj fo”k mrkjus esa yksxksa dk fo'okl FkkA35
'kqHkdk;Z djus ls igys 'kqHk eqgwrZ ns[kus dk fo'okl Hkh yksxksa esa cuk gqvk FkkA36
;s yksd fo'okl tks lkfgR; ds }kjk gesa ns[kus dks feyrs gsa] og vkt Hkh lekt
ds fgLls cus gq, gSaA blh izdkj ls ckuh ls HkkX;okn37] deZokn38] iqutZUeokn39 ,oa
rhFkZ&LFkkuksa40 ds izfr J)k fo'okl ds izpfyr gksus dk o.kZu izkIr gksrk gSA
;|fi ;g lUr vk/;kfRed thou O;rhr djrs Fks ij yksxksa ds chp jgrs gq,
mUgksaus vius vk/;kfRed opuksa ds ek/;e ls gh ikfjokfjd o lkekftd thou ds
igyqvksa ij izdk'k Mkyk gSA bl rjg lUr tSrjke th dh ckuh vk/;kfRed gksrs gq,
 xjhcnklh iaFk o gfj;k.kk dh--- 171
Hkh gfj;k.kk dh yksd laLd`fr dh ,d >yd izLrqr djrh gS vkSj blh esa lkfgR; dk
egÙo fNik gSA la{ksi esa xjhcnklh iaFk fo'ks”kr% tSrjke th dh ckuh Hkkjrh; laLd`fr
,oa gfj;k.kk dh yksd&laLd`fr dk ,d feyk&tqyk feJ.k izLrqr djrh gS vkSj bl
izdkj {ks=h; bfrgkl dks tkuus ds ,d izeq[k L=ksr ds :i esa mHkj dj vkrh gSA

lUnHkZ
1- xzaFk lkfgc] Jh tSrjke th dh ckuh] jksgrd] 1955] i`- 34
2- ^xjhcnkl lrxq# feyk] vnyh iq#"k dchj] ogh] i`- 25
3- xjhcnkl th dh ckuh] oSyosfM;j izSl] iz;kx] i`- 148
4- lwjtHkku] gfj;k.kk dk lUr lkfgR;] gfj;k.kk lkfgR; vdkneh] p.Mhx<+] 1986] i‘- 49&50
5- ogh] i`- 64
6- vkpk;Z ij'kqjke prqosZnh] mÙkjh Hkkjr dh lar ijEijk] bykgkckn] 1972] i`- 733
7- gfj;k.kk dk lUr lkfgR;] mijksDr] i`- 54
8- ogh] i`- 55
9- ^ikl ljksoj Hksn u ik;k eSa Hkjeh Mgdk [kkbZA
?kj esjh lkl fugkjS ckVh] [kkyh Mjrh u vkbZA
?kjkSa yM+sxh lkl l[kh jh vkSj uun dk HkkbZA*
Jh tSrjke th dh ckuh] i`- 471
10- ^dqVpyuh fØ;k dksbZ ukghaA ejtkn #i] C;ksgkjkA
tSrjke ,slk gfj;k.kkA lc ns’kksa ls U;kjkA*
ogh] i`- 395
11- ogh] i`- 274
12- ^rw gS jkuh jkuh gS jktkA rsjk lcgh >wBk dktkA*
ogh] i`- 60
13- ogh] i`- 380
14- ogh] i`- 494
15- ^nw/k&ngh eu ekU;k gksbZ] dksbZ tu fcjyk [kkyhA
vrh lqUnj uhdh uj dk;k lcds eq[k ij ykyhAA*
ogh] i`- 395
16- ogh] i`-- 34
17- ogh] i`- 354
18- ^jst+k /kks;k nkx u dksbZ] uwj lQsn cuk;kA*
ogh] i`- 390
19- ogh] i`- 381
20- ogh] i`- 467
21- ^e/kqok ihdj gksyh [ksyks] e| esa gksdj jax MkjhA*
ogh] i`- 463
22- ^fcu gh rjoj vtc Qwy fgaMkSY;wa ijh >wyA
lek/kku laxhr lksbZ fcu lrxq# igq¡pS u dksbZAA*
172 MkWΠfcUnw eV~Vw
ogh] i`- 465
23- ogh] i`- 475
24- ogh] i`- 19
25- ogh] i`- 477
26- ogh] i`- 421
27- ogh] i`- 288
28- ogh] i`- 470
29- ogh] i`- 86] 476
30- ogh] i`- 448
31- ogh] i`- 9
32- ogh] i`- 40
33- ogh] i`- 257
34- ogh] i`- 380
35- ogh] i`- 266
36- ogh] i`- 283
37- ogh] i`- 300
38- ogh] i`- 21
39- ogh] i`- 139
40 ogh] i`- 395
*****
 173

Cotributers

Dr. Munim Saikia- Associate Professor of History, Bapujee College,

Sarukshetri, P.O.-Sarthebari, Assam.
Dr. Vinay Shrivastava- Professor of History, Chhtrasal Govt. P.G. College,
Panna (M.P.)
Priyadarshina M Gangte- Sr. Lecturer, Damdei Christian College, Manipur.
Kartick Chandra Barman- Krishna Chandr College (govt.sponsored)
Hetampur* Birbhum, (West Bengal)
Dr. Asha Shrivastava- JRF, ICHR, New Delhi,778, Vikas Nagar, Neemuch
(M.P.)
Dr. Bishwajit Pradhan- P.G. Deptt. Of History, Sambalpur University, Jyoti
Viha, Sambalpur, Odisha.
Dr. Chand Singh Mor- Assistant Professor (History) Govt. College, Israna,
Panipat, Haryana
Binay Barman- Assistant Professor, Department of History. Saldiha College,
Saldiha, Bankura.W.B.
Sudesh Lama- Asstt. Professor, Department of History, University of North
Bengal, Darjeeling
Dr. Madhu Rajput- Associate Professor, Department of History, University
of Lucknow, Lucknow U.P.
Dr. Jagnyaseni Chhatria- Lecturer in History, Kuchinda College, Kuchinda,
Odisha
Debo Prasad Gogoi- Assistant Professor (History) D.R. College, Golaghat,
Assam
Biblop Gogoi- Assistant Professor of Political Science, D.R. College, Golaghat,
Assam
Dr. Vikram Songh Amrawat- Assistant Professor, Department of History and
Culture, Mahadev Desai Gramsewa Mahavidyalaya, Gujarat Vidyapith, Sadra
(Gujarat)
174
Dr. Mahananda Gondi- Head Department of History K.L.$ S.S. S College,
Athani, Belgaum (Karnataka)
Ashok Priyadarshi- Faculty of History, Baripada College, Baripada,
Mayurbhanj, Odisha
Abhijit Barman- Research Scholar, Department of Bengali, Assam Central
University, Silcher
Dipak Roy- Assistant Professor of History, University B.T.$ Evening Col-
lege, Gunjabari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal
Dr. Sadananda Nayak- Lecturer, P.G.Deptt. of History, Sambalpur Univer-
sity, Jyoti Vihar Burla, Odisha
Mithun Das- Research Scholar. (History), Langulia-1, Ghatpar.
P.O.Nigamnagar, Dist-Cooch-Behar. (West Bengal)
Dr. Anjana Saikia- Deptt. of History, Cinnamara College, Cinnamara, Jorhat,
Assam
Basanta Kr. Borah- Deptt. of History, Mariani College, Mariani, Jorhat, Assam
Gouri Dey- Research Scholar, Dept. of History, North Bengal University,
Darjeeling
Bhawna Rai- Research Scholar (History), University of North Bengal,
Darjeeling (West Bengal)
Krushna Chandra Das- Lecturer in History, Kalinga Institute of Social Sci-
ences (KISS) Bhubaneswar (Odisha)
Sankar Kumar Das- Assistant Proffesor of History, N.B.U. Darjeeling, West
Bengal.
Vinay Sharma- Assistant Professor of History, H.P. University, Shimla,
Himachal Pradesh
Ram Kumar- Assistant Professor, Department of History, Govt. College,
Barwala, District Punchkula (Haryana)
Tanmay Kundu- Research Scholar Khatra Adibasi Mahavidyalaya, Khatra,
Bankura,West Bengal.
Tarun Barman- Research Scholar Department of Geography Visva-bharati
University, Santiniketan, West Bengal
Chandra Kanta- Research Scholar ( History) Department of History Uni-
versity of Jammu, (J$K)
ujsUnz 'kqDy dfu"B v/;srk] usg: eseksfj;y laxzgky; ,oa iqLrdky;] ubZ fnYyhA
MkW- js.kq dqekjh ,lksfl,V izksQslj] bfrgkl foHkkx] tequh yky dkWyst] gkthiqj ¼oS'kkyh½]
fcgkjA
 175
MkW- lqjsUnz dqekj foey vfrfFk O;k[;krk 'kkl0 Okh0,l0 LukrdksRrj egkfo|ky; Mcjk]
Xokfy;j ¼e-iz½
fiz;adk vkuan 'kks/k Nk=kk] bfrgkl foHkkx nh0n0m0 xksj[kiqj fo'ofo|ky;] xksj[kiqj
¼m-iz-½
MkW- fuf/k MksMkuh vfrfFk fon~oku 'kkldh; isapoyh egkfo|ky; ijkfl;kA
MkW- gseckyk vfrfFk f'kf{kdk ¼laLd`r½ efgyk dkWyst ,- ,e- ;w- vyhx<+- ¼m-iz-½
MkW- dapu pkaMd vfrfFk fon~oku 'kkldh; dU;k egkfo|ky; Vhdex<+ ¼e-iz-½
jtuh lDlsuk fjlpZ QSyks] vkb- lh- ,p- vkj-] ubZ fnYyh] 'kks/kkFkhZ] 'kk-ds-vkj-th-
LukrdksRrj] Lo'kklh egkfo|ky;] Xokfy;j e0iz0
MkW- fcUnq eV~Vw ,lksf'k,V izkQ
s l
s j] bfrgkl egf"kZ n;kuUn fo'ofo|ky;] jksgrd] ¼gfj;k.kk½
 176

Books on History & Culture

The Culture and art of India Administrative History of Medieval
81-7487-712-6 2011 1250 India (A Study of Muslim Jurispru-dence
Under Aurangzeb)
A History of Indian Civilization M.L. Bhatia 1992 500
Vol-I Ancient and Classical Traditions
Agrarian System in South India
81-7487-402-X 2006 950
J.C. Dua 1990 300
Vol-II Medival and Modern Synthesis
Central Structure of Mughal Empire
81-7487-458-5 2006 950
Ibn Hasan 650
The Destiny of Civilization
Contributions to the Economy of Early
81-7487-607-3 2009 450
Medieval India/Vijay Lakshmi Labh 400
The Economic History of India Cross-Currents of Indian History and
81-7487-606-5 2009 400 Culture/ A.N. Kapoor, V.P.Gupta
Radhakamal Mukerjee (Set of 14 Vol) 9600
Cultural Pattern and Economic
An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ancient Participation of Women/Santosh 400
Indian History 2003 495 Hindu Mahasabha (1928-1947)
An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ram Lal Wadhwa 340
Eminent Personalities (Ancient India) Historical Essays (2 Vols.)/K.S. Lal
2005 550 81-7487-221-3 2001 1200
An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of History of Begum Nurjahan
Eminant Personalities (Medival India) Sugam Anand 500
2005 550
History of Jammu, Kashmir and
An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ladakh/Usha Sharma 1075
Eminant Personalities (Modern India) History of the Great Moghuls
2005 595 Pringle Kennedy 750
An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Indian History of the World (Set of 3 Vols.)
Mythology 495 James D. Macabe 5000
An Ency. Dictionary of Medieval Indian Incredible Egypt:The History of Early
History 2003 450 Egyptian Civilization
An Ency. Dictionary of Modern Indian Raman Kumar Soni 400
History 2003 450 Return to Roots : Emancipation of
A.N. Kapoor/V.P. Gupta Indian Muslims/K.S. Lal 350
The Festivals in the History and
British Historiography-Eighteenth Culture of the Khasi
Century Punjab/J.C. Dua 500 Mary Pristilla Rina Lyngdoh 495